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= Where No One Has Gone Before =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " is the sixth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , ( episode 1 - ' Encounter at Farpoint ' is a two part episode ) originally aired October 26 , 1987 , in broadcast syndication in the United States . A high @-@ definition , remastered version of the episode received limited theatrical release for one day ( with the episode " Datalore " ) to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the series on July 23 , 2012 . The story was originally developed with the title " Where None Have Gone Before " and was based on Diane Duane 's book , The Wounded Sky . Duane and Michael Reaves pitched the idea to David Gerrold and Gene Roddenberry , and then submitted a script . Their script was subsequently rewritten by Maurice Hurley , whose first effort was poorly received ; however , his rewritten version was filmed . The episode was the first of the series directed by Rob Bowman , who went on to direct twelve more episodes .
Set in the 24th century , Star Trek : The Next Generation follows the adventures of the crew aboard the Starfleet Starship Enterprise @-@ D. In " Where No One Has Gone Before " , the Enterprise is visited by Mr. Kosinski ( Stanley Kamel ) and an alien known as the Traveler ( Eric Menyuk ) . The Traveler sends the Enterprise to distant parts of the universe , and help is required from Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) to bring the ship back home .
In this episode , Menyuk made the first of three appearances as the Traveler . Biff Yeager made his first appearance as the longest @-@ running chief engineer of the first season .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise meets the USS Fearless to bring aboard Mr. Kosinski ( Stanley Kamel ) , a Starfleet propulsion expert who plans to run tests on the warp engines to improve their efficiency . With Kosinski is his assistant , an alien being from Tau Alpha C known as the Traveler ( Eric Menyuk ) . As Kosinski and the Traveler explain the tests to the engineering crew , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) quickly grasps what the tests are designed to accomplish and the Traveler expresses admiration for his problem @-@ solving abilities . The test quickly goes awry when the Enterprise speeds up , surpassing the known capabilities of warp engines . Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) orders the ship stopped , and the crew find themselves on the far side of the M33 Galaxy ( more than 2 @.@ 7 million light years from the Milky Way , the Enterprise 's home galaxy ) . Although Kosinski is pleased with the results , he is reprimanded by Picard and asked to simply redo the process to return home . Crusher attempts to warn Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) that during the warp test , the Traveler appeared to drift out of reality , but Riker dismisses him without listening . However , after Kosinski begins the second test , Crusher and Riker both observe the Traveler again drifting out , appearing more tired . The Enterprise again experiences a burst of speed , and when it stops , the crew cannot determine their position . Picard demands that Kosinski get the crew home .
While Kosinski , the Traveler and the engineering crew work on reversing the process , the rest of the crew begin experiencing lifelike visions of their past ( an effect of the strange space around them ) . After having a vision of his mother ( Herta Ware ) , Picard surmises that they have arrived at the theoretical Outer Rim of the universe , and issues a red alert to awaken the crew from their visions . Finding Picard at the spot where he saw his mother , Riker suggests that Kosinski may have had nothing to do with the warp jumps , which were more likely to be a result of the Traveler 's illness ; Trying to determine this theory , Picard has the alien moved to sick bay . Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) however cannot evaluate the Traveler 's alien biology , and is unable to treat him . When Picard visits him in sick bay , the Traveler explains his ability to channel pure thought into reality . He brought the crew of the Enterprise to the Outer Rim , triggering similar effects in anyone within it to ascertain if they were ready to experience thought as reality . The Traveler confides to Picard that he looks for scientific prodigies such as the young Crusher , and Picard should nurture him . When he returns to the engineering section , the Traveler asks Crusher to assist him in returning the Enterprise to known space . As they concentrate , beginning to return the ship home , the Traveler again phases out and finally disappears . The Enterprise suddenly stops , and the crew is relieved to find themselves back in Federation space . After the incident , Picard finally promotes Crusher to acting ensign ( following his own unspoken suggestion in " The Naked Now " ) on the Enterprise for his performance .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The original story for " Where No One Has Gone Before " was developed before the start of Star Trek : The Next Generation , with Michael Reaves and Diane Duane invited to pitch story ideas . Duane did not belong to the Writers Guild of America ( a requirement to write for the show at the time ) , and doubted she would be asked to write a script . Duane and Reaves worked together on several ideas ; after a week , Reaves informed Duane that he developed an idea based on her Star Trek novel The Wounded Sky and asked her to collaborate with him . She worked on the story idea with Reaves , and they expanded the story slightly from Reaves ' original idea . One version of the script involved the Enterprise causing the birth of a new universe , with a play on the Genesis creation narrative .
They pitched the story to story editor David Gerrold , who brought them to Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry . Gene favored the story idea , suggesting changes which Reaves and Duane incorporated into a second draft . The episode was now entitled " Where None Have Gone Before " , differing significantly from the final version : Kosinski roomed with Picard at Starfleet Academy , fathering a son at that time . The ship 's travel differed ; the Traveller was replaced by a " warpdrive booster " with a miniature black hole . In this version , the situation was resolved with a second miniature Enterprise imagined and pushed into the black hole on the full @-@ sized ship . The interaction of the two black holes ( and an even @-@ smaller black hole on the miniature Enterprise ) returns the full @-@ sized ship near the location where it began to travel . After Duane and Reaves turned in the first version of the script based on that premise , nothing was heard from the TNG staff for two weeks .
The script was given to Maurice Hurley to rewrite . He took six weeks for the rewrite , and his initial version was received poorly by TNG executives . Hurley later said , " they absolutely hated it , I think they wanted to fire me , and they would have if I didn 't have a guaranteed contract " . He rewrote the script , and this version was filmed . Hurley was pleased with the result , saying that " everything about that episode worked " . The final version differed significantly from the original Reaves @-@ Duane script ; Duane later said that only two scenes remained : where Picard sees his mother , and where he nearly falls out of the turbolift into space . Reaves later said that the episode " came together much better on the screen than we thought it would when we read the script . We were lucky , because it was out of our hands " .
= = = Direction and casting = = =
Donald Petrie was originally signed to direct the episode , but dropped out to direct the film Mystic Pizza . Executive producer Robert Justman brought in Rob Bowman to direct his first Star Trek episode . Justman later said that this was one of his most @-@ significant achievements on The Next Generation . Bowman worked on storyboards and set blocking for twenty days before shooting the episode . He was initially nervous about working on the show , and felt he had to prove himself because of his relative inexperience as a director . Bowman said that after the second day of filming it became easier , and credited the crew with making him feel welcome . He went on to direct twelve more episodes of The Next Generation .
Eric Menyuk was cast as the Traveler . The actor had previously been runner @-@ up for the role of Data several weeks earlier ( the role went to Brent Spiner ) . He was a Star Trek fan since age six , and would later return as the Traveler twice more : in " Remember Me " and " Journey 's End " . Menyuk 's return in " Journey 's End " would also mark the last on @-@ screen appearance of Wesley Crusher . Biff Yeager made his Next Generation debut in " Where No One Has Gone Before " as Chief Engineer Argyle , who would become the most @-@ frequently @-@ appearing chief engineer of the first season ( appearing twice ) . Geordi La Forge took over that role in the first episode of season two , " The Child " . Stuntman " Dangerous " Dennis Madalone also made his series debut as the ensign threatened by his own ( imagined ) fire . From season three onwards he was stunt coordinator for The Next Generation , and continued to portray a number of crew members . Viewers learned Picard 's mother 's first name in " Chain of Command " ; she was played in " Where No One Has Gone Before " by Herta Ware , who appeared in the 1985 science @-@ fiction film Cocoon .
= = = Visual effects and makeup = = =
Some effects in the episode were created in Robert Legato 's basement with water reflections and Christmas tree lights . The script was vague about what was seen at the end of the universe , so Legato played with the effects of water reflections on his basement wall . Shooting through BoPET film , he created multiple images which were layered over one another for the final effect ( which Legato described as " peculiar and bizarre " ) . Christmas tree lights were suspended and moved , to create the blinking effect seen on screen .
The Klingon Targ was created by dressing a tamed wild boar ( named Emmy Lou ) in an outfit created by costume designer William Ware Theiss . Executive producer Robert Justman later recalled , " That pig smelled horrid . A sweet @-@ sour , extremely pungent odor . I showered and showered , and it took me a week to get rid of it ! " To appear as the Traveler , Eric Menyuk wore a prosthetic piece ( created by Michael Westmore ) on his forehead which ran into his hairline . He also wore a pair of false three @-@ fingered hands , which were sold in the " It 's A Wrap ! " auction after the end of Star Trek : Enterprise . His Traveler costume was also sold at the auction .
= = = Music = = =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " was the second episode scored by Ron Jones . Some themes in the soundtrack were rearrangements of Jerry Goldsmith 's score from Star Trek : The Motion Picture . In the piece " Talk with Mom " ( played during Picard 's meeting with his mother ) , Jones tried to create an effect identical to the finale of Aaron Copland 's 1944 Appalachian Spring . Alexander Courage 's themes from The Original Series are included in a seven @-@ note ostinato in the pieces " Log " , " Visitors " and " Fly @-@ By " .
The score was recorded with a forty @-@ piece orchestra . Jones formatted the orchestra to generate a bigger sound than normally heard on television soundtracks to make it sound more like Goldsmith 's The Motion Picture score . Keyboards were used to make the cellos more prominent , and other changes included an increase in the mid @-@ range of the string section . The soundtrack to " Where No One Has Gone Before " was released ( as part of The Ron Jones Project box set of Star Trek : The Next Generation scores ) in a limited run of 5 @,@ 000 copies in 2010 by Film Score Monthly .
= = Reception = =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 24 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 5 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since " The Naked Now " three episodes earlier .
Several reviewers revisited the episode after the end of the series . Cast member Wil Wheaton later described the episode as " the first time The Next Generation really started to come together " . However , the episode was flawed in dialogue and in Picard 's changes in tone : " I 'm not sure if that was a deliberate choice , so he would appear as a conflicted man , or if it was Patrick Stewart 's natural warmth and kindness coming through the gruff demeanour Picard was written to have . " When reviewing the show in 2006 for AOL TV , he gave it an overall score of B @-@ plus . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com , praising the guest actors ; Stanley Kamel was " magnificent " and " ooze [ d ] arrogance , overconfidence , and bull in equal measure " , while Herta Ware brought " tremendous gravitas " to her role . He described the episode as the best of the first season , with strong performances from the main cast , and gave it an overall score of eight ( out of ten ) .
Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club , saying that while it was an improvement on earlier episodes he had reservations about the use of Wesley Crusher . He called the " thoughts made flesh concept " a " cliche " , but was " gratified to see the series actually trying for something a little beyond their reach , this early in the game " . As for Wesley , Handlen thought that it was imposing a " Chosen One narrative " that brought " an unlikable character even further to the forefront of the action simply because some writer didn 't get enough pats on the head growing up " and gave the episode a B @-@ minus . Jamahl Epsicokhan , on his website Jammer 's Reviews , said that it was the first time in the series that space itself generated " awe and wonder " ; however , he thought the " fresh and intriguing " nature of the episode faded as it went along . He criticized Wesley Crusher , describing him as a " cloying geek " and " you just want to strangle him " . He gave the episode a score of 2 @.@ 5 ( out of 4 ) .
In Richard Hanley 's book The Metaphysics of Star Trek the appearance of the Traveler in " Where No One has Gone Before " was described as a continuation of intellectually @-@ advanced aliens in Star Trek , beginning in The Original Series with Apollo in " Who Mourns for Adonais ? " and Gary Mitchell in " Where No Man Has Gone Before " . Metaphysics is referenced in this episode by Wesley Crusher , who asks if thought is the basis of existence .
= = Home media and theatrical release = =
The first home @-@ media release of " Where No One Has Gone Before " was on VHS cassette on April 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season @-@ one DVD box set released in March 2002 .
The most @-@ recent release was as part of the season @-@ one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 . To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Star Trek : The Next Generation and promote the release of the first season on Blu @-@ ray , the episodes " Where No One Has Gone Before " and " Datalore " received a theatrical release in the United States on July 23 , 2012 in nearly 500 theaters . " Where No One Has Gone Before " was chosen by Star Trek experts Mike and Denise Okuda because of the unusual space special effects .
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= P. G. Wodehouse =
Sir Pelham Grenville Wodehouse , KBE ( / ˈwʊdhaʊs / ; 15 October 1881 – 14 February 1975 ) was an English author and one of the most widely read humorists of the 20th century . Born in Guildford , the son of a British magistrate based in Hong Kong , Wodehouse spent happy teenage years at Dulwich College , to which he remained devoted all his life . After leaving school he was employed by a bank but disliked the work and turned to writing in his spare time . His early novels were mostly school stories , but he later switched to comic fiction , creating several regular characters who became familiar to the public over the years . They include the feather @-@ brained Bertie Wooster and his sagacious valet , Jeeves ; the immaculate and loquacious Psmith ; Lord Emsworth and the Blandings Castle set ; the Oldest Member , with stories about golf ; and Mr Mulliner , with tall tales on subjects ranging from bibulous bishops to megalomaniac movie moguls .
Although most of Wodehouse 's fiction is set in England , he spent much of his life in the US and used New York and Hollywood as settings for some of his novels and short stories . During and after the First World War , together with Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern , he wrote a series of Broadway musical comedies that were an important part of the development of the American musical . He began the 1930s writing for MGM in Hollywood . In a 1931 interview , his naïve revelations of incompetence and extravagance at Hollywood studios caused a furore . In the same decade , his literary career reached a new peak .
In 1934 Wodehouse moved to France for tax reasons ; in 1940 he was taken prisoner at Le Touquet by the invading Germans and interned for nearly a year . After his release he made six broadcasts from German radio in Berlin to the US , which had not yet entered the war . The talks were comic and apolitical , but his broadcasting over enemy radio prompted anger and strident controversy in Britain , and a threat of prosecution . Wodehouse never returned to England . From 1947 until his death he lived in the US , taking dual British @-@ American citizenship in 1955 . He was a prolific writer throughout his life , publishing more than ninety books , forty plays , two hundred short stories and other writings between 1902 and 1974 . He died in 1975 , at the age of 93 , in Southampton , New York .
Wodehouse worked extensively on his books , sometimes having two or more in preparation simultaneously . He would take up to two years to build a plot and write a scenario of about thirty thousand words . After the scenario was complete he would write the story . Early in his career he would produce a novel in about three months , but he slowed in old age to around six months . He used a mixture of Edwardian slang , quotations from and allusions to numerous poets , and several literary techniques to produce a prose style that has been compared with comic poetry and musical comedy . Some critics of Wodehouse have considered his work flippant , but among his fans are former British prime ministers and many of his fellow writers .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Wodehouse was born in Guildford , Surrey , the third son of Henry Ernest Wodehouse ( 1845 – 1929 ) , a magistrate resident in the British colony of Hong Kong , and his wife , Eleanor ( 1861 – 1941 ) , daughter of the Rev John Bathurst Deane . The Wodehouses , who traced their ancestry back to the 13th century , belonged to a collateral branch of the family of the earls of Kimberley . Eleanor Wodehouse was also of ancient aristocratic ancestry . She was visiting her sister in Guildford when Wodehouse was born there prematurely .
The boy was baptised at the Church of St Nicolas , Guildford , and was named after his godfather , Pelham von Donop . Wodehouse wrote in 1957 , " If you ask me to tell you frankly if I like the name Pelham Grenville Wodehouse , I must confess that I do not . ... I was named after a godfather , and not a thing to show for it but a small silver mug which I lost in 1897 . " The first name was rapidly elided to " Plum " , the name by which Wodehouse became known to family and friends .
Mother and son sailed for Hong Kong , where for his first two years Wodehouse was raised by a Chinese amah ( nurse ) , alongside his elder brothers Peveril ( 1877 – 1951 ) and Armine ( 1879 – 1936 ) . When he was two , the brothers were brought to England , where they were placed under the care of an English nanny in a house adjoining that of Eleanor 's father and mother . The boys ' parents returned to Hong Kong and became virtual strangers to their sons . Such an arrangement was then normal for middle @-@ class families based in the colonies . The lack of parental contact , and the harsh regime of some of those in loco parentis , left permanent emotional scars on many children from similar backgrounds , including the writers Thackeray , Saki , Kipling and Walpole . Wodehouse was more fortunate ; his nanny , Emma Roper , was strict but not unkind , and both with her and later at his different schools Wodehouse had a generally happy childhood . His recollection was that " it went like a breeze from start to finish , with everybody I met understanding me perfectly " . The biographer Robert McCrum suggests that nonetheless Wodehouse 's isolation from his parents left a psychological mark , causing him to avoid emotional engagement both in life and in his works . Another biographer , Frances Donaldson , writes , " Deprived so early , not merely of maternal love , but of home life and even a stable background , Wodehouse consoled himself from the youngest age in an imaginary world of his own " .
In 1886 the brothers were sent to a dame @-@ school in Croydon , where they spent three years . Peveril was then found to have a " weak chest " ; sea air was prescribed , and the three boys were moved to Elizabeth College on the island of Guernsey . In 1891 Wodehouse went on to Malvern House Preparatory School in Kent , which concentrated on preparing its pupils for entry to the Royal Navy . His father had planned a naval career for him , but the boy 's eyesight was found to be too poor for it . He was unimpressed by the school 's narrow curriculum and zealous discipline ; he later parodied it in his novels , with Bertie Wooster recalling his early years as a pupil at a " penitentiary ... with the outward guise of a prep school " called Malvern House .
Throughout their school years the brothers were sent to stay during the holidays with various uncles and aunts from both sides of the family . In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Iain Sproat counts twenty aunts and considers that they played an important part not only in Wodehouse 's early life , but , thinly disguised , in his mature novels , as the formidable aunts who dominate the action in the Wooster , Blandings , and other stories . The boys had fifteen uncles , four of whom were clergymen . Sproat writes that they inspired Wodehouse 's " pious but fallible curates , vicars , and bishops , of which he wrote with friendly irreverence but without mockery " .
At the age of twelve in 1894 , to his great joy , Wodehouse was able to follow his brother Armine to Dulwich College . He was entirely at home there ; Donaldson comments that Dulwich gave him , for the first time , " some continuity and a stable and ordered life " . He loved the camaraderie , distinguished himself at cricket , rugby and boxing , and was a good , if not consistently diligent , student . The headmaster at the time was A.H. Gilkes , a respected classicist , who was a strong influence on Wodehouse . In a study of Wodehouse 's works , Richard Usborne argues that " only a writer who was himself a scholar and had had his face ground into Latin and Greek ( especially Thucydides ) as a boy " could sustain the complex sequences of subordinate clauses sometimes found in Wodehouse 's comic prose .
Wodehouse 's six years at Dulwich were among the happiest of his life : " To me the years between 1894 and 1900 were like heaven . " In addition to his sporting achievements he was a good singer and enjoyed taking part in school concerts ; his literary leanings found an outlet in editing the school magazine , The Alleynian . For the rest of his life he remained devoted to the school . The biographer Barry Phelps writes that Wodehouse " loved the college as much as he loved anything or anybody " .
= = = Reluctant banker ; budding writer : 1900 – 08 = = =
Wodehouse expected to follow Armine to the University of Oxford , but the family 's finances took a turn for the worse at the crucial moment . Ernest Wodehouse had retired in 1895 , and his pension was paid in rupees ; fluctuation against the pound reduced its value in Britain . Wodehouse recalled , " The wolf was not actually whining at the door and there was always a little something in the kitty for the butcher and the grocer , but the finances would not run to anything in the nature of a splash " . Instead of a university career , in September 1900 Wodehouse was engaged in a junior position in the London office of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank . He was unsuited to it and found the work baffling and uncongenial . He later wrote a humorous account of his experiences at the bank , but at the time he longed for the end of each working day , when he could return to his rented lodgings in Chelsea and write . At first he concentrated , with some success , on serious articles about school sports for Public School Magazine . In November 1900 his first comic piece , " Men Who Missed Their Own Weddings " , was accepted by Tit @-@ Bits . A new magazine for boys , The Captain , provided further well @-@ paid opportunities , and during his two years at the bank , Wodehouse had eighty pieces published in a total of nine magazines .
In 1901 , with the help of a former Dulwich master , William Beach Thomas , Wodehouse secured an appointment — at first temporary and later permanent — writing for The Globe 's popular " By the Way " column . He held the post until 1909 . At around the same time his first novel was published — a school story called The Pothunters , serialised incomplete in Public School Magazine in early 1902 , and issued in full in hardback in September . He resigned from the bank that month to devote himself to writing full @-@ time .
Between the publication of The Pothunters 1902 and that of Mike in 1909 , Wodehouse wrote eight novels and co @-@ wrote another two . The critic R.D.B. French writes that , of Wodehouse 's work from this period , almost all that deserves to survive is the school fiction . Looking back in the 1950s Wodehouse viewed these as his apprentice years : " I was practically in swaddling clothes and it is extremely creditable to me that I was able to write at all . "
From his boyhood Wodehouse had been fascinated by America , which he conceived of as " a land of romance " ; he " yearned " to visit the country , and by 1904 he had earned enough to do so . In April he sailed to New York , which he found greatly to his liking . He noted in his diary : " In New York gathering experience . Worth many guineas in the future but none for the moment " . This prediction proved correct : few British writers had first @-@ hand experience of the US , and his articles about life in New York brought him higher than usual fees . He later recalled that " in 1904 anyone in the London writing world who had been to America was regarded with awe and looked upon as an authority on that terra incognita . ... After that trip to New York I was a man who counted . ... My income rose like a rocketing pheasant . "
Wodehouse 's other new venture in 1904 was writing for the stage . Towards the end of the year the librettist Owen Hall invited him to contribute an additional lyric for a musical comedy Sergeant Brue . Wodehouse had loved theatre since his first visit , aged thirteen , when Gilbert and Sullivan 's Patience had made him " drunk with ecstasy " . His lyric for Hall , " Put Me in My Little Cell " , was a Gilbertian number for a trio of comic crooks , with music by Frederick Rosse ; it was well received and launched Wodehouse on a career as a theatre writer that spanned three decades .
Although it made little impact on its first publication , the 1906 novel Love Among the Chickens contained what French calls the author 's first original comic creation : Stanley Featherstonehaugh Ukridge . The character , an amoral , bungling opportunist , is partly based on Wodehouse 's Globe colleague Herbert Westbrook . The two collaborated between 1907 and 1913 on two books , two music hall sketches , and a play , Brother Alfred . Wodehouse would return to the character in short stories over the next six decades .
In early 1906 the actor @-@ manager Seymour Hicks invited Wodehouse to become resident lyricist at the Aldwych Theatre , to add topical verses to newly imported or long @-@ running shows . Hicks had already recruited the young Jerome Kern to write the music for such songs . The first Kern @-@ Wodehouse collaboration , a comic number for The Beauty of Bath titled " Mr [ Joseph ] Chamberlain " , was a show @-@ stopper and was briefly the most popular song in London .
= = = Psmith , Blandings , Wooster and Jeeves : 1908 – 15 = = =
Wodehouse 's early period as a writer came to an end in 1908 with the serialisation of The Lost Lambs , published the following year in book form as the second half of the novel Mike . The work begins as a conventional school story , but Wodehouse introduces a new and strikingly original character , Psmith , whose creation both Evelyn Waugh and George Orwell regarded as a watershed in Wodehouse 's development . Wodehouse said that he based Psmith on the hotelier and impresario Rupert D 'Oyly Carte — " the only thing in my literary career which was handed to me on a silver plate with watercress around it " . Wodehouse wrote in the 1970s that a cousin of his who had been at school with Carte told him of the latter 's monocle , studied suavity , and stateliness of speech , all of which Wodehouse adopted for his new character . Psmith featured in three more novels : Psmith in the City ( 1910 ) , a burlesque of banking ; Psmith , Journalist ( 1915 ) set in New York ; and Leave It to Psmith ( 1923 ) , set at Blandings Castle .
In May 1909 Wodehouse made his second visit to New York , where he sold two short stories to Cosmopolitan and Collier 's for a total of $ 500 , a much higher fee than he had commanded previously . He resigned from The Globe and stayed in New York for nearly a year . He sold many more stories , but none of the American publications offered a permanent relationship and guaranteed income . Wodehouse returned to England in late 1910 , rejoining The Globe and also contributing regularly to The Strand Magazine . Between then and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 he revisited America frequently .
Wodehouse was in New York when the war began . Ineligible for military service because of his poor eyesight , he remained in the US throughout the war , detached from the conflict in Europe and absorbed in his theatrical and literary concerns . In September 1914 he married Ethel May Wayman , née Newton ( 1885 – 1984 ) , an English widow . The marriage proved happy and lifelong . Ethel 's personality was in contrast with her husband 's : he was shy and impractical ; she was gregarious , decisive and well organised . In Sproat 's phrase , she " took charge of Wodehouse 's life and made certain that he had the peace and quiet he needed to write " . There were no children of the marriage , but Wodehouse came to love Ethel 's daughter Leonora ( 1905 – 1944 ) and legally adopted her .
Wodehouse experimented with different genres of fiction in these years ; his Psmith , Journalist , mixing comedy with social comment on slum landlords and racketeers , was published in 1915 . In the same year The Saturday Evening Post paid $ 3 @,@ 500 to serialise Something New , the first of what became a series of novels set at Blandings Castle . It was published in hardback in the US and the UK in the same year ( the British edition being retitled Something Fresh ) . It was Wodehouse 's first farcical novel ; it was also his first best @-@ seller , and although his later books included some gentler , lightly sentimental stories , it was as a farceur that he became known . Later in the same year " Extricating Young Gussie " , the first story about Bertie and Jeeves , was published . These stories introduced two sets of characters about whom Wodehouse wrote for the rest of his life . The Blandings Castle stories , set in an English stately home , depict the attempts of the placid Lord Emsworth to evade the many distractions around him , which include successive pairs of young lovers , the machinations of his exuberant brother Galahad , the demands of his domineering sisters and super @-@ efficient secretaries , and anything detrimental to his prize sow , the Empress of Blandings . The Bertie and Jeeves stories feature an amiable young man @-@ about @-@ town , regularly rescued from the consequences of his idiocy by the benign interference of his valet .
= = = Broadway : 1915 – 19 = = =
A third milestone in Wodehouse 's life came towards the end of 1915 : his old songwriting partner Jerome Kern introduced him to the writer Guy Bolton , who became Wodehouse 's closest friend and a regular collaborator . Bolton and Kern had a musical , Very Good Eddie , running at the Princess Theatre in New York . The show was successful , but they thought the song lyrics weak and invited Wodehouse to join them on its successor . This was Miss Springtime ( 1916 ) , which ran for 227 performances — a good run by the standards of the day . The team produced several more successes , including Leave It to Jane ( 1917 ) , Oh , Boy ! ( 1917 – 18 ) and Oh , Lady ! Lady ! ! ( 1918 ) , and Wodehouse and Bolton wrote a few more shows with other composers . In these musicals Wodehouse 's lyrics won high praise from critics as well as fellow lyricists such as Ira Gershwin .
Unlike his original model , Gilbert , Wodehouse preferred the music to be written first , fitting his words into the melodies . Donaldson suggests that this is the reason why his lyrics have largely been overlooked in recent years : they fit the music perfectly , but do not stand on their own in verse form as Gilbert 's do . Nonetheless , Donaldson adds , the book and lyrics for the Princess Theatre shows made the collaborators an enormous fortune and played an important part in the development of the American musical . In the Grove Dictionary of American Music Larry Stempel writes , " By presenting naturalistic stories and characters and attempting to integrate the songs and lyrics into the action of the libretto , these works brought a new level of intimacy , cohesion , and sophistication to American musical comedy . " The theatre writer Gerald Bordman calls Wodehouse " the most observant , literate , and witty lyricist of his day " . The composer Richard Rodgers wrote , " Before Larry Hart , only P.G. Wodehouse had made any real assault on the intelligence of the song @-@ listening public . "
= = = 1920s = = =
In the years after the war , Wodehouse steadily increased his sales , polished his existing characters and introduced new ones . Bertie and Jeeves , Lord Emsworth and his circle , and Ukridge appeared in novels and short stories ; Psmith made his fourth and last appearance ; two new characters were the Oldest Member , narrating his series of golfing stories , and Mr Mulliner , telling his particularly tall tales to fellow patrons of the bar at the Angler 's Rest . Various other young men @-@ about @-@ town appeared in short stories about members of the Drones Club .
The Wodehouses returned to England , where they had a house in London for some years , but Wodehouse continued to cross the Atlantic frequently , spending substantial periods in New York . He continued to work in the theatre . During the 1920s he collaborated on nine musical comedies produced on Broadway or in the West End , including the long @-@ running Sally ( 1920 , New York ) , The Cabaret Girl ( 1922 , London ) and Rosalie ( 1928 , New York ) . He also wrote non @-@ musical plays , including The Play 's the Thing ( 1926 ) , adapted from Ferenc Molnár , and A Damsel in Distress ( 1928 ) , a dramatisation of his 1919 novel .
Though never a naturally gregarious man , Wodehouse was more sociable in the 1920s than at other periods . Donaldson lists among those with whom he was on friendly terms writers including A.A. Milne , Ian Hay , Frederick Lonsdale and E. Phillips Oppenheim , and stage performers including George Grossmith , Jr . , Heather Thatcher and Dorothy Dickson .
= = = Hollywood : 1929 – 31 = = =
There had been films of Wodehouse stories since 1915 , when A Gentleman of Leisure was based on his 1910 novel of the same name . Further screen adaptations of his books were made between then and 1927 , but it was not until 1929 that Wodehouse first went to Hollywood , where Bolton was then working as a highly paid writer for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . Ethel was taken with both the financial and social aspects of Hollywood life , and she negotiated a contract with MGM on her husband 's behalf under which he would be paid $ 2 @,@ 000 a week . This large salary was particularly welcome because the couple had lost considerable sums in the Wall Street Crash of 1929 .
The contract started in May 1930 , but the studio found little for Wodehouse to do , and he had spare time to write a novel and nine short stories . He commented , " It 's odd how soon one comes to look on every minute as wasted that is given to earning one 's salary . " Even when the studio found a project for him to work on , the interventions of committees and constant rewriting by numerous contract authors meant that his ideas were rarely used . In a 2005 study of Wodehouse in Hollywood , Brian Taves writes that Those Three French Girls ( 1930 ) was " as close to a success as Wodehouse was to have at MGM . His only other credits were minimal , and the other projects he worked on were not produced . "
When Wodehouse 's contract ended after a year it was not renewed . At MGM 's request , he gave an interview to The Los Angeles Times . Wodehouse , who was described by Herbert Warren Wind as " politically naive [ and ] fundamentally unworldly " , caused a sensation by saying publicly what he had already told his friends privately about Hollywood 's inefficiency , arbitrary decision @-@ making and waste of expensive talent . The interview was reprinted in The New York Times , and there was much editorial comment about the state of the film industry . Many writers have considered that the interview precipitated a radical overhaul of the studio system , but Taves believes it to have been " a storm in a teacup " , and Donaldson comments that in the straitened post @-@ crash era the reforms would sooner or later have been inevitable .
Wind 's view of Wodehouse 's naïveté is not universally held . Biographers including Donaldson , McCrum and Phelps suggest that his unworldliness was only part of a complex character , and that in some respects he was highly astute . He was unsparing of the studio owners in his early @-@ 1930s short stories set in Hollywood , which contain what Taves considers Wodehouse 's sharpest and most biting satire .
= = = Best @-@ seller : 1930s = = =
During the 1930s Wodehouse 's theatrical work tailed off . He wrote or adapted four plays for the West End ; Leave it to Psmith ( 1930 ) , which he adapted in collaboration with Ian Hay , was the only one to have a long run . The reviewer in The Manchester Guardian praised the play , but commented : " It is Mr Wodehouse 's own inimitable narrative comments and descriptions in his own person of the antics of his puppets that one misses . They cannot be got into a play and they are at least half the fun of the novels . " In 1934 Wodehouse collaborated with Bolton on the book for Cole Porter 's Anything Goes ( Porter wrote his own lyrics ) , but at the last minute their version was almost entirely rewritten by others at the instigation of the producer , who disliked the original script . Concentrating on writing novels and short stories , Wodehouse reached the peak of his productivity in this decade , averaging two books each year , and grossing an annual £ 100 @,@ 000 .
His practice of dividing his time between Britain and America caused Wodehouse difficulties with the tax authorities of both countries . Both the UK Inland Revenue and the US Internal Revenue Service sought to tax him as a resident . After lengthy negotiations the matter was settled , but the Wodehouses decided to change their residential status beyond doubt by moving to France , where they bought a house near Le Touquet in northern France .
In 1936 Wodehouse created the last of his regular cast of principal characters , Lord Ickenham , otherwise known as Uncle Fred , who , in Usborne 's words , " leads the dance in four novels and a short story ... a whirring dynamo of misrule " . His other books from the decade include Right Ho , Jeeves , which Donaldson judged his best work , Uncle Fred in the Springtime , which the writer Bernard Levin considered the best , and Blandings Castle , which contains " Lord Emsworth and the Girl Friend " , which Rudyard Kipling thought " one of the most perfect short stories I have ever read " .
Other leading literary figures who admired Wodehouse were A.E. Housman , Max Beerbohm and Hilaire Belloc ; on the radio and in print Belloc called Wodehouse " the best writer of our time : the best living writer of English ... the head of my profession " . Wodehouse regarded Belloc 's plaudit as " a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked " . Wodehouse was never sure that his books had literary merit as well as popular appeal , and , Donaldson suggests , must have been overwhelmed when the University of Oxford conferred an honorary doctorate of letters on him in June 1939 . His visit to England for the awarding ceremony was the last time he set foot in his native land .
= = = Second World War : internment and broadcasts = = =
At the start of the Second World War Wodehouse and his wife remained at their Le Touquet house , where , during the Phoney War , he worked on Joy in the Morning . With the advance of the Germans , the nearby Royal Air Force base withdrew ; Wodehouse was offered the sole spare seat in one of the fighter aircraft , but he turned down the opportunity as it would have meant leaving behind Ethel and their dog . On 21 May 1940 , with German troops advancing through northern France , the Wodehouses decided to drive to Portugal and fly from there to the US . Two miles from home their car broke down , so they returned and borrowed a car from a neighbour ; with the routes blocked with refugees , they returned home again .
The Germans occupied Le Touquet on 22 May 1940 and Wodehouse had to report to the authorities daily . After two months of occupation the Germans interned all male enemy nationals under 60 , and Wodehouse was sent to a former prison in Loos , a suburb of Lille , on 21 July ; Ethel remained in Le Touquet . The internees were placed four to a cell , each of which had been designed for one man . One bed was available per cell , which was made available to the eldest man — not Wodehouse , who slept on the granite floor . The prisoners were not kept long in Loos before they were transported in cattle trucks to a former barracks in Liège which was run as a prison by the SS . After a week the men were transferred to Huy in Liège , Belgium , where they were incarcerated in the local citadel . They remained there until September 1940 , when they were transported to Tost in Upper Silesia ( then Germany , now Toszek in Poland ) .
Wodehouse 's family and friends had not had any news of his location after the fall of France , but an article from an Associated Press reporter who had visited Tost in December 1940 led to pressure on the German authorities to release the novelist . This included a petition from influential people in the US ; Senator W. Warren Barbour presented it to the German ambassador . Although his captors refused to release him , Wodehouse was provided with a typewriter and , to pass the time , he wrote Money in the Bank . Throughout his time in Tost , he sent postcards to his US literary agent asking for $ 5 to be sent to various people in Canada , mentioning his name . These were the families of Canadian prisoners of war , and the news from Wodehouse was the first indication that their sons were alive and well . Wodehouse risked severe punishment for the communication , but managed to evade the German censor .
On 21 June 1941 , while he was in the middle of playing a game of cricket , Wodehouse received a visit from two members of the Gestapo . He was given ten minutes to pack his things before he was taken to the Hotel Adlon , a top luxury hotel in Berlin . He stayed there at his own expense ; royalties from the German editions of his books had been put into a special frozen bank account at the outset of the war , and Wodehouse was permitted to draw upon this money he had earned whilst staying in Berlin . He was thus released from internment a few months before his sixtieth birthday — the age at which civilian internees were released by the Nazis . Shortly afterwards Wodehouse was , in the words of Phelps , " cleverly trapped " into making five broadcasts to the US via German radio , with the Berlin @-@ based correspondent of the Columbia Broadcasting System . The broadcasts — aired on 28 June , 9 , 23 and 30 July , and 6 August — were titled How to be an Internee Without Previous Training , and comprised humorous anecdotes about Wodehouse 's experiences as a prisoner , including some gentle mocking of captors . The German propaganda ministry arranged for the recordings to be broadcast to Britain in August . The day after Wodehouse recorded his final programme , Ethel joined him in Berlin , having sold most of her jewellery to pay for the journey .
= = = Aftermath : reactions and investigation = = =
The reaction in Britain to Wodehouse 's broadcasts was hostile , and he was " reviled ... as a traitor , collaborator , Nazi propagandist , and a coward " , although , Phelps observes , many of those who decried his actions had not heard the content of the programmes . A front page article in The Daily Mirror stated that Wodehouse " lived luxuriously because Britain laughed with him , but when the laughter was out of his country 's heart , ... [ he ] was not ready to share her suffering . He hadn 't the guts ... even to stick it out in the internment camp . " In the House of Commons Anthony Eden , the Foreign Secretary , regretted Wodehouse 's actions . Several libraries removed Wodehouse novels from their shelves .
On 15 July the journalist William Connor , under his pen name Cassandra , broadcast a postscript to the news programme railing against Wodehouse . According to The Times , the broadcast " provoked a storm of complaint ... from listeners all over the country " . Wodehouse 's biographer , Joseph Connolly , thinks the broadcast " inaccurate , spiteful and slanderous " ; Phelps calls it " probably the most vituperative attack on an individual ever heard on British radio " . The broadcast was made at the direct instruction of Duff Cooper , the Minister of Information , who overruled strong protests made by the BBC against the decision to air the programme . Numerous letters appeared in the British press , both supporting and criticising Wodehouse . The letters page of The Daily Telegraph became a focus for censuring Wodehouse , including one from Wodehouse 's friend , A.A. Milne ; a reply from their fellow author Compton Mackenzie in defence of Wodehouse was not published because the editor claimed a lack of space . Most of those defending Wodehouse against accusations of disloyalty , including Sax Rohmer , Dorothy L. Sayers and Gilbert Frankau , conceded that he had acted stupidly . Some members of the public wrote to the newspapers to say that the full facts were not yet known and a fair judgment could not be made until they were . The management of the BBC , who considered Wodehouse 's actions no worse than " ill advised " , pointed out to Cooper that there was no evidence at that point whether Wodehouse had acted voluntarily or under compulsion .
When Wodehouse heard of the furore the broadcasts had caused , he contacted the Foreign Office — through the Swiss embassy in Berlin — to explain his actions , and attempted to return home via neutral countries , but the German authorities refused to let him leave . In Performing Flea , a 1953 collection of letters , Wodehouse wrote , " Of course I ought to have had the sense to see that it was a loony thing to do to use the German radio for even the most harmless stuff , but I didn 't . I suppose prison life saps the intellect " . The reaction in America was mixed : the left @-@ leaning publication P.M. accused Wodehouse of " play [ ing ] Jeeves to the Nazis " , but the Department of War used the interviews as an ideal representation of anti @-@ Nazi propaganda .
The Wodehouses remained in Germany until September 1943 , when Allied bombing led to the couple being allowed to move back to Paris . They were living there when the city was liberated on 25 August 1944 ; Wodehouse reported to the American authorities the following day , asking them to inform the British of his whereabouts . He was subsequently visited by Malcolm Muggeridge , recently arrived in Paris as an intelligence officer with MI6 . The young officer quickly came to like Wodehouse and considered the question of treasonable behaviour as " ludicrous " ; he summed up the writer as " ill @-@ fitted to live in an age of ideological conflict " . On 9 September Wodehouse was visited by an MI5 officer and former barrister , Major Edward Cussen , who formally investigated him , a process that stretched over four days . On 28 September Cussen filed his report , which states that in regard to the broadcasts , Wodehouse 's behaviour " has been unwise " , but advised against further action . On 23 November Theobald Matthew , the Director of Public Prosecutions , decided there was no evidence to justify prosecuting Wodehouse .
In November 1944 Duff Cooper was appointed British ambassador to France and was provided accommodation at the Hôtel Le Bristol , where the Wodehouses were living . Cooper complained to the French authorities , and the couple were moved to a different hotel . They were subsequently arrested by French police and placed under preventive detention , despite no charges being presented . When Muggeridge tracked them down later , he managed to get Ethel released straight away and , four days later , ensured that the French authorities declared Wodehouse unwell and put him in a nearby hospital , which was more comfortable than where they had been detained . While in this hospital , Wodehouse worked on his novel Uncle Dynamite .
While still detained by the French , Wodehouse was again mentioned in questions in the House of Commons in December 1944 when MPs wondered if the French authorities could repatriate him to stand trial . Eden stated that the " matter has been gone into , and , according to the advice given , there are no grounds upon which we could take action " . Two months later George Orwell wrote the essay " In Defence of P.G. Wodehouse " , where he stated that " it is important to realise that the events of 1941 do not convict Wodehouse of anything worse than stupidity " . Orwell 's rationale was that Wodehouse 's " moral outlook has remained that of a public @-@ school boy , and according to the public @-@ school code , treachery in time of war is the most unforgivable of all the sins " , which was compounded by his " complete lack — so far as one can judge from his printed works — of political awareness " .
On 15 January 1945 the French authorities released Wodehouse , but they did not inform him , until June 1946 , that he would not face any official charges and was free to leave the country .
= = = American exile : 1946 – 75 = = =
Having secured American visas in July 1946 , the Wodehouses made preparations to return to New York . They were delayed by Ethel 's insistence on acquiring suitable new clothes and by Wodehouse 's wish to finish writing his current novel , The Mating Season , in the peace of the French countryside . In April 1947 they sailed to New York , where Wodehouse was relieved at the friendly reception he received from the large press contingent awaiting his arrival . Ethel secured a comfortable penthouse apartment in Manhattan 's Upper East Side , but Wodehouse was not at ease . The New York that he had known before the war was much changed . The magazines that had paid lavishly for his stories were in decline , and those that remained were not much interested in him . He was sounded out about writing for Broadway , but he was not at home in the post @-@ war theatre ; he had money problems , with large sums temporarily tied up in Britain , and for the first time in his career he had no ideas for a new novel . He did not complete one until 1951 .
Wodehouse remained unsettled until he and Ethel abandoned the city . Bolton and his wife lived in the prosperous hamlet of Remsenburg , part of the Southampton resort area of Long Island , 77 miles ( 124 km ) east of Manhattan . Wodehouse stayed with them frequently , and in 1952 he and Ethel bought a house nearby . They lived at Remsenburg for the rest of their lives . Between 1952 and 1975 he published more than twenty novels , as well as two collections of short stories , a heavily edited collection of his letters , a volume of memoirs , and a selection of his magazine articles . He continued to hanker after a revival of his theatrical career . A 1959 off @-@ Broadway revival of the 1917 Bolton @-@ Wodehouse @-@ Kern Leave It to Jane was a surprise hit , running for 928 performances , but his few post @-@ war stage works , some in collaboration with Bolton , made little impression .
Although Ethel made a return visit to England in 1948 to shop and visit family and friends , Wodehouse never left America after his arrival in 1947 . It was not until 1965 that the British government indicated privately that he could return without fear of legal proceedings , and by then he felt too old to make the journey . The biographers Benny Green and Robert McCrum both take the view that this exile benefited Wodehouse 's writing , helping him to go on depicting an idealised England seen in his mind 's eye , rather than as it actually was in the post @-@ war decades .
In 1955 Wodehouse became an American citizen , though he remained a British subject , and was therefore eligible for UK state honours . He was considered for the award of a knighthood three times from 1967 , but the honour was twice blocked by British officials . In 1974 the British prime minister , Harold Wilson , intervened to secure a knighthood ( KBE ) for Wodehouse , which was announced in January 1975 , in the same New Year Honours list in which Charlie Chaplin became Sir Charles . The Times commented that Wodehouse 's honour signalled " official forgiveness for his wartime indiscretion . ... It is late , but not too late , to take the sting out of that unhappy incident . "
The following month Wodehouse entered Southampton Hospital , Long Island , for treatment of a skin complaint . While there , he suffered a heart attack and died on 14 February 1975 at the age of 93 . He was buried at Remsenburg Presbyterian Church four days later . Ethel outlived him by more than nine years ; Leonora had predeceased him , dying suddenly in 1944 .
= = Writing = =
= = = Technique and approach = = =
Before starting a book Wodehouse would write up to four hundred pages of notes bringing together an outline of the plot ; he acknowledged that " It 's the plots that I find so hard to work out . It takes such a long time to work one out . " He always completed the plot before working on specific character actions . For a novel the note @-@ writing process could take up to two years , and he would usually have two or more novels in preparation simultaneously . After he had completed his notes , he would draw up a fuller scenario of about thirty thousand words , which ensured plot holes were avoided , and allowed for the dialogue to begin to develop . When interviewed in 1975 he revealed that " For a humorous novel you 've got to have a scenario , and you 've got to test it so that you know where the comedy comes in , where the situations come in ... splitting it up into scenes ( you can make a scene of almost anything ) and have as little stuff in between as possible . " He preferred working between 4 and 7 pm — but never after dinner — and would work seven days a week . In his younger years , he would write around two to three thousand words a day , although he slowed as he aged , so that in his nineties he would produce a thousand . The reduced speed in writing slowed his production of books : when younger he would produce a novel in about three months , while Bachelors Anonymous , published in 1973 , took around six months .
Wodehouse believed that one of the factors that made his stories humorous was his view of life , and he stated that " If you take life fairly easily , then you take a humorous view of things . It 's probably because you were born that way . " He carried this view through into his writing , describing the approach as " making the thing a sort of musical comedy without music , and ignoring real life altogether " . The literary critic Edward L. Galligan considers Wodehouse 's stories to show his mastery in adapting the form of the American musical comedy for his writings . Wodehouse would ensure that his first draft was as carefully and accurately done as possible , correcting and refining the prose as he wrote , and would then make another good copy , before proof reading again and then making a final copy for his publisher .
Most of Wodehouse 's canon is set in an undated period around the 1920s and 1930s . The critic Anthony Lejeune describes the settings of Wodehouse 's novels , such as the Drones Club and Blandings Castle , as " a fairyland " . Although some critics thought Wodehouse 's fiction was based on a world that had never existed , Wodehouse affirmed that " it did . It was going strong between the wars " , although he agreed that his version was to some extent " a sort of artificial world of my own creation " . The novels showed a largely unchanging world , regardless of when they were written , and only rarely — and mistakenly in McCrum 's view — did Wodehouse allow modernity to intrude , as he did in the 1966 story " Bingo Bans the Bomb " .
When dealing with the dialogue in his novels , Wodehouse would consider the book 's characters as if they were actors in a play , ensuring that the main roles were kept suitably employed throughout the storyline , which must be strong : " If they aren 't in interesting situations , characters can 't be major characters , not even if you have the rest of the troop talk their heads off about them . " Many of Wodehouse 's parts were stereotypes , and he acknowledged that " a real character in one of my books sticks out like a sore thumb . " The publisher Michael Joseph identifies that even within the stereotypes Wodehouse understood human nature , and therefore " shares with [ Charles ] Dickens and Charles Chaplin the ability to present the comic resistance of the individual against those superior forces to which we are all subject " .
Much of Wodehouse 's use of slang terms reflects the influence of his time at school in Dulwich , and partly reflects Edwardian slang . As a young man he enjoyed the literary works of Arthur Conan Doyle and Jerome K. Jerome , and the operatic works of Gilbert and Sullivan . Wodehouse quotes from and alludes to numerous poets throughout his work . The scholar Clarke Olney lists those quoted , including Milton , Byron , Longfellow , Coleridge , Swinburne , Tennyson , Wordsworth and Shakespeare .
= = = Language = = =
In 1941 the Concise Cambridge History of English Literature opined that Wodehouse had " a gift for highly original aptness of phrase that almost suggests a poet struggling for release among the wild extravagances of farce " , while McCrum thinks that Wodehouse manages to combine " high farce with the inverted poetry of his mature comic style " , particularly in The Code of the Woosters ; the novelist Anthony Powell believes Wodehouse to be a " comic poet " . Robert A. Hall , Jr . , in his study of Wodehouse 's style and technique , describes the author as a master of prose , an opinion also shared by Levin , who considers Wodehouse " one of the finest and purest writers of English prose " . Hall identifies several techniques used by Wodehouse to achieve comic effect , including the creation of new words through adding or removing prefixes and suffixes , so when Pongo Twistleton removes the housemaid Elsie Bean from a cupboard , Wodehouse writes that the character " de @-@ Beaned the cupboard " . Wodehouse created new words by splitting others in two , thus Wodehouse divides " hobnobbing " when he writes : " To offer a housemaid a cigarette is not hobbing . Nor , when you light it for her , does that constitute nobbing . "
Richard Voorhees , Wodehouse 's biographer , believes that the author used clichés in a deliberate and ironic manner . His opinion is shared by the academic Stephen Medcalf , who deems Wodehouse 's skill is to " bring a cliché just enough to life to kill it " , although Pamela March , writing in The Christian Science Monitor , considers Wodehouse to have " an ability to decliché a cliché " . Medcalf provides an example from Right Ho , Jeeves in which the teetotal Gussie Fink @-@ Nottle has surreptitiously been given whisky and gin in a punch prior to a prize @-@ giving :
The stylistic device most commonly found in Wodehouse 's work is his use of comparative imagery that includes similes . Hall opines that the humour comes from Wodehouse 's ability to accentuate " resemblances which at first glance seem highly incongruous " . Examples can be seen in Joy in the Morning , Chapter 29 : " There was a sound in the background like a distant sheep coughing gently on a mountainside . Jeeves sailing into action " , or Psmith , Chapter 7 : " A sound like two or three pigs feeding rather noisily in the middle of a thunderstorm interrupted his meditation . " Hall also identifies that periodically Wodehouse used the stylistic device of a transferred epithet , with an adjective that properly belongs to a person applied instead to some inanimate object . The form of expression is used sparingly by Wodehouse in comparison with other mechanisms , only once or twice in a story or novel , according to Hall .
Wordplay is a key element in Wodehouse 's writing . This can take the form of puns , such as in Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit , when Bertie is released after a night in the police cells , and says that he has " a pinched look " about him . Linguistic confusion is another humorous mechanism , such as in Uncle Dynamite when Constable Potter says he has been " assaulted by the duck pond . " In reply , Sir Aylmer , confusing the two meanings of the word " by " , asks : " How the devil can you be assaulted by a duck pond ? " Wodehouse also uses metaphor and mixed metaphor to add humour . Some come through exaggeration , such as Bingo Little 's infant child who " not only has the aspect of a mass murderer , but that of a mass murderer suffering from an ingrown toenail " , or Wooster 's complaint that " the rumpuses that Bobbie Wickham is already starting may be amusing to her , but not to the unfortunate toads beneath the harrow whom she ruthlessly plunges into the soup . " Bertie Wooster 's half @-@ forgotten vocabulary also provides a further humorous device . In Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit Bertie asks Jeeves " Let a plugugly like young Thos loose in the community with a cosh , and you are inviting disaster and ... what 's the word ? Something about cats . " Jeeves replies , " Cataclysms , sir ? "
= = Reception and reputation = =
Wodehouse 's early career as a lyricist and playwright was profitable , and his work with Bolton , according to The Guardian , " was one of the most successful in the history of musical comedy " . At the outbreak of the Second World War he was earning £ 40 @,@ 000 a year from his work , which had broadened to include novels and short stories . Following the furore ensuing from the wartime broadcasts , he suffered a downturn in his popularity and book sales ; The Saturday Evening Post stopped publishing his short stories , a stance they reversed in 1965 , although his popularity — and the sales figures — slowly recovered over time .
Wodehouse received great praise from many of his contemporaries , including Max Beerbohm , Rudyard Kipling , A.E. Housman and Evelyn Waugh — the last of whom opines : " One has to regard a man as a Master who can produce on average three uniquely brilliant and entirely original similes on each page . " There are dissenters to the praise . The writer Alan Bennett thinks that " inspired though his language is , I can never take more than ten pages of the novels at a time , their relentless flippancy wearing and tedious " , while the literary critic F.R. Leavis writes that Wodehouse had a " stereotyped humour ... of ingenious variations on a laugh in one place " . In a 2010 study of Wodehouse 's few relatively serious novels , such as The Coming of Bill ( 1919 ) , Jill the Reckless ( 1920 ) and The Adventures of Sally ( 1922 ) , David Heddendorf concludes that though their literary quality does not match that of the farcical novels , they show a range of empathy and interests that in real life — and in his most comic works — the author seemed to lack . " Never oblivious to grief and despair , he opts in clear @-@ eyed awareness for his timeless world of spats and woolly @-@ headed peers . It 's an austere , almost bloodless preference for pristine artifice over the pain and messy outcomes of actual existence , but it 's a case of Wodehouse keeping faith with his own unique art . "
The American literary analyst Robert F. Kiernan , defining " camp " as " excessive stylization of whatever kind " , brackets Wodehouse as " a master of the camp novel " , along with Thomas Love Peacock , Max Beerbohm , Ronald Firbank , E. F. Benson and Ivy Compton @-@ Burnett . The literary critic and writer Cyril Connolly calls Wodehouse a " politicians ' author " — one who does " not like art to be exacting and difficult " . Two former British prime ministers , H. H. Asquith and Tony Blair , are on record as Wodehouse aficionados , and the latter became a patron of the Wodehouse Society . Seán O 'Casey , a successful playwright of the 1920s , thought little of Wodehouse : he commented in 1941 that it was damaging to England 's dignity that the public or " the academic government of Oxford , dead from the chin up " considered Wodehouse an important figure in English literature . His jibe that Wodehouse was " English literature 's performing flea " provided his target with the title of his collected letters , published in 1953 .
The proposed nominations of Wodehouse for a knighthood in 1967 and 1971 were blocked for fear that such an award would " give currency to a Bertie Wooster image of the British character which the embassy was doing its best to eradicate " . When Wodehouse was awarded the knighthood , only four years later , the journalist Dennis Barker wrote in The Guardian that the writer was " the solitary surviving English literary comic genius " . After his death six weeks later , the journalist Michael Davie , writing in the same paper , observed that " Many people regarded ... [ Wodehouse ] as he regarded Beachcomber , as ' one , if not more than one , of England 's greatest men ' " , while in the view of the obituarist for The Times Wodehouse " was a comic genius recognized in his lifetime as a classic and an old master of farce " .
Since Wodehouse 's death there have been numerous adaptations and dramatisations of his work on television and film , and , as of 2015 , the Oxford English Dictionary contains over 1 @,@ 750 quotations from Wodehouse , illustrating terms from crispish to zippiness . McCrum , writing in 2004 , observes , " Wodehouse is more popular today than on the day he died " , and " his comic vision has an absolutely secure place in the English literary imagination . " Voorhees , while acknowledging that Wodehouse 's antecedents in literature range from Ben Jonson to Oscar Wilde , writes :
" [ I ] t is now abundantly clear that Wodehouse is one of the funniest and most productive men who ever wrote in English . He is far from being a mere jokesmith : he is an authentic craftsman , a wit and humorist of the first water , the inventor of a prose style which is a kind of comic poetry . "
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= Eckhart Tolle =
Eckhart Tolle ( / ˈɛkɑːrt ˈtɒlə / EK @-@ art TOL @-@ ə ; German pronunciation : [ ˈɛkaʁt ˈtɔlə ] , born Ulrich Leonard Tölle , February 16 , 1948 ) is a German @-@ born resident of Canada , best known as the author of The Power of Now and A New Earth : Awakening to your Life 's Purpose . In 2011 , he was listed by Watkins Review as the most spiritually influential person in the world . In 2008 , a New York Times writer called Tolle " the most popular spiritual author in the United States " .
Tolle has said that he was depressed for much of his life until he underwent , at age 29 , an " inner transformation " . He then spent several years wandering " in a state of deep bliss " before becoming a spiritual teacher . Later , he moved to North America where he began writing his first book , The Power of Now , which was published in 1997 and reached the New York Times Best Seller lists in 2000 .
The Power of Now and A New Earth sold an estimated three million and five million copies respectively in North America by 2009 . In 2008 , approximately 35 million people participated in a series of 10 live webinars with Tolle and television talk show host Oprah Winfrey . Tolle is not identified with any particular religion , but he has been influenced by a wide range of spiritual works . He has lived in Vancouver , British Columbia since 1995 .
= = Early life and education = =
Born Ulrich Leonard Tölle in Lünen , a small town located north of Dortmund in the Ruhr Valley , Germany in 1948 , Tolle describes his childhood as unhappy , particularly his early childhood in Germany . His parents fought and eventually separated , and he felt alienated from a hostile school environment . Tolle also experienced considerable fear and anxiety growing up in post @-@ war Germany , where he would play in bombed @-@ out buildings . He later stated that pain " was in the energy field of the country " . At the age of 13 , he moved to Spain to live with his father . Tolle 's father did not insist that his son attend high school , so Tolle elected to study literature , astronomy and various languages at home .
At the age of 15 , Tolle read several books written by the German mystic Joseph Anton Schneiderfranken , also known as Bô Yin Râ . Tolle has said he responded " very deeply " to those books .
At the age of 19 , about 10 years before his " inner transformation " , Tolle moved to England and for three years taught German and Spanish at a London school for language studies . Troubled by " depression , anxiety and fear " , he began " searching for answers " in his life .
In his early twenties , Tolle decided to pursue his search by studying philosophy , psychology , and literature , and enrolled in the University of London . After graduating , he was offered a scholarship to do postgraduate research at Cambridge University , which he began in 1977 , and from which he dropped out soon after .
= = Inner transformation = =
One night in 1977 , at the age of 29 , after having suffered from long periods of depression , Tolle says he experienced an " inner transformation " . That night he awakened from his sleep , suffering from feelings of depression that were " almost unbearable , " but then experienced a life @-@ changing epiphany . Recounting the experience , Tolle says ,
I couldn ’ t live with myself any longer . And in this a question arose without an answer : who is the ‘ I ’ that cannot live with the self ? What is the self ? I felt drawn into a void ! I didn ’ t know at the time that what really happened was the mind @-@ made self , with its heaviness , its problems , that lives between the unsatisfying past and the fearful future , collapsed . It dissolved . The next morning I woke up and everything was so peaceful . The peace was there because there was no self . Just a sense of presence or “ beingness , ” just observing and watching .
Tolle recalls going out for a walk in London the next morning , and finding that “ everything was miraculous , deeply peaceful . Even the traffic . " The feeling continued , and he began to feel a strong underlying sense of peace in any situation . Tolle stopped studying for his doctorate , and for a period of about two years after this he spent much of his time sitting , “ in a state of deep bliss , " on park benches in Russell Square , Central London , " watching the world go by . ” He stayed with friends , in a Buddhist monastery , or otherwise slept rough on Hampstead Heath . His family thought him “ irresponsible , even insane . " Tolle changed his first name from Ulrich to Eckhart ; by some reports this was in homage to the German philosopher and mystic , Meister Eckhart . A 2012 interview article states that he saw the name Eckhart on one of a pile of books in a dream , and knew he had written the book ; soon after in real life he ran into a psychic friend who called him Eckhart out of nowhere , so Tolle changed his name .
= = Career = =
After this period , former Cambridge students and people he had met by chance began to ask Tolle about his beliefs . He began working as a counselor and spiritual teacher . Students continued to come to him over the next five years . He relocated to Glastonbury , a major centre of alternative living . In 1995 , after having visited the West Coast of North America several times , he settled in Vancouver , British Columbia , where he met his wife to be , Kim Eng .
Tolle 's first book , The Power of Now , was first published in 1997 by Namaste Publishing . Only 3000 copies were published of the first edition . Tolle has stated , " I would personally deliver a few copies every week to some small bookstores in Vancouver ... Friends helped by placing copies of the book in spiritual bookstores farther afield " . The book was republished on a large scale by New World Library in 1999 . In 2000 , Oprah Winfrey recommended it in her magazine , O. In August 2000 it reached the New York Times Best Seller list for Hardcover Advice . After two more years , it was number one on that list . By 2008 , the book had been translated from English into 33 languages ; since then , it has been translated into Arabic . Tolle published his second book , Stillness Speaks , in 2003 . In July 2011 , The Power of Now appeared on the list for the 10 best selling Paperback Advice books for the 102nd time .
In 2005 , Tolle published his third book , A New Earth , which assumed the number one position on the New York Times Best Seller list several times between March and September 2008 . By the end of 2008 , it reached the list for the 46th time . The high sales of A New Earth in that year followed its selection by Oprah Winfrey for her book club in January . In the four weeks following the announcement , 3 @.@ 5 million copies of the book were shipped . Tolle partnered with her to produce a series of webinar sessions beginning in May 2008 . The weekly webinar sessions included discussions between Tolle and Winfrey , silent meditations , and questions from viewers via Skype . Each webinar focused on a specific chapter of A New Earth . The third webinar attracted more than 11 million viewers .
Tolle formed a company to sell products related to his teachings called Eckhart Teachings . He created a website called Eckhart Tolle TV , with streaming video of monthly group meditations and other videos . He gives speeches and workshops in English and occasionally in German or Spanish . He also travels for various speaking engagements , such as seminars and retreats . In a 2003 interview with the Telegraph Magazine , Tolle indicated that he had no intention of creating " a heavy commercial structure " , nor of setting up an ashram or centre . He believes one " could develop organically " and said " one needs to be careful that the organization doesn ’ t become self @-@ serving " .
In September , he appeared with the Dalai Lama and other speakers at the Vancouver Peace Summit . His most recent book , Guardians of Being , is a picture book illustrated by Patrick McDonnell , the creator of the comic strip Mutts .
= = Teachings = =
Tolle writes in the introduction to his second book , Stillness Speaks :
" A true spiritual teacher does not have anything to teach in the conventional sense of the word , does not have anything to give or add to you , such as new information , beliefs , or rules of conduct . The only function of such a teacher is to help you remove that which separates you from the truth ... The words are no more than signposts . "
Tolle says that his book , The Power of Now , is " a restatement for our time of that one timeless spiritual teaching , the essence of all religions " . He writes that religions " have become so overlaid with extraneous matter that their spiritual substance has become almost completely obscured " , that they have become " to a large extent ... divisive rather than unifying forces " and become " themselves part of the insanity " .
Tolle writes that " the most significant thing that can happen to a human being [ is ] the separation process of thinking and awareness " and that awareness is " the space in which thoughts exist " . Tolle says that " the primary cause of unhappiness is never the situation but your thoughts about it " .
According to Tolle 's official website , " at the core of Tolle 's teachings lies the transformation of consciousness , a spiritual awakening that he sees as the next step in human evolution . An essential aspect of this awakening consists in transcending our ego @-@ based state of consciousness . This is a prerequisite not only for personal happiness but also for the ending of violent conflict endemic on our planet " .
In his book A New Earth , Tolle describes a major aspect of the human dysfunction as " ego " or an " illusory sense of self " based on unconscious identification with one 's memories and thoughts , and another major aspect he calls " pain @-@ body " or " an accumulation of old emotional pain " .
Tolle often talks about the relevance of figures in intellectual or popular culture . In A New Earth , he quotes Descartes , Sartre , Nietzsche , Shakespeare and Albert Einstein . He has spoken of movies such as Groundhog Day , American Beauty , The Horse Whisperer , Gran Torino , Titanic , Avatar , Being There , and Forrest Gump , and musicians such as Mozart , The Beatles and The Rolling Stones . He arranged an album of music in 2008 entitled Music to Quiet the Mind including work composed by Erik Satie , Claude Debussy and The Beatles , and music by contemporary artists such as Deva Premal , Jeff Johnson , and Steve Roach .
= = = Influences = = =
According to a 2009 article in the New York Times , Tolle is " not identified with any religion , but uses teachings from Zen Buddhism , Sufism , Hinduism and the Bible " . Tolle has said : " I feel actually that the work I do is a coming together of the teaching ' stream ' , if you want to call it that , of [ Jiddu ] Krishnamurti and Ramana Maharshi . " Tolle himself has mentioned texts such as the Tao Te Ching , the Bhagavad Gita and other Hindu scriptures , the Buddhist scriptures , the Old Testament , the New Testament , and A Course in Miracles ; he has mentioned various individuals such as Zoroaster , Lao Tzu , Mahavira , Gautama Buddha , Heraclitus , Parmenides , Jesus , Epictetus , Marcus Aurelius , Rumi , Meister Eckhart , Hafiz , Rinzai Gigen , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Carl Gustav Jung ; and he has emphasized the mystical schools within religions such as Gnosticism in Christianity , Sufism in Islam , Hasidism and Kabbala in Judaism , Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism , and Zen and Dzogchen in Buddhism . He has met and spoken with Barry Long and Don Miguel Ruiz , and he wrote a foreword for The Diamond in Your Pocket by Gangaji .
= = = Reception = = =
In 2008 , an article in the New York Times referred to Tolle as " the most popular spiritual author in the [ United States ] " . In 2011 , the Watkins Review put him at number 1 in a list of " The 100 Most Spiritually Influential Living People " . By 2009 , total sales of The Power of Now and A New Earth in North America had been estimated at three million and five million copies respectively .
The books have received a wide range of praise and criticism . One book reviewer characterized The Power of Now as " awash in spiritual mumbo @-@ jumbo " , while another reviewer wrote , " Tolle 's clear writing and the obvious depth of his experience and insight set it apart " .
Some critics characterize Tolle 's books as unoriginal or derivative . A 2009 New York Times article said he is " hardly the first writer to tap into the American longing for meaning and success " . Sara Nelson , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Publishers Weekly , said Tolle 's writings have been successful due to surging public interest in books that tell you how to be happier , more peaceful and more successful . James Robinson in The Observer called Tolle 's writings " a mix of pseudo @-@ science , New Age philosophy , and teaching borrowed from established religions " .
However , others praise his re @-@ working and synthesis of traditions . New Age writer William Bloom wrote that " Tolle is offering a very contemporary synthesis of Eastern spiritual teaching , which is normally so clothed in arcane language that it is incomprehensible " , thereby providing " a valuable perspective on Western culture " . Publisher Judith Kendra says , " The ideas [ that Tolle is ] talking about have been in existence for thousands of years in both Eastern texts and with the great Western mystics , but he 's able to make them understandable " . Musician Annie Lennox said " [ Tolle ] has some kind of special quality that I 've never encountered before " .
= = = = Reception by Christian theologians = = = =
Some Christian scholars criticize Tolle 's teachings , while others praise them .
James Beverley , Professor of Christian Thought and Ethics at evangelical Tyndale Seminary in Toronto , says that Tolle 's worldview " is at odds with central Christian convictions " and that " Tolle denies the core of Christianity by claiming there is no ultimate distinction between humans and God and Jesus " . John Stackhouse , a professor of theology and culture at evangelical Regent College in Vancouver , says that Tolle " gives a certain segment of the population exactly what they want : a sort of supreme religion that purports to draw from all sorts of lesser , that is , established religions " . Stackhouse has described Tolle as one of several spiritual teachers who " purport to have investigated the world ’ s religions ( quite a claim ) and found them wanting , who routinely subject those religions to withering criticism , and who then champion their own views as superior to all these alternatives " .
In 2008 The Independent noted that " Tolle does have fans in academic , even Christian , circles " . Theologian Andrew Ryder wrote that " Tolle 's writing is based on his own experience and personal reflection . This makes his approach to the challenge of living in the present moment both practical and fresh " even though " he may not use the language of traditional Christian spirituality " .
Stafford Betty , teacher for Religious Studies at CSUB finds common ground between Tolle 's worldview and that of Christian mystics . He notes that " one of the key elements in Tolle 's teaching is that deep within the mind is absolute stillness in which one can experience ' the joy of Being ' " . Betty says that such a view is comparable to the view of contemporary Catholic monk Thomas Keating who wrote that " We rarely think of the air we breathe , yet it is in us and around us all the time . In similar fashion , the presence of God penetrates us , is all around us , is always embracing us , and it is delightful " . Betty also says that " for Mr. Tolle , God is in the world in a more radical way than for the Christian " and that Tolle 's theology " is only a footnote to the therapy he holds out to his audience " .
Roman Catholic priest and theologian Richard Rohr credits Tolle for helping to reintroduce ancient Christian mysticism to modern Christians : " Tolle is , in fact , rather brilliantly bringing to our awareness the older tradition ... [ which is ] both the ground and the process for breaking through to the theological contemplation of God , and acquired contemplation of Jesus , the Gospels , and all spiritual things . He is teaching process , not doctrine or dogma . He is teaching how to see and be present , not what you should see when you are present . Tolle is our friend , and not an enemy of the Gospel . There should be no conflict for a mature Christian . "
Anglican bishop Michael Ingham has said : " I don 't have any criticism of his message . I think the proper attitude to take with new spiritual movements is one of wait and see . "
= = Selected publications = =
= = = Books = = =
The Power of Now : A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment , New World Library , October , 1999 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 152 @-@ 3 ( HC ) ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 480 @-@ 8 ( PB )
Practicing the Power of Now : Essential Teachings , Meditations , and Exercises from The Power of Now , New World Library , October 10 , 2001 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 195 @-@ 7 ( HC )
Stillness Speaks : Whispers of Now , New World Library , August 2003 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 400 @-@ X
A New Earth : Awakening to Your Life 's Purpose , Dutton , October 11 , 2005 ISBN 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 94802 @-@ 3
Milton 's Secret : An Adventure of Discovery through Then , When , and The Power of Now , Hampton Roads , 2008 ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57174 @-@ 577 @-@ 4
Oneness With All Life : Inspirational Selections from A New Earth , Penguin Group , November 2008
Guardians of Being , New World Library , October 2009 ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 671 @-@ 8
= = = DVDs = = =
The Flowering of Human Consciousness : Everyone 's Life Purpose , Namaste Publishing , Inc . , 2001 ISBN 1 @-@ 59179 @-@ 154 @-@ 5
Practicing Presence : A Guide for the Spiritual Teacher and Health Practitioner , Eckhart Teachings , 2003 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 45 @-@ 0
Eckhart Tolle 's Findhorn Retreat : Stillness Amidst The World , New World Library , 2006 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 509 @-@ X
Finding Your Life 's Purpose , Eckhart Teachings , 2008 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 52 @-@ 3
The Doorway into Now , Eckhart Teachings , 2009 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 37 @-@ X
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= Ilaiyaraaja =
Ilaiyaraaja ( born Gnanathesikan ) is an Indian film composer who works in the South Indian cinema but predominantly in Tamil since the late 1970s . Regarded as one of the finest music composers in India , Ilaiyaraaja is also an instrumentalist , conductor , singer , and songwriter . He has composed more than 6000 songs and provided film scores for more than 1000 films , particularly being acclaimed for his background scores .
Legendary singers S. P. Balasubrahmanyam , K. S. Chithra and S. Janaki have sung more of his songs than any other singers . He integrated folk — in Tamil — and introduced western musical sensibilities into the South Indian musical mainstream . Ilaiyaraja is also known for creating music by fusing symphonic orchestration with traditional Indian instrumentation , often performed by Budapest Symphony Orchestra . In 1993 he organised a full symphony performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London and thus became the First Indian to compose a full symphony , with Ravi Shankar being the only other Indian to do so . He is also the first Asian to compose a full symphony performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . He has won five Indian National Film Awards ( the highest film honor in India ) ; three for Best Music Direction and two for Best Background Score . In 2010 he has received Padma Bhushan , awarded by the Government of India .
In the 2000s , he composed a variety of non @-@ film music , including religious and devotional songs , an oratorio , and world music . He is usually referred to by the title Isaignani ( English : Musical Genius ) , or as The Maestro . Ilaiyaraja is a gold medalist in classical guitar from Trinity College of Music , London . In 2003 , according to an international poll conducted by BBC , people from 155 countries voted his composition Rakkamma Kaiya Thattu from the 1991 film Thalapathi as fourth in the world 's top 10 most popular songs of all time . He was also nominated in the Best Indian album Music Awards category at US based Just Plain Folks Music Organization , which is the largest grassroots music organization in the world , and stood third for his " Music Journey : Live in Italy " . In 2012 he received the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for his creative and experimental works in music field . In 2014 he has been chosen for his outstanding contribution to the Indian film music and was awarded the SIES Sri Chandrasekarendra Saraswati National Eminence award . In 2015 , he was also honoured with the Centenary Award for lifetime achievement at the 46th International Film Festival of India ( IFFI ) at Panaji , Goa . On December 31 , 2015 , he was nominated by the Kerala Government for Nishagandi Puraskaram , the top award conferred by the Kerala Government 's Tourism Ministry , for his artistic excellence and contributions to the Indian film industry .
Popular world cinema portal Taste of Cinema placed Ilaiyaraja at the 9th position in its list of 25 greatest film composers in the cinema history . In a poll conducted by CNN @-@ IBN celebrating 100 years of Indian cinema in 2013 , Ilaiyaraaja was voted as the greatest music composer of India with a maximum of 49 % .
= = Early life and family = =
Ilaiyaraaja was born as Gnanathesikan in 1943 in a normal middle @-@ class family in Pannaipuram , Theni district , Tamil Nadu , India . When he joined the school his father changed his name as " Rajaiya " but his village people used to call him as " Raasayya " . Ilaiyaraaja joined Dhanraj Master as a student to learn musical instruments and the master renamed and called him as just " Raaja " . In his first movie Annakili , Tamil film producer Panchu Arunachalam added " Ilaiya " ( Ilaiya means younger in Tamil language ) as prefix in his name Raaja and he named as " Ilaiyaraaja " because in the 1970s there was one more music director A. M. Rajah who was a popular one .
Ilaiyaraaja was married to Jeeva and the couple have three children — Karthik Raja , Yuvan Shankar Raja and Bhavatharini — all film composers and singers . His wife Jeeva died on 31 October 2011 . Ilaiyaraaja has a brother Gangai Amaran , who is also a music director and lyricist in Tamil film industry .
= = Early exposure to music = =
Ilaiyaraaja grew up in a rural area , exposed to a range of Tamil folk music . At the age of 14 , he joined a travelling musical troupe headed by his elder brother , Pavalar Varadarajan , and spent the next decade performing throughout South India . While working with the troupe , he penned his first composition , a musical adaptation of an elegy written by the Tamil poet laureate Kannadasan for Jawaharlal Nehru , India 's first prime minister . In 1968 , Ilaiyaraaja began a music course with Professor Dhanraj in Madras ( now Chennai ) , which included an overview of Western classical music , compositional training in techniques such as counterpoint , and study in instrumental performance . Ilaiyaraaja specialized in classical guitar and had taken a course in it at the Trinity College of Music , London .
= = Session musician and film orchestrator = =
In the 1970s in Chennai , Ilaiyaraaja played guitar in a band @-@ for @-@ hire , and worked as a session guitarist , keyboardist , and organist for film music composers and directors such as Salil Chowdhury from West Bengal . After being hired as the musical assistant to Kannada film composer G. K. Venkatesh , he worked on 200 film projects , mostly in Kannada cinema . As G. K. Venkatesh 's assistant , Ilaiyaraaja would orchestrate the melodic outlines developed by Venkatesh . During this period , Ilaiyaraaja also began writing his own scores . To hear his compositions , he would persuade Venkatesh 's session musicians to play excerpts from his scores during their break times .
= = Film composer = =
In 1975 , film producer Panchu Arunachalam commissioned him to compose the songs and film score for a Tamil @-@ language film called Annakkili ( ' The Parrot ' ) . For the soundtrack , Ilaiyaraaja applied the techniques of modern popular film music orchestration to Tamil folk poetry and folk song melodies , which created a fusion of Western and Tamil idioms . Ilaiyaraaja 's use of Tamil music in his film scores injected new influence into the Indian film score milieu . By the mid @-@ 1980s Ilaiyaraaja was gaining increasing stature as a film composer and music director in the South Indian film industry . He has worked with Indian poets and lyricists such as Kannadasan , Vaali , Vairamuthu , O. N. V. Kurup , Sreekumaran Thampi , Veturi Sundararama Murthy , Aacharya Aatreya , Sirivennela Sitaramasastri , Chi . Udaya Shankar and Gulzar and is well known for his association with film makers such as Bharathiraja , S. P. Muthuraman , J. Mahendran , Balu Mahendra , K. Balachander , Mani Ratnam , Sathyan Anthikkad , Priyadarshan , Fazil , Vamsy , K. Vishwanath , Singeetam Srinivasa Rao and R. Balki .
= = = Impact and musical style = = =
Ilaiyaraaja was one of the earliest Indian film composers to use Western classical music harmonies and string arrangements in Indian film music . This allowed him to craft a rich tapestry of sounds for films , and his themes and background score gained notice and appreciation among Indian film audiences . The range of expressive possibilities in Indian film music was broadened by Ilaiyaraaja 's methodical approach to arranging , recording technique , and his drawing of ideas from a diversity of musical styles .
According to musicologist P. Greene , Ilaiyaraaja 's " deep understanding of so many different styles of music allowed him to create syncretic pieces of music combining very different musical idioms in unified , coherent musical statements " . Ilaiyaraaja has composed Indian film songs that amalgamated elements of genres such as Afro @-@ tribal , bossa nova , dance music ( e.g. , disco ) , doo @-@ wop , flamenco , acoustic guitar @-@ propelled Western folk , funk , Indian classical , Indian folk / traditional , jazz , march , pathos , pop , psychedelia and rock and roll .
By virtue of this variety and his interfusion of Western , Indian folk and Carnatic elements , Ilaiyaraaja 's compositions appeal to the Indian rural dweller for its rhythmic folk qualities , the Indian classical music enthusiast for the employment of Carnatic Ragas , and the urbanite for its modern , Western @-@ music sound . Ilaiyaraaja 's sense of visualization for composing music is always to match up with the storyline of the running movie and possibly by doing so , he creates the best experience for the audience to feel the emotions flavored through his musical score . He mastered this art of blending music to the narration , which very few others managed to adapt themselves over a longer time .
Although Ilaiyaraaja uses a range of complex compositional techniques , he often sketches out the basic melodic ideas for films in a very spontaneous fashion .
= = Musical characteristics = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's music is characterised by the use of an orchestration technique that is a synthesis of Western and Indian instruments and musical modes . He uses electronic music technology that integrates synthesizers , electric guitars and keyboards , drum machines , rhythm boxes and MIDI with large orchestras that feature traditional instruments such as the veena , venu , nadaswaram , dholak , mridangam and tabla as well as Western lead instruments such as saxophones and flutes .
The basslines in his songs tend to be melodically dynamic , rising and falling in a dramatic fashion . Polyrhythms are also apparent , particularly in songs with Indian folk or Carnatic influences . The melodic structure of his songs demand considerable vocal virtuosity , and have found expressive platform amongst some of India 's respected vocalists and playback singers , such as Rajkumar , T. M. Soundararajan , K. J. Yesudas , S. P. Balasubrahmanyam , S. Janaki , P. Susheela , Asha Bhosle , Lata Mangeshkar , Jayachandran , S. P. Sailaja , Jency , Swarnalatha , K. S. Chithra , Minmini , Sujatha , Malaysia Vasudevan , Kavita Krishnamurthy , Hariharan , Udit Narayan , Sadhana Sargam and Shreya Ghoshal . Ilaiyaraaja has sung over 400 of his own compositions for films , and is recognisable by his stark , deep voice . He has penned the lyrics for some of his songs in Tamil .
= = Non @-@ cinematic output = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's first two non @-@ film albums were explorations in the fusion of Indian and Western classical music . The first , How to Name It ? ( 1986 ) , is dedicated to the Carnatic master Tyāgarāja and to J. S. Bach . It features a fusion of the Carnatic form and ragas with Bach partitas , fugues and Baroque musical textures . The second , Nothing But Wind ( 1988 ) , was performed by flutist Hariprasad Chaurasia and a 50 @-@ piece orchestra and takes the conceptual approach suggested in the title — that music is a natural phenomenon akin to various forms of air currents ( e.g. , the wind , breeze , tempest etc . ) .
He has composed a set of Carnatic kritis that was recorded by electric mandolinist U. Srinivas for the album Ilayaraaja 's Classicals on the Mandolin ( 1994 ) . Ilaiyaraaja has also composed albums of religious / devotional songs . His Guru Ramana Geetam ( 2004 ) is a cycle of prayer songs inspired by the Hindu mystic Ramana Maharshi , and his Thiruvasakam : A crossover ( 2005 ) is an oratorio of ancient Tamil poems transcribed partially in English by American lyricist Stephen Schwartz and performed by the Budapest Symphony Orchestra . Ilaiyaraaja 's most recent release is a world music @-@ oriented album called The Music Messiah ( 2006 ) .
= = Notable works = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's composition " Rakkama Kaiya Thattu " , sung by SPB , Swarnalatha in the movie Thalapathi ( 1991 ) , was among the songs listed in a BBC World Top Ten music poll . The soundtrack of My Dear Kuttichathan , the first stereoscopic 3D film made in India is composed by him . He composed the music for Nayagan ( 1987 ) , an Indian film ranked by TIME Magazine as one of the all @-@ time 100 best movies , a number of India 's official entries to the Oscars , such as Swathi Muthyam ( 1986 ) , Nayagan ( 1987 ) , Thevar Magan ( 1992 ) , Anjali ( 1991 ) , Guru ( 1997 ) and Hey Ram ( 2000 ) , and for Indian art films such as Adoor Gopalakrishnan 's FIPRESCI Prize @-@ winning Nizhalkuthu ( ' The Shadow Kill ' ) ( 2002 ) . Ilaiyaraaja has composed music for events such as the 1996 Miss World beauty pageant that was held in Bangalore , India , and for a documentary called India 24 Hours ( 1996 ) .
The Black Eyed Peas sampled the Ilaiyaraaja composition " Unakkum Ennakum " from Sri Raghavendra ( 1985 ) , for the song " The Elephunk Theme " on Elephunk ( 2003 ) . The alternative artist M.I.A. sampled " Kaatukuyilu " from the film Thalapathi ( 1991 ) for her song " Bamboo Banga " on the album Kala ( 2007 ) . As well , Gonjasufi sampled " Yeh Hawa Yeh Fiza " from the movie Sadma .
= = Live performances = =
Ilaiyaraaja rarely performs his music live . His last major live performance , the first in 25 years , was a four @-@ hour concert held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium in Chennai , India on 16 October 2005 . He performed in 2004 in Italy at the Teatro Comunale di Modena , an event @-@ concert presented for the 14th edition of Angelica , Festival Internazionale Di Musica , co @-@ produced with the L 'Altro Suono Festival .
On 23 October 2005 , " A Time For Heroes " , sponsored by different agencies including the Melinda and Bill Gates Foundation , saw Hollywood star Richard Gere , Tamil and Telugu stars converging on the city for an evening of " infotainment " - they spoke in one voice on HIV / AIDS . The event organized at the Gachibowli Indoor Stadium , Hyderabad , on Saturday , 22nd October 2005 , took off with Maestro Ilaiyaraaja 's composition rendered by singer Usha Uthup .
A television retrospective titled Ithu Ilaiyaraja ( ' This is Ilaiyaraja ' ) was produced , chronicling his career . He last performed live at the audio release function of Dhoni film and before that he performed a programme that was conducted and telecasted by Jaya TV titled Enrendrum Raja ( ' Everlasting Raja ' ) on 28 December 2011 at Jahawarlal Nehru Indoor Stadium , Chennai . On 23 September 2012 , he performed live in Bangalore at National High School Grounds . On February 16 , 2013 , Ilayaraja made his first appearance in North America performing at the Rogers Centre in Toronto , Canada . The Toronto concert was promoted by Trinity Events for Vijay TV in India and produced by Sandy Audio Visual SAV Productions with PA + . Following his show at Toronto Ilaiyaraaja also performed at the Prudential Center Newark , New Jersey on February 23 , 2013 and at the HP Pavilion at San Jose on March 1 , 2013 . After his Northern America tour he made a live performance at The O2 Arena in London on August 24 , 2013 , along with Kamal Haasan and his sons Yuvan Shankar Raja and Karthik Raja .
= = Ilaiyaraaja discography = =
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= HMS Beagle ( H30 ) =
HMS Beagle was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . During World War II , the ship spent the bulk of the war on escort duty , participating in the Norwegian Campaign , the Battle of the Atlantic , Operation Torch , the Russian Convoys , and in the Normandy landings before accepting the surrender of the German garrison of the Channel Islands the day after the formal German surrender on 9 May together with another ship . One exception to this pattern was when she helped to evacuate British soldiers and civilians during the Battle of France in 1940 . During the war , Beagle assisted in sinking one German submarine and claimed to have shot down two German aircraft . Redundant after the war , she was broken up for scrap in 1946 .
= = Description = =
Beagle displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Beagle carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Beagle had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
By October 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . Around December 1941 , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer with the replacement of her ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon and two additional Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure . Sometime before June 1944 , ' A ' gun was reinstalled and the Hedgehog was replaced by a split system , with launchers on each side of the gun . To combat German E @-@ boats , a QF 6 @-@ pounder gun was mounted at the very tip of the bow .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from John Brown & Company at Clydebank , Glasgow , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 11 October 1929 , and launched on 26 September 1930 , as the seventh RN ship to carry this name . Beagle was completed on 9 April 1931 at a cost of £ 220 @,@ 342 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . Shortly before returning home , Beagle was deployed to Jaffa during the Arab Revolt to support British forces there . The flotilla was reassigned to the Home Fleet in September 1936 and the ship began a refit at Devonport after arriving on 27 August that lasted until 16 January 1937 . She was refitted again from 4 April to 17 September 1938 before being assigned as the plane guard for the aircraft carrier Furious . This assignment lasted only two months before she was refitted yet again from 24 November to 3 January 1939 . Beagle then became the plane guard for the carrier Argus during which she collided with her sister ship Basilisk and required a month 's worth of repairs in April – May . Following their completion on 3 May , the ship was reassigned to Furious before she was docked again before the start of World War II on 3 September .
Beagle was transferred to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla at the beginning of the war and spent her time until April 1940 escorting convoys and patrolling in the English Channel and the North Sea aside from yet another dockyard period from 18 December 1939 to 22 January 1940 . During the Norwegian Campaign , she escorted convoys between the Orkneys and Narvik , Norway . During the Battle of France , Beagle evacuated British troops and civilians from St. Nazaire and Bordeaux , France . During the former action , she rescued 600 survivors of the ocean liner Lancastria , sunk by German aircraft during the evacuation , on 17 June .
The ship was transferred to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover on 3 July until she was damaged by Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers on 19 July . Beagle 's repairs at Devonport lasted until 16 August and the ship was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla upon their completion where she served in the English Channel . She was transferred to Home Fleet for escort duties in October and promptly escorted Argus as she ferried aircraft to Iceland and then escorted a convoy to West Africa . Beagle was assigned to Western Approaches Command and its 4th Escort Group in February 1941 for convoy escort duties between the Clyde and Iceland . While under repair for weather damage that broke her foremast in October , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . After the ship was more extensively damaged by weather two months later , Beagle was converted into an escort destroyer , a process that lasted until April 1942 . At some point later in the war , a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted .
Beagle was assigned as an escort for Convoy QP 14 to the Soviet port of Murmansk in April and escorted Convoy QP 11 on the return trip . The convoy was attacked by three German destroyers on 1 May , but the four escorting destroyers drove off the German ships despite being seriously outgunned . Beagle was lightly damaged by splinters during the engagement . Upon her return , the ship was assigned to the Greenock Escort Force and escorted convoys between the Clyde and Iceland until October when she was transferred to Force H. She participated in Operation Torch in November , before returning to escort Convoys JW 51A , RA 51 , and JW 52 to and from Russia beginning in December .
After a refit to improve her radar , anti @-@ submarine equipment , and Arctic habitability , Beagle was ordered to Freetown , Sierra Leone in early 1943 where she served as a local escort until November . That month she returned to the Home Fleet and escorted convoys to and from Russia through May 1944 with the 8th Escort Group . Whilst escorting Convoy JW58 , the ship assisted in sinking the German submarine U @-@ 355 on 1 April in conjunction with aircraft from the escort carrier Tracker . Beagle was then assigned to escort and support the forces participating in Operation Overlord during which the ship claimed to have shot down two Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers in June . She began a refit on 19 July at Sheerness Dockyard that lasted until September and rejoined the 8th Escort Group upon their completion . More extensive repairs were required between December 1944 and February 1945 . Beagle was briefly reassigned to the 8th Escort Group before she was transferred to Plymouth Command on 11 March for escort duties . The ship was tasked to blockade the German @-@ occupied ports in France from 12 April and accepted the surrender of the German garrison of the Channel Islands together with her sister Bulldog on 9 May . Beagle was placed in reserve fifteen days later and was approved for scrapping on 22 December . She was turned over for scrapping on 15 January 1946 at Rosyth and moved to the shipbreaking yard of Metal Industries , Limited two days later .
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= James T. Brady =
James Topham Brady ( April 9 , 1815 – February 9 , 1869 ) was an American lawyer . Born in New York City , Brady studied law in his father 's practice before being admitted to the New York bar himself . He is most notable for his career as a criminal lawyer , being involved in numerous high @-@ profile proceedings . He tried fifty @-@ two criminal cases and only lost one . Brady died at his home after having the left side of his body paralyzed for several days , and was interred at Calvary Cemetery in New York .
= = Early life = =
Brady was born on April 9 , 1815 , in New York City , the eldest son of Thomas S. Brady and his wife . Later , Brady would have seven siblings , two boys and five girls . The senior Brady had emigrated from Ireland to the United States while the War of 1812 was ongoing , and started a boys school in New York . When James was seven , he attended his father 's school . In 1831 James 's father had left teaching to become a lawyer , and he helped his father in his practice and in trials . In his father 's office , James studied legal material tirelessly , and soon operated most of the firm 's managerial affairs .
= = Career = =
Brady was admitted to the New York Bar in either 1835 or 1836 , when he was about twenty years old . His first case was an insurance proceeding , where he opposed the prominent lawyer , Charles O 'Connor . The plaintiff staked a claim for insurance money from a property allegedly burned down by a fire . Though Brady lost that case , his proficiency for law and oration was immediately noted .
Brady received his first taste of legal notoriety during the Goodyear v. Day patent case , where he worked under Daniel Webster and delivered the opening arguments for the plaintiff . Nevertheless , Brady is best known for his work as a criminal lawyer . In the quarter century preceding his death , he was involved in nearly every notable criminal proceeding in the Eastern United States . Among his most famous legal undertakings was the defense of Daniel Sickles during his trial for the murder of Philip Barton Key , the then Attorney General of the District of Columbia . During this trial , Brady worked with Edwin Stanton , who would go on to become the United States Secretary of War . Brady also defended Lew Baker at the murder trial of the infamous William " Bill the Butcher " Poole , whom Baker shot to death in 1855 at Stanwix Hall , a bar on Broadway in Manhattan . Over his career , Brady tried 52 criminal cases and lost only one , the case of Confederate privateer John Yates Beall .
Though he professed membership in the Democratic Party , Brady was notably disengaged from politics . In 1843 he was made the interim district attorney for New York County . Two years later , Brady was appointed the city 's corporation counsel , a position in which he served two terms , each term lasting for a year . In 1850 Brady ran for , but was not elected to , the position of Attorney General of New York . Brady was on John C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane 's 1860 Democratic ticket for Governor of New York . When the American Civil War began , Brady switched sides and became an ardent supporter of Abraham Lincoln and his Republican Party . He deeply disdained Southern politics and policy .
= = Personal life and death = =
Brady remained a lifelong bachelor . When a friend asked why , he said , " When my father died , he left five daughters who looked to me for support . All the affection I could have had for a wife went out to those sisters ; and I have never desired to recall it . " On Sunday , February 7 , 1869 the left side of Brady 's body was paralyzed . He died at the age of 53 at his home in New York on February 9 at 4 : 45 pm . Brady 's funeral occurred at St. Patrick 's Cathedral , and he was interred at Calvary Cemetery .
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= History of Roman and Byzantine domes =
The History of Roman and Byzantine domes traces the architecture of domes throughout the ancient Roman Empire and its medieval continuation , today called the Byzantine Empire . Domes were important architectural elements in both empires and had widespread influence on contemporary and later styles , from Russian and Ottoman architecture to the Italian Renaissance and modern revivals . The domes were customarily hemispherical , although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known , and they developed in form , use , and structure over the centuries . Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light . Pendentives became common in the Byzantine period , provided support for domes over square spaces .
Early wooden domes are known only from a literary source , but the use of wooden formwork , concrete , and unskilled labor enabled domes of monumental size in the late Republic and early Imperial period , such as the so @-@ called " Temple of Mercury " bath hall at Baiae . Nero introduced the dome into Roman palace architecture in the 1st century and such rooms served as state banqueting halls , audience rooms , or throne rooms . The Pantheon 's dome , the largest and most famous example , was built of concrete in the 2nd century and may have served as an audience hall for Hadrian . Imperial mausolea , such as the Mausoleum of Diocletian , were domed beginning in the 3rd century . Some smaller domes were built with a technique of using ceramic tubes in place of a wooden centering for concrete , or as a permanent structure embedded in the concrete , but light brick became the preferred building material over the course of the 4th and 5th centuries . Brick ribs allowed for a thinner structure and facilitated the use of windows in the supporting walls , replacing the need for an oculus as a light source .
Christian baptisteries and shrines were domed in the 4th century , such as the Lateran Baptistery and the likely wooden dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . Constantine 's octagonal palace church in Antioch may have been the precedent for similar buildings for centuries afterward . The first domed basilica may have been built in the 5th century , with a church in southern Turkey being the earliest proposed example , but the 6th century architecture of Justinian made domed church architecture standard throughout the Roman east . His Hagia Sophia and Church of the Holy Apostles inspired copies in later centuries .
Cruciform churches with domes at their crossings , such as the churches of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki and St. Nicholas at Myra , were typical of 7th and 8th century architecture and bracing a dome with barrel vaults on four sides became the standard structural system . Domes over windowed drums of cylindrical or polygonal shape were standard after the 9th century . In the empire 's later period , smaller churches were built with smaller domes , normally less than 6 meters ( 20 ft ) after the 10th century . Exceptions include the 11th century domed @-@ octagons of Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni , and the 12th century Chora Church , among others . The cross @-@ in @-@ square plan , with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern , as at the Church of St. Panteleimon , was the most popular type from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 .
= = Overview = =
Rounded arches , vaults , and domes distinguish Roman architecture from that of Ancient Greece and were facilitated by the use of concrete and brick . By varying the weight of the aggregate material in the concrete , the weight of the concrete could be altered , allowing lighter layers to be laid at the top of concrete domes . But concrete domes also required expensive wooden formwork , also called shuttering , to be built and kept in place during the curing process , which would usually have to be destroyed to be removed . Formwork for brick domes need not be kept in place as long and could be more easily reused .
Roman domes were used in baths , villas , palaces , and tombs . Oculi were common features . They were customarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally concealed on the exterior . In order to buttress the horizontal thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome , the supporting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the haunches of the dome and the dome was then also sometimes covered with a conical or polygonal roof . A variety of other shapes , including shallow saucer domes , segmental domes , and ribbed domes were also sometimes used . The audience halls of many imperial palaces were domed . Domes were also very common over polygonal garden pavilions . Construction and development of domes declined in the west with the decline and fall of the western portion of the empire .
The term " Byzantine " , invented in 1557 by historian Hieronymus Wolf , became popular in the 19th century and is used to refer to the medieval eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople , the former town of Byzantion . In the Byzantine period , a supporting structure of four arches with pendentives between them allowed the spaces below domes to be opened up . Pendentives allowed for weight loads to be concentrated at just four points on a more practical square plan , rather than a circle . Domes were important elements of baptisteries , churches , and tombs . They were normally hemispherical and had , with occasional exceptions , windowed drums . Roofing for domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive , more durable , and more form @-@ fitting lead sheeting .
The domes and drums typically incorporated wooden tension rings at several levels to resist deformation in the mortar and allow for faster construction . Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks , metal tie rods , and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed buildings . Timber belts at the bases of domes helped to stabilize the walls below them during earthquakes , but the domes themselves remained vulnerable to collapse . The surviving ribbed or pumpkin dome examples in Constantinople are structurally equivalent and those techniques were used interchangeably , with the number of divisions corresponding to the number of windows . Aided by the small scale of churches after the 6th century , such ribbed domes could be built with formwork only for the ribs . Pumpkin domes could have been built in self @-@ supporting rings and small domical vaults were effectively corbelled , dispensing with formwork altogether .
= = Late Republic and early Imperial period = =
Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general , and monumental domes in particular . Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in Pompeii , in the cold rooms of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro . These domes are very conical in shape , similar to those on an Assyrian bas @-@ relief found in Nineveh . At a Roman era tepidarium in Cabrera de Mar , Spain , a dome has been identified from the middle of the 2nd century BC that used a refined version of the parallel arch construction found in an earlier Hellenistic bath dome in Sicily . According to Vitruvius , the temperature and humidity of domed warm rooms could be regulated by raising or lowering bronze discs located under an oculus . Domes were particularly well suited to the hot rooms of baths circular in plan to facilitate even heating from the walls . However , the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD .
Varro 's book on agriculture describes an aviary with a wooden dome decorated with the eight winds that is compared by analogy to the eight winds depicted on the Tower of the Winds , which was built in Athens at about the same time . This aviary with its wooden dome may represent a fully developed type . Wooden domes in general would have allowed for very wide spans . Their earlier use may have inspired the development and introduction of large stone domes of previously unprecedented size . Complex wooden forms were necessary for dome centering and support during construction , and they seem to have eventually become more efficient and standardized over time .
The mortar and aggregate of Roman concrete was built up in horizontal layers laid by hand against wooden form @-@ work with the thickness of the layers determined by the length of the workday , rather than being poured into a mold as concrete is today . Roman concrete domes were thus built similarly to the earlier corbel domes of the Mediterranean region , although they have different structural characteristics . The aggregate used by the Romans was often rubble , but lightweight aggregate in the upper levels served to reduce stresses . Empty " vases and jugs " could be hidden inside to reduce weight . The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids , and added animal blood acted as a water reducer . Because Roman concrete was weak in tension , it did not provide any structural advantage over the use of brick or stone . But , because it could be constructed with unskilled slave labor , it provided a constructional advantage and facilitated the building of large @-@ scale domes .
Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial period . Although imprints of the formwork itself have not survived , deformations from the ideal of up to 22 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) at the so @-@ called " Temple of Mercury " in Baiae suggest a centering of eight radiating frames , with horizontal connectors supporting radial formwork for the shallow dome . The building , actually a concrete bath hall dating from the age of Augustus ( 27 BC – 14 AD ) , has the first known large Roman dome . There are five openings in the dome : a circular oculus and four square skylights . The dome has a span of 21 @.@ 5 meters ( 71 ft ) and is the largest known dome built before that of the Pantheon . It is also the earliest preserved concrete dome .
= = First century = =
While there are earlier examples in the Republican period and early Imperial period , the growth of domed construction increased under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD , and during the 2nd century . Centrally planned halls become increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa layouts beginning in the 1st century , serving as state banqueting halls , audience rooms , or throne rooms . Formwork was arranged either horizontally or radially , but there is not enough surviving evidence from the 1st and 2nd centuries to say what was typical .
The opulent palace architecture of the Emperor Nero ( 54 – 68 AD ) marks an important development . There is evidence of a dome in his Domus Transitoria at the intersection of two corridors , resting on four large piers , which may have had an oculus at the center . In Nero 's Domus Aurea , or " Golden House " , planned by Severus and Celer , the walls of a large octagonal room transition to an octagonal domical vault , which then transitions to a dome with an oculus . This is the earliest known example of a dome in the city of Rome itself .
The Domus Aurea was built after 64 AD and the dome was over 13 meters ( 43 ft ) in diameter . This octagonal and semicircular dome is made of concrete and the oculus is made of brick . The radial walls of the surrounding rooms buttress the dome , allowing the octagonal walls directly beneath it to contain large openings under flat arches and for the room itself to be unusually well lit . Because there is no indication that mosaic or other facing material had ever been applied to the surface of the dome , it may have been hidden behind a tent @-@ like fabric canopy like the pavilion tents of Hellenistic ( and earlier Persian ) rulers . The oculus is unusually large , more than two @-@ fifths the span of the room , and it may have served to support a lightweight lantern structure or tholos , which would have covered the opening . Circular channels on the upper surface of the oculus also support the idea that this lantern , perhaps itself domed , was the rotating dome referred to in written accounts .
According to Suetonius , the Domus Aurea had a dome that perpetually rotated on its base in imitation of the sky . It was reported in 2009 that newly discovered foundations of a round room may be those of a rotating domed dining hall . Also reported in contemporary sources is a ceiling over a dining hall in the palace fitted with pipes so that perfume could rain from the ceiling , although it is not known whether this was a feature of the same dome . The expensive and lavish decoration of the palace caused such scandal that it was abandoned soon after Nero 's death and public buildings such as the Baths of Titus and the Colosseum were built at the site .
The only intact dome from the reign of Emperor Domitian is a 16 @.@ 1 @-@ meter ( 53 ft ) wide example in what may have been a nymphaeum at his villa at Albano . It is now the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda . Domitian 's 92 AD Domus Augustana established the apsidal semi @-@ dome as an imperial motif . Square chambers in his palace on the Palatine Hill used pendentives to support domes . His palace contained three domes resting over walls with alternating apses and rectangular openings . An octagonal domed hall existed in the domestic wing . Unlike Nero 's similar octagonal dome , its segments extended all the way to the oculus . The dining hall of this private palace , called the Coenatio Jovis , or Dining Hall of Jupiter , contained a rotating ceiling like the one Nero had built , but with stars set into the simulated sky .
= = Second century = =
During the reign of Emperor Trajan , domes and semi @-@ domes over exedras were standard elements of Roman architecture , possibly due to the efforts of Trajan 's architect , Apollodorus of Damascus , who was famed for his engineering ability . Two rotundas 20 meters ( 66 ft ) in diameter were finished in 109 AD as part of the Baths of Trajan , built over the Domus Aurea , and exedras 13 and 18 meters ( 43 and 59 ft ) wide were built as part of the markets north @-@ east of his forum . The architecture of Trajan 's successor , Hadrian , continued this style . Although considered an example of Hadrianic architecture , there is brickstamp evidence that the rebuilding of the Pantheon in its present form was begun under Trajan . Speculation that the architect of the Pantheon was Apollodorus has not been proven , although there are stylistic commonalities between his large coffered half @-@ domes at Trajan 's Baths and the dome of the Pantheon . Three 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) wide exedras at Trajan 's Baths have patterns of coffering that , as in the Pantheon , align with lower niches only on the axes and diagonals and , also as in the Pantheon , that alignment is sometimes with the ribs between the coffers , rather than with the coffers themselves .
The Pantheon , a temple in Rome completed by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa , is the most famous , best preserved , and largest Roman dome . Its diameter was more than twice as wide as any known earlier dome . Dating from the 2nd century , it is an unreinforced concrete dome 43 @.@ 4 meters ( 142 ft ) wide resting on a circular wall , or rotunda , 6 meters ( 20 ft ) thick . This rotunda , made of brick @-@ faced concrete , contains a large number of relieving arches and is not solid . Seven interior niches and the entrance way divide the wall structurally into eight virtually independent piers . These openings and additional voids account for a quarter of the rotunda wall 's volume . The only opening in the dome is the brick @-@ lined oculus at the top , 9 meters ( 30 ft ) in diameter , that provides light and ventilation for the interior .
The shallow coffering in the dome accounts for a less than five percent reduction in the dome 's mass , and is mostly decorative . The aggregate material hand @-@ placed in the concrete is heaviest at the base of the dome and changes to lighter materials as the height increases , dramatically reducing the stresses in the finished structure . In fact , many commentators cite the Pantheon as an example of the revolutionary possibilities for monolithic architecture provided by the use of Roman pozzolana concrete . However , vertical cracks seem to have developed very early , such that in practice the dome acts as an array of arches with a common keystone , rather than as a single unit . The exterior step @-@ rings used to compress the " haunches " of the dome , which would not be necessary if the dome acted as a monolithic structure , may be an acknowledgement of this by the builders themselves . Such buttressing was common in Roman arch construction . The cracks in the dome can be seen from the upper internal chambers of the rotunda , but have been covered by re @-@ rendering on the inner surface and by patching on the outside . The Pantheon 's roof was originally covered with gilt bronze tiles , but these were removed in 663 by Emperor Constans II and replaced by lead roofing .
The function of the Pantheon remains an open question . Strangely for a temple , its inscription , which attributes this third building at the site to the builder of the first , Marcus Agrippa , does not mention any god or group of gods . Its name , Pantheon , comes from the Greek for " all gods " but is unofficial , and it was not included in the list of temples restored by Hadrian in the Historia Augusta . Circular temples were small and rare , and Roman temples traditionally allowed for only one divinity per room . The Pantheon more resembles structures found in imperial palaces and baths . Hadrian is believed to have held court in the rotunda using the main apse opposite the entrance as a tribune , which may explain its very large size . Later Roman buildings similar to the Pantheon include a temple to Asklepios Soter ( c . 145 ) in the old Hellenistic city of Pergamon and the so @-@ called " Round Temple " at Ostia ( c . 230 – 240 ) , which may have been related to the Imperial cult . The Pergamon dome was about 80 Roman feet wide , versus about 150 for the Pantheon , and made of brick over a cut stone rotunda . The Ostia dome was 60 Roman feet wide and made of brick @-@ faced concrete . No later dome built in the Imperial era came close to the span of the Pantheon . It remained the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium and is still the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome .
Segmented domes made of radially concave wedges , or of alternating concave and flat wedges , appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of the style date from this period . Hadrian 's Villa has examples at the Piazza D 'Oro and in the semidome of the Serapeum . Recorded details of the decoration of the segmented dome at the Piazza D 'Oro suggests it was made to evoke a billowing tent , perhaps in imitation of the canopies used by Hellenistic kings . Other examples exist at the Hadrianic baths of Otricoli and the so @-@ called " Temple of Venus " at Baiae . This style of dome required complex centering and radially oriented formwork to create its tight curves , and the earliest surviving direct evidence of radial formwork is found at the caldarium of the Large Baths at Hadrian 's villa . Hadrian was an amateur architect and it was apparently domes of Hadrian 's like these that Trajan 's architect , Apollodorus of Damascus , derisively called " pumpkins " prior to Hadrian becoming emperor . According to Dio Cassius , the memory of this insult contributed to Hadrian as emperor having Apollodorus exiled and killed .
In the middle of the 2nd century , some of the largest domes were built near present @-@ day Naples , as part of large bath complexes taking advantage of the volcanic hot springs in the area . At the bath complex at Baiae , there are remains of a collapsed dome spanning 26 @.@ 3 meters ( 86 ft ) , called the " Temple of Venus " , and a larger half @-@ collapsed dome spanning 29 @.@ 5 meters ( 97 ft ) called the " Temple of Diana " . The dome of the " Temple of Diana " , which may have been a nymphaeum as part of the bath complex , can be seen to have had an ogival section made of horizontal layers of mortared brick and capped with light tufa . It dates to the second half of the 2nd century and is the third largest dome known from the Roman world . The second largest is the collapsed " Temple of Apollo " built nearby along the shore of Lake Avernus . The span cannot be precisely measured due to its ruined state , but it was more than 36 meters ( 118 ft ) in diameter .
In the second half of the 2nd century in North Africa , a distinctive type of nozzle tube shape was developed in the tradition of the terracotta tube dome at the Hellenistic era baths of Morgantina , an idea that had been preserved in the use of interlocking terracotta pots for kiln roofs . This tube could be mass @-@ produced on potter 's wheels and interlocked to form a permanent centering for concrete domes , avoiding the use of wooden centering altogether . This spread mainly in the western Mediterranean .
Although rarely used , the pendentive dome was known in 2nd century Roman architecture , such as the funerary monuments of the Sedia dei Diavolo and the Torracio della Secchina on the Via Nomentana . It would be used much more widely in the Byzantine period .
= = Third century = =
In the 3rd century , imperial mausolea began to be built as domed rotundas rather than tumulus structures or other types , following similar monuments by private citizens . Pagan and Christian domed mausolea from this time can be differentiated in that the structures of the buildings also reflect their religious functions . The pagan buildings are typically two story , dimly lit , free @-@ standing structures with a lower crypt area for the remains and an upper area for devotional sacrifice . Christian domed mausolea contain a single well @-@ lit space and are usually attached to a church .
Examples from the 3rd century include the brick dome of the Mausoleum of Diocletian , and the mausoleum at Villa Gordiani . The Mausoleum of Diocletian uses small arched squinches of brick built up from a circular base in an overlapping scales pattern , called a " stepped squinches dome " . The scales pattern was a popular Hellenistic motif adopted by the Parthians and Sasanians , and such domes are likely related to Persian " squinch vaults " . Masonry domes were less common in the Roman provinces , although the 3rd century " Temple of Venus " at Baalbek was built with a stone dome 10 meters ( 33 ft ) in diameter . The 24 @-@ meter ( 79 ft ) dome of the Mausoleum of Galerius was built around 300 AD close to the imperial palace as either a mausoleum or a throne room . It was converted into a church in the 5th century . The large rotunda of the Baths of Agrippa , the oldest public baths in Rome , has been dated to the Severan period at the beginning of the 3rd century , but it is not known whether this is an addition or simply a reconstruction of an earlier domed rotunda .
The technique of building lightweight domes with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed in North Africa and Italy in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries . By the 4th century , the thin and lightweight tubed vaulting had become a vaulting technique in its own right , rather than simply serving as a permanent centering for concrete . It was used in early Christian buildings in Italy . Arranging these terracotta tubes in a continuous spiral created a dome that was not strong enough for very large spans , but required only minimal centering and formwork . The later dome of the Baptistry of Neon in Ravenna is an example .
= = Fourth century = =
In the 4th century , Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed , including advances in centering techniques and the use of brick ribbing . The so @-@ called " Temple of Minerva Medica " , for example , used brick ribs along with step @-@ rings and lightweight pumice aggregate concrete to form a decagonal dome . The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells . The use of ribs stiffened the structure , allowing domes to be thinner with less massive supporting walls . Windows were often used in these walls and replaced the oculus as a source of light , although buttressing was sometimes necessary to compensate for large openings . The Mausoleum of Santa Costanza has windows beneath the dome and nothing but paired columns beneath that , using a surrounding barrel vault to buttress the structure .
The octagonal " Domus Aurea " , or " Golden Octagon " , built by Emperor Constantine in 327 at the imperial palace of Antioch likewise had a domical roof , presumably of wood and covered with gilded lead . It was dedicated two years after the Council of Nicea to " Harmony , the divine power that unites Universe , Church , and Empire " . It may have been both the cathedral of Antioch as well as the court church of Constantine , and the precedent for the later octagonal plan churches near palaces of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and Hagia Sophia by Justinian and Aachen Cathedral by Charlemagne . The dome was rebuilt by 537 – 8 with cypress wood from Daphne after being destroyed in a fire . Most domes on churches in the Syrian region were built of wood , like that of the later Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , and the dome of the Domus Aurea survived a series of earthquakes in the 6th century that destroyed the rest of the building . There is no record of the church being rebuilt after the earthquake of 588 , perhaps due to the general abandonment of many public buildings in what was no longer a capital of the Empire .
Centralized buildings of circular or octagonal plan also became used for baptistries and reliquaries due to the suitability of those shapes for assembly around a single object . Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausolea during the 4th century in Italy . The octagonal Lateran Baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first , and the style spread during the 5th century . The Church of the Holy Apostles , or Apostoleion , probably planned by Constantine but built by his successor Constantius in the new capital city of Constantinople , combined the congregational basilica with the centralized shrine . With a similar plan to that of the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites , four naves projected from a central rotunda containing Constantine 's tomb and spaces for the tombs of the twelve Apostles . Above the center may have been a clerestory with a wooden dome roofed with bronze sheeting and gold accents .
Christian mausolea and shrines developed into the " centralized church " type , often with a dome over a raised central space . The oblong decagon of today 's St. Gereon 's Basilica in Cologne , Germany , was built upon an extraordinary and richly decorated 4th century Roman building with an apse , semi @-@ domed niches , and dome . A church built in the city 's northern cemetery , its original dedication is unknown . It may have been built by Julianus , the governor of Gaul from 355 to 360 who would later become emperor , as a mausoleum for his family . The oval space may have been patterned after imperial audience halls or buildings such as the Temple of Minerva Medica . The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was likely built with a wooden dome over the shrine by the end of the 4th century . The rotunda , 33 @.@ 7 meters ( 111 ft ) in diameter and centered on the tomb of Christ , consisted of a domed center room surrounded by an ambulatory . The dome rose over a ground floor , gallery , and clerestory and may have had an oculus . The dome was about 21 meters ( 69 ft ) wide . Razed to the ground in 1009 by the Fatimid Caliph , it was rebuilt in 1048 by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos , reportedly with a mosaic depicting Christ and the Twelve Apostles . The current dome is a 1977 renovation in thin reinforced concrete .
The largest centrally planned Early Christian church , Milan 's domed San Lorenzo Maggiore , was built in the middle of the 4th century while that city served as the capital of the Western Empire . There are two theories about the shape of this dome : a Byzantine @-@ style dome on spherical pendentives with a ring of windows similar to domes of the later Justinian era , or an octagonal cloister vault following Roman trends and like the vaulting over the site 's contemporary chapel of Saint Aquiline , possibly built with vaulting tubes , pieces of which had been found in excavations . Although these tubes have been shown to date from a medieval reconstruction , there is evidence supporting the use of Roman concrete in the original dome . The original vaulting was concealed by a square drum externally rather than the octagon of today , which dates from the 16th century .
= = Fifth century = =
By the 5th century , structures with small @-@ scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world . Examples include the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia , the martyrium attached to the Basilica of San Simpliciano , and churches in Macedonia and on the coast of Asia Minor . Small brick domes are also found in towers of Constantinople 's early 5th century land walls . Underground cisterns in Constantinople , such as the Cistern of Philoxenos and the Basilica Cistern , were composed of a grid of columns supporting small domes , rather than groin vaults . The square bay with an overhead sail vault or dome on pendentives became the basic unit of architecture in the early Byzantine centuries , found in a variety of combinations .
Early examples of Byzantine domes existed over the hexagonal hall of the Palace of Antiochos , the hexagon at Gülhane , the martyium of Sts . Karpos and Papylos , and the rotunda at the Myrelaion . The 5th century St. Mary 's church in Ephesus had small rectangular side rooms with sail vaults made of arched brick courses . The brick dome of the baptistery at St. Mary 's was composed of a series of tightly arched meridional sections . The Church of Saint Simeon Stylites likely had a wooden polygonal dome over its central 27 @-@ meter ( 89 ft ) wide octagon .
With the end of the Western Roman Empire , domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving Eastern Roman Empire . A transition from timber @-@ roofed basilicas to vaulted churches seems to have occurred between the late 5th century and the 7th century , with early examples in Constantinople , Asia Minor , and Cilicia . The first known domed basilica may have been a church at Meriamlik in southern Turkey , dated to between 471 and 494 , although the ruins do not provide a definitive answer . It is possible earlier examples existed in Constantinople , where it has been suggested that the plan for the Meriamlik church itself was designed , but no domed basilica has been found there before the 6th century .
= = Sixth century = =
The 6th century marks a turning point for domed church architecture . Centrally planned domed churches had been built since the 4th century for very particular functions , such as palace churches or martyria , with a slight widening of use around 500 AD , but most church buildings were timber @-@ roofed halls on the basilica plan . The Church of St. Polyeuctus in Constantinople ( 524 – 527 ) was apparently built as a large and lavish domed basilica similar to the Meriamlik church of fifty years before — and to the later Hagia Irene of Emperor Justinian — by Anicia Juliana , a descendent of the former imperial house . There is a story that she used the contribution to public funds that she had promised Justinian on his ascension to the throne to roof her church in gold . The church included an inscription praising Juliana for having " surpassed Solomon " with the building , and it may have been with this in mind that Justinian would later say of his Hagia Sophia , " Solomon , I have vanquished thee ! " .
In the second third of the 6th century , church building by the Emperor Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale , in keeping with Justinian 's emphasis on bold architectural innovation . His church architecture emphasized the central dome and his architects made the domed brick @-@ vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east . This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of a " Byzantine " architecture . Timber @-@ roofed basilicas , which had previously been the standard church form , would continue to be so in the medieval west .
The earliest existing of Justinian 's domed buildings is the central plan Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople , completed by 536 . It is called the " Little Hagia Sophia " mosque today , but was actually begun five years earlier than that building . The dome rests on an octagonal base created by eight arches on piers and is divided into sixteen sections . Those sections above the flat sides of the octagon are flat and contain a window at their base , alternating with sections from the corners of the octagon that are scalloped , creating an unusual kind of pumpkin dome . The building was built within the precinct of the Palace of Hormistas , the residence of Justinian before his ascension to the throne in 527 , and includes an inscription mentioning the " sceptered Justinian " and " God @-@ crowned Theodora " .
After the Nika Revolt destroyed much of the city of Constantinople in 532 , including the churches of Hagia Sophia ( " Holy Wisdom " ) and Hagia Irene ( " Holy Peace " ) , Justinian had the opportunity to rebuild . Both had been basilica plan churches and both were rebuilt as domed basilicas , although the Hagia Sophia was rebuilt on a much grander scale . Built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople between 532 and 537 , the Hagia Sophia has been called the greatest building in the world . It is an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi @-@ domes . Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs . The precise shape of the original central dome completed in 537 was significantly different from the current one and , according to contemporary accounts , much bolder .
Procopius wrote that the original dome seemed " not to rest upon solid masonry , but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from heaven . " Byzantine chronicler John Malalas reported that this dome was 20 byzantine feet lower than its replacement . One theory is that the original dome continued the curve of the existing pendentives ( which were partially reconstructed after its collapse ) , creating a massive sail vault pierced with a ring of windows . This vault would have been part of a theoretical sphere 46 meters ( 151 ft ) in diameter ( the distance from the base of one pendentive to the base of the one opposite ) , 7 percent greater than the span of the Pantheon 's dome . Another theory raises the shallow cap of this dome ( the portion above what are today the pendentives ) on a relatively short recessed drum containing the windows . This first dome partially collapsed due to an earthquake in 558 and the design was then revised to the present profile . Earthquakes also caused partial collapses of the dome in 989 and 1346 , so that the present dome consists of portions dating from the 6th century , on the north and south sides , and portions from the 10th and 14th centuries on the west and east sides , respectively . There are irregularities where these sectors meet .
The current central dome , above the pendentives , is about 750 millimeters ( 30 in ) thick . It is about 32 meters ( 105 ft ) wide and contains 40 radial ribs that spring from between the 40 windows at its base . Four of the windows were blocked as part of repairs in the 10th century . The ring of windows at the base of the central dome are in the portion where the greatest hoop tension would have been expected and so they may have been used to help alleviate cracking along the meridians . Iron cramps between the marble blocks of its cornice helped to reduce outward thrusts at the base and limit cracking , like the wooden tension rings used in other Byzantine brick domes . The dome and pendentives are supported by four large arches springing from four piers . Additionally , two huge semi @-@ domes of similar proportion are placed on opposite sides of the central dome and themselves contain smaller semi @-@ domes between an additional four piers . The Hagia Sophia , as both the cathedral of Constantinople and the church of the adjacent Great Palace of Constantinople , has a form of octagonal plan .
The city of Ravenna , Italy , had served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire after Milan from 402 and the capital of the subsequent kingdoms of Odoacer and of Theodoric until Justinian 's reconquest in 540 . The octagonal Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , begun under Theodoric in 525 , was completed under the Byzantines in 547 and contains a terracotta dome . It may belong to a school of architecture from 4th and 5th century Milan . The building is similar to the Byzantine Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and the later Chrysotriklinos , or throne hall and palace church of Constantinople , and it would be used as the model for Charlemagne 's palace chapel at Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle . Hollow amphorae were fitted inside one another to provide a lightweight structure for the dome and avoid additional buttressing . It is 18 meters ( 59 ft ) in diameter . The amphorae were arranged in a continuous spiral , which required minimal centering and formwork but was not strong enough for large spans . The dome was covered with a timber roof , which would be the favored practice for later medieval architects in Italy although it was unusual at the time .
In Constantinople , Justinian also tore down the aging Church of the Holy Apostles and rebuilt it on a grander scale between 536 and 550 . The original building was a cruciform basilica with a central domed mausoleum . Justinian 's replacement was apparently likewise cruciform but with a central dome and four flanking domes . The central dome over the crossing had pendentives and windows in its base , while the four domes over the arms of the cross had pendentives but no windows . The domes appear to have been radically altered between 944 and 985 by the addition of windowed drums beneath all five domes and by raising the central dome higher than the others . The second most important church in the city after the Hagia Sophia , it fell into disrepair after the Latin occupation of Constantinople between 1204 and 1261 and it was razed to the ground by Mehmed the Conqueror in 1461 to build his Fatih Mosque on the site . Justinian 's Basilica of St. John at Ephesus and Venice 's St Mark 's Basilica are derivative of Holy Apostles . More loosely , the Cathedral of St. Front and the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua are also derived from this church .
Justinian and his successors modernized frontier fortifications throughout the century . The example at Qasr ibn Wardan ( 564 ) in the desert of eastern Syria is particularly impressive , containing a governor 's palace , barracks , and a church built with techniques and to plans possibly imported from Constantinople . The church dome is unusual in that the pendentives sprang from an octagonal drum , rather than the four main arches , and in that it was made of brick , which was rare in Syria .
The Golden Triclinium , or Chrysotriklinos , of the Great Palace of Constantinople served as an audience hall for the Emperor as well as a palace chapel . Nothing of it has survived except descriptions , which indicate that it had a pumpkin dome containing sixteen windows in its webs and that the dome was supported by the arches of eight niches connecting to adjoining rooms in the building 's likely circular plan . Alternatively , the building may have been octagonal in plan , rather than circular . The dome seems to have had webs that alternated straight and concave , like those of the dome of Justinian 's Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus , and may have been built about 40 years after that church . It was begun under Emperor Justin II , completed by his successor Tiberius II , and continued to be improved by subsequent rulers . It was connected to the imperial living quarters and was a space used for assembly before religious festivals , high promotions and consultations , as a banqueting hall , a chapel for the emperor , and a throne room . Never fully described in any of its frequent mentions in Byzantine texts , the room was restricted to members of the court and the " most highly rated foreigners " . In the 10th century , the throne in the east niche chamber was directly below an icon of an enthroned Christ .
= = Seventh and eighth centuries = =
The period of Iconoclasm , roughly corresponding to the 7th to 9th centuries , is poorly documented but can be considered a transitional period . The cathedral of Sofia has an unsettled date of construction , ranging from the last years of Justinian to the middle of the 7th century , as the Balkans were lost to the Slavs and Bulgars . It combines a barrel @-@ vaulted cruciform basilica plan with a crossing dome hidden externally by the drum . It resembles some Romanesque churches of later centuries , although the type would not be popular in later Byzantine architecture . Part of the 5th century basilica of St. Mary at Ephesus seems to have been rebuilt in the 8th century as a cross @-@ domed church , a development typical of the 7th to 8th centuries and similar to the cross @-@ domed examples of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki , St. Nicholas at Myra , St. Clement 's at Ankara , and the church of the Koimesis at Nicaea .
With the decline in the empire 's resources following losses in population and territory , domes in Byzantine architecture were used as part of more modest new buildings . The large @-@ scale churches of Byzantium were , however , kept in good repair . The upper portion of the Church of Hagia Irene was thoroughly rebuilt after an earthquake in 740 . The nave was re @-@ covered with an elliptical domical vault hidden externally by a low cylinder on the roof , in place of the earlier barrel vaulted ceiling , and the original central dome from the Justinian era was replaced with one raised upon a high windowed drum . The barrel vaults supporting these two new domes were also extended out over the side aisles , creating cross @-@ domed units . By bracing the dome with broad arches on all four sides , the cross @-@ domed unit provided a more secure structural system . These units , with most domes raised on drums , became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture , and all domes built after the transitional period were braced with bilateral symmetry .
A small , unisex monastic community in Bithynia , near Constantinople , may have developed the cross @-@ in @-@ square plan church during the Iconoclastic period , which would explain the plan 's small scale and unified naos . The ruined church of St. John at Pelekete monastery is an early example . Monks had supported the use of icons , unlike the government @-@ appointed secular clergy , and monasticism would become increasingly popular . A new type of privately funded urban monastery developed from the 9th century on , which may help to explain the small size of subsequent building .
= = Ninth to twelfth centuries = =
Timber @-@ roofed basilicas , which had been the standard form until the 6th century , would be displaced by domed churches from the 9th century on . In the Middle Byzantine period ( c . 843 – 1204 ) , domes were normally built to emphasize separate functional spaces , rather than as the modular ceiling units they had been earlier . Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style , with regional characteristics .
The cross @-@ in @-@ square plan , with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern , became widely popular in the Middle Byzantine period . Examples include an early 9th century church in Tirilye , now called the Fatih Mosque , and the palace chapel of the Myrelaion , built around 920 . The Nea Ekklesia of Emperor Basil I was built in Constantinople around 880 as part of a substantial building renovation and construction program during his reign . It had five domes , which are known from literary sources , but different arrangements for them have been proposed under at least four different plans . One has the domes arranged in a cruciform pattern like those of the contemporaneous Church of St. Andrew at Peristerai or the much older Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople . Others arrange them in a quincunx pattern , with four minor domes in the corners of a square and a larger fifth in the center , as part of a cross @-@ domed or cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . It is often suggested that the five @-@ domed design of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi , from 1164 , is based on that of the Nea Ekklesia .
The cross @-@ in @-@ square is the most common church plan from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . This type of plan , with four columns supporting the dome at the crossing , was best suited for domes less than 7 meters ( 23 ft ) wide and , from the 10th to the 14th centuries , a typical Byzantine dome measured less than 6 meters ( 20 ft ) in diameter . For domes beyond that width , variations in the plan were required such as using piers in place of the columns and incorporating further buttressing around the core of the building . The distinctive rippling eaves design for the roofs of domes begins in the 10th century . In mainland Greece , circular or octagonal drums became the most common while , in Constantinople , drums with twelve or fourteen sides were popular beginning in the 11th century . The 11th century rock @-@ cut churches of Cappadocia , such as Karanlik Kilise and Elmali Kilise in Göreme , have shallow domes without drums due to the dim natural lighting of cave interiors .
The domed @-@ octagon plan is a variant of the cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . The earliest extant example is the katholikon at the monastery of Hosios Loukas , with a 9 @-@ meter ( 30 ft ) wide dome built in the first half of the 11th century . This hemispherical dome was built without a drum and supported by a remarkably open structural system , with the weight of the dome distributed on eight piers , rather than four , and corbelling used to avoid concentrating weight on their corners . The use of squinches to transition from those eight supports to the base of the dome has led to speculation of a design origin in Arab , Sasanian , or Caucasian architecture , although with a Byzantine interpretation . Similar openness in design was used in the earlier Myrelaion church , as originally built , but the katholikon of Hosios Loukas is perhaps the most sophisticated design since the Hagia Sophia . The smaller monastic church at Daphni , c . 1080 , uses a simpler version of this plan .
The katholikon of Nea Moni , a monastery on the island of Chios , was built some time between 1042 and 1055 and featured a nine sided , ribbed dome rising 15 @.@ 62 meters ( 51 @.@ 2 ft ) above the floor ( this collapsed in 1881 and was replaced with the slightly taller present version ) . The transition from the square naos to the round base of the drum is accomplished by eight conches , with those above the flat sides of the naos being relatively shallow and those in the corners of the being relatively narrow . The novelty of this technique in Byzantine architecture has led to it being dubbed the " island octagon " type , in contrast to the " mainland octagon " type of Hosios Loukas . Speculation on design influences have ranged from Arab influence transmitted via the recently built domed octagon chapels at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or the Al @-@ Hakim Mosque in Islamic Cairo , to Caucasian buildings such as the Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Cross . Later copies of the Nea Moni , with alterations , include the churches of Agios Georgios Sykousis , Agioi Apostoli at Pyrghi , Panagia Krina , and the Church of the Metamorphosis in Chortiatis .
The larger scale of some Byzantine buildings of the 12th century required a more stable support structure for domes than the four slender columns of the cross @-@ in @-@ square type could provide . The domes of the churches now called Kalenderhane Mosque , Gül Mosque , and the Enez Fatih mosque all had domes greater than 7 meters ( 23 ft ) in diameter and used piers as part of large cruciform plans , a practice that had been out of fashion for several centuries . A variant of the cross @-@ in @-@ square , the " so @-@ called atrophied Greek cross plan " , also provides greater support for a dome than the typical cross @-@ in @-@ square plan by using four piers projecting from the corners of an otherwise square naos , rather than four columns . This design was used in the Chora Church of Constantinople in the 12th century after the previous cross @-@ in @-@ square structure was destroyed by an earthquake .
The 12th century Pantokrator monastic complex ( 1118 – 36 ) was built with imperial sponsorship as three adjoining churches . The south church , a cross @-@ in @-@ square , has a ribbed dome over the naos , domical vaults in the corners , and a pumpkin dome over the narthex gallery . The north church is also a cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . The middle church , the third to be built , fills the long space between the two earlier churches with two oval domes of the pumpkin and ribbed types over what appear to be separate functional spaces . The western space was an imperial mausoleum , whereas the eastern dome covered a liturgical space .
There is a written account by Nicholas Mesarites of a Persian @-@ style muqarnas dome built as part of a late 12th century imperial palace in Constantinople . Called the " Mouchroutas Hall " , it may have been built as part of an easing in tensions between the court of Manuel I Komnenos and Kilij Arslan II of the Sultanate of Rum around 1161 , evidence of the complex nature of the relations between the two states . The account , written by Nicholas Mesarites shortly before the Fourth Crusade , is part of a description of the coup attempt by John Komnenos in 1200 , and may have been mentioned as a rhetorical device to disparage him .
= = Thirteenth to fifteenth centuries = =
The Late Byzantine Period , from 1204 to 1453 , has an unsettled chronology of buildings , especially during the Latin Occupation . The fragmentation of the empire , beginning in 1204 , is reflected in a fragmentation of church design and regional innovations . After 1261 , new church architecture in Constantinople consisted mainly of additions to existing monastic churches , such as the Monastery of Lips and Pammakaristos Church , and as a result the building complexes are distinguished in part by an asymmetric array of domes on their roofs . This effect may have been in imitation of the earlier triple church Pantokrator monastic complex . A 15th century account of a Russian traveler to Constantinople mentions an abandoned hall , presumably domed , " in which the sun , the moon , and the stars succeeded each other as in heaven . "
The church of Hagia Sophia in the Empire of Trebizond dates to between 1238 and 1263 and has a variation on the quincunx plan . Heavy with traditional detailing from Asia Minor , and possibly Armenian or Georgian influence , the brick pendentives and drum of the dome remain Byzantine .
In the Despotate of Epirus , the Church of the Parigoritissa ( 1282 – 9 ) is the most complex example , with a domed octagon core and domed ambulatory . Built in the capital of Arta , its external appearance resembles a cubic palace . The upper level narthex and galleries have five domes , with the middle dome of the narthex an open lantern . This Greek @-@ cross octagon design , similar to the earlier example at Daphni , is one of several among the various Byzantine principalities . Another is found in the Hagia Theodoroi at Mistra ( 1290 – 6 ) .
Mistra was ruled from Constantinople after 1262 , then was the suzerain of the Despotate of the Morea from 1348 to 1460 . In Mistra , there are several basilica plan churches with domed galleries that create a five @-@ domed cross @-@ in @-@ square over a ground @-@ level basilica plan . The Aphentiko at Brontochion Monastery was built c . 1310 – 22 and the later church of the Pantanassa Monastery ( 1428 ) is of the same type . The Aphentiko may have been originally planned as a cross @-@ in @-@ square church , but has a blend of longitudinal and central plan components , with an interior divided into nave and aisles like a basilica . The barrel @-@ vaulted nave and cross arms have a dome at their crossing , and the corner bays of the galleries are also domed to form a quincunx pattern . A remodeling of the Metropolis church in Mistra created an additional example . The Pantanassa incorporates Western elements in that domes in its colonnaded porch are hidden externally , and its domes have ribs of rectangular section similar to those of Salerno , Ravello , and Palermo .
In Thessaloniki , a distinctive type of church dome developed in the first two decades of the 14th century . It is characterized by a polygonal drum with rounded colonnettes at the corners , all brick construction , and faces featuring three arches stepped back within one another around a narrow " single @-@ light window " . One of the hallmarks of Thessalonian churches was the plan of a domed naos with a peristoon wrapped around three sides . The churches of Hagios Panteleimon , Hagia Aikaterine , and Hagioi Apostoloi have domes on these ambulatory porticoes . The five domes of the Hagioi Apostoloi , or Church of the Holy Apostles , in Thessaloniki ( c . 1329 ) makes it an example of a five @-@ domed cross @-@ in @-@ square church in the Late Byzantine style , as is the Gračanica monastery , built around 1311 in Serbia . The architect and artisans of the Gračanica monastery church probably came from Thessaloniki and its style reflects Byzantine cultural influence . The church has been said to represent " the culmination of Late Byzantine architectural design . "
= = Influence = =
Constantinople 's cultural influence extended from Sicily to Russia . Armenia , as a border state between the Roman @-@ Byzantine and Sasanian empires , was influenced by both . The exact relationship between Byzantine architecture and that of the Caucasus is unclear . Georgia and Armenia produced many central planned , domed buildings in the 7th century and , after a lull during the Arab invasions , the architecture flourished again in the Middle Byzantine Period . Armenian church domes were initially wooden structures . Etchmiadzin Cathedral ( c . 483 ) originally had a wooden dome covered by a wooden pyramidal roof before this was replaced with stone construction in 618 . Churches with stone domes became the standard type after the 7th century , perhaps benefiting from a possible exodus of stonecutters from Syria , but the long traditions of wooden construction carried over stylistically . Some examples in stone as late as the 12th century are detailed imitations of clearly wooden prototypes . Armenian church building was prolific in the late 6th and 7th centuries and , by the 7th century , the churches tend to be either central plans or combinations of central and longitudinal plans . Domes were supported by either squinches ( which were used in the Sasanian Empire but rarely in the Byzantine ) or pendentives like those of the Byzantine empire , and the combination of domed @-@ cross plan with the hall @-@ church plan could have been influenced by the architecture of Justinian . Domes and cross arms were added to the longitudinal cathedral of Dvin from 608 to 615 and a church in Tekor . Other domed examples include Ptghnavank in Ptghni ( c . 600 ) , a church in T 'alinn ( 662 @-@ 85 ) , and the Cathedral of Mren ( 629 @-@ 40 ) .
In the Balkans , where Byzantine rule weakened in the 7th and 8th centuries , domed architecture may represent Byzantine influence or , in the case of the centrally planned churches of 9th @-@ century Dalmatia , the revival of earlier Roman mausoleum types . An interest in Roman models may have been an expression of the religious maneuvering of the region between the Church of Constantinople and that of Rome . Examples include the Church of Sv . Luka in Kotor , the Church of Sv . Trojce near Split , and the early 9th century Church of Sv . Donat in Zadar . The Church of Sv . Donat , originally domed , may have been built next to a palace and resembles palace churches in the Byzantine tradition . The architectural chronology of the central and eastern Balkans is unsettled during the period of the First Bulgarian Empire , in part because of similarity between Justinian @-@ era churches from the 6th century and what may have been a revival of that style in the late 9th and early 10th centuries under the Christianized Bulgar tsars . Remains of the Round Church in Preslav , a building traditionally associated with the rule Tsar Simeon ( 893 – 927 ) , indicate that it was a domed palace chapel . Its construction features , however , resemble instead 3rd and 4th century Roman mausolea , perhaps due to the association of those structures with the imperial idea .
Byzantine architecture was introduced to the Rus ' people in the 10th century , with churches after the conversion of Prince Vladimir of Kiev being modeled after those of Constantinople , but made of wood . The Russian onion dome was a later development . The earliest architecture of Kiev , the vast majority of which was made of wood , has been lost to fire , but by the 12th century masonry domes on low drums in Kiev and Vladimir @-@ Suzdal were little different than Byzantine domes , although modified toward the " helmet " type with a slight point . The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev ( 1018 – 37 ) was distinctive in having thirteen domes , for Jesus and the twelve Apostles , but they have since been remodeled in the Baroque style and combined with an additional eight domes . The pyramidal arrangement of the domes was a Byzantine characteristic , although , as the largest and perhaps most important 11th century building in the Byzantine tradition , many of the details of this building have disputed origins . Bulbous onion domes on tall drums were a development of northern Russia , perhaps due to the demands of heavy ice and snowfall along with the more rapid innovation permitted by the Novgorod region 's emphasis on wooden architecture . The central dome of the Cathedral of St. Sophia ( 1045 – 62 ) in Novgorod dates from the 12th century and shows a transitional stage . Other churches built around this time are those of St. Nicholas ( 1113 ) , the Nativity of the Virgin ( 1117 ) , and St. George ( 1119 – 30 ) .
In Romanesque Italy , Byzantine influence can most clearly be seen in Venice 's St Mark 's Basilica , from about 1063 , but also in the domed churches of southern Italy , such as Canosa Cathedral ( 1071 ) and the old Cathedral of Molfetta ( c . 1160 ) . In Norman Sicily , architecture was a fusion of Byzantine , Islamic , and Romanesque forms , but the dome of the Palatine Chapel ( 1132 – 43 ) at Palermo was decorated with Byzantine mosaic , as was that of the church of Santa Maria dell 'Ammiraglio ( 1140 's ) . The unusual use of domes on pendentives in a series of seventy Romanesque churches in the Aquitaine region of France strongly suggests a Byzantine influence . St. Mark 's Basilica was modeled on the now @-@ lost Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople , and Périgueux Cathedral in Aquitaine ( c . 1120 ) likewise has five domes on pendentives in a Greek cross arrangement . Other examples include the a domed naves of Angoulême Cathedral ( 1105 – 28 ) , Cahors Cathedral ( c . 1100 – 1119 ) , and the Abbey church of Sainte @-@ Marie in Souillac ( c . 1130 ) .
Byzantium 's neighboring Orthodox powers emerged as architectural centers in their own right during the Late Byzantine Period . The Bulgarian churches of Nesebar are similar to those in Constantinople at this time and , following the construction of Gračanica monastery , the architecture of Serbia used the " so @-@ called Athonite plan " , for example at Ravanica ( 1375 – 7 ) . In Romania , Wallachia was influenced by Serbian architecture and Moldavia was more original , such as in the Voroneț Monastery with its small dome . Moscow emerged as the most important center of architecture following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . The Cathedral of the Assumption ( 1475 – 79 ) , built in the Kremlin to house the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir , was designed in a traditional Russian style by an Italian architect .
Italian Renaissance architecture combined Roman and Romanesque practices with Byzantine structures and decorative elements , such as domes with pendentives over square bays . The Cassinese Congregation used windowed domes in the Byzantine style , and often also in a quincunx arrangement , in their churches built between 1490 and 1546 , such as the Abbey of Santa Giustina . The technique of using wooden tension rings at several levels within domes and drums to resist deformation , frequently said to be a later invention of Filippo Brunelleschi , was common practice in Byzantine architecture . The technique of using double shells for domes , although revived in the Renaissance , originated in Byzantine practice . The dome of the Pantheon , as a symbol of Rome and its monumental past , was particularly celebrated and imitated , although copied only loosely . Studied in detail from the early Renaissance on , it was an explicit point of reference for the dome of St. Peter 's Basilica and inspired the construction of domed rotundas with temple @-@ front porches throughout western architecture into the modern era . Examples include Palladio 's chapel at Maser ( 1579 – 80 ) , Bernini 's church of S. Maria dell 'Assunzione ( 1662 @-@ 4 ) , the Library Rotunda of the University of Virginia ( 1817 – 26 ) , and the church of St. Mary in Malta ( 1833 – 60 ) .
Ottoman architecture adopted the Byzantine dome form and continued to develop it . One type of mosque was modeled after Justinian 's Church of Sergius and Bacchus with a dome over an octagon or hexagon contained within a square , such as the Üç Şerefeli Mosque ( 1437 – 47 ) . The dome and semi @-@ domes of the Hagia Sophia , in particular , were replicated and refined . A " universal mosque design " based upon this development spread throughout the world . The first Ottoman mosque to use a dome and semi @-@ dome nave vaulting scheme like that of Hagia Sophia was the mosque of Beyazit II . Only two others were modeled similarly : Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque and the Süleymaniye Mosque ( 1550 – 57 ) . Other Ottoman mosques , although superficially similar to Hagia Sophia , have been described as structural criticism 's of it . When Mimar Sinan set out to build a dome larger than that of Hagia Sophia with Selimiye Mosque ( 1569 – 74 ) , he used a more stable octagonal supporting structure . The Selimiye Mosque is of the type originating with the Church of Sergius and Bacchus . Three other Imperial mosques in Istanbul built in this " Classical Style " of Hagia Sophia include four large semi @-@ domes around the central dome , rather than two : Şehzade Camii , Sultan Ahmed I Camii ( completed in 1616 ) , and the last to be built : Yeni Cami ( 1597 – 1663 ) .
A Byzantine revival style of architecture occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries . An early example of the revival style in Russia was the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour ( 1839 – 84 ) , which was approved by the Tsar to be a model for other churches in the empire . The style 's popularity spread through scholarly publications produced after the independence of Greece and the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire . It was used throughout Europe and North America , peaking in popularity between 1890 and 1914 . The Greek Orthodox St Sophia 's Cathedral ( 1877 – 79 ) and Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral ( begun 1895 ) , both in London , are examples . The throne room of Neuschwanstein Castle ( 1885 – 86 ) was built by King Ludwig II in Bavaria . In the late 19th century , the Hagia Sophia became a widespread model for Greek Orthodox churches . In southeastern Europe , monumental national cathedrals built in the capital cities of formerly Ottoman areas used Neo @-@ Classical or Neo @-@ Byzantine styles . Sofia 's Alexander Nevsky Cathedral and Belgrade 's Church of Saint Sava are examples , and used Hagia Sophia as a model due to their large sizes . Synagogues in the United States were built in a variety of styles , as they had been in Europe ( and often with a mixture of elements from different styles ) , but the Byzantine Revival style was the most popular in the 1920s . Domed examples include The Temple of Cleveland ( 1924 ) , the synagogue of KAM Isaiah Israel ( 1924 ) in Chicago , based upon San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul , and the synagogue of Congregation Emanu @-@ El ( 1926 ) in San Francisco .
In the United States , Greek Orthodox churches beginning in the 1950s tended to use a large central dome with a ring of windows at its base evocative of the central dome of Hagia Sophia , rather than more recent or more historically common Byzantine types , such as the Greek @-@ cross @-@ octagon or five @-@ domed quincunx plans . Examples include Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church , completed in 1961 but designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1957 , Ascension Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Oakland ( 1960 ) , and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Atlanta ( 1967 ) . The use of a large central dome in American Greek Orthodox churches continued in the 1960s and 1970s before moving toward smaller Middle Byzantine domes , or versions of Early Christian basilicas .
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= No. 391 Squadron RAAF =
No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron that operated during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . It was established in October 1950 as part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which administered RAAF units deployed in the conflict . Apart from No. 391 Squadron , these included No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron , No. 30 Communications Unit ( redesignated No. 30 Transport Unit in 1951 and No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in 1953 ) , and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . No. 391 Squadron was headquartered at Iwakuni , Japan , as were No. 91 Wing 's other components with the exception of No. 77 Squadron , which was located on the Korean peninsula . The base squadron was responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions at Iwakuni , and also maintained detachments in South Korea . It included a marine section for harbour patrols and search @-@ and @-@ rescue in the waters off southern Japan . No. 391 Squadron was disbanded at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters , in April 1955 .
= = History = =
When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was based at Iwakuni , Japan . For the previous four years the squadron , equipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , had served with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . Personnel were preparing to return to Australia when they were placed on standby for action over Korea ; the squadron began flying missions as part of United Nations ( UN ) forces a week later . Following the landing at Inchon and the consequent advance northward of UN troops , No. 77 Squadron relocated to Pohang , South Korea , on 12 October 1950 . It left behind its main support elements at Iwakuni . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at the base on 20 October and given administrative responsibility for all RAAF units operating during the conflict . This included No. 77 Squadron and three newly formed components : No. 30 Communications Flight ( renamed No. 30 Communications Unit the following month , No. 30 Transport Unit in November 1951 and No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in March 1953 ) , No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron . Apart from No. 77 Squadron , the wing 's units were all headquartered at Iwakuni .
At the onset of war in Korea , No. 77 Squadron was self @-@ supporting , the largest flying unit in the RAAF . It comprised 299 officers and men , 40 Mustangs , 3 CAC Wirraways , 2 Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and 2 Austers . The added burden of combat operations made this situation untenable after the squadron went into action in Korea , leading to the formation of No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron at Iwakuni , at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters . RAAF base squadrons were responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions . Staffed mainly by former No. 77 Squadron members , in the first year of its existence No. 391 Squadron had to try to overcome severe shortages of winter clothing and equipment . Further problems arose when No. 77 Squadron converted to Gloster Meteors between April and July 1951 , as spares for the British @-@ made jet were harder to obtain than for the American Mustang . No longer could No. 391 Squadron source parts from the US Fifth Air Force as it had up till this point . Disposal of the Mustangs and their spares also caused headaches ; the process took two years , causing storage issues . The base squadron faced another challenge in January 1952 , following a controversial change in role for the Meteors , from air @-@ to @-@ air combat to ground attack , which necessitated obtaining supplies of rockets and modification of the aircraft to carry them .
Along with its RAAF responsibilities , No. 391 Squadron supported Australian Army and other UN personnel travelling through Iwakuni . It ran No. 91 Wing 's " Transit Hotel " , which accommodated business people and entertainers , as well as military personnel . The squadron maintained two detachments in South Korea , one at Kimpo Air Base to handle Meteor spares , and another at the RAAF ward of the British Commonwealth Zone Medical Unit in Seoul . Base support staff regularly rotated from Iwakuni to these detachments . No. 391 Squadron 's medical contingent was heavily engaged in the preparation and escort of injured personnel from Korea to Iwakuni and then to other destinations . The unit included a marine craft section equipped with small boats that patrolled harbours in southern Japan used by British and American flying boats , and conducted search @-@ and @-@ rescue operations for UN pilots who ditched at sea . No. 391 Squadron used Japanese technicians as well as Australian , which was unusual at the time ; since the occupation of Japan following its surrender in World War II , Japanese workers had only been employed for menial tasks .
Following the departure for Australia of Nos. 77 and 36 Squadrons between November 1954 and March 1955 , and the disbandment of No. 491 Squadron in December 1954 , No. 391 Squadron disbanded on 30 April 1955 , the same day as No. 91 Wing headquarters .
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= Turf War ( The Office ) =
" Turf War " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 175th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on May 3 , 2012 . " Turf War " was written by Warren Lieberstein and Halsted Sullivan , and was directed by Daniel Chun . The episode guest stars Chris Bauer , Andy Buckley , and Dan Castellaneta .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) drunkenly shuts down a branch in Binghamton , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) must outsmart a salesman , Harry Jannerone ( Chris Bauer ) , from the Syracuse branch . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to land an important client as a " rogue " and jumpstart his Dunder Mifflin comeback by using his success as leverage with Robert .
" Turf War " received mixed reviews from critics , with many criticizing the show 's decision to recycle elements of the Michael Scott Paper Company fifth season story arc . " Turf War " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked third in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
While " celebrating the finalization of his divorce " , Robert ( James Spader ) drunkenly shuts down the Binghamton branch of Dunder Mifflin . The resulting commotion allows the sales team in Scranton , specifically Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) to begin poaching former customers of the closed branch . Harry Jannerone ( Chris Bauer ) , an angry employee from the Syracuse branch of Dunder Mifflin arrives in Scranton to berate Jim and Dwight for taking New York clients even though those particular clients are closer to Scranton than Syracuse . The two argue , dropping the name of a particularly large client , Prestige Direct Sale Solutions , that is up for grabs . Andy ( Ed Helms ) , who is cooking lunch for everyone in the office , overhears the argument and gets an idea : if he can win the client , he might be able to use the account as leverage to get his job as manager back .
Andy rushes to the potential client , a company called Prestige Direct , and impresses the CEO ( Dan Castellaneta ) with his dedication — in addition to his personal phone number , he also gives him a copy of his house key . Meanwhile , Dwight , Jim , and Harry rush to the company in an attempt to win the client , only to hear that the company has gone with Andy . After Andy wins the client , he calls Robert and offers him the client if Robert will re @-@ hire him . Robert is furious at his attempt to blackmail him , and hangs up on Andy . This leads Andy to seek help from David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , the former Chief Financial Officer of Dunder Mifflin who has become a multi @-@ millionaire . Andy tells David that , despite being in poor shape , Dunder Mifflin could be worth twice its net worth if the company 's management is restructured . This piques David 's interest , who allows Andy to come into his home and talk to him about his business proposal .
Meanwhile , after Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) reveals to Robert that he sent her a sexually suggestive voicemail , Robert tasks Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with finding what the voicemail entailed . Initially , Pam tries to trick Nellie into divulging the contents of the message , but this plan is ruined when Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) shows up , claiming that she was Robert 's " back @-@ up plan " in case Pam failed . Finally , Pam steals Nellie 's phone and brings it to Robert and the two listen to the various voice messages . After hearing several which paint a life for Nellie that is sad and lonely — she is unable to adopt a child and she has maxed out her credit cards — Pam relents and tells Robert that she won 't help him anymore . Pam returns Nellie 's phone and the two strike up a conversation . Nellie reveals to Pam her disgust for Robert , saying that he is sexually obsessed . She asks Pam if she wants to hear about Robert 's voicemail , but Pam declines her offer . In the end , Nellie reveals to the camera that she is deeply moved to have a real friend at her work place .
After learning that they 've lost Prestige Direct , Jim , Dwight and Harry retreat outside for a coffee break . They end up having a conversation over what they would do with their lives , if they weren 't working for Dunder Mifflin . Jim jokingly says that he 'd be a beet growing competitor during the national contests while Harry would retire after selling one big item such as an airplane . Before he leaves , Harry says that Robert will be the ruin of the company and says they won 't be working for Dunder Mifflin in six months , leaving a look of concern on Dwight and Jim 's faces .
= = Production = =
" Turf War " was written by Warren Lieberstein and Halsted Sullivan , and was directed by Daniel Chun . The episode marks the tenth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her seventh consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as a recurring character . The episode also features the return of the character David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin , after his reappearance in " Fundraiser . Chris Bauer guest @-@ starred in this episode as a rival branch manager who believes Dunder Mifflin Scranton is stealing their clients . In addition , Dan Castellaneta guest @-@ starred as the CEO of Prestige Direct Sale Solutions . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Dwight berating Jim for owning a plethora of baby supplies , Pam and Angela trying to extract information from Nellie , Darryl feeding a mouse he finds in the break room , Erin and Darryl arguing over the name of the mouse , and Harry talking about the " same drama and whack @-@ ados " that work at his branch .
= = Cultural references = =
In an attempt to stall , Robert talks to the camera at lengths about geishas , using bizarre and cryptic metaphors . When Jim and Dwight are trying to outrun Harry , Dwight asks him if his car has a NOS , a reference to the 2001 film The Fast and the Furious . Jim answers in the affirmative , but turns on the windshield wipers , to Dwight 's disdain . When Andy is trying to win over the CEO , he mentions that his wifi password is " eatpraylove " , a reference to the book and movie of the same name .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Turf War " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 3 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a 10 % increase from the previous week 's episode , " Fundraiser " . The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode beat the Fox series Touch and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . Despite this , " Turf War " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Dan Forcella from TV Fanatic gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it four out of five stars . Forcella praised the Jim – Dwight dynamic in the episode and wrote , " Jim and Dwight , and especially the latter , were terrific . " In addition , Forcella positively compared the character growth of Nellie Bertam to Michael Scott , noting " the most heartwarming moment [ was ] her scene with Pam , in which Nellie was so happy to have made a friend , reminded me of so many Michael Scott moments of the past . " Brett Harrison Davinger from The California Literary Review wrote moderately positive of the episode , saying , " Tonight 's episode worked for the most part thanks to the ever reliable Robert California and the usually reliable Jim and Dwight : Partners . " However , he did retroactively criticize season eight for not elaborating on the problems facing Dunder Mifflin until " Turf War " . In addition , he called the premise of Andy seeking Wallace 's help " iffy [ ... ] even if it was predictable " . Jeffrey Hyatt from ScreenCrave wrote , " The immediate , don 't over @-@ analyze opinion here is that ' Turf War ' is a top three episode of season 8 , with a chance of it being number one . " Furthermore , he concluded that the episode " was good , very good , and a nice way to get set for the season / series finale . [ ... ] The Office can still bring it when it wants to . "
Myles McNutt from The A. V. Club wrote a mixed review and gave it a C + . He noted that the episode 's closing scene , wherein Jim , Dwight , and Harry talk about Robert California ruining the company , was an example of a retcon that " the shift to a world with actual consequences is certainly a step in the right direction for the series , and one that slightly elevates ' Turf War ' if not the season as a whole . " However , McNutt was largely critical of the writing , noting that the closure of the Binghamton branch was a " cheap segue " that " render [ ed ] the show 's characters as subservient to the narrative whims of the writers . " He argued — specifically citing the unconcernedness that the Scranton employees showed after hearing that a neighboring branch was shut down — that many of the characters ' motives were not effective because they simply acted as ciphers , through which the larger plots could unfold .
Several reviews were critical of Andy 's paper company development . Many compared it , unfavorably , to the Michael Scott Paper Company fifth season story arc . Dyanamaria Leifsson from TV Equals wrote " Instead [ of Andy making a mention to the Michael Scott Paper Company ] the similarities were ignored and we were expected to treat this as a novel idea . " Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times sardonically wrote " remember how good the Michael Scott Paper Company storyline was ? " a reference to the episode 's reuse of an old and existing story arc . In addition , several reviews criticized the cold opening . California Literary noted that , " The string of good , relatable cold opens ends tonight as Dwight and Gabe engage in a manliest man contest . " Myles McNutt called the scene " just nonsense " .
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= New Harmony Toll Bridge =
The New Harmony Toll Bridge , also known as the Harmony Way Bridge , is a now @-@ closed two @-@ lane bridge across the Wabash River that connects Illinois Route 14 with Indiana State Road 66 , which is Church Street in New Harmony , Indiana . The bridge links White County , Illinois with Posey County , Indiana . The four @-@ span bridge is owned by the White County Bridge Commission and was built without federal funds in 1930 by the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi , Illinois . The next bridge across the Wabash about 15 miles ( 24 km ) downstream is the Wabash Memorial Bridge near Mount Vernon , Indiana and the next bridge upstream is for Interstate 64 , which does not allow farm vehicles .
= = Details = =
As originally designed , the bridge is 2 @,@ 579 feet ( .49 of a mile ) long . It has 47 spans and a 20 foot wide concrete roadway .
The bridge is the first highway bridge erected across the lower Wabash River and the oldest remaining bridge in use over the Wabash ’ s length in Illinois and half of Indiana . The original owner was a private company , the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi , Illinois , which was chartered by Congress to build and operate the bridge on May 1 , 1928 . The company contracted with the Nashville Bridge Company of Nashville , Tennessee to build it . The bridge opened on December 21 , 1930 , and 10 @,@ 000 people attended the dedication of the bridge on December 30 , 1930 . In 1941 , Congress created the White County Bridge Commission as a joint Illinois @-@ Indiana agency to purchase the bridge from the Big Wabash Bridge Company for $ 895 @,@ 000 .
About 900 vehicles crossed the bridge each day . The bridge collected an average of $ 30 @,@ 000 in monthly tolls and had $ 22 @,@ 000 in monthly expenses . The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 in part because of its relationship to historic New Harmony , Indiana as well as the bridge 's age . The three @-@ member Commission was established by Congress on April 12 , 1941 , but Congress repealed the statute providing for an appointment mechanism in 1998 . The Commission 's general manager , who is 75 , speculated that the bridge would close if the three current commissioners would resign or die .
In 1951 , the current toll booth on the western edge of the river was constructed by the Electronic Signal Company , to replace an earlier booth on the eastern edge . In 1952 , a tollpayer sued to exercise his right to inspect the books and records of the Commission , but lost his lawsuit and was not allowed access . In 1955 , the General Accounting Office issued a report critical of the Commission and claiming that one commissioner had a conflict of interest . In response , the U.S. Department of Justice filed a suit seeking removal of the Commissioner and recovery of the misapplied funds . However , the courts dismissed the case .
In 1994 , the Commission contracted to apply an epoxy coating on the bridge 's surface , but the coating delaminated and the Commission refused to pay the contractor claiming that the coating had not been applied correctly . After a trial , the Commission lost the lawsuit and paid .
From September 2007 to April 2008 , the bridge to closed to all traffic when cracks appeared in some of the concrete support piers . During the closure , contractors added new pilings to the existing piers and made other required repairs . In 2010 , engineers determined that the bridge required an additional $ 6 million in repairs . The National Bridge Inventory rated the bridge " Structurally Deficient . "
= = Closure = =
On May 21 , 2012 , it was announced that the bridge would close permanently at noon on May 29 , 2012 . White County Bridge Commission member Jim Clark stated , " the cost to make repairs was more than we could imagine . " However , Clark then made the decision to close the bridge immediately after receiving the complete report from a team of nine engineers who inspected the bridge on April 29 . " I knew it was bad , but didn 't know just how bad until I received their full report by email Monday morning , " Clark said . " Once I saw their weight @-@ load calculations , I knew we had to shut it down right away . We couldn 't wait until May 29 . " The thirteen toll booth employees were laid off . As of the closure there are $ 49 @,@ 015 in toll tickets that have not been used . Refunds were given for thirty days from the closure . The closure of the New Harmony Bridge as reported in the Evansville Courier would have a significant impact on farmers in the area and the oil industry . The bridge 's closure increases the distance between New Harmony and Crossville , Illinois by about ten miles .
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= Pandora ( Skins ) =
" Pandora " is the fourth episode of the third series of the British teen drama Skins , which first aired on 12 February 2009 on E4 in both Ireland and the United Kingdom . The episode was written by Bryan Elsley and Georgia Lester , and was directed by Simon Massey . The episode focuses on the character of Pandora Moon ( Lisa Backwell ) , who is miserable after her boyfriend , Thomas Tomone ( Merveille Lukeba ) , recently returned to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . She holds a small pyjama party for her friends , but it descends into chaos when uninvited guests arrive and the food is spiked with drugs . Pandora and Effy get into an argument after both girls have sex with James Cook ( Jack O 'Connell ) , but the argument is interrupted when Thomas unexpectedly returns .
" Pandora " was filmed in September 2008 . It featured guest appearances by Sally Phillips and Harry Enfield , as well as real @-@ life partners Morwenna Banks and David Baddiel , who played on @-@ screen lovers . The episode brought in 701 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Harry Enfield and James Fleet who both appear in this episode previously starred together as father and son in the 2000 film Kevin & Perry Go Large .
= = Plot = =
At the house of her friend , Effy Stonem ( Kaya Scodelario ) , Pandora ( Lisa Backwell ) tells Effy 's mother , Anthea ( Morwenna Banks ) , that she misses Thomas , who recently returned to his country of origin , the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Later , Effy 's father , Jim ( Harry Enfield ) , discovers his wife 's infidelity when his boss , Steve ( David Baddiel ) , arrives at the house , declaring his love for Anthea . Effy grows miserable after Jim leaves the family , and Pandora , desperate for some fun , throws a pyjama party . Effy and Katie Fitch ( Megan Prescott ) arrive with Pandora at her house for the party and meet her neurotic mother , Angela ( Sally Phillips ) . Disappointed by the lack of boys , drugs and alcohol because of Angela 's strict supervision , Katie spikes the brownies that they make with MDMA . As Naomi Campbell ( Lily Loveless ) and Katie 's twin sister , Emily ( Kathryn Prescott ) , arrive together , Naomi urges Emily to admit that she is gay , but Emily denies it . All of the girls indulge in the brownies and Pandora is unhappy to see her mother 's behaviour grow increasingly erratic . After Angela is carried into a bedroom to sleep , Pandora locks herself in the bathroom , upset about Thomas 's departure and angry with Effy , who she believes spiked the brownies .
Outside , Cook and JJ Jones ( Ollie Barbieri ) try to sneak into the girls ' party . Cook enters the house through a window , but accidentally locks himself inside a wardrobe . After calling his friend , Freddie Mclair ( Luke Pasqualino ) , for help , JJ goes into the house by himself and sees Emily and Naomi kissing . Katie , too , witnesses the pair kissing , but is interrupted when her footballer boyfriend , Danny Guillermo ( Henry Garrett ) , and dozens of his friends arrive at the house to crash the party . Hiding from the rest of the party , Effy finds Cook , and they have sex in the wardrobe . They fall through the wall into the next room and find a DVD which shows Angela having sex with her older neighbour , Martin ( James Fleet ) . Freddie comes to take JJ home and confronts Effy about leaving Pandora for Cook . As he leaves , so does Effy .
By the time Pandora comes out of the bathroom , Cook is the only person left at the house . Together they play Twister , which was all Pandora had wanted to do , along with learning from her friends about human sexuality . Cook offers to have sex with her , and they spend the night together . Effy visits Pandora the next morning , and sees Cook share a kiss with her as he leaves . Feeling hurt , she confronts Pandora , but to no avail , as Pandora is slightly empowered after losing her virginity . Pandora defiantly tells Effy that Cook , due to his promiscuity and impulsive , carnal behavior , belongs to no one . Effy appears to understand , and makes no rebuttal . Suddenly , Thomas appears and runs up to Pandora , and she sobs in his arms as a thoughtful Effy looks on .
= = Production = =
" Pandora " was filmed in September 2008 in the same production block as the series ' sixth episode , " Naomi " , and the series ' opening title sequence . Lisa Backwell described filming Pandora 's episode as " brilliant " and said that " spending 12 hours everyday [ sic ] in the loopy world of Pandora wearing wacky floral prints and bright yellow trainers is probably the most fun I 've ever had " . Comedian David Baddiel appeared in a brief cameo appearance as the lover of Anthea , who is played by Baddiel 's real @-@ life partner , Morwenna Banks . Kaya Scodelario said that working with Baddiel was " amazing " and that returning to work with her on @-@ screen parents , Banks and Harry Enfield , after the show 's second series was " brilliant " . Pandora and her friends ' rendition of the nursery rhyme " London 's Burning " using kitchen utensils while making brownies was arranged by Fat Segal in homage to Matmos 's 1998 album , Quasi @-@ Objects .
Published in an article for the Daily Mail discussing a rise in bi @-@ curiosity amongst middle class teenage girls , an E4 spokeswoman said of Emily and Naomi 's kiss : " Skins is written by young people who don 't see sexuality as defining who they are . They 're a bit cooler about it than that , so they think of the characters they create as being in love with a person , rather than a boy or a girl . "
= = Music = =
" Dancing On A Wire " by Keygrip
" London 's Burning " by Lisa Backwell , Kaya Scodelario , Megan Prescott and Sally Phillips .
= = Reception = =
" Pandora " brought in 701 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week with an audience share of 4 @.@ 5 percent . Another 165 @,@ 000 viewers watched the episode an hour after its initial broadcast on E4 's timeshift channel , E4 + 1 .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . A critic for PopSugar.com called " Pandora " a " fantastic episode " and was pleased that Pandora 's character " graduated from being random light relief and we got a real insight into her life " . They praised each of the " superb " guest actors , particularly Harry Enfield , David Baddiel and Sally Phillips , who she thought played Angela " brilliantly " . Digital Spy 's Neil Wilkes gave the episode a positive review , describing it as " probably the most outrageous of the series to date " . He wrote that the tension between Effy and Freddie " set things up nicely " for the following episode , which focused on Freddie . The entertainment editor for eurOut.org , a website for European lesbians , thought that the episode included " a lot of confusing straight relationship drama " and felt like she was " stuck in high school hell " . She wrote , however , that the brownie @-@ making scene was " so ridiculous it 's kind of funny " and likened Skins to " Gossip Girl on crack " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad felt that within the ensemble cast " most of these kids were so unlikable " , though he attributed this to the series " show [ ing ] us their weaknesses " . He found Pandora to be more likable , however , believing that her innocence was " more representative of youth than most of the other characters " . One reviewer for lesbian @-@ based website AfterEllen.com called the episode " must @-@ see TV " , while another reviewer expressed disapproval of the use of Katy Perry 's song , " I Kissed a Girl " , in promotional videos for the episode .
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= Wanderers F.C. =
Wanderers Football Club is an English amateur football club based in London . Founded as Forest Football Club in 1859 , the club changed its name to Wanderers in 1864 . Comprising mainly former pupils of the leading English public schools , Wanderers was among the dominant teams of the early years of organised football and won the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) on five occasions , including defeating Royal Engineers in the first FA Cup final in 1872 .
The club played only friendly matches until the advent of the FA Cup in 1871 , with the rules often differing from match to match as various sets of rules were in use at the time . Even after the formation of The Football Association ( the FA ) in 1863 , of which the club was among the founder members , Wanderers continued to play matches under other rules , but became one of the strongest teams playing by FA rules . They won the FA Cup three times in succession during the late 1870s , a feat which has only been repeated once . Among the players who represented the club were C. W. Alcock , the so @-@ called " father of modern sport " , and A.F. Kinnaird , regarded as the greatest player of his day . In keeping with its name , the club never had a home stadium of its own but played at various locations in London and the surrounding area . By the 1880s the club 's fortunes had declined and it was reduced to playing only an annual match against Harrow School , the alma mater of many of its founders .
The club was reformed in 2009 , reportedly with the endorsement of the descendants of the Alcock family , for the purposes of fundraising for UNICEF UK . Since 2011 , the revived club competes in the Surrey South Eastern Combination .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1859 – 1871 ) = = =
The club was initially formed as Forest Football Club in 1859 by a number of former public school pupils , including C. W. Alcock , who had finished his education at Harrow School in the same year . The other founders were Alcock 's brother , John F. Alcock , J. Pardoe and brothers A. and W. J. Thompson .
For the first two years of the club 's existence , the players organised matches among themselves at Snaresbrook near Epping Forest , possibly on land owned by the Earl of Mornington . Forest 's first match against another club took place on 15 March 1862 , and resulted in a victory over Crystal Palace ( not the modern club of the same name ) . Both this match , and a return fixture between the two teams the following month , involved fifteen players on each team . At the time , the rules of association football had not been codified , and many variants existed , differing in the number of players per team , whether players were permitted to play the ball with their hands , or the method of scoring goals . In 1863 the Forest club was among the founder members of The Football Association ( the FA ) and adopted the rules set down by that body , although they continued to play occasional matches under other sets of rules against clubs not affiliated to the FA .
The following year , the club played its first match under the name Wanderers Football Club , against No Names Club of Kilburn . Alcock had decided , possibly because of the expense the club was incurring by owning its own ground , to turn it into a " wandering " team with no fixed home venue , however it appears that some of the club 's members opposed this idea . For the following season teams operated under both names , with several players appearing for both , and indeed Forest and Wanderers even played each other in one match , but after 1865 there is no record of any further matches under the Forest name . The Wanderers initially fared well , losing only one of their sixteen matches in the 1865 – 66 season , but over the subsequent four seasons the team 's fortunes declined significantly and Alcock also found it increasingly difficult to ensure that eleven of his players actually turned up for a match , with the club often forced to play with fewer than the required number of players or borrow some from their opponents . During this period the club played a number of " home " matches at Battersea Park and Middlesex County Cricket Club 's Lillie Bridge Grounds . Wanderers subsequently made Kennington Oval its semi @-@ permanent home in 1869 . The club played 151 matches at The Oval .
= = = Cup success ( 1872 – 1878 ) = = =
In the 1870 – 71 season , the Wanderers finally turned around their fortunes , losing only five of thirty @-@ seven matches played . For the following season the FA , following a suggestion by Alcock , initiated the Football Association Challenge Cup , a knock @-@ out tournament open to all member clubs . Due to a combination of their opponents withdrawing and an unusual rule in place at the time which allowed both clubs to progress to the next round in the event of a draw , Wanderers only won one game in the four rounds leading up to the final , held at the Kennington Oval on 16 March 1872 . The club beat the Royal Engineers 1 – 0 to become the first ever winners of the cup , the winning goal being scored by Morton Betts , who was playing under the pseudonym " A. H. Chequer " . The following season , under the competition 's original rules , Wanderers , as holders , received a bye all the way to the final . In the final Wanderers beat Oxford University 2 – 0 to retain the cup , thanks in large part to the performance of A. F. Kinnaird . The club was unable to replicate this success over the next two seasons , although the team did manage a club record 16 – 0 victory over Farningham in the first round of the 1874 – 75 FA Cup .
In October 1875 , Wanderers travelled to Scotland for the first time , to play a match against the leading team from north of the border , Queen 's Park . Despite fielding their strongest team , Wanderers were outclassed by the Scots and lost 5 – 0 . The London club gained its revenge four months later , however , when Queen 's Park travelled to London for a re @-@ match and lost 2 – 0 . This was the first match the Glasgow club , which had been formed nine years earlier , had ever lost . Wanderers reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup without conceding a goal and then defeated Swifts to set up a final against Old Etonians . The Etonians ' team contained five former Wanderers players , including Kinnaird . After the initial match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , Wanderers won the replay 3 – 0 to win the tournament for the third time .
The following season , with Kinnaird back in the team , Wanderers overcame indifferent early form to again reach the Cup final , and defeated Oxford University to retain the trophy . Wanderers again dominated the competition in the 1877 – 78 season , scoring nine goals in both their first and second round matches . The final was a rematch of the 1872 final and Wanderers again defeated Royal Engineers to win an unprecedented third consecutive FA Cup . The rules of the competition stated that under such circumstances the trophy would be retired and become the permanent property of the victorious club , but Alcock returned the cup to the FA on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to claim it on a permanent basis . Following the final , Wanderers played the reigning Scottish Cup holders , Vale of Leven , but lost 3 – 1 .
= = = Decline ( 1879 – 1887 ) = = =
The Wanderers ' fortunes declined rapidly following the club 's hat @-@ trick of FA Cup wins . By 1878 , football clubs had been set up for former pupils of all the leading public schools , and many leading players chose to play for their respective old boys ' team instead . Wanderers ' fixture list was dramatically reduced in the 1878 – 79 season , and the team was knocked out of the FA Cup in the first round , losing 7 – 2 to an Old Etonians team led by Kinnaird . The following season Wanderers managed to reach the third round of the Cup , but lost again to the Etonians , after which many more key players left the club .
The club struggled on into the 1880 – 81 season , but was forced to withdraw from the FA Cup after being unable to raise a team for the scheduled first round match . After 1881 , the club was reduced to playing only one match per year , against Harrow School each Christmas . A book published by the newspaper The Sportsman claimed that the club folded in 1884 , however a match at Harrow was reported in The Times in December 1887 , which Harrow won 3 – 1 .
= = = Reformation ( 2009 – present ) = = =
In 2009 , over 120 years after the last known Wanderers match , a " reformed " Wanderers club was founded in London , reportedly with the approval of descendants of those involved with the original club , with the intention to play occasional matches for charity . In 2011 the club joined the Surrey South Eastern Combination . On 7 November 2012 , the team played the Royal Engineers at The Oval in a rematch of the 1872 FA Cup Final , 140 years after the original event , losing 7 – 1 .
Wanderers gained promotion from the Combination 's Junior Division 4 in 2013 , after finishing as runners @-@ up . In 2014 they achieved a second consecutive promotion after being crowned champions of the Junior Division 3 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Wanderers are known to have played in orange , purple , and black for at least part of their existence , although as no photographs of the team exist , the exact design is not known . A replica shirt sold in the modern era has the three colours in horizontal stripes , a likely arrangement given that horizontally @-@ striped shirts were very common during the Victorian era . The programme for the club 's 1875 away match with Queen 's Park , however , lists Wanderers as playing in white shirts . In the absence of shirt numbering , which would not be introduced for another sixty years , the programme identifies the individual players by the colours of their stockings ( socks ) or caps , with Alcock and Kinnaird both listed as wearing blue and white caps and Jarvis Kenrick identified by his cerise and French grey cap , the colours of his former club Clapham Rovers . The modern club 's crest is derived from the Harrow School crest , which may have adorned the shirts of the original team .
= = Grounds = =
Wanderers played firstly at Snaresbrook near Epping Forest , reputedly close to one of two orphanages in the area ; the Infant Orphan Asylum in Snaresbrook or the Merchant Seaman 's Orphan Asylum in nearby Wanstead . Wanderers played at several locations between 1859 and 1887 throughout London , but predominantly at Kennington Oval ( 151 games ) , Vincent Square ( 31 ) , Harrow ( 23 ) , Harrow School ( 15 ) and Clapham Common ( 12 ) . Battersea Park has been erroneously attributed as Wanderers home ground , however Wanderers played just 10 games there between 1864 and 1867 .
The reformed club play at the Mayfield Stadium in Thornton Heath in the London Borough of Croydon .
= = Rivalries = =
Prior to the formation of The Football Association in 1863 , individual schools played football according to their own particular rules . Due to the connection Wanderers had with Harrow School , the school 's football team played Wanderers frequently – 33 games between the two were recorded between 1865 and 1883 . Among the club 's other regular opponents were Royal Engineers , Clapham Rovers and Civil Service .
= = Players = =
A total of fifteen players who listed Wanderers as their primary club played for the England national team in international matches , as follows :
C. W. Alcock ( 1 cap )
Francis Birley ( 1 cap )
Alexander Bonsor ( 2 caps )
Frederick Green ( 1 cap )
Francis Heron ( 1 cap )
Hubert Heron ( 3 caps )
Leonard Howell ( 1 cap )
William Kenyon @-@ Slaney ( 1 cap )
Robert Kingsford ( 1 cap )
William Lindsay ( 1 cap )
Alfred Stratford ( 1 cap )
Henry Wace ( 3 caps )
Reginald de Courtenay Welch ( 1 cap )
Charles Wollaston ( 4 caps )
John Wylie ( 1 cap )
The following players earned international selection whilst playing at other clubs , but held membership of Wanderers :
Alexander Morten ( 1 cap )
Edward Hagarty Parry ( 3 caps )
John Frederick Peel Rawlinson ( 1 cap )
Francis Sparks ( 3 caps )
Additionally , A. F. Kinnaird made one appearance for Scotland and John Hawley Edwards played his one game for Wales while registered as a Wanderers player . Edwards was the first treasurer of the Welsh Football Association and one of only two players to play for England and Wales at full international level . A number of Wanderers players appeared in the England vs Scotland representative matches which took place prior to what is now recognised as the first official international match . Legendary cricketer W. G. Grace also played for the side , but did not take part in any FA Cup finals .
= = Club officials = =
The first Wanderers secretary was A. W. Mackenzie ( 1859 – 1864 ) . He was succeeded by C. W. Alcock ( 1864 – 1875 ) , Jarvis Kenrick ( 1875 – 1879 ) and Charles Wollaston ( 1879 – 1883 ) . The secretary of the revived club is Mark Wilson , who has held the position since the club was set up .
= = Records and statistics = =
Although records are incomplete , C. W. Alcock is believed to have played the most matches for the Wanderers , with at least 199 appearances , and to have scored the most goals , with at least 82 . He also recorded the highest goalscoring total for an individual season , with 17 known goals in the 1870 – 71 season , including four in a 6 – 1 win over Civil Service . R. K. Kingsford bettered that feat when he scored five goals against Farningham in 1874 , the most goals scored by a Wanderers player in a single match . The 16 – 0 margin of victory in the Farningham match was by far the largest win achieved by Wanderers , with no other scores in double @-@ figures recorded . The most goals conceded by Wanderers was eight , in an 8 – 2 defeat to Clapham Rovers in 1879 ; the club also lost by a six @-@ goal margin on at least one other occasion , a 6 – 0 defeat to Queen 's Park in 1876 .
Wanderers ' total of five FA Cup final wins remained a record until Aston Villa won the competition for the sixth time in 1920 . As of 2011 , only eight clubs have won the tournament more times than the Wanderers .
= = Honours = =
= = = Original club = = =
The club won the first FA Cup , won three in a row and appeared in the FA Cup Final five times , winning each time . Wanderers hold the joint record for most consecutive wins with Blackburn Rovers and A. F. Kinnaird holds the record for appearances in a Final with nine . Wanderers are tied for ninth place with Everton , Manchester City and West Bromwich Albion for the most FA Cup wins .
FA Cup winners
1871 – 72 , 1872 – 73 , 1875 – 76 , 1876 – 77 , 1877 – 78
= = = Reformed club = = =
Surrey South Eastern Combination Junior Division 3 champions
2013 – 14
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= Bob Marshall ( wilderness activist ) =
Robert " Bob " Marshall ( January 2 , 1901 – November 11 , 1939 ) was an American forester , writer and wilderness activist . The son of Louis Marshall , a wealthy constitutional lawyer and conservationist , and his wife , Bob Marshall developed a love for the outdoors as a young child . A consummate hiker and climber , he visited the Adirondack Mountains frequently during his youth , ultimately becoming one of the first Adirondack Forty @-@ Sixers . He also traveled to the Alaskan wilderness and wrote numerous articles and books , including the bestselling 1933 book Arctic Village .
A scientist with a Doctor of Philosophy in plant physiology , Marshall became independently wealthy after the death of his father . He held two significant public appointed posts : chief of forestry in the Bureau of Indian Affairs , from 1933 to 1937 , and head of recreation management in the Forest Service , from 1937 to 1939 , during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt .
Defining wilderness as a social as well as an environmental ideal , Marshall promoted organization of a national group dedicated to the preservation of primeval land . In 1935 , he was one of the principal founders of The Wilderness Society and personally provided most of the Society 's funding in its first years . He also supported socialism and civil liberties throughout his life .
Marshall died of heart failure at the age of 38 . Twenty @-@ five years later , partly as a result of his efforts , The Wilderness Society fostered the Wilderness Act , which legally defined the wilderness of the United States and protected some nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km2 ) of federal land . Today , Marshall is considered largely responsible for the wilderness preservation movement . Several landmarks and areas , including The Bob Marshall Wilderness in Montana and Mount Marshall in the Adirondacks , have been named in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in New York City , Bob Marshall was the third of four children of Louis Marshall ( 1856 – 1929 ) and Florence ( née Lowenstein ) Marshall ( 1873 – 1916 ) . His father , the son of a Jewish immigrant from Bavaria , was a noted constitutional lawyer and a champion of minority rights . The family moved to Syracuse , New York , where Louis Marshall was active in the Jewish community , and co @-@ founder of the American Jewish Committee . In 1891 , he was part of a national delegation that sought federal intervention on behalf of persecuted Russian Jews .
An amateur naturalist and active conservationist , the elder Marshall was instrumental in securing " forever wild " protection for the Adirondack and Catskill Forest Preserves in New York State . He helped found the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University , now SUNY @-@ ESF . Florence Marshall , meanwhile , devoted herself to her family , the education of young Jewish women , and the work of several Jewish welfare organizations .
Bob Marshall attended Felix Adler 's private Ethical Culture School in New York City until 1919 . The school nurtured independent thinking and commitment to social justice . Marshall became involved in nature from a young age ; two of his childhood heroes were Meriwether Lewis and William Clark . His family took him to the Adirondack Mountains when he was six months old ; they returned every summer for the next 25 years . After that , Marshall returned often on his own . His younger brother George later described the family 's visits to Knollwood , their summer camp on Lower Saranac Lake in the Adirondack State Park , as a time when they " entered a world of freedom and informality , of living plants and spaces , of fresh greens and exhilarating blues , of giant , slender pines and delicate pink twinflowers , of deer and mosquitoes , of fishing and guide boats and tramps through the woods " .
= = Schooling and early exploring = =
Marshall was drawn to the outdoors . He discovered his passion for exploring , charting , and a love of climbing mountains , in part through the writings of Verplanck Colvin , who during the post @-@ Civil War decade surveyed the woods of northern New York . Throughout his life , Marshall kept a series of hiking notebooks , which he illustrated with photographs and filled with statistics . In 1915 , Marshall climbed his first Adirondack peak , the 3 @,@ 352 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 022 m ) Ampersand Mountain , alongside his brother George and family friend Herb Clark , a Saranac Lake guide . Through Clark , who accompanied them on most of their longer trips during adolescence and early adulthood , the two brothers learned the arts of woodcraft and boating . By 1921 , they became the first climbers to scale all 42 Adirondack Mountains believed to exceed 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , some of which had never been climbed . In 1924 , the three became the first Adirondack Forty @-@ Sixers , hikers who have climbed to the summits of all 46 High Peaks of the Adirondacks .
After graduating from the Ethical Culture School , Marshall spent a year at Columbia University . In 1920 , he transferred to the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University . Marshall had decided in his teens that he wanted to be a forester , writing then about his love of " the woods and solitude ; " he wrote that he " should hate to spend the greater part of my lifetime in a stuffy office or in a crowded city " . For a while he was unhappy and withdrawn at Syracuse . But , he succeeded academically and was known for his individuality . As one classmate put it , Marshall was " always doing something no one else would ever think of doing . He was constantly rating things — the Adirondack peaks , his best days with George , and dozens of others . " Marshall became a member of Alpha Xi Sigma , the forestry college 's honor society . He ran on the Syracuse University freshman track team and participated in both junior varsity lacrosse and cross country running . Halfway through school , Marshall had become a class leader ; he was elected as class secretary and appointed an associate editor of the Empire Forester , the College 's yearbook .
During the early 1920s , Marshall grew interested in promoting Adirondack recreation . In 1922 , he became one of the charter members of the Adirondack Mountain Club ( ADK ) , an organization devoted to the building and maintenance of trails and the teaching of hiking in the park . In 1922 , he prepared a 38 @-@ page guidebook , entitled The High Peaks of the Adirondacks . Based on his pioneering experiences on the peaks , the guide recommends that " it 's a great thing these days to leave civilization for a while and return to nature . " Based on his own climbing experience , Marshall provided a brief description of each peak and arranged them in order of " niceness of view and all around pleasure in view and climb " .
In 1924 , Marshall graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in forestry , magna cum laude , finishing 4th of 59 at the College of Forestry . The senior yearbook described him as " the Champion Pond Hound of all time , a lad with a mania for statistics and shinnying mountain peaks , the boy who will go five miles [ 8 km ] around to find something to wade thru . And the man who is rear chainman for Bob will have to hump or get wet , and probably both . " By 1925 , he earned a Master 's degree in forestry from Harvard University .
= = Forest Service and Alaska = =
Marshall started work in 1925 with the Forest Service , where he worked until 1928 . Hoping to go to Alaska , he was assigned to the Northern Rocky Mountain Experiment Station at Missoula , Montana , in 1925 . Marshall 's research at the Experimental Station focused on the dynamics of forest regeneration after fires . He had to fight a widespread fire after a July storm started more than 150 fires in Idaho 's Kaniksu National Forest . He was put in charge of supporting and provisioning one of the crews led by the Forest Service . As he later recalled , Marshall worked " 18 to 20 hours a day as time @-@ keeper , Chief of Commissary , Camp Boss , and Inspector of the fire line " . Spending time with loggers and fire fighters , and seeing the conditions under which they worked , Marshall learned vital lessons about labor issues and natural resource use . At the Experimental Station Marshall became interested in the unsafe conditions for many working Americans . He began to develop liberal and socialist philosophies .
In 1929 , Marshall was 28 years old and less than a year away from completing a PhD in plant pathology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland , when he made his first trip to Alaska , visiting the upper Koyukuk River and the central Brooks Range . The scientific objective of the trip was to study tree growth at the northern timberline near the Arctic Divide . For his 15 @-@ month sojourn in the small town of Wiseman , Alaska , Marshall rented a one @-@ room cabin next to the only roadhouse in the village and furnished it with books , records , a phonograph player , and a writing desk . He placed the desk so that he could sit by the cabin 's single window and admire the view of the Koyukuk River and the range of steep , snow @-@ covered mountains in the background . His travels engendered in him a great love for the central Brooks Range in the Alaskan wilderness . Marshall was one of the first to explore much of the range , especially the headwaters of the North fork of the Koyukuk River , where he bestowed the name " Gates of the Arctic " on a pair of mountains . On September 11 , 1929 , Marshall 's father Louis died in Zürich , Switzerland at the age of 73 . Because their mother had died of cancer in 1916 , the four children inherited most of their father 's estate , worth several million dollars . Although he became financially independent , Bob Marshall continued to work throughout his life .
Marshall received his PhD in 1930 , under the supervision of Dr. Burton E. Livingston at the Johns Hopkins Laboratory of Plant Physiology . Marshall 's doctoral dissertation was titled " An Experimental Study of the Water Relations of Seedling Conifers with Special Reference to Wilting " . In February 1930 , his essay " The Problem of the Wilderness " was published ; a celebrated defense of wilderness preservation , the essay expanded themes developed in his earlier article , " The Wilderness as a Minority Right " . Though rejected by four other magazines before it was published in The Scientific Monthly , the essay has become one of Marshall 's most important works . He argued that wilderness was worth saving not only because of its unique aesthetic qualities , but because of its ability to provide visitors with a chance for adventure . Marshall went on to state : " There is just one hope of repulsing the tyrannical ambition of civilization to conquer every niche on the whole earth . That hope is the organization of spirited people who will fight for the freedom of the wilderness . " The article became a much @-@ quoted call to action and is today considered seminal by wilderness historians .
In July 1930 , Marshall and his brother George climbed nine Adirondack High Peaks in one day , setting a new record . In August , Marshall returned to Alaska . He planned to explore the Brooks Range to pursue more tree research , and he also wanted to make a study of Arctic frontier civilization in Wiseman . He called the village , which was 200 miles north of Fairbanks , " the happiest civilization of which I have knowledge . " Befriending a number of the area 's inhabitants , he meticulously recorded thousands of hours of conversation with them . He persuaded a number of villagers , most of whom were single males , to take intelligence tests , and even developed statistics on all aspects of the villagers ' lives , from their financial resources to their diets to their sexual habits . He spent 12 @-@ 1 / 2 months — from late August 1930 to early September 1931 — exploring and collecting data . The book that resulted from these excursions ( and his previous trip to Alaska ) was 1933 's best @-@ selling Literary Guild selection , Arctic Village . Marshall shared the royalties from the book , a sociological study of life in the wilderness , with the residents of Wiseman .
= = Writing and conservation = =
Marshall returned to the east coast in late September 1931 . Although he busied himself with writing Arctic Village , he also wrote prolifically on other topics and published several articles about American forestry . In particular , he had concerns that few articles during this time addressed the issue of deforestation , and he went so far as to write a letter to the president of the American Forestry Association , George D. Pratt , on the matter . He also pursued a variety of other activities : he accepted an invitation to serve on a committee to dedicate a memorial ( Louis Marshall Memorial Hall ) to his father at the forestry college in Syracuse , and delivered speeches about his travels and wilderness preservation .
Shortly after his return , he was asked by Earle Clapp , head of the Forest Service 's Branch of Research , to help initiate badly needed reforms in the forest @-@ products industry and to create a broader vision of national forest management . Marshall moved to Washington , D.C. in September 1932 to assume the position , which entailed writing initiatives for forest recreation , and immediately began compiling a list of the remaining roadless areas in the United States . He sent this data to regional foresters , urging them to set aside areas for wilderness ; all of them responded negatively . Marshall 's input into what became known as the Copeland Report amounted to three extensive chapters of a two volume , 1 @,@ 677 @-@ page work . He considered it " the best piece of forestry work I have yet done " .
Marshall had clearly defined himself as a socialist by 1932 – 1933 . He told a correspondent : " I wish very sincerely that Socialism would be put into effect right away and the profit system eliminated . " He became active in the Tenants Unemployed League of the District of Columbia , a group that helped unemployed people with housing problems ; later he joined the fight against federal aid cuts to scientific research . Learning of the American Civil Liberties Union from his father , he served as chairman of the Washington branch . Marshall was even arrested briefly for participating in a March 1933 United Front demonstration . He did not forget his conservation causes , however , and soon pondered the question of wilderness and national parks . In the early 1930s , he joined the National Parks Association , eventually becoming a member of its board .
In August 1933 , Marshall was appointed director of the Forestry Division of the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) , a position he held for four years . He besieged government personnel with letters , telephone calls , and personal visits in the cause of wilderness , rapidly gaining recognition in Washington as a champion of preservation . One of his last initiatives as chief forester of the BIA was to recommend 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 425 km2 ) of Indian lands for management as either " roadless " or " wild " areas ; the order , which created 16 wilderness areas , received approval shortly after Marshall left office to join the Forest Service once more . Marshall became increasingly concerned with civilization 's encroachment upon the wild lands , writing : " The sounds of the forest are entirely obliterated by the roar of the motor . The smell of pine needles and flowers and herbs and freshly turned dirt and all the other delicate odors of the forest are drowned in the stench of gasoline . The feeling of wind blowing in the face and of soft ground under foot are all lost . "
= = The Wilderness Society = =
In 1934 , Marshall visited Knoxville , Tennessee and met with Benton MacKaye , a regional planner and originator of the Appalachian Trail . Together with Harvey Broome , a Knoxville lawyer , they discussed Marshall 's 1930 proposal for an organization dedicated to wilderness preservation . Bernard Frank , a fellow forester , joined them later in the year ; the men mailed an " Invitation to Help Organize a Group to Preserve the American Wilderness " to like @-@ minded individuals . The invitation expressed their desire " to integrate the growing sentiment which we believe exists in this country for holding wild areas sound @-@ proof as well as sight @-@ proof from our increasingly mechanized life " and their conviction that such wildernesses were " a serious human need rather than a luxury and plaything " .
On January 21 , 1935 , the organizing committee published a folder stating that " for the purpose of fighting off invasion of the wilderness and of stimulating ... an appreciation of its multiform emotional , intellectual , and scientific values , we are forming an organization to be known as the WILDERNESS SOCIETY " . They invited Aldo Leopold to act as the Society 's first president , but the position ultimately went to Robert Sterling Yard . Marshall provided the bulk of the Society 's funding in its early years , beginning with an anonymous donation of $ 1 @,@ 000 . His brother George was also deeply involved in the Society .
T. H. Watkins , former editor of the society 's magazine , Wilderness , contended that before Marshall and the Society there was " no true movement " for the preservation of the nation 's roadless and primitive areas . " One could comfortably argue " , Watkins wrote in 1985 on the occasion of the society 's 50th anniversary , " that Robert Marshall was personally responsible for the preservation of more wilderness than any individual in history " .
= = Later efforts and sudden death = =
Marshall 's last years were productive ones . By May 1937 , he had taken charge of the Forest Service 's Division of Recreation and Lands . Over the next two years , Marshall worked on two major initiatives : an effort to extend national forest recreational opportunities to people with lower incomes ( as well as dismantling discriminatory barriers against minority groups ) , and a program to preserve more wilderness within the national forests . His biographer James Glover asserts that Marshall was probably the first high @-@ level official to seriously fight discrimination in Forest Service recreational policies . During this time , Marshall continued to financially support The Wilderness Society , as well as various civil rights , labor , and socialist organizations .
During his last trip to Alaska ( beginning in August 1938 ) , which included further exploration of the Brooks Range , Marshall became a subject of interest for the Dies Committee , a House of Representatives committee investigating " un @-@ American " activities . Named for its chairman , Martin Dies , the committee announced in The New York Times that eight federal officials ( including Marshall ) were contributing to communism because of their connections to such organizations as the Workers Alliance and the American League for Peace and Democracy . Marshall was too busy traveling to respond to the allegations : after leaving Alaska he spent time in Washington State , Montana , Oregon , Nevada , Utah , Arizona , New Mexico and California . He visited Alaska for one last time the following year and made a tour of western national forests , addressing aspects of forest recreation . While he was in Washington state that September , two regulations ( U @-@ 1 and U2 ) developed by Marshall 's committee were signed ; these " U @-@ Regulations " protected wilderness and wild areas from road building , logging , hotels and similarly destructive activities . It also made their protected status more secure .
While on a midnight train from Washington , D.C. to New York City on November 11 , 1939 , Marshall died of apparent heart failure at the age of 38 . His sudden death came as a shock because of his relatively young age and high level of physical activity , and he was greatly mourned by friends and relatives . His brother George ( who lived to be 96 ) said : " Bob 's death shattered me and was the most traumatic event in my life . " Marshall was interred at Salem Fields Cemetery , a Jewish burial ground in Brooklyn , New York City , beside his parents and sister Ruth ( Putey ) Marshall , who had died of cancer at age 38 in 1936 .
= = Legacy = =
A bachelor , Marshall left virtually all of his $ 1 @.@ 5 million estate ( equivalent to $ 25 million today ) to three causes dear to him : socialism , civil liberties and wilderness preservation . Three trusts were established in his will . The first , focused on education related to " the theory of production for use and not for profit " , received half of his estate ; the second , aimed at " safeguarding and advancement of the cause of civil liberties " , received one @-@ quarter of his estate ; and the third supported " preservation of the wilderness conditions in outdoor America " , establishing what became the Robert Marshall Wilderness Fund . Trustees of the latter trust included Robert Sterling Yard , Bob Marshall 's brother George , Irving Clark , Olaus Murie and Bill Zimmerman , early leaders of The Wilderness Society . He left money to only one individual : $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 168 @,@ 109 today ) to his old friend and guide , Herb Clark .
Marshall 's posthumously published book Alaska Wilderness , Exploring the Central Brooks Range ( 1956 ) , edited by his brother George , became a seminal work , inspiring the establishment of the Gates of the Arctic National Park . His Adirondack writings were published by Lost Pond Press in 2006 , as an anthology titled Bob Marshall in the Adirondacks : Writings of a Pioneering Peak @-@ Bagger , Pond @-@ Hopper and Wilderness Preservationist . It was edited by Phil Brown , editor of the Adirondack Explorer news magazine . According to the publisher , the book includes " numerous accounts of his hikes in the High Peaks and the vast wild region south of Cranberry Lake , spirited defenses of the state 's forever @-@ wild Forest Preserve , a charming portrait of Herb Clark , and excerpts from an unpublished novel set partly in the Adirondacks " .
Since its conception , The Wilderness Society has helped pass many bills and has contributed a total of 109 million acres ( 421 @,@ 000 km2 ) to the National Wilderness Preservation System . Marshall 's dream of permanent wilderness protection became a reality 25 years after his death when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Wilderness Act into law on September 3 , 1964 in the Rose Garden of the White House . The ceremony was attended by Alice Zahniser and Mardy Murie , the widows of two prominent members of The Wilderness Society . Written by Howard Zahniser , the bill enabled the United States Congress to set aside selected areas in the national forests , national parks , national wildlife refuges and other federal lands as units to be kept permanently unchanged by humans . In defining wilderness , Zahniser invoked Marshall and his contemporaries , stating that " in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape , [ wilderness ] is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man , where man himself is a visitor who does not remain . " The act 's signing was the most important event in the history of The Wilderness Society ; members Mardy Murie and Alice Zahniser stood beside Johnson as he signed the legislation . With The Wilderness Act , the United States guaranteed permanent protection of wild and scenic natural areas for future generations . The Society 's most prestigious honor , the Robert Marshall Award , is named in Marshall 's honor ; its first recipient was Sigurd F. Olson in 1981 .
= = = Places and dedications = = =
In the same year that the Wilderness Act became law , the Bob Marshall Wilderness , located in Flathead and Lewis and Clark National Forests in Montana , was created . It had previously been set aside in 1941 as the South Fork , Pentagon , and Sun River Primitive Areas . The area encompasses a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) and is one of the best preserved ecosystems in the world . Known as " The Bob , " it is the fifth largest wilderness in the contiguous 48 states . In compliance with the 1964 Wilderness Act , there is no motorized or mechanical equipment ( including bicycles or hang gliders ) permitted . Although camping and fishing are allowed with proper permit , no roads exist in the area , and logging and mining are prohibited . There are a number of US Forest Service cabins in the Bob for use by Forest Service personnel . The Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex ( which encompasses Bob Marshall , Scapegoat , and Great Bear Wildernesses ) is a habitat for the grizzly bear , lynx , cougar , wolf , black bear , moose , elk and a variety of other birds , mammals , and plants .
Mount Marshall ( previously called Mount Herbert ) , which stands 4 @,@ 360 feet ( 1 @,@ 330 m ) high in the Adirondack Mountains , Camp Bob Marshall in the Black Hills , and Marshall Lake in the Brooks Range of Alaska , north of the Arctic Circle , are also named for him . In 2008 , the Adirondack Council was encouraging the state of New York to create the Bob Marshall Great Wilderness near Cranberry Lake in the western Adirondacks ; if successful , it would be the largest wilderness area in the Adirondack Park at 409 @,@ 000 acres ( 639 sq mi ; 1 @,@ 655 km2 ) .
At the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry ( SUNY @-@ ESF ) , Bob Marshall Fellowships in wilderness management and policy studies are offered to graduate students and faculty engaged in research in recreation resource management ; the fellowships are supported by the college 's Bob Marshall Endowed Fund . Also at SUNY @-@ ESF , a student " outing club " named after Marshall honors his love of the outdoors and the Adirondack mountains , and a bronze plaque commemorating his contributions to wilderness conservation graces the entrance way of Marshall Hall , the hub of campus events and activities , named after his father .
= = Selected list of works = =
Articles
" The Wilderness as a Minority Right " , U.S. Forest Service Bulletin ( 1928 , August 27 ) , pp. 5 – 6 .
" Forest devastation must stop " , The Nation ( 1929 , August 28 )
" The Problem of the Wilderness " , The Scientific Monthly ( 1930 , February ) , pp. 141 – 148
" A Proposed Remedy for Our Forest Illness " , Journal of Forestry 28 ( 1930 , March )
" The Social Management of American Forests " , League for Industrial Democracy ( 1930 )
Books
Arctic Village . New York : The Literary Guild ( 1933 )
( reprinted by the University of Alaska Press , Fairbanks , 1991 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 912006 @-@ 51 @-@ 2 )
The People 's Forests . [ On Forestry in America . ] . New York : H. Smith and R. Haas ( 1933 )
( reprinted by the University of Iowa Press , Iowa City , 2002 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87745 @-@ 805 @-@ 0 )
Alaska Wilderness : Exploring the Central Brooks Range , 2nd ed . Berkeley : University of California Press ( 1970 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 01710 @-@ 8
( first published as Arctic Wilderness , in 1956 )
= = Related films = =
Hott , Lawrence , and Diane Garey . 1991 . Wild by Law : The Rise of Environmentalism and the Creation of the Wilderness Act . ISBN 1 @-@ 55974 @-@ 420 @-@ 0 .
Woelber , Paxson . 2013 . The World Beyond the World , a short film with narration adapted from " Alaska Wilderness : Exploring the Central Brooks Range " .
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= The Restless Spirit =
The Restless Spirit is a 1913 American silent short drama film written and directed by Allan Dwan , featuring J. Warren Kerrigan and Pauline Bush . The film is based on Thomas Gray 's 1751 poem , Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard , and tells the story of a man who wishes to be a conqueror . The Dreamer heads out into the desert and is nursed back to health by the Desert Flower . A series of illusions follows which shows the futility of conquest when he cannot conquer his own community . He returns and eventually becomes respected by the community that once ridiculed him . The film makes use of numerous dissolves which were technically difficult to execute , and reportedly sent the cameraman to the hospital due to stress . The film may have been the last unbilled appearance by Lon Chaney , and was released on October 27 , 1913 by Universal Film Manufacturing Company under the Victor label . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with the Dreamer , a restless and disappointed dreamer who has a wife and child . He gazes at his hands and dreams of becoming a conqueror , but laments that no chance comes to him and continues to dream . The Dreamer becomes the subject of ridicule and his wife becomes the subject of pity by the community . The Dreamer decides enter the world of men and abandons his wife leaving her to seek refuge in her father . Her father wishes for her to marry a wealthy gentleman who is also a stranger in the town . The Dreamer heads into the desert and wanders until exhaustion takes its toll . A woman , " The Desert Flower " , finds him and takes him to her hut in the desert . There the woman spends her time looking over the garments of the man who courted her , the same stranger now attempting to marry the Dreamer 's wife . The woman learns of the Dreamer 's story and shows the dreamer the futility of conquering worlds unknown when he cannot conquer his own small corner of the world . The Dreamer sees himself in the roles of great conquerors , but each vision ends with death . The Dreamer 's wife has been kicked out for refusing to marry the stranger , and is reunited with the Dreamer on the edge of the desert . The stranger is sent out into the desert and the Dreamer and his wife return to the town . In time , the Dreamer becomes respected by the community .
= = Cast = =
J. Warren Kerrigan as the Husband / The Dreamer
Pauline Bush as the Wife
Jessalyn Van Trump as The Desert Flower
William Worthington as the Stranger
George Periolat
Lon Chaney as Russian Count / Prince
= = Production = =
The groundwork for The Restless Spirit began when Allan Dwan visited Universal 's offices in New York in late July 1913 . Frederic Lombardi believes that it was during this meeting that Carl Laemmle offered Dwan 's colleagues double their pay from Flying A if they would come to Universal . In the following weeks , J. Warren Kerrigan came to Universal and the two would work together in the production of The Restless Spirit . Dwan credits the idea to adapt and produce a film on Thomas Gray 's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard as a betting challenge . Dwan also claimed to have studied Gray 's poem and dream about the production before accepting the challenge . Frederic Lombardi , author of Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios , writes that Dwan may have been emboldened after the production of the Pickett Guard and the lack of structure in Gray 's poem . Since the poem had no " real story " , Dwan could formulate his own allegorical plot . Dwan was also able to convince his employers that the work would be a box office success and intended to use the film a prestigious multi @-@ role vehicle for Kerrigan 's debut at Universal . Lombardi writes that Dwan was subject to produce overtly artistic films , but these tendencies were kept in check by Dwan 's more practical inclinations .
The film 's ethereal aspects and double exposures were performed in the camera because the ability to create the effects in lab did not yet exist . Dwan made 24 dissolves in the film , each required precise control by the cameramen and that the counts had to be exact otherwise the shot would be ruined . Lombardi notes that the cinematographer , Walter Pritchard , was the man who had to go through the ordeal and that Universal said he was one of the company 's oldest men . Dwan would claim that Pritchard would end up in the hospital from the production . In The Parade 's Gone By , Brownlow instead gives the number of dissolves as 25 and adds to the story by Dwan claiming that the audience could not figure out the effect was done . Dwan also claimed that by the time 15 dissolves were done that the cinematographer was so nervous that the it would keep him up at night and cause his hands to shake so greatly that an assistant would have to reload the film at the right spot before shots . This production may have been the last unbilled movie credit of Lon Chaney . The discovery of Lon Chaney 's role was through Chaney having marked his appearance in a still with an X above his head . Chaney wrote " This is me just below the X sign . Here I am a Russian Prince . " on the back of the still . The image still in particular leaves no question that it comes from the The Restless Spirit because it also appears on the cover of The Universal Weekly for October 23 , 1913 . The second image found on the estate depicts Lon Chaney in the role of a wildman , which Mirsalis attributes to a fantasy sequence in the film .
= = Release = =
On September 6 , 1913 , Motography reported that J. Warren Kerrigan would star in the upcoming picture known as A Restless Spirit with a reference to Kerrigan 's transfer to Universal . Alternate names for the film such as His Restless Spirit and A Restless Spirit .
It is unknown if the film was initially planned or if it was mere assumption , but it was reported that it would be a two reel production in September 1913 . Newspaper accounts change to reference the film as having three reels by October 3 , 1913 . As details spread in the newspaper , the film 's working title continued to be referenced as A Restless Spirit in various papers . Newspaper references began to reference the final title on October 24 , 1913 . The film was released on October 27 , 1913 by Universal Film Manufacturing Company under the Victor label .
With the film 's release on October 27 , it was of minor note that the Alcazar of Atlanta , Georgia would show the film until November 1 , 1913 . The film would be a special for the week at the Hippodrome in Leavenworth , Kansas . Some theaters , such as the Alamo of El Paso , Texas would only show the film for a single day . The Unique theater , also of El Paso , would show the film on October 29 due to a " slip @-@ up " with Universal 's New York office . The advertisement would also mention Kerrigan 's popularity in the area in otherwise apparent contrast to the Alamo 's single day run . Another advertisement noted the film 's artistry and that it is one of the best three @-@ reel films released , but the film would play for only a single day . The film received play in various theaters until at least July 1914 .
= = Reception and fate = =
Advertisements would state the films artistry or that it was one of the best three @-@ reel films released . Lombardi cites a single review from The Moving Picture World in his text and suggests that other reviews may have been more tepid , but the result was that Dwan would not produce any more films of " such experimental nature " at Universal . The film is now considered to be lost . It is unknown when the film was lost , but if it was in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .
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= The Living Daylights =
The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) is the fifteenth entry in the James Bond film series and the first to star Timothy Dalton as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's title is taken from Ian Fleming 's short story , " The Living Daylights " . It was the last film to use the title of an Ian Fleming story until the 2006 instalment Casino Royale .
The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli , his stepson , Michael G. Wilson and his daughter , Barbara Broccoli . The Living Daylights was generally well received by most critics and was also a financial success , grossing $ 191 @.@ 2 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
James Bond is assigned to aid the defection of a KGB officer , General Georgi Koskov , covering his escape from a concert hall in Bratislava , Czechoslovakia during intermission . During the mission , Bond notices that the KGB sniper assigned to prevent Koskov 's escape is a female cellist from the orchestra . Disobeying his orders to kill the sniper , he instead shoots the rifle from her hands , then uses the Trans @-@ Siberian Pipeline to smuggle Koskov across the border into Austria and then on to Britain .
In his post @-@ defection debriefing , Koskov informs MI6 that the KGB 's old policy of Smiert Spionom , meaning Death to Spies , has been revived by General Leonid Pushkin , the new head of the KGB . Koskov is later abducted from the safe @-@ house and assumed to have been taken back to Moscow . Bond is directed to track down Pushkin in Tangier and kill him to forestall further killings of agents and escalation of tensions between the Soviet Union and the West . Bond agrees to carry out the mission when he learns that the assassin who killed 004 ( as depicted in the pre @-@ title sequence ) left a note bearing the same message , " Smiert Spionom " .
Bond returns to Bratislava to track down the cellist , Kara Milovy . He determines that Koskov 's entire defection was staged , and that Kara is actually Koskov 's girlfriend . Bond convinces Kara that he is a friend of Koskov 's and persuades her to accompany him to Vienna , supposedly to be reunited with him . They escape Bratislava while being pursued by the KGB , crossing over the border into Austria . Meanwhile , Pushkin meets with arms dealer Brad Whitaker in Tangier , informing him that the KGB is cancelling an arms deal previously arranged between Koskov and Whitaker .
During his brief tryst with Milovy in Vienna , Bond visits the Prater to meet his MI6 ally , Saunders , who discovers a history of financial dealings between Koskov and Whitaker . As he leaves their meeting , Saunders is killed by Koskov 's henchman Necros , who again leaves the message " Smiert Spionom " .
Bond and Kara promptly leave for Tangier , where Bond confronts Pushkin . Pushkin disavows any knowledge of " Smiert Spionom " , and reveals that Koskov is evading arrest for embezzlement of government funds . Bond and Pushkin then join forces and Bond fakes Pushkin 's assassination , inducing Whitaker and Koskov to progress with their scheme . Meanwhile , Kara contacts Koskov , who tells her that Bond is actually a KGB agent and convinces her to drug him so he can be captured .
Koskov , Necros , Kara , and the captive Bond fly to a Soviet air base in Afghanistan , where Koskov betrays Kara and imprisons her along with Bond . The pair escape and in doing so free a condemned prisoner , Kamran Shah , leader of the local Mujahideen . Bond and Milovy discover that Koskov is using Soviet funds to buy a massive shipment of opium from the Mujahideen , intending to keep the profits with enough left over to supply the Soviets with their arms and buy Western arms from Whitaker .
With the Mujahideen 's help , Bond plants a bomb aboard the cargo plane carrying the opium , but is spotted and has no choice but to barricade himself in the plane . Meanwhile , the Mujahideen attack the air base on horseback and engage the Soviets in a gun battle . During the battle , Milovy drives a jeep into the back of the plane as Bond takes off , and Necros also leaps aboard at the last second . After a struggle , Bond throws Necros to his death and deactivates the bomb . Bond then notices Shah and his men being pursued by Soviet forces . He re @-@ activates the bomb and drops it out of the plane and onto a bridge , blowing it up and helping Shah and his men gain an important victory over the Soviets . Bond returns to Tangier to kill Whitaker , infiltrating his estate with Leiter 's help , as Pushkin arrests Koskov , sending him back to Moscow .
Some time later , Kara is the solo cellist in a London performance . Kamran Shah and his men arrive during the intermission and are introduced to now @-@ diplomat General Gogol and the Russians . After her performance , Bond surprises her in her dressing room , and they embrace .
= = Cast = =
Timothy Dalton as James Bond : an MI6 agent assigned to look into the deaths of and conspiracies against several of his allies .
Maryam d 'Abo as Kara Milovy : Koskov 's girlfriend and later Bond 's love interest .
Joe Don Baker as Brad Whitaker : An American arms dealer and self @-@ styled general . Baker called his character " a nut " who " thought he was Napoleon " .
John Rhys @-@ Davies as General Leonid Pushkin : The new head of the KGB , replacing General Gogol .
Art Malik as Kamran Shah : a leader in the Afghan Mujahideen .
Jeroen Krabbé as General Georgi Koskov : Whitaker 's ally and a renegade Soviet general .
Andreas Wisniewski as Necros : Koskov 's henchman , who poses repeated threats to Bond .
Thomas Wheatley as Saunders : Bond 's ally .
Robert Brown as M : The head of MI6 .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : MI6 's " quartermaster " , who supplies Bond with multi @-@ purpose vehicles and gadgets useful in the latter 's mission .
Geoffrey Keen as Frederick Gray : The British Minister of Defence
Caroline Bliss as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
John Terry as Felix Leiter : A CIA agent and ally to Bond .
Walter Gotell as General Gogol : The retired head of the KGB , now a diplomat shown in a cameo at the end of the film .
Virginia Hey as Rubavitch : General Leonid Pushkin 's mistress in Morocco
Julie T. Wallace as Rosika Miklos : James Bond 's contact in Bratislava , Czechoslovakia who works at the TransSiberian Pipeline .
Nadim Sawalha cameos as a police chief in Tangier . Sawalha also appeared in a previous 007 film , The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) , as Aziz Fekkesh .
= = Production = =
Originally the film was proposed to be a prequel in the series , an idea that eventually resurfaced with the reboot of the series in 2006 . SMERSH , the fictionalised Soviet counterintelligence agency that featured in Fleming 's Casino Royale and several other early James Bond novels , was an acronym for Smiert Shpionam – " Death to spies " .
= = = Casting = = =
In Autumn 1985 , following the financial and critical disappointment of A View to a Kill , work began on scripts for the next Bond film , with the intention that Roger Moore would not reprise the role of James Bond . Moore , who by the time of the release of The Living Daylights would have been 59 years old , chose to retire from the role after 12 years and 7 films . Albert Broccoli , however , claimed that he let Moore go from the role . A significant search for a new actor to play Bond saw a number of actors , including New Zealander Sam Neill , Irish @-@ born Pierce Brosnan and Welshman Timothy Dalton audition for the role in 1986 . Bond co @-@ producer Michael G. Wilson , director John Glen , Dana and Barbara Broccoli " were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him . " However , Albert Broccoli was not sold on the actor .
The producers eventually offered the role to Brosnan after a three @-@ day screen @-@ test . At the time , he was contracted to the television show Remington Steele which had been cancelled by the NBC network due to falling ratings . The announcement that he would be chosen to play James Bond caused a surge in interest in the series , which led to NBC exercising ( less than three days prior to expiry ) a 60 @-@ day option in Brosnan 's contract to make a further season of the show . NBC 's action caused drastic repercussions , as a result of which Albert Broccoli withdrew the offer given to Brosnan , citing that he did not want the character associated with a contemporary TV series . This led to a drop in interest in Remington Steele , and only five new episodes were filmed before the show was finally cancelled . The edict from Broccoli was that " Remington Steele will not be James Bond . "
Dana Broccoli suggested Timothy Dalton . Albert Broccoli was initially reluctant given Dalton 's public lack of interest in the role , but at his wife 's urging agreed to meet the actor . However Dalton would soon begin filming Brenda Starr and so would be unavailable . In the intervening period , having completed Brenda Starr , Dalton was offered the role once again , which he accepted . For a period , the filmmakers had Dalton , but he had not signed a contract . A casting director persuaded Robert Bathurst , an English actor who would become known for his roles in Joking Apart , Cold Feet , and Downton Abbey to audition for Bond . Bathurst believes that his " ludicrous audition " was only " an arm @-@ twisting exercise " because the producers wanted to persuade Dalton to take the role by telling him they were still auditioning other actors .
The English actress Maryam d 'Abo , who was also a former model , was cast as the Czechoslovakian cellist Kara Milovy . In 1984 , d 'Abo had attended auditions for the role of Pola Ivanova in A View to a Kill . Barbara Broccoli included d 'Abo in the audition for playing Kara , which she later passed .
Originally , the KGB general set up by Koskov was to be General Gogol ; however , Walter Gotell was too sick to handle the major role , and the character of Leonid Pushkin replaced Gogol , who appears briefly at the end of the film , having transferred to the Soviet diplomatic service . This was Gogol 's final appearance in a James Bond film . Morten Harket , the lead vocalist of the Norwegian rock group A @-@ ha ( which performed the film 's title song ) , was offered a small role as a villain 's henchman in the film , but declined , because of lack of time and because he felt they wanted to cast him due to his popularity rather than his acting .
Director John Glen decided to include the macaw from For Your Eyes Only . It can be seen squawking in the kitchen of Brayden House when Necros attacks MI6 's officers .
Other actors considered for the role of James Bond included Mel Gibson , Mark Greenstreet , Lambert Wilson , Antony Hamilton , Christopher Lambert , Finlay Light , and Andrew Clarke .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot at Pinewood Studios at its 007 Stage in the UK , as well as Weissensee in Austria . The pre @-@ title sequence was filmed on the Rock of Gibraltar and although the sequence shows a hijacked Land Rover careering down various sections of road for several minutes before bursting through a wall towards the sea , the location mostly used the same short stretch of road at the very top of the Rock , shot from numerous different angles . The beach defences seen at the foot of the Rock in the initial shot were also added solely for the film , to an otherwise non @-@ military area . The action involving the Land Rover switched from Gibraltar to Beachy Head in the UK for the shot showing the vehicle actually getting airborne . Trial runs of the stunt with the Land Rover , during which Bond escapes by parachute from the tumbling vehicle , were filmed in the Mojave Desert , although the final cut of the film uses a shot achieved using a dummy . Other locations included Germany , the United States , and Italy , while the desert scenes were shot in Ouarzazate , Morocco . The conclusion of the film was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace , Vienna and Elveden Hall , Suffolk .
Principal photography commenced at Gibraltar on 17 September 1986 . Aerial stuntmen B. J. Worth and Jake Lombard performed the pre @-@ credits parachute jump . Both the terrain and wind were unfavourable . Consideration was given to the stunt being done using cranes but aerial stunts arranger B. J. Worth stuck to skydiving and completed the scenes in a day . The aircraft used for the jump was a C @-@ 130 Hercules , which in the film had M 's office installed in the aircraft cabin . The initial point of view for the scene shows M in what appears to be his usual London office , but the camera then zooms out to reveal that it is , in fact , inside an aircraft . Although marked as a Royal Air Force aircraft , the one in shot belonged to the Spanish Air Force and was used again later in the film for the Afghanistan sequences , this time in " Russian " markings . During this later chapter , a fight breaks out on the open ramp of the aircraft in flight between Bond and Necros , before Necros falls to his death . Although the plot and preceding shots suggest the aircraft is a C @-@ 130 , the shot of Necros falling away from the aircraft show a twin engine cargo plane , a C @-@ 123 Provider . Worth and Lombard also doubled for Bond and Necros in the scenes where they are hanging on a bag in a plane 's open cargo door .
The press would not meet Dalton and d 'Abo until 5 October 1986 , when the main unit travelled to Vienna . Almost two weeks after the second unit filming on Gibraltar , the first unit started shooting with Andreas Wisniewski and stunt man Bill Weston . During the course of the three days it took to film this fight , Weston fractured a finger and Wisniewski knocked him out once . The next day found the crew on location at Stonor House , doubling for Bladen 's Safe House , the first scene Jeroen Krabbé filmed .
= = = = The return of Aston Martin = = = =
The film reunites Bond with the car maker Aston Martin . Following Bond 's use of the Aston Martin DBS in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , the filmmakers then turned to the brand new Lotus Esprit in 1977 's The Spy Who Loved Me , which reappeared four years later in For Your Eyes Only . Despite the iconic status of the submersible Lotus however , Bond 's Aston Martin DB5 is recognised as the most famous of his vehicles . As a consequence , Aston Martin returned with their V8 Vantage .
Two different Aston Martin models were used in filming — a V8 Volante convertible , and later for the Czechoslovakia scenes , a hard @-@ top non @-@ Volante V8 saloon badged to look like the Volante . The Volante was a production model owned by Aston Martin Lagonda chairman , Victor Gauntlett .
= = = Music = = =
The Living Daylights was the final Bond film to be scored by composer John Barry . The soundtrack is notable for its introduction of sequenced electronic rhythm tracks overdubbed with the orchestra — at the time , a relatively new innovation .
The title song of the film , " The Living Daylights " , was co @-@ written with Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy of the Norwegian pop @-@ music group A @-@ ha and recorded by the band . The group and Barry did not collaborate well , resulting in two versions of the theme song . Barry 's film mix is heard on the soundtrack ( and on A @-@ ha 's later greatest hits album Headlines and Deadlines ) . The version preferred by the band can be heard on the 1988 A @-@ ha album Stay on These Roads . However , in 2006 Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy complimented Barry 's contributions : " I loved the stuff he added to the track , I mean it gave it this really cool string arrangement . That 's when for me it started to sound like a Bond thing " . The title song is one of the few 007 title songs that is not performed or written by a British or American performer .
In a departure from previous Bond films , The Living Daylights was the first to use different songs over the opening and end credits . The song heard over the end credits , " If There Was a Man " , was one of two songs performed for the film by Chrissie Hynde of The Pretenders . The other song , " Where Has Everybody Gone " , is heard from Necros 's Walkman in the film . The Pretenders were originally considered to perform Daylights ' title song . However , the producers had been pleased with the commercial success of Duran Duran 's " A View to a Kill " , and felt that A @-@ ha would be more likely to make an impact on the charts .
The original soundtrack release was released on LP and CD by Warner Bros. and featured only 12 tracks . Later re @-@ releases by Rykodisc and EMI added nine additional tracks , including alternate instrumental end credits music . Rykodisc 's version included the gunbarrel and opening sequence of the film as well as the jailbreak sequence , and the bombing of the bridge .
Additionally , the film featured a number of pieces of classical music , as the main Bond girl , Kara Milovy , is a cellist . Mozart 's 40th Symphony in G minor ( 1st movement ) is performed by the orchestra at the Conservatoire in Bratislava when Koskov flees . As Moneypenny tells Bond , Kara is next to perform Alexander Borodin 's String Quartet in D major , and the finale to Act II of Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro ( in Vienna ) also features . Before Bond is drugged by Kara , Kara is practising the Cello solo from the first movement of Dvořák 's cello concerto in B minor . At the end of the film , Kara and an orchestra ( conducted onscreen by John Barry ) perform Tchaikovsky 's Rococo Variations to rapturous applause .
= = Release and reception = =
The Prince and Princess of Wales attended the film 's premiere on 27 June 1987 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . The Living Daylights grossed the equivalent of $ 191 @.@ 2 million worldwide . In the United States it earned $ 51 @,@ 185 @,@ 000 , including an opening weekend of $ 11 @,@ 051 @,@ 284 , surpassing the $ 5 million grossed by The Lost Boys that was released on the same day .
In the film , Koskov and Whitaker repeatedly use vehicles and drug packets marked with the Red Cross . This action angered a number of Red Cross Societies , which sent letters of protest regarding the film . In addition , the British Red Cross attempted to prosecute the filmmakers and distributors . However , no legal action was taken . As a result , a disclaimer was added at the start of the film and some DVD releases .
The Living Daylights has a " Fresh " score of 70 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 50 reviews . IGN lauded the film for bringing back realism and espionage to the film series , and showing James Bond 's dark side . Many , including John J. Puccio and Chuck O 'Leary , praised Timothy Dalton 's performance and his performing most of the stunts himself . The Washington Post even said Dalton developed " the best Bond ever . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticised the lack of humour in the protagonist , however , while Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail wrote of Dalton 's Bond that " you get the feeling that on his off nights , he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting " .
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= Pavel Nedvěd =
Pavel Nedvěd ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈpavɛl ˈnɛdvjɛt ] ; born 30 August 1972 ) is a Czech retired footballer who played as a midfielder . Described as one of the best footballers of his generation , he is also regarded as one of the most successful players to emerge from the Czech Republic , winning domestic and European accolades with Italian clubs Lazio ( including the last Cup Winners ' Cup ) and Juventus ( whom he led to the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final ) .
Nedvěd was a key member of the Czech team which reached the final of Euro 1996 , during which he attracted international attention . He also captained the national team at Euro 2004 , where they were defeated in the semi @-@ final by eventual champions Greece , and Nedvěd was named as part of the Team of the Tournament . Furthermore , Nedvěd helped his team qualify for the World Cup for the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . Due to his performances , as well as his quick and energetic runs during matches , Nedvěd was nicknamed Furia Ceca ( " Czech Fury " ) by Italian fans and The Czech cannon in English @-@ language media .
Winning the Ballon d 'Or as European Footballer of the Year in 2003 , Nedvěd was the second Czech player to receive the honour and the first since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . During his career Nedvěd received a number of other individual awards , including the second Golden Foot award in 2004 , Czech Footballer of the Year ( four times ) and the Golden Ball ( six times ) . He was also named by Pelé as one of the FIFA 100 , and was placed in the UEFA Team of the Year in 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 . He retired following the 2008 – 09 season , after a 19 @-@ year professional career . Nedvěd played 501 league matches at the club level ( scoring 110 goals ) , and was capped 91 times for the Czech Republic ( scoring 18 times ) .
= = Club career = =
= = = Czech Republic = = =
Born in Cheb and raised in nearby Skalná , Nedvěd began his football career in his native Czechoslovakia . A football fan from an early age , he began playing for his hometown club Tatran Skalná in 1977 at the age of five . Nedvěd moved on to Rudá Hvězda Cheb in 1985 , playing one season before spending five years with Škoda Plzeň . In 1990 , Nedvěd was loaned to Dukla Prague , a club run by the Army , as part of his military service . During his first year at Dukla Prague , he played for VTJ Dukla Tábor , a lower division club also operated by the army . On 28 October 1991 , Nedvěd played his first match for Dukla Prague . He played one season for Dukla in 1991 before finishing his military service , thus ending his loan from Plzeň . He then transferred to Sparta Prague in 1992 . Plzeň was to receive 30 percent of the transfer fee should Nedvěd transfer to a foreign club .
Early in his career at Sparta , Nedvěd was sent off three times in just six matches . With Sparta , Nedvěd won one Czechoslovak First League title , two Gambrinus liga titles and a Czech Cup . In 1994 , he received his first call up to the Czech Republic national football team . His performance at Euro 1996 , including a goal in the group stage match against Italy , attracted attention ; despite a verbal agreement with PSV Eindhoven , Nedvěd moved from Sparta Prague to Italian Serie A team Lazio . Sparta first sold Nedvěd to Slovak club 1 . FC Košice ( which had the same owner as Sparta ) for a transfer fee of 1 @.@ 5 million CZK , and immediately , Košice sold Nedvěd to Lazio . Thus Sparta paid only a small fraction of the transfer fee to Plzeň . After Plzeň 's protest , Czech football association ordered Sparta to pay Plzeň 35 million CZK in compensation .
Nedvěd signed a four @-@ year contract for a fee of ₤ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Lazio = = =
Nedvěd made his league debut for Lazio on 7 September 1996 in a 1 – 0 away defeat against Bologna . He scored his first league goal for the club against Cagliari on 20 October 1996 , finishing the 1996 – 97 season with seven goals . He became an integral part of the side , scoring four goals in three matches early in the 1997 – 98 season . The club had a 24 @-@ game unbeaten streak from November 1997 to April 1998 , ending with a league match against Juventus in which Nedvěd was sent off . That season , Lazio won the 1997 – 98 Coppa Italia and reached the final of the 1997 – 98 UEFA Cup . Nedvěd and Lazio began the 1998 – 99 season with a victory in the Supercoppa Italiana , Nedvěd scoring as the club defeated Juventus 2 – 1 . He played a role in Lazio 's road to the last @-@ ever Cup Winners ' Cup , scoring against Lausanne in the first round and in both legs of Lazio 's 7 – 0 aggregate quarter @-@ final victory over Panionios . In the 1999 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final , Nedvěd scored the decisive goal against Mallorca for Lazio 's 2 – 1 win . This proved to be the last goal of the tournament , which was later discontinued .
Nedvěd was one of the ten highest @-@ paid footballers in the Italian league in 1999 . He played in the 1999 UEFA Super Cup against Manchester United at the beginning of the season , where Lazio won the match by a single goal . The club went on to win the Serie A title and Coppa Italia , completing a domestic double in 2000 with Nedvěd 's help ; he won the Supercoppa Italiana with Lazio for a second time in 2000 . With Siniša Mihajlović , Nedvěd was one of two Lazio players sent off in the quarter @-@ final of the 2000 Coppa Italia held in December ; the defending champions lost 5 – 3 on aggregate to Udinese . Nedvěd played UEFA Champions League football with Lazio , scoring against Real Madrid in a 2 – 2 draw in the second group stage before the Italian side were eliminated . In Lazio 's final Champions League match of the season , Nedvěd was criticised by Leeds United manager David O 'Leary for a challenge on Alan Maybury ( although the referee did not call a foul ) and he received a three @-@ match suspension from European competition from UEFA .
Despite Nedvěd 's signing a new four @-@ year contract with Lazio in April 2001 , the club tried to sell him and teammate Juan Sebastián Verón that summer ; this triggered fan protests against club president Sergio Cragnotti . The players were ultimately sold to Juventus and Manchester United , respectively .
= = = Juventus = = =
After five seasons with Lazio , Nedvěd was speculatively linked to several clubs ( including Manchester United and Chelsea ) before moving to Juventus in 2001 for € 41 million . At Juventus he replaced Zinedine Zidane , who had transferred to Spain 's Real Madrid that summer . Nedvěd was a regular on Juventus ' 2001 – 02 and 2002 – 03 Scudetto @-@ winning teams . Although he was a substantial part of the club 's championship season in 2003 , he was also the subject of controversy . Nedvěd quit the Italian Footballers ' Association in protest of the union 's limit on non @-@ EU players ; his native Czech Republic did not become an EU member until 2004 . Although he was instrumental in leading Juventus to the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan , he had to sit out the final because of an accumulation of yellow cards after his semifinal booking for a foul on Real Madrid midfielder Steve McManaman .
In December 2003 , Nedvěd was named World Footballer of the Year by World Soccer . Later that month he won the European Footballer of the Year award over Thierry Henry and Paolo Maldini , the second Czech to win the award ( after Josef Masopust in 1962 ) . Nedvěd received further recognition in his home country when he won the 2004 Golden Ball , awarded by Czech sportswriters , for the fifth time in seven years .
The 2004 – 05 season was frustrating for the midfielder , who was sidelined for two months by knee and head injuries and first considered retirement in April 2005 . Although Juventus won Serie A titles that year and in 2006 , the titles were revoked after the Calciopoli match fixing scandal . After the 2005 – 06 season , which ended with Juventus ' relegation from Serie A despite its first @-@ place finish , many stars ( such as Fabio Cannavaro and Lilian Thuram ) left the club and the remaining players ' future was uncertain . After the World Cup Nedvěd dispelled rumours about his departure by reiterating his desire to help Juventus regain promotion to Serie A , citing his family and his commitment to the club as reasons for his decision . He received a five @-@ game ban after a red card against Genoa in December 2006 , and repeated his threat to retire . However , he remained with the club until the end of the season and scored 11 league goals in the 2006 – 07 Serie B.
For the 2007 – 08 season , Juventus again played in Serie A. Nedvěd played frequently for the Bianconeri , contributing as the team 's first @-@ choice left winger and scoring two goals that season . He was again controversial , with his November 2007 tackle of Internazionale midfielder Luís Figo breaking the Portuguese player 's fibula . In April 2008 , Nedvěd was hospitalised overnight for a concussion sustained in a collision with Roberto Guana during a match against Palermo .
Nedvěd scored Juventus ' first league goal of the 2008 – 09 season in a 1 – 1 away draw with Fiorentina , and scored twice against Bologna in a 2 – 1 away win in October . On 26 February 2009 , Nedvěd announced that he would retire at the end of 2008 – 09 season to spend more time with his family . On 10 March 2009 , Nedvěd was substituted due to injury after 12 minutes of the Champions League last @-@ 16 second leg match against Chelsea . Due to his impending retirement and his club 's 3 – 2 loss on aggregate , it was his last European game for Juventus . Nedvěd retired at the end of the season , captaining the final match against former team Lazio and setting up Vincenzo Iaquinta 's goal for a 2 – 0 victory .
= = International career = =
Nedvěd began playing for Czechoslovak national youth teams in 1988 , representing his country in the under @-@ 15 age group before progressing to 16 , 17 and 18 . In 1992 he made his first appearance on the under @-@ 21 team , playing seven times between 1992 and 1993 .
The midfielder debuted for the re @-@ formed Czech national team in June 1994 in a 3 – 1 win over the Republic of Ireland . His first major tournament was Euro 1996 , where he scored his first senior international goal and helped his team reach the final . He was also part of the Czech team that placed third in the 1997 FIFA Confederations Cup , defeating Uruguay in the third @-@ place match . Nedvěd scored two goals during the tournament , both which came during the Czech Republic 's 6 @-@ 1 win over the United Arab Emirates in their final group match , which allowed them to progress to the semi @-@ finals , where they were defeated by eventual champions Brazil .
= = = Euro 1996 = = =
The Czech Republic were not expected to make an impact against the favoured German side in their opening match ; Nedvěd missed two scoring chances and was one of ten players to receive a yellow card as Germany won 2 – 0 . He contributed defensively , however , clearing a goal @-@ bound shot from Christian Ziege off the line .
Nedvěd scored his first senior international goal in his nation 's Group C match against Italy , putting the Czech Republic in the lead 1 – 0 after four minutes . Although Italy scored an equaliser during the first half , they were reduced to ten men and the Czech Republic scored again before halftime for a 2 – 1 win . Nedvěd played in the third group match , against Russia , getting his second yellow card of the tournament as the Czechs tied 3 – 3 to advance to the knockout stage .
Due to a suspension , Nedvěd missed the Czech Republic 's quarter @-@ final game against Portugal ; however , the Czechs won in his absence and progressed . In the semifinal match against France , Nedvěd was named man of the match as the Czech Republic advanced to the final after a penalty shoot – out when he scored his team 's second penalty shot . He and the Czech Republic team lost 2 – 1 in the final to Germany , who scored a golden goal .
= = = Euro 2000 = = =
Before Euro 2000 , Nedvěd was unable to train normally due to an ankle injury . The Czechs ' first match ( against the Netherlands ) saw him and international teammate Jan Koller hit the woodwork without scoring , before the Dutch scored a controversial penalty to win 1 – 0 . In the second match , against France , he was fouled ; the resultant Czech penalty was converted by Karel Poborský to even the score 1 – 1 . Despite two shots on goal , Nedvěd could not beat French goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and France won the match 2 – 1 . He played in the third group match , against Denmark ; despite the Czechs ' 2 – 0 victory , the team was eliminated from the tournament . After Euro 2000 , Nedvěd took over the national team captaincy from Jiří Němec .
= = = Euro 2004 = = =
Nedvěd was instrumental in the Euro 2004 group stage match against the Netherlands . Two goals down after 19 minutes , he gave a man of the match performance as the Czechs rebounded to win 3 – 2 . Nine players ( including Nedvěd ) were rested for the group match against Germany , with the Czechs already qualified for the knockout stage . He received a yellow card , upheld on appeal , in the quarter @-@ final match against Denmark ; this meant that Nedvěd would miss the final if he received another yellow card in the semifinal against Greece . However , Greece defeated the Czech Republic and Nedvěd was substituted after a knee injury . After their exit from the tournament , Nedvěd announced his retirement from the national team ; he was named to the Team of the Tournament with countrymen Petr Čech and Milan Baroš .
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
The midfielder was persuaded by coach Karel Brückner and his teammates to come out of international retirement in time for the World Cup qualification playoffs against Norway , in which the Czech Republic qualified for the final tournament for the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . Although Nedvěd 's World Cup participation was jeopardised by a June knee injury , he was able to play .
The Czechs won the first match of the 2006 FIFA World Cup with 3 – 0 against the United States , but key players were injured ; they lost their next two group matches against Ghana and eventual winners Italy , finishing third in their group . Nedvěd 's apparent goal at the beginning of the second half in the match against Ghana was ruled offside . His shots on goal against Italy were saved by Juventus teammate Gianluigi Buffon . Nedvěd again announced his retirement from the international scene before the August 2006 friendly match against Serbia and Montenegro , in which he made his 91st ( and final ) appearance . He refused to reverse his decision before Euro 2008 , despite requests from teammates and Brückner . In the 91 appearances he made for his national side , Nedvěd scored 18 goals .
= = Style of play = =
A complete , tenacious and consistent two @-@ footed player , Nedved frequently played as a left @-@ sided , offensive wide midfielder or as a left @-@ winger throughout his career , due to his crossing ability with his left foot , as well as due to his ability to cut inside and shoot with his right foot , although he was capable of playing anywhere in midfield due to his offensive and defensive work @-@ rate . He was also deployed as a central midfielder on occasion , as well as in an attacking midfield and playmaking role , or as a supporting striker , where he excelled as an assist @-@ man due to his excellent dribbling ability , passing range , and vision . Primarily known for his powerful shots and volleys from distance , as well as his stamina , he was also noted for his speed , endurance , technique and goal @-@ scoring ability . He was also an accurate set @-@ piece and penalty kick taker .
Nedvěd was nicknamed Furia Ceca by Italian fans , who noted his skill , consistency and verve , as well as his stamina , pace , power , and determination . In the English @-@ language media , he was called " the Czech cannon " . His former Lazio boss Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson described him as " an atypical midfielder , totally complete " . Despite his ability and tenacious playing style , Nedvěd was also criticised by some in the sport for going to ground too easily when challenged .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Nedvěd ran the Prague Half Marathon in 2010 ( his first race at the distance ) , finishing the course in 1 : 49 : 44 . He ran the 2012 Prague Marathon in a time of 3 : 50 : 02 for the 42 @-@ km course . Exor ( the Agnelli family 's investment company ) nominated Nedvěd for a seat on the Juventus board of directors on 12 October 2010 ; he joined the board on 27 October 2012 , and remains a member . Nedvěd was named International Personality at the 2012 FAI International Football Awards in February . In January 2013 , Nedvěd was banned from attending Serie A games for three weeks after he insulted referee Paolo Valeri during Juventus ' game against Sampdoria .
On 23 October 2015 Nedvěd was appointed vice @-@ president of his former club Juventus .
= = Personal life = =
The son of Václav and Anna , Nedvěd has lived with his wife Ivana since 1992 . The couple have two children , named Ivana and Pavel after their parents . Nedvěd 's 2010 autobiography was published in Italian as La mia vita normale : di corsa tra rivoluzione , Europa , e pallone d 'oro . It was translated into Czech as Můj obyčejný život and released in the Czech Republic in 2011 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Sources : League matches , Coppa Italia stats at Juventus , European competition stats
Notes
= = = International = = =
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Czech Republic 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Sparta Prague
Czechoslovak First League : 1992 – 93
Czech Republic Football League : 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
Czech Cup : 1996
Lazio
Serie A : 1999 – 2000
Coppa Italia : 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000
Supercoppa Italiana : 1998 , 2000
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup : 1998 – 99
UEFA Super Cup : 1999
UEFA Cup : Runner @-@ up 1997 – 98
Juventus
Serie A : 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03
Supercoppa Italiana : 2002 , 2003
Serie B : 2006 – 07
UEFA Champions League : Runner @-@ up 2002 – 03
Coppa Italia : Runner @-@ up 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04
= = = International = = =
Czech Republic
UEFA European Championship :
Runner @-@ up : 1996
Semi @-@ finalist : 2004
FIFA Confederations Cup :
Third place : 1997
= = = Individual = = =
Golden Ball ( Czech Republic ) : 1998 , 2000 , 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , 2009
Největší Čech ( List of Greatest Czechs ) : 41st place
Czech Footballer of the Year : 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2004
ESM Team of the Year : 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03
Sportsperson of the Year ( Czech Republic ) : 2003
Serie A Footballer of the Year : 2003
Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year : 2003
UEFA Club Best Midfielder of the Year : 2002 – 03
World Soccer Awards Player of the Year : 2003
Ballon d 'Or : 2003
UEFA Team of the Year : 2003 , 2004 , 2005
UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament : 2004
Golden Foot : 2004
FIFA 100 : 2004
FAI International Football Awards – International Personality : 2012
UEFA Ultimate Team of the Year ( substitute ; published 2015 )
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= PS Washington Irving =
The PS Washington Irving was a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) sidewheel day boat and the flagship of the Hudson River Day Line that operated on the Hudson River from 1913 to 1926 .
The Washington Irving collided with an oil barge in the fog on 1 June 1926 on the North River . With the aid of tugboats , it reached shore at Pier 12 , Jersey City , where it sank soon thereafter . Out of 200 passengers and 105 crew , three died as a result of the accident .
Its removal was complicated due to its sinking upon the site of the Holland Tunnel , which was under construction . It remained submerged there until 13 February 1927 , when it was raised and determined to be a total loss . A bond was issued for its replacement .
= = Characteristics = =
The quadruple @-@ decker Washington Irving , named after the author Washington Irving , was built in 1912 by the New York Shipbuilding Company for contract number 126 with machinery built by W. & A. Fletcher Company of Hoboken , New Jersey . The ship was launched 7 December 1912 and delivered 3 May 1913 for use in the New York City @-@ Albany service .
Naval architect Frank E. Kirby , designer of large Great Lakes passenger steamers , collaborated with the New York City firm J. W. Millard & Brothers , designers of ferry boats , to design the ship . Kirby 's Seeandbee , launched 9 November 1912 at the Detroit Shipbuilding Company , was the largest side wheel ship in the world at the time . Preliminary design tests on hull form were conducted by at the University of Michigan determining the best form for minimum wave making resistance in shallow water at high speeds . With a carrying capacity of 6 @,@ 000 passengers , it had the largest passenger @-@ carrying capacity of any riverboat built at the time of its construction .
The steel hulled steamer measured 416 feet 6 inches ( 126 @.@ 9 m ) length overall , 86 feet 6 inches ( 26 @.@ 4 m ) beam over all , 44 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) molded beam , 14 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) depth and 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) draft . The ship 's tonnage was 4 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) . Seven transverse bulkheads divided the hull with extensive strengthening for rigidity of the five decks to prevent hogging and sagging without use of visible hogging girders prevalent on older vessels of the type . Steel and asbestos were used in hull and superstructure , particularly in high exposure areas such as fire room and galley , whenever practical for fire protection .
Propulsion was by steel , fethering paddles 24 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter 6 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) driven by a three @-@ cylinder compound inclined engine with cylinders measuring 45 inches ( 110 cm ) , 70 inches ( 180 cm ) and 70 inches ( 180 cm ) with an 84 inches ( 210 cm ) stroke . Four single ended and two double ended Scotch boilers provided steam . The single ended boilers measured 12 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) diameter by 11 feet 11 inches ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) length and the double ended boilers were 12 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) diameter by 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) in length with coal consumption of five tons per hour. operating speed was 23 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ) or , in marine terms , 20 @.@ 4 knots . Two 35 kilowatt Kerr turbo generators provided electrical power .
The ship had three smoke stacks amidships for its boilers , but the forward stack was non @-@ functioning ; only added for aesthetic purposes . The ship began service with the Hudson River Day Line as their flagship steamer from 1913 to 1926 .
Washington Irving was intended solely for passenger day service and neither sleeping nor cargo spaces were incorporated in design . Nineteen private " balcony parlors " were available with the rest of the spaces being large public spaces with decor based on the Irving period . A large writing room 's design was based on the Alhambra . Forward , below the main deck , was a large lunch room patterened on the Old Cock Tavern of London and a ladies lounge was patterned on Irving 's study at " Sunnyside " . The main dining room , on the after main deck , was purely in Colonial style . The main saloon on the main deck blended Moorish and Knickerbocker designs and was among the largest rooms afloat . The vessel had about 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 ha ) of outside deck space and rooms were fitted with large plate glass for views of the river . Though licensed for 6 @,@ 000 passengers , breaking a record for such ships previously held by consort Hendrik Hudson , the deck space would have made it possible to carry 1 @,@ 400 more than its 6 @,@ 000 capacity license allowed .
= = Service life = =
The Washington Irving operated daily leisure passenger service up and down the Hudson River . Its maiden voyage was on Saturday , 17 May 1913 from the Desbrosses Street Pier in New York City with a destination of Albany . On that voyage , fifty oil paintings by artists illustrating the Irving period were on view . Tickets for the maiden voyage sold for $ 1 @.@ 00 .
Washington Irving replaced the Robert Fulton on the New York to Albany run . The ship remained in service up until its sinking in 1926 and was the only ship in service ever to be lost by the Day Line . The first pilot of the Washington Irving from 1913 through 1923 was Captain Van Woert .
= = Sinking = =
Soon after departing the Desbrosses Street Pier on its way to Albany in the morning fog of 1 June 1926 , Washington Irving was struck , a little after 9 : 00am , by one of two oil barges being pushed by the tug boat Thomas E. Moran . The collision damaged Washington Irving 's starboard side below the water line just aft of amidships , allowing water to rush into the engine rooms . The collision resulted in a hole measuring 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide . The Captain , David H. Deming , ordered all passengers to put on life preservers and whistled the " Ship 's afire " signal of two long and three short blasts repeatedly . A chaos of shouts prevailed as the passengers tried to don life vests and locate their children in the fog . An inability to see any land increased the alarm of the passengers despite the Captain 's shouts that all would be safe and he ordered the jazz band to resume playing their music and maintain their post until rescue .
Assisted by tug boats , Washington Irving reached shore at the then under construction Pier 12 , Jersey City and sank five minutes later . Three passengers died as a result of the accident . Wylma Wood Hoag , ( wife of Lynne Arthur Hoag and mother to Arthur Allen Hoag ) , their three @-@ year @-@ old daughter Mary , and B. Woods , a steward , who was trapped in a cabin far below deck . The accident was determined to be unavoidable due to " the unusual and unexpected strength of the tidal current , possibly below the surface " after an inquiry by the United States Steamship Inspection Board closed on 9 June 1926 .
Washington Irving was valued at $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 but insured for much less . The barge suffered only $ 8 @,@ 000 of damages . At the time of the sinking , Alexander McKinney was the head porter . He had joined the Day Line in 1905 and continued in their service till at least 1964 .
= = Aftermath = =
Washington Irving had sunk on top of the New York @-@ New Jersey vehicular tube complicating its removal . The wreck became a menace to navigation and was struck at 3am on 16 June by a railroad car float . Washington Irving was raised on 13 February 1927 and towed to a dry dock to determine whether its condition warranted repair . In March , Washington Irving was determined to be a total loss and a bond was issued to refinance the company 's debt and to provide financing for its replacement , the Peter Stuyvesant . The Peter Stuyvesant was originally estimated to cost $ 700 @,@ 000 , but when the boat was completed in June , the final cost was closer to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
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= Henry Wood =
Sir Henry Joseph Wood CH ( 3 March 1869 – 19 August 1944 ) was an English conductor best known for his association with London 's annual series of promenade concerts , known as the Proms . He conducted them for nearly half a century , introducing hundreds of new works to British audiences . After his death , the concerts were officially renamed in his honour as the " Henry Wood Promenade Concerts " , although they continued to be generally referred to as " the Proms " .
Born in modest circumstances to parents who encouraged his musical talent , Wood started his career as an organist . During his studies at the Royal Academy of Music , he came under the influence of the voice teacher Manuel Garcia and became his accompanist . After similar work for Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's opera companies on the works of Arthur Sullivan and others , Wood became the conductor of a small operatic touring company . He was soon engaged by the larger Carl Rosa Opera Company . One notable event in his operatic career was conducting the British premiere of Tchaikovsky 's Eugene Onegin in 1892 .
From the mid @-@ 1890s until his death , Wood focused on concert conducting . He was engaged by the impresario Robert Newman to conduct a series of promenade concerts at the Queen 's Hall , offering a mixture of classical and popular music at low prices . The series was successful , and Wood conducted annual promenade series until his death in 1944 . By the 1920s , Wood had steered the repertoire entirely to classical music . When the Queen 's Hall was destroyed by bombing in 1941 , the Proms moved to the Royal Albert Hall .
Wood declined the chief conductorships of the New York Philharmonic and Boston Symphony Orchestras , believing it his duty to serve music in the United Kingdom . In addition to the Proms , he conducted concerts and festivals throughout the country and also trained the student orchestra at the Royal Academy of Music . He had an enormous influence on the musical life of Britain over his long career : he and Newman greatly improved access to classical music , and Wood raised the standard of orchestral playing and nurtured the taste of the public , presenting a vast repertoire of music spanning four centuries .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Wood was born in Oxford Street , London , the only child of Henry Joseph Wood and his wife Martha , née Morris . Wood senior had started in his family 's pawnbroking business , but by the time of his son 's birth he was trading as a jeweller , optician and engineering modeller , much sought @-@ after for his model engines . It was a musical household : Wood senior was an amateur cellist and sang as principal tenor in the choir of St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate , known as " the musicians ' church " . His wife played the piano and sang songs from her native Wales . They encouraged their son 's interest in music , buying him a Broadwood piano , on which his mother gave him lessons . The young Wood also learned to play the violin and viola .
Wood received little religious inspiration at St Sepulchre , but was deeply stirred by the playing of the resident organist , George Cooper , who allowed him into the organ loft and gave him his first lessons on the instrument . Cooper died when Wood was seven , and the boy took further lessons from Cooper 's successor , Edwin M. Lott , for whom Wood had much less regard . At the age of ten , through the influence of one of his uncles , Wood made his first paid appearance as an organist at St Mary Aldermanbury , being paid half a crown . In June 1883 , visiting the Fisheries Exhibition at South Kensington with his father , Wood was invited to play the organ in one of the galleries , making a good enough impression to be engaged to give recitals at the exhibition building over the next three months . At this time in his life , painting was nearly as strong an interest as music , and he studied in his spare time at the Slade School of Fine Art . He remained a life @-@ long amateur painter .
After taking private lessons from the musicologist Ebenezer Prout , Wood entered the Royal Academy of Music at the age of seventeen , studying harmony and composition with Prout , organ with Charles Steggall , and piano with Walter Macfarren . It is not clear whether he was a member of Manuel Garcia 's singing class , but it is certain that he became its accompanist and was greatly influenced by Garcia . Wood also accompanied the opera class , taught by Garcia 's son Gustave . Wood 's ambition at the time was to become a teacher of singing , and he gave singing lessons throughout his life . He attended the classes of as many singing teachers as he could , although by his own account , " I possess a terrible voice . Garcia said it would go through a brick wall . In fact , a real conductor 's voice . "
= = = Opera = = =
On leaving the Royal Academy of Music in 1888 , Wood taught singing privately and was soon very successful , attracting " more singing pupils than I could comfortably deal with " at half a guinea an hour . He also worked as a répétiteur . According to his memoirs , he worked in that capacity for Richard D 'Oyly Carte during the rehearsals for the first production of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy Theatre in 1888 . His biographer Arthur Jacobs doubts this and discounts exchanges Wood purported to have had with Sir Arthur Sullivan about the score . Jacobs describes Wood 's memoirs as " vivacious in style but factually unreliable " .
It is certain , however , that Wood was répétiteur at Carte 's Royal English Opera House for Sullivan 's grand opera Ivanhoe in late 1890 and early 1891 , and for André Messager 's La Basoche in 1891 – 92 . He also worked for Carte at the Savoy as assistant to François Cellier on The Nautch Girl in 1891 . Wood remained devoted to Sullivan 's music and later insisted on programming his concert works when they were out of fashion in musical circles . During this period , he had several compositions of his own performed , including an oratorio , St. Dorothea ( 1889 ) , a light opera , Daisy ( 1890 ) , and a one @-@ act comic opera , Returning the Compliment ( 1890 ) .
Wood recalled that his first professional appearance as a conductor was at a choral concert in December 1887 . Ad hoc engagements of this kind were commonplace for organists , but they brought little prestige such as was given to British conductor @-@ composers such as Sullivan , Charles Villiers Stanford and Alexander Mackenzie , or the rising generation of German star conductors led by Hans Richter and Arthur Nikisch . His first sustained work as a conductor was his 1889 appointment as musical director of a small touring opera ensemble , the Arthur Rouseby English Touring Opera . The company was not of a high standard , with an orchestra of only six players augmented by local recruits at each tour venue . Wood eventually negotiated a release from his contract , and after a brief return to teaching he secured a better appointment as conductor for the Carl Rosa Opera Company in 1891 . For that company he conducted Carmen , The Bohemian Girl , The Daughter of the Regiment , Maritana , and Il trovatore . This appointment was followed by a similar engagement with a company set up by former Carl Rosa singers .
When Signor Lago , formerly impresario of the Imperial Opera Company of St. Petersburg , was looking for a second conductor to work with Luigi Arditi for a proposed London season , Garcia recommended Wood . The season opened at the newly rebuilt Olympic Theatre in London , in October 1892 , with Wood conducting the British premiere of Tchaikovsky 's Eugene Onegin . At that time the operatic conductor was not seen as an important figure , but the critics who chose to mention the conducting gave Wood good reviews . The work was not popular with the public , and the season was cut short when Lago absconded , leaving the company unpaid . Before that debacle , Wood had also conducted performances of Maritana and rehearsed Oberon and Der Freischütz . After the collapse of the Olympic opera season , Wood returned once more to his singing tuition . With the exception of a season at the Opera Comique in 1896 , Wood 's subsequent conducting career was in the concert hall .
= = = Early years of the Proms = = =
In 1894 Wood went to the Wagner festival at Bayreuth where he met the conductor Felix Mottl , who subsequently appointed him as his assistant and chorus master for a series of Wagner concerts at the newly built Queen 's Hall in London . The manager of the hall , Robert Newman , was proposing to run a ten @-@ week season of promenade concerts and , impressed by Wood , invited him to conduct . There had been such concerts in London since 1838 , under conductors from Louis Antoine Jullien to Arthur Sullivan . Sullivan 's concerts in the 1870s had been particularly successful , because he offered his audiences something more than the usual light music . He introduced major classical works , such as Beethoven symphonies , normally restricted to the more expensive concerts presented by the Philharmonic Society and others . Newman aimed to do the same : " I am going to run nightly concerts and train the public by easy stages . Popular at first , gradually raising the standard until I have created a public for classical and modern music . "
Newman 's determination to make the promenade concerts attractive to everyone led him to permit smoking during concerts , which was not formally prohibited at the Proms until 1971 . Refreshments were available in all parts of the hall throughout the concerts , not only during intervals . Prices were considerably lower than those customarily charged for classical concerts : the promenade ( the standing area ) was one shilling , the balcony two shillings , and the grand circle ( reserved seats ) three and five shillings .
Newman needed to find financial backing for his first season . Dr George Cathcart , a wealthy ear , nose and throat specialist , offered to sponsor it on two conditions : that Wood should conduct every concert , and that the pitch of the orchestral instruments should be lowered to the European standard diapason normal . Concert pitch in England was nearly a semitone higher than that used on the continent , and Cathcart regarded it as damaging for singers ' voices . Wood , from his experience as a singing teacher , agreed . As members of Wood 's brass and woodwind sections were unwilling to buy new low @-@ pitched instruments , Cathcart imported a set from Belgium and lent them to the players . After a season , the players recognised that the low pitch would be permanently adopted , and they bought the instruments from him .
On 10 August 1895 , the first of the Queen 's Hall Promenade Concerts took place . Among those present who later recalled the opening was the singer Agnes Nicholls :
Just before 8 o 'clock I saw Henry Wood take up his position behind the curtain at the end of the platform – watch in hand . Punctually , on the stroke of eight , he walked quickly to the rostrum , buttonhole and all , and began the National Anthem ... A few moments for the audience to settle down , then the Rienzi Overture , and the first concert of the new Promenades had begun .
The rest of the programme comprised , in the words of an historian of the Proms , David Cox , " for the most part ... blatant trivialities . " Within days , however , Wood was shifting the balance from light music to mainstream classical works , with Schubert 's Unfinished Symphony and further excerpts from Wagner operas . Among the other symphonies Wood conducted during the first season were Schubert 's Great C Major , Mendelssohn 's Italian and Schumann 's Fourth . The concertos included Mendelssohn 's Violin Concerto and Schumann 's Piano Concerto . During the season Wood presented 23 novelties , including the London premieres of pieces by Richard Strauss , Tchaikovsky , Glazunov , Massenet and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . Newman and Wood soon felt able to devote every Monday night of the season principally to Wagner and every Friday night to Beethoven , a pattern that endured for decades .
The income from the concerts did not permit generous rehearsal time . Wood had nine hours to rehearse all the music for each week 's six concerts . To gain the best results on so little rehearsal , Wood developed two facets of his conducting that remained his trademark throughout his career . First , he bought sets of the orchestral parts and marked them all with minutely detailed instructions to the players ; secondly he developed a clear and expressive conducting technique . An orchestral cellist wrote that " if you watched him , you couldn 't come in wrong . " The violist Bernard Shore wrote , " You may be reading at sight in public , but you can 't possibly go wrong with that stick in front of you " . Thirty @-@ five years after Wood 's death , André Previn recounted a story by one of his players who recalled that Wood " had everything planned out and timed to the minute ... at 10 a.m. precisely his baton went down . You learned things so thoroughly with him , but in the most economical time . "
Another feature of Wood 's conducting was his insistence on accurate tuning ; before each rehearsal and concert he would check the instrument of each member of the woodwind and string sections against a tuning fork . He persisted in this practice until 1937 , when the excellence of the BBC Symphony Orchestra persuaded him that it was no longer necessary . To improve ensemble , Wood experimented with the layout of the orchestra . His preferred layout was to have the first and second violins grouped together on his left , with the cellos to his right , a layout that has since become common .
Between the first and second season of promenade concerts , Wood did his last work in the opera house , conducting Stanford 's new opera Shamus O 'Brien at the Opera Comique . It ran from March until July 1896 , leaving Wood enough time to prepare the second Queen 's Hall season , which began at the end of August . The season was so successful that Newman followed it with a winter season of Saturday night promenade concerts , but despite being popular they were not a financial success , and were not repeated in later years . In January 1897 Wood took on the direction of the Queen 's Hall 's prestigious Saturday afternoon symphony concerts . He continually presented new works by composers of many nationalities , and was particularly known for his skill in Russian music . Sullivan wrote to him in 1898 , " I have never heard a finer performance in England than that of the Tchaikovsky symphony under your direction last Wednesday " . Seventy @-@ five years later , Sir Adrian Boult ranked Wood as one of the two greatest Tchaikovsky conductors in his long experience . Wood also successfully challenged the widespread belief that Englishmen were not capable of conducting Wagner . When Wood and the Queen 's Hall Orchestra performed at Windsor Castle in November 1898 , Queen Victoria chose Tchaikovsky and Wagner for the programme . Wood , who modelled his appearance on Nikisch , took it as a compliment that the queen said to him , " Tell me , Mr Wood , are you quite English ? "
In 1898 , Wood married one of his singing pupils , Olga Michailoff , a divorcée a few months his senior . Jacobs describes it as " a marriage of perfect professional and private harmony " . As a singer , with Wood as her accompanist , she won praise from the critics .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
The promenade concerts flourished through the 1890s , but in 1902 Newman , who had been investing unwisely in theatrical presentations , found himself unable to bear the financial responsibility for the Queen 's Hall Orchestra and was declared bankrupt . The concerts were rescued by the musical benefactor Sir Edgar Speyer , a banker of German origin . Speyer put up the necessary funds , retained Newman as manager of the concerts , and encouraged him and Wood to continue with their project of improving the public 's taste . At the beginning of 1902 , Wood accepted the conductorship of that year 's Sheffield triennial festival . He continued to be associated with that festival until 1936 , changing its emphasis from choral to orchestral pieces . A German critic , reviewing the festival for a Berlin publication , wrote , " Two personalities now represent a new epoch in English musical life – Edward Elgar as composer , and Henry J. Wood as conductor . " Later in the year , overtaxed by his enormous workload , Wood 's health broke down . Even though this was during the Proms season , Cathcart insisted that Wood should have a complete break and change of scene . Leaving the leader of the orchestra , Arthur Payne , to conduct during his absence , Wood and his wife took a cruise to Morocco , missing the Proms concerts from 13 October to 8 November .
In the early years of the Proms there were complaints in some musical journals that Wood was neglecting British music . In 1899 Newman unsuccessfully attempted to secure for Wood the premiere of Elgar 's Enigma Variations , but in the same year Newman passed up the opportunity to introduce the music of Delius to London concertgoers . By the end of the first decade of the new century , however , Wood 's reputation in conducting British music was in no doubt ; he gave the world , British or London premieres of more than a hundred British works between 1900 and 1910 . Meanwhile , he introduced his audiences to many European composers . In the 1903 season , he programmed symphonies by Bruckner ( No. 7 ) , Sibelius ( No. 1 ) , and Mahler ( No. 1 ) . In the same year , he introduced several of Richard Strauss 's tone poems to London , and in 1905 he gave Strauss 's Symphonia Domestica . This prompted the composer to write , " I cannot leave London without an expression of admiration for the splendid Orchestra which Henry Wood 's master hand has created in such a short time . "
Creating the orchestra admired by Strauss had not been achieved without a struggle . In 1904 , Wood and Newman tackled the deputy system , in which orchestral players , if offered a better @-@ paid engagement , could send a substitute to a rehearsal or a concert . The treasurer of the Royal Philharmonic Society described it thus : " A , whom you want , signs to play at your concert . He sends B ( whom you don 't mind ) to the first rehearsal . B , without your knowledge or consent , sends C to the second rehearsal . Not being able to play at the concert , C sends D , whom you would have paid five shillings to stay away . " After a rehearsal in which Wood was faced with a sea of entirely unfamiliar faces in his own orchestra , Newman came on the platform to announce : " Gentlemen , in future there will be no deputies ; good morning . " Forty players resigned en bloc and formed their own orchestra : the London Symphony Orchestra . Wood bore no grudge and attended their first concert , although it was 12 years before he agreed to conduct the orchestra .
Wood had great sympathy for rank @-@ and @-@ file orchestral players and strove for improvements in their pay . He sought to raise their status and was the first British conductor to insist that the orchestra should stand to acknowledge applause along with the conductor . He introduced women into the Queen 's Hall Orchestra in 1913 . He said , " I do not like ladies playing the trombone or double bass , but they can play the violin , and they do . " By 1918 Wood had 14 women in his orchestra .
Wood conducted his own compositions and arrangements from time to time . He gave his Fantasia on Welsh Melodies and Fantasia on Scottish Melodies on successive nights in 1909 . He composed the work for which he is most celebrated , Fantasia on British Sea Songs , for a concert in 1905 , celebrating the centenary of the Battle of Trafalgar . It caught the public fancy immediately , with its mixture of sea @-@ shanties , together with Handel 's " See the Conquering Hero Comes " and Arne 's " Rule , Britannia ! " . He played it at the Proms more than 40 times , and it became a fixture at the " Last Night of the Proms " , the lively concert marking the end of each season . It remained so under his successors , though often rearranged , notably by Sir Malcolm Sargent . A highlight of the Fantasia is the hornpipe ( " Jack 's the Lad " ) ; Wood said of it :
They stamp their feet in time to the hornpipe – that is until I whip up the orchestra to a fierce accelerando which leaves behind all those whose stamping technique is not of the very finest quality . I like to win by two bars , if possible ; but sometimes have to be content with a bar and a half . It is good fun , and I enjoy it as much as they .
Among Wood 's other works was his Purcell Suite , incorporating themes from Purcell 's stage works and string sonatas , which Wood performed at an orchestral festival in Zurich in 1921 , and orchestral transcriptions of works by a range of composers from Albéniz to Vivaldi .
Wood worked with his wife for many concerts , and was her piano accompanist at her recitals . In 1906 , at the Norwich music festival he presented Beethoven 's Choral Symphony and Bach 's St Matthew Passion , with his wife among the singers . In December 1909 , after a short illness , Olga Wood died . Cathcart took Wood away to take his mind off his loss . On his return , Wood resumed his professional routine , with the exception that , after Olga 's death , he rarely performed as piano accompanist for anyone else ; his skill in that art was greatly missed by the critics . In June 1911 , he married his secretary , Muriel Ellen Greatrex ( 1882 – 1967 ) , with whom he had two daughters . In the same year he accepted a knighthood , and declined the conductorship of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in succession to Mahler , as he felt it his duty to devote himself to the British public .
Throughout the early part of the century , Wood was influential in changing the habits of concertgoers . Until then it had been customary for audiences at symphony or choral concerts to applaud after each movement or section . Wood discouraged this , sometime by gesture and sometimes by specific request printed in programmes . For this he was much praised in the musical and national press . In addition to his work at the Queen 's Hall , Wood conducted at the Sheffield , Norwich , Birmingham , Wolverhampton , and Westmorland festivals , and at orchestral concerts in Cardiff , Manchester , Liverpool , Leicester and Hull . His programming was summarised in The Manchester Guardian , which listed the number of each composer 's works played in the 1911 Proms season ; the top ten were : Wagner ( 121 ) ; Beethoven ( 34 ) ; Tchaikovsky ( 30 ) ; Mozart ( 28 ) ; Dvořák ( 16 ) ; Weber ( 16 ) ; J.S. Bach ( 14 ) ; Brahms ( 14 ) ; Elgar ( 14 ) ; and Liszt ( 13 ) .
The 1912 and 1913 Prom seasons are singled out by Cox as among the finest of this part of Wood 's career . Among those conducting their own works or hearing Wood conduct them were Strauss , Debussy , Reger , Scriabin , and Rachmaninoff . Schoenberg 's Five Pieces for Orchestra also received its first performance ( the composer not being present ) ; during rehearsals , Wood urged his players , " Stick to it , gentlemen ! This is nothing to what you 'll have to play in 25 years ' time " . The critic Ernest Newman wrote after the performance : " It is not often that an English audience hisses the music it does not like , but a good third of the people at Queen 's Hall last Tuesday permitted themselves that luxury after the performance of the five orchestral pieces of Schoenberg . Another third of the audience was only not hissing because it was laughing , and the remaining third seemed too puzzled either to laugh or to hiss ; so that on the whole it does not look as if Schoenberg has so far made many friends in London . " However , when Wood invited Schoenberg himself to conduct the work 's second British performance , on 17 January 1914 , the composer was so delighted with the result , more warmly received than had been the premiere , that he congratulated Wood and the orchestra warmly : " I must say it was the first time since Gustav Mahler that I heard such music played again as a musician of culture demands . "
= = = First World War and post @-@ war = = =
On the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , Newman , Wood and Speyer discussed whether the Proms should continue as planned . They had by this time become an established institution , and it was agreed to go ahead . However , anti @-@ German feeling forced Speyer to leave the country and seek refuge in the US , and there was a campaign to ban all German music from concerts . Newman put out a statement declaring that German music would be played as planned : " The greatest examples of Music and Art are world possessions and unassailable even by the prejudices and passions of the hour . " When Speyer left Britain , the music publishers Chappell 's took on the responsibility for the Queen 's Hall and its orchestra . The Proms continued throughout the war years , with fewer major new works than before , although there were nevertheless British premieres of pieces by Bartók , Stravinsky and Debussy . An historian of the Proms , Ateş Orga , wrote , " Concerts often had to be re @-@ timed to coincide with the ' All Clear ' between air raids . Falling bombs , shrapnel , anti @-@ aircraft fire and the droning of Zeppelins were ever threatening . But [ Wood ] kept things on the go and in the end had a very real part to play in boosting morale . "
Towards the end of the war , Wood received an offer by which he was seriously tempted : the Boston Symphony Orchestra invited him to become its musical director . He had been guest conductor of the Berlin and New York Philharmonic Orchestras , but he regarded the Boston orchestra as the finest in the world . Nonetheless , as he told Boult , " it was hard to refuse , but I felt it was a patriotic duty to remain in my own country , at the present moment . "
After the war , the Proms continued much as before . The second halves of concerts still featured piano @-@ accompanied songs rather than serious classical music . Chappell 's , having taken over sponsorship of the Proms and spent £ 35 @,@ 000 keeping the Queen 's Hall going during the war , wished to promote songs published by the company . The management of Chappell 's were also less enthusiastic than Wood and Newman about promoting new orchestral works , most of which were not profitable .
In 1921 Wood was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , the first English conductor to receive the honour . By now he was beginning to find his position as Britain 's leading conductor under challenge from rising younger rivals . Thomas Beecham had been an increasingly influential figure since about 1910 . He and Wood did not like one another , and each avoided mention of the other in his memoirs . Adrian Boult , who , at Wood 's recommendation , took over some of his responsibilities at Birmingham in 1923 , always admired and respected Wood . Other younger conductors included men who had been members of Wood 's orchestra , including Basil Cameron and Eugene Goossens . Another protégé of Wood was Malcolm Sargent , who appeared at the Proms as a composer @-@ conductor in 1921 and 1922 . Wood encouraged him to abandon thoughts of a career as a pianist and to concentrate on conducting . Wood further showed his interest in the future of music by taking on the conductorship of the student orchestra at the Royal Academy of Music in 1923 , rehearsing it twice a week , whenever possible , for the next twenty years . In the same year , he accepted the conductorship of the amateur Hull Philharmonic Orchestra , travelling three times a year until 1939 to rehearse and conduct its concerts .
In 1925 Wood was invited to conduct four concerts for the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra at the Hollywood Bowl . Such was their success , both artistic and financial , that Wood was invited back , and conducted again the following year . In addition to a large number of English pieces , Wood programmed works by composers as diverse as Bach and Stravinsky . He again conducted there in 1934 .
= = = BBC and the Proms = = =
On his return to England from his first Hollywood trip , Wood found himself in the middle of a feud between the chairman of Chappell 's , William Boosey , and the BBC . Boosey had conceived a passionate hostility to the broadcasting of music , fearing that it would lead to the end of live concerts . He attempted to prevent anyone who wished to perform at the Queen 's Hall from broadcasting for the BBC . This affected many of the artists whom Wood and Newman needed for the Proms . The matter was unresolved when Newman died in 1926 . Shortly afterwards , Boosey announced that Chappell 's would no longer support concerts at the Queen 's Hall . The prospect that the Proms might not be able to continue caused widespread dismay , and there was a general welcome for the BBC 's announcement that it would take over the running of the Proms , and would also run a winter series of symphony concerts at the Queen 's Hall .
The BBC regime brought immediate benefits . The use of the second half of concerts to promote Chappell 's songs ceased , to be replaced by music chosen for its own excellence : on the first night under the BBC 's control , the songs in the second half were by Schubert , Quilter and Parry rather than ballads from Chappell 's . For Wood , the greatest benefit was that the BBC gave him twice as much rehearsal time as he had previously enjoyed . He now had a daily rehearsal and extra rehearsals as needed . He was also allowed extra players when large scores called for them , instead of having to rescore the work for the forces available .
In 1929 , Wood played a celebrated practical joke on musicologists and critics . " I got very fed up with them , always finding fault with any arrangement or orchestrations that I made ... ' spoiling the original ' etc. etc . " , and so Wood passed off his own orchestration of Bach 's Toccata and Fugue in D minor , as a transcription by a Russian composer called Paul Klenovsky . In Wood 's later account , the press and the BBC " fell into the trap and said the scoring was wonderful , Klenovsky had the real flare [ sic ] for true colour etc . – and performance after performance was given and asked for . " Wood kept the secret for five years before revealing the truth . The press treated the deception as a great joke ; The Times entered into the spirit of it with a jocular tribute to the lamented Klenovsky .
As Wood 's working life took a turn for the better , his domestic life started to deteriorate . During the early 1930s , he and his wife gradually became estranged , and their relationship ended in bitterness , with Muriel taking most of Wood 's money and , for much of the time , living abroad . She refused to divorce him . The breach between Muriel and Wood also caused his estrangement from their daughters . In 1934 he began a happy relationship with a widowed former pupil , Jessie Linton , who had sung for him frequently in the past under her professional name of Jessie Goldsack . One of Wood 's players recalled , " She changed him . He had been badly dressed , awful clothes . Jessie got him a new evening suit , instead of the mouldy green one , and he flourished yellow gloves and a cigar ... he became human . " As Wood was not free to remarry , she changed her name by deed poll to " Lady Jessie Wood " and was generally assumed by the public to be Wood 's wife . In his memoirs , Wood mentioned neither his second marriage nor his subsequent relationship .
In his later years , Wood came to be identified with the Proms rather than with the year @-@ round concert season . Boult was appointed director of music at the BBC in 1930 . In that capacity he strove to ensure that Wood was invited to conduct a fitting number of BBC symphony concerts outside the Prom season . The BBC chose Wood for important collaborations with Bartók and Paul Hindemith , and for the first British performance of Mahler 's vast Symphony No. 8 . But Jacobs notes that , in the general concert repertory , Wood now had to compete against well @-@ known foreign conductors such as Bruno Walter , Willem Mengelberg , and Arturo Toscanini , " in comparison with whom he was increasingly seen as a workhorse " .
= = = Last years = = =
In 1936 , Wood was in charge of his final Sheffield festival . The choral works he conducted included the Verdi Requiem , Beethoven 's Missa Solemnis , Berlioz ' Te Deum , Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , and , in the presence of the composer , Rachmaninoff 's The Bells . The following year , Wood began planning for a grand concert to mark his fiftieth year as a conductor . The Royal Albert Hall was chosen as the venue , having a far larger capacity than the Queen 's Hall . The concert was given on 5 October 1938 . Rachmaninoff played the solo part in his Second Piano Concerto , and Vaughan Williams , at Wood 's request , composed a short choral work for the occasion : the Serenade to Music for orchestra and 16 soloists . The other composers represented in the programme were Sullivan , Beethoven , Bach , Bax , Wagner , Handel and Elgar . The orchestra comprised players from the three London orchestras : the London Symphony , London Philharmonic and BBC Symphony Orchestras . The concert raised £ 9 @,@ 000 for Wood 's chosen charity , providing health care for musicians . In the same year , Wood published his autobiography , My Life of Music .
In September 1939 , the Second World War broke out and the BBC immediately put into effect its contingency plans to move much of its broadcasting away from London to places thought less susceptible to bombing . Its musical activities , including the orchestra , moved to Bristol . The BBC withdrew not only the players , but financial support from the Proms . Wood determined that the 1940 season would nevertheless go ahead . The Royal Philharmonic Society and a private entrepreneur , Keith Douglas , agreed to back an eight @-@ week season , and the London Symphony Orchestra was engaged . The season was curtailed after four weeks , when intense bombing forced the Queen 's Hall to close . The last Prom given at the Queen 's Hall was on 7 September 1940 . In May 1941 , the hall was destroyed by bombs .
It was immediately agreed that the 1941 season of Proms should be held at the Albert Hall . It was twice the size of the Queen 's Hall , with poor acoustics , but a six @-@ week series was judged a success , and the Albert Hall remained the home of the Proms . Wood , aged seventy @-@ two , was persuaded to have an associate conductor to relieve him of some of the burden . Basil Cameron undertook the task and remained a Prom conductor until his retirement , aged eighty , in 1964 . The BBC brought its symphony orchestra back to London and resumed its backing of the Proms in 1942 ; Boult joined Cameron as Wood 's associate conductor during that season . In early 1943 , Wood 's health deteriorated , and two days after the start of that year 's season , he collapsed and was ordered to have a month in bed . Despite wartime vicissitudes , the 1943 season sold nearly 250 @,@ 000 tickets , with an average audience of about 4 @,@ 000 – many more than could have fitted into the Queen 's Hall .
Despite his age and the difficulties of wartime travel , Wood insisted on going to provincial cities to conduct – as much , according to Jacobs , to help the local orchestras survive as to gratify audiences . His final season was in 1944 . The season began well with Wood in good form , but after three weeks raids by the devastating new German flying bombs caused the government to order the closure of places of entertainment . The Proms were immediately relocated to Bedford some 50 miles ( 80 km ) away , where Wood continued to conduct . He was taken ill in early August and was unable to conduct the fiftieth anniversary Prom on 10 August ; he was forbidden by his doctor even to listen to its broadcast . Wood died just over a week later on 19 August at Hitchin Hospital in Hitchin , Hertfordshire ; his funeral service was held in the town at St Mary 's church , and his ashes were interred in the Musicians ' Chapel of St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate .
= = Recordings = =
Wood 's recording career began in 1908 , when he accompanied his wife Olga in " Farewell , forests " by Tchaikovsky , for the Gramophone and Typewriter Company , better known as His Master 's Voice or HMV . They made eight other records together for HMV over the next two years . After Olga 's death , Wood signed a contract with HMV 's rival , Columbia , for whom he made a series of discs between 1915 and 1917 with the singer Clara Butt , including excerpts from Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius . Between 1915 and 1925 he conducted 65 recordings for Columbia using the early acoustic recording process , including many discs of Wagner excerpts and a truncated version of Elgar 's Violin Concerto with Albert Sammons as soloist . When the microphone and electrical recording were introduced in 1925 , Wood re @-@ recorded the Elgar concerto , with Sammons , and made 36 other discs for Columbia over the next nine years . The 1929 recording of the Elgar concerto has been reissued on compact disc and is well regarded by some critics .
Wood was wooed from Columbia by the young Decca company in 1935 . For Decca he conducted 23 recordings over the next two years , including Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony , Elgar 's Enigma Variations and Vaughan Williams 's A London Symphony . In 1938 he returned to Columbia , for whom his five new recordings included the Serenade to Music with the 16 original singers , a few days after the premiere , and his own Fantasia on British Sea Songs .
Wood 's recordings did not remain in the catalogues long after his death . The Record Guide , 1956 , lists none of his records . A few of his recordings have subsequently been reissued on compact disc , including the Decca and Columbia Vaughan Williams recordings from 1936 and 1938 .
= = Premieres = =
In Jacobs 's 1994 biography , the list of premieres conducted by Wood extends to 18 pages . His world premieres included Frank Bridge 's The Sea ; Britten 's Piano Concerto ; Delius 's A Song Before Sunrise , A Song of Summer , and Idyll ; Elgar 's The Wand of Youth Suite No. 1 , Sospiri and the 4th and 5th Pomp and Circumstance Marches ; and Vaughan Williams 's Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 , Flos Campi and Serenade to Music .
Wood 's UK premieres included Bartók 's Dance Suite ; Chabrier 's Joyeuse marche ; Copland 's Billy the Kid ; Debussy 's Prélude à l 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune and Ibéria ; Hindemith 's Kammermusik 2 and 5 ; Janáček 's Sinfonietta , Taras Bulba and Glagolitic Mass ; Kodály 's Dances from Galanta ; Mahler 's Symphonies Nos. 4 , 7 and 8 , and Das Lied von der Erde ; Prokofiev 's Piano Concerto No. 1 and Violin Concerto No. 2 ; Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No 1 ; Ravel 's Ma mère l 'oye , Rapsodie espagnole , La valse and Piano Concerto in D ; Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Capriccio Espagnol , Scheherazade , and Symphony No. 2 ; Saint @-@ Saëns 's The Carnival of the Animals ; Schumann 's Konzertstück for four horns and orchestra ; Shostakovich 's Piano Concerto No. 1 and Symphonies Nos. 7 and 8 ; Sibelius 's Symphonies Nos. 1 , 6 and 7 , Violin Concerto , Karelia Suite , and Tapiola ; Richard Strauss 's Symphonia Domestica ; Stravinsky 's The Firebird ( suite ) ; Tchaikovsky 's Manfred Symphony and Nutcracker Suite ; and Webern 's Passacaglia .
= = Honours , memorials and reputation = =
In addition to the knighthood bestowed in 1911 , Wood 's state honours were his appointments as Companion of Honour in 1944 , to the Order of the Crown ( Belgium ; 1920 ) , and Officer of the Legion of Honour ( France ; 1926 ) . He received honorary doctorates from five English universities and was a fellow of both the Royal Academy of Music ( 1920 ) and the Royal College of Music ( 1923 ) .
Jacobs lists 26 compositions dedicated to Wood , including , in addition to the Vaughan Williams Serenade to Music , works by Elgar , Delius , Bax , Marcel Dupré and Walton . The poet laureate , John Masefield , composed a poem of six verses in his honour , entitled " Sir Henry Wood " , often referred to by its first line , " Where does the uttered music go ? " . Walton set it to music as an anthem for mixed choir ; it received its first performance on 26 April 1946 at St Sepulchre 's , on the occasion of a ceremony unveiling a memorial stained @-@ glass window in Wood 's honour .
Wood is commemorated in the name of the Henry Wood Hall , the deconsecrated Holy Trinity Church in Southwark , which was converted to a rehearsal and recording venue in 1975 . His bust stands upstage centre in the Royal Albert Hall during the whole of each Prom season , decorated by a chaplet on the Last Night of the Proms . His collection of 2 @,@ 800 orchestral scores and 1 @,@ 920 sets of parts is now in the library of the Royal Academy of Music . For the Academy he also established the Henry Wood Fund , giving financial aid to students . The University of Strathclyde named a building at its Jordanhill campus after him . His best @-@ known memorial is the Proms , officially " the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts " , but universally referred to by the informal short version .
His biographer Arthur Jacobs wrote of Wood :
His orchestral players affectionately nicknamed him " Timber " – more than a play on his name , since it seemed to represent his reliability too . His tally of first performances , or first performances in Britain , was heroic : at least 717 works by 357 composers . Greatness as measured by finesse of execution may not be his , particularly in his limited legacy of recordings , but he remains one of the most remarkable musicians Britain has produced .
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= James Russell Lowell =
James Russell Lowell ( / ˈloʊəl / ; February 22 , 1819 – August 12 , 1891 ) was an American Romantic poet , critic , editor , and diplomat . He is associated with the Fireside Poets , a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets who rivaled the popularity of British poets . These poets usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry , making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside .
Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838 , despite his reputation as a troublemaker , and went on to earn a law degree from Harvard Law School . He published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844 . He and his wife had several children , though only one survived past childhood . The couple soon became involved in the movement to abolish slavery , with Lowell using poetry to express his anti @-@ slavery views and taking a job in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , as the editor of an abolitionist newspaper . After moving back to Cambridge , Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer , which lasted only three issues . He gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics , a book @-@ length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets . The same year , he published The Biglow Papers , which increased his fame . He went on to publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career .
Maria White died in 1853 , and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854 ; he continued to teach there for twenty years . He traveled to Europe before officially assuming his role in 1856 . He married his second wife , Frances Dunlap , shortly thereafter in 1857 . That year Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly . It was not until 20 years later that Lowell received his first political appointment , the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Spain . He was later appointed ambassador to the Court of St. James 's . He spent his last years in Cambridge , in the same estate where he was born , and died there in 1891 .
Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and critic of society . He used poetry for reform , particularly in abolitionism . However , Lowell 's commitment to the anti @-@ slavery cause wavered over the years , as did his opinion on African @-@ Americans . Lowell attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters , particularly in The Biglow Papers . This depiction of the dialect , as well as Lowell 's many satires , was an inspiration to writers like Mark Twain and H.L. Mencken .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
The first of the Lowell family ancestors to come to the United States from Britain was Percival Lowle , who settled in Newbury , Massachusetts , in 1639 . James Russell Lowell was born February 22 , 1819 , the son of the Reverend Charles Russell Lowell , Sr. ( 1782 – 1861 ) , a minister at a Unitarian church in Boston , who had previously studied theology at Edinburgh , and Harriett Brackett Spence Lowell . By the time James Russell Lowell was born , the family owned a large estate in Cambridge called Elmwood . He was the youngest of six children ; his siblings were Charles , Rebecca , Mary , William , and Robert . Lowell 's mother built in him an appreciation for literature at an early age , especially in poetry , ballads , and tales from her native Orkney . He attended school under Sophia Dana , who would later marry George Ripley , and later studied at a school run by a particularly harsh disciplinarian , where one of his classmates was Richard Henry Dana , Jr .
Beginning in 1834 , at the age of 15 , Lowell attended Harvard College , though he was not a good student and often got into trouble . In his sophomore year alone , he was absent from required chapel attendance 14 times and from classes 56 times . In his last year there , he wrote , " During Freshman year , I did nothing , during Sophomore year I did nothing , during Junior year I did nothing , and during Senior year I have thus far done nothing in the way of college studies . " In his senior year , he became one of the editors of Harvardiana literary magazine , to which he contributed prose and poetry that he admitted was of low quality . As he said later , " I was as great an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing . " During his undergraduate years , Lowell was a member of Hasty Pudding and served both as Secretary and Poet .
Lowell was elected the poet of the class of 1838 and , as was tradition , was asked to recite an original poem on Class Day , the day before Commencement , on July 17 , 1838 . Lowell , however , was suspended and not allowed to participate . Instead , his poem was printed and made available thanks to subscriptions paid by his classmates . Lowell had composed the poem in Concord , Massachusetts , where , because of his neglect of his studies , he had been exiled by the Harvard faculty to the care of the Rev. Barzallai Frost . During his stay in Concord , he became friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson , and got to know the other Transcendentalists . The poem satirized the social movements of the day ; abolitionists , Thomas Carlyle , Emerson , and the Transcendentalists were treated .
Not knowing what vocation to choose after graduating , he vacillated among business , the ministry , medicine , and law . Having decided to practice law , he enrolled at Harvard Law School in 1840 and was admitted to the bar two years later . While studying law , however , he contributed poems and prose articles to various magazines . During this time , Lowell was admittedly depressed and often had suicidal thoughts . He once confided to a friend that he held a cocked pistol to his forehead and considered killing himself at the age of 20 .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In late 1839 , Lowell met Maria White through her brother William , a classmate of his at Harvard , and the two became engaged in the autumn of 1840 . Maria 's father Abijah White , a wealthy merchant from Watertown , insisted that their wedding be postponed until Lowell had gainful employment . They were finally married on December 26 , 1844 , shortly after the groom published Conversations on the Old Poets , a collection of his previously published essays . A friend described their relationship as " the very picture of a True Marriage . " Lowell himself believed she was made up " half of earth and more than half of Heaven . " Like Lowell , she wrote poetry , and the next twelve years of Lowell 's life were deeply affected by her influence . He said his first book of poetry , A Year 's Life ( 1841 ) , " owes all its beauty to her , " though it only sold 300 copies . Her character and beliefs led her to become involved in the movements directed against intemperance and slavery . Maria was a member of the Boston Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society and persuaded her husband to become an abolitionist . James had previously expressed antislavery sentiments , but Maria urged him towards more active expression and involvement . His second volume of poems , Miscellaneous Poems , expressed these antislavery thoughts and its 1 @,@ 500 copies sold well .
Maria was in poor health , and thinking her lungs could heal there , the couple moved to Philadelphia shortly after their marriage . In Philadelphia , he became a contributing editor for the Pennsylvania Freeman , an abolitionist newspaper . In the spring of 1845 , the Lowells returned to Cambridge , Massachusetts , to make their home at Elmwood . They had four children , though only one ( Mabel , born 1847 ) survived past infancy . Their first , Blanche , was born December 31 , 1845 , but lived only fifteen months ; Rose , born in 1849 , survived only a few months as well ; their only son , Walter , was born in 1850 but died in 1852 . Lowell was very affected by the loss of almost all of his children . His grief over the death of his first daughter in particular was expressed in his poem " The First Snowfall " ( 1847 ) . Again , Lowell considered suicide , writing to a friend that he thought " of my razors and my throat and that I am a fool and a coward not to end it all at once . "
= = = Literary career = = =
Lowell 's earliest poems were published without remuneration in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1840 . Lowell , inspired to new efforts towards self @-@ support , joined with his friend Robert Carter in founding a literary journal , The Pioneer . The periodical was distinguished by the fact that most of its content was new rather than material that had been previously published elsewhere , and by the inclusion of very serious criticism , which covered not only literature but also art and music . Lowell wrote that it would " furnish the intelligent and reflecting portion of the Reading Public with a rational substitute for the enormous quantity of thrice @-@ diluted trash , in the shape of namby @-@ pamby love tales and sketches , which is monthly poured out to them by many of our popular Magazines . " William Wetmore Story noted the journal 's higher taste , writing that " it took some stand & appealled to a higher intellectual Standard than our puerile milk or watery namby @-@ pamby Mags with which we are overrun . " The first issue of the journal included the first appearance of " The Tell @-@ Tale Heart " by Edgar Allan Poe . Lowell , shortly after the first issue , was treated for an eye disease in New York , and in his absence Carter did a poor job of managing the journal . After three monthly numbers , beginning in January 1843 , the magazine ceased publication , leaving Lowell $ 1 @,@ 800 in debt . Poe mourned the journal 's demise , calling it " a most severe blow to the cause — the cause of a Pure Taste . "
Despite the failure of The Pioneer , Lowell continued his interest in the literary world . He wrote a series on " Anti @-@ Slavery in the United States " for the London Daily News , though his series was discontinued by the editors after four articles in May 1846 . Lowell had published these articles anonymously , believing they would have more impact if they were not known to be the work of a committed abolitionist . In the spring of 1848 he formed a connection with the National Anti @-@ Slavery Standard of New York , agreeing to contribute weekly either a poem or a prose article . After only one year , he was asked to contribute half as often to the Standard to make room for contributions from Edmund Quincy , another writer and reformer .
A Fable for Critics , one of Lowell 's most popular works , was published in 1848 . A satire , it was published anonymously . It proved popular , and the first three thousand copies sold out quickly . In it , Lowell took good @-@ natured jabs at his contemporary poets and critics . Not all the subjects included were pleased , however . Edgar Allan Poe , who had been referred to as part genius and " two @-@ fifths sheer fudge , " reviewed the work in the Southern Literary Messenger and called it " ' loose ' — ill @-@ conceived and feebly executed , as well in detail as in general . ... we confess some surprise at his putting forth so unpolished a performance . " Lowell offered the profits from the book 's success , which proved relatively small , to his New York friend Charles Frederick Briggs , despite his own financial needs .
In 1848 , Lowell also published The Biglow Papers , later named by the Grolier Club as the most influential book of 1848 . The first 1 @,@ 500 copies sold out within a week and a second edition was soon issued , though Lowell made no profit , having had to absorb the cost of stereotyping the book himself . The book presented three main characters , each representing different aspects of American life and using authentic American dialects in their dialogue . Under the surface , The Biglow Papers was also a denunciation of the Mexican – American War and war in general .
= = = First trip to Europe = = =
In 1850 , Lowell 's mother died unexpectedly , as did his third daughter , Rose . Her death left Lowell depressed and reclusive for six months , despite the birth of his son Walter by the end of the year . He wrote to a friend that death " is a private tutor . We have no fellow @-@ scholars , and must lay our lessons to heart alone . " These personal troubles as well as the Compromise of 1850 inspired Lowell to accept an offer from William Wetmore Story to spend a winter in Italy . To pay for the trip , Lowell sold land around Elmwood , intending to sell off further acres of the estate over time to supplement his income , ultimately selling off 25 of the original 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Walter died suddenly in Rome of cholera , and Lowell and his wife , with their daughter Mabel , returned to the United States in October 1852 . Lowell published recollections of his journey in several magazines , many of which would be collected years later as Fireside Travels ( 1867 ) . He also edited volumes with biographical sketches for a series on British Poets .
His wife Maria , who had been suffering from poor health for many years , became very ill in the spring of 1853 and died on October 27 of tuberculosis . Just before her burial , her coffin was opened so that her daughter Mabel could see her face while Lowell " leaned for a long while against a tree weeping , " according to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his wife , who were in attendance . In 1855 , Lowell oversaw the publication of a memorial volume of his wife 's poetry , with only fifty copies for private circulation . Despite his self @-@ described " naturally joyous " nature , life for Lowell at Elmwood was further complicated by his father becoming deaf in his old age , and the deteriorating mental state of his sister Rebecca , who sometimes went a week without speaking . He again cut himself off from others , becoming reclusive at Elmwood , and his private diaries from this time period are riddled with the initials of his wife . On March 10 , 1854 , for example , he wrote : " Dark without & within . M.L. M.L. M.L. " Longfellow , a friend and neighbor , referred to Lowell as " lonely and desolate . "
= = = Professorship and second marriage = = =
At the invitation of his cousin John Amory Lowell , James Russell Lowell was asked to deliver a lecture at the prestigious Lowell Institute . Some speculated the opportunity was because of the family connection , offered as an attempt to bring him out of his depression . Lowell chose to speak on " The English Poets , " telling his friend Briggs that he would take revenge on dead poets " for the injuries received by one whom the public won 't allow among the living . " The first of the twelve @-@ part lecture series was to be on January 9 , 1855 , though by December , Lowell had only completed writing five of them , hoping for last @-@ minute inspiration . His first lecture was on John Milton and the auditorium was oversold ; Lowell had to give a repeat performance the next afternoon . Lowell , who had never spoken in public before , was praised for these lectures . Francis James Child said that Lowell , whom he deemed was typically " perverse , " was able to " persist in being serious contrary to his impulses and his talents . " While his series was still in progress , Lowell was offered the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages at Harvard , a post vacated by Longfellow , at an annual salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 , though he never applied for it . The job description was changing after Longfellow ; instead of teaching languages directly , Lowell would supervise the department and deliver two lecture courses per year on topics of his own choosing . Lowell accepted the appointment , with the proviso that he should have a year of study abroad . He set sail on June 4 of that year , leaving his daughter Mabel in the care of a governess named Frances Dunlap . Abroad , he visited Le Havre , Paris , and London , spending time with friends including Story , Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning , and Leigh Hunt . Primarily , however , Lowell spent his time abroad studying languages , particularly German , which he found difficult . He complained : " The confounding genders ! If I die I shall have engraved on my tombstone that I died of der , die , das , not because I caught them but because I couldn 't . "
He returned to the United States in the summer of 1856 and began his college duties . Towards the end of his professorship , then @-@ president of Harvard Charles William Eliot noted that Lowell seemed to have " no natural inclination " to teach ; Lowell agreed , but retained his position for twenty years . He focused on teaching literature , rather than etymology , hoping that his students would learn to enjoy the sound , rhythm , and flow of poetry rather than the technique of words . He summed up his method : " True scholarship consists in knowing not what things exists , but what they mean ; it is not memory but judgment . " Still grieving the loss of his wife , during this time Lowell avoided Elmwood and instead lived on Kirkland Street in Cambridge , an area known as Professors ' Row . He stayed there , along with his daughter Mabel and her governess Frances Dunlap , until January 1861 .
Lowell had intended never to remarry after the death of his wife Maria White . However , in 1857 , surprising his friends , he became engaged to Frances Dunlap , who many described as simple and unattractive . Dunlap , niece of the former governor of Maine Robert P. Dunlap , was a friend of Lowell 's first wife and formerly wealthy , though she and her family had fallen into reduced circumstances . Lowell and Dunlap married on September 16 , 1857 , in a ceremony performed by his brother . Lowell wrote , " My second marriage was the wisest act of my life , & as long as I am sure of it , I can afford to wait till my friends agree with me . "
= = = The war years and beyond = = =
In the autumn of 1857 , The Atlantic Monthly was established , and Lowell was its first editor . With its first issue in November of that year , he at once gave the magazine the stamp of high literature and of bold speech on public affairs . In January 1861 , Lowell 's father died of a heart attack , inspiring Lowell to move his family back to Elmwood . As he wrote to his friend Briggs , " I am back again to the place I love best . I am sitting in my old garret , at my old desk , smoking my old pipe ... I begin to feel more like my old self than I have these ten years . " Shortly thereafter , in May , he left The Atlantic Monthly when James Thomas Fields took over as editor ; the magazine had been purchased by Ticknor and Fields for $ 10 @,@ 000 two years before . Lowell returned to Elmwood by January 1861 but maintained an amicable relationship with the new owners of the journal , continuing to submit his poetry and prose for the rest of his life . His prose , however , was more abundantly presented in the pages of the North American Review during the years 1862 – 1872 . For the Review , he served as a coeditor along with Charles Eliot Norton . Lowell 's reviews for the journal covered a wide variety of literary releases of the day , though he was writing fewer poems .
As early as 1845 , Lowell had predicted the debate over slavery would lead to war and , as the American Civil War broke out in the 1860s , Lowell used his role at the Review to praise Abraham Lincoln and his attempts to maintain the Union . Lowell lost three nephews during the war , including Charles Russell Lowell , Jr , who became a Brigadier General and fell at the battle of Cedar Creek . Lowell himself was generally a pacifist . Even so , he wrote , " If the destruction of slavery is to be a consequence of the war , shall we regret it ? If it be needful to the successful prosecution of the war , shall anyone oppose it ? " His interest in the Civil War inspired him to write a second series of The Biglow Papers , including one specifically dedicated to the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation called " Sunthin ' in the Pastoral Line " in 1862 .
Shortly after Lincoln 's assassination , Lowell was asked to present a poem at Harvard in memory of graduates killed in the war . His poem , " Commemoration Ode , " cost him sleep and his appetite , but was delivered on July 21 , 1865 , after a 48 @-@ hour writing binge . Lowell had high hopes for his performance but was overshadowed by the other notables presenting works that day , including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. " I did not make the hit I expected , " he wrote , " and am ashamed at having been tempted again to think I could write poetry , a delusion from which I have been tolerably free these dozen years . " Despite his personal assessment , friends and other poets sent many letters to Lowell congratulating him . Emerson referred to his poem 's " high thought & sentiment " and James Freeman Clarke noted its " grandeur of tone . " Lowell later expanded it with a strophe to Lincoln .
In the 1860s , Lowell 's friend Longfellow spent several years translating Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy and regularly invited others to help him on Wednesday evenings . Lowell was one of the main members of the so @-@ called " Dante Club , " along with William Dean Howells , Charles Eliot Norton and other occasional guests . Shortly after serving as a pallbearer at the funeral of friend and publisher Nathaniel Parker Willis , on January 24 , 1867 , Lowell decided to produce another collection of his poetry . Under the Willows and Other Poems was released in 1869 , though Lowell originally wanted to title it The Voyage to the Vinland and Other Poems . The book , dedicated to Norton , collected poems Lowell had written within the previous twenty years and was his first poetry collection since 1848 .
Lowell intended to take another trip to Europe . To finance it , he sold off more of Elmwood 's acres and rented the house to Thomas Bailey Aldrich ; Lowell 's daughter Mabel , by this time , had moved into a new home with her husband Edward Burnett , the son of a successful businessman @-@ farmer from Southboro , Massachusetts . Lowell and his wife set sail on July 8 , 1872 , after he took a leave of absence from Harvard . They visited England , Paris , Switzerland , and Italy . While overseas , he received an honorary Doctorate of Law from the University of Oxford and another from Cambridge University . They returned to the United States in the summer of 1874 .
= = = Political appointments = = =
Lowell resigned from his Harvard professorship in 1874 , though he was persuaded to continue teaching through 1877 . It was in 1876 that Lowell first stepped into the field of politics . That year , he served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio , speaking on behalf of presidential candidate Rutherford B. Hayes . Hayes won the nomination and , eventually , the presidency . In May 1877 , President Hayes , an admirer of The Biglow Papers , sent William Dean Howells to Lowell with a handwritten note proffering an ambassadorship to either Austria or Russia ; Lowell declined , but noted his interest in Spanish literature . Lowell was then offered and accepted the role of Minister to the court of Spain at an annual salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . Lowell sailed from Boston on July 14 , 1877 , and , though he expected he would be away for a year or two , he would not return to the United States until 1885 , with the violinist Ole Bull renting Elmwood for a portion of that time . The Spanish media referred to him as " José Bighlow . " Lowell was well @-@ prepared for his political role , having been trained in law , as well as being able to read in multiple languages . He had trouble socializing while in Spain , however , and amused himself by sending humorous dispatches to his political bosses in the United States , many of which were later collected and published posthumously in 1899 as Impressions of Spain . Lowell 's social life improved when the Spanish Academy elected him a corresponding member in late 1878 , allowing him contribute to the preparation of a new dictionary .
In January 1880 , Lowell was informed he was appointed Minister to England , his nomination made without his knowledge as far back as June 1879 . He was granted a salary of $ 17 @,@ 500 with about $ 3 @,@ 500 for expenses . While serving in this capacity , he addressed an importation of allegedly diseased cattle and made recommendations that predated the Pure Food and Drug Act . Queen Victoria commented that she had never seen an ambassador who " created so much interest and won so much regard as Mr. Lowell . " Lowell held this role until the close of Chester A. Arthur 's presidency in the spring of 1885 , despite his wife 's failing health . Lowell was already well known in England for his writing and , during his time there , he befriended fellow author Henry James , who referred to him as " conspicuously American . " Lowell also befriended Leslie Stephen many years earlier and became the godfather to his daughter , future writer Virginia Woolf . Lowell was popular enough that he was offered a professorship at Oxford after his recall by president Grover Cleveland , though the offer was declined .
His second wife , Frances , died on February 19 , 1885 , while still in England .
= = = Later years and death = = =
He returned to the United States by June 1885 , living with his daughter and her husband in Southboro , Massachusetts . He then spent time in Boston with his sister before returning to Elmwood in November 1889 . By this time , most of his friends were dead , including Quincy , Longfellow , Dana , and Emerson , leaving him depressed and contemplating suicide again . Lowell spent part of the 1880s delivering various speeches , and his last published works were mostly collections of essays , including Political Essays , and a collection of his poems Heartsease and Rue in 1888 . His last few years he traveled back to England periodically and when he returned to the United States in the fall of 1889 , he moved back to Elmwood with Mabel , while her husband worked for clients in New York and New Jersey . That year , Lowell gave an address at the centenary of George Washington 's inauguration . Also that year , the Boston Critic dedicated a special issue to Lowell on his seventieth birthday to recollections and reminiscences by his friends , including former presidents Hayes and Benjamin Harrison and British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as well as Alfred Tennyson and Francis Parkman .
In the last few months of his life , Lowell struggled with gout , sciatica in his left leg , and chronic nausea ; by the summer of 1891 , doctors believed that Lowell had cancer in his kidneys , liver , and lungs . His last few months , he was administered opium for the pain and was rarely fully conscious . He died on August 12 , 1891 , at Elmwood . After services in the Appleton Chapel , he was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery . After his death , Norton served as his literary executor and published several collections of Lowell 's works and his letters .
= = = Writing style and literary theory = = =
Early in his career , James Russell Lowell 's writing was influenced by Swedenborgianism , a Spiritualism @-@ infused form of Christianity founded by Emanuel Swedenborg , causing Frances Longfellow ( wife of the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ) to mention that " he has been long in the habit of seeing spirits . " He composed his poetry rapidly when inspired by an " inner light " but could not write to order . He subscribed to the common nineteenth @-@ century belief that the poet was a prophet but went further , linking religion , nature , and poetry , as well as social reform . Evert Augustus Duyckinck and others welcomed Lowell as part of Young America , a New York @-@ based movement . Though not officially affiliated with them , he shared some of their ideals , including the belief that writers have an inherent insight into the moral nature of humanity and have an obligation for literary action along with their aesthetic function . Unlike many of his contemporaries , including members of Young America , Lowell did not advocate for the creation of a new national literature . Instead , he called for a natural literature , regardless of country , caste , or race , and warned against provincialism which might " put farther off the hope of one great brotherhood . " He agreed with his neighbor Longfellow that " whoever is most universal , is also most national . " As Lowell said :
I believe that no poet in this age can write much that is good unless he gives himself up to [ the radical ] tendency ... The proof of poetry is , in my mind , that it reduces to the essence of a single line the vague philosophy which is floating in all men 's minds , and so render it portable and useful , and ready to the hand ... At least , no poem ever makes me respect its author which does not in some way convey a truth of philosophy .
A scholar of linguistics , Lowell was one of the founders of the American Dialect Society . He used this interest in his writing , particularly in The Biglow Papers , presenting a heavily ungrammatical phonetic spelling of the Yankee dialect . In using this vernacular , Lowell intended to get closer to the common man 's experience and was rebelling against more formal and , as he thought , unnatural representations of Americans in literature . As he wrote in his introduction to The Biglow Papers , " few American writers or speakers wield their native language with the directness , precision , and force that are common as the day in the mother country . " Though intentionally humorous , this accurate presentation of the dialect was pioneering work in American literature . For example , Lowell 's character Hosea Biglow says in verse :
Lowell is considered one of the Fireside Poets , a group of writers from New England in the 1840s who all had a substantial national following and whose work was often read aloud by the family fireplace . Besides Lowell , the main figures from this group were Longfellow , Holmes , John Greenleaf Whittier , and William Cullen Bryant .
= = Beliefs = =
Although he was an abolitionist , Lowell 's opinions on African @-@ Americans wavered . Though Lowell advocated suffrage for blacks , he noted that their ability to vote could be troublesome . Even so , he wrote , " We believe the white race , by their intellectual and traditional superiority , will retain sufficient ascendancy to prevent any serious mischief from the new order of things . " Freed slaves , he wrote , were " dirty , lazy & lying . " Even before his marriage to the abolitionist Maria White , Lowell wrote : " The abolitionists are the only ones with whom I sympathize of the present extant parties . " After his marriage , Lowell at first did not share White 's enthusiasm for the cause but was eventually pulled in . The couple often gave money to fugitive slaves , even when their own financial situation was not strong , especially if they were asked to free a spouse or child . Even so , he did not always fully agree with the followers of the movement . The majority of these people , he said , " treat ideas as ignorant persons do cherries . They think them unwholesome unless they are swallowed , stones and all . " Lowell depicted Southerners very unfavorably in his second collection of The Biglow Papers but , by 1865 , admitted that Southerners were " guilty only of weakness " and , by 1868 , said that he sympathized with Southerners and their viewpoint on slavery . Enemies and friends of Lowell alike questioned his vacillating interest in the question of slavery . Abolitionist Samuel Joseph May accused Lowell of trying to quit the movement because of his association with Harvard and the Boston Brahmin culture : " Having got into the smooth , dignified , self @-@ complacent , and change @-@ hating society of the college and its Boston circles , Lowell has gone over to the world , and to ' respectability ' . "
Lowell was also involved in other reform movements . He urged for better conditions for factory workings , opposed capital punishment , and supported the temperance movement . His friend Longfellow was especially concerned about his fanaticism for temperance , worrying that Lowell would ask him to destroy his wine cellar . There are many references to Lowell 's drinking during his college years and part of his reputation in school was based on it . His friend Edward Everett Hale denied these allegations and , even then , Lowell considered joining the " Anti @-@ Wine " club and later , during the early years of his first marriage , became a teetotaler . However , as Lowell gained notoriety , he became popular in social circles and clubs and , away from his wife , he drank rather heavily . When he drank , he had wild mood swings , ranging from euphoria to frenzy .
= = Criticism and legacy = =
In 1849 , Lowell said of himself , " I am the first poet who has endeavored to express the American Idea , and I shall be popular by and by . " Poet Walt Whitman said : " Lowell was not a grower — he was a builder . He built poems : he didn 't put in the seed , and water the seed , and send down his sun — letting the rest take care of itself : he measured his poems — kept them within formula . " Fellow Fireside Poet John Greenleaf Whittier praised Lowell by writing two poems in his honor and calling him " our new Theocritus " and " one of the strongest and manliest of our writers – a republican poet who dares to speak brave words of unpopular truth . " British author Thomas Hughes referred to Lowell as one of the most important writers in the United States : " Greece had her Aristophanes ; Rome her Juvenal ; Spain has had her Cervantes ; France her Rabelais , her Molière , her Voltaire ; Germany her Jean Paul , her Heine ; England her Swift , her Thackeray ; and America has her Lowell . " Lowell 's satires and use of dialect were an inspiration for writers like Mark Twain , William Dean Howells , H. L. Mencken , and Ring Lardner .
Contemporary critic and editor Margaret Fuller wrote , " his verse is stereotyped ; his thought sounds no depth , and posterity will not remember him . " Duyckinck thought Lowell was too similar to other poets like William Shakespeare and John Milton . Ralph Waldo Emerson noted that , though Lowell had significant technical skill , his poetry " rather expresses his wish , his ambition , than the uncontrollable interior impulse which is the authentic mark of a new poem ... and which is felt in the pervading tone , rather than in brilliant parts or lines . " Even his friend Richard Henry Dana Jr . , questioned Lowell 's abilities , calling him " very clever , entertaining & good humored ... but he is rather a trifler , after all . " In the twentieth century , poet Richard Armour dismissed Lowell , writing : " As a Harvard graduate and an editor for the Atlantic Monthly , it must have been difficult for Lowell to write like an illiterate oaf , but he succeeded . " The poet Amy Lowell featured her relative James Russell Lowell in her poem A Critical Fable ( 1922 ) , the title mocking A Fable for Critics . Here , a fictional version of Lowell says he does not believe that women will ever be equal to men in the arts and " the two sexes cannot be ranked counterparts . " Modern literary critic Van Wyck Brooks wrote that Lowell 's poetry was forgettable : " one read them five times over and still forgot them , as if this excellent verse had been written in water . " Nonetheless , in 1969 the Modern Language Association established a prize named after Lowell , awarded annually for " an outstanding literary or linguistic study , a critical edition of an important work , or a critical biography . "
Lowell 's poem " The Present Crisis , " an early work that addressed the national crisis over slavery leading up to the Civil War , has had an impact in the modern civil rights movement . The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People named its newsletter The Crisis after the poem , and Martin Luther King , Jr. frequently quoted the poem in his speeches and sermons . The poem was also the source of the hymn Once to Every Man and Nation .
= = List of selected works = =
Poetry collections
A Year 's Life ( 1841 )
Miscellaneous Poems ( 1843 )
The Biglow Papers ( 1848 )
A Fable for Critics ( 1848 )
Poems ( 1848 )
The Vision of Sir Launfal ( 1848 )
Under the Willows ( 1869 )
The Cathedral ( 1870 )
Heartsease and Rue ( 1888 )
Essay collections
Conversations on the Old Poets ( 1844 )
Fireside Travels ( 1864 )
Among My Books ( 1870 )
My Study Windows ( 1871 )
Among My Books ( second collection , 1876 )
Democracy and Other Addresses ( 1886 )
Political Essays ( 1888 )
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= Jean Keene =
Jean Keene ( October 20 , 1923 – January 13 , 2009 ) , also known as the Eagle Lady , was a former rodeo trick rider who became the subject of national attention due to her feeding of wild bald eagles on the Homer Spit in Homer , Alaska . Although she had many supporters for the feedings , she was also criticized for drawing a large population of eagles to the area . After her death , the city of Homer passed a law prohibiting the feeding of predatory birds .
= = Early life = =
Jean Marie Hodgdon was born on October 20 , 1923 in Aitkin County , Minnesota . The eldest of three sisters and one brother , she grew up on a dairy farm in Aitkin , where she helped with farm chores including herding , feeding , and milking cows . She learned to ride horses and became a talented horse breaker and trainer .
In 1952 , she was recruited by the traveling rodeo outfit Red River Rodeo as a trick rider , and by the mid @-@ 1950s was anticipating an upcoming appearance at with Red River at Madison Square Garden . However , her rodeo career was abruptly cut short in a riding accident during a performance at Olympia Arena in Detroit , Michigan . While performing a trick called the " death drag " , she missed a handhold after leaning back too far in her saddle . She fell from her horse and was knocked unconscious when her head hit the arena wall . Her foot was still caught in the stirrup , and she was dragged around the arena , tangled in the horse 's legs , until other rodeo personnel were able to stop the horse . She suffered 15 fractures in her left knee . After surgery to repair her knee , she spent several months in recovery encased from the waist down in a plaster cast . After the cast was removed , she was still able to walk and ride , but not with the facility necessary to perform in the rodeo .
For a time she worked as a professional truck driver hauling cattle . In the late 1950s she married , and gave birth to a son , Lonnie , before divorcing . By the early 1960s she was a single mother . She opened up a dog and cat grooming business and also raised and bred cocker spaniels . She later became the owner and operator of Jolly Chef Truck Stop in Minneapolis , Minnesota .
Keene came to Alaska for the first time in the early 1970s to attend a cousin 's wedding . Attracted by the state 's beauty , she returned for several visits before making the decision in 1977 to move there — alone . Her son Lonnie was deemed old enough to make his own decisions , and he chose to remain in Minnesota . Keene took a week to drive from Minnesota to Alaska in a secondhand motorhome , ending in Homer , where she parked the motorhome at the end of Homer Spit in the Homer Spit Campground , where it remained for many years . She took a job at a fish processing facility on the Spit , the Icicle Seafoods subsidiary Seward Fisheries , in the spring of 1977 , where she later became a foreman .
= = Feeding the eagles = =
Keene 's career as the " Eagle Lady " began shortly after her arrival in Homer , when one morning she noticed two bald eagles on the beach near her motorhome . Keene saw offering food to the eagles as a natural extension of her practice of keeping bird feeders filled with sunflower seeds for wild songbirds . She began to bring home surplus fish in a bucket from her job , and each morning would throw some fish to the eagles over the short driftwood fence she had made around her motorhome . By the end of that spring , a half @-@ dozen eagles were showing up for breakfast . The eagles departed with the arrival of summer , when the Spit became more active with human visitors , but they returned in the winter when tourist season had ended , and Keene resumed the daily feeding .
Within ten years , over 200 bald eagles were visiting during winter and early spring each day , and the job of feeding them became more involved . To have enough fish to last through the winter , she would begin in August to stockpile fish scraps and freezer burned fish donated by her employer and by other local companies . The fish was sometimes supplemented by moose meat that Keene salvaged when she heard of a road @-@ killed moose on the highway . She began feeding the eagles at about December 1 of each year , a job that took up to three hours ' work each morning . Keene obtained permission from her employer to use a company forklift to move the large containers of stockpiled fish scraps and freezer @-@ burned salmon , halibut , rockfish , cod , and herring out of the company 's large freezers . She then transferred the fish by hand into barrels or garbage cans , which she loaded up in her pickup truck . Then she would drive the load to her motorhome , about 100 yards ( 91 m ) from the Seward Fisheries plant , and cut the fish into fist @-@ sized pieces to be thrown out to the eagles . If the fish was fully frozen , she would use an axe , chainsaw , or blowtorch to break the fish down into smaller chunks , or might even have to lug the large garbage cans into her motorhome to thaw . " I don 't know if anyone else would do this , " she told a reporter in 1986 . " My motorhome smells like fish . My yard is fish . My truck is fish . I am fish . It gets kind of gross sometimes , especially when you 're handling a lot of slimy carcasses . "
Keene had been persistent in her efforts . In 1985 she broke her leg , but managed to keep to the feeding schedule even on crutches . In the winter of 1994 she was diagnosed with breast cancer and on her doctor 's advice underwent a mastectomy . She hired a friend to conduct feeding operations in her absence , but was back to do it herself three days after surgery .
On July 1 , 1998 , an ammonia leak and explosion at the Seward Fisheries plant caused a fire that led to the evacuation of Homer Spit and the ultimate destruction of the facility , which until then had been the major supplier of fish remains for Keene 's feeding operation . But Keene was able to report when winter came that she had found other sources and was ready for the eagles when they returned .
Although the number of visiting eagles fluctuated , about 200 to 300 eagles would show up each day during the months of winter and early spring . Crows and gulls were also attracted to the area . Keene fed them an estimated 500 pounds ( 227 kg ) of fish per day , about 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( 22 @,@ 680 kg ) per year . Her fish supply included surplus and freezer @-@ burned fish from fish processing facilities still on the Spit , her own purchases using her limited funds from Social Security or retirement benefits , or fish contributed by her supporters . Visitors could come and watch the eagles Keene fed on the Spit at no cost , but were asked to stay in their cars for their own safety and for the safety of the eagles .
= = Public attention = =
Keene 's work has been publicized in Reader 's Digest , National Geographic , The Washington Post , People , Life , " Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! " , and on The Rush Limbaugh Show . A 2004 book , The Eagle Lady by Alaska author and photographer Cary Anderson , documents Keene 's life and her relationship with the eagles . Keene received the 2004 Lifetime Meritorious Service Award from the Bald Eagle Foundation . Many of Keene 's strongest supporters were local hotel owners who got extra business in the normally sluggish winter season , and photographers who were able to use clever framing of shots in order to make it appear they were photographing eagles in the wild . These photographers made enough money from these works that they bought Keene a new house with some of the profits . The news satire program The Daily Show reported on its April 17 , 2006 edition that Homer had been overpopulated by bald eagles due in large part to Keene 's activities . A crew from the show spent two days in March 2006 shooting footage for the show , including a feeding session and interview with Keene and interviews with other Homer residents about Keene and the controversy then in progress about feeding eagles .
= = Criticism = =
Some environmentalists were concerned with the large population of eagles drawn to Homer by Keene . They believed some eagles have been harmed due to their familiarity with people . Others were worried about the spread of disease or the change in the birds ' natural migrations . Allegedly , some other bird populations in the area , such as sandhill cranes , loons , and kittiwakes , have been driven out or killed by eagles , though there is no direct evidence . In fact , kittiwakes have increased in the area to the degree of founding a new colony close to Keene 's home . According to an ABC News broadcast , many Homer residents now consider the birds a " menace " , as they have been known to cause car accidents and steal pets . In a few cases , the birds have been shot at . An ordinance passed by the Homer City Council in 2006 prohibits the feeding of eagles within the city limits ; however , the city council granted Keene an exemption , giving her special permission to continue feeding bald eagles within city limits until April 2010 , at which time Keene would have been 86 .
= = Death = =
Keene died at home on January 13 , 2009 , aged 85 , from a respiratory condition . After her death , the Homer city council passed a new resolution banning the feeding of eagles , crows , ravens and other predatory and scavenger birds by any person , effective March 19 , 2009 . The resolution 's effective date was delayed until spring out of concern that the birds would either die of starvation or become highly aggressive if the feeding ended in the middle of winter . A memorial to Keene is planned at a nearby hotel that was a favorite dining spot of Keene 's and supplied much of her fish .
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= Breathe on Me =
" Breathe on Me " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fourth studio album In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was written by Stephen Lee , Steve Anderson and Lisa Greene and produced by Mark Taylor . " Breathe on Me " is a dance and pop song that incorporates trip hop influences with sensual lyrics that use heavy breathing as a metaphor for sex , as a woman begs a man to " breathe on me " ; it culminates in a bridge resembling sexual climax .
" Breathe on Me " received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , some of whom praised the song 's production while others criticized Spears ' Lolita persona . It drew comparisons to the work of Janet Jackson , Madonna , and Kylie Minogue . Despite not being released as a single , official remixes of the song were commissioned and released . Spears performed the song at Rain Nightclub ahead of the album 's release . It was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , The M + M 's Tour ( 2007 ) , The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , and Spears ' revamped Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2016 – 17 ) .
= = Background = =
After the Dream Within a Dream Tour in support of Britney finalized in July 2002 , Spears announced she would take a break from her career for six months . In November 2002 , she revealed that she had started working on her next studio album . She explained , " Well , actually , I just said that I wanted two or three weeks off . [ .... ] And the whole world was like , ' Ohmigod , [ sic ] she 's gone ... " When asked by The Hollywood Reporter about the direction of the record , Spears responded it was an organic evolution , adding , " It should just happen naturally from the way you feel . [ ... ] Whatever happens , happens " . Steve Anderson , Lisa Greene and Stephen Lee wrote " Breathe on Me " at Metrophonic Studios in London , England . Before meeting with the other writers , Anderson thought of two concepts for songs specifically for Spears : one he had worked on " for ages " , and " Breathe on Me " , which he drafted on the morning of the sessions . Greene and Lee did not like the first concept , and they wrote " Breathe on Me " with Anderson . The song was produced by Mark Taylor , who kept most of the programming done by Anderson . With Taylor , Spears recorded " Breathe on Me " and " And Then We Kiss " , which did not make the album .
Spears described " Breathe on Me " as " very vibe @-@ y , trance @-@ y , " explaining that the song " is basically about being with a guy and not even having to really be with each other , but just the intensity and the anxiety between not saying anything . You don 't even have to touch me , just breathe on me . " Britney 's " Lolita persona is revived " on the track .
= = Composition = =
" Breathe on Me " is a dance and pop song with trip hop influences that lasts for a duration of three minutes and forty @-@ three seconds ( 3 : 43 ) . The track " includes moaning and heavy breathing . " Britney pleads , " Boy , don 't stop , ' cause I 'm half way there / It 's not complicated , we 're just syncopated . " The " sexy thump " of the song is briefly interrupted as Spears whispers , " Monogamy is the way to go / Just put your lips together and blow , " a reference to Lauren Bacall in the 1944 film To Have and Have Not . The song was described as Spears exploring " the eroticism of restraint . " The track has " swirling beats and pounding bass . " The lyrics are " a thinly veiled reference to oral sex " , in particular cunnilingus .
Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News wrote , " Of the songs on In the Zone , " Breathe on Me " most earns the trip @-@ hop comparisons . " The song received comparisons to Australian singer Kylie Minogue , a frequent collaborator of Steve Anderson , particularly her songs " Breathe " and " Confide in Me " ( the latter of which was co @-@ written by Anderson ) . " Breathe on Me " was also likened to the work of Madonna , who Spears collaborated with on " Me Against the Music " , and Janet Jackson , with a review saying " Britney clearly learned from the greats , Janet and Madonna , and positioned herself neatly as a legend alongside them . "
= = Remixes = =
" Breathe on Me " was intended to be released as a single in 2004 , but the In the Zone era was cut short due to a knee injury Spears received on the set of " Outrageous " music video . Official remixes of " Breathe on Me " were commissioned by Jive Records . James Holden produced remixes of the song . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse wrote , " The remix takes the throbbing trance perfection of the original and brings it to somewhat spookier new heights , stretching and distorting the singer ’ s sexy moans into lonesome cries on top of spaced @-@ out synthesizers and bright flourishes of electronica . " Stuart Price also produced the Jacques Lu Cont remixes of the song ; the Jacques Lu Cont Mix appeared on the bonus remix disk of Greatest Hits : My Prerogative in 2004 and Jacques Lu Cont 's Thin White Duke Mix appeared on B in the Mix : The Remixes in 2005 . The former was described as " faster and brighter , with a looped Giorgio Moroder @-@ style beat " while the latter " is half as long even though it slows the beat down to something slinky and lounge @-@ y , even slightly off @-@ key , making the song darker and dirtier . " Official remixes were also commissioned for Junior Vasquez , but even though his remixes have circulated on the internet , they remain unreleased .
= = Critical response = =
" Breathe on Me " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics . Tom Bishop of BBC News described the track as " a sumptuous seduction bearing the stamp of Kylie collaborator Steve Anderson . " Louis Viriel of AfterElton.com labeled it one of Britney 's most underrated songs , and a highlight from In the Zone . He said the song is a " sinister triumph " and " a steamy , yet icy affair that recalls the naughtiness of Kylie . " Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie compared " Breathe on Me " favorably to Madonna , commenting that " the pop princess treads , convincingly , on the territory of the Queen of Pop . " Additionally , " Breathe on Me " also drew comparisons to Janet Jackson . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! called the track a " throbbing " and " sexy , sweaty dance tune . " It was labeled an " album highlight and stellar pop song " with its " pulsing electronic beat and overwhelming sexuality . " MuuMuse referred to " Breathe on Me " as " the single that never was , " while PopEater named the song the best Britney Spears song that " you probably don 't know . "
The song , however , drew criticism for the revival of Spears ' Lolita persona . Elysa Gardner of USA Today wrote , " Purring and moaning through overheated numbers such as Breathe on Me and Early Mornin ' , she still sounds creepily like a little girl trying to excite the older boys . " Bernard Zuel of the Sydney Morning Herald pinpointed " Breathe on Me " as a weaker track from the album : " Breathe on Me is breathy tosh that sounds frighteningly like Kylie . " Matthew Wilder of City Pages felt that moments of the song " access that queer @-@ o @-@ centric , cool @-@ to @-@ cold club sound of ' Vogue ' -era Madonna , but with a poignant difference . Britney is too thick , too slow , too homecoming queen to get over in Boys ' Town . "
= = Live performances = =
" Breathe on Me " was performed for the first time as part of a surprise thirty @-@ minute set at Rain Nightclub at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas , Nevada on September 14 , 2003 . Spears and her dancers crawled on the floor , onto a daybed , and pretended to make out with one another . One of the dancers ripped Spears ' top off , exposing her red bra . The song was also performed as part of Spears ' headlining set at Staples Center in Los Angeles , California for the annual KIIS @-@ FM Jingle Ball .
Spears performed the song on The Onyx Hotel Tour in support of In the Zone in 2004 . Following a costume change , Spears reappeared on a mini platform where she descended to the main stage on a pole . She wore pink lingerie and " cavorted on one of the stage 's two beds with a male dancer , thrashing her sizable blonde mane to and fro . " It was described as " easily the raciest in the oversexed show . "
On 2007 's The M + M 's Tour , which included six secret shows at House of Blues venues , Spears " seductively gyrated on the chair before her dancers returned and pulled a male fan from the audience to be serenaded by Spears . " The song was performed on 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears tour alongside " Touch Of My Hand " . Spears stripped " down to panties and a barely @-@ there sheer top with strategically placed cones , and sang while suspended inside a giant picture frame that slowly spun around center stage . Landing on a couch adorned with men , she donned a blindfold and ascended halfway to the rafters again . Finally , it was just her grinding away with a muscleman . "
In the revamped concerts of Spears 's residency , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2016 @-@ 2017 ) , the song was added to the setlist , again , alongside " Touch Of My Hand " . Both songs were also performed in a medley at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards .
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= Interstate 205 ( California ) =
Interstate 205 ( abbreviated I @-@ 205 ) is a short auxiliary Interstate Highway that connects Interstate 5 with Interstate 580 in the San Joaquin Valley in the U.S. state of California . Along with those highways , I @-@ 205 forms the north side of a triangle around the city of Tracy . The route provides access from the San Francisco Bay Area to the northern San Joaquin Valley . It is officially designated as the Robert T. Monagan Freeway after the California legislator who represented the area from 1961 to 1973 .
When I @-@ 205 opened in December 1970 , it replaced 11th Street , which passed through downtown Tracy , as part of the primary all @-@ land connection between the Bay Area and Sacramento until the Carquinez Bridge opened in 1927 , and carried the Lincoln Highway and later U.S. Route 50 . 11th Street is now signed as Interstate 205 Business .
= = Route description = =
Interstate 205 begins at the bottom of I @-@ 580 's eight @-@ lane descent from Altamont Pass into the San Joaquin Valley . Here I @-@ 580 turns southeast to a junction with I @-@ 5 , paralleling the California Aqueduct and Delta @-@ Mendota Canal along the foothills , while I @-@ 205 continues east as a six @-@ lane roadway , immediately crossing both waterways . The first interchange is with Mountain House Parkway , formerly Patterson Pass Road , which serves the planned community of Mountain House . Next is a split with Business 205 , a business loop that follows 11th Street through Tracy . As I @-@ 205 curves east @-@ northeast and back east through the northern part of Tracy , it has interchanges with Grant Line Road ( County Route J4 towards Antioch ) , Tracy Boulevard ( County Route J13 through downtown Tracy ) , and MacArthur Drive . After several miles without an interchange , the highway ends at a merge with I @-@ 5 , where traffic can continue northeast to the junction with SR 120 near Manteca and then east on SR 120 towards Yosemite National Park or north on I @-@ 5 towards Stockton .
As it connects to I @-@ 580 , I @-@ 205 is a frequently @-@ congested major commuter route to the Bay Area . Signs on eastbound I @-@ 580 instruct travelers to take I @-@ 205 , SR 120 , and SR 99 to reach Modesto instead of using the direct , but non @-@ freeway , route SR 132 . I @-@ 205 also serves to connect the Bay Area with popular weekend destinations such as Yosemite , Reno , and Lake Tahoe . The Altamont Commuter Express provides commuters with an alternate route over Altamont Pass to San Jose and San Francisco , the latter through a transfer to BART .
= = History = =
When the Department of Engineering laid out the initial state highway system after the state 's voters approved a bond issue to pay for it in 1910 , they included Route 5 , connecting Santa Cruz and Oakland with Stockton via Altamont Pass . San Joaquin County paved the portion near Tracy with asphalt with their own bond issue , passed in 1909 , and the state later resurfaced it with concrete . In addition , the new concrete road bypassed Banta , which the old county road had passed through via Banta Road , F Street , and Grant Line Road . Otherwise , the road was relatively direct , coming down from Altamont Pass onto Grant Line Road , following Byron Highway into Tracy , and leaving east and northeasterly on 11th Street to the San Joaquin River at the Mossdale Crossing . The Lincoln Highway Association chose this route in 1913 for their transcontinental highway , where it remained until the Carquinez Bridge opened in 1927 , creating a shorter route via Vallejo . In 1926 , the American Association of State Highway Officials designated the Stockton @-@ Bay Area route as US 48 , which was absorbed by an extension of US 50 by the early 1930s .
A 1938 four @-@ lane bypass of the old road around Altamont Pass was extended east to Tracy as a four @-@ lane expressway on November 16 , 1954 . By then , the entire route between the Bay Area and Stockton was four or more lanes , following the present I @-@ 580 ( eastbound lanes where they separate ) , I @-@ 205 , 11th Street , and I @-@ 5 from Livermore through Tracy to Stockton . During early planning for the Interstate Highway System , the main north @-@ south route through California ( now I @-@ 5 ) was to use SR 99 through the San Joaquin Valley ; a connection to the Bay Area split near Modesto and roughly followed US 50 . The Bureau of Public Roads approved a move to the proposed Westside Freeway in May 1957 , and in November they added a North Tracy Bypass that would connect I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 580 . Construction began in the late 1960s , incorporating part of the 1954 expressway and a new alignment bypassing Tracy to the north , and the $ 14 million road opened to traffic on December 21 , 1970 . ( A short piece at the west end , including the bridge over the California Aqueduct , was upgraded several years earlier when I @-@ 580 and I @-@ 5 to the south were built . )
Since 1970 , I @-@ 205 has seen few changes . The largest have been widening from four to six lanes west of Business 205 in 1999 , and converting two diamond interchanges to partial cloverleafs — Grant Line Road in about 1997 and Mountain House Parkway in 2007 ( including ramp meters ) . As of Summer 2009 , I @-@ 205 has been widened to six lanes ( three in each direction ) for its entire route . Also , the 1970s concrete pavement has been resurfaced with fresh asphalt from the junction of I @-@ 5 to due east of the 11th street connector ramp .
= = Future = =
Caltrans has plans to improve merging distances by constructing auxiliary lanes between the interchanges , and to add new interchanges at Lammers Road and Paradise Road .
= = Tracy business loop = =
Interstate 205 Business is a locally maintained business route . It locally follows 11th Street , the historic four @-@ lane alignment of U.S. Route 50 , through Tracy . The route begins at a split with I @-@ 205 west of the city . After passing through downtown Tracy , it curves northeast at a junction with former SR 33 , which has been truncated to the south at I @-@ 5 . The final stretch of Interstate 205 Business runs diagonally to a merge with I @-@ 5 , which comes from the south and continues northeast along the former US 50 alignment . The east end of Interstate 205 Business is about 3 / 4 mile ( 1 km ) southwest of the end of I @-@ 205 ; normally Interstate 205 Business would return to I @-@ 205 at both ends , but here I @-@ 205 and Interstate 205 Business both end at I @-@ 5 .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
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= Philip Humber 's perfect game =
Philip Humber of the Chicago White Sox pitched a perfect game against the Seattle Mariners by retiring all 27 batters he faced on April 21 , 2012 , as the White Sox defeated the Mariners 4 – 0 . It was the 21st perfect game in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) history and the third by a member of the White Sox . It was Humber 's first career complete game , although he had come close to achieving no @-@ hitters on several occasions at several levels of organized baseball . The game was played in Seattle and broadcast regionally by Fox Sports in the two teams ' metropolitan areas .
Humber , a top pitching prospect from a Texas high school , attended Rice University , where he had a successful career . A high draft pick by the New York Mets , he debuted in MLB for the Mets before headlining a group of four prospects traded to the Minnesota Twins for Johan Santana . After two ineffective seasons with the Twins , Humber pitched a season for the Kansas City Royals . Acquired on waivers by the Chicago White Sox in 2011 , Humber had his first successful season in an MLB starting rotation . The perfect game , Humber 's 30th career start and his second of the 2012 season , totaled 96 pitches .
= = Background = =
Humber was named 2001 Texas High School Class 4A Player of the Year and enrolled at Rice University for the next season . Humber flirted with a no @-@ hitter in college , pitching for the Rice Owls baseball team . On April 6 , 2002 he held a no @-@ hitter going into the eighth inning against the San Jose State Spartans baseball team . In that contest , he surrendered a pinch hit single in the eighth , but did not allow any runs until a ninth @-@ inning home run .
The New York Mets drafted Humber with the third overall draft choice in that year 's amateur draft . After pitching in the minor leagues , he pitched in five games for the Mets during the 2006 and 2007 seasons . He also came close to a no hitter in minor league baseball . On August 22 , 2007 he pitched eight and one @-@ third no @-@ hit innings for the Class @-@ AAA New Orleans Zephyrs of the Pacific Coast League against the Iowa Cubs . Humber ended up with a no decision .
The Mets traded Humber along with Carlos Gómez , Kevin Mulvey , and Deolis Guerra for two @-@ time Cy Young Award @-@ winning pitcher Johan Santana that offseason . Humber pitched for the Twins in 2008 and 2009 and then signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals after the 2009 season . After pitching for Kansas City for 2010 , the Oakland Athletics claimed him on waivers from the Royals , but waived him a week later , at which point he was taken by the Chicago White Sox .
Humber nearly achieved a no hitter for the 2011 Chicago White Sox twice . On April 25 , 2011 , in the sixth start of his career , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium but , with one out , Alex Rodriguez singled up the middle , leaving Humber to finish with seven scoreless innings . Later that year he took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning against the Washington Nationals on June 26 , but ended up earning a 2 – 1 loss when he surrendered a seventh inning home run to Danny Espinosa . In that contest , Jerry Hairston , Jr. broke up the no @-@ hitter leading off the sixth after Roger Bernadina earned a hit by pitch to break up the perfect game in the fourth .
In 2011 Humber pitched a career @-@ high 163 innings , but expected to pitch more and build on his success with the departure of Mark Buehrle from the White Sox . Although the 2012 Chicago White Sox ' rotation was said to be made up of five number three starters , Humber was the number five starter entering the season , of which his perfect game was Humber 's second start . Humber was scheduled to make his 2012 season debut for the White Sox on April 10 , but the game was rained out . He was then made available for middle relief . In his season debut , on April 16 , Humber allowed one run and ten baserunners in 5 1 ⁄ 3 innings , throwing 115 pitches .
= = The game = =
Humber 's second start of the season took place on the road in Safeco Field in Seattle , Washington on April 21 , 2012 and was played in front of a crowd of 22 @,@ 472 people . The White Sox ' catcher was A. J. Pierzynski and Humber 's mound opponent , Blake Beavan , was a 2007 Texas high school player of the year . The home plate , first , second , and third base umpires were Brian Runge , Marvin Hudson , Tim McClelland , and Ted Barrett respectively . The game was broadcast on Fox , with Mariners ' broadcaster Dave Sims and Eric Karros on the call and its duration was two hours , seventeen minutes . Eric Karros , before the game , describing Humber 's previous few games , remarked , " Gotta be a little better today . "
Beavan threw a quality start for Seattle , while Humber retired all 27 batters he faced , as his fastball reached 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) . The closest a batter got to a hit was Dustin Ackley 's fourth inning line drive over the head of right fielder Alex Ríos , which resulted in a warning track leaping catch . The Mariners began talking about Humber 's dominance in the fifth inning as they sought to break up the perfect game . Humber recorded the final out on a check @-@ swing strikeout of Brendan Ryan . The ball got away from catcher Pierzynski , but home plate umpire Runge ruled that Ryan had failed to check his swing . Ryan took steps toward first base but , when he saw that Pierzynski had successfully gathered the ball and thrown to first , he argued the call with Runge . The FOX Sports broadcast never showed any angle which definitively proved whether Ryan had successfully checked his swing , but many fans and media members felt the call was incorrect . Ryan himself refused to discuss the play after the game and offered nothing but praise for Humber .
Humber finished the game with nine strikeouts ; the other batters were retired with five groundouts and 13 flyouts . Humber threw only 96 pitches , making this the first perfect game thrown in under 100 pitches since David Cone 's perfect game on July 18 , 1999 . Humber had only started 29 Major League games prior to throwing his perfect game , making him the pitcher with the second fewest starts prior to throwing a perfect game , behind fellow White Sox player Charlie Robertson . MLB.com has made available the video of the last out .
The game was only available on television in the Chicago and Seattle markets , because a game between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park , also on the network , was broadcast by more affiliates . Games between those two rivals generate a great deal of interest and receive extensive media coverage , including being broadcast on national television . Fox did , however , cut away from Yankees – Red Sox game , which was already in the seventh inning , to show the final three outs of Humber 's perfect game , even in the Boston and New York markets .
= = Aftermath = =
It was the 21st perfect game in MLB history and the first since Roy Halladay 's perfect game on May 29 , 2010 . It was the third perfect game in White Sox history ( tying them with the Yankees for most perfect games ) after Charlie Robertson 's ( who threw the only other perfect game in April in MLB history ) on April 30 , 1922 and Mark Buehrle 's on July 23 , 2009 , and the 18th no @-@ hitter in White Sox history ( tying them with the Red Sox for second most no @-@ hitters ) . It was Humber 's second start of the 2012 season and first career complete game .
Humber went 1 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 63 ERA in 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings while striking out 16 over two starts that week , including the perfect game , resulting in his selection as American League Player of the Week for the week ending April 22 . He received a congratulatory phone call from President Barack Obama , a noted White Sox fan , and received news that his perfect game would be memorialized with a plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . Humber made an appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman on April 23 , where he read the Top Ten List .
Humber became the seventh former member of the Mets to go on to throw a no @-@ hitter for another team . The other six are Nolan Ryan , Tom Seaver , Mike Scott , Dwight Gooden , Hideo Nomo and David Cone . The New York Mets , at the time of Humber 's perfect game , had never had a no @-@ hitter thrown by a player in the 50 @-@ year history of the franchise ( Johan Santana has since accomplished this feat ) .
The Mariners went hitless for the third time in franchise history and this was the first time that no Mariner reached base . However , they went on to pitch two no @-@ hitters in 2012 , both of which took place at Safeco Field and winning both games 1 @-@ 0 . One of them was the first perfect game in franchise history , by Félix Hernández , making them the first team to be on both the losing and winning end of a perfect game in the same season , and marking the first time two perfect games were thrown in the same park in the same season .
= = Statistics = =
Chicago White Sox 4 , Seattle Mariners 0 , April 21 , 2012
= = = Line score = = =
= = = Box score = = =
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= Norway Airlines =
Norway Airlines A / S was a Norwegian airline which operated between 1988 and 1992 . Focusing on charter , the airline operated two Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft from 1988 to 1992 , after which it operated two McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 aircraft , one MD @-@ 83 and one MD @-@ 87 . The airline flew a single scheduled route , between Oslo Airport , Fornebu and London Gatwick Airport , at first on contract with Air Europe and from 1991 at its own expense . At its peak , Norway Airlines had 196 employees . The company struggled financially and lost more than 100 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) before terminating operations , having never made a profit .
The airline was established by Trøndelag @-@ based investors on 2 April 1987 , having been originally intended to operate charter flights to the Mediterranean area . Ansett Australia was an early investor , but soon sold out . The company suffered with its main contractor , Sun Tours , going bankrupt in 1988 , after which the airline moved to the British charter market . Air Europe 's holding company bought a third of Norway Airlines in October 1989 ; this allowed the Norwegian company to start flying Air Europe 's route between Oslo and Gatwick as a wet lease operation , in addition to several international destinations from London . Air Europe went bankrupt in March 1991 , causing Norway Airlines to temporarily halt operations .
Sterling Airways came in as a new strategic minority owner , and the two airlines started an alliance along with Transwede . Their key goal was to secure concessions to fly between the Scandinavian capital cities of Oslo , Stockholm and Copenhagen , but no permission was ever granted . Instead Norway Airlines started its own service between Oslo and London . Operations ceased on 14 October 1992 after the board had filed for bankruptcy .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Norway Airlines was established on 2 April 1987 by Kjell Adserø and his holding company Hell Holding , along with several other investors from Trøndelag — the largest of which was Lyng Industrier . The business model was to operate charter flights from Norway to the Mediterranean ; eighty percent of the market was carried out with foreign airlines and Adserø believed that Norwegians not only would prefer a Norwegian carrier , but would be willing to pay more for one . The company had an initial share capital of NOK 10 million and established its head office and main base at Stavanger Airport , Sola . Separate companies , organized as kommandittselskap , wer established to own each aircraft and lease them to the airline . The aircraft owner companies paid 28 @.@ 7 million United States dollars for each Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , which were delivered new from Boeing Commercial Airplanes . Shares in the aircraft owning companies was offered to the public with a four @-@ percent annual return on investment . Part of the investment model was based on tax advantages .
The share capital was expanded to NOK 20 million in September 1987 . Among the purchasers was Ansett Australia , who bought a twenty @-@ percent stake . Ragnar Lyng replaced Adeserø as chairman and Johan H. Gedde @-@ Dahl was hired as managing director . Original plans were to start operations on 24 October 1987 , but this had to be postponed due to late delivery of the aircraft . Revenue flights commenced in February 1988 , after delivery of the airline 's first 148 @-@ passenger Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , City of Trondheim . The airline 's second 737 @-@ 300 , City of Stavanger , was delivered the same month , but was leased to Monarch Airlines . About sixty percent of the company 's initial business was flying on contract with Sun Tours .
Gedde @-@ Dahl was replaced by Kristian Åreskjold in March 1988 . The company lost NOK 15 million in 1987 and budgeted with a deficit of NOK 13 million the following year . To cover the losses , the airline issued a private placement for NOK 12 million and a public issue of NOK 18 million . The airline retained only a single aircraft in operation until late 1989 and the staff of 50 to 60 employees was too much for the revenue form a single aircraft to cover . The airline planned to acquire a third aircraft in 1990 and budgeted with a profit of NOK 7 million in 1989 and NOK 32 million in 1990 . Sun Tours filed for bankruptcy in late May 1988 . However , Åreskjold stated that the bankruptcy " came at a convenient time " as in the short term Norway Airlines would fly back Sun Tours customers at the expense of the Norwegian Travel Guarantee Fund and that there was a deficit of aircraft on the European charter market . Within a week , Norway Airlines had signed a contract to fly with both aircraft for Britannia Airways out of London Gatwick Airport . A new issue of shares for NOK 25 to 30 million took place in June 1988 and the company stated its intent to list itself on the Trondheim Stock Exchange . Nils Erik Christensen had by then been appointed chairman .
= = = Air Europe = = =
The airline was by September again in need of new capital . The contracts with Britannia ended on 1 November . While there was a high demand for 737 @-@ 300 aircraft , aviation regulations hindered Norway Airlines from wet leaseing the aircraft ( with full crew ) and limited them to dry leaseing ( without crew ) , which jeopardized the jobs of 86 employees . There were speculations in mid @-@ October that Air Europe was planning to purchase Norway Airlines . Lyng had by then bought Ansett 's share and held a 55 @-@ percent ownership . Norway Airlines announced on 25 October that they would lease both their aircraft to Air Europe on a five @-@ year contract , one aircraft from November 1988 and one from March 1989 . The airline would have to continue with ad @-@ hoc charters for the one aircraft until March . The deal also involved that the United Kingdom @-@ based International Leisure Group ( ILG ) would purchase a 33 @-@ percent share of Norway Airlines through a private placement of NOK 25 million .
Air Europe announced on 6 December 1988 that they would start a scheduled service between Oslo @-@ Fornebu and London @-@ Gatwick and intended to offer cheaper flights than the incumbents Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and British Airways . Operations started on 15 May , using Norway Airline 's 737 @-@ 300 , which was reconfigured to seat 142 passengers in a two @-@ class layout . Norway Airlines announced that they would take the brand name Air Europe Scandinavia and would paint their aircraft in the Air Europe livery , albeit with the Flag of Norway . Air Europe simultaneously started services from Copenhagen and Stockholm to London . The Oslo – London route immediately achieved an eighty @-@ percent cabin factor , with about twenty percent of its sales in business class . The capacity was doubled from November to two daily round trips . Other routes flown on behalf of Air Europe were from London to Rome , Gibraltar and Malta , although occasionally the aircraft could be used on other services . The London routes had after a year achieved a twenty @-@ percent market share . Norway Airlines had by July 1990 lost an accumulated NOK 75 million and new shares worth NOK 40 million were issued to finance continued operations .
Norway Airlines applied in 1990 for permission to operate a charter route from Oslo to Penang , Malaysia , using a Boeing 757 . The application was dismissed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications to protect SAS ' route from Copenhagen to Singapore . The Penang route was necessary for Norway Airlines to procure a third aircraft , which according to the company was necessary to generate a profit , and would have created 100 new jobs . In the mean time , Tjæreborg Reiser sent their charter passengers with scheduled flights to London and onwards with British carriers to Malaysia . The dismissal was appealed to Minister of Transport and Communications , Lars Gunnar Lie of the Christian Democratic Party . The issue became a political issue within Syse 's Cabinet , as the Conservative Party and the Progress Party were both in favor of increased deregulation of the airline industry . The issue was complicated by the common aviation policy of the three Scandinavian counties , which had largely been established to protect SAS ' interest on international services . The cabinet therefore opened for discussion a further deregulation with the governments of Sweden and Denmark . The Conservative Party stated that this was in part a response to Danish and Swedish authorities allowing charter services to Phuket , Thailand , which could be seen as competing to SAS ' route to Bangkok . Syse 's Cabiet resigned on 3 November over issues regarding Norway and the European Union , before a reply to the application could be made .
The airline reached a non @-@ public settlement with Thor Tjøntveit on 10 September regarding the latter 's right to purchase one of Norway Airline 's aircraft . Norway Airlines lost NOK 12 million in 1990 . In January 1991 , the airline won the contract to fly personnel the Norwegian Armed Forces , as the airline priced half a million krone lower than Busy Bee . Operations started in April and secured sufficient business that the airline could order its third aircraft , along with a contract from Gullivers Reiser for additional charter flights . Within a week it received concession to operate scheduled flights between Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm to London . A similar concession was also granted to Braathens SAFE , but they stated that the intense competition on the route would make it difficult for them to start a service . However , the five @-@ year concession required that Norway Airlines not have any foreign citizens in the board ; as two representatives for ILG sat on the board , they would have to resign for the concession to be valid . The Progress Party called for the law to be changed . Norway Airlines also applied for a route from Bergen and Stavanger to London .
Air Europe fell under financial distress in 1991 and terminated all its Gatwick operations on 8 March . This resulted in Norway Airlines having to ground both its aircraft . Before operations could commence , the two creditors of the aircraft , Fokus Bank and Christiania Bank , had to refinance the two holding companies . As the aircraft remained grounded when the military contract started on 1 April , Norway Airlines had to lease aircraft externally to operate the charters . The aircraft were freed up towards the end of April , allowing the services with Gullivers Reiser to commence on 28 April . Originally the leases on the aircraft expired 1 April 1993 and 1994 , respectively , but Norway Airlines renegotiated them to both expire 1 April 1994 . The Gullivers Reiser contract involved flying from Norway to Greece , Spain , Portugal and Turkey . Air Europe 's bankruptcy cost Norway Airlines NOK 6 million and required the company to reduce its staff from 196 to 106 employees . One aircraft was fully utilized , although the second was occasionally operated for Star Tour , Vingreiser and British Airways .
= = = Nordic cooperation = = =
Denmark 's Sterling Airways bought ILG 's share of Norway Airlines in mid July . The airlines announced a partnership , which also included Transwede . The Wallenberg @-@ controlled NRT owned a 48 @-@ percent stake in Sterling and 66 percent of Transwede — the remaining third owned by Sterling . The three airlines applied for concessions to operate on the capital triangle between Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm . SAS held a monopoly on these routes and the airlines intended to capture the leisure market between the capital regions . Both ILG and Sterling were hindered in owning more than a third of Norway Airlines because of Norwegian corporate legislation . Fokus Bank had gradually become the largest shareholder in Norway Airline and owned 40 @.@ 6 percent of the company in July 1991 . At a shareholders meeting in July , Stein Øxseth was appointed chairman and all non @-@ Norwegian board members were replaced .
In September 1991 , the government changed the policy for the military 's procurement of air transport from 1 April 1992 . This involved that the transport of 200 @,@ 000 people annually would be transferred to scheduled services , resulting in Norway Airlines losing the opportunity to extend its engagement with the military . The route from Oslo to London was introduced on 3 October , at first with four weekly services , increasing to nine from 23 October . The three partner airlines launched their alliance as the TransNordic Group and would use a bowler hat as their common symbol . However , the routes arrived so late in the evening that the last flights from Fornebu to Trondheim , Bergen , Stavanger and Tromsø had all departed . After five months the airline had achieved a 55 @-@ percent cabin factor on the London route . The ministry rejected in December 1991 the airline 's application for flying to Stockholm and Copenhagen . By December the British airline Dan @-@ Air had also established itself on the Oslo – London route . To meet the price competition , SAS launched discounted business class tickets . In the course of twelve months from late 1991 to late 1992 , the capacity between Oslo and London doubled , as also Norsk Air introduced a service from Sandefjord Airport , Torp .
Norway Airlines lost NOK 32 to 33 million in 1991 . Norway Airlines replaced its two 737 @-@ 300 aircraft with two McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 aircraft leased from Transwede , one MD @-@ 83 and one MD @-@ 87 . For the owners of the Boeing aircraft the move meant that they had to find a new lessee in a marketed where leasing prices had fallen from US $ 250 @,@ 000 to US $ 150 – 180 @,@ 000 per month . An interlining agreement was signed by Norway Airlines in March with British Airways and 25 other airlines at Gatwick . Norway Airlines announced on 15 March that it would take over the 25 Sterling employees in Norway in October . TransNordic Group started negotiations in June with Braathens SAFE , Maersk Air and Conair of Scandinavia for them to join the alliance . Prior to the roll @-@ out of Amadeus reservation system in July 1992 , Norway Airlines had not been included in the default searched of travel agents , who had to phone the airline to get a price quote .
Foreign airlines were from 1 April 1992 permitted to fly passengers between the Scandinavian capitals , and both TAP Portugal and Delta Air Lines started flying passengers as extensions to their existing routes . This was negotiated as part of bilateral agreements and intra @-@ Scandinavian agreements continued to hinder Norway Airlines from flying any of the routes . As of May , the Ministry of Transport and Communications had received applications to operate from Oslo to the other Scandinavian capitals by six airlines : Norway Airlines , Braathens SAFE , Transwede , Sterling , Maersk Air and Conair .
Norway Airline 's board voted on 14 October 1992 to file for bankruptcy , and all aircraft were grounded on 15 October 1992 . The official reason was " the crisis in the airline industry and unacceptable profitability " , combined with Norwegian authorities ' lack of willingness to grant the airline concessions . The airline had lost more than NOK 100 million by the start of the year and had failed to make a profit during 1992 . Norway Airlines entered negotiations with Air Holland for the latter to purchase the airline , but the deal fell through on 1 December . Within days of the bankruptcy , Dan @-@ Air also terminated operations . Braathens SAFE therefore decided to start flying the Fornebu – Gatwick route . Six days after Dan @-@ Air 's closure , the first schedules were published in the newspaper ; slots and British permission was granted three days after that . The service started another two days later .
= = Organization = =
When established , the company was based at Tananger in Sola outside Stavanger and had its main operative base at Stavanger Airport , Sola . The head office was later moved to Fornebu in Bærum outside Oslo , and the main base moved to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . At its peak the company had 196 employees , of which 144 were based in Norway . At the time of bankruptcy , the company had 120 employees , of which 78 were flight staff . Air Europe 's CEO Rod Lynch stated that Air Europe , and in extension Norway Airlines , had forty percent lower operating costs than Lufthansa and twenty percent lower than British Airways . Lynch emphasized the lack of trade unions as a key to holding costs down . Air Europe claimed a thirty @-@ four percent market share on passengers between Oslo and London .
Norway Airlines had a single @-@ class service on their route and in their marketing claimed that they offered " business class service to everyone " . The airline served a warm in @-@ flight meal and drinks at the level of business class on other airlines . The airline hoped to attract business travelers to travel at a more reasonable fare , while attracting leisure travelers with better service . Norway Airlines pioneered smoke @-@ free flights from Norway .
= = Destinations = =
Norway Airlines only operated a single scheduled service , between Oslo and London . The route was flown nine times per week , two round trips per day on Thursdays , Fridays and Sundays , and one round trip per day on Mondays , Tuesdays and Wednesdays . The route saw an average 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 passengers per year .
= = Fleet = =
Norway Airlines operated the following aircraft :
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= Ted Kennedy =
Edward Moore " Ted " Kennedy ( February 22 , 1932 – August 25 , 2009 ) was a United States Senator from Massachusetts and a member of the Democratic Party . He was the second most senior member of the Senate when he died and was the fourth @-@ longest @-@ serving senator in United States history , having served there for almost 47 years . The most prominent living member of the Kennedy family for many years , he was the last surviving son of Joseph P. Kennedy , Sr. and Rose Kennedy ; the youngest brother of President John F. Kennedy and Senator Robert F. Kennedy , both victims of assassination ; and the father of Congressman Patrick J. Kennedy .
Kennedy entered the Senate in a November 1962 special election to fill the seat once held by his brother John . He was elected to a full six @-@ year term in 1964 and was reelected seven more times . The Chappaquiddick incident on July 18 , 1969 , resulted in the death of his automobile passenger , Mary Jo Kopechne . Kennedy pleaded guilty to a charge of leaving the scene of an accident ; the incident and its aftermath hindered his chances of ever becoming President of the United States . His one attempt , in the 1980 presidential election , resulted in a Democratic primary campaign loss to incumbent President Jimmy Carter .
Kennedy was known for his charisma and oratorical skills . His 1968 eulogy for his brother Robert and his 1980 rallying cry for modern American liberalism were among his best @-@ known speeches . He became recognized as " The Lion of the Senate " through his long tenure and influence . More than 300 bills that Kennedy and his staff wrote were enacted into law . Unabashedly liberal , Kennedy championed an interventionist government emphasizing economic and social justice , but was also known for working with Republicans to find compromises between senators with disparate views . Kennedy played a major role in passing many laws , including laws addressing immigration , cancer research , health insurance , apartheid , disability discrimination , AIDS care , civil rights , mental health benefits , children 's health insurance , education and volunteering . During the 2000s , he led several unsuccessful immigration reform efforts . Over the course of his Senate career and continuing into the Obama administration , Kennedy continued his efforts to enact universal health care , which he called the " cause of my life . "
In May 2008 , Kennedy was hospitalized after suffering a seizure and was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor , which limited his appearances in the Senate . He died on August 25 , 2009 , at his Hyannis Port , Massachusetts home . By the later years of his life , he had come to be viewed as a major figure and spokesman for American progressivism .
= = Early life = =
Edward Moore Kennedy was born in St. Margaret 's Hospital on February 22 , 1932 , in the Dorchester section of Boston , Massachusetts . He was the youngest of nine children of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald , who were members of prominent Irish American families in Boston , and who constituted one of the wealthiest families in the nation . His elder siblings included Joseph Jr . , John , Eunice , and Robert . John asked to be the newborn 's godfather , a request his parents honored , though they did not agree to his request to name the baby George Washington Kennedy ( the newborn had entered the world on the first president 's 200th birthday ) ; they named him after Joseph Sr. ' s assistant instead .
Frequently uprooted as a child as his family moved among Bronxville , New York , Hyannis Port , Massachusetts , Palm Beach , Florida , and the Court of St. James 's in London , England , Ted attended ten different schools by the age of eleven , with his education suffering as a result . At age seven , he received his First Communion from Pope Pius XII in the Vatican . He spent sixth and seventh grades in the Fessenden School , where he was a mediocre student , and eighth grade at Cranwell Preparatory School , both in Massachusetts . His parents were affectionate toward him as the youngest child , but also compared him unfavorably with his older brothers . Between the ages of eight and sixteen , Ted suffered the traumas of Rosemary 's failed lobotomy and the deaths of Joseph Jr. and Kathleen in airplane crashes . An early political and personal influence was Ted 's affable maternal grandfather , John F. " Honey Fitz " Fitzgerald , a former mayor of Boston and congressman . Ted spent his four high school years at Milton Academy prep school in Massachusetts , where his grades were B 's and C 's and he finished 36th in a class of 56 when he graduated in 1950 . Ted did well at high school football there , playing on the varsity his last two years ; the school 's headmaster later described his play as : " absolutely fearless ... he would have tackled an express train to New York if you asked ... he loved contact sports " . He also played on the tennis team and was in the drama , debate , and glee clubs .
= = College , military service , and law school = =
Like his father and brothers before him , Ted attended Harvard College , and in his spring semester was assigned to the athlete @-@ oriented Winthrop House , where his brothers had also lived . He was an offensive and defensive end on the freshman football team , with his play characterized by his large size and fearless style . In his first semester , Kennedy and his friends arranged to copy answers from another student during the final examination for a science class . At the end of his second semester in May 1951 , anxious about maintaining his eligibility for athletics for the next year , he had a friend take his place at a Spanish language examination . The ruse was immediately discovered and both students were expelled for cheating . In a standard Harvard treatment for serious disciplinary cases , they were told they could apply for readmission within a year or two , after demonstrating good behavior .
Kennedy enlisted in the United States Army in June 1951 , signing up for an optional four @-@ year term , which was shortened to the minimum two years after his father intervened . Following basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey , he requested assignment to Fort Holabird in Maryland for Army Intelligence training , but was dropped after a few weeks without explanation . He went to Camp Gordon in Georgia for training in the Military Police Corps . In June 1952 , Kennedy was assigned to the honor guard at SHAPE headquarters in Paris , France . His father 's political connections ensured that he was not deployed to the ongoing Korean War . While stationed in Europe , he traveled extensively on weekends and climbed the Matterhorn in Switzerland . He was discharged after 21 months in March 1953 as a private first class .
Kennedy re @-@ entered Harvard in summer 1953 and improved his study habits ; his brother John was by then a U.S. senator and the family was attracting more public attention . Ted joined The Owl final club in 1954 and was also chosen for the Hasty Pudding Club and the Pi Eta fraternity . On athletic probation during his sophomore year , Kennedy returned as a second @-@ string two @-@ way end for the Crimson during his junior year and barely missed earning his varsity letter . Nevertheless , he received a recruiting feeler from Green Bay Packers head coach Lisle Blackbourn , asking about his interest in playing professionally . Kennedy demurred , saying he had plans to attend law school and to " go into another contact sport , politics . " Kennedy became a starter at end for Harvard in his senior season in 1955 , working hard to improve his blocking and tackling to complement his 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) , 200 lb ( 91 kg ) size . In the season @-@ ending Harvard @-@ Yale game in the snow at the Yale Bowl on November 19 , which Yale won 21 – 7 , Kennedy caught a pass to score Harvard 's only touchdown ; the team finished the season with a 3 – 4 – 1 record . Academically , Kennedy received mediocre grades for his first three years , improved to a B average for his senior year , and finished barely in the top half of his class . At age 24 , Kennedy graduated from Harvard in 1956 with an A.B. in history and government .
Not accepted by Harvard Law School due to his grades , Kennedy followed his brother Bobby and enrolled in the University of Virginia School of Law in 1956 . That acceptance was controversial among faculty and alumni who judged Kennedy 's past cheating episode incompatible with the University of Virginia 's honor code and it took a full faculty vote to admit him . Kennedy also attended the Hague Academy of International Law during one summer . At Virginia , Kennedy felt that he had to study " four times as hard and four times as long " as other students to keep up with them . His grades were mostly C 's ; he was in the middle of the class ranking , but was the winner of the prestigious William Minor Lile Moot Court Competition . He was elected head of the Student Legal Forum and via his family connections brought many prominent speakers to the campus . While there , his fast automotive habits were curtailed when he was charged with reckless driving and driving without a license . While attending law school , he was officially named as manager of his brother John 's 1958 Senate re @-@ election campaign ; Ted 's ability to connect with ordinary voters on the street helped bring a record @-@ setting victory margin that gave credibility to John 's presidential aspirations . Ted graduated from law school in 1959 .
= = Family and early career = =
Early in his second year of law school in October 1957 , Kennedy met Virginia Joan Bennett at Manhattanville College , following a dedication speech for a gymnasium that his family donated at the campus in Purchase , New York . Bennett was a senior there , had worked as a model and won beauty contests , but was unfamiliar with the world of politics . After their engagement , she grew nervous about marrying someone she did not know that well , but his father insisted that the wedding should proceed . They were married by Cardinal Francis Spellman on November 29 , 1958 , at St. Joseph 's Church in Bronxville , New York , with the reception being held at the nearby Siwanoy Country Club . Together they had three children : Kara ( February 27 , 1960 – September 16 , 2011 ) , Ted , Jr . ( born September 26 , 1961 ) , and Patrick J. ( born July 14 , 1967 ) . By the mid @-@ 1960s , their marriage was in trouble due to Ted 's womanizing and Joan 's growing alcoholism .
Kennedy was admitted to the Massachusetts Bar in 1959 . In 1960 , John ran for President of the United States and Ted managed his campaign in the Western states . Ted learned to fly and during the Democratic primary campaign he barnstormed around the western states , meeting with delegates and bonding with them by trying his hand at ski jumping and bronc riding . The seven weeks he spent in Wisconsin helped his brother win the first contested primary of the season there and a similar time spent in Wyoming was rewarded when a unanimous vote from that state 's delegates put his brother over the top at the 1960 Democratic National Convention .
Following his victory in the presidential election , John vacated his seat as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts , but Ted was not eligible to fill the vacancy until February 22 , 1962 , when he would turn thirty . Initially Ted wanted to stay out West and do something other than run for office right away ; he said , " The disadvantage of my position is being constantly compared with two brothers of such superior ability . " His brothers were not in favor of his running immediately either , but Ted coveted the Senate seat as an accomplishment to match his brothers ' and their father overruled them . Therefore , John asked Massachusetts Governor Foster Furcolo to name Kennedy family friend Ben Smith as interim senator for John 's unexpired term , which he did in December 1960 . This kept the seat available for Ted . Meanwhile , Ted started work in February 1961 as an assistant district attorney for Suffolk County , Massachusetts ( for which he took a nominal $ 1 salary ) , where he first developed a hard @-@ nosed attitude towards crime . He took many overseas trips , billed as fact @-@ finding tours with the goal of improving his foreign policy credentials . On a nine @-@ nation Latin American trip in 1961 , FBI reports from the time showed Kennedy meeting with Lauchlin Currie , an alleged former Soviet spy , together with locals in each country whom the reports deemed left @-@ wingers and Communist sympathizers . Reports from the FBI and other sources had Kennedy renting a brothel and opening up bordellos after hours during the tour . The Latin American trip helped to formulate Kennedy 's foreign policy views , and in subsequent Boston Globe columns he warned that the region might turn to Communism if the U.S. did not reach out to it in a more effective way . Kennedy also began speaking to local political clubs and organizations .
In the 1962 U.S. Senate special election in Massachusetts , Kennedy initially faced a Democratic Party primary challenge from Edward J. McCormack , Jr . , the state Attorney General . Kennedy 's slogan was " He can do more for Massachusetts " , the same one John had used in his first campaign for the seat ten years earlier . McCormack had the support of many liberals and intellectuals , who thought Kennedy inexperienced and knew of his suspension from Harvard , a fact which later became public during the race . Kennedy also faced the notion that with one brother President and another U.S. Attorney General , " Don 't you think that Teddy is one Kennedy too many ? " But Kennedy proved to be an effective street @-@ level campaigner . In a televised debate , McCormack said " The office of United States Senator should be merited , and not inherited , " and said that if his opponent 's name was Edward Moore , not Edward Moore Kennedy , his candidacy " would be a joke " . Voters thought McCormack 's performance overbearing , and with the family political machine 's finally getting fully behind him , Kennedy won the September 1962 primary by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . In the November special election , Kennedy defeated Republican George Cabot Lodge II , product of another noted Massachusetts political family , gaining 55 percent of the vote .
= = United States Senator = =
= = = First years and assassinations of two brothers = = =
Kennedy was sworn in to the Senate on November 7 , 1962 . He maintained a deferential attitude towards the older , seniority @-@ laden Southern members when he first entered the Senate , avoiding publicity and focusing on committee work and local issues . Compared to his brothers in office , he lacked John 's sophistication and Robert 's intense , sometimes grating drive , but was more affable than either of them .
On November 22 , 1963 , while Kennedy was presiding over the Senate — a task given to junior members — an aide rushed in to tell him that his brother , President John F. Kennedy , had been shot ; his brother Robert soon told him that the President was dead . Ted , with his sister Eunice Kennedy Shriver , flew to the family home in Hyannis Port , Massachusetts , to tell his father ( afflicted by a stroke suffered in December 1961 ) the news .
On June 19 , 1964 , Kennedy was a passenger in a private Aero Commander 680 airplane flying in bad weather from Washington to Massachusetts . It crashed into an apple orchard in the western Massachusetts town of Southampton on the final approach to the Barnes Municipal Airport in Westfield . The pilot and Edward Moss , one of Kennedy 's aides , were killed . Kennedy was pulled from the wreckage by fellow Senator Birch Bayh and spent months in a hospital recovering from a severe back injury , a punctured lung , broken ribs and internal bleeding . He suffered chronic back pain for the rest of his life . Kennedy took advantage of his long convalescence to meet with academics and study issues more closely , and the hospital experience triggered his lifelong interest in the provision of health care services . His wife Joan did the campaigning for him in the regular 1964 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts , and he defeated his Republican opponent by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin .
Kennedy returned to the Senate in January 1965 , walking with a cane and employing a stronger and more effective legislative staff . He took on President Lyndon B. Johnson and almost succeeded in amending the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to explicitly ban the poll tax at the state and local level ( rather than just directing the Attorney General to challenge its constitutionality there ) , thereby gaining a reputation for legislative skill . He was a leader in pushing through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 , which ended a quota system based upon national origin and which , despite Kennedy 's predictions , would have a profound effect on the demographic makeup of the United States . He played a role in creation of the National Teachers Corps .
Following in the Cold Warrior path of his fallen brother , Kennedy initially said he had " no reservations " about the expanding U.S. role in the Vietnam War , acknowledging that it would be a " long and enduring struggle " . Kennedy held hearings on the plight of refugees in the conflict , which revealed that the U.S. government had no coherent policy for refugees . Kennedy also tried to reform " unfair " and " inequitable " aspects of the draft . By the time of a January 1968 trip to Vietnam , Kennedy was disillusioned by the lack of U.S. progress , and suggested publicly that the U.S. should tell South Vietnam , " Shape up or we 're going to ship out . "
Ted initially advised his brother Robert against challenging the incumbent President Johnson for the Democratic nomination in the 1968 presidential election . Once Eugene McCarthy 's strong showing in the New Hampshire primary led to Robert 's presidential campaign starting in March 1968 , Ted recruited political leaders for endorsements to his brother in the Western states . Ted was in San Francisco as his brother Robert won the crucial California primary on June 4 , 1968 ; and then after midnight , Robert was shot in Los Angeles and died a day later . Ted Kennedy was devastated by this death , as he was closest to Robert among those in the Kennedy family ; Kennedy aide Frank Mankiewicz said of seeing Ted at the hospital where Robert lay mortally wounded : " I have never , ever , nor do I expect ever , to see a face more in grief . " Ted Kennedy delivered a eulogy at Robert 's funeral , which included the oft @-@ quoted :
My brother need not be idealized , or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life ; to be remembered simply as a good and decent man , who saw wrong and tried to right it , saw suffering and tried to heal it , saw war and tried to stop it . Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today , pray that what he was to us and what he wished for others will some day come to pass for all the world . As he said many times , in many parts of this nation , to those he touched and who sought to touch him : " Some men see things as they are and say why . I dream things that never were and say why not . "
At the chaotic 1968 Democratic National Convention in August , Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley and some other party factions feared that Hubert Humphrey could not unite the party , and so encouraged Ted Kennedy to make himself available for a draft . The 36 @-@ year @-@ old Kennedy was seen as the natural heir to his brothers , and " Draft Ted " movements sprang up from various quarters and among delegates . Thinking that he was only being seen as a stand @-@ in for his brother and that he was not ready for the job himself , and getting an uncertain reaction from McCarthy and a negative one from Southern delegates , Kennedy rejected any move to place his name before the convention as a candidate for the nomination . He also declined consideration for the vice @-@ presidential spot . George McGovern remained the symbolic standard @-@ bearer for Robert 's delegates instead .
After the deaths of his brothers , Ted Kennedy took on the role of a surrogate father for his 13 nephews and nieces . By some reports , he also negotiated the October 1968 marital contract between Jacqueline Kennedy and Aristotle Onassis .
Following Republican Richard Nixon 's victory in November , Kennedy was widely assumed to be the front @-@ runner for the 1972 Democratic nomination . In January 1969 , Kennedy defeated Louisiana Senator Russell B. Long by a 31 – 26 margin to become Senate Majority Whip , the youngest person to attain that position . While this further boosted his presidential image , he also appeared conflicted by the inevitability of having to run for the position . The reluctance was in part due to the danger ; Kennedy reportedly observed , " I know that I 'm going to get my ass shot off one day , and I don 't want to . " Indeed , there were a constant series of death threats made against Kennedy for much of the rest of his career .
= = = Chappaquiddick incident = = =
On the night of July 18 , 1969 , Kennedy was on Martha 's Vineyard 's Chappaquiddick Island at a party he gave for the " Boiler Room Girls " , a group of young women who had worked on his brother Robert 's presidential campaign the year before . Kennedy left the party , driving a 1967 Oldsmobile Delmont 88 with one of the women , 28 @-@ year @-@ old Mary Jo Kopechne , and later drove off Dike Bridge into the Poucha Pond inlet , a tidal channel on Chappaquiddick Island . Kennedy escaped the overturned vehicle , and , by his description , dove below the surface seven or eight times , vainly attempting to reach Kopechne . Ultimately , he swam to shore and left the scene . He contacted authorities the next morning , but Kopechne 's body had already been discovered .
On July 25 , Kennedy pleaded guilty to leaving the scene of an accident and was given a sentence of two months in jail , suspended . That night , he gave a national broadcast in which he said , " I regard as indefensible the fact that I did not report the accident to the police immediately , " but denied driving under the influence of alcohol and denied any immoral conduct between him and Kopechne . Kennedy asked the Massachusetts electorate whether he should stay in office or resign ; after getting a favorable response in messages sent to him , Kennedy announced on July 30 that he would remain in the Senate and run for re @-@ election the next year .
In January 1970 , an inquest into Kopechne 's death was held in Edgartown , Massachusetts . At the request of Kennedy 's lawyers , the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ordered the inquest be conducted in secret . The presiding judge , James A. Boyle , concluded that some aspects of Kennedy 's story of that night were not true , and that negligent driving " appears to have contributed to the death of Mary Jo Kopechne " . A grand jury on Martha 's Vineyard conducted a two @-@ day investigation in April 1970 but issued no indictment , after which Boyle made his inquest report public . Kennedy deemed its conclusions " not justified " . Questions about the Chappaquiddick incident generated a large number of articles and books over the next several years .
= = = 1970s = = =
At the end of 1968 , Kennedy had joined the new Committee for National Health Insurance at the invitation of its founder , United Auto Workers president Walter Reuther . In May 1970 , Reuther died and Senator Ralph Yarborough , chairman of the full Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee and its Health subcommittee , lost his primary election , propelling Kennedy into a leadership role on the issue of national health insurance . In August 1970 , Kennedy introduced a bipartisan bill for universal national health insurance with no cost sharing , paid for by payroll taxes and general federal revenue .
Kennedy easily won re @-@ election to another term in the Senate in November 1970 with 62 percent of the vote against underfunded Republican candidate Josiah Spaulding , although he received about 500 @,@ 000 fewer votes than in 1964 .
In January 1971 , Kennedy lost his position as Senate Majority Whip when he lost the support of several members and was defeated by Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia , 31 – 24 . He would later tell Byrd that the defeat was a blessing , as it allowed him to focus more on issues and committee work , where his best strengths lay and where he could exert influence independently from the Democratic party apparatus , and began a decade as chairman of the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee .
In February 1971 , President Nixon proposed health insurance reform — an employer mandate to offer private health insurance , federalization of Medicaid , and support for health maintenance organizations . Hearings on national health insurance were held in 1971 , but no bill had the support of House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committee chairmen Wilbur Mills and Russell Long . Kennedy sponsored and helped pass the limited Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 . He also played a leading role , with Senator Jacob Javits , in the creation and passage of the National Cancer Act of 1971 .
In October 1971 , Kennedy made his first speech about The Troubles in Northern Ireland : he said that " Ulster is becoming Britain 's Vietnam " , demanded that British troops leave the northern counties , called for a united Ireland , and declared that Ulster Unionists who could not accept this " should be given a decent opportunity to go back to Britain " ( a position he backed away from within a couple of years ) . Kennedy was harshly criticized by the British , and formed a long political relationship with Irish Social Democratic and Labour Party founder John Hume . In scores of anti @-@ war speeches , Kennedy opposed President Richard Nixon 's policy of Vietnamization , calling it " a policy of violence [ that ] means more and more war " . In December 1971 , Kennedy strongly criticized the Nixon administration 's support for Pakistan and its ignoring of " the brutal and systematic repression of East Bengal by the Pakistani army " . He traveled to India and wrote a report on the plight of the 10 million Bengali refugees . In February 1972 , Kennedy flew to Bangladesh and delivered a speech at the University of Dhaka , where a killing rampage had begun a year earlier .
Chappaquiddick had greatly damaged Kennedy 's future presidential prospects and he had declared , shortly after the incident , that he would not be a candidate in the 1972 U.S. presidential election . Nevertheless , polls in 1971 suggested he could win the nomination if he tried , and Kennedy gave some thought to running . In May of that year he decided not to , saying he needed " breathing time " to gain more experience and to take care of the children of his brothers and that in sum , " It feels wrong in my gut . " Nevertheless , in November 1971 , a Gallup Poll still had him in first place in the Democratic nomination race with 28 percent . Once George McGovern was near clinching the Democratic nomination in June 1972 , various anti @-@ McGovern forces tried to get Kennedy to enter the contest at the last minute , but he declined . At the 1972 Democratic National Convention McGovern repeatedly tried to recruit Kennedy as his vice presidential running mate , but was turned down . When McGovern 's choice of Thomas Eagleton stepped down soon after the convention , McGovern again tried to get Kennedy to take the nod , again without success . McGovern instead chose Kennedy 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Sargent Shriver .
In 1973 , Kennedy 's son Edward Kennedy , Jr . , was discovered to have chondrosarcoma ; his leg was amputated and he underwent a long , difficult , experimental two @-@ year drug treatment . The case brought international attention both among doctors and in the general media , as did the young Kennedy 's return to the ski slopes half a year later . Son Patrick was suffering from severe asthma attacks . The pressure of the situation mounted on Joan Kennedy , who several times entered facilities for alcoholism and emotional strain and was arrested for drunk driving after a traffic accident .
In February 1974 , President Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform — an employer mandate to offer private health insurance and replacement of Medicaid by state @-@ run health insurance plans available to all with income @-@ based premiums and cost sharing . In April 1974 , Kennedy and Mills introduced a bill for near @-@ universal national health insurance with benefits identical to the expanded Nixon plan , both of which were criticized by labor and senior citizen organizations because of their substantial cost sharing . In August 1974 , after Nixon 's resignation and President Ford 's call for health insurance reform , Mills tried to advance a compromise based on Nixon 's plan , but gave up when the conservative half of his committee instead backed the American Medical Association 's limited voluntary tax credit plan .
In the wake of the Watergate scandal , Kennedy pushed campaign finance reform ; he was a leading force behind passage of the Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974 , which set contribution limits and established public financing for presidential elections . In April 1974 , Kennedy travelled to the Soviet Union , where he met with leader Leonid Brezhnev and advocated a full nuclear test ban as well as relaxed emigration , gave a speech at Moscow State University , met with Soviet dissidents , and secured an exit visa for famed cellist Mstislav Rostropovich . Kennedy 's Subcommittee on Refugees and Escapees continued to focus on Vietnam , especially after the Fall of Saigon in 1975 .
Kennedy had initially opposed busing schoolchildren across racial lines , but grew to support the practice as it became a focal point of civil rights efforts . After federal judge W. Arthur Garrity ordered the Boston School Committee in 1974 to racially integrate Boston 's public schools via busing , Kennedy made a surprise appearance at a September 1974 anti @-@ busing rally in City Hall Plaza to express the need for peaceful dialogue and was met with extreme hostility . The predominantly white crowd yelled insults about his children and hurled tomatoes and eggs at him as he retreated into the John F. Kennedy Federal Building and went so far as to push against one of its glass walls and break it .
Kennedy was again much talked about as a contender in the 1976 U.S. presidential election , with no strong front @-@ runners among the other possible Democratic candidates . But Kennedy 's concerns about his family were strong , and Chappaquiddick was still in the news , with The Boston Globe , The New York Times Magazine , and Time magazine all reassessing the incident and raising doubts about Kennedy 's version of events . In September 1974 , Kennedy announced that for family reasons he would not run in the 1976 election , declaring that his decision was " firm , final , and unconditional . " The eventual Democratic nominee , Jimmy Carter , built little by way of a relationship with Kennedy during his primary campaign , the convention , or the general election campaign . Kennedy was up for Senate re @-@ election in 1976 ; he defeated a primary challenger angry at his support for school busing in Boston , then won the general election with 69 percent of the vote .
The Carter administration years were difficult for Kennedy ; he had been the most important Democrat in Washington ever since his brother Robert 's death , but now Carter was , and Kennedy at first did not have a full committee chairmanship with which to wield influence . Carter in turn sometimes resented Kennedy 's status as a political celebrity . Despite generally similar ideologies , their priorities were different . Kennedy expressed to reporters that he was content with his congressional role and viewed presidential ambitions as almost far @-@ fetched .
Kennedy and his wife Joan separated in 1977 , although they still staged joint appearances at some public events . He held Health and Scientific Research Subcommittee hearings in March 1977 that led to public revelations of extensive scientific misconduct by contract research organizations , including Industrial Bio @-@ Test Laboratories . Kennedy visited China on a goodwill mission in late December 1977 , meeting with leader Deng Xiaoping and eventually gaining permission for a number of Mainland Chinese nationals to leave the country ; in 1978 , he also visited the Soviet Union and Brezhnev and dissidents there again . During the 1970s , Kennedy also showed interest in nuclear disarmament , and as part of his efforts in this field even visited Hiroshima in January 1978 and gave a public speech to that effect at Hiroshima University . He became chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1978 , by which time he had amassed a wide @-@ ranging Senate staff of a hundred .
As a candidate , Carter had proposed health care reform that included key features of Kennedy 's national health insurance bill , but in December 1977 , President Carter told Kennedy his bill must be changed to preserve a large role for private insurance companies , minimize federal spending ( precluding payroll tax financing ) , and be phased @-@ in so as to not interfere with Carter 's paramount domestic policy objective — balancing the federal budget . Kennedy and labor compromised and made the requested changes , but broke with Carter in July 1978 when he would not commit to pursuing a single bill with a fixed schedule for phasing @-@ in comprehensive coverage . Frustrated by Carter 's budgetary concerns and political caution , in a December 1978 speech on national health insurance at the Democratic midterm convention , Kennedy said regarding liberal goals overall that " sometimes a party must sail against the wind " and in particular should provide health care as " a basic right for all , not just an expensive privilege for the few . "
In May 1979 , Kennedy proposed a new bipartisan universal national health insurance bill — choice of competing federally regulated private health insurance plans with no cost sharing financed by income @-@ based premiums via an employer mandate and individual mandate , replacement of Medicaid by government payment of premiums to private insurers , and enhancement of Medicare by adding prescription drug coverage and eliminating premiums and cost sharing . In June 1979 , Carter proposed more limited health insurance reform — an employer mandate to provide catastrophic private health insurance plus coverage without cost sharing for pregnant women and infants , federalization of Medicaid with extension to all of the very poor , and enhancement of Medicare by adding catastrophic coverage . Neither plan gained any traction in Congress , and the failure to come to agreement represented the final political breach between the two . ( Carter wrote in 1982 that Kennedy 's disagreements with Carter 's proposed approach " ironically " thwarted Carter 's efforts to provide a comprehensive health @-@ care system for the country . In turn , Kennedy wrote in 2009 that his relationship with Carter was " unhealthy " and that " Clearly President Carter was a difficult man to convince – of anything . " )
= = = 1980 presidential campaign = = =
Kennedy finally decided to seek the Democratic nomination in the 1980 presidential election by launching an unusual , insurgent campaign against the incumbent Carter , a member of his own party . A midsummer 1978 poll had shown Democrats preferring Kennedy over Carter by a 5 @-@ to @-@ 3 margin . During spring and summer 1979 , as Kennedy deliberated whether to run , Carter was not intimidated despite his 28 percent approval rating , saying publicly : " If Kennedy runs , I 'll whip his ass . " Carter later asserted that Kennedy 's constant criticism of his policies was a strong indicator that Kennedy was planning to run for the presidency . Labor unions urged Kennedy to run , as did some Democratic party officials who feared that Carter 's unpopularity could result in heavy losses in the 1980 congressional elections . By August 1979 , when Kennedy decided to run , polls showed him with a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 advantage over Carter , and Carter 's approval rating slipped to 19 percent . Kennedy formally announced his campaign on November 7 , 1979 , at Boston 's Faneuil Hall . He had already received substantial negative press from a rambling response to the question " Why do you want to be President ? " during an interview with Roger Mudd of CBS News broadcast a few days earlier . The Iranian hostage crisis , which began on November 4 , and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which began on December 27 , prompted the electorate to rally around the president and allowed Carter to pursue a Rose Garden strategy of staying at the White House , which kept Kennedy 's campaign out of the headlines .
Kennedy 's campaign staff were disorganized and Kennedy was initially an ineffective campaigner . The Chappaquiddick incident emerged as a more significant issue than the staff had expected , with several newspaper columnists and editorials criticizing Kennedy 's answers on the matter . In the January 1980 Iowa caucuses , which initiated the primaries season , Carter demolished Kennedy by a 59 – 31 percent margin . Kennedy 's fundraising immediately declined and his campaign had to downsize , but he remained defiant , saying " [ Now ] we 'll see who is going to whip whose what . " Nevertheless , Kennedy lost three New England contests . Kennedy did form a more coherent message about why he was running , saying at Georgetown University : " I believe we must not permit the dream of social progress to be shattered by those whose premises have failed . " However , concerns over Chappaquiddick and issues related to personal character prevented Kennedy from gaining the support of many people who were disillusioned with Carter . During a St. Patrick 's Day Parade in Chicago , Kennedy had to wear a bullet @-@ proof vest due to assassination threats , and hecklers yelled " Where 's Mary Jo ? " at him . In the key March 18 primary in Illinois , Kennedy failed to gain support of Catholic voters , and Carter crushed him , winning 155 of 169 delegates .
With little mathematical hope of winning the nomination , and polls showing another likely defeat in the New York primary , Kennedy prepared to withdraw from the race . However , partially due to Jewish voter unhappiness with a U.S. vote at the United Nations against Israeli settlements in the West Bank , Kennedy staged an upset and won the March 25 vote by a 59 – 41 percent margin . Carter responded with an advertising campaign that attacked Kennedy 's character in general without explicitly mentioning Chappaquiddick , but Kennedy still managed a narrow win in the April 22 Pennsylvania primary . Carter won 11 of 12 primaries held in May , while on the June 3 Super Tuesday primaries , Kennedy won California , New Jersey , and three smaller states out of eight contests . Overall , Kennedy had won 10 presidential primaries against Carter , who won 24 .
Although Carter now had enough delegates to clinch the nomination , Kennedy carried his campaign on to the 1980 Democratic National Convention in August in New York , hoping to pass a rule there that would free delegates from being bound by primary results and open the convention . This move failed on the first night of the convention , and Kennedy withdrew . On the second night , August 12 , Kennedy delivered the most famous speech of his career . Drawing on allusions to and quotes of Martin Luther King , Jr . , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , and Alfred Lord Tennyson to say that American liberalism was not passé , he concluded with the words :
For me , a few hours ago , this campaign came to an end . For all those whose cares have been our concern , the work goes on , the cause endures , the hope still lives , and the dream shall never die .
The Madison Square Garden audience reacted with wild applause and demonstrations for half an hour . On the final night , Kennedy arrived late after Carter 's acceptance speech and while he shook Carter 's hand , he failed to raise Carter 's arm in the traditional show of party unity . Carter 's difficulty in securing Kennedy supporters during the election campaign was a contributory factor that led to his defeat in November by Ronald Reagan .
= = = 1980s = = =
The 1980 election saw the Republicans capture not just the presidency but control of the Senate as well , and Kennedy was in the minority party for the first time in his career . Kennedy did not dwell upon his presidential loss , but instead reaffirmed his public commitment to American liberalism . He chose to become the ranking member of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee rather than of the Judiciary Committee , which he would later say was one of the most important decisions of his career . Kennedy became a committed champion of women 's issues and of gay rights , and established relationships with select Republican senators to block Reagan 's actions and preserve and improve the Voting Rights Act , funding for AIDS treatment , and equal funding for women 's sports under Title IX . To combat being in the minority , he worked long hours and devised a series of hearings @-@ like public forums to which he could invite experts and discuss topics important to him . Kennedy could not hope to stop all of Reagan 's reshapings of government , but was often nearly the sole effective Democrat battling him .
In January 1981 , Ted and Joan Kennedy announced they were getting a divorce . The proceedings were generally amicable , and she received a reported $ 4 million settlement when the divorce was granted in 1982 . Later that year , Kennedy created the Friends of Ireland organization with Senator Daniel Moynihan and House Speaker Tip O 'Neill to support initiatives for peace and reconciliation in Northern Ireland .
Kennedy easily defeated Republican businessman Ray Shamie to win re @-@ election in 1982 . Senate leaders granted him a seat on the Armed Services Committee , while allowing him to keep his other major seats despite the traditional limit of two such seats . Kennedy became very visible in opposing aspects of the foreign policy of the Reagan administration , including U.S. intervention in the Salvadoran Civil War and U.S. support for the Contras in Nicaragua , and in opposing Reagan @-@ supported weapons systems , including the B @-@ 1 bomber , the MX missile , and the Strategic Defense Initiative . Kennedy became the Senate 's leading advocate for a nuclear freeze and was a critic of Reagan 's confrontational policies toward the Soviet Union . A 1983 memorandum from KGB Chairman Viktor Chebrikov to General Secretary Yuri Andropov noted this stance and asserted that Kennedy , through former Senator John Tunney 's discussions with Soviet contacts , had suggested that U.S.-Soviet relations might be improved if Kennedy and Andropov could meet in person to discuss arms control issues and if top Soviet officials , via Kennedy 's help , were able to address the American public through the U.S. news media . Andropov was unimpressed by the idea .
Kennedy 's staff drew up detailed plans for a candidacy in the 1984 presidential election that he considered , but with his family opposed and his realization that the Senate was a fully satisfying career , in late 1982 he decided not to run . Kennedy campaigned hard for Democratic presidential nominee Walter Mondale and defended vice presidential nominee Geraldine Ferraro from criticism over being a pro @-@ choice Catholic , but Reagan was re @-@ elected in a landslide .
Kennedy staged a tiring , dangerous , and high @-@ profile trip to South Africa in January 1985 . He defied both the apartheid government 's wishes and militant anti @-@ white AZAPO demonstrators by spending a night in the Soweto home of Bishop Desmond Tutu and also visited Winnie Mandela , wife of imprisoned black leader Nelson Mandela . Upon returning , Kennedy became a leader in the push for economic sanctions against South Africa ; collaborating with Senator Lowell Weicker , he secured Senate passage , and the overriding of Reagan 's veto , of the Comprehensive Anti @-@ Apartheid Act of 1986 . Despite their many political differences , Kennedy and Reagan had a good personal relationship , and with the administration 's approval Kennedy traveled to the Soviet Union in 1986 to act as a go @-@ between in arms control negotiations with reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev . The discussions were productive , and Kennedy also helped gain the release of a number of Soviet Jewish refuseniks , including Anatoly Shcharansky .
Although Kennedy was an accomplished legislator , his personal life was troubled during this time . His weight fluctuated wildly , he drank heavily at times – although not when it would interfere with his Senate duties – and his cheeks became blotchy . Kennedy later acknowledged , " I went through a lot of difficult times over a period in my life where [ drinking ] may have been somewhat of a factor or force . " He chased women frequently , and also was in a series of more serious romantic relationships but did not want to commit to anything long @-@ term . He often caroused with fellow Senator Chris Dodd ; twice in 1985 they were in drunken incidents in Washington restaurants , with one involving unwelcome physical contact with a waitress . In 1987 Kennedy and a young female lobbyist were surprised in the back room of a restaurant in a state of partial undress .
After again considering a candidacy for the 1988 presidential election , influenced by his personal difficulties and family concerns , and content with remaining in the Senate , in December 1985 Kennedy publicly cut short any talk that he might run . He added : " I know this decision means I may never be president . But the pursuit of the presidency is not my life . Public service is . " Kennedy used his legislative skills to achieve passage of the COBRA Act , which extended employer @-@ based health benefits after leaving a job . Following the 1986 congressional elections , the Democrats regained control of the Senate and Kennedy became chair of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee . By now Kennedy had become what colleague Joe Biden termed " the best strategist in the Senate , " who always knew when best to move legislation . Kennedy continued his close working relationship with ranking Republican Senator Orrin Hatch , and they were close allies on many health @-@ related measures .
One of Kennedy 's biggest battles in the Senate came with Reagan 's July 1987 nomination of Judge Robert Bork to the U.S. Supreme Court . Kennedy saw a possible Bork appointment as leading to a dismantling of civil rights law that he had helped put into place , and feared Bork 's originalist judicial philosophy . Kennedy 's staff had researched Bork 's writings and record , and within an hour of the nomination – which was initially expected to succeed – Kennedy went on the Senate floor to announce his opposition :
Robert Bork 's America is a land in which women would be forced into back @-@ alley abortions , blacks would sit at segregated lunch counters , rogue police could break down citizens ' doors in midnight raids , schoolchildren could not be taught about evolution , writers and artists could be censored at the whim of the Government , and the doors of the Federal courts would be shut on the fingers of millions of citizens ...
The incendiary rhetoric of what became known as the " Robert Bork 's America " speech enraged Bork supporters , who considered it slanderous , and worried some Democrats as well . But the Reagan administration was unprepared for the assault , and the speech froze some Democrats from supporting the nomination and gave Kennedy and other Bork opponents time to prepare the case against him . When the September 1987 Judiciary Committee hearings began , Kennedy challenged Bork forcefully on civil rights , privacy , women 's rights , and other issues . Bork 's own demeanor hurt him , and the nomination was defeated both in committee and the full Senate . The tone of the Bork battle changed the way Washington worked – with controversial nominees or candidates now experiencing all @-@ out war waged against them – and the ramifications of it were still being felt two decades later .
During the 1988 presidential election , Kennedy supported the eventual Democratic nominee , Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis , from the start of the campaign . In the fall , Dukakis lost to George H. W. Bush , but Kennedy won re @-@ election to the Senate over Republican Joseph D. Malone in the easiest race of his career . Kennedy remained a powerful force in the Senate . In 1988 Kennedy co @-@ sponsored an amendment to the Fair Housing Act of 1968 , which prohibits discrimination in the rental , sale , marketing , and financing of the nation 's housing ; the amendment strengthened the ability of the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity to enforce the Act and expanded the protected classes to include disabled persons and families with children . After prolonged negotiations during 1989 with Bush chief of staff John H. Sununu and Attorney General Richard Thornburgh to secure Bush 's approval , he directed passage of the landmark Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . Kennedy had personal interest in the bill due to his sister Rosemary 's condition and his son 's lost leg , and he considered its enactment one of the most important successes of his career . In the late 1980s Kennedy and Hatch staged a prolonged battle against Senator Jesse Helms to provide funding to combat the AIDS epidemic and provide treatment for low @-@ income people affected ; this would culminate in passage of the Ryan White Care Act . In late November 1989 , Kennedy traveled to see first @-@ hand the newly fallen Berlin Wall ; he spoke at John @-@ F.-Kennedy @-@ Platz , site of the famous " Ich bin ein Berliner " speech in 1963 , and said " Emotionally , I just wish my brother could have seen it . "
= = = Fall and rise = = =
Kennedy 's personal life came to dominate his image . In 1989 the European paparazzi stalked him on a vacation there and photographed him having sex on a motorboat . In February 1990 , Michael Kelly published his long , thorough profile " Ted Kennedy on the Rocks " in GQ magazine . It captured Kennedy as " an aging Irish boyo clutching a bottle and diddling a blonde , " portrayed him as an out @-@ of @-@ control Regency rake , and brought his behavior to the forefront of public attention . The death from cancer of brother @-@ in @-@ law Stephen Edward Smith in August 1990 left Kennedy emotionally bereft at the loss of a close family member and troubleshooter . Kennedy pushed on , but even his legislative successes , such as the Civil Rights Act of 1991 , which expanded employee rights in discrimination cases , came at the cost of being criticized for compromising with Republicans and Southern Democrats .
On Easter weekend 1991 , Kennedy was at a get @-@ together at the family 's Palm Beach , Florida , estate when , restless and maudlin after reminiscing about his brother @-@ in @-@ law , he left for a late @-@ night visit to a local bar , getting his son Patrick and nephew William Kennedy Smith to accompany him . Patrick Kennedy and Smith returned with women they met there , Michelle Cassone and Patricia Bowman . Cassone said that Ted Kennedy subsequently walked in on her and Patrick , dressed only in a nightshirt and with a weird look on his face . Smith and Bowman went out on the beach , where they had sex that he said was consensual and she said was rape . The local police made a delayed investigation ; soon Kennedy sources were feeding the press with negative information about Bowman 's background and several mainstream newspapers broke a taboo by publishing her name . The case quickly became a media frenzy . While not directly implicated in the case , Kennedy became the frequent butt of jokes on The Tonight Show and other late @-@ night television programs . Time magazine said Kennedy was being perceived as a " Palm Beach boozer , lout and tabloid grotesque " while Newsweek said Kennedy was " the living symbol of the family flaws . "
Along with Bork , the other most contentious Supreme Court nomination in United States history has been the one for Clarence Thomas . When the Thomas hearings began in September 1991 , Kennedy pressed Thomas on his unwillingness to express an opinion about Roe v. Wade , but the nomination appeared headed for success . But when the sexual harassment charges by Anita Hill broke the following month , and the nomination battle dominated public discourse , Kennedy was hamstrung by his past reputation and the ongoing developments in the William Kennedy Smith case . He said almost nothing until the third day of the Thomas – Hill hearings , and when he did it was criticized by Hill supporters for being too little , too late .
Biographer Adam Clymer rates Kennedy 's silence during the Thomas hearings as the worst moment of his Senate career . Writer Anna Quindlen said " [ Kennedy ] let us down because he had to ; he was muzzled by the facts of his life . " On the day before the full Senate vote , Kennedy gave an impassioned speech against Thomas , declaring that the treatment of Hill had been " shameful " and that " [ t ] o give the benefit of the doubt to Judge Thomas is to say that Judge Thomas is more important than the Supreme Court . " He then voted against the nomination . Thomas was confirmed by a 52 – 48 margin , the narrowest ever for a successful nomination .
Due to the Palm Beach media attention and the Thomas hearings , Kennedy 's public image suffered . A Gallup Poll gave Kennedy a very low 22 percent national approval rating . A Boston Herald / WCVB @-@ TV poll found that 62 percent of Massachusetts citizens thought Kennedy should not run for reelection , by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin thought Kennedy had misled authorities in the Palm Beach investigation , and had Kennedy losing a hypothetical Senate race to Governor William Weld by 25 points . Meanwhile , at a June 17 , 1991 , dinner party , Kennedy saw Victoria Anne Reggie , a Washington lawyer at Keck , Mahin & Cate , a divorced mother of two , and the daughter of an old Kennedy family ally , Louisiana judge Edmund Reggie . They began dating and by September were in a serious relationship . In a late October speech at the John F. Kennedy School of Government , Kennedy sought to begin a political recovery , saying : " I am painfully aware that the criticism directed at me in recent months involves far more than disagreements with my positions ... [ It ] involves the disappointment of friends and many others who rely on me to fight the good fight . To them I say , I recognize my own shortcomings — the faults in the conduct of my private life . I realize that I alone am responsible for them , and I am the one who must confront them . " In December 1991 , the William Kennedy Smith rape trial was held ; it was nationally televised and the most watched until the O. J. Simpson murder case three years later . Kennedy 's testimony at the trial seemed relaxed , confident , and forthcoming , and helped convince the public that his involvement had been peripheral and unintended . Smith was acquitted .
Kennedy and Reggie continued their relationship and he was devoted to her two children , Curran and Caroline . They became engaged in March 1992 , and were married by Judge A. David Mazzone on July 3 , 1992 , in a civil ceremony at Kennedy 's home in McLean , Virginia . She would gain credit with stabilizing his personal life and helping him resume a productive career in the Senate .
With no presidential ambitions left , Kennedy formed a good relationship with Democratic President Bill Clinton upon the latter taking office in 1993 , despite his having initially backed former fellow Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas in the 1992 Democratic presidential primaries . Kennedy floor @-@ managed successful passage of Clinton 's National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 that created the AmeriCorps program , and despite reservations supported the president on the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . On the issue Kennedy cared most about , national health insurance , he supported but was not much involved in formation of the Clinton health care plan , which was run by First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton and others . It failed badly and damaged the prospects for such legislation for years to come . In 1994 , Kennedy 's strong recommendation of his former Judiciary Committee staffer Stephen Breyer played a role in Clinton appointing Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court . During 1994 Kennedy became the first senator with a home page on the World Wide Web ; the product of an effort with the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory , it helped counter the image of Kennedy as old and out of touch .
In the 1994 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts , Kennedy faced his first serious challenger , the young , telegenic , and very well @-@ funded Mitt Romney . Romney ran as a successful entrepreneur and Washington outsider with a strong family image and moderate stands on social issues , while Kennedy was saddled not only with his recent past but the 25th anniversary of Chappaquiddick and his first wife Joan seeking a renegotiated divorce settlement . By mid @-@ September 1994 , polls showed the race to be even . Kennedy 's campaign ran short on money , and belying his image as endlessly wealthy , he was forced to take out a second mortgage on his Virginia home . Kennedy responded with a series of attack ads , which focused both on Romney 's shifting political views and on the treatment of workers at a paper products plant owned by Romney 's Bain Capital . Kennedy 's new wife Vicki proved to be a strong asset in campaigning . Kennedy and Romney held a widely watched late October debate without a clear winner , but by then Kennedy had pulled ahead in polls and stayed ahead afterward . In the November election , despite a very bad outcome for the Democratic Party nationally , Kennedy won re @-@ election by a 58 percent to 41 percent margin , the closest re @-@ election race of his career .
Kennedy 's mother Rose died in January 1995 at the age of 104 . Kennedy intensified practice of his Catholicism from then on , often attending Mass several times a week .
= = = Carrying on = = =
Kennedy 's role as a liberal lion in the Senate came to the fore in 1995 , when the Republican Revolution took control and legislation intending to fulfill the Contract with America was coming from Newt Gingrich 's House of Representatives . Many Democrats in the Senate and the country overall were depressed , but Kennedy rallied forces to combat the Republicans . By the beginning of 1996 , the Republicans had overreached ; most of the Contract had failed to pass the Senate ; and the Democrats could once again move forward with legislation , almost all of it coming out of Kennedy 's staff .
In 1996 , Kennedy secured an increase in the minimum wage law , a favorite issue of his ; there would not be another increase for ten years . Following the failure of the Clinton health care plan , Kennedy went against his past strategy and sought incremental measures instead . Kennedy worked with Republican Senator Nancy Kassebaum to create and pass the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act in 1996 , which set new marks for portability of insurance and confidentiality of records . The same year , Kennedy 's Mental Health Parity Act forced insurance companies to treat mental health payments the same as others with respect to limits reached . In 1997 , Kennedy was the prime mover behind the State Children 's Health Insurance Program , which used increased tobacco taxes to fund the largest expansion of taxpayer @-@ funded health insurance coverage for children in the U.S. since Medicaid began in the 1960s . Senator Hatch and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton also played major roles in SCHIP passing .
Kennedy was a stalwart backer of President Clinton during the 1998 Lewinsky scandal , often trying to cheer up the president when he was gloomiest and getting him to add past Kennedy staffer Greg Craig to his defense team , which helped improve the president 's fortunes . In the trial after the 1999 impeachment of Bill Clinton , Kennedy voted to acquit Clinton on both charges , saying " Republicans in the House of Representatives , in their partisan vendetta against the President , have wielded the impeachment power in precisely the way the framers rejected , recklessly and without regard for the Constitution or the will of the American people . "
On July 16 , 1999 , tragedy struck the Kennedy family again when a Piper Saratoga light aircraft crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Martha 's Vineyard . The accident killed its pilot John F. Kennedy , Jr . , and also his wife and sister @-@ in @-@ law . As patriarch , Ted consoled his extended family along with President Clinton at the public memorial service . He paraphrased William Butler Yeats by saying of his nephew : " We dared to think , in that other Irish phrase , that this John Kennedy would live to comb gray hair , with his beloved Carolyn by his side . But like his father , he had every gift but length of years . " Ted now served as a role model for Maria Shriver , Kerry Kennedy Cuomo , Robert F. Kennedy , Jr . , Joseph Patrick Kennedy II , and other family members . The Boston Globe wrote of the changed role : " It underscored the evolution that surprised so many people who knew the Kennedys : Teddy , the baby of the family , who had grown into a man who could sometimes be dissolute and reckless , had become the steady , indispensable patriarch , the one the family turned to in good times and bad . "
= = = 2000s = = =
Kennedy had an easy time with his re @-@ election to the Senate in 2000 , as Republican lawyer and entrepreneur Jack E. Robinson III was sufficiently damaged by his past personal record that Republican state party officials refused to endorse him . Kennedy got 73 percent of the general election vote , with Robinson splitting the rest with Libertarian Carla Howell . During the long , disputed post @-@ presidential election battle in Florida in 2000 , Kennedy supported Vice President Al Gore 's legal actions . After the bitter contest was over , many Democrats in Congress did not want to work with incoming President George W. Bush . Kennedy , however , saw Bush as genuinely interested in a major overhaul of elementary and secondary education , Bush saw Kennedy as a potential major ally in the Senate , and the two partnered together on the legislation . Kennedy accepted provisions governing mandatory student testing and teacher accountability that other Democrats and the National Education Association did not like , in return for increased funding levels for education . The No Child Left Behind Act was passed by Congress in May and June 2001 and signed into law by Bush in January 2002 . Kennedy soon became disenchanted with the implementation of the act , however , saying for 2003 that it was $ 9 billion short of the $ 29 billion authorized . Kennedy said , " The tragedy is that these long overdue reforms are finally in place , but the funds are not , " and accused Bush of not living up to his personal word on the matter . Other Democrats concluded that Kennedy 's penchant for cross @-@ party deals had gotten the better of him . The White House defended its spending levels given the context of two wars going on .
Kennedy was in his Senate offices meeting with First Lady Laura Bush when the September 11 , 2001 , attacks took place . Two of the airplanes involved had taken off from Boston , and in the following weeks , Kennedy telephoned each of the 177 Massachusetts families who had lost members in the attacks . He pushed through legislation that provided healthcare and grief counseling benefits for the families , and recommended the appointment of his former chief of staff Kenneth Feinberg as Special Master of the government 's September 11th Victim Compensation Fund . Kennedy maintained an ongoing bond with the Massachusetts 9 / 11 families in subsequent years .
In reaction to the attacks , Kennedy was a supporter of the American @-@ led 2001 overthrow of the Taliban government in Afghanistan . However , Kennedy strongly opposed the Iraq War from the start , and was one of 23 senators voting against the Iraq War Resolution in October 2002 . As the Iraqi insurgency grew in subsequent years , Kennedy pronounced that the conflict was " Bush 's Vietnam . " In response to losses of Massachusetts service personnel to roadside bombs , Kennedy became vocal on the issue of Humvee vulnerability , and co @-@ sponsored enacted 2005 legislation that sped up production and Army procurement of up @-@ armored Humvees .
Despite the strained relationship between Kennedy and Bush over No Child Left Behind spending , the two attempted to work together again on extending Medicare to cover prescription drug benefits . Kennedy 's strategy was again doubted by other Democrats , but he saw the proposed $ 400 billion program as an opportunity that should not be missed . However , when the final formulation of the Medicare Prescription Drug , Improvement , and Modernization Act contained provisions to steer seniors towards private plans , Kennedy switched to opposing it . It passed in late 2003 , and led Kennedy to again say he had been betrayed by the Bush administration .
In the 2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries , Kennedy campaigned heavily for fellow Massachusetts Senator John Kerry and lent his chief of staff , Mary Beth Cahill , to the Kerry campaign . Kennedy 's appeal was effective among blue collar and minority voters , and helped Kerry stage a come @-@ from @-@ behind win in the Iowa caucuses that propelled him on to the Democratic nomination .
After Bush won a second term in the 2004 general election , Kennedy continued to oppose him on Iraq and many other issues . However , Kennedy sought to partner with Republicans again on the matter of immigration reform in the context of the ongoing United States immigration debate . Kennedy was chair of the United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration , Border Security , and Refugees , and in 2005 , Kennedy teamed with Republican Senator John McCain on the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act . The " McCain @-@ Kennedy bill " did not reach a Senate vote , but provided a template for further attempts at dealing comprehensively with legalization , guest worker programs , and border enforcement components . Kennedy returned again with the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was sponsored by an ideologically diverse , bipartisan group of senators and had strong support from the Bush administration . The bill aroused furious grassroots opposition among talk radio listeners and others as an " amnesty " program , and despite Kennedy 's last @-@ minute attempts to salvage it , failed a cloture vote in the Senate . Kennedy was philosophical about the defeat , saying that it often took several attempts across multiple Congresses for this type of legislation to build enough momentum for passage .
In 2006 , Kennedy released a children 's book from the view of his dog Splash , My Senator and Me : A Dog 's @-@ Eye View of Washington , D.C. Also in 2006 , Kennedy released a political history entitled America Back on Track .
Kennedy again easily won re @-@ election to the Senate in 2006 , winning 69 percent of the vote against Republican language school owner Kenneth Chase , who suffered from very poor name recognition .
= = = Illness and a new president = = =
Kennedy initially stated that he would support John Kerry again should he run for president in 2008 , but in January 2007 , Kerry said he would not . Kennedy then remained neutral as the 2008 Democratic nomination battle between Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and Senator Barack Obama intensified , as his friend Chris Dodd was also running . After the initial caucuses and primaries had been split between the two and Dodd had withdrawn , Kennedy became dissatisfied with the tone of the Clinton campaign and what he saw as racially tinged remarks by Bill Clinton . Kennedy gave an endorsement to Obama on January 28 , 2008 , despite appeals by both Clintons not to do so . In a move that was seen as a symbolic passing of the torch , Kennedy said that it was " time again for a new generation of leadership , " and compared Obama 's ability to inspire with that of his fallen brothers . In return Kennedy gained a commitment from Obama to make universal health care a top priority of his administration if elected . Kennedy 's endorsement was considered among the most influential that any Democrat could get , and raised the possibility of improving Obama 's vote @-@ getting among unions , Hispanics , and traditional base Democrats . It dominated the political news , and gave national exposure to a candidate who was still not well known in much of the country , as the Super Tuesday primaries across the nation approached .
On May 17 , 2008 , Kennedy suffered a seizure , and then another one as he was rushed from the Kennedy Compound to Cape Cod Hospital and then by helicopter to Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston . Within days , doctors announced that Kennedy had a malignant glioma , a type of cancerous brain tumor . The grim diagnosis brought reactions of shock and prayer from many senators of both parties and from President Bush .
Doctors initially told Kennedy the tumor was inoperable , but he looked around for other opinions and decided on the most aggressive and exhausting course of treatment possible . On June 2 , 2008 , Kennedy underwent brain surgery at Duke University Medical Center in an attempt to remove as much of the tumor as possible . The 3 ½ -hour operation , conducted by Dr. Allan Friedman while Kennedy was conscious to minimize any permanent neurological effects , was deemed successful in its goals . Kennedy left the hospital a week later to begin a course of chemotherapy and radiation treatment . Opinions varied regarding Kennedy 's prognosis : the surgery typically only extended survival time by a matter of months , but sometimes people lived for years .
The operation and follow @-@ up treatments left Kennedy thinner , prone to seizures , weak and short on energy , and hurt his balance . Kennedy made his first post @-@ illness public appearance on July 9 , when he surprised the Senate by showing up to supply the added vote to break a Republican filibuster against a bill to preserve Medicare fees for doctors . Though additionally ill from an attack of kidney stones and against the advice of some associates , Kennedy insisted on appearing during the first night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention on August 25 , 2008 , where a video tribute to him was played . Introduced by his niece , Caroline Kennedy , the senator said , " It is so wonderful to be here . Nothing – nothing – is going to keep me away from this special gathering tonight . " He then delivered a speech to the delegates ( which he had to memorize , as his impaired vision left him unable to read a teleprompter ) in which , reminiscent of his speech at the 1980 Democratic National Convention , he said , " this November , the torch will be passed again to a new generation of Americans . So , with Barack Obama and for you and for me , our country will be committed to his cause . The work begins anew . The hope rises again . And the dream lives on . " The dramatic appearance and speech electrified the convention audience , as Kennedy vowed that he would be present to see Obama inaugurated .
On September 26 , 2008 , Kennedy suffered a mild seizure while at his home in Hyannis Port , for which he was examined and released from hospital on the same day . Doctors believed that a change in his medication triggered the seizure . Kennedy relocated to Florida for the winter , continuing his treatments , sailing a lot , and staying in touch with legislative matters via telephone . In his absence , many senators wore blue " Tedstrong " bracelets .
On January 20 , 2009 , Kennedy attended Barack Obama 's presidential inauguration in Washington , but then suffered a seizure at the luncheon immediately afterwards . He was taken via wheelchair from the Capitol building and then by ambulance to Washington Hospital Center . The following morning , he was released from the hospital to his home in Washington , as doctors attributed the episode to " simple fatigue " .
As the 111th Congress began , Kennedy dropped his spot on the Senate Judiciary Committee to focus all his attentions on health care issues , which he regarded as " the cause of my life " . He saw the characteristics of the Obama administration and the Democratic majorities in Congress as representing the third and best great chance for universal health care , following the lost 1971 Nixon and 1993 Clinton opportunities , and as his last big legislative battle . Kennedy made another surprise appearance in the Senate to break a Republican filibuster against the Obama stimulus package . As spring arrived , Kennedy appeared on Capitol Hill more frequently , although staffers often did not announce his attendance at committee meetings until they were sure Kennedy was well enough to appear . On March 4 , 2009 , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown announced that Kennedy had been granted an honorary knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II for his work in the Northern Ireland peace process , and for his contribution to UK – US relations , although the move caused some controversy in the UK due to his connections with Gerry Adams of the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin . Later in March , a bill reauthorizing and expanding the AmeriCorps program was renamed the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act by Senator Hatch in Kennedy 's honor . Kennedy threw the ceremonial first pitch at Fenway Park before the Boston Red Sox season opener in April , echoing what his grandfather " Honey Fitz " – a member of the Royal Rooters – had done to open the park in 1912 . Even when his illness prevented him from being a major factor in health plan deliberations , his symbolic presence still made him one of the key senators involved .
However , by spring 2009 , Kennedy 's tumor had spread and treatments clearly were not going to cure it , although this was not disclosed publicly . By June 2009 Kennedy had not cast a Senate vote in three months , and his health had forced him to retreat to Massachusetts , where he was undergoing another round of chemotherapy . In his absence , premature release of his health committee 's expansive plan resulted in a poor public reception . Kennedy 's friend Chris Dodd had taken over his role on the Health , Education , Labor and Pensions Committee , but Republican senators and other observers said that the lack of Kennedy 's physical presence had resulted in less consultation with them and was making successful negotiation more difficult . Democrats also missed Kennedy 's ability to smooth divisions on the health proposals . Kennedy did cut a television commercial for Dodd , who was struggling early on in his 2010 re @-@ election bid . In July , HBO began showing a documentary tribute to Kennedy 's life , Teddy : In His Own Words . A health care reform bill was voted out of the committee with content Kennedy favored , but still faced a long , difficult process before having a chance at becoming law . At the end of July 2009 , Kennedy was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom . He could not attend the ceremony to receive this medal , and attended a private service but not the public funeral when his sister Eunice Kennedy Shriver died at age 88 in mid @-@ August . By the end , Kennedy was in a wheelchair and had difficulty speaking , but consistently said that " I 've had a wonderful life . "
= = Death = =
Fifteen months after his original diagnosis , Kennedy succumbed to his disease on August 25 , 2009 , at age 77 at his home in Hyannis Port . He was survived by his former wife Joan , his wife Vicki , his sister Jean , his three children , two stepchildren , four grandchildren , in @-@ laws Edmund and Doris Reggie , and many nieces and nephews . In a statement , Kennedy 's family thanked " everyone who gave him care and support over this last year , and everyone who stood with him for so many years in his tireless march for progress toward justice " .
= = = Reaction = = =
President Obama said that Kennedy 's death marked the " passing of an extraordinary leader " and that he and First Lady Michelle Obama were " heartbroken " to learn of Kennedy 's death , while Vice President Biden said " today we lost a truly remarkable man , " and that Kennedy " changed the circumstances of tens of millions of Americans " . Mitt Romney , former Massachusetts Governor and Kennedy 's opponent in the 1994 senate race , called Kennedy " the kind of man you could like even if he was your adversary " and former First Lady Nancy Reagan said she was " terribly saddened " . She went on , " Given our political differences , people are sometimes surprised how close Ronnie and I have been to the Kennedy family . ... I will miss him . " Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia , the President pro tempore of the Senate , issued a statement on Kennedy 's death in which he said " My heart and soul weeps at the loss of my best friend in the Senate , my beloved friend , Ted Kennedy . " ( Byrd had broken down on the Senate floor and cried uncontrollably when Kennedy 's cancer diagnosis was made public the previous year . ) Upon his death , his sister Jean is the only one still living of the nine Kennedy siblings .
There were also tributes from outside politics as well , including a moment of peace in the fierce rivalry between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox as both teams observed a moment of silence . Flags at Fenway Park were flown at half @-@ staff and " Taps " was performed as players stood along the baselines before a Red Sox game . The Yankees observed a moment of silence for Kennedy before a game at Yankee Stadium as well .
= = = Funeral services = = =
Kennedy 's body traveled a 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) journey from the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port , past numerous landmarks named after his family , to the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston , Massachusetts , where it lay in repose and where over 50 @,@ 000 members of the public filed by to pay their respects . On Saturday , August 29 , a procession traveled from the library to the Our Lady of Perpetual Help Basilica in Boston , for a funeral Mass . Present at the funeral service were President Obama and former Presidents Jimmy Carter , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush ( also representing his father , former President George H. W. Bush , who decided not to attend ) , along with Vice President Biden , three former Vice Presidents , 58 senators , 21 former senators , many members of the House of Representatives , and several foreign dignitaries . President Obama delivered the eulogy .
The funeral service also drew celebrities and other notables from outside politics from Boston , Washington , and across the United States , including singers Tony Bennett and Plácido Domingo , actors Jack Nicholson and Brian Stokes Mitchell , cellist Yo @-@ Yo Ma , actress Lauren Bacall , presidents and chancellors of Boston @-@ area colleges and universities including Harvard University President Drew G. Faust and University of Massachusetts President Jack M. Wilson , and sports figures including Boston Celtics legend Bill Russell and the top management of the Red Sox .
Kennedy 's body was returned to Washington , D.C. , for burial at Arlington National Cemetery , near the graves of his assassinated brothers . Kennedy 's grave marker is identical to his brother Robert 's : a white oak cross and a white marble foot marker bearing his full name , year of birth , and death .
= = = Aftermath = = =
True Compass , the memoir that Kennedy worked on throughout his illness , was published three weeks after his death . It debuted atop the New York Times Best Seller list and by mid @-@ December 2009 had total sales of some 400 @,@ 000 copies .
A special election was scheduled for January 19 , 2010 , for the U.S. Senate seat from Massachusetts left vacant by Kennedy 's death . Shortly before his death , Kennedy had written to Democratic Governor of Massachusetts Deval Patrick and the Massachusetts legislature to change state law to allow an appointee to fill a U.S. Senate vacancy , for a term expiring upon the special election . ( Kennedy had been instrumental in the prior 2004 alteration of this law to prevent Governor Mitt Romney from appointing a Republican senator should John Kerry 's presidential campaign succeed . ) The law was amended , and on September 24 , 2009 , Paul G. Kirk , former Democratic National Committee chairman and former aide to Kennedy , was appointed to occupy the Senate seat until the completion of the special election . Kirk announced that he would not be a candidate in the special election . In that election , Republican State Senator Scott Brown won the seat in a stunning upset , ending Democratic control of it going back to 1953 .
Brown 's victory ended the 60 @-@ vote supermajority in the Senate that the Democrats had held since mid @-@ 2009 , and appeared to spell the end for health care reform legislation . But Democrats rallied and passed the measure ; Speaker Nancy Pelosi , who was instrumental in doing so , credited Kennedy 's life work in her final remarks on the House floor before the final vote . Kennedy 's widow Vicki attended the signing of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , at which both she and President Obama wore blue " Tedstrong " bracelets . Congressman Patrick Kennedy brought a copy of a national health insurance bill his father had introduced in 1970 as a gift for the president . Patrick Kennedy then laid a note on his father 's grave that said , " Dad , the unfinished business is done . " ( Patrick 's earlier decision not to seek re @-@ election meant that in January 2011 , a 64 @-@ year streak of a Kennedy holding elective office in Washington came to an end , but it resumed with the November 2012 election of Ted 's great @-@ nephew , Joseph P. Kennedy III , to the House . Democratic control of Kennedy 's Senate seat was also regained following Brown 's 2012 loss to Elizabeth Warren . )
= = Political positions = =
Political scientists gauge ideology in part by comparing the annual ratings by the Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) with the ratings by the American Conservative Union ( ACU ) . Kennedy had a lifetime liberal 90 percent score from the ADA through 2004 , while the ACU awarded Kennedy a lifetime conservative rating of 2 percent through 2008 . Using another metric , Kennedy had a lifetime average liberal score of 88 @.@ 7 percent , according to a National Journal analysis that places him ideologically as the third @-@ most liberal senator of all those in office in 2009 . A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University and Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University examined some of the difficulties in making this kind of analysis , and found Kennedy likely to be the 8th @-@ to @-@ 15th @-@ most liberal Senator during the 108th Congress . The Almanac of American Politics rates congressional votes as liberal or conservative on the political spectrum , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 , Kennedy 's average ratings were as follows : the economic rating was 91 percent liberal and 0 percent conservative , the social rating was 89 percent liberal and 5 percent conservative , and the foreign rating was 96 percent liberal and 0 percent conservative .
Various interest groups gave Kennedy scores or grades as to how well his votes aligned with the positions of each group . The American Civil Liberties Union gave him an 84 percent lifetime score as of 2009 . During the 1990s and 2000s , NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America and Planned Parenthood typically gave Kennedy ratings of 100 percent , while the National Right to Life Committee typically gave him a rating of less than 10 percent . The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence gave Kennedy a lifetime rating of 100 percent through 2002 , while the National Rifle Association gave Kennedy a lifetime grade of ' F ' ( failing ) as of 2006 .
= = Cultural and political image = =
When he died , Kennedy was the second @-@ most senior member of the Senate , after President pro tempore Robert Byrd of West Virginia , and the third longest @-@ serving senator of all time , behind Byrd and Strom Thurmond of South Carolina ( he was passed later in 2009 by Daniel Inouye ) .
Following his presidential bid , Kennedy became one of the most recognizable and influential members of the party , and was sometimes called a " Democratic icon " as well as " The Lion of the Senate " . Kennedy and his Senate staff authored around 2 @,@ 500 bills , of which more than 300 were enacted into law . Kennedy co @-@ sponsored another 550 bills that became law after 1973 . Kennedy was known for his effectiveness in dealing with Republican senators and administrations , sometimes to the irritation of other Democrats . During the 101st Congress under President George H. W. Bush , at least half of the successful proposals put forward by the Senate Democratic policy makers came out of Kennedy 's Labor and Human Resources Committee . During the 2000s , almost every bipartisan bill signed during the George W. Bush administration had significant involvement from Kennedy . A late 2000s survey of Republican senators ranked Kennedy first among Democrats in bipartisanship . Kennedy strongly believed in the principle " never let the perfect be the enemy of the good , " and would agree to pass legislation he viewed as incomplete or imperfect with the goal of improving it down the road . In April 2006 , Kennedy was selected by Time as one of " America 's 10 Best Senators " ; the magazine noted that he had " amassed a titanic record of legislation affecting the lives of virtually every man , woman and child in the country " and that " by the late 1990s , the liberal icon had become such a prodigious cross @-@ aisle dealer that Republican leaders began pressuring party colleagues not to sponsor bills with him " . In May 2008 , soon @-@ to @-@ be Republican presidential nominee John McCain said , " [ Kennedy ] is a legendary lawmaker and I have the highest respect for him . When we have worked together , he has been a skillful , fair and generous partner . " Republican Governor of California and Kennedy relative Arnold Schwarzenegger described " Uncle Teddy " as " a liberal icon , a warrior for the less fortunate , a fierce advocate for health @-@ care reform , a champion of social justice here and abroad " and " the rock of his family " . At the time of Kennedy 's death , sociologist and Nation board member Norman Birnbaum wrote that Kennedy had come to be viewed as the " voice " and " conscience " of American progressivism .
Despite his bipartisan legislative practices , for many years Kennedy was a polarizing symbol of American liberalism . Republican and conservative groups long viewed Kennedy as a reliable " bogeyman " to mention in fundraising letters , on a par with Hillary Rodham Clinton and similar to Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich . The famous racially motivated " Hands " negative ad used in North Carolina Senator Jesse Helms 's 1990 re @-@ election campaign against Harvey Gantt accused Gantt of supporting " Ted Kennedy 's racial quota law " . University of California , San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson 's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state @-@ by @-@ state survey of job approval ratings of the state 's senators , Kennedy had the largest partisan difference of any senator , with a 57 percentage point difference in approval between Massachusetts 's Democrats and Republicans . The Associated Press wrote that , " Perhaps because it was impossible , Kennedy never tried to shake his image as a liberal titan to admirers and a left @-@ wing caricature to detractors . "
Ted Kennedy was , from 1968 on , the most prominent living member of the Kennedy family , and was the last surviving son of Joseph P. Kennedy and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy . John F. Kennedy had said in 1957 , " Just as I went into politics because Joe died , if anything happened to me tomorrow , my brother Bobby would run for my seat in the Senate . And if Bobby died , Teddy would take over for him . " However , Ted was never able to carry on the " Camelot " mystique in the same way that both of his fallen brothers had , with much of it disappearing during his failed 1980 presidential bid . The loss of life at Chappaquiddick and Kennedy 's well @-@ documented later personal problems further tarnished his image in relation to the Kennedy name , and Chappaquiddick significantly damaged Ted 's chances of ever becoming president . The Associated Press wrote that , " Unlike his brothers , Edward M. Kennedy has grown old in public , his victories , defeats and human contradictions played out across the decades in the public glare . " But Kennedy 's legislative accomplishments remained , and as The Boston Globe wrote , " By the early 21st century , the achievements of the younger brother would be enough to rival those of many presidents . " His death prompted the realization that the " Camelot era " was truly over . Kennedy 's New York Times obituary described him via a character sketch : " He was a Rabelaisian figure in the Senate and in life , instantly recognizable by his shock of white hair , his florid , oversize face , his booming Boston brogue , his powerful but pained stride . He was a celebrity , sometimes a self @-@ parody , a hearty friend , an implacable foe , a man of large faith and large flaws , a melancholy character who persevered , drank deeply and sang loudly . He was a Kennedy . "
= = Awards and honors = =
Senator Kennedy received many awards and honors over the years . These include an honorary knighthood bestowed by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom , the Order of the Aztec Eagle from Mexico , the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the Order of the Merit of Chile , and honorary degrees from a number of institutions including Harvard University .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Writings = =
Kennedy , Edward M. , ed . ( 1965 ) . The Fruitful Bough ( Collected essays on Joseph P. Kennedy ) . privately published .
Kennedy , Edward M. ( 1968 ) . Decisions for a Decade : Policies and Programs for the 1970s . Doubleday .
Kennedy , Edward M. ( 1972 ) . In Critical Condition : The Crisis in America 's Health Care . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 21314 @-@ 5 .
Kennedy , Edward M. , ed . ( 1979 ) . Our Day and Our Generation : The Words of Edward M. Kennedy . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 24133 @-@ 9 .
Kennedy , Edward M. ; Hatfield , Mark ( 1982 ) . Freeze ! : How You Can Prevent Nuclear War . Bantam Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 14077 @-@ 4 .
Kennedy , Edward M. ( 2006 ) . America Back On Track . Viking Adult . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 03764 @-@ 3 .
Kennedy , Edward M. ( 2006 ) . My Senator and Me : A Dog 's @-@ Eye View of Washington , D.C. Small , David ( illus . ) . Scholastic Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 439 @-@ 65077 @-@ 9 .
Kennedy , Edward M. ( 2009 ) . True Compass . Twelve . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 53925 @-@ 8 .
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= Management of multiple sclerosis =
Multiple sclerosis ( MS ) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease that affects the central nervous system ( CNS ) . Several therapies for exist , although there is no known cure .
The most common initial course of the disease is the relapsing @-@ remitting subtype , which is characterized by unpredictable attacks ( relapses ) followed by periods of relative remission with no new signs of disease activity . After some years , many of the people who have this subtype begin to experience neurologic decline without acute relapses . When this happens it is called secondary progressive multiple sclerosis . Other , less common , courses of the disease are the primary progressive ( decline from the beginning without attacks ) and the progressive @-@ relapsing ( steady neurologic decline and superimposed attacks ) . Different therapies are used for patients experiencing acute attacks , for patients who have the relapsing @-@ remitting subtype , for patients who have the progressive subtypes , for patients without a diagnosis of MS who have a demyelinating event , and for managing the various consequences of MS.
The primary aims of therapy are returning function after an attack , preventing new attacks , and preventing disability . As with any medical treatment , medications used in the management of MS may have several adverse effects , and many possible therapies are still under investigation . At the same time different alternative treatments are pursued by many people , despite the fact that there is little supporting , comparable , replicated scientific study . Stem cell therapy is being studied .
This article focuses on therapies for standard MS ; borderline forms of MS have particular treatments that are excluded .
= = Acute attacks = =
Administration of high doses of intravenous corticosteroids , such as methylprednisolone , is the routine therapy for acute relapses . This is administered over a period of three to five days , and has a well @-@ established efficacy in promoting a faster recovery from disability after an attack . There is however insufficient evidence to indicate any significant impact on long @-@ term disability of corticosteroid treatments . Steroids administered orally have a similar effectiveness and safety profile at treating MS symptoms as intravenous treatment . Consequences of severe attacks which do not respond to corticosteroids might be treated by plasmapheresis .
= = Disease @-@ modifying treatments = =
As of June 2016 , ten disease @-@ modifying treatments have been approved by regulatory agencies of different countries , including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , the European Medicines Agency ( EMEA ) and the Japanese PMDA .
Medications approved by the FDA include two interferons , beta @-@ 1a and beta @-@ 1b , three monoclonal antibodies : natalizumab , alemtuzumab and daclizumab and five immunomodulators : glatiramer acetate , mitoxantrone , fingolimod , teriflunomide , dimethyl fumarate .
= = = Medications = = =
In 1993 interferon beta @-@ 1b was the first drug to ever be approved for MS , being soon followed by interferon beta @-@ 1a and glatiramer acetate .
Interferon beta @-@ 1a is injected either weekly ( intramuscular injection ) or three times a week ( subcutaneous injection ) depending on commercial formulations , while interferon beta @-@ 1b is injected subcutaneously every second day . In 2014 , a pegylated form of interferon beta @-@ 1a was introduced with the brand name Plegridy , which is available as a subcutaneous injection . This peginterferon beta 1 @-@ a attaches polyethylene glycol to the interferon molecules allowing longer lasting biological effects in the body while decreasing the frequency of administration to once every two weeks . Interferon beta balances the expression of pro- and anti @-@ inflammatory agents in the brain , and reduces the number of inflammatory cells that cross the blood – brain barrier . Overall , therapy with interferon beta leads to a reduction of neuron inflammation . Moreover , it is also thought to increase the production of nerve growth factor and consequently improve neuronal survival .
Glatiramer acetate is a mixture of random polymers of four amino acids which is antigenically similar to the myelin basic protein , a component of the myelin sheath of nerves with which it competes for presentation to T cells . It is injected subcutaneously on a daily basis .
Mitoxantrone is an immunosuppressant also used in cancer chemotherapy which was approved for MS in the year 2000 ; whereas natalizumab is a monoclonal antibody that was initially approved in 2004 . Both are given by intravenous infusion at monthly intervals in the case of natalizumab and every three months in the case of mitoxantrone .
In 2010 fingolimod , a sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate receptor modulator , became the first oral drug approved by the FDA , being followed in 2012 by teriflunomide , a drug that inhibits the synthesis of pyrimidine and disrupts the interaction of T cells with antigen presenting cell . Fingolimod and teriflunomide are taken through a daily single dose . In 2013 one further oral drug , dimethyl fumarate -or BG12- ( which is an improved version of fumaric acid , an already existing drug ) , was approved by the FDA . Dimethyl fumarate is taken twice daily .
Another oral drug , cladribine , was approved in Russia and Australia in 2010 . Its application was rejected by the FDA and EMEA in 2011 due to safety concerns in spite of the promising efficacy of the drug . This led the pharmaceutical to discontinue commercialization and withdraw all marketing applications .
Most of these drugs are approved only for Relapsing @-@ Remitting multiple sclerosis ( RRMS ) .
= = = = Side effects = = = =
Both the interferons and glatiramer acetate are available only in injectable forms , and both can cause skin reactions at the injection site , specially with subcutaneous administration . Skin reactions vary greatly in their clinical presentation and may include bruising , erythema , pain , pruritus , irritation , swelling and in the most extreme cases cutaneous necrosis . They usually appear within the first month of treatment albeit their frequence and importance diminish after six months of use . Mild skin reactions usually do not impede treatment whereas necroses appear in around 5 % of patients and lead to the discontinuation of the therapy . Also over time , a visible dent at the injection site due to the local destruction of fat tissue , known as lipoatrophy , may develop .
Interferons , a subclass of cytokines , are produced in the body during illnesses such as influenza in order to help fight the infection . They are responsible of many of the symptoms of influenza infections , including fever , muscle aches , fatigue , and headaches . Many patients report influenza @-@ like symptoms hours after taking interferon @-@ beta that usually improve within 24 hours , being such symptoms related to the temporary increase of cytokines . This reaction tends to disappear after 3 months of treatment and its symptoms can be treated with over @-@ the @-@ counter nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , such as ibuprofen , that reduce fever and pain . Another common transient secondary effect with interferon @-@ beta is a functional deterioration of already existing symptoms of the disease . Such deterioration is similar to the one produced in MS patients due to heat , fever or stress ( Uhthoff 's phenomenon ) , usually appears within 24 hours of treatment , is more common in the initial months of treatment , and may last several days . A symptom specially sensitive to worsening is spasticity . Interferon @-@ beta can also reduce numbers of white blood cells ( leukopenia ) , lymphocytes ( lymphopenia ) and neutrophils ( neutropenia ) , as well as affect liver function . In most cases these effects are non @-@ dangerous and reversible after cessation or reduction of treatment . Nevertheless , recommendation is that all patients should be monitored through laboratory blood analyses , including liver function tests , to ensure safe use of interferons .
Glatiramer acetate is generally well tolerated . The most common secondary effect with glatiramer acetate after skin problem is a post @-@ injection reaction manifested by flushing , chest tightness , heart palpitations , breathlessness , and anxiety , which usually lasts less than thirty minutes and does not require additional treatment .
Mitoxantrone therapy may be associated with immunosuppressive effects and liver damage ; however its most dangerous side effect is its dose @-@ related cardiac toxicity . Careful adherence to the administration and monitoring guidelines is therefore essential ; this includes obtaining an echocardiogram and a complete blood count before treatment to decide whether the therapy is suitable for the patient or the risks are too great . It is recommended that mitoxantrone be discontinued at the first signs of heart damage , infection or liver dysfunction during therapy . Heart problems ( mainly systolic dysfunction ) appear in over 10 % of patients , while leukemia prevalence is 0 @.@ 8 % .
Soon after its approval natalizumab was withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer after it was linked with three cases of the rare but hazardous neurological condition called progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy ( PML ) . PML is an opportunistic infection with neurological progressive symptoms caused by the replication of the JC virus in the glial cells of the brain . All 3 initial cases were taking natalizumab in combination with interferon beta @-@ 1a . After a safety review the drug was returned to the market in 2006 as a monotherapy for MS under a special prescription program . As of May 2011 , over 130 cases of PML had been reported , all in patients who had taken natalizumab for more than a year . While none of them had taken the drug in combination with other disease @-@ modifying treatments , previous use of MS treatments increases the risk of PML between 3 and 4 @-@ fold . The estimated prevalence of PML is 1 @.@ 5 cases per thousand natalizumab users . Around 20 % of MS patients with PML die , while most of the remaining are importantly disabled .
During clinical trials fingolimod gave rise to side effects such as hypertension and bradycardia , macular edema , elevated liver enzymes or reduction in lymphocite levels . Teriflunomide is considered a very safe drug . Nevertheless , there have been reports of liver failure , and PML . Teriflunomide is also known to be dangerous for fetal development . Most common secondary effects of dimethyl fumarate during clinical trials were flushing and gastrointestinal problems . These problems were generally mild and occurred more frequently during the first month of treatment . While dimethyl fumarate leads to a reduction in white blood cell count and levels should be monitored in patients , there were no reported cases of opportunistic infections during the clinical trials . Moreover , fumaric acid is also used to treat psoriasis , another autoinmune disorder , and there is long term safety data from over 14 years of use without any indication of further dangerous secondary effects .
= = = Clinically isolated syndrome = = =
The earliest clinical presentation of RRMS is the clinically isolated syndrome ( CIS ) , that is , a single attack of a single symptom . During a CIS , there is a subacute attack suggestive of demyelination but the patient does not fulfill the criteria for diagnosis of multiple sclerosis . Treatment with interferons or glatiramer acetate after an initial attack decreases the risk of developing clinical definite MS.
= = = Relapsing @-@ remitting MS = = =
Medications are modestly effective at decreasing the number of attacks in RRMS and in reducing the accumulation of brain lesions , which is measured using gadolinium @-@ enhanced magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . Interferons and glatiramer acetate are roughly equivalent , reducing relapses by approximately 30 % and their safe profile make them the first @-@ line treatments . Nevertheless , not all the patients are responsive to these therapies . It is known that 30 % of MS patients are non @-@ responsive to Beta interferon . One of the factors related to non @-@ respondance is the presence of high levels of interferon beta neutralizing antibodies . Interferon therapy , and specially interferon beta @-@ 1b , induces the production of neutralizing antibodies , usually in the second 6 months of treatment , in 5 to 30 % of treated patients . Moreover , a subset of RRMS patients with specially active MS , sometimes called " rapidly worsening MS " are normally non @-@ responders to immunomodulators and are treated with either mitoxantrone or natalizumab .
Natalizumab and mitoxantrone are considered highly effective both in terms of relapse rate reduction and halting disability progression , however , they are related to dangerous side @-@ effects that have led them to be considered second @-@ line treatments . Natalizumab halves the risk of suffering relapses when compared to interferons , having an overall efficacy of over 70 % . Moreover , mitoxantrone is also highly useful to reduce attacks and disability , but it is generally not considered as a long @-@ term therapy due to its severe cardiac toxicity .
There are no official guidelines yet on the use of disease @-@ modifying oral treatments due to their recent development . While some believe that they will probably reduce the usage of first @-@ line treatments the long @-@ term safety of interferons and glatiramer acetate will probably slow this trend . It has been recommended that at the moment oral treatments should be mainly offered in those cases where patients do not use existing treatments due to needle phobia or other reasons such as perceived inefficacy of interferons and glatiramer acetate . They could also be used in patients taking natalizumab who have developed JC virus antibodies and are therefore at an increased risk of PML . Dimethyl fumarate is potentially one of the most interesting oral drugs due to the long term data from use in psoriasis which points towards a very good safety profile .
While more studies of the long @-@ term effects of the drugs are needed , specially for the newest treatments , existing data on the effects of interferons and glatiramer acetate indicate that early @-@ initiated long @-@ term therapy is safe and it is related to better outcomes .
Oral contraceptive pills have contradictory results from different studies regarding any effect of decreasing relapse rate in women with multiple sclerosis . Certain medications for MS symptoms , such as carbamazepine ( used to treat spasms and pain ) and modafinil ( used to treat fatigue ) can make oral contraceptive pills less effective .
Even with appropriate use of medication , to varying degrees most patients with relapsing @-@ remitting MS still suffer from some attacks and many suffer subsequent disability .
= = = Secondary progressive MS and progressive relapsing MS = = =
Treatment of advanced forms of MS is more difficult than relapsing @-@ remitting MS. A wide range of medications have been used to try to slow the progression of the disease , with results that have been at best fair .
Mitoxantrone has shown positive effects in people with a secondary progressive and progressive relapsing courses . It is moderately effective in reducing the progression of the disease and the frequency of relapses in people after two years . In 2007 it was the only medication approved in the USA for both secondary progressive and progressive relapsing multiple sclerosis ; however , it causes dose @-@ dependent cardiac toxicity which limits its long @-@ term use . It is also not approved in Europe . Natalizumab has shown efficacy and has been approved for secondary progressive MS with relapses . Studies on the use of Interferon @-@ beta @-@ 1b in secondary progressive and progressive relapsing MS do not support that it slows progression of the disease , although it is effective in reducing the number of relapses .
= = = Primary progressive MS = = =
Treatment of primary progressive multiple sclerosis ( PPMS ) is problematic as many patients do not respond to any available therapy , and no treatment has been approved specifically for use in this form of the disease . There have been several trials investigating the efficacy of different drugs for PPMS without positive results . Drugs tested include interferon beta , mitoxantrone , glatiramer acetate or riluzole . People with PPMS have also been included in trials of azathioprine , methotrexate , intravenous immunoglobulin , cyclophosphamide and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation .
= = Managing the effects of MS = =
Disease @-@ modifying treatments only reduce the progression rate of the disease but do not stop it . As multiple sclerosis progresses , the symptoms tend to increase . The disease is associated with a variety of symptoms and functional deficits that result in a range of progressive impairments and handicap . Management of these deficits is therefore very important .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
= = = = Physical therapy = = = =
Symptoms of MS that can be improved include fatigue , spasticity , depression , bladder dysfunction , and neurological symptoms . These symptoms can be improved by physical therapy and medication . Physical therapists can show strengthening exercises and ways to stretch ; ultimately making daily tasks easier and reduces fatigue while muscle strength increases as flexibility increases . Medications can help fatigue , muscle tightness ( spasticity ) , depression , bladder dysfunction , and neurological symptoms . All symptoms are common amongst MS patients .
Both drug therapy and neurorehabilitation have shown to ease the burden of some symptoms , even though neither influence disease progression . For other symptoms the efficacy of treatments is still very limited .
= = = = Neurorehabilitation = = = =
Although there are relatively few studies of rehabilitation in MS , its general effectiveness , when conducted by a team of specialists , has been clearly demonstrated in other diseases such as stroke or head trauma . As for any patient with neurologic deficits , a multidisciplinary approach is key to limiting and overcoming disability ; however there are particular difficulties in specifying a ' core team ' because people with MS may need help from almost any health profession or service at some point . Neurologists are mainly involved in the diagnosis and ongoing management of multiple sclerosis , and any exacerbations . The comprehensive rehabilitation process for patients with multiple sclerosis is generally managed by physiatrists . Allied treatments such as physiotherapy , speech and language therapy or occupational therapy can also help to manage some symptoms and maintain quality of life . Treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression should involve mental health professionals such as therapists , psychologists , and psychiatrists , while neuropsychologists can help to evaluate and manage cognitive deficits . Multidisciplinary approaches have been shown to be effective in increasing activity levels and participation in multiple sclerosis . Due to the paucity of randomized controlled studies , there is limited evidence of the overall efficacy of individual therapy disciplines , though there is good evidence that specific approaches , such as exercise , psychology therapies , particularly cognitive behavioral approaches and energy conservation instruction are effective . More specifically psychological interventions seem useful in the treatment of depression , while evidence on effectiveness for other uses such as the treatment of cognitive impairments or vocational counseling is less strong . It is difficult to be specific about what types of rehabilitation will be most beneficial because therapies are tailored to meet the individual 's specific needs .
In regards to well @-@ being , physical therapy focused on gait training can be vital to maximizing MS patient participation via reduction of fatigue during walking and activities of daily living ( ADLs ) . Most gait training is performed over @-@ ground ( i.e. , in a gym room or outside on uneven ground ) , on treadmills or , less commonly , using robotic @-@ assisted devices . Robotic @-@ assisted body weight @-@ supported treadmill training may be an effective therapeutic option in MS patients with severe walking impairments . In contrast , over @-@ ground gait training may be most effective in improving gait speed in MS patients with less severe impairments . Equine @-@ assisted therapies such as therapeutic horseback riding and hippotherapy are additional treatments that can positively influence gait , balance and quality of life in people with MS.
Historically , individuals with MS were advised against participation in physical activity due to worsening symptoms . However , under the direction of an expert , participation in physical activity can be safe and has been proven beneficial for persons with MS. Research has supported the rehabilitative role of physical activity in improving muscle power , mobility , mood , bowel health , general conditioning and quality of life . Depending on the person , activities may include resistance training , walking , swimming , yoga , tai chi , and others . Determining an appropriate and safe exercise program is challenging and must be carefully individualized to each person being sure to account for all contraindications and precautions .
An elevated core temperature , leading to increased symptom presentation has been noted during exercise , due to variations in circadian body temperature throughout the day , and due to heat exposure including warm temperatures , warm showers , sun bathing , etc . Care should be taken not to overheat a person with MS during the course of exercise . There is some evidence that cooling measures are effective in allowing a greater degree of exercise : cold showers , cold water limb immersion , applying ice packs , and drinking cold beverages . These strategies are effective when attempting to decrease core temperature post @-@ exercise , and as a method of pre @-@ cooling prior to physical activity or heat exposure . The interaction between an elevated core temperature and the pathological demyelination can cause a transient nerve conduction block that leads to temporarily impaired physical and cognitive function . These effects translate to reduced patient safety and performance of ADLs , however there are viable prevention strategies . Behavioral strategies to minimize heat exposure include performing outdoor physical activity when temperatures are cooler , or installing an air conditioner .
= = = Medical treatments for symptoms = = =
Multiple sclerosis can cause a variety of symptoms including changes in sensation ( hypoesthesia ) , muscle weakness , abnormal muscle spasms , impaired movement , difficulties with coordination and balance , problems in speech ( known as dysarthria ) or swallowing ( dysphagia ) , visual problems ( nystagmus , optic neuritis , or diplopia ) , fatigue and acute or chronic pain syndromes , bladder and bowel difficulties , cognitive impairment , or emotional symptoms ( mainly depression ) . At the same time for each symptom there are different treatment options . Treatments should therefore be individualized depending both on the patient and the physician .
Bladder : Symptomatology of the urinary tract is common in MS. Treatments for bladder problems vary depending on the origin or type of dysfunction but can mainly divided into treatment of bladder control and incontinence , and of urinary tract infections . Regarding bladder control , some examples of medications used are desmopressin for nocturia and anticholinergic drugs such as oxybutynin and tolterodine for urinary urgency . Non @-@ pharmacological management includes pelvic floor muscle training , stimulation , pessaries , bladder retraining , changes to daily life habits such as clothing , use of external urine collection devices for men and incontinence pads for women ; and sometimes intermittent urinary catheterization . Regarding long term catheterization , it is associated to urinary tract infections and should be avoided whenever possible . Some of these recommendations do not come from specific studies in MS but are general recommendations for those who have neurogenic bladder .
Bowel : bowel problems affect around 70 % of the patients , with around 50 % of the patients suffering from constipation and up to 30 % from fecal incontinence . Cause of bowel impairments in MS patients is usually either a reduced gut motility or an impairment in neurological control of defecation . The former is commonly related to inmobility or secondary effects from drugs used in the treatment of the disease . Pain or problems with defecation can be helped with a diet change which includes among other changes an increased fluid intake , oral laxatives or suppositories and enemas when habit changes and oral measures are not enough to control the problems .
Cognitive and emotional : neuropsychiatric symptomatology is common in the course of the disease . Depression and anxiety appear in up to 80 % of patients , . Emotional lability leading to uncontrollable crying is also common . These symptoms can be treated with antidepressants and cognitive behavioral therapy ; however , high quality studies on efficacy are lacking . For example , in the specific case of antidepressants and depression , only two studies were considered worth considering as of 2011 by the Cochrane collaboration and they only showed a trend towards efficacy . Other neuropsychiatric symptoms are euphoria and disinhibition . Cognitive impairment is a frequent complication of MS even after the introduction of disease @-@ modifying treatments in the last 20 years . Although the disease is usually the primary cause of cognitive problems , other factors such as medications , relapses or depression may be enhancing them so a correct evaluation of the deficits and factors exacerbating them is important . Regarding primary deficits , data point towards administration of L @-@ amphetamine and methylphenidate being useful , whereas memantine and anticholinesterase drugs such as donepezil — commonly used in Alzheimer disease — are not considered effective in improving cognitive functions . Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy is more controverted . For those patients with MS who have pseudobulbar affect ( PBA ) , characterized by uncontrollable episodes of crying and / or laughing , or other emotional displays , Dextromethorphan / quinidine can be considered as treatment as it is the only FDA approved drug for treatment for PBA , though other medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants have been used in clinical practice .
Dysphagia and dysarthria : dysphagia is a difficulty with eating and swallowing which may cause choking and aspiration of food or liquid into the lungs , while dysarthria is a neurological motor speech disorder characterized by poor control over the subsystems and muscles responsible for speech ( " articulation " ) . A speech and language therapist may give advice on specific swallowing techniques , on adapting food consistencies and dietary intake , on techniques to improve and maintain speech production and clarity , and on alternative communication approaches . In the case of advanced dysphagia , food can be supplied by a nasogastric tube , which is a tube that goes through the nose directly to the stomach ; or a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy ( PEG ) , which is a procedure for placing a tube into the stomach and therefore administering food directly to it . This second system , although more invasive , has better results in the long term than nasogastric intake .
Erectile dysfunction : erectile dysfunction is common in male patients with MS. There is some evidence indicating that sildenafil citrate may be a useful treatment .
Fatigue : fatigue is very common and disabling in MS , and at the same time it has a close relationship with depressive symptomatology . When depression is reduced fatigue also tends to improve , so patients should be evaluated for depression before other therapeutic approaches are used . In a similar way , other factors such as disturbed sleep , chronic pain , poor nutrition , or even some medications can contribute to fatigue ; medical professionals are therefore encouraged to identify and modify them . A few medications have been studied to treat MS @-@ related fatigue , such as amantadine pemoline ( which is a psychostimulant also used for attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy ) , or modafinil , as well as psychological interventions of energy conservation , but the effects of all of them are small . Fatigue is therefore a very difficult symptom to manage for which no drugs are recommended .
Pain : acute pain is mainly due to optic neuritis ( with corticosteroids being the best treatment available ) , as well as trigeminal neuralgia , Lhermitte 's sign , or dysesthesias . Subacute pain is usually secondary to the disease and can be a consequence of spending too long in the same position , urinary retention , and infected skin ulcers , amongst others . Treatment will depend on cause . Chronic pain is very common and harder to treat as its most common cause is dysesthesias . Acute pain due to trigeminal neuralgia is usually successfully treated with anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine or phenytoin . Both Lhermitte 's sign and painful dysesthesias usually respond to treatment with carbamazepine , clonazepam , or amitriptyline . Sativex is approved for treatment of pain in MS in different countries , but due to its derivation from cannabis , it is currently not available in others , such as the USA . This medication is also being investigated for the management of other MS symptoms , such as spasticity , and has shown long @-@ term safety and efficacy .
Spasticity : spasticity is characterized by increased stiffness and slowness in limb movement , the development of certain postures , an association with weakness of voluntary muscle power , and with involuntary and sometimes painful spasms of limbs . A physiotherapist can help to reduce spasticity and avoid the development of contractures with techniques such as passive stretching . Nabiximols is safe and effective for relieving spacticity . There is evidence , albeit limited , of the clinical effectiveness of baclofen , dantrolene , diazepam , and tizanidine . In the most complicated cases intrathecal injections of baclofen can be used . There are also palliative measures like castings , splints or customized seatings .
Vision : different drugs as well as optic compensatory systems and prisms can be used to improve the symptoms of nystagmus or diplopia ( double vision ) . Surgery can also be used in some cases .
Walking : dalfampridine ( ampyra ) is a broad @-@ spectrum potassium channel blocker . It is approved by the FDA to treat walking difficulties in MS. It has been shown to increase walking speed , although its high cost ( over 1000 dollars a month ) limits its usage .
Unfortunately , other symptoms , such as ataxia , tremor or sensory losses , do not have proven treatments .
= = Research = =
Research directions on MS treatments include investigations of MS pathogenesis and heterogeneity ; research of more effective , convenient , or tolerable new treatments for RRMS ; creation of therapies for the progressive subtypes ; neuroprotection strategies ; and the search for effective symptomatic treatments .
Advances during the last decades has led to the recent approval of several oral drugs . These drugs are expected to gain in popularity and frequency of use at the expense of previously existing therapies . Further oral drugs are still under investigation , the most notable example being laquinimod , which was announced in August 2012 to be the focus of a third phase III trial after mixed results in the previous ones . Similarly , Other studies are aimed to improve efficacy and ease of use of already existing therapies through the use of novel preparations . Such is the case the PEGylated version of interferon @-@ β @-@ 1a , that has a longer life than normal interferon and therefore it is being studied if given at less frequent doses has a similar efficacy than the existing product . With the completion of a robust two @-@ year study , it is shown that the PEGylated interferon beta @-@ 1a has greater efficacy in decreasing relapse rate and disability progression compared to placebo for MS patients .
Monoclonal antibodies , which are drugs of the same family as natalizumab , have also raised high levels of interest and research . Alemtuzumab , daclizumab and CD20 monoclonal antibodies such as rituximab , ocrelizumab and ofatumumab have all shown some benefit and are under study as potential treatments for MS. Nevertheless , their use has also been accompanied by the appearance of potentially dangerous adverse effects , most importantly opportunistic infections . Related to these investigations is the recent development of a test against JC virus antibodies which might help to predict what patients are at a greater risk of developing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy when taking natalizumab . While monoclonal antibodies are probably going to have some role in the treatment of the disease in the future , it is believed that it will be small due to the risks associated to them .
Another research strategy is to evaluate the combined effectiveness of two or more drugs . The main rationale for polytherapy in MS is that the involved treatments target different mechanisms of the disease and therefore their use is not necessarily exclusive . Moreover , synergies , in which a drug potentiates the effect of another are also possible . Nevertheless , there can also appear important drawbacks such as antagonizing mechanisms of action or potentiation of deleterious secondary effects . While there have been several clinical trials of combined therapy none has shown positive enough effects to merit the consideration as a viable treatment for MS.
Finally , regarding neuroprotective and specially regenerative treatments , such as stem cell therapy , while their research is considered of high importance at the moment they are only a promise of future therapeutic approaches . Likewise , there are not any effective treatments for the progressive variants of the disease . Many of the newest drugs as well as those under development are probably going to be evaluated as therapies for PPMS or SPMS , and their improved effectiveness when compared with previously existing drugs may eventually lead to a positive result in these groups of patients .
In 2008 , vascular surgeon Paolo Zamboni suggested that MS involves a vascular process he referred to as chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency ( CCSVI ) , in which veins from the brain are constricted . He found CCSVI in all patients with MS in his study , performed a surgical procedure , later called in the media " liberation procedure " to correct it and claimed that 73 % of participants improved . This theory received important attention in the media and among MS patients , specially in Canada . Concern has been raised with Zamboni 's research as it was neither blinded nor controlled , and additionally its assumptions about the pathophisiology of the disease may not be backed by known data . Also further studies have either not found a relationship or found a much less strong one . This has raised serious objections to the hypothesis of CCSVI originating MS. The " liberation procedure " has been criticized for possibly resulting in serious complications and deaths while its benefits have not been proven . Currently it is recommended not to use the proposed treatment unless its effectiveness is confirmed by controlled studies . Research on CCSVI has been fast tracked but researchers have been unable to confirm whether CCSVI has a role in causing MS.
= = Alternative treatments = =
Over 50 % of MS patients may use complementary and alternative medicine , although numbers vary greatly depending on the definition of alternative medicine used . In the United States , it is estimated that 75 % of the MS patient populations use at least one complementary and alternative medicine for treatment and symptomatic control . The evidence for effectiveness for such treatments in most cases is weak or absent . Examples of treatments used by patients include dietary supplementation and regimens such as vitamin D , calcium , vitamin B12 , and antioxidants . The rationale behind the use of Vitamin D supplementation is that studies show an association between vitamin D deficiency and increasing progression of MS , as well as the anti @-@ inflammatory effects of vitamin D.
For antioxidant therapy , studies have shown that reactive oxidative species lead to the formation of multiple sclerosis lesions in which antioxidants can help induce neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects . Probably the most clear disease modifying factor ( for worse ) is smoking , and therefore to quit smoking should be considered .
Other alternative treatments include relaxation techniques such as yoga , herbal medicine ( including the use of medical cannabis ) , hyperbaric oxygenation , self @-@ infection with hookworm ( known generally as helminthic therapy ) and bee venom therapy , reflexology or acupuncture . Regarding the characteristics of users , they are more frequently women , have had MS for a longer time and tend to be more disabled . Moreover , they also have lower levels of satisfaction with conventional healthcare .
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= The Body ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
" The Body " is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 – 2003 ) . It was written and directed by series creator Joss Whedon and originally aired on the WB network in the United States on February 27 , 2001 . In the series , Buffy Summers is a teenager chosen by mystical forces and endowed with superhuman powers to defeat vampires , demons , and other evils in the fictional town of Sunnydale . She is supported in her struggles by a close circle of friends and family , nicknamed the Scooby Gang . In " The Body " , Buffy is powerless as she comes upon her lifeless mother , who has died of a brain aneurysm .
Although Buffy and her friends deal with death every week , often in very gruesome and fantastic ways , in this episode they are bewildered by the natural death of Joyce Summers , the divorced mother of Buffy and her sister Dawn and occasionally a mother figure to their friends . They struggle to comprehend what the loss means to each of them and to the group . Buffy must begin to face her life and her duties as the Slayer without parental support and comfort .
The episode was stripped of all music — a regular staple of the Buffy series — and disorienting effects were included to convey the sense of displacement and loss associated with the death of a close family member . For its frank depiction of grief and coping with a very realistic death when the show usually used monsters or demons as figurative symbols , " The Body " has been described by multiple critics as one of the best television episodes ever broadcast .
= = Background = =
Buffy ( Sarah Michelle Gellar ) is assisted from season one by her close friends , who collectively refer to themselves as the Scooby Gang : Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) , whose primary strength is his devotion to Buffy , and Willow Rosenberg ( Alyson Hannigan ) , who begins dabbling in witchcraft and grows progressively more powerful . They are mentored by Rupert Giles ( Anthony Stewart Head ) , Buffy 's " Watcher " , and joined by Xander 's girlfriend Anya Jenkins ( Emma Caulfield ) , who was a vengeance demon until her powers were taken away . Anya is often at a loss to know how to communicate with humans , and her speech is frequently abrupt . In the fourth season , Willow became romantically involved with Tara Maclay ( Amber Benson ) , also a witch .
Each season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( often simplified as Buffy ) presents an overall theme episodes tie into . Roz Kaveney identifies family and belonging as the overall theme of the fifth season . Buffy 's mother Joyce ( Kristine Sutherland ) begins experiencing headaches at the beginning of the season , once collapsing and requiring hospitalization . She subsequently has a brain tumor removed . She has been recovering well . In the previous episode , she receives flowers from a male suitor , which Buffy finds at the end of that episode . The fifth season also introduces Dawn ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) , Buffy 's 14 @-@ year @-@ old sister . Each season has a primary antagonist called the Big Bad ; in the fifth season this takes the form of a powerful goddess named Glory ( Clare Kramer ) .
= = Plot = =
Beginning where the previous episode left off , Buffy arrives home and sees the flowers sent from Joyce 's suitor . She calls out to her mother and hears no answer . Buffy sees Joyce lying lifeless on the sofa , staring at the ceiling .
The credits appear over a flashback to a Christmas dinner where all the Scoobies are present , having a typical lighthearted conversation as Joyce and Buffy discuss a pie that drops on the floor . The scene snaps back to Buffy in the living room , shaking Joyce and screaming at her . She calls for an ambulance and attempts CPR , accidentally snapping a rib in the process , but to no avail . Buffy calls Giles . The paramedics arrive and work on Joyce and she revives , the paramedics declare it a miracle in the ambulance , and Joyce , Buffy , and Dawn rejoice in the hospital . The scene snaps back to the living room where the paramedics continue to work on Joyce until they stop and tell Buffy that Joyce is dead . They leave , and Buffy goes into the hall and vomits . Giles arrives and Buffy tells him not to move the body , shocking herself by using that word .
At school , Dawn is crying in the bathroom upset that a girl called her a freak . In art class she talks with a boy as they sketch , and the two share a moment of understanding about being troubled . Buffy arrives and pulls Dawn out of class into the hall . Through the windows of the art room , the class watches Buffy tell her that Joyce has had an accident . The rest of the conversation is muffled . Dawn collapses in the hall , sobbing .
In Willow 's dormitory room , Tara tries to help Willow find a shirt to wear . Xander and Anya arrive and double @-@ park . Willow panics , rejecting shirt after shirt , not knowing how to appear for Buffy and Dawn . She asks why her clothes are stupid and she is childish , weeping until Tara kisses and calms her . Anya asks Xander what she is supposed to do ; he cannot answer . Willow changes her shirt again and Xander expresses his desire to find Glory and exact justice , then complains about Joyce 's negligent doctors . Anya asks if they will see the body , then if the body will be cut open , and Willow responds angrily . Anya tearfully says she does not understand how to behave , or why Joyce cannot go back into her own body , unable to understand human death , she states that it is all " stupid and mortal " , and no one will tell her why things are happening . Xander puts his fist through the wall , making him bleed but feel oddly better . As the group leaves to visit Buffy at the hospital , Xander gets a parking ticket .
In the waiting room outside the morgue , the doctor tells Buffy that Joyce died of an aneurysm suddenly and painlessly . Left alone with Buffy , Tara tells her that her own mother died when she was 17 and she went through something similar . Dawn goes alone to the morgue to see Joyce 's body . While she is there , one of the bodies , now a vampire , gets up . After noticing Dawn has not come back , Buffy goes to look for her and finds her in the morgue , being attacked by the vampire . As Buffy fights and kills the vampire , the sheet falls from Joyce 's face . Looking at her mother , Dawn asks where she went , as she reaches out to touch her cheek .
= = Production and writing = =
From the start of writing the Buffy series , Joss Whedon asserted that it would never have a " very special episode " as in contemporary series Beverly Hills , 90210 , The Wonder Years , or Party of Five , where the core cast of characters addresses a single issue ( AIDS , drug abuse , or alcoholism , for example ) and resolve all the problems at the end . Whedon was not interested in finding a life @-@ affirming lesson for " The Body " . Rather , he wanted to capture the isolation and boredom involved in the minutes and hours after finding a loved one has died , what he termed " the black ashes in your mouth numbness of death " . He did not intend to resolve any religious or existential questions about the end of life , but wanted to examine the process in which a person becomes a mere body . Whedon 's mother , a teacher , also died of a cerebral aneurysm , and he drew on his own experiences , and those of friends and other writers , in constructing the episode . He tried to achieve an " unlovely physicality " in " The Body " to portray the upsetting minutiae involved in attempting to comprehend what is incomprehensible .
Small details became significant : to protect her dignity Buffy pulls the hem of Joyce 's skirt down after it rode up when she attempted CPR ; the camera focuses on a breeze through wind chimes while Buffy vomits ; to emphasize Buffy 's isolation , the scene has no exterior establishing shots of the house .
The opening sequence of " The Body " was also the closing scene of the previous episode , " I Was Made to Love You " ; this is the only episode in the series that was first aired without a " Previously on Buffy " lead @-@ in . The Christmas dinner scene was used both to contrast the stark reality of the rest of the episode , and to avoid having the credits appear over the beginning scenes where Buffy is trying to revive her mother .
The episode is presented in four acts , each beginning in total silence and with a close @-@ up shot of Joyce 's pale , staring face . Shooting the first act was difficult for Gellar ( Buffy ) . Whedon shot the scene where she finds her mother as one long take , showing her move through the house and calling the paramedics , about seven times . The rest of the scenes in the act were shot in sequence . At the end , Giles arrives and also attempts to revive Joyce , but Buffy blurts , " We 're not supposed to move the body ! " Both Gellar and Trachtenberg ( Dawn ) were raised by single women , and Gellar later spoke about the experience of acting something that was very real and close to her , stating , " you try to separate it as best you can and at the same time it adds that extra layer " . As soon as the scene was finished with Gellar " at a fever pitch " , they restarted it where she comes in the door happily , which Whedon regretted for the emotional range Gellar was required to endure .
Kristine Sutherland ( Joyce ) was informed during the third season that her character would be killed off , which she accepted because she intended to spend time in Europe . She is absent from most of the fourth season because she was traveling . She reported that the atmosphere on the set of " The Body " was strange and tense because she had been a regular character through the series and she was suddenly playing a corpse . She found the part difficult to play , not only for the stillness , but getting into the make @-@ up , and lying on the morgue table with other bodies .
The most difficult scene for Whedon to film was Willow panicking in her dormitory room . Her obsession about what to wear to visit Buffy was inspired by Whedon 's own experiences when he was at a loss for what tie to wear for a friend 's funeral . He praised Alyson Hannigan 's acting , saying that she was able to be consistently emotional in every take and make him and the crew cry every time . Whedon acknowledged his difficulty speaking on the DVD commentary while watching Hannigan in the scene .
Whedon 's rejection of the " very special episode " format impelled him to address the physicality of Willow and Tara 's relationship within " The Body " . Before this episode , they had held hands and danced on screen , but they had not kissed . A genre of television specials dealing with female homosexuality developed as the " lesbian kiss episode " in the 1990s , where a female character kissed another female but no relationship is further explored . Whedon set out to acknowledge Willow 's and Tara 's affection without making it the primary focus of the show . For attempting this , he received resistance from the airing network , the WB . Whedon informed them that the kiss between Willow and Tara was " not negotiable " . According to Whedon , the conversation about the kiss was approached by the network executives , who were concerned with the number of gay relationships on the network . Whedon countered that the kiss was " true to character " and said he would quit the show if the network forbade it . It was the only time during the series he threatened to do so .
When Willow and Tara first met in the fourth season , the writers did not intend the relationship to be romantic but the actors had such chemistry that , two episodes later , Whedon and the writing team took Alyson Hannigan and Amber Benson aside to inform them where it would go . For the rest of the season , the sexual relationship between Willow and Tara was represented metaphorically by witchcraft , and none of the WB executives realized it . In the end , Whedon praised the way the WB handled the display of affection in " The Body " , saying " They raised an eyebrow , but they 've been great . I give the WB props when it came to the [ characters ' first ] kiss . What I want to show is real affection , and ' The Body ' turned out to be the perfect place to put it in . To the network 's credit , they not only aired it , but they did not advertise it . I thought that was pretty classy . " Stephen Tropiano in Prime Time Closet : A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV writes that this approach was " truly groundbreaking " ; no long speech , no huge discovery : " Like Willow , we 're made to feel as if her love for Tara is the most natural thing in the world " . Tropiano calls it " A simple kiss . A quiet , simple moment . Two lovers kissing . Just like lovers do . "
Audiences reacted more emotionally than Whedon expected to Emma Caulfield 's performance . Anya 's blunt innocence was similar to a plot twist , as viewers did not expect the depth of sensitivity that she portrayed in her monologue , which Whedon considers " the heart of the experience " and critic Noel Murray reiterates as the " whole point of the episode in bolded , capital letters " . Xander 's punching the wall and hurting his hand served to give the four in this scene something to concentrate on , to redirect their helplessness , which was another facet of the physicality of dealing with the crisis . Whedon used another long tracking shot from Joyce 's face in the morgue following the doctor down the hall to speak with Buffy and the Scoobies to cement the reality of their being so close in proximity , as opposed to cutting shots to give the possibility that it was part of another set located somewhere else . The vampire that attacks Dawn in the morgue was a touch many viewers took to be out of place for the episode . This scene contrasts the more fantasy @-@ related deaths common in the series with Joyce 's realistic death . Furthermore , similar to Xander 's parking ticket and the sounds of life outside Buffy 's house , in Sunnydale vampires are a normal experience , and it was intended to show that life for Buffy continues .
= = Themes = =
= = = Grief = = =
In Nikki Stafford 's analysis , the reactions of Buffy , Dawn , Xander , Willow , Anya , and Tara represent stages of Elisabeth Kübler @-@ Ross ' five stages of grief in different parts . Joss Whedon stated on the DVD commentary how surprised he was at the response from viewers who wrote to say that the episode allowed them to accept the death of a close family member , even if they had not acknowledged it for months or years . Joyce 's death was the first by natural causes in the series .
In The Psychology of Joss Whedon , two academic psychologists identify the source of Buffy 's strength as her mother , paired with Giles ' mentorship . Joyce did not know all along that Buffy was a Slayer and had difficulty accepting what her daughter was called to do . She was nonetheless always attentive and available when Buffy 's confidence was shaken , and both Joyce 's and Giles ' devotion to her " gave her the self @-@ assurance to wield her power to its full potential " . Joyce served as a parent figure to all of Buffy 's friends , whose home lives were often unstable or unloving , thus making her death more poignant to all of them . Willow mentions her parents several times throughout the series , but her father is never seen . Her mother is portrayed only once in " Gingerbread " , at first as an academic so preoccupied with her career that she is unable to communicate with Willow , and then — with Joyce — under the spell of a demon and in the throes of moral panic , attempting to burn her own daughter at the stake for being involved in witchcraft . Xander 's parents are described by him and those who have been to his house as alcoholic and verbally abusive . Even Anya , severely wanting in social graces , has lost someone she admires and trusts . Giles also grieves for the loss of a friend and — in one episode when the adults fall under a spell making them retreat into an adolescent state — a lover . Lorna Jowett in Sex and the Slayer writes that Joyce represents stability and normality . For the Scoobies , her death destroys the illusion that normal life is trouble @-@ free ; it is just as challenging as encountering supernatural forces .
Finding her mother 's body , Buffy at first denies what she sees , to the point of imagining alternate realities . Whedon stated that these mini dream sequences were like documentaries ; people who find their loved ones dead are desperate to imagine a different , better outcome , and they create fantasies that cause much more pain when they are forced to return to the harshness of reality . Later in the hospital , Buffy imagines what she might have been able to do to save Joyce , although the doctor tells her there was nothing to be done . Willow and Xander express anger and helplessness . Anya , new to mortality and human connections , is childlike in her innocence and questions . Xander 's anger and Anya 's confusion allow them to be mothered somewhat by Willow , who needs to take care of someone . Dawn is deeply in denial , unable to understand that the woman she thought she had known all her life was gone . Tara , who has gone through the ordeal before , represents the acceptance phase , soothing and helping the others to work through what they are experiencing . Buffy toward the end also begins to see acceptance when she tells Dawn that the body in the morgue is not their mother ; Joyce is gone .
The episode also emphasizes another theme of the season : Buffy 's response to forces that she cannot fight . Throughout the season she encounters the much more powerful goddess Glory , but Joyce 's death leaves her feeling the most helpless . In Joyce 's death there is no evil force to combat ; she simply dies , and Buffy , with all her power , is ill @-@ equipped to grasp the enormity of her situation . In her shock , Buffy retreats to a childlike state of confusion , calling to her mother when she does not answer : " Mom ? ... Mom ? ... Mommy ? " Emma Caulfield was also given the direction for her voice to rise to a childlike pitch at the end of her speech to give the same effect . According to Buffy scholar Rhonda Wilcox , the themes of maturation and facing adult responsibilities begin with the departure of Buffy 's boyfriend Riley Finn six episodes before , and crystallize in the preceding episode in which Buffy realizes she does not need a boyfriend to be fulfilled . At the end of that episode she is confronted with Joyce 's death , which is fully explored in " The Body " . Facing responsibilities became the major theme of the sixth season . One critic writes , " Drastic as it was , killing off Joyce was the logical way to bring Buffy and Dawn closer together , sever Buffy 's last ties to girlhood and emphasize Buffy 's inability to accept the limits of her power , a recurring theme this season . "
= = = Reality = = =
Whedon uses several disorienting effects to heighten the reality of the situations in the episode to the point that they seem surreal . The long opening shot of Buffy coming home and finding Joyce was filmed with one hand @-@ held camera in constant movement as she walks through the house to the phone and back to her mother again . The buttons on Buffy 's phone are abnormally large , an effect that Whedon added because he experienced it when his mother died . Buffy is so bewildered by the paramedic telling her that Joyce is dead that she can only focus on his mouth in an attempt to understand what he is saying . The camera uses her perspective and only the bottom part of the paramedic 's face is in view . Instead of a normal " over @-@ the @-@ shoulder " view , Buffy is shot at the same height as the paramedic 's shoulder , barely squeezed into the frame as if to portray her , according to Whedon , as trapped by reality . Kristine Sutherland stated that the script was " amazing " , specifically at capturing the detachment : " It 's not something you can process . I mean mortality is just not part of your vocabulary when you 're that age . "
In the hospital , as Buffy listens to the doctor confirm how Joyce died , the doctor says something , but the words " I have to lie to you to make you feel better " are spoken discordantly , as though , according to cinema scholar Katy Stevens , Buffy " constructs what she believes to be an unmentionable truth — her culpability in her mother 's death " . In the same scene , Dawn is shot with a hand @-@ held camera that drifts , giving her a slightly unreal moment as she struggles to believe , unlike what Buffy already knows , that her mother 's body is down the hall on a steel table . The scene with Buffy and Tara sitting in the waiting room was noted by Rhonda Wilcox for its reality in showing Gellar as ragged and distinctly unglamorous , particularly because she had been presented in a specific way to attract male viewers and was a spokeswoman for Maybelline while Buffy aired . Buffy sits with circles under her eyes , unflattering hair , and slumped posture next to Tara , who had been criticized for being too heavy , despite her body type being more typical of women her age .
Foremost of the disorienting effects , to critics and scholars , is Whedon 's use of sound and silence . While Buffy performs CPR , she cracks one of Joyce 's ribs with a startling snap . After Buffy vomits on the floor , she stands in the back doorway listening to life carrying on : children playing , someone practicing a trumpet , and birds singing . Long pauses between dialogue create gaps that turn awkward as the characters try to think of what to say , made especially notable in a series famous for its rapid banter . The transition between the Christmas dinner scene and the living room scene is abrupt , and the sound of Buffy and Joyce shouting because they dropped a pie on the floor carries over into the silence of Joyce 's lifeless face and Buffy standing alone in the living room . This effect is also used when shifting between Buffy 's alternate version of her mother being " good as new " in the hospital and the paramedics trying to revive her . In the car on the way to Willow 's dormitory , Anya is shot by a camera mounted on the front bumper , separated from the audience by the windshield . Xander , driving , faces the other way ; neither of them speak and only the sound of the car can be heard . Joyce Millman at Salon.com writes of the sound issues , " The effect was almost Bergmanesque in its starkness . The spooky stillness and the long , spacey pauses in conversation as characters struggled to articulate their feelings exaggerated the sense of time elongating and standing still . "
Katy Stevens notes that the dialogue in " The Body " was recorded with microphones very close to the actors , making variations in their voices — cracks , rises , and whispers — more prominent to the audience , to close the distance between the actors and the viewer . Conversely , the scene in which Dawn is told of Joyce 's death was shot through a large classroom window , muffling Dawn 's emotional reaction , to isolate Buffy and Dawn from the class and the audience . Several moments of silence follow this scene . Whedon shot the conversation up close several times , filming over @-@ the @-@ shoulder and reaction shots , but eventually went with a more distanced point of view . Michelle Trachtenberg later said of this effect , " obviously you know in the end result there was no sound and I thought that was actually one of the most brilliant ideas [ he 's ] ever had because it allows everyone to sort of attach their own emotional plug into whatever might have happened in your life . I think it allowed the audience to really connect with Dawn for the first time . "
Presenting the episode without music was Whedon 's way of denying the audience any comfort , forcing them to discern their own meanings from the characters ' actions and words . As two musicologists write about this absence , " Without music 's acoustic balm , all our empathetic attention is on the characters and their state of bewilderment ... Music would provide a conceptualization and a catharsis ... but a catharsis at this point would in some measure trivialize the loss . " Television critic Gareth McLean writes that this decision is " a move that makes it more courageous than , for instance , ER . There were no soaring strings or plaintive piano to trigger an emotional response . Instead the soundtrack took in the ambient noises of wind chimes , doors squeaking , footsteps on carpets . Conversations were stilted and awkward , but the spaces in between always mattered . "
= = Reception = =
Critics praised the episode , and have continued to count it as one of the finest episodes of television ever broadcast . David Bianculli in the New York Daily News commends the acting abilities of Sarah Michelle Gellar , Michelle Trachtenberg , Alyson Hannigan , and Amber Benson . " The Body " , according to Bianculli is " Emmy @-@ worthy ... It also will haunt you — but not in the normal way associated with this still @-@ evolving , still @-@ achieving series . " Television critic Alesia Redding and editor Joe Vince of the South Bend Tribune write , " I was riveted by this show ... This isn 't just one of the best Buffy episodes of all time . It 's one of the best episodes of TV of all time . " Redding adds , " If you watch this incredible episode and don 't recognize it as great TV , you 're hopeless ... A ' fantasy ' show delivers the most stark and realistic take on death I 've ever seen , deftly depicting how a loved one who dies suddenly becomes ' the body ' . "
Gareth McLean in The Guardian rejects the notion that Buffy is similar to other " schmaltzy American teen show ( s ) " like Dawson 's Creek : " This episode was a brave , honest and wrenching portrayal of death and loss . The way this was handled by Joss Whedon ... was ingenious . Time slowed down and the feeling of numbness was palpable as Buffy and her gang tried to come to terms with Joyce 's death . " McLean especially appreciated the small details of Buffy protecting Joyce 's dignity and the confusion shown by the characters . He concludes , " Joyce may be dead but long live Buffy the Vampire Slayer . " Joe Gross in the Austin American @-@ Statesman calls the episode " devastatingly calm " and states that " the entire cast and crew should have received some sort of Emmy for ' The Body ' " .
At Salon.com , Joyce Millman writes , " there hasn 't been a finer hour of drama on TV this year than ... ' The Body ' ... You have to hand it to the writers ; Joyce 's demise came as a complete surprise . In that instant , Buffy 's childhood officially ends . Even if Buffy gets stiffed in every other Emmy category this year , ' The Body ' should convince the nominating committee that Gellar is for real ... I can 't remember the last time I saw a more wrenching portrayal of the shock of loss . " Andrew Gilstrap at PopMatters declares it " possibly the finest hour of television I 've seen , bar none ... It is an incredibly moving episode , one that finally admits that you don 't walk away from death unscathed . It also shows that , for all the group 's slaying experience , they really weren 't prepared for death when it stole a loved one . " Gilstrap went on to say the series did not again address death and grief of this magnitude until , in another shocking turn of events , Tara dies of a stray gunshot in the sixth season . Jerry McCormick in The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune agrees , rating Joyce 's death as having the same emotional impact as Tara 's in " Seeing Red " , both of which he listed as the saddest in the series .
Kira Schlechter in The Patriot @-@ News declares " The Body " " one of the finest episodes of any series ever " , stating that the silence and novel cinematography are " remarkable and the writing is brilliant " . Buffy and Dawn 's conversation at her school , Schlechter says , is " positively wrenching " . When the series ended in 2003 , Amy Antangelo in the Boston Herald and Siona LaFrance of the New Orleans Times @-@ Picayune both rated the best Buffy episodes giving " The Body " equal billing at the top with " Hush " and " Once More , with Feeling " , LaFrance designating the episode an " instant classic " . Jonathan Last in The Weekly Standard lists " The Body " eighth out of the ten best Buffy episodes , writing that it is " the series ' most difficult episode because it 's real — and not real in the way ER or The Practice or Law & Order , all hyper @-@ versions of reality , are real . At some point , most of us will experience a day like Buffy has in ' The Body ' and we sense that the writers have gotten nearly every detail of that day — right down to the absence of a musical score — right . " In the A.V. Club , Noel Murray also finds small details compelling , such as the camera 's focus on the paper towel Buffy uses to cover the vomit on the carpet . He does , however , write that some of the shots " come off a little gimmicky , but the ones that work are so effective that it seems petty to complain that Whedon overdoes it at times . ( Besides , different moments are likely to move different people . ) "
In addition to praising Gellar 's often under @-@ appreciated acting , Buffy scholar Ian Shuttleworth comments on the cast and the nuanced numbness and confusion of the characters , paired with the moments of silence in the episode : " It is simply one of the finest pieces of television drama , and the single finest depiction of bereavement in any medium , that I have ever seen . " Nikki Stafford , author of Bite Me ! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer , calls " The Body " " an absolute masterpiece " , explaining that it is " hands down the single most terrifying , heart @-@ breaking , painful , and amazing hour of television I have ever seen " . She praises the entire cast equally , but highlights Gellar , Alyson Hannigan , and Emma Caulfield . Stafford also praised Kristine Sutherland — as did Whedon — for having to lie motionless with her eyes open for hours upon hours over eight days of filming .
In 2015 , Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV looked back at the episode fourteen years later . Upon reviewing the episode , he called it " one of the best hours of television " he had ever seen and went on to say " I don 't think any other supernatural show has ever had a more beautiful episode than The Body " .
When the episode was originally broadcast in the United States on the WB network on February 27 , 2001 , it received a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 5 and a share of 5 , and was watched by 6 million viewers . The episode placed fifth in its timeslot , and 82nd among broadcast television for the week of February 26 – March 4 , 2001 . It was the most watched program on the WB that night , and the second most watched program that week , trailing 7th Heaven . This was a slight increase from a 3 @.@ 4 rating and 87th position achieved by the previous episode . The episode was released on DVD on October 28 , 2002 in Region 2 , and December 9 , 2003 in Region 1 . Although the episode received positive reviews , it was not nominated for any Emmy awards . Rhonda Wilcox attributes this to the Emmys being a " bastion of conservative popular taste " , automatically rejecting television shows in the fantasy / science fiction genres . The script was nominated for a Nebula Award , given for excellence in science fiction / fantasy writing .
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= Pennsylvania Route 858 =
Pennsylvania Route 858 ( designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 0858 ) is a 16 @.@ 465 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 498 km ) state highway located in Susquehanna County in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at PA 706 in Rush Township . The northern terminus is the New York state line in Little Meadows . The route from there continues as Tioga County Route 41 . The route was assigned in 1928 , completed a year later , and has remained the same since , with an exception of its southern terminus changing designations from Pennsylvania Route 67 .
= = Route description = =
PA 858 begins at an intersection with PA 706 in the Rush Township community of Rushville . The highway begins its long trek in Susquehanna County by progressing northward in a patch of forests . PA 858 , which runs west of a creek , is sparsely populated and homes are rare . PA 858 winds its way in and out of forests , heading on a northeast direction . Soon after , there is an intersection with Keefs Hill Road , a locally maintained highway . After Keefs Hill Road , PA 858 heads back into a dense patch of trees . In the forest , is an intersection with C. Warner Road , and soon after comes one for Shadduck Road .
Although the dense forest ends , trees continue to surround the highway . The route turns a short drift off its alignment at an intersection with Miller Road . The route turns from the northward direction it was heading to a northwestern direction and intersects eventually with Guilton Road . The dense forestry returns , and Route 858 begins winding its way along . Residential homes have all but disappeared from the route , with trees showing the way into Middletown Center . PA 858 passes a pond to the east , intersecting with the former alignment of PA 859 , now a locally maintained highway known as Vet Davis Road and Camp Corby Road .
After leaving Middletown Center , PA 858 continues northward and sometimes northeastward . After Middletown Center , PA 858 is surrounded by nothing but trees . There is a break in the trees when PA 858 intersects with an unnamed road , which serves as a connector to Township Road 768 . The state traffic route continues to the northwest , intersecting with Township Road 687 . As PA 858 continues , it enters Apolacon Township , where the dense forestry begins to break , and homes begin to show the way . After a short pond is passed , the highway enters Little Meadows . At Maple Avenue , PA 858 runs on its final stretch , passing homes all the way to the New York state line . There , PA 858 ends and becomes County Route 41 upon entering Tioga County , New York .
= = History = =
PA 858 was first assigned in the mass numbering of state traffic routes in Pennsylvania in 1928 . However , the southern terminus of the highway was not an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 706 . Instead , it was an intersection with PA 67 . When it was assigned , it only ran from U.S. Route 106 to Town House Road , since the rest had not been completed yet . The final , already paved segment of SR 858 was completed by the next year . In 1932 , the route south of Town House Road was paved . In 1972 , PA 67 was decommissioned , and the route at the southern terminus became PA 706 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Susquehanna County .
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= Circumcision =
Male circumcision is the removal of the foreskin from the human penis . In the most common procedure , the foreskin is opened , adhesions are removed , and the foreskin is separated from the glans . After that , the circumcision device ( if used ) is placed , and then the foreskin is removed . Topical or locally injected anesthesia is occasionally used to reduce pain and physiologic stress . For adults and children , general anesthesia is an option , and the procedure may be performed without a specialized circumcision device . The procedure is most often an elective surgery performed on babies and children for religious and cultural reasons . In other cases it may be done as a treatment for a condition or for preventative reasons . Medically , it is a treatment option for problematic cases of phimosis , balanoposthitis that does not resolve with other treatments , and chronic urinary tract infections ( UTIs ) . It is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health .
The positions of the world 's major medical organizations range from considering elective circumcision of babies and children as having no benefit and significant risks to having a modest health benefit that outweighs small risks . No major medical organization recommends either universal circumcision for all males ( aside from the recommendations of the World Health Organization ( WHO ) for areas with high rates of HIV ) , or banning the procedure . Ethical and legal questions regarding informed consent and human rights have been raised over the circumcision of babies and children for non @-@ medical reasons , and for that reason the procedure is controversial .
Evidence supports that male circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection among heterosexual men in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Therefore , The WHO recommends considering circumcision as part of a comprehensive HIV prevention program in areas with high rates of HIV , such as Sub Saharan Africa . However , evidence for a health benefit against HIV for men who have sex with men is less clear . Additionally , the effectiveness of using circumcision to prevent HIV in the developed world is also unclear . Circumcision in general is associated with reduced rates of cancer causing forms of HPV and risk of both UTIs and cancer of the penis . Prevention of those conditions , however , is not a justification for routine circumcision of infants . Studies of its potential protective effects against other sexually transmitted infections have been unclear . A 2010 review of literature found circumcisions performed by medical providers to have a typical complication rate of 1 @.@ 5 % for babies and 6 % for older children , with few cases of severe complications . Bleeding , infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin are the most common complications cited . Complication rates are higher when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator , in unsterile conditions , or when the child is at an older age . Circumcision does not appear to have a negative impact on sexual function .
An estimated one @-@ third of males worldwide are circumcised . The procedure is most common in the Muslim world and Israel ( where it is near @-@ universal for religious reasons ) , the United States , and parts of Southeast Asia and Africa . It is relatively rare in Europe , Latin America , parts of Southern Africa , and most of Asia . The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty ; the oldest documented evidence for it comes from ancient Egypt . Various theories have been proposed as to its origin , including as a religious sacrifice and as a rite of passage marking a boy 's entrance into adulthood . It is part of religious law in Judaism and is an established practice in Islam , Coptic Christianity , and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church . The word circumcision is from Latin circumcidere , meaning " to cut around " .
= = Indications and contraindications = =
= = = Routine or elective = = =
Neonatal circumcision is usually elected by the parents for non @-@ medical reasons , such as religious beliefs or personal preferences , possibly driven by societal norms . Outside the parts of Africa with high prevalence of HIV / AIDS , the positions of the world 's major medical organizations on non @-@ therapeutic neonatal circumcision range from considering it as having a modest net health benefit that outweighs small risks to viewing it as having no benefit with significant risks for harm . No major medical organization recommends universal neonatal circumcision , and no major medical organization calls for banning it either . The Royal Dutch Medical Association , which expresses some of the strongest opposition to routine neonatal circumcision , does not call for the practice to be made illegal out of their concern that parents who insist on the procedure would turn to poorly trained practitioners instead of medical professionals . This argument to keep the procedure within the purview of medical professionals is found across all major medical organizations . In addition , the organizations advise medical professionals to yield to some degree to parental preferences , which are commonly based upon cultural or religious views , in their decision to agree to circumcise .
Owing to the HIV / AIDS epidemic there , sub @-@ Saharan Africa is a special case . The finding that circumcision significantly reduces female @-@ to @-@ male HIV transmission has prompted medical organizations serving the affected communities to promote circumcision as an additional method of controlling the spread of HIV . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) and UNAIDS ( 2007 ) recommend circumcision as part of a comprehensive program for prevention of HIV transmission in areas with high endemic rates of HIV , as long as the program includes " informed consent , confidentiality , and absence of coercion " .
= = = Medical indications = = =
Circumcision may be used to treat pathological phimosis , refractory balanoposthitis and chronic , recurrent urinary tract infections ( UTIs ) . The World Health Organization promotes circumcision as a preventive measure for sexually active men in populations at high risk for HIV . Circumcision is also recommended for HIV prevention by the International Antiviral Society @-@ USA for all sexually active heterosexual males and is recommended that it be discussed with MSM who engage in primarily insertive anal sex with other men , especially in areas where HIV is common .
= = = Contraindications = = =
Circumcision is contraindicated in infants with certain genital structure abnormalities , such as a misplaced urethral opening ( as in hypospadias and epispadias ) , curvature of the head of the penis ( chordee ) , or ambiguous genitalia , because the foreskin may be needed for reconstructive surgery . Circumcision is contraindicated in premature infants and those who are not clinically stable and in good health . If an individual , child or adult , is known to have or has a family history of serious bleeding disorders ( hemophilia ) , it is recommended that the blood be checked for normal coagulation properties before the procedure is attempted .
= = Technique = =
The foreskin extends out from the base of the glans and covers the glans when the penis is flaccid . Proposed theories for the purpose of the foreskin are that it serves to protect the penis as the fetus develops in the mother 's womb , that it helps to preserve moisture in the glans , and that it improves sexual pleasure . The foreskin may also be a pathway of infection for certain diseases . Circumcision removes the foreskin at its attachment to the base of the glans .
= = = Removal of the foreskin = = =
For infant circumcision , devices such as the Gomco clamp , Plastibell and Mogen clamp are commonly used in the USA . These follow the same basic procedure . First , the amount of foreskin to be removed is estimated . The practitioner opens the foreskin via the preputial orifice to reveal the glans underneath and ensures it is normal before bluntly separating the inner lining of the foreskin ( preputial epithelium ) from its attachment to the glans . The practitioner then places the circumcision device ( this sometimes requires a dorsal slit ) , which remains until blood flow has stopped . Finally , the foreskin is amputated . For adults , circumcision is often performed without clamps , and non @-@ surgical alternatives such as the elastic ring controlled radial compression device or the Shang ring are available .
= = = Pain management = = =
The circumcision procedure causes pain , and for neonates this pain may interfere with mother @-@ infant interaction or cause other behavioral changes , so the use of analgesia is advocated . Ordinary procedural pain may be managed in pharmacological and non @-@ pharmacological ways . Pharmacological methods , such as localized or regional pain @-@ blocking injections and topical analgesic creams , are safe and effective . The ring block and dorsal penile nerve block ( DPNB ) are the most effective at reducing pain , and the ring block may be more effective than the DPNB . They are more effective than EMLA ( eutectic mixture of local anesthetics ) cream , which is more effective than a placebo . Topical creams have been found to irritate the skin of low birth weight infants , so penile nerve block techniques are recommended in this group .
For infants , non @-@ pharmacological methods such as the use of a comfortable , padded chair and a sucrose or non @-@ sucrose pacifier are more effective at reducing pain than a placebo , but the American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP ) states that such methods are insufficient alone and should be used to supplement more effective techniques . A quicker procedure reduces duration of pain ; use of the Mogen clamp was found to result in a shorter procedure time and less pain @-@ induced stress than the use of the Gomco clamp or the Plastibell . The available evidence does not indicate that post @-@ procedure pain management is needed . For adults , general anesthesia is an option , and the procedure requires four to six weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow the wound to heal .
= = Effects = =
= = = Sexually transmitted diseases = = =
= = = = Human immunodeficiency virus = = = =
There is strong evidence that circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection in heterosexual men in high @-@ risk populations . Evidence among heterosexual men in sub @-@ Saharan Africa shows an absolute decrease in risk of 1 @.@ 8 % which is a relative decrease of between 38 percent and 66 percent over two years , and in this population studies rate it cost effective . Whether it is of benefit in developed countries is undetermined .
There are plausible explanations based on human biology for how circumcision can decrease the likelihood of female @-@ to @-@ male HIV transmission . The superficial skin layers of the penis contain Langerhans cells , which are targeted by HIV ; removing the foreskin reduces the number of these cells . When an uncircumcised penis is erect during intercourse , any small tears on the inner surface of the foreskin come into direct contact with the vaginal walls , providing a pathway for transmission . When an uncircumcised penis is flaccid , the pocket between the inside of the foreskin and the head of the penis provides an environment conducive to pathogen survival ; circumcision eliminates this pocket . Some experimental evidence has been provided to support these theories .
The WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) state that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention , but should be carried out by well @-@ trained medical professionals and under conditions of informed consent ( parents ' consent for their infant boys ) . The WHO has judged circumcision to be a cost @-@ effective public health intervention against the spread of HIV in Africa , although not necessarily more cost @-@ effective than condoms . The joint WHO / UNAIDS recommendation also notes that circumcision only provides partial protection from HIV and should not replace known methods of HIV prevention .
The available evidence does not indicate that circumcision provides HIV protection for heterosexual women . Data is lacking regarding the effect circumcision may have on the transmission rate of men who engage in anal sex with a female partner . It is undetermined whether circumcision benefits men who have sex with men .
= = = = Human papillomavirus = = = =
Human papillomavirus ( HPV ) is the most commonly transmitted sexually transmitted infection , affecting both men and women . While most infections are asymptomatic and are cleared by the immune system , some types of the virus cause genital warts , and other types , if untreated , cause various forms of cancer , including cervical cancer and penile cancer . Genital warts and cervical cancer are the two most common problems resulting from HPV .
Circumcision is associated with a reduced prevalence of oncogenic types of HPV infection , meaning that a randomly selected circumcised man is less likely to be found infected with cancer @-@ causing types of HPV than an uncircumcised man . It also decreases the likelihood of multiple infections . No strong evidence indicates that it reduces the rate of new HPV infection , but the procedure is associated with increased clearance of the virus by the body , which can account for the finding of reduced prevalence .
Although genital warts are caused by a type of HPV , there is no statistically significant relationship between being circumcised and the presence of genital warts .
= = = = Other infections = = = =
Studies evaluating the effect of circumcision on the incidence of other sexually transmitted infections have reached conflicting conclusions . A 2006 meta @-@ analysis found that circumcision was associated with lower rates of syphilis , chancroid and possibly genital herpes . A 2010 review found that circumcision reduced the incidence of HSV @-@ 2 ( herpes simplex virus , type 2 ) infections by 28 % . The researchers found mixed results for protection against trichomonas vaginalis and chlamydia trachomatis and no evidence of protection against gonorrhea or syphilis . Among men who have sex with men , reviews have found poor evidence for protection against sexually transmitted infections other than HIV , with the possible exception of syphilis .
= = = Phimosis , balanitis and balanoposthitis = = =
Phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans penis . At birth , the foreskin cannot be retracted due to adhesions between the foreskin and glans , and this is considered normal ( physiological phimosis ) . Over time the foreskin naturally separates from the glans , and a majority of boys are able to retract the foreskin by age three . Less than one percent are still having problems at age 18 . If the inability to do so becomes problematic ( pathological phimosis ) circumcision is a treatment option . This pathological phimosis may be due to scarring from the skin disease balanitis xerotica obliterans ( BXO ) , repeated episodes of balanoposthitis or forced retraction of the foreskin . Steroid creams are also a reasonable option and may prevent the need for surgery including in those with mild BXO . The procedure may also be used to prevent the development of phimosis . Phimosis is also a complication that can result from circumcision .
An inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin is called balanoposthitis , and the condition affecting the glans alone is called balanitis . Most cases of these conditions occur in uncircumcised males , affecting 4 – 11 % of that group . The moist , warm space underneath the foreskin is thought to facilitate the growth of pathogens , particularly when hygiene is poor . Yeasts , especially Candida albicans , are the most common penile infection and are rarely identified in samples taken from circumcised males . Both conditions are usually treated with topical antibiotics ( metronidazole cream ) and antifungals ( clotrimazole cream ) or low @-@ potency steroid creams . Circumcision is a treatment option for refractory or recurrent balanoposthitis , but in recent years the availability of the other treatments have made it less necessary .
= = = Urinary tract infections = = =
A UTI affects parts of the urinary system including the urethra , bladder , and kidneys . There is about a one percent risk of UTIs in boys under two years of age , and the majority of incidents occur in the first year of life . There is good but not ideal evidence that circumcision reduces the incidence of UTIs in boys under two years of age , and there is fair evidence that the reduction in incidence is by a factor of 3 – 10 times . Prevention of UTIs does not justify routine use of the procedure , however . Circumcision is most likely to benefit boys who have a high risk of UTIs due to anatomical defects , and may be used to treat recurrent UTIs .
There is a plausible biological explanation for the reduction in UTI risk after circumcision . The orifice through which urine passes at the tip of the penis ( the urinary meatus ) hosts more urinary system disease @-@ causing bacteria in uncircumcised boys than in circumcised boys , especially in those under six months of age . As these bacteria are a risk factor for UTIs , circumcision may reduce the risk of UTIs through a decrease in the bacteria population .
= = = Cancers = = =
Circumcision has a protective effect against the risks of penile cancer in men , and cervical cancer in the female sexual partners of heterosexual men . Penile cancer is rare , with about 1 new case per 100 @,@ 000 people per year in developed countries , and higher incidence rates per 100 @,@ 000 in sub @-@ Saharan Africa ( for example , 1 @.@ 6 in Zimbabwe , 2 @.@ 7 in Uganda and 3 @.@ 2 in Swaziland ) . Penile cancer development can be detected in the carcinoma in situ ( CIS ) cancerous precursor stage and at the more advanced invasive squamous cell carcinoma stage . Childhood or adolescent circumcision is associated with a reduced risk of invasive squamous cell carcinoma in particular . There is an association between adult circumcision and an increased risk of invasive penile cancer ; this is believed to be from men being circumcised as a treatment for penile cancer or a condition that is a precursor to cancer rather than a consequence of circumcision itself . Penile cancer has been observed to be nearly eliminated in populations of males circumcised neonatally .
Important risk factors for penile cancer include phimosis and HPV infection , both of which are mitigated by circumcision . The mitigating effect circumcision has on the risk factor introduced by the possibility of phimosis is secondary , in that the removal of the foreskin eliminates the possibility of phimosis . This can be inferred from study results that show uncircumcised men with no history of phimosis are equally likely to have penile cancer as circumcised men . Circumcision is also associated with a reduced prevalence of cancer @-@ causing types of HPV in men and a reduced risk of cervical cancer ( which is caused by a type of HPV ) in female partners of men . Because penile cancer is rare ( and may get more rare with increasing HPV vaccination rates ) , and circumcision has risks , the practice is not considered to be valuable solely as a prophylactic measure against penile cancer in the United States .
A 2015 meta @-@ analysis found a non @-@ statistically significant reduced risk of prostate cancer associated with circumcision , but that this reduction was significant among blacks and in studies looking at post @-@ PSA and -testing groups .
= = Adverse effects = =
Neonatal circumcision is generally safe when done by an experienced practitioner . The most common acute complications are bleeding , infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin . These complications occur in approximately 0 @.@ 12 % of procedures , and constitute the vast majority of all acute circumcision complications in the United States . Minor complications are reported to occur in three percent of procedures . Severe complications are rare . A specific complication rate is difficult to determine due to scant data on complications and inconsistencies in their classification . Complication rates are greater when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator , in unsterile conditions , or when the child is at an older age . Significant acute complications happen rarely , occurring in about 1 in 500 newborn procedures in the United States . Severe to catastrophic complications , including death , are so rare that they are reported only as individual case reports . Other possible complications include buried penis , chordee , phimosis , skin bridges , urethral fistulas , and meatal stenosis . These complications may be avoided with proper technique , and are most often treatable without requiring a hospital visit .
= = = Pain = = =
The circumcision procedure may carry the risks of heightened pain response for newborns and dissatisfaction with the result . Newborns that experience pain due to being circumcised have different responses to vaccines given afterwards , with higher pain scores observed .
= = = Sexual effects = = =
Circumcision does not appear to decrease the sensitivity of the penis , harm sexual function or reduce sexual satisfaction . A 2013 systematic review found that circumcision did not appear to adversely affect sexual desire , pain with intercourse , premature ejaculation , time until ejaculation , erectile dysfunction or difficulties with orgasm . However , the study found that the existing evidence is not very good . Another 2013 systematic review found that the highest @-@ quality studies reported no adverse effects of circumcision on sexual function , sensitivity , sensation or satisfaction .
= = = Psychological effects = = =
Behavioral effects have been observed following infant circumcision including changes in sleep patterns , irritability , changes in feeding , and parental bonding . Some men who were circumcised as an infant involuntary , described their feelings about the procedure using the terms " violation , torture , mutilation and sexual assault " .
= = Prevalence = =
Circumcision is one of the world 's most widely performed procedures . Approximately 37 % to 39 % of males worldwide are circumcised , about half for religious or cultural reasons . It is most often practiced between infancy and the early twenties . The WHO estimated in 2007 that 664 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 males aged 15 and over were circumcised ( 30 – 33 % global prevalence ) , almost 70 % of whom were Muslim . Circumcision is most prevalent in the Muslim world , Israel , South Korea , the United States and parts of Southeast Asia and Africa . It is relatively rare in Europe , Latin America , parts of Southern Africa and Oceania and most of Asia . Prevalence is near @-@ universal in the Middle East and Central Asia . Non @-@ religious circumcision in Asia , outside of the Republic of Korea and the Philippines , is fairly rare , and prevalence is generally low ( less than 20 % ) across Europe . Estimates for individual countries include Taiwan at 9 % and Australia 58 @.@ 7 % . Prevalence in the United States and Canada is estimated at 75 % and 30 % respectively . Prevalence in Africa varies from less than 20 % in some southern African countries to near universal in North and West Africa .
The rates of routine neonatal circumcision over time have varied significantly by country . In the United States , hospital discharge surveys estimated rates at 64 @.@ 7 % in the year 1980 , 59 @.@ 0 % in the year 1990 , 62 @.@ 4 % in the year 2000 , and 58 @.@ 3 % in the year 2010 . These estimates are lower than the overall circumcision rates , as they do not account for non @-@ hospital circumcisions , or for procedures performed for medical or cosmetic reasons later in life ; community surveys have reported higher neonatal circumcision . Canada has seen a slow decline since the early 1970s , possibly influenced by statements from the AAP and the Canadian Pediatric Society issued in the 1970s saying that the procedure was not medically indicated . In Australia , the rate declined in the 1970s and 80s , but has been increasing slowly as of 2004 . In the United Kingdom , rates are likely to have been 20 – 30 % in the 1940s , but declined in the late 40s . One possible reason may have been a 1949 British Medical Journal article which stated that there was no medical reason for the general circumcision of babies . The overall prevalence of circumcision in South Korea has increased markedly in the second half of the 20th century , rising from near zero around 1950 to about 60 % in 2000 , with the most significant jumps in the last two decades of that time period . This is probably due to the influence of the United States , which established a trusteeship for the country following World War II .
Medical organizations can affect the neonatal circumcision rate of a country by influencing whether the costs of the procedure are borne by the parents or are covered by insurance or a national health care system . Policies that require the costs to be paid by the parents yield lower neonatal circumcision rates . The decline in the rates in the UK is one example ; another is that in the United States , the individual states where insurance or Medicaid covers the costs have higher rates . Changes to policy are driven by the results of new research , and moderated by the politics , demographics , and culture of the communities .
= = History = =
Circumcision is the world 's oldest planned surgical procedure , suggested by anatomist and hyperdiffusionist historian Grafton Elliot Smith to be over 15 @,@ 000 years old , pre @-@ dating recorded history . There is no firm consensus as to how it came to be practiced worldwide . One theory is that it began in one geographic area and spread from there ; another is that several different cultural groups began its practice independently . In his 1891 work History of Circumcision , physician Peter Charles Remondino suggested that it began as a less severe form of emasculating a captured enemy : penectomy or castration would likely have been fatal , while some form of circumcision would permanently mark the defeated yet leave him alive to serve as a slave .
The history of the migration and evolution of the practice of circumcision is followed mainly through the cultures and peoples in two separate regions . In the lands south and east of the Mediterranean , starting with Sudan and Ethiopia , the procedure was practiced by the ancient Egyptians and the Semites , and then by the Jews and Muslims , with whom the practice travelled to and was adopted by the Bantu Africans . In Oceania , circumcision is practiced by the Australian Aborigines and Polynesians . There is also evidence that circumcision was practiced among the Aztec and Mayan civilizations in the Americas , but little detail is available about its history .
= = = Middle East , Africa and Europe = = =
Evidence suggests that circumcision was practiced in the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE , when the Sumerians and the Semites moved into the area that is modern @-@ day Iraq . The earliest historical record of circumcision comes from Egypt , in the form of an image of the circumcision of an adult carved into the tomb of Ankh @-@ Mahor at Saqqara , dating to about 2400 – 2300 BCE . Circumcision was done by the Egyptians possibly for hygienic reasons , but also was part of their obsession with purity and was associated with spiritual and intellectual development . No well @-@ accepted theory explains the significance of circumcision to the Egyptians , but it appears to have been endowed with great honor and importance as a rite of passage into adulthood , performed in a public ceremony emphasizing the continuation of family generations and fertility . It may have been a mark of distinction for the elite : the Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the sun god Ra as having circumcised himself .
Though secular scholars consider the story to be literary and not historical , circumcision features prominently in the Hebrew Bible . The narrative in Genesis chapter 17 describes the circumcision of Abraham and his relatives and slaves . In the same chapter , Abraham 's descendants are commanded to circumcise their sons on the eighth day of life as part of a covenant with God .
In addition to proposing that circumcision was taken up by the Israelites purely as a religious mandate , scholars have suggested that Judaism 's patriarchs and their followers adopted circumcision to make penile hygiene easier in hot , sandy climates ; as a rite of passage into adulthood ; or as a form of blood sacrifice .
Alexander the Great conquered the Middle East in the 4th century BCE , and in the following centuries ancient Greek cultures and values came to the Middle East . The Greeks abhorred circumcision , making life for circumcised Jews living among the Greeks ( and later the Romans ) very difficult . Antiochus Epiphanes outlawed circumcision , as did Hadrian , which helped cause the Bar Kokhba revolt . During this period in history , Jewish circumcision called for the removal of only a part of the prepuce , and some Hellenized Jews attempted to look uncircumcised by stretching the extant parts of their foreskins . This was considered by the Jewish leaders to be a serious problem , and during the 2nd century CE they changed the requirements of Jewish circumcision to call for the complete removal of the foreskin , emphasizing the Jewish view of circumcision as intended to be not just the fulfillment of a Biblical commandment but also an essential and permanent mark of membership in a people .
A narrative in the Christian Gospel of Luke makes a brief mention of the circumcision of Jesus , but the subject of physical circumcision itself is not part of the received teachings of Jesus . Paul the Apostle reinterpreted circumcision as a spiritual concept , arguing the physical one to be no longer necessary . The teaching that physical circumcision was unnecessary for membership in a divine covenant was instrumental in the separation of Christianity from Judaism . Although it is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran ( early 7th century CE ) , circumcision is considered essential to Islam , and it is nearly universally performed among Muslims . The practice of circumcision spread across the Middle East , North Africa and Southern Europe with Islam .
Genghis Khan , and the following Yuan Emperors in China forbade Islamic practices such as halal butchering and circumcision . This led Chinese Muslims to eventually take an active part in rebelling against the Mongols and installing the more tolerant Ming Dynasty .
The practice of circumcision is thought to have been brought to the Bantu @-@ speaking tribes of Africa by either the Jews after one of their many expulsions from European countries , or by Muslim Moors escaping after the 1492 conquest of Spain . In the second half of the 1st millennium CE , inhabitants from the North East of Africa moved south and encountered groups from Arabia , the Middle East and West Africa . These people moved south and formed what is known today as the Bantu . Bantu tribes were observed to be upholding what was described as Jewish law , including circumcision , in the 16th century . Circumcision and elements of Jewish dietary restrictions are still found among Bantu tribes .
= = = Indigenous peoples of Australia , the Pacific and Americas = = =
Circumcision is practised by some groups amongst Australian Aboriginal peoples , Polynesians , and Native Americans . Little information is available about the origins and history of circumcision among these peoples , compared to circumcision in the Middle East .
For Aboriginal Australians and Polynesians , circumcision likely started as a blood sacrifice and a test of bravery , and became an initiation rite with attendant instruction in manhood in more recent centuries . Often seashells were used to remove the foreskin , and the bleeding was stopped with eucalyptus smoke .
Christopher Columbus reported circumcision being practiced by Native Americans . It was also practiced by the Incas , Aztecs , and Mayans . It probably started among South American tribes as a blood sacrifice or ritual mutilation to test bravery and endurance , and its use later evolved into a rite of initiation .
= = = Modern times = = =
Circumcision did not become a common medical procedure in the Anglophone world until the late 19th century . At that time , British and American doctors began recommending it primarily as a deterrent to masturbation . Prior to the 20th century , masturbation was believed to be the cause of a wide range of physical and mental illnesses including epilepsy , paralysis , impotence , gonorrhea , tuberculosis , feeblemindedness , and insanity . In 1855 , motivated in part by an interest in promoting circumcision to reduce masturbation , English physician Jonathan Hutchinson published his findings that Jews had a lower prevalence of certain venereal diseases . While pursuing a successful career as a general practitioner , Hutchinson went on to advocate circumcision for health reasons for the next fifty years , and eventually earned a knighthood for his overall contributions to medicine . In America , one of the first modern physicians to advocate the procedure was Lewis Sayre , a founder of the American Medical Association . In 1870 , Sayre began using circumcision as a purported cure for several cases of young boys diagnosed with paralysis or significant motor problems . He thought the procedure ameliorated such problems based on a " reflex neurosis " theory of disease , which held that excessive stimulation of the genitals was a disturbance to the equilibrium of the nervous system and a cause of systemic problems . The use of circumcision to promote good health also fit in with the germ theory of disease during that time , which saw the foreskin as being filled with infection @-@ causing smegma ( a mixture of shed skin cells and oils ) . Sayre published works on the subject and promoted it energetically in speeches . Contemporary physicians picked up on Sayre 's new treatment , which they believed could prevent or cure a wide @-@ ranging array of medical problems and social ills . Its popularity spread with publications such as Peter Charles Remondino 's History of Circumcision . By the turn of the century , in both America and Great Britain , infant circumcision was near universally recommended .
After the end of World War II , Britain moved to a nationalized health care system , and so looked to ensure that each medical procedure covered by the new system was cost @-@ effective and the procedure for non medical reasons was not covered by the national health care system . Douglas Gairdner 's 1949 article " The Fate of the Foreskin " argued that the evidence available at that time showed that the risks outweighed the known benefits . Circumcision rates dropped in Britain and in the rest of Europe . In the 1970s , national medical associations in Australia and Canada issued recommendations against routine infant circumcision , leading to drops in the rates of both of those countries . The United States made similar statements in the 1970s , but stopped short of recommending against it — simply stating that it has no medical benefit . Since then they have amended their policy statements several times with the current recommendation being that the benefits outweigh the risks , but they do not recommend it routinely .
An association between circumcision and reduced heterosexual HIV infection rates was suggested in 1986 . Experimental evidence was needed to establish a causal relationship , so three randomized controlled trials were commissioned as a means to reduce the effect of any confounding factors . Trials took place in South Africa , Kenya and Uganda . All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards on ethical grounds , because those in the circumcised group had a lower rate of HIV contraction than the control group . Subsequently , the World Health Organization promoted circumcision in high @-@ risk populations as part of an overall program to reduce the spread of HIV , although some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials , prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy . The Male Circumcision Clearinghouse website was formed in 2009 by WHO , UNAIDS , FHI and AVAC to provide current evidence @-@ based guidance , information and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cultures and religions = = =
In some cultures , males are generally required to be circumcised shortly after birth , during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage . Circumcision is commonly practiced in the Jewish and Islamic faiths .
= = = = Judaism = = = =
Circumcision is very important to most branches of Judaism , with over 90 % of adherents having the procedure performed as a religious obligation . The basis for its observance is found in the Torah of the Hebrew Bible , in Genesis chapter 17 , in which a covenant of circumcision is made with Abraham and his descendants . Jewish circumcision is part of the brit milah ritual , to be performed by a specialist ritual circumciser ( a mohel ) on the eighth day of a newborn son 's life ( with certain exceptions for poor health ) . Jewish law requires that the circumcision leave the glans bare when the penis is flaccid . Converts to Conservative and Orthodox Judaism must also be circumcised ; those who are already circumcised undergo a symbolic circumcision ritual . Circumcision is not required by Judaism for one to be considered Jewish , but some adherents foresee serious negative spiritual consequences if it is neglected .
According to traditional Jewish law , in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert , a woman , a slave , or a child , that has the required skills , is also authorized to perform the circumcision , provided that she or he is Jewish . However , most streams of non @-@ Orthodox Judaism allow female mohels , called mohalot ( Hebrew : מוֹהֲלוֹת , plural of מוֹהֶלֶת mohelet , feminine of mohel ) , without restriction . In 1984 , Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform mohelet ; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism .
Some contemporary Jews choose not to circumcise their sons . They are assisted by a small number of Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis , and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the brit shalom ( " Covenant [ of ] Peace " ) for such children , also accepted by Humanistic Judaism .
This ceremony of brit shalom is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations , who make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised , though the issue of converts remains controversial and circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either movement .
= = = = Islam = = = =
Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement , circumcision ( called khitan ) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males . Islam bases its practice of circumcision on the Genesis 17 narrative , the same Biblical chapter referred to by Jews . The procedure is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran , however it is a tradition established by Islam 's prophet Muhammad directly ( following Abraham ) , and so its practice is considered a sunnah ( prophet 's tradition ) and is very important in Islam . For Muslims , circumcision is also a matter of cleanliness , purification and control over one 's baser self ( nafs ) . There is no agreement across the many Islamic communities about the age at which circumcision should be performed . It may be done from soon after birth up to about age 15 ; most often it is performed at around six to seven years of age . The timing can correspond with the boy 's completion of his recitation of the whole Quran , with a coming @-@ of @-@ age event such as taking on the responsibility of daily prayer or betrothal . Circumcision may be celebrated with an associated family or community event . Circumcision is recommended for , but is not required of , converts to Islam .
= = = = Christianity = = = =
The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity does not require circumcision ; Christianity does not forbid it either . The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non @-@ religious circumcision , although in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence . Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage . The Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision , with near @-@ universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia . In South Africa , some Christian churches disapprove of the practice , while others require it of their members .
= = = = African cultures = = = =
Certain African cultural groups , such as the Yoruba and Igbo of Nigeria , customarily circumcise their infant sons . The procedure is also practiced by some cultural groups or individual family lines in the Sudan , Zaire , Uganda and in southern Africa . For some of these groups , circumcision appears to be purely cultural , done with no particular religious significance or intention to distinguish members of a group . For others , circumcision might be done for purification , or it may be interpreted as a mark of subjugation . Among these groups , even when circumcision is done for reasons of tradition , it is often done in hospitals . It is not clear how many deaths and injuries result from traditional circumcisions which occur outside of hospitals .
= = = = Australian cultures = = = =
Some Australian Aborigines use circumcision as a test of bravery and self @-@ control as a part of a rite of passage into manhood , which results in full societal and ceremonial membership . It may be accompanied by body scarification and the removal of teeth , and may be followed later by penile subincision . Circumcision is one of many trials and ceremonies required before a youth is considered to have become knowledgeable enough to maintain and pass on the cultural traditions . During these trials , the maturing youth bonds in solidarity with the men . Circumcision is also strongly associated with a man 's family , and it is part of the process required to prepare a man to take a wife and produce his own family .
= = = Filipino culture = = =
In the Philippines , circumcision known as " tuli " is sometimes viewed as a rite of passage . About 93 % of Filipino men are circumcised .
= = = Ethical and legal issues = = =
There is a long @-@ running and vigorous debate over ethical concerns regarding circumcision , particularly neonatal circumcision for reasons other than intended direct medical benefit . There are three parties involved in the decision to circumcise a minor : the minor as the patient , the parents ( or other guardians ) and the physician . The physician is bound under the ethical principles of beneficence ( promoting well @-@ being ) and non @-@ maleficence ( " first , do no harm " ) , and so is charged with the responsibility to promote the best interests of the patient while minimizing unnecessary harms . Those involved must weigh the factors of what is in the best interest of the minor against the potential harms of the procedure .
With a newborn involved , the decision is made more complex due to the principles of respect for autonomy and consent , as a newborn cannot understand or engage in a logical discussion of his own values and best interests . A mentally more mature child can understand the issues involved to some degree , and the physician and parents may elicit input from the child and weigh it appropriately in the decision @-@ making process , although the law may not treat such input as legally informative . Ethicists and legal theorists also state that it is questionable for parents to make a decision for the child that precludes the child from making a different decision for himself later . Such a question can be raised for the decision by the parents either to circumcise or not to circumcise the child .
Generally , circumcision on a minor is not ethically controversial or legally questionable when there is a clear and pressing medical indication for which it is the accepted best practice to resolve . Where circumcision is the chosen intervention , the physician has an ethical responsibility to ensure the procedure is performed competently and safely to minimize potential harms . Worldwide , most legal jurisdictions do not have specific laws concerning the circumcision of males , but infant circumcision is considered legal under the existing laws in countries such as Australia , Canada , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States . A few countries have passed legislation on the procedure : Germany allows non @-@ therapeutic circumcision , while routine neonatal circumcision is illegal in Finland , and non @-@ religious routine circumcision is illegal in South Africa and Sweden .
Throughout society , circumcision is often considered for reasons other than medical need . Public health advocates of circumcision consider it to have a net benefit , and therefore feel that increasing the circumcision rate is an ethical imperative . They recommend performing the procedure during the neonatal period , when it is less expensive and has a lower risk of complications . While studies show there is a modest epidemiological benefit to circumcision , critics argue that the number of circumcisions that would have be performed would yield an overall negative public health outcome due to the resulting number of complications or other negative effects ( such as pain ) . Pinto ( 2012 ) writes " sober proponents and detractors of circumcision agree that there is no overwhelming medical evidence to support either side . " This type of cost @-@ benefit analysis is highly dependent on the kinds and frequencies of health problems in the population under discussion and how circumcision affects those health problems .
Parents are assumed to have the child 's best interests in mind . Ethically , it is imperative that the medical practitioner inform the parents about the benefits and risks of the procedure and obtain informed consent before performing it . Practically , however , many parents come to a decision about circumcising the child before he is born , and a discussion of the benefits and risks of the procedure with a physician has not been shown to have a significant effect on the decision . Some parents request to have their newborn or older child circumcised for non @-@ therapeutic reasons , such as the parents ' desires to adhere to family tradition , cultural norms or religious beliefs . In considering such a request , the physician may consider ( in addition to any potential medical benefits and harms ) such non @-@ medical factors in determining the child 's best interests and may ethically perform the procedure . Equally , without a clear medical benefit relative to the potential harms , a physician may take the ethical position that non @-@ medical factors do not contribute enough as benefits to outweigh the potential harms and refuse to perform the procedure . Medical organization such as the British Medical Association state that their member physicians are not obliged to perform the procedure in such situations .
The German Academy for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine ( Deutsche Akademie für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V. , DAKJ ) recommend against routine non @-@ medical infant circumcision .
= = = Economic considerations = = =
The cost @-@ effectiveness of circumcision has been studied to determine whether a policy of circumcising all newborns or a policy of promoting and providing inexpensive or free access to circumcision for all adult men who choose it would result in lower overall societal healthcare costs . As HIV / AIDS is an incurable disease that is expensive to manage , significant effort has been spent studying the cost @-@ effectiveness of circumcision to reduce its spread in parts of Africa that have a relatively high infection rate and low circumcision prevalence . Several analyses have concluded that circumcision programs for adult men in Africa are cost @-@ effective and in some cases are cost @-@ saving . In Rwanda , circumcision has been found to be cost @-@ effective across a wide range of age groups from newborn to adult , with the greatest savings achieved when the procedure is performed in the newborn period due to the lower cost per procedure and greater timeframe for HIV infection protection . Circumcision for the prevention of HIV transmission in adults has also been found to be cost @-@ effective in South Africa , Kenya and Uganda , with cost savings estimated in the billions of US dollars over 20 years . Hankins et al . ( 2011 ) estimated that a $ 1 @.@ 5 billion investment in circumcision for adults in 13 high @-@ priority African countries would yield $ 16 @.@ 5 billion in savings .
The overall cost @-@ effectiveness of neonatal circumcision has also been studied in the United States , which has a different cost setting from Africa in areas such as public health infrastructure , availability of medications , and medical technology and the willingness to use it . A study by the CDC suggests that newborn circumcision would be societally cost @-@ effective in the United States based on circumcision 's efficacy against the heterosexual transmission of HIV alone , without considering any other cost benefits . The American Academy of Pediatrics ( 2012 ) recommends that neonatal circumcision in the United States be covered by third @-@ party payers such as Medicaid and insurance . A 2014 review that considered reported benefits of circumcision such as reduced risks from HIV , HPV , and HSV @-@ 2 stated that circumcision is cost effective in both the United States and Africa and may result in health care savings . However , A 2014 literature review found that there are significant gaps in the current literature on male and female sexual health that need to be addressed for the literature to be applicable to North American populations .
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= Liverpool Town Hall =
Liverpool Town Hall stands in High Street at its junction with Dale Street , Castle Street , and Water Street in Liverpool , Merseyside , England . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and described in the list as " one of the finest surviving 18th @-@ century town halls " . The authors of the Buildings of England series refer to its " magnificent scale " , and consider it to be " probably the grandest ... suite of civic rooms in the country " , and " an outstanding and complete example of late Georgian decoration " .
It is not an administrative building but a civic suite , Lord Mayor 's parlour and Council chamber ; local government administration is centred at the nearby Municipal Buildings . The town hall was built between 1749 and 1754 to a design by John Wood the Elder replacing an earlier town hall nearby . An extension to the north designed by James Wyatt was added in 1785 . Following a fire in 1795 the hall was largely rebuilt and a dome designed by Wyatt was built . Minor alterations have subsequently been made . The streets surrounding its site have altered since its initiation , notably when viewed from Castle Street , the south @-@ side , it appears as off @-@ centre . This is because Water Street which ran to the junction with Dale Street , the west @-@ east axis , was continuous and built up across the junction so that the Town Hall was not visible originally from that aspect . The structures were removed 150 years after this to expose the building from this position .
The ground floor contains the city 's Council Chamber and a Hall of Remembrance for the Liverpool servicemen killed in the First World War . The upper floor consists of a suite of lavishly decorated rooms which are used for a variety of events and functions . Conducted tours of the building are arranged for the general public , and the hall is licensed for weddings .
= = History = =
The first recorded town hall in Liverpool was in 1515 and it was probably a thatched building . It was replaced in 1673 by a building slightly to the south of the present town hall . This town hall stood on " pillars and arches of hewen stone " and under it was the exchange for merchants and traders to carry out their business .
Building of the present town hall began in 1749 on a site slightly to the north of its predecessor ; its foundation stone was laid on 14 September . The architect was John Wood the Elder , who has been described as " one of the outstanding architects of the day " . It was completed and opened in 1754 . The ground floor acted as the exchange , and a council room and other offices were on the upper floor . The ground floor had a central courtyard surrounded by Doric colonnades but it was " dark and confined , and the merchants preferred to transact business in the street outside " . Above the building was a large square dome with a cupola . The Town Hall was bombarded by striking seamen during the 1775 Liverpool Seamen 's Revolt .
The very last act of the American Civil War was when Captain Waddell walked up the steps of Town Hall in November 1865 with a letter to present to the mayor surrendering his vessel , the CSS Shenandoah , to the British government .
Improvements began in 1785 with an extension to the north designed by James Wyatt . Buildings close to the west and north sides were demolished , and John Foster prepared plans for the west façade . In 1786 Wood 's square dome was demolished and plans were made by Wyatt for a new dome over the central courtyard . In 1795 , before the new dome was built , the hall was seriously damaged by a fire . Wyatt 's north extension was not significantly damaged , but Wood 's original building was gutted . The building was reconstructed and Wyatt 's new dome was added . The work was supervised by Foster and completed in 1802 . Under the dome the central courtyard was replaced with a hall containing a staircase . In 1811 a portico was added to the south side . The construction and decoration of the interior was completed by about 1820 .
In 1881 an attempt to blow up the town hall by the Fenians was aborted . In 1899 – 1900 the portico on the south face was rebuilt and extended , and the northern extension was enlarged to form a recess in the Council Chamber for the Lord Mayor 's chair . In 1921 a room on the ground floor was made into the Hall of Remembrance to commemorate the military men from Liverpool who died in the First World War . Part of the building was damaged in the Liverpool Blitz of 1941 ; this restored after the end of the Second World War . Further restoration was carried out between 1993 and 1995 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The town hall is built of stone with a slate roof and a lead dome . Its plan consists of a rectangle with a portico extending to the south and Wyatt 's rectangular extension to the north . The extension is slightly narrower than the rest of the building , and also has a projecting portico . The building has two storeys and a basement ; the stonework of the basement and lower storey is rusticated . The south face , overlooking Castle Street , has nine bays . Its central three bays are occupied by the portico . This has three rounded arches on the ground floor , and four pairs of Corinthian columns in the upper storey surrounding a balcony . The east and west faces also have nine bays in the original part of the building , plus an additional three bays to the north on Wyatt 's extension . The middle three bays of the nine original bays project slightly forward and are surmounted by a pediment . The roof of the north face is higher than that of the main building . This face has five bays , with a central portico of three bays . On its first floor are four pairs of Corinthian columns and standing on the roof above these are four statues dating from 1792 by Richard Westmacott ; these statues have been moved from the Irish Houses of Parliament . Above the upper storey windows on all faces are panels containing carvings , some of which relate to Liverpool 's foreign trade . The dome stands on a high drum supported on Corinthian columns . Around the base of the dome are four clock faces , each of which is supported by a lion and unicorn . On the summit of the dome is a statue , representing Minerva . It is 10 feet ( 3 m ) high and was designed by John Charles Felix Rossi .
= = = Interior = = =
= = = = Ground floor = = = =
The main door in the south face leads to the Vestibule or Entrance Hall . It has a floor of encaustic tiles which include depictions of the arms of Liverpool and the liver bird .
The room is panelled and on the east side is a large wooden fireplace containing 17th @-@ century Flemish carvings . It has a groin @-@ vaulted ceiling , and in the lunettes are murals painted in 1909 depicting events in Liverpool 's history . Below these are brass tablets containing the names of the freemen of Liverpool . Also in the entrance hall are bardic chairs from the two Eisteddfods held in the city .
At the rear of the ground floor in Wyatt 's extension is the Council Chamber . This has mahogany @-@ panelled walls and can seat 160 people . Adjacent to the Council Chamber is the Hall of Remembrance . On its wall are panels bearing the names of the military men who lost their lives in the First World War , and eight murals painted by Frank O. Salisbury in 1923 .
In the centre of the ground floor is the Staircase Hall described in the Buildings of England series as " one of the great architectural spaces of Liverpool " . A broad staircase rises between two pairs of Corinthian columns to a half @-@ landing , and narrower flights climb from that on each side to the upper floor . On the ground floor on each side of the staircase are display cabinets holding the city 's silver . On the half @-@ landing is a statue of George Canning dated 1832 by Francis Chantrey , and hanging on the wall above this is a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Sir Edward Halliday .
Above the staircase the dome is carried by four pendentives ; it rises to a height of 106 feet ( 32 m ) and its interior is coffered . Around the base of the dome is inscribed Liverpool 's motto , " Deus Nobis Haec Otia Fecit " , and in the pendentives are paintings dated 1902 by Charles Wellington Furse depicting scenes of dock labour .
= = = = Upper floor = = = =
All the rooms on this floor are designed for entertainment and they have connecting doors that allow for a complete circuit of the floor . The middle room on the south side of the building is the Central Reception Room . It has a circular ceiling with pendentives , and plasterwork in neoclassical style designed by Francesco Bernasconi . The room leads to the balcony overlooking Castle Street . A door to the right leads to the West Reception Room , with a segmented @-@ vaulted ceiling ; it contains a marble chimneypiece with brass and cast iron fittings . This room leads to the Dining Room which occupies the west side of the building . It has been described as " the most sumptuous room in the building " . Around the room are Corinthian pilasters . The plaster ceiling has moulded compartments , and under these is a frieze decorated with scrolls , urns and crouching dogs . The roundels between the capitals of the pilasters contain paintings of pairs of cupids .
The next room on the circuit is a small room which leads into the Large Ballroom . This occupies the whole of Wyatt 's north extension and measures 89 feet ( 27 m ) by 42 feet ( 13 m ) ; the ceiling is 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . Around the room are Corinthian pilasters and on each of the shorter walls is a massive mirror . In the south wall is a niche for musicians , over which is a coffered semi @-@ dome ; on each side of this is a white marble chimneypiece . Hanging from the ceiling are " three of the finest Georgian chandeliers in Europe " ; each is 28 feet ( 9 m ) high , contains 20 @,@ 000 pieces of cut glass crystal , and weighs over one ton . They were made in Staffordshire in 1820 . The floor is a maple sprung dance floor . Most of the east side of the hall is occupied by the Small Ballroom , also known as the East Reception Room or Music Room . This room is surrounded by pilasters and at each end is a shallow apse ; the apse in the north wall has two niches for musicians . Suspended from the ceiling are three 19th @-@ century chandeliers . Completing the circuit is the East Reception Room , similar in style to the West Reception Room . The rooms contain a number of portraits ; one of these is of James Maury , America 's first consul .
= = Current use and surroundings = =
The city council meets every seven weeks in the Council Chambers to conduct the business of the city . The town hall is open to the general public each month when conducted tours take place . The hall is licensed for weddings and , in addition to providing a venue for the ceremony , catering facilities can be supplied for a reception or a meal . Catering is also available for other events and functions .
Immediately to the north of the Town Hall is a paved square known as Exchange Flags ; this is surrounded on all sides by modern office buildings . In the square is the Nelson Monument , celebrating the achievements of Horatio Nelson . It is a Grade II * listed building and is the earliest surviving public monument in the city .
= = Gallery = =
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= The International ( 2009 film ) =
The International is a 2009 German – American political thriller drama film directed by Tom Tykwer . The film follows an Interpol agent and an American district attorney who investigate corruption within the IBBC , a fictional merchant bank based in Luxembourg . It serves organized crime and corrupt governments as a banker and as an arms broker . The bank 's ruthless managers assassinate potential threats including their own employees .
Inspired by the Bank of Credit and Commerce International ( BCCI ) scandal of the 1980s , the film 's script , written by Eric Warren Singer , raises concerns about how global finance affects international politics across the world . Production began in Berlin in September 2008 , including the construction of a life @-@ size replica of the Guggenheim Museum in New York for the film 's climactic shoot @-@ out scene . The film opened the 59th Berlin International Film Festival on 5 February 2009 . Reviews were mixed : some praised the sleek appearance and prescient themes — The Guardian called it a thriller with " brainpower as well as firepower " — but The New Yorker criticised the development of the characters .
= = Plot = =
Louis Salinger , of Interpol , and Eleanor Whitman , an Assistant District Attorney from Manhattan , are investigating the International Bank of Business and Credit ( IBBC ) , which funds activities such as money laundering , terrorism , arms trading , and the destabilization of governments . Salinger 's and Whitman 's investigation takes them from Berlin to Milan , where the IBBC assassinates Umberto Calvini , an arms manufacturer who is an Italian prime ministerial candidate . The bank 's assassin diverts suspicion to a local assassin with political connections , who is promptly killed by a corrupt policeman . Salinger and Whitman get a lead on the second assassin , but the corrupt policeman shows up again and orders them out of the country . At the airport they are able to check the security camera footage for clues on the whereabouts on the bank 's assassin , and follow a suspect to New York .
In New York , Salinger and Whitman are met by two New York Police Department ( NYPD ) detectives , Iggy Ornelas and Bernie Ward , who have a photograph of the assassin 's face when he arrived in New York airport . Salinger , Ornelas , and Ward locate Dr. Isaacson to whose practice the assassin 's leg brace has been traced . They find the assassin and follow him to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum .
Jonas Skarssen , the chairman of the IBBC , reveals to his senior men White and Wexler that the bank had Calvini killed so that they could deal with his sons to buy missile guidance systems in which the bank has invested . Since the bank knows that Salinger and Whitman are close to finding their assassin , they send a hit team to kill him at a meeting between him and his handler , Wexler . Wexler leaves and is arrested by Ornelas . As Salinger speaks to the assassin , a spectacular gunfight at the Guggenheim erupts when a number of gunmen attempt to kill them with automatic weapons . They escape , but the assassin is mortally wounded .
In interrogation , Wexler , a former Stasi colonel , explains to Salinger that the IBBC is practically untouchable because of its utility to terrorist organizations , drug cartels , governments , and powerful corporations of all complexions . Even if he succeeds in bringing the IBBC down there are hundreds of other banks which will replace them . If Salinger wants justice , he needs to go outside the system , and Wexler indicates a willingness to help . In Italy , Salinger tells the Calvini brothers of the IBBC 's responsibility for their father 's murder , prompting them to cancel the deal with the bank and have White killed .
Salinger then accompanies Wexler to Istanbul , where Skarssen is buying the crucial components from their only other manufacturer . Salinger attempts to record the conversation so that he can obstruct the deal by proving to the buyers that the missiles will be useless , but he ultimately fails . Both Wexler and Skarssen are then killed by a hitman contracted by Enzo and Mario Calvini to avenge their father 's murder by the bank . Salinger is left stunned , his investigation , pursuit , and determination to bring down the IBBC , have led him to nothing .
During the closing credits , it is indicated that the bank is successfully continuing with its operations despite the death of its Chairman — as Skarssen had predicted to Salinger before he was killed . However with the new and more aggressive chairman , it is hinted that the IBBC 's increased expansion and aggression will ultimately lead to its downfall , as shown by the last panel , revealing the beginnings of a United States Senate investigation , headed by Whitman .
= = Cast = =
Clive Owen as Louis Salinger
Naomi Watts as Eleanor Whitman
Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl as Wilhelm Wexler
Ulrich Thomsen as Jonas Skarssen
Brían F. O 'Byrne as The Consultant
Michel Voletti as Viktor Haas
Patrick Baladi as Martin White
Jay Villiers as Francis Ehames
Fabrice Scott as Nicolai Yeshinski
Haluk Bilginer as Ahmet Sunay
Luca Barbareschi as Umberto Calvini
Alessandro Fabrizi as Inspector Alberto Cerutti
Felix Solis as Detective Iggy Ornelas
Jack McGee as Detective Bernie Ward
Nilaja Sun as Detective Gloria Hubbard
Steven Randazzo as Al Moody
Tibor Feldman as Dr. Isaacson
James Rebhorn as New York D.A.
Remy Auberjonois as Sam Purvitz
Ian Burfield as Thomas Schumer
Axel Milberg as Klaus Diemer
Ben Whishaw as Rene Antall
= = Production = =
The screenplay was written by Eric Warren Singer after he developed an interest in the banking scandals from the 1980s and 90s , he was looking for " a paranoid thriller vibe " from that period ; " The Godfather III was really the only film up to this point that dealt with the banking scandals , because it was really gangster warfare on a corporate level , and I thought that was the best part of the film . " Later reviewers compared it directly to The Parallax View ( 1974 ) and All The President 's Men ( 1976 ) . Ridley Scott initially expressed an interest in directing the film , and the studio agreed to finance the project , only for Scott to drop out . A year later Tom Tykwer got involved through his agent , but decided a contemporary setting would work better . In April 2007 , Clive Owen agreed to perform in The International . He said the script interested him because he was reminded of " those ' 70s paranoia pictures " and because it combined a factual , intelligent basis with an international thriller plot . The following July , actress Naomi Watts was cast opposite Owen . In August , the film received US $ 5 @.@ 4 million from the German Federal Film Fund toward its budget . The following month its funding increased to $ 7 @.@ 9 million , based on the board 's assessment that two @-@ thirds of The International would be produced in Germany and that a number of Germans were in important roles , such as actors Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl and Axel Milberg , cinematographer Frank Griebe , and production designer Uli Hanisch . Filming began in Berlin on 10 September 2007 . Part of the production took place in Babelsberg Studios .
Clive Owen called the shoot @-@ out scene " one of the most exquisitely executed sequences I 've been involved in " . Tom Tykwer planned the scene in detail and toured the museum with the principals months in advance . The lobby entrance scene was filmed in the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York , but for the shooting sequences a one hundred and eighteen foot wide , life @-@ size replica , including an audio visual exhibition with works of Julian Rosefeldt , was built in Germany . This set was too large for the studio , so it was instead built in a disused locomotive warehouse outside Berlin ; its construction took ten weeks . Having filmed in the real museum interior and on the sound stage in Germany , the film crew had to track the lights and camera angles carefully throughout to ensure continuity . The scene includes a sequence in which the protagonist sends a huge art @-@ chandelier hanging from the ceiling crashing to the ground ; the entire stunt was created using computer generated imagery .
= = Themes = =
Clive Owen , discussing the film 's relevance , said it " ultimately does ask questions about whether banks use people 's money appropriately , and if they 're completely sound institutions . " More baldly put , Philip French , reviewing the film in The Observer , surmised the sentiment as " Let 's kill all the bankers " , a modern day version of Dick the Butcher 's " First thing we do , let 's kill all the lawyers " from Shakespeare 's Henry the Sixth , Part II . Salinger 's ( Owen ) central revelation is that the world is governed by anonymous forces , staffed by disposable individuals . The powerlessness of the ordinary citizen is symbolised by the huge , impersonal buildings that the villains inhabit .
The film draws on a number of macabre incidents from international banking : the Bank of Credit and Commerce International crisis in 1991 , the murder of Roberto Calvi , an alleged banker to the Sicilian Mafia , in London in 1982 , and the assassination by poisoning of Georgi Markov in London in 1978 . The bank is making large loans to rogue states and simultaneously acting as their munitions broker . The script offers the chilling insight that the creditors are the real winners of any conflict . A.O. Scott commented on the opportunity to make a film critical of international finance , " that multinational weapons manufacturers can be portrayed as more decent , civic @-@ minded and principled than global financiers surely says something about the state of the world . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The International was first screened on 5 February 2009 at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival and was released in the United States and Canada on 13 February 2009 . In a six @-@ week run in America , it earned $ 25 million at the box office . It was released in Australia on 19 February and the United Kingdom on 27 February 2009 . Its total theatrical earnings worldwide were $ 60 @,@ 161 @,@ 391 .
It was released in France under the title " L 'Enquête " ( " The Investigation " ) on 11 March 2009 , it earned € 264 @,@ 054 during a three @-@ week theatrical release .
Reviewers called the film " topical " and " remarkably prescient " , due to its release just after the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 during the start of the Great Recession . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the United States on 9 June 2009 . It contains a digital copy for portable devices .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The International has received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Based on a sample of 201 reviews the film has a 59 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes and has been certified " Rotten " . The consensus statement reads " The International boasts some electric action sequences and picturesque locales , but is undone by its preposterous plot . " Metacritic gives the film a 52 % rating based on 34 reviews .
In his review for The Guardian , Peter Bradshaw wrote , " I felt occasionally that Owen 's rumpled performance is in danger of becoming a little one @-@ note ... but this is still an unexpectedly well – made thriller with brainpower as well as firepower " . Philip French , in his review for The Observer , called the film a " slick , fast @-@ moving conspiracy thriller " and the gunfight in the Guggenheim " spectacular " . In his review for The Independent , Anthony Quinn wrote , " It 's reasonably efficient , passably entertaining , and strenuously playing catch @-@ up with the Bourne movies : flat @-@ footed Owen doesn 't look as good as Matt Damon sprinting through city streets , and the editing doesn 't match Paul Greengrass 's whiplash pace " . The New Yorker magazine 's David Denby wrote , " And there 's a big hole in the middle of the movie : the director , Tom Tykwer , and the screenwriter , Eric Warren Singer , forgot to make their two crusaders human beings " . In his review for The New York Post , Lou Lumenick wrote , " There , an anticlimactic rooftop chase reminds us that Tykwer , the German director who reinvented the Euro thriller with Run , Lola , Run a decade ago , has been far surpassed by Paul Greengrass and the Bourne adventures , yet thankfully lacking the rampant and nonsensical roller @-@ coaster style of editing , where no shot lingers for longer than a nano @-@ second . " . A.O. Scott , in his review for The New York Times , wrote , " The International , in contrast , is so undistinguished that the moments you remember best are those that you wish another , more original director had tackled " . Citing the climatic shoot @-@ out in the Guggenheim , hailed by other critics as spectacular , Scott wonders if another , such as Brian de Palma could have " turned into a fugue of architectural paranoia " ?
In his review for the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Turan wrote , " It 's got some effective moments and aspects , but the film goes in and out of plausibility , and its elements never manage to unify into a coherent whole " . Claudia Puig , in her review for USA Today , wrote , " The dialogue by screenwriter Eric Warren Singer is spotty . There are some great , pithy lines and others whose attempt at profundity ring false " . Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and wrote , " Clive Owen makes a semi @-@ believable hero , not performing too many feats that are physically unlikely . He 's handsome and has the obligatory macho stubble , but he has a quality that makes you worry a little about him " . Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " B – " rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote , " the star of the pic may well be NYC 's Guggenheim Museum and Istanbul 's Grand Bazaar , both of which figure in cool action chase sequences that pay handsome dividends " .
The film earned an average rating of three stars from five from French critics according to AlloCiné . Le Monde , which gave the film one star , said that the modern , destructive forces of political fantasy and derivative finance which power the film 's plot should have created sparks , " but in reality , the film trudges along . While the film constituted a thrilling geographic tour of the genre tropes , it forgot to focus on characters and mood . "
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= 68 @-@ pounder gun =
The 68 @-@ pounder cannon was an artillery piece designed and used by the British Armed Forces in the mid @-@ 19th century . The cannon was a smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading gun manufactured in several weights , the most common being 95 long cwt ( 4 @,@ 800 kg ) , and fired projectiles of 68 lb ( 31 kg ) . Colonel William Dundas designed the 112 cwt version in 1841 and it was cast the following year . The most common variant , weighing 95 cwt , dates from 1846 . It entered service with the Royal Artillery and the Royal Navy and saw active service with both arms during the Crimean War . Over 2 @,@ 000 were made and it gained a reputation as the finest smoothbore cannon ever made .
The gun was produced at a time when new rifled and breech loading guns were beginning to make their mark on artillery . At first the 68 @-@ pounder 's reliability and power meant that it was retained even on new warships such as HMS Warrior , but eventually new rifled muzzle loaders made all smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns obsolete . However , the large surplus stocks of 68 @-@ pounders were given new life when converted to take rifled projectiles ; the cannon remained in service and was not declared obsolete until 1921 .
= = Design = =
The cannon was designed in response to the need for heavier weaponry as armour on ships of the line improved . Colonel William Dundas , the government 's Inspector of Artillery between 1839 and 1852 , designed the cannon in 1846 . It was cast by the Low Moor Iron Works in Bradford in 1847 and entered service soon after . Like numerous cannon before it , it was a cast iron smoothbore loaded from the muzzle . The cannon was relatively cheap to produce – the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom estimated that each cannon cost approximately £ 167 . ( 2010 : £ 12645 ) . Over 2000 were cast before 1861 and its exceptional durability , range and accuracy earned it a reputation as the finest smoothbore cannon ever made .
= = Operation = =
The gun was a traditional muzzleloader ; it needed to be loaded from the end of the barrel . Before it could be loaded the bore of the barrel was cleaned with a sponge , after which a propellant charge ( gunpowder in a cloth bag ) was rammed down into the breech . This was followed by a projectile , often encased in wadding . The gun was primed ( using a metal spike inserted through the vent that pierced the charge ) , and fired using a percussion cap ( which ignited the charge and forced the projectile out of the barrel ) .
The 68 @-@ pounder had an effective range of approximately 3 @,@ 000 yd ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , however at its maximum elevation of 15 degrees it had a maximum range of 3 @,@ 620 yd ( 3 @,@ 310 m ) , a distance that the projectile would cover in 15 seconds . With a 16 lb ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) powder charge ( the " far " charge , although the gun was proofed to 25 lb charges ) the cannon fired a 68 lb ( 31 kg ) solid shot at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) .
The cannon could fire solid shot , explosive shells , grapeshot , case shot and " Martins Liquid Iron Shell " ( thin walled shells filled with molten iron , intended to serve as heated shot ) . Although the cannon 's barrel bore was 8 @.@ 12 inches ( 20 @.@ 6 cm ) , both shot and shells were 7 @.@ 92 inches ( 20 @.@ 1 cm ) in diameter . This allowed a windage gap of 0 @.@ 1 in ( 0 @.@ 25 cm ) around the projectile ; enough to aid the loading process , but not enough to seriously diffuse the propellant gasses .
The official weight of the shot was listed at 68 lbs but in reality this varied according to the material of the shot itself ; cast iron shot weighed 67 lb ( 30 kg ) , wrought iron shot and steel shot weighed 72 lb ( 33 kg ) , and chilled steel weighed 68 lb 8 oz ( 31 @.@ 1 kg ) . It was estimated that one 68 @-@ pound shot had the destructive power equivalent to five 32 @-@ pound shot . The explosive shells were primed with 4 lb ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) of gunpowder . They were fitted with simple fuses that were ignited by the flash of the charge – early wooden fuses were eventually replaced by more reliable fuses designed by Captain Edward Boxer in 1849 . The gun crew still had to gauge the best length of fuse for the range they were firing – ideally the shell should explode just before hitting its target . To prevent the shell exploding in the barrel it was fitted with a sabot to ensure the fuse faced away from the charge .
On land a minimum crew of nine men ( usually commanded by a non @-@ commissioned officer ) was required to fire the gun , which was normally mounted on a traversing gun carriage . On board a ship the gun crew could be doubled to 18 men who needed to traverse the gun carriage by hand , using hand spikes and rope tackles . The extra crew was on account of the fact that sailing ships usually only fired their cannon from one side of the deck . In the unlikely event of both sides being in action at once , nine men would be detached to man the gun opposite . In both cases the gun was elevated using wooden wedges driven under the breech of the barrel by brute force . It was aimed using an advanced hexagonal sighting mechanism marked with the elevation on one face and the gun 's range ( according to different weights of cartridge charges ) on the other five faces .
= = Service = =
The cannon was put to use both on land and at sea . It was fitted to numerous Royal Navy warships of different sizes such as HMS Queen , Odin , Victor Emmanuel , Sepoy and the Conqueror @-@ class ships of the line . Several of these ships saw action during the Crimean War where the 68 @-@ pounder was used extensively during the Siege of Sevastopol . Along with 32 @-@ pounders and Lancaster guns they were taken from their ship mountings and dragged up to siege batteries by the Naval Brigade , from where they regularly bombarded Russian positions for the next year . The cannon was also fitted in large numbers to the Aetna @-@ class ironclad floating batteries , although these had little impact on the war .
Most notably the 68 @-@ pounder was fitted to the Warrior @-@ class ironclads Warrior and Black Prince . Originally it was intended to fit forty 68 @-@ pounders , primarily on one gun deck , but this specification changed during their building and they were finally equipped with twenty @-@ six 68 @-@ pounders ( 13 on each side ) . Alongside these , the ships were equipped with new rifled breech loading Armstrong guns of two types ; 7 inch and 40 pounders . Although the Armstrong guns represented a new direction in artillery , the breech loading mechanism meant that they were unable to withstand the explosion of a heavy cartridge . Smaller cartridge charges were therefore required and the gun 's muzzle velocity suffered as a result . Ironically the Armstrong Guns were therefore incapable of penetrating the armour fitted to the Warrior @-@ class ships , while the 68 @-@ pounder ( with its high muzzle velocity ) could . As late as 1867 it was planned to fit the new Plover @-@ class gunvessels with 68 @-@ pounders , but they were instead completed with a RML 7 inch gun and a RML 64 pounder 64 cwt gun .
On land the 68 @-@ pounder was used extensively in British coastal defences constructed during the 1850s - notably at forts like Gomer and Elson defending Portsmouth , and Forts Victoria , Albert and Freshwater Redoubt defending the Needles Passage . The 1859 Royal Commission envisaged arming the numerous new forts they proposed with the 68 @-@ pounder cannon and costed for them accordingly . The introduction of the Armstrong gun initially led many to think that weapon would be used instead , but whilst the forts were being built , the Armstrong gun 's weaknesses were exposed and the military reverted to using muzzle loaded weapons . However , the advantages of rifling and the Armstrong 's wrought iron construction were retained , leading to a new design of artillery piece – rifled muzzle loaders .
= = Conversion to rifled muzzle loader = =
The introduction of rifled muzzle loaders ( also classed as RMLs ) rendered smoothbore guns largely obsolete . However , the 68 @-@ pounder and other smoothbores still existed in large numbers and various attempts were made to adapt the guns to fire new projectiles . Eventually Captain William Palliser patented a method of boring out the gun barrel and inserting a wrought iron rifled liner . This allowed rifled shot and shells to be fired from old smoothbore cannon and experiments revealed that it made them even more powerful than they had been before . Introduced in 1872 , 68 @-@ pounders adapted in this way had a calibre of 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 16 @.@ 00 cm ) and were known as a RML 68 @-@ pounder , or officially as the RML 80 @-@ pounder 5 ton . With a 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) powder charge they could fire an 80 lb ( 36 kg ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 240 feet per second ( 380 m / s ) . They were deployed as coast defence and garrison artillery around the British Empire and remained in service until eventually declared obsolete in 1921 .
At least two 68 pounders were converted to 7 inch 6 @.@ 5 tons RML guns firing a 115 lb or 150 lb double shot .
= = Surviving examples = =
Southsea Castle
Fort Nelson , Hampshire , Royal Amouries Collection
Bradleys Head , Sydney Harbour , Australia
Flagstaff Hill Fort , NSW , Australia
Two guns at Port Fairy , Victoria , Australia - from Flickr
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= Attributed arms =
Attributed arms are Western European coats of arms given retrospectively to persons real or fictitious who died before the start of the age of heraldry in the latter half of the 12th century . Arms were assigned to the knights of the Round Table , and then to biblical figures , to Roman and Greek heroes , and to kings and popes who had not historically borne arms ( Pastoreau 1997a , 258 ) . Each author could attribute different arms for the same person , but the arms for major figures soon became fixed .
Notable arms attributed to biblical figures include the arms of Jesus based on the instruments of the Passion , and the shield of the Trinity . Medieval literature attributed coats of arms to the Nine Worthies , including Alexander the Great , Julius Caesar , and King Arthur . Arms were given to many kings predating heraldry , including Edward the Confessor and William I of England . These attributed arms were sometimes used in practice as quarterings in the arms of their descendants .
= = History = =
Attributed or imaginary arms appeared in literature in the middle of the 12th century , particularly in Arthurian legends . During the generation following Chrétien de Troyes , about 40 of Arthur 's knights had attributed coats of arms ( Pastoreau 1997a , 259 ) . A second stage of development occurred during the 14th and 15th centuries when Arthurian arms expanded to include as many as 200 attributed coats of arms .
During the same centuries , rolls of arms included invented arms for kings of foreign lands ( Neubecker , 30 ) . Around 1310 , Jacques de Longuyon wrote the Voeux de Paon ( " Vows of the Peacock " ) , which included a list of nine famous leaders . This list , divided into three groups of three , became known in art and literature as the Nine Worthies ( Loomis 1938 , 37 ) . Each of the Nine Worthies were given a coat of arms . King David , for instance , was assigned a gold harp as a device ( Neubecker , 172 ) .
Once coats of arms were the established fashion of the ruling class , society expected a king to be armigerous ( Loomis 1922 , 26 ) . In such an era , it was " natural enough to consider that suitable armorial devices and compositions should be assigned to men of mark in earlier ages " ( Boutell , 18 ) . Each author could attribute different arms for the same person , although regional styles developed , and the arms for major figures soon became fixed ( Turner , 415 ) .
Some attributed arms were incorporated into the quarterings of their descendants ' arms . The quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton , for instance , include numerous arms originally attributed to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier ( Neubecker , 94 ) . In a similar vein , arms were attributed to Pope Leo IX based on the later arms of his family 's descendants ( Turner , 415 ) .
In the 16th and 17th centuries , additional arms were attributed to a large number of saints , kings and popes , especially those from the 11th and 12th centuries . Pope Innocent IV ( 1243 – 1254 ) is the first pope whose personal coat of arms is known with certainty ( Pastoreau 1997a , 283 – 284 ) . By the end of the 17th century , the use of attributed arms became more restrained ( Neubecker , 224 ) .
The tinctures and charges attributed to an individual in the past provide insight into the history of symbolism ( Pastoreau 1997b , 87 ) .
= = Arthurian heraldry = =
In the Arthurian legends , each knight of the Round Table is often accompanied by a heraldic description of a coat of arms . Although these arms could be arbitrary , some characters were traditionally associated with one coat or a few different coats .
King Arthur was assigned many different arms , but from the 13th century , he was most commonly given three gold crowns on an azure field ( Loomis 1938 , 38 ) . In a 1394 manuscript depicting the Nine Worthies , Arthur is shown holding a flag with three gold crowns ( Neubecker , 172 ) . The reason for the triple @-@ crown symbol is unknown , but it was associated with other pre @-@ Norman kings , with the seal of Magnus II of Sweden , with the relics of the Three Wise Men in Cologne ( which led to the three crowns in the seal of the University of Cologne ) , and with the grants of Edward I of England to towns which were symbolized by three crowns in the towns ' arms . The number of crowns increased to eleven , thirteen and even thirty at times ( Brault , 44 – 46 ) .
Other arms were associated with Arthur . In a manuscript from the later 13th century , Arthur 's shield has three gold leopards , a likely heraldic flattery of Edward I of England ( Brault , 22 ) . Geoffrey of Monmouth assigned Arthur a dragon on his helmet and standard , which is possibly canting arms on Arthur 's father 's name , Uther Pendragon ( Brault , 23 ) . Geoffrey also assigned Arthur a shield with an image of the Virgin Mary ( Brault , 24 ) . An illustration of the latter by D. Endean Ivall , based on the battle flag described by Nennius ( a cross and the Virgin Mary ) and including the motto " King Arthur is not dead " in Cornish , can be found on the cover of W. H. Pascoe ’ s 1979 A Cornish Armory .
Other characters in the Arthurian legends are described with coats of arms . Lancelot starts with plain white arms but later receives a shield with three bends gules signifying the strength of three men ( Brault 47 ) . Tristran was attributed a variety of arms . His earliest arms , a gold lion rampant on red field , are shown in a set of 13th @-@ century tiles found in Chertsey Abbey ( Loomis 1915 , 308 ) . Thomas of Britain in the 12th century attributed these arms ( Loomis 1938 , 47 ) in what is believed to be heraldic flattery of his patron , either Richard I or Henry II , whose coats of arms contained some form of lion ( Loomis 1922 , 26 ) . In other versions the field is not red , but green . Gottfried von Strassburg attributed to Tristan a silver shield with a black boar rampant ( Loomis 1922 , 24 ; Loomis 1938 , 49 ) . In Italy , however , he was attributed geometric patterns ( argent a bend gules per Loomis 1938 , 59 ) .
= = = Plain arms = = =
The Arthurian legends contain numerous instances of red knights , black knights or green knights challenging the knights of the Round Table . In most cases , the color was chosen at random and has no symbolic significance ( Brault , 29 ) . Such arms of one tincture create an atmosphere . Plain arms were rare in the 12th century , and were used in literature to suggest a primitive heraldry of a time long past . Geoffrey of Monmouth noted with favor that in the Arthurian age , worthy knights used arms of one color , suggesting 12th century heraldic ornamentation was partly pretence ( Brault , 29 ) .
Plain arms also often function as a disguise for major characters . In the Chrétien de Troyes ' Lancelot , the Knight of the Cart , Lancelot bears plain red arms as a disguise . The hero of Cligès competes in a jousting tournament with plain black , green , and red arms on three successive days ( Brault , 30 ) .
= = Kings = =
Arms were attributed to important pre @-@ heraldic kings . Among the best known are those assigned to the King of the Franks , who was given three toads . The three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis of France supposedly derive from these ( Neubecker , 225 ) .
William the Conqueror , the first Norman king of England , had a coat of arms with two lions . Richard the Lionheart used such a coat of arms with two lions on a red field ( Loomis 1938 , 47 ) , from which the three lions of the coat of arms of England derive . However , there is no proof that William 's arms were not attributed to William after his death ( Boutell , 18 ) .
The earlier Saxon Kings were assigned a gold cross on a blue shield , but this did not exist until the 13th century . The arms of Saint Edward the Confessor , a blue shield charged with a gold cross and five gold birds , appears to have been suggested by heralds in the time of Henry III of England ( Boutell , 18 ) based on a coin minted in Edward 's reign ( Neubecker , 30 ) . These arms were later used by Richard II of England out of devotion to the saint ( Fraser , 44 ) .
Arms were attributed to the kingdoms of the Anglo @-@ Saxon heptarchy . The Kingdom of Essex , for instance , was assigned a red shield with three notched swords ( or " seaxes " ) . This coat was used by the counties of Essex and Middlesex until 1910 , when the Middlesex County Council applied for a formal grant from the College of Arms ( The Times , 1910 ) . Middlesex was granted a red shield with three notched swords and a " Saxon Crown " . The Essex County Council was granted the arms without the crown in 1932 .
Even the kings of Rome were assigned arms , with Romulus , the first King of Rome signified by the she @-@ wolf ( Neubecker , 224 – 225 ) .
Flags were also attributed . While the King of Morocco was attributed three rooks as arms , which are therefore canting arms ( Neubecker , 224 ) , the whole chessboard was shown in some sources , resulting in the 14th @-@ century checkered version of the Flag of Morocco ( see Flags of the World , 2007 ) .
= = Religious figures = =
= = = Jesus and Mary = = =
Heralds could have attributed to Jesus the harp for arms inherited as a descendant of David . Nevertheless , the cross was regarded as Christ 's emblem , and it was so used by the Crusaders . Sometimes the arms of Christ feature a Paschal lamb as the principal charge . By the 13th century , however , numerous indulgences had brought increased veneration for the instruments of the Passion . These instruments were described in heraldic terms and treated as personal to Christ much as a coat of arms ( Dennys , 96 ) . An early example in a seal from c . 1240 includes the Cross , nails , lance , crown of thorns , sponge and whips .
The instruments of the Passion were sometimes split between a shield and crest in the form of an achievement of arms ( Neubecker , 222 ) . The Hyghalmen Roll ( c . 1447 – 1455 ) shows Christ holding an azure shield charged with Veronica 's Veil proper . The heraldry continues with the 15th century jousting helmet , which is covered by the seamless robe as a form of mantling , and the Cross , scepter ( of mockery ) and flagellum ( whip ) as crest . The banner 's long red schwenkel is a mark of eminence in German heraldry , but it was omitted when this image was copied into Randle Holme 's Book ( c . 1464 – 1480 ) . The image on the opposing page ( shown above ) includes a shield quartered with the five Wounds of Christ , three jars of ointment , two rods , and the head of Judas Iscariot with a bag of money ( Dennys , 97 – 98 ) .
While Christ was associated with the images of the Passion , Mary was associated with images from the prophecy of Simeon the Righteous ( Luke 2 : 34 – 35 ) ; the resulting attributed arms include a winged heart pierced with a sword and placed on a blue field ( Dennys , 102 ) . Mary is also attributed a group of white lily flowers . An example can be found on the lower part of the coat of arms of the College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor ( Dennys , 103 ) .
= = = Trinity and angels = = =
Out of a desire to make the abstract visible , arms were also attributed to the unseen spirits ( Neubecker , 222 ; Dennys , 93 ) . Because anthropomorphic representations of the Trinity were discouraged by the Church during the Middle Ages ( Dennys , 95 ) , the Shield of the Trinity quickly became popular . It was often used in decorating not only churches , but theological manuscripts and rolls of arms . An early example from William Peraldus ' Summa Vitiorum ( c . 1260 ) shows a knight battling the seven deadly sins with this shield . A variation included with the shields of arms in Matthew Paris ' Chronica Majora ( c.1250 – 1259 ) adds a cross between the center and bottom circles , accompanied by the words " v 'bu caro f 'm est " ( verbum caro factum est , " the word was made flesh " ; John 1 : 14 ) ( Dennys , 94 ) .
Saint Michael the Archangel appears often in heraldic settings . In one case , the device from the shield of the Trinity is placed on a blue field and attributed to St. Michael ( Dennys , 95 ) . More usually , he is shown in armour with a red cross on a white shield , slaying the devil depicted as a dragon . These attributed arms were later transferred to Saint George ( Dennys , 109 ) .
Heraldry also attributed to Satan , as the commanding general of the fallen angels , arms to identify him in the heat of battle . The Douce Apocalypse portrays him carrying a red shield with a gold fess , and three frogs ( based on Revelation 16 : 13 ) ( Dennys , 112 ) .
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= Tuatara =
Tuatara are reptiles endemic to New Zealand and which , although resembling most lizards , are part of a distinct lineage , the order Rhynchocephalia . Their name derives from the Māori language , and means " peaks on the back " . The single species of tuatara is the only surviving member of its order , which flourished around 200 million years ago . Their most recent common ancestor with any other extant group is with the squamates ( lizards and snakes ) . For this reason , tuatara are of great interest in the study of the evolution of lizards and snakes , and for the reconstruction of the appearance and habits of the earliest diapsids ( the group that also includes dinosaurs ( which include birds ) and crocodilians ) .
Tuatara are greenish brown and gray , and measure up to 80 cm ( 31 in ) from head to tail @-@ tip and weigh up to 1 @.@ 3 kg ( 2 @.@ 9 lb ) with a spiny crest along the back , especially pronounced in males . Their dentition , in which two rows of teeth in the upper jaw overlap one row on the lower jaw , is unique among living species . They are even more unusual in having a pronounced photoreceptive eye , the " third eye " , which is thought to be involved in setting circadian and seasonal cycles . They are able to hear , although no external ear is present , and have a number of unique features in their skeleton , some of them apparently evolutionarily retained from fish . Although tuatara are sometimes called " living fossils " , recent anatomical work has shown that they have changed significantly since the Mesozoic era . While mapping its genome , researchers have discovered that the species has between five and six billion base pairs of DNA sequence .
The tuatara Sphenodon punctatus has been protected by law since 1895 . A second species , S. guntheri , was recognised in 1989 but since 2009 its use has been discontinued . Tuatara , like many of New Zealand 's native animals , are threatened by habitat loss and introduced predators , such as the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) . They were extinct on the mainland , with the remaining populations confined to 32 offshore islands , until the first mainland release into the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Sanctuary in 2005 .
During routine maintenance work at Karori Sanctuary in late 2008 , a tuatara nest was uncovered , with a hatchling found the following autumn . This is thought to be the first case of tuatara successfully breeding on the New Zealand mainland in over 200 years , outside of captive rearing facilities .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Tuatara , along with other , now extinct members of the order Sphenodontia , belong to the superorder Lepidosauria , the only surviving taxon within Lepidosauromorpha . Squamates and tuatara both show caudal autotomy ( loss of the tail @-@ tip when threatened ) , and have transverse cloacal slits . The origin of the tuatara probably lies close to the split between the Lepidosauromorpha and the Archosauromorpha . Though tuatara resemble lizards , the similarity is superficial , because the family has several characteristics unique among reptiles . The typical lizard shape is very common for the early amniotes ; the oldest known fossil of a reptile , the Hylonomus , resembles a modern lizard .
Tuatara were originally classified as lizards in 1831 when the British Museum received a skull . The genus remained misclassified until 1867 , when Albert Günther of the British Museum noted features similar to birds , turtles , and crocodiles . He proposed the order Rhynchocephalia ( meaning " beak head " ) for the tuatara and its fossil relatives .
Many disparately related species were subsequently added to the Rhynchocephalia , resulting in what taxonomists call a " wastebasket taxon " . Williston proposed the Sphenodontia to include only tuatara and their closest fossil relatives in 1925 . Sphenodon is derived from the Greek for " wedge " ( σφήν , σφηνός / sphenos ) and " tooth " ( ὀδούς , ὀδόντος / odontos ) .
Tuatara have been referred to as living fossils , which means they retain many basal characteristics from around the time of the squamate – rhynchocephalian split ( 220 MYA ) . However , taxonomic work on Sphenodontia has shown this group has undergone a variety of changes throughout the Mesozoic , and a March 2008 molecular study showed their rate of molecular evolution has been the fastest of any animal yet examined . Many of the niches occupied by lizards today were then held by sphenodontians . There was even a successful group of aquatic sphenodontians known as pleurosaurs , which differed markedly from living tuatara . Tuatara show cold weather adaptations that allow them to thrive on the islands of New Zealand ; these adaptations may be unique to tuatara since their sphenodontian ancestors lived in the much warmer climates of the Mesozoic .
A species of sphenodontine is known from the Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna . Whereas it is refereable to Sphenodon proper is not entirely clear , but is assumed to be closely related to tuataras .
= = = Species = = =
The two extant species are Sphenodon punctatus , or Northern tuatara , and the much rarer Sphenodon guntheri , or Brothers Island tuatara , which is confined to North Brother Island in Cook Strait . The specific name punctatus is Latin for " spotted " , and guntheri refers to German @-@ born British herpetologist Albert Günther . S. punctatus was named when only one species was known , and its name is misleading , since both species can have spots . The Brother 's Island tuatara ( S. guntheri ) has olive brown skin with yellowish patches , while the colour of the other species , ( S. punctatus ) , ranges from olive green through grey to dark pink or brick red , often mottled , and always with white spots . In addition , S. guntheri is considerably smaller . A third , extinct species of Sphenodon was identified in November 1885 by William Colenso , who was sent an incomplete sub @-@ fossil specimen from a local coal mine . Colenso named the new species S. diversum . Sphenodon punctatus is further divided into two subspecies : the Cook Strait tuatara ( unnamed subspecies ) , which lives on other islands in and near Cook Strait , and the northern tuatara ( Sphenodon punctatus punctatus ) , which lives on the Bay of Plenty , and some islands further north . A 2009 paper re @-@ examined the genetic bases used to distinguish the two species of tuatara , and concluded they only represent geographic variants , and only one species should be recognized .
= = Description = =
The tuatara is considered the most unspecialised living amniote ; the brain and mode of locomotion resemble those of amphibians and the heart is more primitive than that of any other reptile . The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . Both species are sexually dimorphic , males being larger . Adult S. punctatus males measure 61 cm ( 24 in ) in length and females 45 cm ( 18 in ) . The San Diego Zoo even cites a length of up to 80 cm ( 31 in ) . Males weigh up to 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , and females up to 0 @.@ 5 kg ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) . Brother 's Island tuatara are slightly smaller , weighing up to 660 g ( 1 @.@ 3 lb ) .
The tuatara 's greenish brown colour matches its environment , and can change over its lifetime . Tuatara shed their skin at least once per year as adults , and three or four times a year as juveniles . Tuatara sexes differ in more than size . The spiny crest on a tuatara 's back , made of triangular , soft folds of skin , is larger in males , and can be stiffened for display . The male abdomen is narrower than the female 's .
= = = Skull = = =
In the course of evolution , the skull has been modified in most diapsids from the original version evident in the fossil record . However , all the original features are preserved in that of the tuatara ; it has two openings ( temporal fenestra ) on each side of the skull , with complete arches . In addition , the upper jaw is firmly attached to the skull . This makes for a very rigid , inflexible construction . Testudines ( turtle and tortoise ) skulls , which lack any temporal fenestra ( anapsid condition ) , are sometimes considered to be the most primitive among amniotes , though evidence strongly indicates they may have lost the temporal holes rather than never having had them .
The tip of the upper jaw is beak @-@ like and separated from the remainder of the jaw by a notch . There is a single row of teeth in the lower jaw and a double row in the upper , with the bottom row fitting perfectly between the two upper rows when the mouth is closed . This specific tooth arrangement is not seen in any other reptile ; although most snakes have a double row of teeth in their upper jaws , their arrangement and function is different from the tuatara 's . The jaws , joined by ligament , chew with backwards and forwards movements combined with a shearing up and down action . The force of the bite is suitable for shearing chitin and bone . Fossils indicate that this jaw structure began developing about 180 million years ago . The tuatara 's teeth are not replaced , since they are not separate structures like real teeth , but sharp projections of the jaw bone . As their teeth wear down , older tuatara have to switch to softer prey such as earthworms , larvae , and slugs , and eventually have to chew their food between smooth jaw bones . The brain of Sphenodon fills only half of the volume of its endocranium . This proportion has actually been used by paleontologists trying to estimate the volume of dinosaur brains based on fossils . However , the proportion of the tuatara endocranium occupied by its brain may not be a very good guide to the same proportion in Mesozoic dinosaurs since modern birds are surviving dinosaurs but have brains which occupy a much greater relative volume within the endocranium .
= = = Sensory organs = = =
The eyes can focus independently , and are specialized with a duplex retina that contains two types of visual cells for both day and night vision , and a tapetum lucidum which reflects onto the retina to enhance vision in the dark . There is also a third eyelid on each eye , the nictitating membrane .
The tuatara has a third eye on the top of its head called the parietal eye . It has its own lens , cornea , retina with rod @-@ like structures , and degenerated nerve connection to the brain , suggesting it evolved from a real eye . The parietal eye is only visible in hatchlings , which have a translucent patch at the top centre of the skull . After four to six months , it becomes covered with opaque scales and pigment . Its purpose is unknown , but it may be useful in absorbing ultraviolet rays to produce vitamin D , as well as to determine light / dark cycles , and help with thermoregulation . Of all extant tetrapods , the parietal eye is most pronounced in the tuatara . It is part of the pineal complex , another part of which is the pineal gland , which in tuatara secretes melatonin at night . Some salamanders have been shown to use their pineal bodies to perceive polarised light , and thus determine the position of the sun , even under cloud cover , aiding navigation .
Together with turtles , the tuatara has the most primitive hearing organs among the amniotes . There is no eardrum and no earhole , and the middle ear cavity is filled with loose tissue , mostly adipose ( fatty ) tissue . The stapes comes into contact with the quadrate ( which is immovable ) , as well as the hyoid and squamosal . The hair cells are unspecialized , innervated by both afferent and efferent nerve fibres , and respond only to low frequencies . Though the hearing organs are poorly developed and primitive with no visible external ears , they can still show a frequency response from 100 to 800 Hz , with peak sensitivity of 40 dB at 200 Hz .
= = = Spine and ribs = = =
The tuatara spine is made up of hourglass @-@ shaped amphicoelous vertebrae , concave both before and behind . This is the usual condition of fish vertebrae and some amphibians , but is unique to tuatara within the amniotes .
The tuatara has gastralia , rib @-@ like bones also called gastric or abdominal ribs , the presumed ancestral trait of diapsids . They are found in some lizards , where they are mostly made of cartilage , as well as crocodiles and the tuatara , and are not attached to the spine or thoracic ribs . The true ribs are small projections , with small , hooked bones , called uncinate processes , found on the rear of each rib . This feature is also present in birds . The tuatara is the only living tetrapod with well @-@ developed gastralia and uncinate processes .
In the early tetrapods , the gastralia and ribs with uncinate processes , together with bony elements such as bony plates in the skin ( osteoderms ) and clavicles ( collar bone ) , would have formed a sort of exoskeleton around the body , protecting the belly and helping to hold in the guts and inner organs . These anatomical details most likely evolved from structures involved in locomotion even before the vertebrates ventured onto land . The gastralia may have been involved in the breathing process in early amphibians and reptiles . The pelvis and shoulder girdles are arranged differently from those of lizards , as is the case with other parts of the internal anatomy and its scales .
= = = Tail and back = = =
The spiny plates on the back and tail of the tuatara resemble those of a crocodile more than a lizard , but the tuatara shares with lizards the ability to break off its tail when caught by a predator , and then regenerate it .
= = Behaviour = =
Adult tuatara are terrestrial and nocturnal reptiles , though they will often bask in the sun to warm their bodies . Hatchlings hide under logs and stones , and are diurnal , likely because adults are cannibalistic . Tuatara thrive in temperatures much lower than those tolerated by most reptiles , and hibernate during winter . They remain active at temperatures as low as 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) , while temperatures over 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) are generally fatal . The optimal body temperature for the tuatara is from 16 to 21 ° C ( 61 to 70 ° F ) , the lowest of any reptile . The body temperature of tuatara is lower than that of other reptiles , ranging from 5 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 41 @.@ 4 – 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) over a day , whereas most reptiles have body temperatures around 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The low body temperature results in a slower metabolism .
Burrowing seabirds such as petrels , prions , and shearwaters share the tuatara 's island habitat during the birds ' nesting seasons . The tuatara use the birds ' burrows for shelter when available , or dig their own . The seabirds ' guano helps to maintain invertebrate populations on which tuatara predominantly prey ; including beetles , crickets , and spiders . Their diets also consist of frogs , lizards , and bird 's eggs and chicks . The eggs and young of seabirds that are seasonally available as food for tuatara may provide beneficial fatty acids . Tuatara of both sexes defend territories , and will threaten and eventually bite intruders . The bite can cause serious injury . Tuatara will bite when approached , and will not let go easily .
= = Reproduction = =
Tuatara reproduce very slowly , taking 10 to 20 years to reach sexual maturity . Mating occurs in midsummer ; females mate and lay eggs once every four years . During courtship , a male makes his skin darker , raises his crests , and parades toward the female . He slowly walks in circles around the female with stiffened legs . The female will either submit , and allow the male to mount her , or retreat to her burrow . Males do not have a penis ; they reproduce by the male lifting the tail of the female and placing his vent over hers . The sperm is then transferred into the female , much like the mating process in birds .
Tuatara eggs have a soft , parchment @-@ like shell . It takes the females between one and three years to provide eggs with yolk , and up to seven months to form the shell . It then takes between 12 and 15 months from copulation to hatching . This means reproduction occurs at two- to five @-@ year intervals , the slowest in any reptile . Wild tuatara are known to be still reproducing at about 60 years of age ; " Henry " , a male tuatara at Southland Museum in Invercargill , New Zealand , became a father ( possibly for the first time ) on 23 January 2009 , at the age of 111 .
The sex of a hatchling depends on the temperature of the egg , with warmer eggs tending to produce male tuatara , and cooler eggs producing females . Eggs incubated at 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) have an equal chance of being male or female . However , at 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , 80 % are likely to be males , and at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , 80 % are likely to be females ; at 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) all hatchlings will be females . Some evidence indicates sex determination in tuatara is determined by both genetic and environmental factors .
Tuatara probably have the slowest growth rates of any reptile , continuing to grow larger for the first 35 years of their lives . The average lifespan is about 60 years , but they can live to be well over 100 years old . Some experts believe that captive tuatara could live as long as 200 years .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Distribution and threats = = =
Tuatara were once widespread on New Zealand 's main North and South Islands , where subfossil remains have been found in sand dunes , caves , and Māori middens . Wiped out from the main islands before European settlement , they were long confined to 32 offshore islands free of mammals . The islands are difficult to get to , and are colonised by few animal species , indicating that some animals absent from these islands may have caused tuatara to disappear from the mainland . However , kiore ( Polynesian rats ) had recently become established on several of the islands , and tuatara were persisting , but not breeding , on these islands . Additionally , tuatara were much rarer on the rat @-@ inhabited islands .
The recent discovery of a tuatara hatchling on the mainland indicates that attempts to re @-@ establish a breeding population on the New Zealand mainland have had some success . The total population of tuatara is estimated to be greater than 60 @,@ 000 , but less than 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Eradication of rats = = =
Tuatara were removed from Stanley , Red Mercury and Cuvier Islands in 1990 and 1991 , and maintained in captivity to allow Polynesian rats to be eradicated on those islands . All three populations bred in captivity , and after successful eradication of the rats , all individuals , including the new juveniles , were returned to their islands of origin . In the 1991 – 92 season , Little Barrier Island was found to hold only eight tuatara , which were taken into in situ captivity , where females produced 42 eggs , which were incubated at Victoria University . The resulting offspring were subsequently held in an enclosure on the island , then released into the wild in 2006 after rats were eradicated there .
In the Hen and Chicken Islands , Pacific rats were eradicated on Whatupuke in 1993 , Lady Alice Island in 1994 , and Coppermine Island in 1997 . Following this program , juveniles have once again been seen on the latter three islands . In contrast , rats persist on Hen Island of the same group , and no juvenile tuatara had been seen there as of 2001 . In the Alderman Islands , Middle Chain Island holds no tuatara , but it is considered possible for rats to swim between Middle Chain and other islands that do hold tuatara , and the rats were eradicated in 1992 to prevent this . Another rodent eradication was carried out on the Rangitoto Islands east of D 'Urville Island , to prepare for the release of 432 Cook Strait tuatara juveniles in 2004 , which were being raised at Victoria University as of 2001 .
= = = = Brothers Island tuatara = = = =
Sphenodon guntheri is present naturally on one small island with a population of approximately 400 . In 1995 , 50 juvenile and 18 adult Brothers Island tuatara were moved to Titi Island in Cook Strait , and their establishment monitored . Two years later , more than half of the animals had been seen again and of those all but one had gained weight . In 1998 , 34 juveniles from captive breeding and 20 wild @-@ caught adults were similarly transferred to Matiu / Somes Island , a more publicly accessible location within Wellington Harbour . The captive juveniles were from induced layings from wild females .
In late October 2007 , 50 tuatara collected as eggs from North Brother Island and hatched at Victoria University were being released onto Long Island in the outer Marlborough Sounds . The animals had been cared for at Wellington Zoo for the last five years and have been kept in secret in a specially built enclosure at the zoo , off display .
There is another out of country population of Brothers Island tuatara that was given to the San Diego Zoological Society and is housed off @-@ display at the San Diego Zoo facility in Balboa . No successful reproductive efforts have been reported yet .
= = = = Northern tuatara = = = =
Sphenodon punctatus naturally occurs on 29 islands , and its population is estimated to be over 60 @,@ 000 individuals . In 1996 , 32 adult northern tuatara were moved from Moutoki Island to Moutohora . The carrying capacity of Moutohora is estimated at 8 @,@ 500 individuals , and the island could allow public viewing of wild tuatara . In 2003 , 60 northern tuatara were introduced to Tiritiri Matangi Island from Middle Island in the Mercury group . They are occasionally seen sunbathing by visitors to the island .
A mainland release of S. punctatus occurred in 2005 in the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Sanctuary . The second mainland release took place in October 2007 , when a further 130 were transferred from Stephens Island to the Karori Sanctuary . In early 2009 , the first recorded wild @-@ born offspring were observed .
= = = Captive breeding = = =
The first successful breeding of Tuatara in captivity is believed to have achieved by Sir Algernon Thomas ( 1857 @-@ 1937 ) at either his University offices or residence in Symonds Street in the late 1880s or his new home , Trewithiel , in Mount Eden in the early 1890s .
Several tuatara breeding programmes are active within New Zealand . Southland Museum and Art Gallery in Invercargill was the first institution to have a tuatara breeding programme ; they breed S. punctatus .
Hamilton Zoo , Auckland Zoo and Wellington Zoo also breed tuatara for release into the wild . At Auckland Zoo in the 1990s it was discovered that the temperature at which the eggs are incubated determines the sex of the animal .
The Victoria University of Wellington maintains a research programme into the captive breeding of tuatara , and the Pukaha Mount Bruce Wildlife Centre keeps a pair and a juvenile .
The WildNZ Trust has a tuatara breeding enclosure at Ruawai . One notable captive breeding success story took place in January 2009 , when all 11 eggs belonging to 110 @-@ year @-@ old tuatara Henry and 80 @-@ year @-@ old tuatara Mildred hatched . This story is especially remarkable as Henry required surgery to remove a cancerous tumour in order to successfully breed .
In January 2016 Chester Zoo announced that they succeeded in breeding the tuatara in captivity first time outside its homeland .
= = Cultural significance = =
Tuatara feature in a number of indigenous legends , and are held as ariki ( God forms ) . Tuatara are regarded as the messengers of Whiro , the god of death and disaster , and Māori women are forbidden to eat them . Tuatara also indicate tapu ( the borders of what is sacred and restricted ) , beyond which there is mana , meaning there could be serious consequences if that boundary is crossed . Māori women would sometimes tattoo images of lizards , some of which may represent tuatara , near their genitals . Today , tuatara are regarded as a taonga ( special treasure ) .
The tuatara was featured on one side of the New Zealand five @-@ cent coin , which was phased out in October 2006 . Tuatara was also the name of the Journal of the Biological Society of Victoria University College and subsequently Victoria University of Wellington , published from 1947 until 1993 . It has now been digitised by the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre , also at Victoria .
= = = Institutions that keep live tuatara = = =
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= 2006 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2006 Atlantic hurricane season was significantly less active than the record previous season . It marked the first season since 2001 in which no hurricanes made landfall in the United States , and was the first since 1994 in which no tropical cyclones formed during October . Following the intense activity of 2005 , forecasters predicted that the 2006 season would be only slightly less active . Instead activity was slowed by a rapidly forming moderate El Niño event , the presence of the Saharan Air Layer over the tropical Atlantic , and the steady presence of a robust secondary high pressure area to the Azores high centered on Bermuda . There were no tropical cyclones after October 2 .
Tropical Storm Alberto was indirectly responsible for two deaths when it made landfall in Florida . Hurricane Ernesto caused heavy rainfall in Haiti , and directly killed at least seven in Haiti and the United States . Four hurricanes formed after Ernesto , including the strongest storms of the season , Hurricanes Helene and Gordon . In total , the season was responsible for 14 deaths and $ 500 million ( 2006 USD ; $ 587 million 2016 USD ) in damage . The calendar year 2006 also saw Tropical Storm Zeta , which arose in December 2005 and persisted until early January , only the second such event on record . The storm can be considered a part of the 2005 and 2006 seasons , although it occurred outside the June 1 – November 30 period during which most Atlantic basin tropical cyclones form .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts Philip J. Klotzbach , Dr. William M. Gray , and their associates at Colorado State University ; and separately by NOAA forecasters .
Klotzbach 's team ( formerly led by Gray ) has defined the average number of storms per season ( 1950 – 2000 ) as 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , and 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms exceeding Category 3 strength in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 6 – 14 named storms , with 4 – 8 of those reaching hurricane strength , and 1 – 3 major hurricanes .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 5 , 2005 , Klotzbach 's team issued its initial extended @-@ range forecast for the 2006 season , predicting an above average of 17 named storms , nine of them hurricanes , and five classified as Category 3 intensity or higher .
As in the 2005 season , the team predicted it was highly probable that at least one major hurricane would directly impact the United States . The forecast suggested an 81 % probability that at least one major hurricane would strike the U.S. mainland , a 64 % chance of at least one major hurricane striking the East Coast of the United States ( including the Florida peninsula ) , and a 47 % chance of at least one major hurricane striking the Gulf Coast of the United States from the Florida Panhandle westward . The team also predicted that the potential for major hurricane activity in the Caribbean was above average . A few months later , on April 4 , 2006 , CSU issued another forecast confirming its December predictions .
On May 22 , 2006 , NOAA released its pre @-@ season forecast for the 2006 season . The prediction was for 13 – 16 named storms , 8 – 10 of those becoming hurricanes , and 4 – 6 becoming major hurricanes .
On May 31 , 2006 , Klotzbach 's team released its final pre @-@ season forecast for 2006 , confirming its earlier prediction .
= = = Midseason outlooks = = =
On August 3 , 2006 , Klotzbach 's team lowered its season estimate to 15 named storms , with 7 becoming hurricanes and 3 becoming major hurricanes , noting that conditions had become less favorable for storms than they had been earlier in the year . The sea @-@ level pressure and trade wind strength in the tropical Atlantic were reported to be above normal , while sea surface temperature anomalies were on a decreasing trend .
On August 8 , 2006 , NOAA revised its season estimate to 12 – 15 named storms , with 7 – 9 becoming hurricanes and 3 – 4 becoming major hurricanes . The reduction was attributed to less favorable environmental conditions , a decrease in La Niña conditions , and the lack of a " very persistent upper @-@ level ridge pattern over the eastern U.S. and western Atlantic . "
On September 1 , Klotzbach 's team also revised its season estimate , to 13 named storms , 5 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes , citing a larger volume of the Saharan Air Layer and an El Niño trend in the Pacific . The team again reduced the number of tropical storms expected for the season a month later , on October 3 , with an updated forecast of 11 named storms , 6 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes , citing the ongoing El Niño .
= = Season summary = =
Tropical Storm Zeta formed on December 30 , 2005 , and lasted until January 6 , 2006 . Although the majority of its existence was spent in 2006 , it is officially a storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season because that is the year in which it formed . Zeta joined Hurricane Alice as only the second North Atlantic tropical cyclone in recorded history to span two calendar years .
The season started on June 1 , 2006 , and officially ended on November 30 , 2006 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cylones form in the Atlantic basin . Ten days into the start of the season , Tropical Storm Alberto developed in the Caribbean Sea , and after four months of activity , Hurricane Isaac dissipated on October 3 south of Newfoundland . Compared to the devastating 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , 2006 was not severe in terms of deaths and damage . Three tropical storms made landfall in the United States . The first of them , Tropical Storm Alberto , made landfall in Florida with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , causing flooding and light damage . Tropical Storm Beryl made landfall on Nantucket , but left little impact . The third and more significant storm was Hurricane Ernesto , which killed two people in Virginia and two in Florida , as well as causing $ 500 million in damage ( 2006 USD ) . During the season , only one tropical cyclone in the Atlantic – Alberto – affected Mexico . Canada was affected by several tropical cyclones during 2006 , including Alberto , the unnamed storm , Beryl , Florence , and Isaac .
On June 20 , an upper @-@ level disturbance formed east of the Bahamas and moved westward across the islands . Between June 24 and 26 , areas of convection developed occasionally , and a low @-@ level disturbance formed . The system turned northward and upon reaching the Gulf Stream on June 27 , it began to mature . It made landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina and moved northeastward along the U.S. East Coast . The storm contributed to severe and deadly flooding in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . While the NHC did not operationally classify it , data from reconnaissance aircraft , NEXRAD weather radar , and surface observations suggest it may have met the criteria for a tropical cyclone .
The National Hurricane Center 's pre @-@ season activity outlook predicted 13 – 16 named storms , 8 – 10 hurricanes and 4 – 6 major hurricanes . They also predicted a high risk of at least one major hurricane strike to the Southeast United States . In the event , only ten storms formed during the season , the lowest number since the 1997 season , when there were seven . Five of the ten storms developed into hurricanes — also the lowest number since 1997 — and only two attained major hurricane status , tying with 2002 for the fewest since 1997 . Only one named storm was observed during October , the lowest number since 1994 , when none were seen during that month . Additionally , only three named storms made landfall in the United States , the fewest since 2001 . Because of several factors , including a rapidly forming El Niño event , the Saharan Air Layer over the tropical Atlantic and the presence of a high pressure area to the Azores high situated near Bermuda , it contributed to a below average season . Also , sea surface temperatures in the western Atlantic were just at or slightly below average . In contrast , sea surface temperatures during the 2005 season were well above average .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 79 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alberto = = =
On June 10 , an area of disturbed weather associated with a broad low pressure area off the coast of Belize organized over the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea into the first tropical depression of the season . It dropped light rainfall in Mexico , with a 24 @-@ hour total peaking at 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Peto , Yucatán . Southwesterly vertical wind shear initially prevented significant development , but as it moved closer to Florida , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm on June 11 . Passing over the warm , deep water of the Loop Current allowed accelerated development , and the cyclone reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , just shy of hurricane strength . Subsequent weakening occurred as it moved over the cooler waters of the continental shelf , and Alberto made landfall near Adams Beach , Florida , on June 14 with winds of about 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Losing its tropical characteristics , Alberto moved northeastward and produced heavy rainfall in South Carolina and North Carolina . The remnants tracked off the East Coast and transitioned into a powerful extratropical storm which affected Nova Scotia with high winds , heavy rain , and rough surf , leaving four fisherman missing offshore .
Alberto caused record rainfall in North Carolina , peaking at eight in ( 200 mm ) . In Florida , two people died , and damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) . Later , the storm left four sailors missing about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Nova Scotia .
= = = Unnamed Tropical Storm = = =
A cold front exited the eastern United States on July 13 and subsequently stalled over the western Atlantic Ocean . It decayed and dissipated , leaving behind two areas of low pressure . The southern area near North Carolina became Tropical Storm Beryl , and the northern system became an extratropical low on July 16 south @-@ southeast of Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Moving northeastward over warm waters , the system separated itself from the dissipating front later that day . Convection developed near the center , and the system transitioned into a tropical depression early on July 17 about 240 miles ( 390 km ) southeast of Nantucket , Massachusetts . Accelerating northeastward , the depression intensified into a tropical storm six hours later . Banding features became prominent , and after continued strengthening , the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) late on July 17 , while located about 245 miles ( 395 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . Shortly thereafter , the storm encountered much cooler water temperatures after leaving the Gulf Stream . The storm quickly weakened as the convection rapidly diminished , and on July 18 degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low . The remnants crossed Newfoundland before turning to the east @-@ northeast and dissipating on July 19 . The storm greatly weakened prior to moving across Newfoundland , and as a result impact was minimal .
Operationally , the storm was considered as a non @-@ tropical gale , connected to a cold front . However , a post @-@ season analysis provided enough evidence of tropical characteristics , indicating no frontal features and no cold air intrusion at the time of peak winds . Observations analyzed the storm as having a symmetric warm @-@ core , whereas in real time it was considered subtropical . The National Hurricane Center officially re @-@ classified the system as an unnamed tropical storm on December 15 , 2006 .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
The same frontal system that developed the previous system spawned another low pressure area east of North Carolina . On July 18 , it developed into a tropical depression , and with associated deep convection , the storm organized sufficiently to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Beryl on July 19 . It tracked northeast and passed over Nantucket before dissipating southwest of Nova Scotia on July 21 . Waves along the southern coast of Nantucket reached 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height as the storm approached the island , resulting in four people being rescued by lifeguards from rip currents . The remnants of Tropical Storm Beryl dropped moderate precipitation in Atlantic Canada , with totals of up to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 88 mm ) ; in some locations 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain fell in an hour . Moderate winds were reported along its path , which peaked at 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) in southern Nova Scotia .
= = = Tropical Storm Chris = = =
By late July , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and traversed the Atlantic Ocean . The associated convection organized and became a tropical depression on July 31 about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east of Antigua . The depression tracked westward and soon intensified into Tropical Storm Chris before reaching peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) northeast of the United States Virgin Islands . The storm was forecast to strengthen further and become a hurricane as it moved into the Bahamas . However , Chris began to be affected by wind shear and became disorganized . The storm weakened to a tropical depression on August 4 , and dissipated as it approached the Cuban coast on August 5 .
The storm 's effects were limited to moderate rainfall in Hispaniola and Cuba . Cruise lines such as Royal Caribbean re @-@ routed their ships to avoid the storm . In Puerto Rico , rainfall from the storm caused the Fajardo River to overflow its banks . The overflown waters temporarily closed a highway in the northeastern portion of the island . Rainfall reached up to 2 inches ( 50 mm ) across portions of Hispaniola , the Turks and Caicos , the Bahamas , and eastern Cuba , and reached 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in some mountainous areas .
= = = Tropical Storm Debby = = =
On August 20 a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa for the Atlantic Ocean . Immediately following , the wave developed convective banding and a broad circulation . At 1800 UTC on August 21 , a tropical depression formed to the south @-@ southeast of the Cape Verde Islands . The depression was a large , well @-@ organized system , and tracking west @-@ northwestward it intensified into Tropical Storm Debby on August 23 .
Later on August 23 , the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which it maintained for about two days . However , Debby entered a dry and stable air mass and deteriorated in organization . An upper @-@ level trough increased southerly wind shear and displaced the convection from the center . The cyclone began to weaken , and on August 26 Debby weakened to a tropical depression before degenerating into a remnant low . The circulation lasted another two days .
= = = Hurricane Ernesto = = =
Hurricane Ernesto originated from a tropical wave which moved off the coast of Africa on August 18 . The wave progressed westward and reached the Western Atlantic , spawning a tropical depression on August 24 near the Windward Islands . It moved west @-@ northwestward through the Caribbean Sea and intensified into Tropical Storm Ernesto on August 25 . The storm briefly attained hurricane status on August 27 to the southwest of Haiti , before land interaction caused weakening . Ernesto made landfall near Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , early in the morning on August 28 as a tropical storm . At one point the storm was predicted to become a major hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico and threaten parts of the Gulf Coast . However , Ernesto moved much farther east than anticipated , and made landfall as a tropical storm on the southern tip of Florida on August 29 . Ernesto retained tropical storm strength as it crossed Florida and emerged from land near Cape Canaveral , and was just below hurricane strength when it made landfall again in North Carolina on August 31 . Ernesto transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Virginia on September 1 , which ultimately dissipated over Quebec on September 4 .
Early in its duration , Ernesto killed five people in Haiti from rainfall . Later , two people died in Florida in traffic accidents due to slick roads . Damage was heaviest in Virginia , where heavy rains left severe flooding . Damage in the United States was estimated at $ 500 million ( 2006 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
Hurricane Florence originated on September 3 from the complex merging of two tropical waves , creating one large low pressure area . The disturbance moved westward and became a tropical depression in the open waters of the Atlantic . On September 5 , it organized further and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Florence . With a disorganized structure and multiple circulation centers , Florence remained a weak tropical storm for several days , even after external conditions became favorable for strengthening . Florence tracked west @-@ northwest and intensified into a hurricane on September 10 while south of Bermuda . The storm passed just to the east of Bermuda as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale as it reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . It moved north before losing its tropical characteristics and passing over the Canadian Maritimes as a strong extratropical storm .
Large swells , rip tide , and undertow were reported on Bermuda , the Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Hispaniola . Florence affected Bermuda with wind gusts up to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and heavy rain which left 23 @,@ 000 houses without electricity . In all , the storm caused $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ; $ 235 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage . Florence then brought heavy rains across Newfoundland as an extratropical storm , destroying one house and causing minor damage to several others . There were no fatalities as a result of the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 1 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic for several days until it reached an area of relaxed wind shear and its associated low pressure area organized into a tropical depression . It moved east @-@ northeast and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gordon on September 11 , while located over the open waters of the Atlantic . Gordon turned north , and became a hurricane on September 13 . It intensified to Category 3 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale and reached its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on September 14 . Tracking northward , it began to lose tropical characteristics . On September 20 , the system affected Britain with high winds and heavy rain as an extratropical cyclone . During Gordon 's passage through Britain , 120 @,@ 000 homes were left without power after winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) affected the country .
= = = Hurricane Helene = = =
On September 11 , a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa . The wave organized rapidly and spawned a tropical depression to the south @-@ southeast of Cape Verde . On September 14 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Helene while tracking west @-@ northwest . Helene continued to intensify and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 16 . The storm began to execute a northward track , and reached Category 3 hurricane status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on September 18 , before reaching its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . It started to weaken when it reached the cold waters of the North Atlantic , and Helene dissipated on September 20 , without having had major effects on land other than moderate wind gusts in the British Isles .
= = = Hurricane Isaac = = =
Hurricane Isaac originated in a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 . The wave tracked west , produced a tropical depression , and became a tropical storm on September 28 . Isaac moved north @-@ northwest and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 30 . It turned north and reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) before weakening and brushing Nova Scotia . Isaac produced moderate winds on land in Newfoundland , peaking at 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) with a sustained wind of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) was recorded .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for storm names in the North Atlantic in 2006 . This is the same list used in the 2000 season except for Kirk , which replaced Keith . No storm was given a previously unused name , for the first time since the 1993 season . It was the first hurricane season since the 1997 season that no Atlantic names were retired . The same list was used for the 2012 season .
The World Meteorological Organization determined at its annual meeting in the spring of 2006 to again use names from the Greek alphabet , starting with Alpha , if the main list should become exhausted .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all the storms that have formed in the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) , denoted in parentheses , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all the damage figures are in 2006 USD .
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= Battle of Garnett 's & Golding 's Farm =
The Battle of Garnett 's and Golding 's Farms took place June 27 – 28 , 1862 , in Henrico County , Virginia , as part of the Seven Days Battles of the American Civil War 's Peninsula Campaign . While the battle at Gaines 's Mill raged north of the Chickahominy River , the forces of Confederate general John B. Magruder conducted a reconnaissance in force that developed into a minor attack against the Union line south of the river at Garnett 's Farm . The Confederates attacked again near Golding 's Farm on the morning of June 28 but in both cases were easily repulsed . The action at the Garnett and Golding farms accomplished little beyond convincing McClellan that he was being attacked from both sides of the Chickahominy .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Richmond , Virginia , as the center of the Southern rebellion , was a city of obvious strategic importance to both sides of the American Civil War . In this context , General George McClellan and his Army of the Potomac began a campaign on the Virginia Peninsula to take the city . His early attempts were successful . In fact , on nearly every front , the Northerners had an advantage over the Confederates . By the end of May 1862 however , McClellan 's army was split in half along the banks of the Chickahominy River , with one wing , encompassing two Union corps , to the south river , and the other wing , with some three Federal corps , to the north . On May 31 , Joseph E. Johnston , the general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia , sought to capitalize on the bifurcation and led three columns of soldiers towards the Union position at the south of the river . The resulting conflict , called the Battle of Seven Pines ( or Fair Oaks ) , was inconclusive . Johnston 's plan fell apart , and the Army of the Potomac lost no ground . Johnston himself was wounded however , and the next day , June 1 , Jefferson Davis , the President of the Confederate States , appointed his military adviser , General Robert E. Lee , to lead the Confederate armies . There was a lull in the fighting on the Peninsula in subsequent weeks , ending in a Union offensive at Oak Grove on June 25 . Lee 's men managed to halt the attacking Federals , and the next day , the Confederates went on the offensive in the Battle of Mechanicsville ( or Beaver Dam Creek ) . The battle ended in a Confederate repulse and heavy Southern casualties . Nevertheless , the victorious Federals , under General McClellan 's orders , retreated to Boatswain 's Swamp at the south Chickahominy and established a formidable battle line . There , on June 27 , the Confederate armies launched an attack at Gaines 's Mill , which would become one of the bloodiest battles of the Peninsula Campaign . While the conflict at Gaines 's Mill raged , another conflict was brewing near two farms to the south , which would turn into the Battle of Garnett 's and Golding 's Farm .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Battle = =
James M. Garnett 's farm , near Old Tavern , was situated on the edge of the bluffs at the banks of the Chickahominy River . Near the Garnett farm was Golding 's Plain , belonging to Simon Gouldin . Between the two farms was a precipitous ravine , a creek and a hill named Garnett 's Hill . Union soldiers from Brigadier General William T. H. Brooks 's brigade of William F. " Baldy " Smith 's VI Corps began placing artillery pieces on Garnett 's Hill the night before the battle . This activity was resumed by Brigadier General Winfield Scott Hancock 's brigade of the same Corps the following morning – June 27 , 1862 . Six batteries of reserve artillery were placed .
While the Federals worked , Confederate soldiers of Major General David R. Jones 's division began taking up positions in the area . Brigadier General Robert Toombs 's brigade positioned themselves at the west side of the ravine , while Colonel George T. Anderson 's brigade took up a position northwest of the area , less than a mile from the Garnett house . Anderson 's and Toombs 's artillerists were ordered to fire on the Union soldiers whenever the opportunity presented itself . The Federals , now preparing for a general engagement , were told to avoid a clash with the Confederates . The result was a brisk shelling that lasted about an hour , and ended in a Confederate withdrawal . The Union 's twenty @-@ three , well @-@ positioned guns withstood the Confederates 's ten guns , which were situated in an open field . Later , some of Major General Lafayette McLaws 's men advanced towards the Union line at the Garnett farm at about 4 pm , but withdrew after ten minutes under heavy fire . There was a lull in the subsequent hours , ending with Toombs 's attack on the Union line at about 7 pm . Toombs was ordered to reconnoiter or " feel the enemy " . Instead , he engaged the Federals in a " sharp and sustained fight " . After nightfall , Toombs 's advance was repelled by Winfield Hancock 's brigade after about an hour and a half of fighting . The Confederates suffered some 271 casualties during the day 's conflict . The action at the Garnett farm accomplished little .
The following day , June 28 , Union and Confederate soldiers clashed again near the Golding house . Jones suspected that the Federals near the house were withdrawing , and authorized Toombs to perform a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force to ascertain whether this was true . However , Toombs turned the reconnaissance operation into a full engagement and advanced with some of Anderson 's men . Before he could be countermanded , the Confederates had already been repulsed by the VI Corps .
= = Aftermath = =
In the two days of fighting at the Garnett and Golding farms , the Confederates suffered 438 casualties , while the Federals suffered 189 . Anderson 's men , who bore the brunt of the Federal counterattack , suffered 156 casualties on the second day of fighting . This battle accomplished little , but helped to convince McClellan that he was being attacked from both sides of the Chickahominy . On the evening of June 28 , McClellan convened a meeting with his generals . He announced that he was willing to pursue an attack on Richmond , but such an attack could spell the defeat and destruction of the Army of the Potomac . The result of the meeting was that the Federals would begin a retreat . " The commanding general announced to us his purpose to begin a movement to the James River on the next day , " noted Union general William B. Franklin . McClellan 's decision to withdraw to the James set the stage for the subsequent Battle of Savage 's Station .
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= The Boat Race 1925 =
The 77th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1925 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won in a time of 21 minutes 50 seconds as Oxford were waterlogged and unable to finish the race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 40 – 36 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1924 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 35 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Stanley Garton ( who had rowed three times between 1909 and 1911 ) and E. D. Horsfall ( who had rowed in the three races prior to the First World War ) . Cambridge 's coaches were Francis Escombe , P. Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue who had rowed between 1902 and 1905 ) , Sir Henry Howard ( coach of the Lady Margaret Boat Club ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the seventeenth year the umpire was Old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
As a result of various illnesses , the Oxford crew was not finalised until five days before the race , and according to former Dark Blue rower and author George Drinkwater , " the innumerable changes prevented the crew from ever really getting together " . Drinkwater also stated that the Oxford boat rowed with " three unfit men in the boat " . Similarly , Cambridge were affected by illness , in particular the boat club president Robert Morrison who was forced to leave the crew .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 0 @.@ 875 lb ( 78 @.@ 5 kg ) , 0 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew included six participants with Boat Race experience , all of whom had made their first appearance in the event the previous year . Oxford saw three rowers return to the boat , including G. J. Mower @-@ White who was rowing in his third consecutive race . All of the participants in the race were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . Pitman got the race underway at 3 : 41 p.m. in a strong wind diagonally across the start which made the Surrey virtually unnavigable ; within a minute , the Dark Blues ' boat was waterlogged . Cambridge enjoyed the shelter of the Middlesex wall and rapidly went away . Despite being advised to stop by their coach Garton , it was not until The Doves pub that Oxford gave up . Cambridge slowed to a " strong paddle " and passed the finishing post in a time of 21 minutes 50 seconds .
It was the slowest winning time since the 1912 race and the third time in the history of the event that one or both of the crews sank ( in the 1859 and 1912 races ) . According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , the race was " a complete ' washout ' in the literal sense of the word " . Following the race , Pitman was heavily criticised for his placement of the stakeboats ; Drinkwater disagreed , noting that " when the take @-@ boats were being placed ... the water was possible for both boats . " Indeed , prior to the race he had followed the requests of both boat club presidents to move the boats closer to the Middlesex station but did not want to give an inappropriate advantage to the crew starting from that side of the river . In a letter from Pitman , published in The Field , he wrote that " I hope that the umpire may be relieved from the duty of fixing the course , or that he may have the assistance of a representative of both Universities on his launch in fixing the stake @-@ boats and deciding whether the race can be rowed . "
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= Diabetes mellitus type 2 =
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a long term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar , insulin resistance , and relative lack of insulin . Common symptoms include increased thirst , frequent urination , and unexplained weight loss . Symptoms may also include increased hunger , feeling tired , and sores that do not heal . Often symptoms come on slowly . Long @-@ term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease , strokes , diabetic retinopathy which can result in blindness , kidney failure , and poor blood flow in the limbs which may lead to amputations . The sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur ; however , ketoacidosis is uncommon .
Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and not enough exercise . Some people are more genetically at risk than others . Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90 % of cases of diabetes , with the other 10 % due primarily to diabetes mellitus type 1 and gestational diabetes . In diabetes mellitus type 1 there is an absolute lack of insulin due to breakdown of islet cells in the pancreas . Diagnosis of diabetes is by blood tests such as fasting plasma glucose , oral glucose tolerance test , or A1C .
Type 2 diabetes is partly preventable by staying a normal weight , exercising regularly , and eating properly . Treatment involves exercise and dietary changes . If blood sugar levels are not adequately lowered , the medication metformin is typically recommended . Many people may eventually also require insulin injections . In those on insulin , routinely check blood sugar levels is advised , however this may not be needed in those taking pills . Bariatric surgery often improves diabetes in those who are obese .
Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity . As of 2013 there were approximately 368 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985 . Typically it begins in middle or older age , although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people . Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten @-@ year @-@ shorter life expectancy . Diabetes was one of the first diseases described . The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The classic symptoms of diabetes are polyuria ( frequent urination ) , polydipsia ( increased thirst ) , polyphagia ( increased hunger ) , and weight loss . Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision , itchiness , peripheral neuropathy , recurrent vaginal infections , and fatigue . Many people , however , have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing . People with type 2 diabetes mellitus may rarely present with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state ( a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure ) .
= = = Complications = = =
Type 2 diabetes is typically a chronic disease associated with a ten @-@ year @-@ shorter life expectancy . This is partly due to a number of complications with which it is associated , including : two to four times the risk of cardiovascular disease , including ischemic heart disease and stroke ; a 20 @-@ fold increase in lower limb amputations , and increased rates of hospitalizations . In the developed world , and increasingly elsewhere , type 2 diabetes is the largest cause of nontraumatic blindness and kidney failure . It has also been associated with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia through disease processes such as Alzheimer 's disease and vascular dementia . Other complications include acanthosis nigricans , sexual dysfunction , and frequent infections .
= = Cause = =
The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors . While some of these factors are under personal control , such as diet and obesity , other factors are not , such as increasing age , female gender , and genetics . A lack of sleep has been linked to type 2 diabetes . This is believed to act through its effect on metabolism . The nutritional status of a mother during fetal development may also play a role , with one proposed mechanism being that of altered DNA methylation . The intestinal bacteriæ Prevotella copri and Bacteroides vulgatus have been connected with type 2 diabetes .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes , including obesity and being overweight ( defined by a body mass index of greater than 25 ) , lack of physical activity , poor diet , stress , and urbanization . Excess body fat is associated with 30 % of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent , 60 – 80 % of cases in those of European and African descent , and 100 % of cases in Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders . Those who are not obese often have a high waist – hip ratio . Smoking also appears to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus .
Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes . Consumption of sugar @-@ sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk . The type of fats in the diet are also important , with saturated fats and trans fatty acids increasing the risk , and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk . Eating lots of white rice appears to also play a role in increasing risk . A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7 % of cases . Persistent organic pollutants may also play a role .
= = = Genetics = = =
Most cases of diabetes involve many genes , with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic . If one identical twin has diabetes , the chance of the other developing diabetes within his lifetime is greater than 90 % , while the rate for nonidentical siblings is 25 – 50 % . As of 2011 , more than 36 genes had been found that contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes . All of these genes together still only account for 10 % of the total heritable component of the disease . The TCF7L2 allele , for example , increases the risk of developing diabetes by 1 @.@ 5 times and is the greatest risk of the common genetic variants . Most of the genes linked to diabetes are involved in beta cell functions .
There are a number of rare cases of diabetes that arise due to an abnormality in a single gene ( known as monogenic forms of diabetes or " other specific types of diabetes " ) . These include maturity onset diabetes of the young ( MODY ) , Donohue syndrome , and Rabson @-@ Mendenhall syndrome , among others . Maturity onset diabetes of the young constitute 1 – 5 % of all cases of diabetes in young people .
= = = Medical conditions = = =
There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes . Some of the medications include : glucocorticoids , thiazides , beta blockers , atypical antipsychotics , and statins . Those who have previously had gestational diabetes are at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes . Other health problems that are associated include : acromegaly , Cushing 's syndrome , hyperthyroidism , pheochromocytoma , and certain cancers such as glucagonomas . Testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Type 2 diabetes is due to insufficient insulin production from beta cells in the setting of insulin resistance . Insulin resistance , which is the inability of cells to respond adequately to normal levels of insulin , occurs primarily within the muscles , liver , and fat tissue . In the liver , insulin normally suppresses glucose release . However , in the setting of insulin resistance , the liver inappropriately releases glucose into the blood . The proportion of insulin resistance versus beta cell dysfunction differs among individuals , with some having primarily insulin resistance and only a minor defect in insulin secretion and others with slight insulin resistance and primarily a lack of insulin secretion .
Other potentially important mechanisms associated with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance include : increased breakdown of lipids within fat cells , resistance to and lack of incretin , high glucagon levels in the blood , increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys , and inappropriate regulation of metabolism by the central nervous system . However , not all people with insulin resistance develop diabetes , since an impairment of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells is also required .
= = Diagnosis = =
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes ( both type 1 and type 2 ) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms , otherwise raised values on two occasions , of either :
fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7 @.@ 0 mmol / l ( 126 mg / dl )
or
with a glucose tolerance test , two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( 200 mg / dl )
A random blood sugar of greater than 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( 200 mg / dL ) in association with typical symptoms or a glycated hemoglobin ( HbA1c ) of ≥ 48 mmol / mol ( ≥ 6 @.@ 5 DCCT % ) is another method of diagnosing diabetes . In 2009 an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association ( ADA ) , the International Diabetes Federation ( IDF ) , and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes ( EASD ) recommended that a threshold of ≥ 48 mmol / mol ( ≥ 6 @.@ 5 DCCT % ) should be used to diagnose diabetes . This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010 . Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugars > 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( > 200 mg / dl ) .
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests , fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems . A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test , as they are more convenient for people . HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose . It is estimated that 20 % of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease .
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency . This is in contrast to diabetes mellitus type 1 in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of [ islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes mellitus that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy . Type 1 and type 2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances . If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type 1 diabetes and C @-@ peptide levels may be useful to confirm type 2 diabetes , with C @-@ peptide levels normal or high in type 2 diabetes , but low in type 1 diabetes .
= = Screening = =
No major organization recommends universal screening for diabetes as there is no evidence that such a program improve outcomes . Screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force ( USPSTF ) in adults without symptoms whose blood pressure is greater than 135 / 80 mmHg . For those whose blood pressure is less , the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against screening . There is no evidence that it changes the risk of death in this group of people . They also recommend screening among those who are overweight and between the ages of 40 and 70 .
The World Health Organization recommends testing those groups at high risk and in 2014 the USPSTF is considering a similar recommendation . High @-@ risk groups in the United States include : those over 45 years old ; those with a first degree relative with diabetes ; some ethnic groups , including Hispanics , African @-@ Americans , and Native @-@ Americans ; a history of gestational diabetes ; polycystic ovary syndrome ; excess weight ; and conditions associated with metabolic syndrome . The American Diabetes Association recommends screening those who have a BMI over 25 ( in people of Asian descent screening is recommending for a BMI over 23 .
= = Prevention = =
Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise . Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half . The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person 's initial weight or subsequent weight loss . Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone , however , is limited , with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks . In those with impaired glucose tolerance , diet and exercise either alone or in combination with metformin or acarbose may decrease the risk of developing diabetes . Lifestyle interventions are more effective than metformin . While low vitamin D levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes , correcting the levels by supplementing vitamin D3 does not improve that risk .
= = Management = =
Management of type 2 diabetes focuses on lifestyle interventions , lowering other cardiovascular risk factors , and maintaining blood glucose levels in the normal range . Self @-@ monitoring of blood glucose for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes may be used in combination with education , however the benefit of self monitoring in those not using multi @-@ dose insulin is questionable . In those who do not want to measure blood levels , measuring urine levels may be done . Managing other cardiovascular risk factors , such as hypertension , high cholesterol , and microalbuminuria , improves a person 's life expectancy . Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes . Intensive blood pressure management ( less than 130 / 80 mmHg ) as opposed to standard blood pressure management ( less than 140 / 85 – 100 mmHg ) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death .
Intensive blood sugar lowering ( HbA1c < 6 % ) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering ( HbA1c of 7 – 7 @.@ 9 % ) does not appear to change mortality . The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of around 7 % or a fasting glucose of less than 7 @.@ 2 mmol / L ( 130 mg / dL ) ; however these goals may be changed after professional clinical consultation , taking into account particular risks of hypoglycemia and life expectancy . It is recommended that all people with type 2 diabetes get regular ophthalmology examination . Treating gum disease in those with diabetes may result in a small improvement in blood sugar levels .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
A proper diet and exercise are the foundations of diabetic care , with a greater amount of exercise yielding better results . Aerobic exercise leads to a decrease in HbA1c and improved insulin sensitivity . Resistance training is also useful and the combination of both types of exercise may be most effective . A diabetic diet that promotes weight loss is important . While the best diet type to achieve this is controversial , a low glycemic index diet or low carbohydrate diet has been found to improve blood sugar control . Culturally appropriate education may help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels , for up to six months at least . If changes in lifestyle in those with mild diabetes has not resulted in improved blood sugars within six weeks , medications should then be considered . There is not enough evidence to determine if lifestyle interventions affect mortality in those who already have DM2 .
= = = Medications = = =
There are several classes of anti @-@ diabetic medications available . Metformin is generally recommended as a first line treatment as there is some evidence that it decreases mortality ; however , this conclusion is questioned . Metformin should not be used in those with severe kidney or liver problems .
A second oral agent of another class or insulin may be added if metformin is not sufficient after three months . Other classes of medications include : sulfonylureas , thiazolidinediones , dipeptidyl peptidase @-@ 4 inhibitors , SGLT2 inhibitors , and glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 analog . There is no significant difference between these agents . Rosiglitazone , a thiazolidinedione , has not been found to improve long @-@ term outcomes even though it improves blood sugar levels . Additionally it is associated with increased rates of heart disease and death . Angiotensin @-@ converting enzyme inhibitors ( ACEIs ) prevent kidney disease and improve outcomes in those with diabetes . The similar medications angiotensin receptor blockers ( ARBs ) do not . A 2016 review recommended treating to a systolic blood pressure of 140 to 150 mmHg .
Injections of insulin may either be added to oral medication or used alone . Most people do not initially need insulin . When it is used , a long @-@ acting formulation is typically added at night , with oral medications being continued . Doses are then increased to effect ( blood sugar levels being well controlled ) . When nightly insulin is insufficient , twice daily insulin may achieve better control . The long acting insulins glargine and detemir are equally safe and effective , and do not appear much better than neutral protamine Hagedorn ( NPH ) insulin , but as they are significantly more expensive , they are not cost effective as of 2010 . In those who are pregnant insulin is generally the treatment of choice .
= = = Surgery = = =
Weight loss surgery in those who are obese is an effective measure to treat diabetes . Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medications following surgery and long @-@ term mortality is decreased . There however is some short @-@ term mortality risk of less than 1 % from the surgery . The body mass index cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear . It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally as of 2010 it was estimated that there were 285 million people with type 2 diabetes making up about 90 % of diabetes cases . This is equivalent to about 6 % of the world 's adult population . Diabetes is common both in the developed and the developing world . It remains uncommon , however , in the underdeveloped world .
Women seem to be at a greater risk as do certain ethnic groups , such as South Asians , Pacific Islanders , Latinos , and Native Americans . This may be due to enhanced sensitivity to a Western lifestyle in certain ethnic groups . Traditionally considered a disease of adults , type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel with rising obesity rates . Type 2 diabetes is now diagnosed as frequently as type 1 diabetes in teenagers in the United States .
Rates of diabetes in 1985 were estimated at 30 million , increasing to 135 million in 1995 and 217 million in 2005 . This increase is believed to be primarily due to the global population aging , a decrease in exercise , and increasing rates of obesity . The five countries with the greatest number of people with diabetes as of 2000 are India having 31 @.@ 7 million , China 20 @.@ 8 million , the United States 17 @.@ 7 million , Indonesia 8 @.@ 4 million , and Japan 6 @.@ 8 million . It is recognized as a global epidemic by the World Health Organization .
= = History = =
Diabetes is one of the first diseases described with an Egyptian manuscript from c . 1500 BCE mentioning " too great emptying of the urine . " The first described cases are believed to be of type 1 diabetes . Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or honey urine noting that the urine would attract ants . The term " diabetes " or " to pass through " was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek Apollonius Of Memphis . The disease was rare during the time of the Roman empire with Galen commenting that he had only seen two cases during his career .
Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400 – 500 AD with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight . The term " mellitus " or " from honey " was added by the Briton John Rolle in the late 1700s to separate the condition from diabetes insipidus which is also associated with frequent urination . Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when the Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin in 1921 and 1922 . This was followed by the development of the long acting NPH insulin in the 1940s .
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= ARA Rivadavia =
ARA Rivadavia was an Argentine battleship built during the South American dreadnought race . Named after the first Argentine president , Bernardino Rivadavia , it was the lead ship of its class . Moreno was Rivadavia 's only sister ship .
In 1907 , the Brazilian government placed an order for two of the powerful new " dreadnought " warships as part of a larger naval construction program . Argentina quickly responded , as the Brazilian ships outclassed anything in the Argentine fleet . After an extended bidding process , contracts to design and build Rivadavia and Moreno were given to the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company . During their construction , there were rumors that the ships might be sold to a country engaged in the First World War , but both were commissioned into the Argentine Navy . Rivadavia underwent extensive refits in the United States in 1924 and 1925 . The ship saw no active service during the Second World War , and its last cruise was made in 1946 . Stricken from the naval register in 1957 , Rivadavia was sold later that year and broken up for scrap starting in 1959 .
= = Background = =
Rivadavia 's genesis can be traced to the naval arms races between Chile and Argentina which were spawned by territorial disputes over their mutual borders in Patagonia and Puna de Atacama , along with control of the Beagle Channel . These arms races flared up in the 1890s and again in 1902 ; the latter was eventually stopped through British mediation . Provisions in the dispute @-@ ending treaty imposed restrictions on both countries ' navies . The United Kingdom 's Royal Navy bought the two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan .
After HMS Dreadnought was commissioned by the United Kingdom , Brazil decided in early 1907 to halt the construction of three obsolescent pre @-@ dreadnoughts and begin work on two dreadnoughts ( the Minas Geraes class ) . These ships , which were designed to carry the heaviest battleship armament in the world at the time , came as a shock to the navies of South America , and Argentina and Chile quickly canceled the 1902 armament @-@ limiting pact . Argentina in particular was alarmed at the possible power of the ships . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca , remarked that even one Minas Geraes @-@ class ship could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . While this may have been hyperbole , either one was much more powerful than any single vessel in the Argentinian fleet . Debates raged in Argentina over whether to spend more than two million pounds sterling to acquire dreadnoughts . With further border disputes , particularly with Brazil near the Río de la Plata ( River Plate ) , Argentina made plans to contract for their own dreadnoughts . After an extended bidding process , Rivadavia and Moreno were ordered from the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in the United States .
= = Construction and trials = =
Laid down on 25 May 1910 , Rivadavia was launched and christened on 26 August 1911 by Isabel , the wife of the Argentine Minister to the United States Rómulo Sebastián Naón . Thousands of people were present to witness the event , including representatives from the Argentine Navy and the country 's legation in Washington . The United States sent the assistant chief of the Latin American Division in the State Department , Henry L. James , to be its official representative . Two United States Navy bureau chiefs also attended .
In mid @-@ September 1913 , Rivadavia conducted trials off Rockland , Maine , after a two @-@ week delay due to turbine malfunctions . During speed trials on the 16th , the dreadnought was able to obtain a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 567 knots ( 25 @.@ 970 mph ; 41 @.@ 794 km / h ) . On a 30 @-@ hour endurance trial starting the next day , Rivadavia damaged one of its turbines and had to put in at President Roads , one of Boston Harbor 's deep @-@ water anchorages . The turbines were still a problem as late as August 1914 . One was dropped by a crane in July and had to be removed for repairs in August .
= = Attempted sale = =
Over the course of their construction , Rivadavia and Moreno had been the subject of rumors that Argentina would accept the ships and then sell them to Japan , a fast @-@ growing military rival to the United States , or to a European country . The rumors were partially true ; some in the government were looking to get rid of the battleships and devote the proceeds to opening more schools , and The New York Times reported in late 1913 that the country had received several offers from interested parties . This angered the American government , which did not want its warship technology offered to the highest bidder . Neither did they want to exercise a contract @-@ specified option that gave the United States first choice if the Argentines decided to sell , as naval technology had already progressed past the Rivadavia class , particularly in the adoption of the " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " armor scheme . Instead , the United States and its State Department and Navy Department put diplomatic pressure on the Argentine government .
After socialist gains in the legislature , the Argentine government introduced several bills in May 1914 which would have put the battleships up for sale , but they were all defeated by late June . Following the commencement of the First World War , the German and British ambassadors to the United States both complained to the US State Department ; the former believed that the British were going to be given the ships as soon as the ships reached Argentina , and the latter considered it the responsibility of the United States to ensure that the ships never left Argentina 's possession . International armament companies attempted to get Argentina to sell to one of the smaller Balkan countries and expected that the ships would then find their way into the war .
= = Service = =
Rivadavia was commissioned into the Armada de la República Argentina on 27 August 1914 at the Charlestown Navy Yard , although it was not fully completed until December . On 23 December 1914 , Rivadavia left the United States for Argentina . It arrived in its capital , Buenos Aires , on 19 February 1915 . Over 47 @,@ 000 people came out to see the new ship over the next three days , including the President Victorino de la Plaza . In April 1915 , Rivadavia was put into the training division of the Navy , remaining there until 1917 , when the navy transferred the ship into the First Division . In 1917 , Rivadavia sailed to Comodoro Rivadavia when communist oil workers went on strike .
Later in 1917 , the Argentines had to sharply curtail Rivadavia 's activities because of a fuel shortage , but they voyaged to the United States with the Argentine ambassador in 1918 . Rivadavia then took on a load of gold bullion and brought it back to Argentina , docking in Puerto Belgrano on 23 September 1918 . In December 1920 , Rivadavia participated in ceremonies that marked the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the Strait of Magellan . On the 2nd , the ship called on Valparaíso in Chile ; 25 days later , it took part in an international naval review . Two years later , Rivadavia was placed into reserve .
In 1923 , the Navy decided to send Rivadavia to the United States to be modernized . The ship departed on 6 August 1924 and reached Boston on the 30th , where it spent the next two years . Rivadavia was converted to use fuel oil instead of coal and had " a general machinery overhaul " . A new fire @-@ control system was fitted with rangefinders on the fore and aft superfiring turrets , and the aft mast was replaced by a tripod . A funnel cap was installed so that smoke from the funnels did not interfere with accurate rangefinding of enemy ships . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was retained , but the smaller 4 @-@ inch guns were taken off in favor of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 3 @-@ pounders .
After sailing back to Argentina in March and April 1926 , Rivadavia spent the remainder of the year undergoing sea trials . The dreadnought joined the training division once again in 1927 , but after Rivadavia made four training cruises , the division was disbanded , and the ship remained moored in Puerto Belgrano until 1929 . This began a series of cyclic activity followed by being demoted to the reserve fleet . Although active in both 1929 and 1930 , Rivadavia was placed in reserve on 19 December 1930 . Shortly thereafter , it was restored to active service to serve as the flagship for 1931 fleet exercises . Rivadavia went back into reserve in 1932 before coming back out in January 1933 . It remained in full commission for most of the rest of the decade as part of the Battleship Division , alongside Moreno .
In January 1937 , the ship called on Valparaíso and Callao in Peru . In company with Moreno , Rivadavia left Puerto Belgrano for Europe on 6 April . After crossing the ocean , they split up , with Rivadavia mooring at the French port of Brest while Moreno took part in the British Coronation Review in Spithead . The two ships then journeyed to several German ports : both put in at Wilhelmshaven before Rivadavia went to Hamburg and Moreno to Bremen . They returned to Argentina on 29 June .
While Rivadavia made an official visit to Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , in 1939 , Argentina remained neutral for the majority of the Second World War , and the aging dreadnought saw no active service . Its next cruise came after the war ended ( 29 October to 22 December 1946 ) , when it called on countries in the Caribbean and northern South America , including Trinidad , Venezuela , and Colombia . This was the last time the ship would be in service under its own power . Moored in Puerto Belgrano from 1948 on , the ship was rendered inoperable in 1951 and cannibalized for many years for useful arms and equipment . On 18 October 1956 , the ship was listed for disposal , and it was stricken from the Navy on 1 February 1957 . On 30 May , Rivadavia was sold to an Italian ship breaking company for US $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 . Beginning on 3 April 1959 , the ship was towed by two tugboats to Savona , Italy , where they arrived on 23 May . It was thereafter broken up in Genoa .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Porcelain Black =
Alaina Marie Beaton ( born October 1 , 1985 ) , better known by her stage name Porcelain Black , is an American industrial pop singer @-@ songwriter , rapper , and model . At age eighteen , she embarked on her music career as a solo act under the name Porcelain and the Tramps with Virgin Records . However , Black and Virgin could not agree on the music she would record . The music she recorded was posted to her Myspace account , " rockcitynosebleed " , where she gained millions of hits . After three years of trying to get out of the contract , she signed with RedOne 's Universal Republic imprint , 2101 Records , late in 2009 and began working on her debut album . After many internal problems between the artist and record producer , RedOne , Porcelain Black announced the partnership had come to an end , with anticipation of releasing her debut album in the vein of her Porcelain and the Tramps project in 2015 .
She has appeared in multiple music videos , including Jack White 's " Freedom at 21 " and Travie McCoy 's " We 'll Be Alright " . As a songwriter , she is credited on songs performed by One Direction , Orianthi , The Used and Mexican pop singer Belinda , among others . As a solo act , she has released three singles , " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " , " Naughty Naughty " , and " One Woman Army " , the first featuring guest vocals from Lil Wayne . The first two songs charted on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " One Woman Army " was a top @-@ forty hit in France , Spain , and Wallonia , outselling all of her previous singles in France and becoming her first number @-@ one hit on that country 's iTunes chart .
After the release of her first single , Lil Wayne invited her on the second half of his I Am Music Tour as an opening act . She made her first televised appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , performing " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " . Musically , she fuses industrial themes with pop music conventions such as electronic synths and a heavy reliance upon hooks . She is best known for her guttural vocals and two @-@ toned hair . She considers her music the " love child " of Marilyn Manson and Britney Spears . Vocally compared to Courtney Love , Porcelain Black was approached to record backing vocals for Love 's 2008 album .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and career beginnings = = =
Having lived on the 8 Mile , in Royal Oak , in Rochester , and in the suburb Sterling Heights , Black grew up in and spent most of her life in various parts of Detroit , Michigan . Her mother is an accountant ; her father was a hairstylist . He owned a hair salon and brought her along to fashion shows and photoshoots . Her parents separated when she was six years old . After her mother remarried , they moved from Royal Oak and settled in Rochester where she attended high school at Bishop Foley Catholic High School . At age fifteen , she was expelled for fighting and attended Rochester High School where she was also expelled , shortly after , for the same reason . Until the age of sixteen , when she was legally able to dropout , she feigned homeschooling . Having lived in less affluent areas prior to the move , Black found that she did not fit in with her privileged classmates , becoming an outcast . Her father died when she was sixteen . Black had taken part in national competitive dancing , taking jazz , hip @-@ hop , tap , and ballet lessons , since she was young , and , at one point , was training to perform on Broadway . She also considered becoming a backup dancer . After being expelled from her last school , Black ran away from home . She started begging , doing drugs , and drinking while crashing at friends ' houses at night . After going on tour with Armor for Sleep , she returned to Detroit and stopped taking drugs .
= = = Porcelain and the Tramps : 2006 – 09 = = =
While on a road trip in New York , Black was approached by her first manager who told her to look for him in Los Angeles when she turned 18 . Eighteen months later , Black moved to Los Angeles , found her manager and was signed to Virgin Records two weeks later . Recording under the pseudonym Porcelain and the Tramps , Black worked with Tommy Henriksen and John Lowery in London while at Virgin . However , she and the label could not agree on the music she made . Virgin wanted Black to record pop music in the vein of Avril Lavigne , despite already knowing what kind of music she made when signing her . She also faced skepticism from her collaborators who questioned her desire to mix industrial rock sounds with dance pop . Black began posting the songs she recorded on Myspace , gaining upwards of 10 million views in a matter of months . Black co @-@ wrote and sang backup vocals for the song " Lunacy Fringe " by The Used . She was approached by Courtney Love on MySpace to provide backing vocals for a solo album she was working on . She also was featured on a song by the Street Drum Corps 's " Action ! " . " How Do You Love Someone ? " , co @-@ penned by Black , Billy Steinberg , and Josh Alexander around the time Black left Virgin , was recorded by Ashley Tisdale for her second album , Guilty Pleasure . Black was initially reluctant to give the song away , but relented and later got to record the song for her own album with production from RedOne .
= = = Mannequin Factory : 2009 – 2014 = = =
Through a mutual A & R friend , producer RedOne heard about Black and was interested in meeting her . RedOne asked to meet Black in his studio in November 2009 , which led to them writing her debut single " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " the next day . RedOne helped Black get out of her contract with Virgin Records and signed her to his Universal Republic imprint , 2101 Records . RedOne also introduced her to a new manager , Derrick " EI " Lawrence , who also manages Lil Wayne . Wayne invited her to join him on his I Am Music Tour after meeting her . She changed her name to Porcelain Black because it caused confusion to people who thought Porcelain and the Tramps was a band . Her stage name came from her childhood nickname , Porcelain , which was due to an extensive collection of porcelain dolls given to her by her aunt . Her aunt thought that the dolls resembled her in appearance , with strawberry blond hair and pale skin . She adopted Black in her name because she felt that it represented the opposite of " fragile " Porcelain . She made plans to revisit the Porcelain and the Tramps project in the future . The songs " King of the World " and " I 'm Your Favorite Drug " were remastered for her debut album . Black co @-@ wrote " Lolita " for Mexican pop singer Belinda . She also made appearances in the music videos for Travie McCoy 's " We 'll Be Alright " , Swizz Beatz 's " Rock ' N ' Roll " and Jeffree Star 's " Get Away With Murder " in 2010 . Black had a cameo role in Rock of Ages with RedOne 's help , playing the lead singer of a 1980s glam metal band . Black sang one of the sole original songs for the film , " Rock Angels " . " Rock Angels " was written by Adam Anders and Desmond Child . Along with RedOne , Black composed " Save You Tonight " , the closing song for One Direction 's debut album , Up All Night .
Black appeared on Oxygen 's Best Ink , where the working title of her debut album was said to be Mannequin Factory . Challengers on the show were tasked with creating cover art for the album in a style that Porcelain Black termed " stripper couture " . The album has experienced numerous setbacks and rescheduled releases , and has not yet been released . Initially , RedOne was said to have produced and co @-@ wrote all but one of the tracks with her . However , Black later recorded songs with other producers after the album 's release date was pushed back . She made her television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman on July 21 , 2011 . After " This is What Rock and Roll Looks Like " , " Naughty Naughty " , the second single from her album , was released at the end of 2011 . " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was a modest hit on Billboard ' s Dance Club chart while the second single peaked at number 6 on the chart . Black featured in the song " DNA " for rapper Rye Rye 's debut album , Go ! Pop ! Bang ! . At some point succeeding the release of her singles , 2102 Records became an imprint of Capitol Records when Universal Republic went under , further delaying the release of any new material by the industrial songstress .
During the summer of 2013 , Porcelain Black performed a private gig in West Hollywood , featuring all new material . Of the songs performed , " Rich Boi " and " Mama Forgive Me " received critical commentary . Several months later , 2101 Records released five songs in five weeks , following 8 August 2013 . " Mama Forgive Me " was the first released . Her long anticipated debut album is expected to be released after the five week promotional period , with two brand new singles preceding it . After " Mama Forgive Me " , Porcelain performed three new songs , whose titles were : " Pretty Little Psycho " , " Rich Boi " , and " One Woman Army " respectively . Popjustice hosted the songs " Rich Boi " and " One Woman Army " as their weekly Big Songs . Peaking at number 14 on the French Singles Chart , " One Woman Army " crowned the iTunes chart after she performed the song on the radio station NRJ and at the Fête de la Musique on the French channel France 2 on 21 June 2014 , becoming her first number @-@ one hit .
Later that year , Black announced through French radio station , Skyrock , that the album had no confirmed title , revealing she had considered the names Black Rainbow and Mannequin Factory , but that those titles might not make it to the album as she had recorded more songs .
Feuds erupted on social media when Porcelain Black 's record label released an updated version of Deadmau5 's " Arcadia " instrumental , featuring Porcelain Black 's vocals . The lyrical version was renamed " Sweeter " . Idolator , a music @-@ reporting website , called the track a " [ ... ] sizzling electronic kiss @-@ off with shady lyrics like " I bet the bitch you 're with in the club is dancing to this right now ! " Sounds like a surefire winner ? " Deadmau5 rejected the collaboration as copyright infringement , referencing a similar event involving one of his songs and pop singer , Neon Hitch , that occurred in 2011 .
= = = Departure from 2101 Records and new album = = =
After many internal conflicts between Porcelain Black and her long @-@ time collaborator , RedOne , the artist announced via social media that plans to release her long @-@ anticipated album were cancelled . Plans to release a new album , in the vein of her previous project , Porcelain and the Tramps , are expected for late 2015 . Music from her new project will feature the same attitude of the singer 's previous works with slower , mid @-@ tempo songs and rapping .
= = Personal life = =
In April 2012 , she married model Bradley Soileau , who has appeared with singer Lana Del Rey in the music videos for " Blue Jeans " , " Born to Die " , and " West Coast " .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Black 's voice has been described as raspy , death growls often appearing in her music . In an interview with The Advocate , Black revealed that she has always had this talent and that it is something she has never practiced . RedOne , the producer who signed her to his label , says that Black 's voice and attitude reminded him of Joan Jett . He concluded that " [ s ] he can scream and do things with her voice that nobody can do . She is uncompromising in pursuing her own creative vision . She 's taking everything that 's old and making it futuristic and bringing rock and roll back in her own way . " Black styled her musical genre " horror @-@ pop " . It has been described as the love child between Marilyn Manson and Britney Spears , a fusion of dance @-@ pop and darker industrial themes . Black cites that Spears inspires her deep love for choreography , while Manson inspires the sound and attitude of her lyrics and performance style .
Recalling the songwriting style she used when she had collaborated with RedOne , Porcelain Black said she would enter the studio with an idea she had come up with on her own at the piano and play it for RedOne . At other times , RedOne would play a beat he had constructed for her , and she would listen to it and see what vibes emerged from hearing it . Usually , Porcelain Black creates a song title , then forges the song around that . She finds the most difficult songwriting process to be starting with melody , because making the syllables of her lyrics match the melody produces an effect that sounds forced and contrived . When working with RedOne , Porcelain Black said they would construct the melodies together , but all of the song lyrics were written exclusively by her ; RedOne did not contribute to her music lyrically while they were working together on her first attempt at a debut album . Lyrically , Porcelain Black writes all of her own songs . On the topic , she has said : " I write all my own stuff . I don 't understand artists that don ’ t write their own songs . I 'm thankful for artists like Britney , but I don ’ t understand how you can ’ t write your own music . It 's such a personal way of expressing yourself . "
= = = Public image = = =
Critics have noted that her sound is more pop than rock , but Black is militant at her rock and roll image , saying " ... I know I 'm rock n roll . " When asked about what it means to be rock and roll , she stated :
Genre @-@ wise , her sound has been called " industrial pop " , a fusion of pop and industrial metal . Her flashy and irreverent image has been compared to the work of many other artists . Often , comparisons are drawn between her and Lady Gaga , but she has also been compared to Joan Jett , Courtney Love , and Nicki Minaj . Black 's two @-@ tone hairstyle and fashion is inspired by both Manson and Spears as well , along with her desire to develop a persona in which a stable duality between " good " and " bad " exists . The former has gained her comparisons to the cartoon character Cruella de Vil . Black disavows the association as completely unfounded , specifically saying , " She 's a [ expletive ] cartoon . Are you serious ? " Black calls her fans " trainwrecks " , alluding to the tattoo on the inside of her middle finger . Malcolm Harris , writing for The Huffington Post , discovered Porcelain Black on the cover of UnSound and reacted to her image :
Following trends in music where women experiment with bisexuality , Black said she was an " equal opportunist " . Thematically , her music has been said to resonate with LGBT and adolescence , gaining her notoriety as a gay icon . On this subject , Black has said :
Popjustice writer Peter Robinson said Porcelain Black was one of pop music 's most confusingly styled artists , attributing the shift from her edgier , rock @-@ inspired look to one resembling Jennifer Lopez as an attempt by her team to make her image more marketable . Despite the appraisal , he critiqued her song " Rich Boi " as being influenced by rock icons , Def Leppard and Steve Miller Band . In another review , Robinson commented on another record called " One Woman Army " from Porcelain Black 's private Hollywood show . Stylistically in vein with Porcelain Black 's pop rock genre hybrid , " One Woman Army " contains rapping , which Robinson said was " completely ridiculous and we love it . " Blogging " What a chorus ! " , he called attention to the chorus , saying " ... haven 't we all at some point in our lives been on a battlefield like ' oh my God ' ? "
= = = Influences = = =
Her biological father 's love for rock music by Led Zeppelin , David Bowie , and Jimi Hendrix also influences her . She has also listed Nine Inch Nails and its frontman , Trent Reznor , Björk , Fiona Apple , Aaliyah , Skinny Puppy , AC / DC , Hole and Oasis as musical influences , citing the albums ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? and Live Through This as the most influential to her current sound . She has also mentioned Janet Jackson as a primary influence , saying " I love everything she does . " The first concert she attended was an AC / DC concert with her father . Recalling the experience , she told Revolver , " ... I was like , when I grow up , this is what I want to do ! "
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = As lead artist = = =
= = = As featured artist = = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
= = = Videography = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
Opening act
2008 : I Am Music Tour ( Lil Wayne )
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= Counseling ( The Office ) =
" Counseling " is the second episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the shows 128th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on September 30 , 2010 . The episode was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . " Counseling " guest stars Eric Zuckerman as a store clerk , Vincent Angelo as a vendor , and Michael Schur as Mose Schrute . Evan Peters also appears as Luke Cooper in archival footage from the previous episode .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is forced to have six hours of counseling with Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) after he physically reprimanded his nephew Luke ( Peters ) , but Michael refuses to make Toby 's job easy . Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) attempts to finagle a promotion to office administrator and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) boycotts the Steamtown Mall after a shop owner refuses to serve him .
" Counseling " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 36 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a significant drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired , as well as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports NBC broadcast for the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is assigned six hours of counseling with Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) after he physically reprimanded his nephew Luke ( Evan Peters ) , but Michael refuses to speak to Toby . One hour into their session , Toby tells Michael that he will not fill in the official assessment form unless Michael talks to him , so Michael begins telling ridiculous stories . Toby then tries the common counseling method of playing games with the client to get them to open up more . The method works , and Michael opens up to Toby about his personal history and relationships with people ( he mentions seeing a baseball game with his stepfather where he was told that the team 's manager deserved respect and how he never forgot that ) , and Toby makes an important discovery that Michael needs to be liked . Michael realizes what is happening , gets angry at Toby , and denigrates his counseling ability . Toby gives up and gives Michael the official form , allowing him to fill it out however he wants . In his haste , Michael accidentally checks off on the form that he is severely depressed and homicidal . Gabe contacts Toby , confused by his extreme assessment of Michael . Although Michael initially blames Toby for the mishap , he turns his ire to Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) , even making Toby laugh . Michael openly offers to return to the break room with Toby and " bang this out " . At the end of the episode , they are both talking and drawing pictures .
Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) realizes that although she has her dream job of salesman , that she just might not be cut out for it after all since she makes few sales and very little money . A chance visit from a vendor gives her an idea to finagle a promotion to office administrator , hopefully for some added income . She informs Gabe of her promotion " from a few months back " and tells him she has not been paid accordingly , to which Gabe promises her he will get the missing wages if she can get all of the department heads to sign off on it . While she is busy convincing everyone that she has become the new administrator , Gabe catches on that she might be lying , and confronts her about it . Using a strategy she learned from watching poker , she stands her ground against Gabe and becomes de facto office administrator .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) has decided to boycott the Steamtown Mall after a shop owner refuses to serve him , going so far as to cancel orders to businesses there . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and the rest of the office convince Dwight to get revenge on the shop owner by making Dwight appear to be high @-@ class , and then having him refuse to buy from the shop , a scheme the office references from the movie Pretty Woman . Using tips from the rest of the office to make himself appear more sophisticated , Dwight , with Jim and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , return to the shop . To their surprise , the shop owner immediately recognizes Dwight even in his new attire , and explains that they did not serve him before because they were intimidated by his blood @-@ soaked hands ( actually beet juice ) . Dwight , somewhat flustered from the truth of the situation being revealed to him , stumbles over his words before finally saying the line he had came all the way there to say , " You made a big mistake . Huge ! " , while waving his shopping bags . The group leaves somewhat embarrassed , but not before Dwight buys what he came for : a pewter wizard statuette holding a crystal ball .
= = Production = =
" Counseling " was written by B. J. Novak , a producer and screenwriter for the series who also portrays the character of Ryan Howard on the show . The entry was directed by Jeffrey Blitz , who had also directed the previous episode " Nepotism " . " Counseling " features Eric Zuckerman , Vincent Angelo and Michael Schur in guest appearances as a store teller , a vendor , and Mose Schrute , respectively . Evan Peters also appears as Luke Cooper in archival footage from the previous episode . With the seventh season of The Office being Carell 's last , the writers decided to divide the season into two distinct halves ; the first half would " celebrate Carell 's finale year and highlight different actors on the show " , whereas the second half would focus on his departure and the search for a new manager . As such , " Counseling " was one of the first episode of the season to specifically highlight other characters , in this case Lieberstein 's character , Toby .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Stanley discussing boycotting Kellogs , Dwight putting on his fancy clothing , Dwight getting his pipe from Creed , Kevin giving Dwight a tissue , extended footage of Michael 's counseling session , Michael discussing dogs , and extended footage of Dwight in the mall .
= = Cultural references = =
At Dwight 's daycare , a poster for the American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse is hung on the wall ; however , Dwight has scribbled out the words " Insane " and " Posse " to make it fit into the daycare . In the episode , Dwight 's subplot is inspired by as Julia Roberts 's character did in the film Pretty Woman . Dwight even attempts to use Roberts 's line , " Big mistake " , but instead renders it as " You made a big mistake . Huge ! " During Michael 's counseling session , he sardonically tells Toby that he was probed by ALF , the alien star of the eponymous television series . Michael and Toby later pass the time playing Connect Four . Darryl notes to Pam that he saw a TLC show about Kate Walsh 's home office , and he wants one similar .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Counseling " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 36 million viewers with a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a decrease in a million viewers and a 14 percent decrease in the 18 – 49 demographic from the previous episode . The episode became the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports related NBC program for the original week it aired and also became the twenty @-@ first most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
Joel Keller of AOLTV called it a " vast improvement " from the previous episode " Nepotism " , because he felt that " everyone at Dunder @-@ Mifflin [ sic ] Scranton acted like themselves " . Keller called Toby and Michael 's counseling session " great " and enjoyed the way Toby was able to trick Michael . Kelly Gerlach of TV Equals enjoyed the episode and noted that it " felt like the earlier seasons " because " there wasn ’ t forced humor , nothing made me cringe in my seat because of bad writing , and the awkward situations were written specifically to be awkward . " In the end , she called the episode " decent " .
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix felt that the main story employed " one of the show 's most reliable running jokes " . Furthermore , he felt that Michael softening to Toby was an interesting element to the episode , and he wondered if " this was a one @-@ time thing , or if Michael 's treatment of Toby will be softened , even a little . " Sepinwall also felt that Pam 's story was the stronger of the two subplots , and felt that an office controlled by her would be interesting . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars and called it " pleasant " . While he noted that each of the three stories " weren 't flat out funny " , he wrote that they were all " enjoyable " . Furthermore , he positively commented on the main plot , noting that the Michael and Toby rivalry was fun .
Not all reviews were positive . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " grade . While he enjoyed the main storyline revolving around Michael and Toby and felt that it " came together both comically and dramatically at the end of the day " , he felt the rest of the episode was " quite uneven " with elements that were " ridiculous " , such as how Pam attained her new job . McNutt 's largest complaint with the remainder of the episode was that neither ended in " a logical place " ; he felt Dwight 's plot featured a disconnect from the character , and that Pam 's story was " lazy " .
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= Persecution of Zoroastrians =
Persecution of Zoroastrians is the religious persecution inflicted upon the followers of the Zoroastrian faith . The persecution of Zoroastrians occurred throughout its history . The discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence and forced conversions . Muslims are recorded to have destroyed fire temples . Zoroastrians living under Muslim rule were required to pay a tax called Jizya .
Zoroastrian places of worship were desecrated , shrines were destroyed and mosques built in their place . Many libraries were burned and much cultural heritage was lost . Gradually there were increased number of laws regulating Zoroastrian behavior , limiting their ability to participate in society . Over time , persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread , and the number of believers decreased significantly .
Many converted , some superficially , to escape the systematic abuse and discrimination by the law of the land . Once a Zoroastrian family converted to Islam , the children had to go to an Islamic school and learn Arabic and the teachings of the Quran and these children lost their Zoroastrian identity , although under the Samanids , who were Zoroastrian converts to Islam , the Persian language flourished . On occasion , the Zoroastrian clergy assisted Muslims against those who they deemed Zoroastrian heretics .
At other times , Zoroastrians persecuted other Zoroastrians , in what were deemed heretical Zoroastrian sects . According to Hinnells , persecution is pivotal to Zoroastrians ' sense of identity , and as the Jewish communities cannot be understood without an appreciation of the reality of anti @-@ Semitism , so too the Zoroastrian experience of exclusion must be taken into account .
= = Persecution of Zoroastrians by Muslims = =
= = = Islamic conquest = = =
Until the Arab invasion and subsequent Muslim conquest , in the mid 7th century Persia ( modern @-@ day Iran ) was a politically independent state , spanning from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River and dominated by a Zoroastrian majority . Zoroastrianism was the official state religion of four pre @-@ Islamic Persian empires , the last being the Sassanian empire that passed a decree solidifying this in 224 CE . The Arab invasion abruptly brought to an end the religious domination of Zoroastrianism in Persia and instituted Islam as the official religion of the state .
After the Muslim conquest of Persia , Zoroastrians were given dhimmi status and subjected to persecutions ; discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence . Those paying Jizya were subjected to insults and humiliation by the tax collectors . Zoroastrians who were captured as slaves in wars were given their freedom if they converted to Islam .
Many fire temples , with their four axial arch openings , were usually turned into mosques simply by setting a mihrab ( prayer niche ) on the place of the arch nearest to qibla ( the direction of Mecca ) . Zoroastrian temples converted into mosques in such a manner could be found in Bukhara , as well as in and near Istakhr and other Persian cities . Urban cities where Arab governors made their quarters were most vulnerable to such religious persecution , great fire temples were turned into mosques , and the citizens were forced to conform or flee . Many libraries were burnt and much cultural heritage was lost .
Gradually there were increased number of laws regulating Zoroastrian behavior , limiting their ability to participate in society , and made life difficult for the Zoroastrians in the hope that they would convert to Islam . Over time , persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread , and the number of believers decreased significantly . Many converted , some superficially , to escape the systematic abuse and discrimination by the law of the land . Others accepted Islam because their employment in industrial and artisan work would , according to Zoroastrian dogma , make them impure as their work involved defiling fire . According to Thomas Walker Arnold , Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenants to Zoroastrians , as there were many similarities between the faiths . According to Arnold , for the Persian , he would meet Ahura Mazda and Ahriman under the names of Allah and Iblis .
Once a Zoroastrian family converted to Islam , the children had to go to Muslim religion school and learn Arabic and the teachings of the Quran and these children lost their Zoroastrian identity . These factors continued to contribute to increasing rates of conversion from Zoroastrianism to Islam . A Persian scholar commented , “ Why so many had to die or suffer ? Because one side was determined to impose his religion upon the other who could not understand . "
= = = 642 CE to 10th Century = = =
In the 7th century CE Persia succumbed to the invading Arabs . With the death of Yazdegerd III , who was treacherously slain in that year after being defeated in battle , the Sasanid line came to an end and the Zoroastrian faith , which had been the state religion for more than a thousand years , was deposed , and Islam took its place as the national religion of Persia .
In the following centuries , Zoroastrians faced much religious discrimination and persecution , harassments , as well as being identified as najis ( polluted ) and impure to Muslims , making them unfit to live alongside Muslims , and therefore forcing them to evacuate from cities and face major sanctions in all spheres of life . Zoroastrians have been subject to public humiliation through dress regulations , to being labeled as najis and to exclusion in the fields of society , education and work .
= = = = Rashidun Caliphs ( 642 – 661 CE ) = = = =
Under the first four Caliphs , Persia remained predominantly Zoroastrian . Zoroastrians were awarded the status of People of the Book or dhimmi status by the Caliph Umar , although some practices contrary to Islam were prohibited .
When the Persian capital of Ctesiphon in province of Khvârvarân ( today known as Iraq ) fell to the Muslims during the Islamic conquest of Persia in 637 under the military command of Sa 'ad ibn Abi Waqqas during the caliphate of Umar , the palaces and their archives were burned . According to an account in Tarikh al @-@ Tabari by Al @-@ Tabari , the Arab Commander Sa 'ad ibn Abi Waqqas wrote to Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khatta @-@ b asking what should be done with the books at Ctesiphon . Umar wrote back : " If the books contradict the Qur 'an , they are blasphemous . On the other hand , if they are in agreement , they are not needed , as for us Qur 'an is sufficient . " Thus , the huge library was destroyed and the books , the product of the generations of Persian scientists and scholars were thrown into fire or the Euphrates . Nearly 40 @,@ 000 captured Persian noblemen were taken as slaves and sold in Arabia . The Arabs called the Persians ' Ajam ' meaning foreign . The first voice of protest came from Piruz Nahavandi , an enslaved Persian artisan , who assassinated Umar . When the city of Estakhr in the south , a Zoroastrian religious center , put up stiff resistance against the Arab invaders , 40 @,@ 000 residents were slaughtered or hanged .
= = = = The Umayyads ( 661 – 750 CE ) = = = =
The Umayyads who ruled from Syria followed the Caliphs . The persecution increased in the 8th century , during the reign of the late Umayyad Caliphs , whose dynastic predecessors had conquered most of the last Zoroastrian state by 652 . Jizya tax was imposed upon Zoroastrians , and the official language of Persia became Arabic instead of the local Persian . In 741 , the Umayyads officially decreed that non @-@ Muslims be excluded from governmental positions .
The Iranian Muslims at this time started a new tradition , which made Islam appear as a partly Iranian religion . They pointed out that an Iranian , Salaman @-@ I @-@ Farsi had a great influence on Muhammad , the prophet . Another myth was created that Husayn , the son of the fourth Caliph had married a Sassanian princess , named Shahr @-@ Banu , the Lady of the Land , whose son became the fourth Muslim Imam ( and started the Shia branch of Islam ) . The Iranian Muslims thus believed that Shia Islam was derived from Sassanian Royalty . These two beliefs made it easier for Zoroastrians to convert . An instance of religious oppression is recorded when an Arab governor appointed a commissioner to supervise the destruction of shrines throughout Iran , regardless of treaty obligations . One of the Umayyad Caliphs was quoted saying , " milk the Persians and once their milk dries , suck their blood " .
Yazid @-@ ibn @-@ Mohalleb , a general under the Umayyads , was appointed the head of a great army to lead the Mazandaran expedition . On the way to Mazandaran , the general ordered captives to be hanged at the two sides of the road so that the victorious Arab army pass through . The attack on Tabarestan ( present @-@ day Mazandaran ) failed , but he established his control in Gorgan . By the orders of Yazid @-@ ibn @-@ Mohalleb so many Persians were beheaded in Gorgan that their blood mixed with water would energize the millstone to produce as much as one day meal for him , as he had vowed . Extent of his brutality represented itself by running watermills by people 's blood for three days and he fed his army with the bread made from that very bloody flour . But , Tabarestan remained invincible until the majority of Zoroastrians migrated towards India and the rest converted to Islam gradually .
= = = = The Abbasids ( 752 – 804 CE ) = = = =
The Umayyads were followed by the Abbasid dynasty which came to power with the help of Iranian Muslims . The persecution of Zoroastrians increased significantly under the Abbasids , temples and sacred @-@ fire shrines were destroyed . Also during Abbasid rule , the status of Zoroastrians in Persian lands was reduced from zimmi ( or dhimmi , people who were protected by the state and generally considered ' People of the Book ' ) to ' kafirs ' ( non @-@ believers ) . As a result , Zoroastrians were not granted the same rights and status as Jews and Christians . Iranian Muslims were welcomed to the court , but not Zoroastrians . Zoroastrians were denied access to bathhouses on the grounds that their bodies were polluted .
Hardly any Zoroastrian family was able to avoid conversion to Islam when employed by the Abbasids . Because of their harshness towards unbelievers , and due to their lavish patronage of Persian Muslims , the Abbasids proved to be deadly foes of Zoroastrianism . According to Dawlatshah , Abdollah @-@ ibn @-@ Tahir , an Arabicized Persian , and governor of Khorasan for the Abbasid caliphs , banned publication in Persian and by his order all the Zoroastrians were forced to bring their religious books to be thrown in the fire . As a result , many literary works written in Pahlavi script disappeared . During the Abbasid reign the Zoroastrians , for the first time became a minority in Iran . Nevertheless , there were instances of toleration during the Abbasid era , particularly under the reign of Al @-@ Mu 'tasim who flogged an imam and muezzin for destroying a fire @-@ temple and replacing it with a mosque .
= = = = The Saffarids ( 869 – 903 CE ) = = = =
The Abbasids were followed by the Saffarids . Zoroastrians lived under the leadership of their High Priest , since they had no king . In Iraq , the political center of the Sassanian state , Zoroastrian institutions were viewed as appendages of the royal government and family , and suffered much destruction and confiscation . Closely associated with the power structures of the Persian Empire , Zoroastrian clergy quickly declined after it was deprived of the state support .
= = = = The Samanids ( 819 – 999 CE ) = = = =
The Samanids were of Zoroastrian theocratic nobility who voluntarily converted to Sunni Islam . During their reign , approximately 300 years after the Arab conquest , fire temples were still found in almost every province of Persia including Khorasan , Kirman , Sijistan and other areas under Samanid control . According to Al @-@ Shahrastani , there were fire @-@ temples even in Baghdad at the time . The historian Al @-@ Masudi , a Baghdad @-@ born Arab , who wrote a comprehensive treatise on history and geography in about 956 , records that after the conquest :
Zorastrianism , for the time being , continued to exist in many parts of Iran . Not only in countries which came relatively late under Muslim sway ( e.g Tabaristan ) but also in those regions which early had become provinces of the Muslim empire . In almost all the Iranian provinces , according to Al Masudi , fire temples were to be found – the Madjus he says , venerate many fire temples in Iraq , Fars , Kirman , Sistan , Khurasan , Tabaristan , al Djibal , Azerbaijan and Arran .
He also added Sindh and Sin of the Indian subcontinent ( Al @-@ Hind ) to the list . This general statement of al Masudi is fully supported by the medieval geographers who make mention of fire temples in most of the Iranian towns .
= = = 10th to 20th century = = =
= = = = Migration to India = = = =
At the beginning of the 10th century a small group of Zoroastrians living around the town of Nyshapour and Fort of Sanjan in the province of ( greater ) Khorasan , decided that Iran was no longer safe for Zoroastrians and their religion , and decided to emigrate to India . They traveled to the island of Hormazd in the Persian Gulf , and after three years ' preparation set sail for India . They landed on Diu Island of the coast of Gujarat in the year 936 CE . There they lived for about 20 years in great difficulty . They learned the local language and presented their case to Jadi Rana , the Hindu king of that region .
Jadi Rana in return for some promises of behavior , allowed them to settle in his kingdom . The refugees accepted the conditions and founded the settlement of Sanjan ( Gujarat ) , which is said to have been named after the city of their origin ( Sanjan , near Merv , in present @-@ day Turkmenistan ) , that they had left behind in Iran nearly 30 years earlier . They consecrated their first Atash Behram fire within five years of coming to Sanjan ( Gujarat ) .
This attracted other Zoroastrians from Iran and also some Zoroastrians who had individually come over the years and settled in various parts of western India . This first group was followed by a second group , also from Greater Khorasan , within five years of the first , and this time having religious implements with them ( the alat ) . In addition to these Khorasanis or Kohistanis – mountain folk , as the two initial groups are said to have been initially called – at least one other group is said to have come overland from Sari ( in present @-@ day Mazandaran , Iran ) . After that , there were several smaller migrations from different parts of Iran into the same region of India , with each wave bringing with them their own ways of performance of Zoroastrian ceremonies and rituals .
This was the start of the Parsis in India . They have since lived in peace with the Hindus and their relationship with Hindus is full of accord and amity . The community still exists in western India , and it currently contains the largest concentration of Zoroastrians in the world . " Parsi legends regarding their ancestors ' migration to India depict a beleaguered band of religious refugees escaping the harsh rule of fanatical Muslim invaders in order to preserve their ancient faith . " The epic poem Qissa @-@ i @-@ Sanjan ( Story of Sanjan ) is an account of the early years of Zoroastrian settlers on the Indian subcontinent . It is only in recent times that Parsis have become aware of the extent of the oppression that their ancestors in Iran had to endure .
= = = = The Safavids ( 1502 – 1747 CE ) = = = =
Zoroastrians had difficult time during the Safavid period and faced repeated persecution and forced conversion . Safavid kings sought to compel them to accept Shia Islam , Sunnis too were forced to convert to Shia or were killed . Zoroastrians were also branded as impure , in addition to being infidels . As earlier in the century , so this period also witnessed sporadic campaigns for the conversion of Armenians and Zoroastrians , focusing blame for economic and other ills on these and other minorities whose involvement in the spice export , for example , was well known .
In the early 16th century the great Safavid king , Shah Abbas I settled a number of Zoroastrians in a suburb of his new capital , Isfahan . The suburb of Isfahan where the Zoroastrians lived was called Gabr @-@ Mahal , Gabristan or Gabrabad , derived from the word Gabr . Europeans who visited his court left accounts of the ' Gabars ' or ' Gabrs ' , ( an insulting term used for Zoroastrians by the Muslims ) , agree on the poverty and simplicity of their lives . Fearing desecration by Muslims , Zoroastrians hid the sacred fires , and conversed in a newly invented dialect called Dari . Later Safavid kings were not as tolerant as Shah Abbas . Muhammad Baqir Majlisi persuaded Sultan Husayn ( 1688 – 1728 CE ) to decree the forcible conversion of Zoroastrians , those who refused were killed .
The accounts in Mino Khirad , written during the Savafid period , demonstrate that the Zoroastrians were subjected to harassment by the Shi 'ite majority , their places of worship were under a constant threat of being destroyed . By 1707 , when Le Bruyn visited Isfahan , the Zoroastrians were no longer able practice their religion freely . He notes that the most deprived Zoroastrians had been brought to Isfahan , and had been forced to become Muslim three years earlier . In 1821 , Ker Porter visiting Isfahan notes that there were hardly any Zoroastrians left in Isfahan and Gabrabad was in ruins .
= = = = Qajar Dynasty ( 1796 – 1925 CE ) = = = =
A Zoroastrian astrologer named Mulla Gushtasp predicted the fall of the Zand dynasty to the Qajar army in Kerman . Because of Gushtasp 's forecast , the Zoroastrians of Kerman were spared by the conquering army of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar . Despite the aforementioned favorable incident , the Zoroastrians during the Qajar dynasty remained in agony and their population continued to decline . Even during the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan , the founder of the dynasty , many Zoroastrians were killed and some were taken as captives to Azerbaijan . Zoroastrians regard the Qajar period as one of their worst .
Many foreign visitors to Iran of the time had commented on their pitiful situation . Traveller A.V.W. Jackson noted that Zoroastrians lived in constant fear of persecution by Muslim extremists and their lives were in danger whenever the fanatical spirit of Islam broke out , such as the one witnessed by him in Yazd . According to Edward Browne , the wall of Zoroastrian houses had to be lower than that of the Muslims and prohibited from marking their houses with distinctive signs . Zoroastrians were forbidden from erecting new houses and repairing old ones .
Various methods were used to proselytize the minorities . According to a law , if any member of family converted to Islam , he / she was entitled to all inheritance . They were forbidden from taking up lucrative occupations . The community was regarded as outcast , impure and untouchable . The Zoroastrians and their food was considered impure and many public places refused to serve them . When they shopped in the bazaar , they were not allowed to touch any food or fruits . They were threatened with forced conversions , beaten up and fleeced , and their religious sanctuaries were regularly desecrated . Harassments and persecution were the norms of daily life . Zoroastrians were often attacked and beaten by Muslims in the streets . The murders of Zoroastrians were not punished . At times , Zoroastrian girls were kidnapped and forcefully converted and married to Muslims and brought to town in fanfare .
Zoroastrians were subjected to public discrimination through dress regulations – not allowed to wear new or white clothes , and compelled by enactments to wear the dull yellow raiment already alluded to as a distinguishing badge . They were not allowed to wear overcoats but were compelled to wear long robes called qaba and cotton geeveh on their feet even in winter . Wearing eyeglasses , long cloak , trousers , hat , boots , socks , winding their turbans tightly and neatly , carrying watch or a ring , were all forbidden to Zoroastrians . During the rainy days they were not allowed carry umbrellas or to appear in public , because the water that had run down through their bodies and cloths could pollute the Muslims . Zoroastrian men in Yazd would carry a large shawl that they would place under their feet when visiting a Muslim 's home so as to prevent the carpet from being polluted . Forbidden from riding horses and only allowed to ride mules or donkeys , upon facing a Muslim they had to dismount . Not until 1923 , was the general proscription against Zoroastrians ' riding horses and donkeys lifted by Reza Shah .
On top of all the misery the Zoroastrians had to pay a heavy religious tax known as Jizya . Zoroastrian sources record the method of extracting this as designed to humiliate the dhimmi , the taxed person , who was compelled to stand while the officer receiving the money sat on a high throne . Upon receiving the payment , the officer gave the dhimmi a blow on the neck and drove him roughly away . The public was invited to watch the spectacle . Arab tax collectors would mock Zoroastrians for wearing Kushti and would rip it off , hanging the cord around the necks of the beleaguered faithful . Due to corruption of the tax officials , at times twice and even three times the official figure would be collected , because every intermediary had to receive his share . If the families could not afford paying the Jizya , their children were beaten and even tortured and their religious books were thrown in fire . That is how the term “ the bookless ” came about . Under the woeful conditions , some had to convert and there were those who declared themselves Muslims , picked up Islamic names , but in secret continued Zoroastrian practices . Today the latter group among the Zoroastrians is known as Jaddid . In response to persecution and segregation policies , the Zoroastrians community became closed , introverted , and static .
Zoroastrian massacres did not cease during the Qajar rule . The last two are recorded at the villages surrounding the city of Boarzjan and Turkabad near Yazd . Today , the village of Maul Seyyed Aul near Borazjan , among the local people is known as “ killing site ” ( Ghatl @-@ Gauh ) , and Zoroastrian surnames of Turk , Turki , Turkian and Turkabadi reflect lineage to the survivors of Turkabad . In the 1850s , Comte de Gobineau , the French Ambassador to Iran wrote : " Only 6000 of them are left and just a miracle may save them from extinction . These are the descendants of the people who one day ruled the world . "
Due to the extent of oppression , and destitution , many Zoroastrians ventured to the hazardous journey to India . Those who could not afford the voyage aboard the ships , risked their lives by crossing the hostile desert on donkeys or even on foot . In India , they were recognized for Sedreh and Kushti and were sheltered by their Parsi brethren . There , they formed the second major Indian Zoroastrian community known as the Iranis .
= = = = Emissaries to Iran = = = =
When the news of their plight reached the Parsis , who by this time had become quite prosperous , Parsi funds were set up to help the Iranian Zoroastrians and emissaries were dispatched to Iran . A Parsi philanthropist , Maneckji Limji Hataria , was sent to help them . He found only 7711 Zoroastrians in Kerman , Yazd and Tehran ( now the capital of Iran ) . Using his influence with the British government he managed to get some of the repression against Zoroastrians removed . Jizya was paid by the Zoroastrian minority until 1882 , when it was removed by pressure on the Qajar government from the Persian Zoroastrian Amelioration Fund .
= = = = Islamic Republic of Iran ( 1979 @-@ Present CE ) = = = =
The 1979 Islamic Revolution was equally traumatic for the remaining Zoroastrians , and their numbers reduced drastically . Immediately after the revolution , during Bazargan 's premiership , Muslim revolutionaries " walked into the main Zoroastrian fire temple in Tehran and removed the portrait of the Prophet Zoroaster and replaced it with one of [ Ayatollah ] Khomeini " .
Iran is regarded by the United Nations and other non @-@ governmental organizations as among the world 's worst offenders against freedom of religion — alongside Saudi Arabia and Sudan . Members of religious minorities are , by law and practice , barred from being elected to a representative body ( except to the seats in the Majles reserved for minorities , as provided for in the Constitution ) and from holding senior government or military positions . They also suffer discrimination in the legal system , receiving lower awards in injury and death lawsuits , and incurring heavier punishments , than Muslims . Muslim men are free to marry non @-@ Muslim women but marriages between Muslim women and non @-@ Muslim men are not recognized .
= = Persecution of minority Zoroastrian groups by other Zoroastrians = =
Mazdakism was viewed by the Zoroastrian hierarchy as a heresy and consequently persecuted by Zoroastrian Sassanian leaders . The Sassanian ruler Khosrau I launched a campaign against the Mazdakis in 524 or 528 , culminating in a massacre killing most of the adherents , including Mazdak himself and restored orthodox Zoroastrianism as state religion .
Various accounts specify the way of death : e.g. the Shahnameh states that the three thousand Mazdakis were buried alive with the feet upwards in order to present Mazdak with the spectacle of a " human garden " , whereas Mazdak himself was hanged upside down and shot with countless arrows ; other stories specify other torturous methods of execution . In any case , Anushiravan then proceeded to implement his own far @-@ reaching social and administrative reforms . Mazdakism almost disappeared after the massacre . Later , there were instances in which Zoroastrian clergy were assisted by Muslims against Zoroastrians whom the Zoroastrian clergy considered to be heretics or separatists .
= = Persecution of Zoroastrians by Christians = =
According to Mary Boyce , Zoroastrians living under Christian rule in Asia Minor were noted to have undergone hardship , notably during the long conflict between the Roman Empire and Persia . Christians living in Sassanian @-@ held territory were noted to have destroyed many fire @-@ temples and Zoroastrian places of worship . Christian priests deliberately extinguished the sacred fire of the Zoroastrians and characterized adherents as " followers of the wicked Zardusht ( Zoroaster ) , serving false gods and the natural elements . "
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= Hitmixes =
Hitmixes is the second extended play ( EP ) by American recording artist Lady Gaga , released on August 25 , 2009 . Featuring remixes of songs from Gaga 's debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , the album was only released in Canada , by Universal Music Canada . Hitmixes features mixes from various musicians , including RedOne and Space Cowboy , who previously worked with Gaga . The EP hosts 1980s @-@ influenced and house remixes . Hitmixes received positive reviews from the Calgary Herald and Blare Magazine , and peaked at number eight on the Canadian Albums Chart .
= = Background and composition = =
Lady Gaga released her debut album , The Fame , on August 19 , 2008 ; It spawned five singles : " Just Dance " , " Poker Face " , " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , " LoveGame " and " Paparazzi " . " Eh , Eh " was not released in North America , and was not remixed for Hitmixes . The other four singles all reached the top three of the Canadian Hot 100 . The album 's title track , " The Fame " , was also remixed and included on the EP . Gaga 's main producer , RedOne , produced a remix of " Just Dance " for the record ; other producers were Robots to Mars , Chew Fu , Space Cowboy , Moto Blanco and Guéna LG . Hitmixes was released as a compact disc on August 25 , 2009 in Canada only by Universal Music Canada . Moto Blanco 's " Paparazzi " remix and the Glam as You remix of " The Fame " have 1980s influences , while the " LoveGame " Chew Fu Ghettohouse Fix and Space Cowboy 's mix of " Poker Face " feature house styles , including incorporation of trance music and synthesizers . Rock singer Marilyn Manson and rapper Kardinal Offishall contribute additional vocals to the EP as featured artists .
= = Reception = =
Due to its Canada @-@ only release , Hitmixes did not receive many professional reviews , however , in its review , the Calgary Herald stated that several tracks were " artfully and decadently remixed " . Dan Rankin of Blare Magazine gave the EP three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , saying that the mixes showed " varying degrees of success " . Rankin especially praised Kardinal Offishall 's vocals on the RedOne remix of " Just Dance " and singled it and the " LoveGame " Chew Fu Ghettohouse Fix as the best tracks on the album . Hitmixes debuted and peaked on the Canadian Albums Chart at number eight , on the issue dated September 12 , 2009 . The next week it fell to number sixteen , and spent its third and final week on the chart at number twenty @-@ two .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Track listing and credits from album booklet .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Hitmixes , adapted from Allmusic :
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= Maria Ulfah Santoso =
Meester Hajjah Maria Ulfah Soebadio Sastrosatomo ( 18 August 1911 – 15 April 1988 ) , better known by her first married name Maria Ulfah Santoso , was an Indonesian women 's rights activist and politician . She was the first Indonesian woman to receive a degree in law as well as the first female Indonesian cabinet member .
Santoso , the daughter of a politician , became interested in women 's rights after seeing numerous injustices in her youth . Despite pressure to become a doctor , she graduated with a degree in law from Leiden University in 1933 ; while in the Netherlands she also became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement , Upon returning to the Dutch East Indies , Santoso began teaching and working towards marriage reform . She was a member of the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence , and later became the social minister from 12 March 1946 to 26 June 1947 . After her term , she continued to work with the government in various capacities .
Chosen for the cabinet post in part for her emancipatory activities , Santoso paved the way for other female cabinet members , including S. K. Trimurti in 1947 . She received several awards from the Indonesian government for her activities .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and activism = = =
Santoso was born in Serang , Banten , Dutch East Indies , on 18 August 1911 to R.A.A. Mohammad Achmad and his wife R.A. Hadidjah Djajadiningrat . The youngest of three children , Santoso spent her childhood in Kuningan , where her father served as regent . One day , an ill aunt came over looking for help . However , upon receiving a letter from her husband , the aunt returned home and died not long after . Santoso later described this incident as inspiring her to work for women 's rights .
While Santoso was still in elementary school , her father sent her to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) to live with a Dutch family at Willemslaan Elementary School ; while in Batavia she completed her middle schooling at Koning Willem III Middle School . While in Batavia , Santoso observed further women 's issues , such as how women were devastated when their husbands took second wives or divorced them without cause . Despite her father wanting her to be a doctor , Santoso insisted on going into law .
Santoso went to The Hague , in the Netherlands , in 1929 with her father , who was furthering his studies . Santoso then enrolled at Leiden University in Leiden , from which she graduated in 1933 with a Meester in de Rechten ( Master of Laws ) degree ; this made her the first Indonesian woman to earn a law degree . During her studies , she became involved with the Indonesian nationalist movement and its leaders , including Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir .
In 1934 , Santoso returned to Batavia and took a teaching job at the Muhammadiyah @-@ run teacher 's college there , refusing a position in the colonial government to do so . While teaching , she continued to be active in the nationalist movement , helping Adam Malik to establish the news agency Antara . On February 1938 she married R. Santoso Wirodihardjo . That same year , she led a congress dealing with marriage reform , to better protect the rights of women ; the reforms passed in 1941 . Santoso also worked to promote women 's literacy through sewing groups ; women who came to study sewing would be invited to learn to read and about marriage rights and child @-@ rearing .
= = = Government work = = =
After the Japanese occupied Indonesia in 1942 , Santoso left her work as a teacher and found employment as legal assistant to Soepomo , who later became the country 's first minister of justice . In 1945 , with the Japanese preparing to withdraw from the Indies and the proclamation of independence looming , Santoso became a member of the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence . On 12 March 1946 , Santoso became the first ever female cabinet member when she was selected as services minister in the Second Sjahrir Cabinet . Working quickly and efficiently , she found herself organising the return of internees from Japanese @-@ run camps . She was kept on through the Third Sjahrir Cabinet , but when it dissolved on 26 June 1947 , Santoso refused another term as social minister . She instead chose to work as head of prime minister Amir Sjarifuddin 's secretariat . She kept this position into the First Hatta Cabinet . During Operation Kraai , a Dutch @-@ led offensive on the city of Yogyakarta on 19 December 1948 , her husband was killed outside Maguwo .
In 1949 , Santoso was part of a committee tasked with preparing a marriage bill " in keeping with the spirit of modern times " . Throughout the 1950s , Santoso kept herself busy with numerous social works . From 1950 until 1961 she served as the head of Indonesia 's film censorship bureau , a position which she held reluctantly . She also served as the head of the National Women 's Congress , Kowani , from 1950 to 1961 .
Santoso married again , this time to Indonesian Socialist Party figure Soebadio Sastrosatomo , on 10 January 1964 . The couple were often separated when Sastrasatomo was imprisoned for his political activities , but they were able to go on the hajj together . During the 1960s Santoso continued to be politically active , serving in the State Secretariat from 1962 to 1967 and on the State Advisory Council from 1967 to 1972 . While with Sastrosatomo , she adopted a child .
In her final years , Santoso and Sastrosatomo lived off of their pensions in Jakarta ; in her obituary , Tempo magazine reported that the pension was barely enough for day @-@ to @-@ day expenses . She died at 2 : 15 am on 15 April 1988 , after being treated at Gatot Subroto Air Force Hospital in Jakarta for more than a month . She was buried at Kalibata Heroes Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Soebadio Sastrosatomo wrote that Santoso 's selection as social minister was important for several reasons . Firstly , her selection showed that the government truly respected women 's contributions to the nationalist movement . Secondly , it was a way for Sjahrir to show that the Indonesian people were committed to the needs of their people , by having a woman deal with women 's issues . After Santoso , other women have held government positions . The second female Indonesian minister , S. K. Trimurti , served as minister of labour from 1947 to 1948 . In 2001 , Megawati Sukarnoputri became the first female president of Indonesia .
Santoso received several awards from the Indonesian government , including the Satya Lencana Karya Satya ( Level II ) ( Medal of Great Work ) , Satya Lencana Peringatan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan ( Medal in Memory of Freedom Fighting ) , and Bintang Mahaputra Utama ( Third Class ) ( Mahaputra Star ) . The Bintang Mahaputra is Indonesia 's highest award for civilians .
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= Good Enough ( Evanescence song ) =
" Good Enough " is a song by American rock band Evanescence . It was released in 2007 as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , The Open Door . The song was written by lead vocalist Amy Lee and produced by Dave Fortman . According to Lee it was written for her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler . It was placed as the last track on the album to symbolize a new beginning for the band . According to Lee , " Good Enough " was written for the soundtrack of the movie The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , but was not included . The producers of Narnia rebutted her claim , stating that no Evanescence music had been planned for inclusion in the soundtrack .
The song is a piano ballad set in a moderately slow tempo and features piano and strings . Musically it has been compared to songs by Sarah McLachlan and Tori Amos . " Good Enough " was critically acclaimed , with many music critics praising the piano sound . An accompanying music video , directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee , was filmed in Budapest , Hungary , and released on September 10 , 2007 . It features Lee in a warehouse singing and playing the piano while surrounded by flames . " Good Enough " was part of the set @-@ list during Evanescence 's 2006 The Open Door Tour .
= = Background = =
" Good Enough " was written by Amy Lee for her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler . It was produced by Dave Fortman and recorded in Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles . The single was scheduled for release in Germany in a basic and premium format on December 14 , 2007 , but a release date was never officially announced . While discussing Evanescence 's then upcoming album , The Open Door , Lee revealed that one of the tracks would be called " Good Enough " . She said , " It 's called ' Good Enough , ' and it 's completely , completely , completely different for me because it sort of [ has a ] happy ending . It 's the last song that I wrote for the record , and it 's sort of the bravest , I think , for me because I had to tell the truth and the truth is , I feel , good now . The rest of the album is pretty aggressive and dark and everything else , but the last one is like , I got to the good place that I was heading for and I wrote about how good I felt . It turned out amazing , but it 's like nothing we 've ever done . I just have to write from my heart and be genuine , because I think that 's what people loved about our music to begin with , and if that changes , then that changes . "
The song , which was the last one written for the album , was placed at the end of the album because it " marks a new beginning " for the band , which was the theme on the album and a theme in Lee 's life . In the booklet of The Open Door , she stated that her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler , was the main inspiration for the song . In the booklet she wrote , " Josh , you are my muse . Nothing inspires me the way you do . Thank you for all my missing pieces . Thank you for your strength and love . Thank you for letting me see myself through your eyes , because only then could I know that I am good enough for you . " One of the band 's previous singles , " Bring Me to Life " , was also written about Josh Hartzler . In an interview with VH1 , Lee further revealed the inspiration behind the song , saying " I had gone through a lot of difficult things during the writing of the whole album , and by the end of it , I had stepped away from those bad situations . That 's really hard . You have to be really brave and strong about it . After doing that , I felt so amazing . For the first time I felt like I could write a song based on how good I felt . I have never done that before ever . During another interview with The Washington Post she stated :
" That song -- the last one I wrote for the record -- is definitely the most representative of me now , the way that I feel . If we 're talking about the ' new me , ' that 's it and why it 's at the end of the record . You have to go through those things and make the changes you have to make and be there and go , ' Okay , I did it . ' It doesn 't come that easy . [ ... ] I just didn 't hold back this time , and writing that way has made me feel really purified , like I 've actually gotten a chance to break through instead of just wallowing in all of my problems . It 's not about all the times that I 've been afraid and tormented and sad , it 's about looking at those situations and stomping them out . It feels really good to sing these songs now . "
In a 2004 interview with MTV News , Amy Lee revealed that she was composing music for the film , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . She also revealed that the producers of the movie offered her a small role , saying " They were like , ' Do you want to do a cameo ? ' And I was like , ' Hell yeah ! Let me die . I want to be somebody who gets murdered . ' So I don 't think that 's going to happen . " She later revealed that " Lacrymosa " and another song were originally written for the film , but were not included . According to the producers of the movie , neither Lee or the band were approached to compose music for the film . Another song was also written for the movie , but it was rejected because of its dark sound . On the band 's official blog forum and in a radio interview , Lee stated that a part of the song which was written for the movie was used in " Good Enough " .
= = Composition = =
" Good Enough " is a moderately slow piano ballad with a happy theme . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , the song is in a common time and performed in moderately slow tempo of 92 beats per minute . " Good Enough " is written in the key of F minor , while Lee 's vocals for the song range from the musical note of G3 to the note of E ♭ 5 . The song contains strings , piano and Amy Lee 's vocals as the main instrumentation . In " Good Enough " , Lee " talks about the rapturous hold of something bigger than herself " in the text " Shouldn 't have let you torture me so sweetly … / Shouldn 't have let you conquer me completely / Now I can 't let go of this dream / Can 't believe that I feel / Good enough for you . " In the song she also sings the lines " I 'm still waiting for the rain to fall . Pour down real life on me / Cause I can 't hold onto anything this good enough / Am I good enough / For you to love me too ? " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Good Enough " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . In his review of The Open Door , Ed Thompson of the website IGN , stated that the fans who were " looking for the full @-@ blown piano ballad " reminiscent of " My Immortal " ( 2004 ) had to wait until the album 's final track . He added that at the end of the album they were awarded with " not only the most beautiful song on the album , but also the most unique song Lee has ever released . " He further said , " despite Lee 's voice giving the tune a funereal cast , there is no hiding the fact that the lyrics are of an upbeat nature . ' Shouldn 't have to torture me so sweetly , now I can 't let go of this dream , I can 't breathe but I feel good enough , I feel good enough for you . ' " Bill Lamb of the website About.com , put the song in his list of Top Tracks from The Open Door along with " Sweet Sacrifice " , " Call Me When You 're Sober " , " Your Star " and " Lacrymosa " . Jon Dolan from Entertainment Weekly said that " [ ... ] the deceptively soft ' Good Enough ' flirts again with the dark side , offering ' Drink up sweet decadence / I can 't say no to you ' and striking a final note of cathartic badness . " Kathy McCabe of The Daily Telegraph wrote that Lee 's " newfound confidence " is evident in the song . In his review of The Open Door , Andree Farias of Christianity Today concluded that though the song " leaves a sweet taste in your mouth " , it may not mean much in " a scheme . " He added that the song stands as a contrast to everything else in the album .
A writer for The Boston Globe called the song a " lone glimmer in the gloom " with " incongruously downtrodden groove " , adding that fans of Evanescence would like the song . Blabbermouth.net 's Don Kaye found the song to be a " melancholy ballad " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post found some quiet moments on The Open Door most notably on the " haunting ballad ' Good Enough ' " and on " Like You " . Writing for the magazine St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch , Sara Berry concluded that the band balanced the " scorching rock anthems " with " reflective , piano @-@ heavy ballads " like " Lithium " and " Good Enough " . She further found an " intimate @-@ sounding setting " which featured just Lee and her piano . The Providence Journal 's Rick Massimo , wrote that the song is " being rather melodramatic but melodically successful " . Chris Harris of Rolling Stone wrote that Lee is " stroking the ivories and delivering her lyrics with an elegant sweetness " which he found reminiscent of Tori Amos and Sarah McLachlan . A writer for Reuters called the song " as intense and affecting as anything before it -- and this time , Amy Lee 's lyric steps from the dark side , reveling in the relief of positivity . "
Jason Nahrung of The Courier @-@ Mail praised the song , calling it " sombrely arranged but lyrically uplifting " . A writer for Blender was negative towards the song , writing " Tori Amos for junior high crybabies ? We wish . ' Good Enough ' is a piano ballad so formless and maudlin we were shocked it made the last Evanescence album – and now it 's a single . How bad ? Too corny for Vanessa Carlton , too sophomoric for Jewel , too whispy for Enya . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that in the song Lee sounds " like a very average Middle American girl who yearns to be ' Good Enough ' but who suffers from an above @-@ average attraction to magnetic and destructive dudes . " A writer for Sputnikmusic praised the softness of the song giving it a grade of 4 @.@ 5 . Although Jordan Reimer of The Daily Princetonian praised the song , he added that it couldn 't match " the haunting beauty " of " My Immortal " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic found " Tori @-@ isms " in the song .
= = Music video = =
A music video directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee was filmed in Budapest , Hungary between June 11 and June 14 , 2007 . Lee made a guest appearance on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) on September 10 , 2007 , to premier the video . A writer for MTV News found the video to be " dark and cinematic , it 's almost as if you swallowed an entire feature length film in 3 minutes . " Another writer for the rock magazine Blender was negative towards the video saying that it " makes singer Amy Lee 's soul bearing that much more drawn @-@ out with ill @-@ advised slow motion shots of ( yep ) decay and destruction . ( Oh , look at the record melt ! ) Redemption ? You got it in the form of CGI tree roots , a breaking sunrise and a sudden wet t @-@ shirt contest . And this is supposed to help the kids get over rough break @-@ ups ? "
The music video features Lee in a warehouse and begins with her burying a photograph beneath a hole in the floorboards . After she walks away singing " Under your spell again , I can 't say no to you " while looking directly in the camera , the hole in the floorboard slowly covers up . As she walks by a bookcase , she touches the books placed on it and they start smoking . Then she goes to her desk to write in a diary , while the floorboards and items surrounding her begin to melt . After finishing with the writing , she walks by a mirror and takes a look at herself as it starts to melt . As she begins to play a baby grand piano , the piano and the room surrounding her begin to catch on fire until rain begins to fall and extinguishes the flames . The room appears to be burnt and wasted . As the sun begins to shine through the windows of the building , a small vine grows from the floorboard and expands across the room , and blue flowers begin to blossom from the vines above the piano .
= = Live performances = =
" Good Enough " was performed live by the band at Hammerstein Ballroom in New York in 2006 , at the Air Canada Centre in January , 2007 , in Dunkin ' Donuts Center in Providence , Rhode Island on April 4 , 2007 , and on November 21 , 2007 at WaMu Theater . Evanescence also performed the song live at their secret New York gig which took place on November 4 , 2009 . During their concert at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville , Tennessee , on August 17 , 2011 , Evanescence performed " Good Enough " in promotion of their self @-@ titled album , Evanescence .
= = Formats and track listings = =
German CD single
" Good Enough " ( Radio edit )
" Good Enough " ( Acoustic from Intl Live )
Premium German maxi single
" Good Enough " ( Radio edit )
" Good Enough " ( Acoustic from Intl Live )
" Your Star " ( Live from Tokyo )
" Good Enough " ( Video )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Good Enough " are taken from The Open Door liner notes .
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= Antananarivo =
Antananarivo ( / ˌæntəˌnænəˈriːvoʊ / or / ˌɑːntəˌnɑːnəˈriːvoʊ / ; Malagasy pronunciation : [ antananaˈrivʷ ] ) , then temporarily French Tananarive ( / təˌnænəˈriːv / or / ˌtænənəˈriːv / ; French pronunciation : [ tananaʁiv ] ) , also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana , is the capital and largest city in Madagascar . The larger urban area surrounding the city , known as Antananarivo @-@ Renivohitra ( " Antananarivo @-@ Mother Hill " or " Antananarivo @-@ Capital " ) , is the capital of Analamanga region . The city is located 1 @,@ 280 m ( 4 @,@ 199 ft ) above the sea level in the center of the island , and has been the island 's largest population center since at least the 18th century .
Antananarivo was historically the capital of the Merina people , who continue to form the majority of the city 's estimated 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ( 2013 ) inhabitants , as well as the surrounding urban areas which in all have a total metropolitan population approaching three million . All 18 Malagasy ethnic groups , as well as residents of Chinese , Indian , European and other origins , are well represented in the city .
Antananarivo is the political , economic , educational and cultural heart of Madagascar . The Presidency , National Assembly , Senate and Supreme Court are located here , as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs . Antananarivo also hosts the largest number of universities , nightclubs , art venues , medical services and other social service institutions of any city on the island . Several national and local sports teams , including the championship @-@ winning national rugby team , the Makis , and several basketball and football teams , are based in Antananarivo .
Antananarivo was founded from about 1610 to 1625 , when the Merina king Andrianjaka ( 1612 – 1630 ) expelled the Vazimba inhabitants of the village of Analamanga at the highest meeting point of two forested ridges rising above the surrounding highland plains . Declaring it the site of his capital , Andrianjaka built a rova ( fortified royal dwelling ) that expanded to become the royal palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina . According to oral history , he deployed a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to capture and guard the site ; the hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , who renamed it Antananarivo ( " City of the Thousand " ) in honor of Andrianjaka 's soldiers . The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina from its founding until 1710 , when Imerina split into four warring quadrants . Antananarivo was declared the capital of the southern quadrant ; it remained thus until King Andrianampoinimerina of Ambohimanga captured the province and restored its role as capital of a united Kingdom of Imerina in 1794 . His diplomatic and military successes extended Imerina far beyond its traditional borders , bringing the lands of neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control . These conquests were continued under his son , Radama I , whose control ultimately extended over two thirds of the island , leading him to be considered the King of Madagascar by European diplomats , with Antananarivo as the island 's capital . Antananarivo remained the island 's capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897 and remained thus after independence in 1960 . The French killed off many of the original inhabitants of the island and made French the native language .
Antananarivo has expanded gradually from the royal palaces at its center , which dominate every view from their location at the peak of a curving ridge 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the surrounding Betsimitatatra plains . In the 17th century , the plains were transformed into paddy fields to meet the population 's need for rice ; they were covered with housing developments as the city 's population grew rapidly in the 20th century . Around the palaces , which were destroyed in a 1995 fire but have since been partially reconstructed , lies the historic district that was formerly populated by members of the andriana ( noble class ) ; many of their homes are preserved . The Analakely valley at the base of the ridge was the site of a Friday market established in the 18th century that , until being discontinued in 1997 due to traffic congestion , was considered the largest open air market in the world . This neighborhood was further developed under French rule and continues to serve as the capital 's economic heart . The city is managed by the Commune Urbaine d 'Antananarivo ( CUA ) under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation , Ny Havana Andriamanjato , appointed in March 2014 . Limited funds and mismanagement have hampered consecutive CUA efforts to manage overcrowding and traffic , waste management , pollution , security , public water and electricity , and other challenges linked to explosive population growth . Major historic landmarks and attractions in the city include the reconstructed royal palaces and the Andafiavaratra Palace , the tomb of Rainiharo , Tsimbazaza Zoo , Mahamasina Stadium , Lake Anosy , four 19th @-@ century martyr cathedrals , and the Museum of Art and Archaeology .
= = Etymology = =
Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga , meaning " Blue Forest " in the central highlands dialect of the Malagasy language . Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba , the island 's first occupants . Andrianjaka ( approximately 1612 – 1630 ) , king of the Merina people who migrated to the region from the southeast coast , seized the location as the site of his capital city . According to oral history , he deployed a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to successfully capture and guard the site . The hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , who renamed it Antananarivo ( " City of the Thousand " ) in honor of Andrianjaka 's soldiers .
= = History = =
= = = Kingdom of Imerina = = =
Unlike most capital cities in southern Africa , Antananarivo was already a major city before the colonial era . After expelling the Vazimba who inhabited the town at the peak of Analamanga hill , Andrianjaka chose the site for his rova ( fortified royal compound ) , which expanded over time to enclose the royal palaces and the tombs of Merina royalty . The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts . Early Merina kings used fanampoana ( statute labor ) to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population . These paddy fields , of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra , continue to produce rice .
Successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalona 's reign . This sovereign gave the growing city its current name ; he established the Andohalo town square outside the town gate , where all successive sovereigns delivered their royal speeches and announcements to the public , and assigned the names of numerous locations within the city based on the names of similar sites in the nearby village of Antananarivokely . Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova ( commoners ) and each andriana ( noble ) subcaste , both within the neighborhoods of Antananarivo and in the countryside surrounding the capital . These territorial divisions were strictly enforced ; members of subcastes were required to live within their designated territories and were not authorized to stay for extended periods in the territories reserved for others . Numerous fady ( taboos ) , including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non @-@ nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits , were imposed .
Upon Andriamasinavalona 's death in 1710 , Imerina split into four warring quadrants and Antananarivo was made the capital of the southern district . During the 77 @-@ year civil war that followed , the eastern district 's capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence . The last king of Ambohimanga , Andrianampoinimerina , successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793 ; he reunited the provinces of Imerina , ending the civil war . He moved the kingdom 's political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794 , and declared Ambohimanga the kingdom 's spiritual capital , a role it still maintains . Andrianampoinimerina created a large marketplace in Analakely , establishing the city 's economic center .
= = = Kingdom of Madagascar = = =
By the time Andrianampoinimerina 's son Radama I had ascended the throne upon his father 's death in 1810 , Antananarivo was the largest and most economically important city on the island , with a population of over 80 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Radama opened the city to the first European settlers , artisan missionaries of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) who arrived in 1820 and opened the city 's first public schools . James Cameron introduced brickmaking to the island and created Lake Anosy to generate hydraulic power for industrial manufacturing . Radama established a military training ground on a flat plain called Mahamasina at the base of Analamanga near the lake . Radama 's subjugation of other Malagasy ethnic groups brought nearly two thirds of the island under his control . The British diplomats who concluded trade treaties with Radama recognized him as the " ruler of Madagascar " , a position he and his successors claimed despite never managing to impose their authority over the larger portion of the island 's south . Thereafter , Merina sovereigns declared Antananarivo the capital of the entire island .
Radama 's successor Ranavalona I invited a shipwrecked craftsman named Jean Laborde to construct the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo , and Manjakamiadana ( built 1839 – 1841 ) , the largest palace at the Rova . Laborde also produced a wide range of industrial products at factories in the highland village Mantasoa and a foundry in the Antananarivo neighborhood Isoraka . Ranavalona oversaw improvements to the city 's infrastructure , including the construction of the city 's two largest staircases at Antaninarenina and Ambondrona , which connect la ville moyenne ( " the middle town " ) to the central marketplace at Analakely . In 1867 , following a series of fires in the capital , Queen Ranavalona II issued a royal decree that permitted the use of stone and brick construction in buildings other than tombs . LMS missionaries ' first brick house was built in 1869 ; it bore a blend of English , Creole and Malagasy design and served as a model for a new style of house that rapidly spread throughout the capital and across the highlands . Termed the trano gasy ( " Malagasy house " ) , it is typically a two @-@ story , brick building with four columns on the front that support a wooden veranda . In the latter third of the 19th century , these houses quickly replaced most of the traditional wooden houses of the city 's aristocratic class . The growing number of Christians in Imerina prompted the construction of stone churches throughout the highlands , as well as four memorial cathedrals on key sites of martyrdom among early Malagasy Christians under the reign of Ranavalona I.
Until the mid 19th century , the city remained largely concentrated around the Rova of Antananarivo on the highest peak , an area today referred to as la haute ville or la haute ( " upper town " ) . As the population grew , the city expanded to the west ; by the late 19th century it extended to the northern hilltop neighborhood of Andohalo , an area of low prestige until British missionaries made it their preferred residential district and built one of the city 's memorial churches here from 1863 to 1872 . From 1864 to 1894 , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony governed Madagascar alongside three successive queens , Rasoherina , Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III , effecting policies that further transformed the city . In 1881 , he reinstated mandatory universal education first introduced in 1820 under Radama I , requiring the construction of numerous schools and colleges , including teacher training colleges staffed by missionaries and the nation 's first pharmacy ( 1862 ) , medical college and modern hospital ( 1865 ) . Rainilaiarivony built the Andafiavaratra Palace in 1873 as his residence and office at a site near the royal palace .
= = = French Madagascar = = =
The French military invaded Antananarivo in September 1894 , prompting the queen 's surrender after a cannon shell blasted a hole through a building at the Rova , causing major casualties . The damage was never repaired . Andohalo square was remodeled to feature a gazebo , walkways and planted landscaping . Claiming the island as a colony , the French administration retained Antananarivo as its capital and transcribed its name as Tananarive . They chose Antaninarenina as the site for the French Governor General 's Residency ; upon independence it was renamed Ambohitsorohitra Palace and converted into presidential offices . Under the French , tunnels were constructed through two of the city 's largest hills , connecting disparate districts and facilitating the town 's expansion . Streets were laid with cobblestones and later paved ; sewer systems and electricity infrastructure were introduced . Water , previously obtained from springs at the foot of the hill , was brought from the Ikopa River .
This period saw a major expansion of la ville moyenne , which spread along the lower hilltops and slopes of the city centered around the French Residency . Modern urban planning was applied in la ville basse ( " lower town " ) , which expanded from the base of the city 's central hills into the surrounding rice fields . Major boulevards like Avenue de l 'Indépendance , planned commercial areas like the arcades lining either side of the Avenue , large parks , city squares and other landmark features were built . A railway system connecting Soarano station at one end of the Avenue de l 'Indépendance in Antananarive with Toamasina and Fianarantsoa was established in 1897 . Beyond these planned spaces , neighborhoods densely populated by working class Malagasy expanded without state oversight or control .
The city expanded rapidly after World War II ; by 1950 its population had grown to 175 @,@ 000 . Roads connecting Antananarivo to surrounding towns were expanded and paved . The first international airport was constructed at Arivonimamo , 45 km ( 28 mi ) outside the city ; this was replaced in 1967 with Ivato International Airport approximately 15 km ( 9 mi ) from the city center . The University of Antananarivo was constructed in the Ankatso neighborhood and the Museum of Ethnology and Paleontology was also built . A city plan written in 1956 created suburban zones where large houses and gardens were established for the wealthy . In 1959 , severe floods in la ville basse prompted the building of large scale embankments along the edges of the Betsimitatatra rice fields and the establishment of new ministerial complexes on newly drained land in the Anosy neighborhood .
= = = Post @-@ independence = = =
After independence in 1960 , the pace of growth increased further . The city 's population reached 1 @.@ 4 million by the end of the 20th century ; in 2013 , it was estimated at nearly 2 @.@ 1 million . Uncontrolled urban sprawl has challenged the city 's infrastructure , producing shortages of clean water and electricity , sanitation and public health problems , and heavy traffic congestion . There are more than 5 @,@ 000 church buildings in the city and its suburbs , including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral . Antananarivo is the see city of Madagascar 's Roman Catholic Archdiocese . The city has repeatedly been the site of large demonstrations and violent political clashes , including the 1972 rotaka that brought down president Philibert Tsiranana and the 2009 Malagasy political crisis , which resulted in Andry Rajoelina replacing Marc Ravalomanana as head of state .
= = Geography = =
Antananarivo is situated approximately 1 @,@ 280 m ( 4 @,@ 199 ft ) above sea level in the central highlands region of Madagascar , at 18 @.@ 55 ' South and 47 @.@ 32 ' East . The city is located centrally along the north @-@ south axis of the country , and east of center along the east @-@ west axis . It is 160 km ( 99 mi ) from the east coast and 330 km ( 210 mi ) from the west coast . The city occupies a commanding position on the summit and slopes of a long , narrow , rocky ridge extending north and south for about 4 km ( 2 mi ) and rising to about 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the extensive rice fields to the west .
The official boundaries of the city of Antananarivo encompass an urban area of approximately 86 @.@ 4 km2 ( 33 @.@ 4 sq mi ) . It was founded 1 @,@ 480 m ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level at the apex of three hill ranges that converge in a Y form , 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the surrounding Betsimitatatra paddy fields and the grassy plains beyond . The city gradually spread out from this central point to cover the hillsides ; by the late 19th century it had expanding to the flat terrain at the base of the hills . These plains are susceptible to flooding during the rainy season ; they are drained by the Ikopa River , which skirts the capital to the south and west . The western slopes and plains , being best protected from cyclone winds originating over the Indian Ocean , were settled before those to the east .
Greater Antananarivo is a continuous , urbanized area spreading beyond the city 's official boundaries for 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north to south between Ambohimanarina and Ankadimbahoaka , and 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) west to east between the Ikopa River dike and Tsiadana . The population of the greater Antananarivo area was estimated at 3 million people in 2012 ; it is expected to rise to 6 million by 2030 .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen @-@ Geiger climate classification system , Antananarivo has a subtropical highland climate ( Cwb ) characterized by mild , dry winters and warm , rainy summers . The city receives nearly all of its average annual rainfall between November and April . Frosts are rare in the city ; they are more common at higher elevations . Mean temperatures range from 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( 69 @.@ 4 ° F ) to 14 @.@ 3 ° C ( 57 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Antananarivo encompasses three ridges that intersect at their highest point . The Manjakamiadana royal palace is located at the summit of these hills and is visible from every part of the city and the surrounding hills . The Manjakamiadina was the largest structures within the rova of Antananarivo ; its stone casing is the only remnant of the royal residences that survived a 1995 fire at the site . For 25 years , the roofless shell dominated the skyline ; its west wall collapsed in 2004 . In 2009 , the stone casing had been fully restored and the building was re @-@ roofed . It is illuminated at night . Conservation and reconstruction work at the site is ongoing . The city skyline is a jumble of colorful , historic houses and churches . More recent residential and commercial buildings and family rice fields occupy lower terrain throughout the capital . The Betsimitatatra and other rice fields surround the city .
The city 's neighborhoods emerge from historic ethnic , religious and caste divisions . The assignment of certain neighborhoods to particular noble sub @-@ castes under the Kingdom of Imerina established divisions ; the highest ranking nobles were typically assigned to neighborhoods closest to the royal palace and were required to live in higher elevation portions of the city . During and after French colonization , expansion of the city continued to reflect these divisions . Today , the calm and quiet haute ville is mainly residential and viewed as a prestigious area in which to live ; many of the city 's wealthiest and most influential Malagasy families live there . The part of la haute closest to the Rova contains much of the city 's pre @-@ colonial heritage and is considered its historic part . It includes the royal palace , Andafiavaratra Palace — the former residence of Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , Andohalo — the principal town square until 1897 , a cathedral near Andohalo built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs , the city 's most intact historic entrance gate and the 19th @-@ century houses of Merina nobles .
Under the Kingdom of Madagascar , the commoner class ( hova ) settled at the periphery of the noble districts , gradually spreading along the slopes of the lower hills during the late 19th century . This ville moyenne became increasingly populous under French colonial authority , which targeted them for redesign and development . Today , the neighborhoods in the ville moyenne are densely populated and lively , containing residences , historic sites and businesses . The neighborhood of Antaninarenina contains the historic Hôtel Colbert , numerous jewelers ' shops and other luxury goods stores , and administrative offices . In addition to Antaninarenina , the principal neighborhoods of la ville moyenne are Ankadifotsy on the eastern hills and Ambatonakanga and Isoraka to the west , all of which are largely residential . Isoraka has developed lively nightlife , with houses converted to upscale restaurants and inns . Isoraka also houses the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo ( 1833 – 1852 ) , whose sons and later Prime Ministers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony are buried with him . Bordering these neighborhoods are the commercial areas of Besarety and Andravoahangy .
The commercial center of town , Analakely , is located on the valley floor between these two ville moyenne hill ranges . King Andrianampoinimerina established the city 's first marketplace on the grounds today occupied by the market 's tile @-@ roofed pavilions , constructed in the 1930s . Andrianampoinimerina decreed Friday ( Zoma ) as market day , when merchants would erect stalls shaded with white parasols , which extended throughout the valley forming what has been called the largest open air marketplace in the world . The market caused traffic congestion and safety hazards prompting government officials to divide and relocate the Friday merchants to several other districts in 1997 . The city 's other main commercial and administrative neighborhoods , which spread out from Analakely and extend into the adjacent plain , were established by the French , who drained and filled in the extant rice fields and swampland to create much of the area 's current design and infrastructure . The Avenue de l 'Indépendance runs from the gardens of Ambohijatovo south of the market pavilions , through Analakely to the city 's railroad station at Soarano . To the west of Soarano lies the dense commercial district of Tsaralalana ; it is the only district to be built on a grid and is the center of the city 's South Asian community . Behoririka , to the east of Soarano , is built around a lake of the same name and abuts the sprawling Andravoahangy district at the eastern edge of the city . Antanimena borders Soarano and Behoririka to the north . A tunnel built by the French in the early 20th century cuts through the hillside ; it connects Ambohijatovo with Ambanidia and other residential areas in the south of the city .
Since pre @-@ colonial times the lower classes , including those descended from the slave class ( andevo ) and rural migrants , have occupied the flood @-@ prone lower districts bordering the Betsimitatatra rice fields to the west of the city . This area is connected to Analakely by a tunnel constructed by the French in the early 20th century . The tunnel opens toward Lake Anosy and the national Supreme Court buildings , and provides access to the residential neighborhood of Mahamasina and its stadium . The bordering neighborhood of Anosy was developed in the 1950s to house most of the national ministries and the Senate . Anosy , the planned residential district of Soixante @-@ Sept Hectares ( often abbreviated to " 67 " ) and the neighborhood of Isotry are among the city 's most densely populated , crime ridden and impoverished neighborhoods . Approximately 40 percent of inhabitants with electricity in their homes in the ville basse obtain it illegally by splicing into city power lines . In these areas , houses are more vulnerable to fires , flooding and landslides , which are often triggered by the annual cyclone season .
= = = Architecture = = =
Before the mid @-@ 19th century , all houses and marketplaces in Antananarivo , and throughout Madagascar , were constructed of woods , grasses , reeds and other plant @-@ based materials viewed as appropriate for structures used by the living . Only family tombs were built from stone , an inert material viewed as appropriate to use for the dead . British missionaries introduced brick @-@ making to the island in the 1820s , and French industrialist Jean Laborde used stone and brick to build his factories over the next few decades . It was not until the royal edict on construction materials was lifted in the 1860s that stone was used to encase the royal palace . Many aristocrats , inspired by the royal palace and the two @-@ story , brick houses with wrapped verandas and divided interior spaces built by British missionaries , copied the British model for their own large homes in the haute ville . The model , known as trano gasy ( " Malagasy house " ) , rapidly spread throughout the central highlands of Madagascar , where it remains the predominant house construction style .
Since 1993 , the Commune urbaine d 'Antananarivo ( CUA ) has increasingly sought to protect and restore the city 's architectural and cultural heritage . In 2005 , CUA authorities partnered with the city planners of the Île @-@ de @-@ France to develop the Plan Vert – Plan Bleu strategy for creating a classification system for Zones de Protection du Patrimoine Architectural , Urbain et Paysager , areas of the city benefiting from legal protection and financial support for their historic and cultural heritage . The plan , which is being implemented by the Institut des Métiers de la Ville , prevents the destruction of historic buildings and other structures , and establishes construction codes that ensure new structures follow historic aesthetics . It also provides for awareness raising campaigns in favor of historic preservation and undertakes projects to restore dilapidated historic buildings and sites . Under this plan , 19th @-@ century sites , like the Ambatondrafandrana tribunal and the second residence of Rainilaiarivony , have been renovated .
= = Demographics = =
Antananarivo has been the largest city on the island since at least the late 18th century , when its population was estimated at 15 @,@ 000 . By 1810 , the population had grown to 80 @,@ 000 before declining dramatically between 1829 and 1842 during the reigns of Radama I and especially Ranavalona I. Because of a combination of war , forced labor , disease and harsh measures of justice , the population of Imerina fell from 750 @,@ 000 to 130 @,@ 000 during this period . In the final years of the Kingdom of Imerina , the population had recovered to between 50 @,@ 000 and 75 @,@ 000 ; most of the population were slaves who were largely captured in provincial military campaigns . In 1950 , Antananarivo 's population was around 175 @,@ 000 . By the late 1990s the population of the metropolitan area had reached 1 @.@ 4 million , and - while the city itself now has a population ( 2013 ) of about 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 - with suburbs lying outside the city limits it had grown to almost 2 @.@ 1 million in 2013 . The metropolitan area is thus home to 10 percent of the island 's residents . Rural migration to the capital propels this growth ; the city 's population exceeds that of the other five provincial capitals combined .
As the historic capital of Imerina , Antananarivo is centrally located in the homeland of the Merina people , who comprise about 24 percent of the population and are the largest Malagasy ethnic group . The city 's history as the island 's major center for politics , culture and trade has ensured a cosmopolitan mix of ethnic groups from across the island and overseas . Most Antananarivo residents have strong ties to their tanindrazana ( ancestral village ) , where the extended family and typically a family tomb or burial place is located ; many older residents leave the city upon retirement to return to their rural area of origin .
= = = Crime = = =
Despite ongoing efforts by the Ministry of Domestic Security , crime has worsened in Antananarivo since 2009 . Between 1994 and 1998 , the city had an average of eight to twelve police officers for every 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants ; large cities should typically have closer to fifteen . Under the mayorship of Marc Ravalomanana ( 1998 – 2001 ) , street lights were installed or repaired throughout the city to improve night @-@ time safety . He increased the number of police officers on the streets , leading to a drop in crime . As of 2012 , the city lacks a comprehensive strategy for reducing crime . The recent increase in crime and the inadequate response from the CUA has prompted the growth of private security firms in the city .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Malagasy economy . Land is used for the cultivation of rice and other crops , raising of zebu and other livestock , the fabrication of bricks and other traditional livelihoods . In Antananarivo , access to land is guaranteed and protected by law for every resident of the city . The CUA manages requests to lease or purchase land , but demand dramatically outstrips supply and much of the unallocated land fails to meet the requisite criteria for parceling , such as land where floodwater runoff is diverted . Much of this marginal land has been illegally occupied and developed by land @-@ seeking residents , creating shantytown slums in pockets throughout the lower portions of the city . This uncontrolled development poses sanitation and safety risks to residents in these areas .
Industry accounts for around 13 percent of Madagascar 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) and is largely concentrated in Antananarivo . Key industries include soap production , food and tobacco processing , brewing , textiles , and leather manufacturing , providing employment to around 5 @.@ 5 percent of the workforce . The city 's extensive infrastructure and its role as the economic center of the country make it a favorable location for large businesses . Business owners are drivers of growth for the city ; in 2010 , 60 percent of all new buildings in the country were located in Antananarivo , most of which were built for commercial purposes . Unemployment and poverty are also growing , fueled in part by an inadequately skilled and unprofessional workforce and the lack of a comprehensive national strategy for economic development since 2009 . Formal sector job growth has not kept pace with population growth , and many residents earn their livelihood in the informal sector as street vendors and laborers . Under Ravalomanana , construction in the capital increased sharply ; twelve new supermarkets were constructed in two years .
The residents of urban areas — in particular Antananarivo — have been hardest hit by economic downturns and economic policy shifts . The national economic crisis in the mid @-@ 1970s and early 1980s , and the World Bank 's imposition of a structural adjustment program lowered living standards for the average resident of the city . The end of state subsidies , rapid inflation , higher taxes , widespread impoverishment and the decline of the middle class were especially evident in Antananarivo , as was the growing wealth of a tiny political and economic elite in the city . In 2007 , two thirds of Antananarivo residents had access to electricity , while ten percent of households owned a scooter , car or other motor vehicle . Running water was installed in fewer than 25 percent of homes , small restaurants and businesses in 2007 , necessitating the collection of water from household wells or neighborhood pumps and the use of outdoor pit toilets detached from the main building . In 2007 , 60 percent of households were using shared public latrines . Most homes use charcoal for daily cooking ; stocks of charcoal and rice are kept in the kitchen . The average city household spends just under half of its budget on food . Owing to its increasingly high cost , consumption of meat by city residents has sharply declined since the 1970s ; the urban poor eat meat on holidays only once or twice a year .
= = Culture = =
In Antananarivo and throughout the highlands , Merina and Betsileo families practice the famadihana , an ancestor reburial ceremony . This ceremony typically occurs five to seven years after the death of a relative and is celebrated by removing the relative 's lamba @-@ wrapped remains from the family tomb , rewrapping it with fresh silk shrouds and returning it to the tomb . Relatives , friends and neighbors are invited to take part in the music , dancing and feasting that accompanies the event . The famadihana is costly ; many families sacrifice higher living standards to set aside money for the ceremony .
= = = Historic sites and museums = = =
The tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Antananarivo is extensive and highly significant to regional and national populations . The city has numerous monuments , historic buildings , sites of significance and traditions related to the customs and history of the central highlands people . The city skyline is dominated by the Rova of Antananarivo , which was destroyed in a 1995 fire but are undergoing reconstruction . The nearby Andafiavaratra Palace was the home of 19th century Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and currently contains a museum featuring historic artifacts of the Kingdom of Imerina , including items saved from the fire at the Rova . Downhill from the palaces is Andohalo square , where Merina kings and queens delivered speeches to the public . Tsimbazaza Zoo displays many of the island 's unique animal species and a complete skeleton of the now @-@ extinct elephant bird . Other historic buildings include the Ambatondrafandrana tribunal where Ranavalona I dispensed judgement , the second residence of Rainilaiarivony with its indigenous medicinal plant garden , the recently renovated Soarano railroad station , four late 19th century memorial churches built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs , the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo , and the early 20th century pavilions of the Analakely market . Open air markets include Le Pochard and the artisan market at Andravoahangy . The Museum of Art and Archaeology in the Isoraka neighborhood features exhibits on the history and cultures of Madagascar 's diverse ethnic groups .
= = = Arts = = =
The arts scene in Antananarivo is the largest and most vibrant in the country . Madagascar 's diverse music is reflected in the many concerts , cabarets , dance clubs and other musical venues throughout Antananarivo . In the dry season , outdoor concerts are regularly held in venues including the Antsahamanitra amphitheater and Mahamasina Stadium . Concerts and night clubs are attended mainly by young people of the middle to upper classes who can afford the entrance fees . More affordable are performances of traditional vakindrazana or Malagasy operettas at Isotry Theater and hira gasy at the city 's outdoor cheminots theater or Alliance française ; these performances are more popular with older and rural audiences than among urban youth . Nightlife is the most animated in the ville moyenne neighborhoods of Antaninarenina , Tsaralalana , Behoririka , Mahamasina and Andohalo .
The Palais des Sports in the Mahamasina neighborhood is the country 's only indoor performance space built to international standards . It was built in 1995 by the Government of China ; it regularly hosts concerts , dance and other arts performances , expositions and novelty events like monster truck rallies . The city lacks a dedicated classical music performance space , and concerts by international artists are infrequent . Performances of classical , jazz and other foreign musical genres , modern and contemporary dance , theater and other arts occur at cultural arts centers funded by foreign governments or private entities . Among the best @-@ known of these are the Centre Culturel Albert Camus and Alliance française d 'Antananarivo , both funded by the French government. the Cercle Germano @-@ Malgache , a branch of the Goethe @-@ Institut funded by the German government ; The American Center is funded by the United States government . Antananarivo has two dedicated cinemas , the Rex and the Ritz , both of which were built in the colonial era . These venues do not show international releases but occasionally screen Malagasy films or are used for private events and religious services .
= = = Sports = = =
Rugby Union is considered the national sport of Madagascar . The national rugby team is nicknamed the Makis after the local word for the indigenous ring @-@ tailed lemur . The team trains and plays domestic matches at Maki Stadium in Antananarivo . Constructed in 2012 , the stadium has a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 and houses a gym and administrative offices for the team . It replaces their former home , Malacam Stadium , which had a capacity of approximately 3 @,@ 000 that was regularly exceeded by the number of attendees . Several soccer teams are also based in Antananarivo ; AS Adema Analamanga and Ajesaia are associated with the Analamanga region ; USCA Foot is associated with the CUA and the AS Saint Michel has been affiliated since 1948 with the historic secondary school of the same name . All four teams train and play local games in Mahamasina Municipal Stadium , the largest sporting venue in the country . The men 's basketball teams Challenger and SOE ( Équipe du Stade olympique de l 'Emyrne ) are based in Antananarivo and play in the Palais des Sports at Mahamasina .
= = Government = =
Antananarivo is the capital of Madagascar and the federal governance structures , including the Senate , National Assembly , the Supreme Court and the presidential office are housed there . The main presidential offices are located 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the city . The nationwide move toward decentralization beginning in the mid @-@ 1990s produced several laws , including the Loi no . 94 @-@ 009 of 26 April 1995 and the Decret 96 – 168 of 6 March 1996 , which provided Antananarivo with a distinctive status . They also defined additional governance roles for the city , making it the administrative seat of the Analamanga region , the district of Antananarivo @-@ Renivohitra and the Commune Urbaine d 'Antananarivo ( CUA , Antananarivo city proper ) . The city hosts the diplomatic missions of 21 countries .
The CUA is divided into six numbered arrondissements ( administrative sub @-@ districts ) ; it has historically been administered by an elected mayor and associated staff . Since the 2009 political crisis , in which the former mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina , unconstitutionally seized power as head of state , the CUA has been administered by a délégation spéciale ( special delegation ) composed of a president and de facto mayor with the support of two vice presidents , all of whom are appointed by the President . The position of President of the Special Delegation has been held by Ny Havana Andriamanjato since March 2014 .
The mayoral administration of the CUA is empowered to govern the city with de jure autonomy ; a wide range of mechanisms have been established to facilitate governance , although they are of limited effectiveness . An urban master plan guides major policies for city management but personnel within the mayoral office commonly lack the urban planning and management ability to effectively implement the plan in response to long @-@ term and immediate needs . This challenge is compounded by the high turnover rate of mayors and staff that frequently disrupts initiatives begun by previous CUA administrations . A mayor under former president Didier Ratsiraka created " red zones " ; areas where public gathering and protests were prohibited . On 28 June 2001 , Ravalomanana abolished these areas , liberalizing freedom of assembly .
Antananarivo has suffered from debt and mismanagement . The CUA estimated in 2012 that the cost of running the city to international standards would reach US $ 100 million annually , while annual revenues average around $ 12 million . In good years , the CUA is able to reserve $ 1 – 2 million to spend on city improvement projects . By 2008 , the city 's treasury had accumulated 8 @.@ 2 billion Malagasy ariary — approximately US $ 4 @.@ 6 million — in debts under previous mayors . In 2008 , water was cut off at public pumps and there were regular brownouts of city 's street lights because of 3 @.@ 3 million ariary of unpaid debts to the Jirama public utilities company by the City of Antananarivo . In response , then @-@ mayor Rajoelina undertook an audit that identified and sought to address long @-@ standing procedural irregularities and corruption in the city 's administration . The CUA continues to be challenged by a shortage of revenues relative to its expenses caused by the high cost of retaining the large number of CUA personnel , weak structures for managing revenues from public rents and inadequate collection of tax revenues from city residents and businesses .
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Antananarivo has established sister city agreements with four cities . The city was twinned with Yerevan , Armenia in 1981 . The city is also twinned with Vorkuta , Russia ; Suzhou , China ; and Montreal , Canada . A sister city relationship between Antananarivo and Nice , France , established in 1962 , is not currently active .
= = Education = =
Most of Madagascar 's public and private universities are located in Antananarivo . This includes the country 's oldest higher education institute , the College of Medicine established under the Merina monarchy and the University of Antananarivo , established under the French colonial administration . The city hosts many private pre @-@ primary , primary and secondary schools and the national network of public schools . The city houses a French international school , Lycée Français de Tananarive , as well as an American school , American School of Antananarivo , and a Russian school , the Russian Embassy School in Antananarivo .
The nation 's most prestigious dance school , K 'art Antanimena , is located in Antananarivo . Other major dance schools based in the city include Le Club de Danse de l 'Université Catholique de Madagascar , Club de danse Kera arts 'space à Antanimena and Le Club Mills .
= = Health and sanitation = =
In general , availability and quality of health care is better in Antananarivo than elsewhere in Madagascar , although it remains inadequate across the country relative to that in more developed countries . One of Madagascar 's two medical schools is located in Antananarivo ; most medical technicians and specialists are trained there . Neonatal and antenatal care is significantly better in Antananarivo than elsewhere on the island . Despite the presence of facilities and trained personnel , the high cost of health care places it beyond the reach of most residents of Antananarivo . Pharmaceuticals are imported , making them particularly unaffordable ; traditional herbal medicines remain popular and are readily available in local markets frequented by most of the population .
The large population in Antananarivo and the high density of its residential zones pose challenges to public health , sanitation and access to clean drinking water . Processing and disposal of industrial and residential waste is inadequate . Waste water is often discharged directly into the city 's waterways . Air pollution from vehicle exhausts , residential coal @-@ burning stoves and other sources is worsening . While the city has set up clean water pumps , they remain inadequate and are not distributed according to population density , worsening access in the poorest and most populous parts of the city . Antananarivo is one of the two urban areas in Madagascar where bubonic plague is endemic .
These problems were diminished but not eliminated under the mayoral administration of Marc Ravalomanana , who prioritized sanitation , security and public administration . He obtained funds from international donors to establish garbage collection and disposal systems , restore dilapidated infrastructure such as roads and marketplaces , and replant public gardens . To improve sanitation in the city , he constructed public latrines in densely populated and highly frequented areas .
= = Transport and communications = =
The majority of the city 's residents move about Antananarivo on foot . The CUA sets and enforces rules that govern a system of 2 @,@ 400 franchised private minibuses running on eighty @-@ two numbered routes throughout the city . An additional 2 @,@ 000 minibuses managed by the Ministry of Transportation run along eight lines into the neighboring suburbs . These interlinked bus systems served around 700 @,@ 000 passengers each day . These minibuses often fail to meet safety standards or air quality requirements and are typically overcrowded with passengers and their cargo . Police and gendarmes assist in regulating traffic at peak periods in the morning and evening , or around special events and holidays . Private licensed and unlicensed taxis are common ; most vehicles are older Renaults or Citroens . Newer vehicles congregate near hotels and other locales frequented by foreigners willing or able to pay higher prices for better services .
The city is encircled by a ring road and connected by direct routes nationales ( national highways ) to Mahajanga , Toliara , Antsirabe , Fianarantsoa and Toamasina . Branches and feeder roads from these major highways connect the city to the national road network . Antananarivo is connected by train to Toamasina to the east and Manakara to the southeast via Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa . The city 's principal railway station is centrally located at Soarano at one end of the Avenue de l 'Indépendance . Ivato International Airport is located approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 miles ) from the center of the city , connecting Antananarivoto to all national airports . Ivato is the hub of the national airline Air Madagascar , and is the only airport on the island hosting long @-@ haul carriers . Direct flights connect Antananarivo to cities in South Africa , Europe and Asia .
Government television and radio broadcasting centers , and the headquarters of numerous private stations are located in Antananarivo . Eighty percent of households in Antananarivo own a radio ; the medium is popular across social classes . Stations like Fenon 'ny Merina appeal to Merina listeners of all ages by playing traditional and contemporary music of the highlands region . Youth @-@ oriented stations play a blend of Western artists and Malagasy performers of Western genres , as well as fusion and coastal musical styles . Evangelical broadcasts and daily international and local news are available in Malagasy , French and English . Forty percent of Antananarivo residents own a television receiver . All major Malagasy newspapers are printed in the city and are widely available . Communications services in Antananarivo are the best in the country . Internet and mobile telephone networks are readily available and affordable , although disruptions in service occur periodically . The national postal service is headquartered in Antananarivo , and private international shipping companies like FedEx , DHL Express and United Parcel Service provide services to the city .
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= Vought XSO2U =
The Vought XSO2U was an American observation floatplane developed by Vought @-@ Sikorsky for the United States Navy during the late 1930s . Intended to replace the Curtiss SOC Seagull in service as a scout aboard cruisers , it proved superior to the Curtiss SO3C in evaluation , but failed to win a production contract due to Vought 's lack of manufacturing capacity .
= = Design and development = =
In the late 1930s the United States Navy developed a set of specifications for a new scout @-@ observation aircraft to operate from its cruisers in the reconnaissance and gunnery spotting roles . Intended to replace the Curtiss SOC biplane , the requirements included that the aircraft should have folding wings , have a superior range and speed to that of the SOC , and that the new type should be powered by the Ranger V @-@ 770 inline engine .
Designs were submitted in response to the Navy 's specifications by Vought @-@ Sikorsky and Curtiss @-@ Wright . The Vought design , designated Model 403 by the company , was similar to the company 's OS2U Kingfisher , which was then under development to replace the SOC aboard U.S. Navy battleships , but had its monoplane wing moved higher on the fuselage than that of the Kingfisher , and differed in the attachment method used by its single @-@ float landing gear . In addition , the radial engine of the OS2U was replaced by an inline Ranger V @-@ 770 in a squared @-@ off cowling .
Capable of being operated with either the float as a seaplane or with a conventional taildragger undercarriage as a landplane , the XSO2U utilised all @-@ metal construction , with the exception of its control surfaces which were fabric @-@ covered . The wings folded to the rear for storage in a manner similar to that of the Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bomber , .
The aircraft was capable of performing dive bombing , and could be fitted with a single bomb or depth charge on a hardpoint under each wing for the mission , or for anti @-@ submarine warfare . Gun armament consisted of two M2 Browning machine guns , one mounted in a fixed position firing forwards through the propeller using synchronizer gear , while the other was in a flexible position in the observer 's cockpit for rear defense .
= = Operational history = =
Assigned the serial number 1440 , the XSO2U @-@ 1 flew for the first time , as a landplane , in July 1939 ; its first flight as a seaplane took place that December . Flight testing of the SO2U showed that the aircraft lacked directional stability ; the addition of a large ventral fin , connecting the rear of the float to the tail , helped to cure the problem .
The aircraft also suffered from engine problems , however , that were not so easily cured ; the Ranger engine was well known for unreliability , and was particularly prone to overheating problems that were never satisfactoriarly solved . The aircraft 's original XV @-@ 770 @-@ 4 engine was replaced by a XV @-@ 770 @-@ 6 , with a repositioned oil cooler , during flight testing ; despite this , the problems continued .
Despite the engine issues , the SO2U @-@ 1 was considered overall to be superior to the competing Curtiss XSO3C @-@ 1 ; however , Vought 's production capacity was already taken up by manufacture of the OS2U Kingfisher scout and F4U Corsair fighter . As a result , the XSO3C was declared the winner of the contract , and was ordered into production . Named Seagull by the U.S. Navy , and Seamew by the Royal Navy , the SO3C developed a disastrous reputation in service , and was retired before the SOC biplane which it was intended to replace .
Following the end of the flyoff competition , the XSO2U @-@ 1 was used as a general utility aircraft and hack by the Navy , before being supplied to the Ranger Engine Corporation in July 1942 for use in tests of the V @-@ 770 engine . These tests were intended to assist in debugging the engine for the Bell XP @-@ 77 lightweight fighter and Edo XOSE floatplane , but the V @-@ 770 remained troublesome , and after two years of testing the XSO2U was returned to the Navy . Having no further use for the aircraft , the XSO2U @-@ 1 was removed from the Navy 's rolls on 6 July 1944 , being subsequently scrapped .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Navy
= = Specifications ( XSO2U @-@ 1 ) = =
Data from OS2U Kingfisher in action
General characteristics
Crew : 2 ( pilot and observer )
Length : 36 ft 1 in ( 11 @.@ 00 m )
Wingspan : 38 ft 2 in ( 11 @.@ 63 m )
Height : 15 ft 11 in ( 4 @.@ 85 m )
Wing area : 300 sq ft ( 28 m2 )
Empty weight : 4 @,@ 016 lb ( 1 @,@ 822 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 5 @,@ 624 lb ( 2 @,@ 551 kg )
Fuel capacity : 128 US gallons ( 480 l ; 107 imp gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Ranger XV @-@ 770 inline engine , 450 hp ( 340 kW )
Propellers : 2 @-@ bladed Hamilton Standard constant @-@ speed
Performance
Maximum speed : 190 mph ( 306 km / h ; 165 kn ) at 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m )
Service ceiling : 22 @,@ 200 ft ( 6 @,@ 767 m )
Armament
Guns : 2 x M2 Browning machine guns , one fixed forwards @-@ firing , one flexible rear @-@ firing .
Bombs : Two light bombs or depth charges on underwing racks .
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= 188th Infantry Brigade ( United States ) =
The 188th Infantry Brigade is an infantry training brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Stewart , Georgia . It is a subordinate unit of the First United States Army , Division East .
Active from 1921 to 1942 as part of the 94th Infantry Division , the brigade was transformed into a reconnaissance troop during and after World War II , supporting the 94th Division as it fought in Europe . Activated again from 1997 — 1999 and again in 2006 , the unit gained responsibility for conducting training for other reserve component army units with a variety of purposes . Today , the unit is responsible for training selected United States Army Reserve and National Guard units East of the Mississippi River .
= = Organization = =
The brigade is subordinate to First Army Division East of the First United States Army , one of several regional training brigades spread throughout the United States .
The brigade consists of seven primary elements . The brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company , along with its Special Troops Battalion , provides support and oversight to the other six battalions in the brigade . The 1st Battalion , 306th Regiment trains primarily infantry units , while the 2nd Battalion , 306th Regiment trains field artillery units . The 1st Battalion , 347th Regiment provides training for combat support units , while the 3rd Battalion , 345th Regiment oversees combat service support units . The 2nd Battalion , 349th Regiment provides support training for the other battalions and large @-@ scale training operations . The 3rd Battalion , 395th Regiment ( recently realigned from First Army Division West ) trains primarily armor / cavalry units .
= = History = =
The 188th Infantry Brigade was first constituted on 24 June 1921 in the organized reserves at Boston , Massachusetts . It was organized with two infantry regiments , the 376th Infantry Regiment and the 419th Infantry Regiment . It was , in turn , assigned to the 94th Infantry Division . From 1921 to 1942 the division remained on the Massachusetts organized reserve rolls , though the unit did not assemble except for regular weekend training . In 1925 , the brigade relocated to Worcester , Massachusetts and in 1940 it moved to Springfield , Massachusetts .
= = = 94th Reconnaissance Troop = = =
The 94th Infantry Division was mobilized for deployment for World War II on 15 September 1942 at Fort Custer , Michigan . During this mobilization the 188th Infantry Brigade went through a series of reorganizations . The 376th Infantry Regiment continued as part of the 94th Infantry Division and the remainder of the 188th Infantry Brigade became the 94th Reconnaissance Troop , still assigned to the 94th Infantry Division .
The 94th Infantry Division , with the troop in tow , landed on Utah Beach on 8 September 1944 , 94 days after D @-@ Day . It and moved into Brittany to assume responsibility for containing some 60 @,@ 000 German troops besieged in the ports of Lorient and Saint @-@ Nazaire . The 94th inflicted over 2 @,@ 700 casualties on the German forces and took 566 prisoners before being relieved on 1 January 1945 .
Moving west , the troop followed the division as it took positions in the Saar @-@ Moselle Triangle , facing the Siegfried Switch Line on 7 January 1945 , and shifted to the offensive on 14 January , seizing Tettingen and Butzdorf that day . The following day , the Nennigberg @-@ Wies area was wrested from the German army , but heavy counterattacks followed and Butzdorf , Berg , and most of Nennig changed hands several times before being finally secured . On 20 January , an unsuccessful battalion attack against Orscholz , eastern terminus of the switch position , cost the division most of two companies . In early February , the division , with troop in tow , took the woods of Campholz and later Sinz .
On 19 February 1945 , the division launched a full @-@ scale attack , storming Munzigen Ridge , the backbone of the Saar @-@ Moselle Triangle , and captured all of its objectives . Moving forward , the 94th Infantry Division , along with the 10th Armored Division , secured the area from Orscholz to the confluence of the Saar and Moselle Rivers by 21 February 1945 . Then , launching an attack across the Saar , it established and expanded a bridgehead . By 2 March 1945 , the division stretched over a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) front , from Hocker Hill on the Saar through Zerf , and Lampaden to Ollmuth . A heavy German attack near Lampaden achieved penetrations , but the line was shortly restored , and on 13 March , spearheading the XX Corps , the 94th broke out of the bridgehead and drove to the Rhine River , reaching it on 21 March . Ludwigshafen was taken on 24 March , with assistance from elements the 12th Armored Division .
The 94th Infantry Division then moved by railroad and motor to the vicinity of Krefeld , Germany , assuming responsibility for containing the west side of the Ruhr pocket from positions along the Rhine on 3 April . With the reduction of the pocket in mid @-@ April , the 94th Infantry Division was assigned military government duties , first in the Krefeld and later in the Düsseldorf areas . Soldiers of the troop participated in this assignment .
The 94th Infantry Division participated in four World War II campaigns on mainland Europe . The 94th Reconnaissance Troop supported the division throughout its push through Europe . Upon the end of fighting in Europe , the 94th Infantry Division began conducting occupation duty in Europe until it returned to the US at the end of 1945 . The Troop was demobilized at Camp Kilmer , New Jersey and deactivated on 7 February 1946 .
The troop was reactivated on 13 February 1947 in Boston , Massachusetts . However , the troop did not see any significant actions during its post war years , still a part of the 94th Infantry Division , which itself was never called on for service . The troop was moved to Cohasset , Massachusetts in 1953 , remaining there for another six years as an inactive reserve unit until 1959 , when it was again disbanded and inactivated .
= = = Training brigade = = =
On 24 October 1997 , the 188th Infantry Brigade was reactivated again in the Active duty force at Fort Stewart , Georgia . It was a reflagging of the 4th Brigade , 87th Division . The brigade was reactivated to provide training support to Reserve Component units in the region .
As of 1998 there were 248 soldiers assigned to the Brigade in five training support battalions and the Brigade Headquarters . At that time , the 188th Infantry Brigade supported the training of over 5 @,@ 000 National Guard and Reserve Component soldiers in infantry , armor , cavalry , aviation , artillery , communications , medical , maintenance , and supply units .
The Brigade was composed entirely of active duty senior noncommissioned officers and officers who conducted training assistance and valuations for a variety of combat arms , combat support and combat service support units . A new building was constructed on Fort Stewart , Georgia for the Brigade and was occupied in August 1997 . The First United States Army , the Brigade 's higher headquarters , also purchased new furniture and computers for the Brigade 's use . In 1999 , the brigade was again reflagged as the 4th Brigade , 87th Division .
= = = Present day = = =
The brigade was reactivated on 1 October 2006 as part of another consolidation of US Army training commands , again at Fort Stewart . The division fell under the command of Division East of the First United States Army . During the consolidation , the brigade was given a larger area of responsibility , supporting the training of over 18 @,@ 000 National Guard and Reserve Component soldiers in infantry , armor , cavalry , aviation , artillery , communications , medical , maintenance , and supply units both at and around the Fort Stewart area . The brigade grew to over 600 soldiers assigned to 6 training support battalions and the Headquarters .
On 15 January 2008 , the brigade received a shoulder sleeve insignia and distinctive unit insignia . Both of these allude to the brigade 's service to the 94th Infantry Division both during peacetime and as the 94th Reconnaissance Troop during and after World War II .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
The brigade has never received a unit decoration from the United States military .
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Circus ( song ) =
" Circus " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her sixth studio album of the same name ( 2008 ) . It was released on December 2 , 2008 , by Jive Records as the second single from the album . Written by Dr. Luke , Claude Kelly and Benny Blanco , " Circus " is a metaphor for the public 's perception of Spears ' life . After she listened to the track for the first time , she felt inspired to create an album and a tour with a circus theme . " Circus " is an uptempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song with elements of pop rock and " half @-@ rapped " vocals . The song 's lyrics talk about being an entertainer and putting on shows .
" Circus " was well received by contemporary critics , with reviewers complimenting Spears ' confident persona and praising the song 's electronic production . " Circus " was a commercial success , peaking inside the top @-@ ten in Australia , Canada , Denmark , New Zealand , and Sweden , while reaching top @-@ twenty positions in many European countries . In the United States , " Circus " reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on Pop Songs and is her second best @-@ selling digital song in the country , having sold over 3 @.@ 1 million copies .
The music video , directed by Francis Lawrence , was released on December 4 , 2008 . It portrays Spears as the ringmaster of a circus accompanied by different performers , and it is interspersed with scenes of Spears in different circus settings . The video received positive reviews from critics , but was criticized by PETA for featuring " cruelly trained animals " . However , the exhibitors denied these claims . Spears performed the song on Good Morning America on December 2 , 2008 . It was also the opening number of The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , where she was dressed in a ringleader outfit , designed to represent a metamorphosis . Spears has also performed the song during her residency concert Britney : Piece of Me . The song will appear in Just Dance 2016 .
= = Background = =
" Circus " was written by Dr. Luke , Benny Blanco and Claude Kelly , while produced by Luke and Blanco . Luke and Kelly were initially commissioned to work on a new track for Spears , and entered the studio with no concept prepared , as Kelly explained , " just knowing her style and knowing what she does . " After Luke came up with the music , they based the song on the public 's perception of her life at the time . Spears explained that after listening to " Circus " for the first time , she felt inspired and imagined a story behind it . She also stated , " [ ' Circus ' ] put the whole album together as far as what I wanted my show to be like . You can play with a circus in so many different ways " . " Circus " was recorded at Conway Recording Studios and Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , and at Glenwood Place Studio in Burbank , California . Background vocals were provided by Cathy Dennis , Kelly and Myah Marie . Main instrumentation was done by Luke and Blanco . The song was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia . " Circus " was announced on October 31 , 2008 , as the second single from the album , and was officially serviced to American radio stations on December 2 , 2008 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Circus " is an uptempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song , with a stomp box beat and elements of pop rock . The song opens with the sound of a drum and builds until Spears starts singing , " There 's only two types of people in the world / The ones that entertain and the ones that observe " . Spears delivers confident and " half @-@ rapped " vocals , with the verses having usage of synthesizers . Lyrically , the song talks about being an entertainer and putting on shows . She explains her emotions while performing in lines such as : " I feel the adrenaline moving through my veins / Spotlight on me and I 'm ready to break " . The chorus begins with an electronic sound , while she compares herself , as well as performing to being on the center of a circus ring . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Circus " is composed in the key of F # minor with 120 beats per minute , however on the album the song is 115 beats per minute . Spears 's vocal range spans from G # 2 to D # 5 . Kelly commented that " Circus " was " a cool way to get people dancing and having fun " , but also have a slight message .
= = Critical reception = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as " a rampaging monster of a song whose chorus kicks off with a Max Martin @-@ style and Timbaland thump " . Popjustice praised the production of the song , compared it to " Break the Ice " and added , " there 's a lot of stopping and starting , including a built @-@ in MTV @-@ style dance breakdown segment . " Chris Williams of Billboard in its single review appreciated the song for surrounding Spears with " an electronic cyberpop landscape " . In the album review , Ann Donahue of Billboard criticized the lyrics for rehashing the theme of fame and compared it to " Lucky " ( 2000 ) and " Piece of Me " ( 2007 ) . Dave De Sylvia of Sputnikmusic said that while " Womanizer " sounded like a Blackout track , " Circus " is more reflective of the album ’ s general mood . Dan Cairns of The Sunday Times named it one of the standout tracks of the album , along with " If U Seek Amy " and " Mannequin " . Entertainment Weekly writer Chris Willman noted that , despite the album being titled Circus , the title track is " not about the madhouse her life has become but just a brag about her prowess as a whip @-@ cracking sexual ringmaster . "
Poppy Cosyns of The Sun said Spears " reaffirm [ s ] her bad @-@ girl image on the album 's infectious second single " , while BBC Music 's Talia Kraines thought that the singer " loves the attention being shone directly on her as the ' ringleader ' as she sings of adrenaline flowing through her veins when it 's time to put on a show . " Ben Norman of About.com considered the song a " true and triumphant Britney Spears pop song with a pensive underbelly ( the first verse in particular ) and a supremely executed hook . " Jonny Mugwump of The Quietus said , " a paean to her performance adrenalin , [ " Circus " is ] a medium @-@ paced , big power @-@ popper topped with an orbit @-@ esque guitar , " and commented that the song 's lyrics highlight Spears ' uniqueness – " the fuck you attitude . Despite everything , regardless of the personal destruction and undoubted hell she might still be haunted by , within the fictional space of the music , this woman couldn 't give a damn . She rightly taunts the world around her , sounding utterly defiant . There is no place for apology or humble platitudes . " John Murphy of musicOMH also praised its lyrics , describing them as " a confident , and encouraging , return to form . " " Circus " was nominated at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards in the category of Choice Music : Single , but lost to Miley Cyrus 's " The Climb " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On December 20 , 2008 , " Circus " debuted at number three on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 due to digital sales of over 212 @,@ 000 units . It was her first top @-@ ten debut on the chart . On the week of March 7 , 2009 , the song reached number one on the Pop Songs chart and number three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . As of March 2015 , " Circus " has sold 3 @.@ 1 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen Soundscan . It is her second best @-@ selling digital single in the country .
In Canada , the track debuted at number two based solely on digital downloads , being blocked from ascending to the top spot by Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " . On December 8 , 2008 , " Circus " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number fifteen , becoming the " Highest Debut " of the week . On December 22 , 2008 , the song peaked at number six . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , " Circus " peaked at number four , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for selling over 7 @,@ 500 copies . The song was also successful in Europe , peaking at number twenty two on the European Hot 100 Singles on March 21 , 2009 . " Circus " also reached the top ten in Sweden and the top twenty in Austria , Czech Republic , Finland , Norway , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 223 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom and is her thirteenth best selling single in the country . It became the tenth best selling digital single of 2009 , selling 6 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
The music video for " Circus " was filmed from October 28 to November 2 , 2008 in Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Francis Lawrence , who previously worked with Spears on the music video for her 2001 single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Spears chose Lawrence , since he was the " only person who could capture it , make it really twisted , eccentric and different " . On November 17 , 2008 , an exclusive three @-@ second clip premiered during a promo for her documentary Britney : For the Record . The video was set to be released on December 5 , 2008 on Entertainment Tonight , but it was moved at the last minute to December 4 , 2008 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Spears at a vanity , putting Curious on and earrings by Bulgari . She is then seen holding a top hat in front of her face , while doves fly out of another hat . Spears starts singing in the vanity but stands up and puts on a ringmaster jacket . She walks through an aisle while dancing suggestively with several circus dancers . Throughout the video , there are interspersed scenes of different circus performers , including ribbon dancers , contortionists , clowns and a mime on stilts . There are also scenes of Spears singing with the top hat , wearing a nude body stocking in front of a red curtain , with a spotlight on her . This is followed by a group dance scene in the middle of a circus ring , where Spears wears the ringmaster jacket , sequined hot pants and a feathered top hat . In the second verse , she dances with a chair and a whip wearing a nude bra covered in leaves . The video continues with a series of intercut scenes , such as Spears in slow motion in front of a shower of sparks , her surrounded by a pair of lions and in front of an elephant . During the bridge , Spears and her dancers perform a routine in front of flames . In the last chorus , Spears returns to the circus ring , surrounded by two elephants , many more circus performers , dancers and fire breathers . The video ends with Spears in the spotlight , laughing with the top hat over her head .
= = = Reception = = =
Davil Balls of Digital Spy described the music video as being " cheeky , seductive and more than a little bit ridiculous " and said that Spears " delivers some killer dance routines " . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly compared the dance in the chair with the music video of " Stronger " and added that " best of all , she actually looks animated in this video and appears to be having fun " . James Montgomery of MTV said that after watching the video " you are overcome with the sudden urge to go to the Big Apple Circus . Or pick up some Curious perfume . Or you know , possibly both " . The music video won the category of Best Moves at the MTV Australia Awards 2009 . It was also nominated for four VMAs at the 2009 awards in the categories of Best Art Direction , Best Choreography , Best Cinematography and Best Editing , but lost of all them . It was also nominated for Best Video in the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 , but lost to Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " . The video won Best Video of 2009 in Fuse TV , making Spears the only artist to win two years in a row .
On December 9 , 2008 , animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) issued a press release condemning Spears for using " cruelly trained lions and elephants " and demanding her to " stop using exotic animals in her videos and concerts once and for all " . Spears had previously received criticism from the organization when she used an albino python and a caged tiger during a performance of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards . Kari Johnson from Have Trunk Will Travel responded , saying , " [ the company ] has never issued a written endorsement , nor does it condone using electrical devices to discipline and control elephants except in situations where elephant or human safety is at risk . [ ... ] The American Humane Association monitors animal action in film and television . A representative was on the set of the Britney Spears ' Circus ' video with our elephants , Tai and Kitty , to ensure their safety and welfare [ ... ] Britney , the director , producers and the entire crew were respectful of the elephants ' needs and comfort and a pleasure to work with . " ....... Circus got a certified in the digital platform VEVO after reach 100 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
" Circus " was performed on December 2 , 2008 at American morning talk show Good Morning America , along with " Womanizer " . She wore a midriff @-@ baring shirt , leather pants , a ringmaster jacket and a top hat . " Circus " was a major part on The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , as the opening number of the show . The costumes of the performance were selected to show a metamorphosis . The show began with a video introduction featuring Perez Hilton as Queen Elizabeth I , welcoming the audience to the circus . In the middle of the video , the cylinder screen surrounding the stage started to rise , while Spears appeared on the video and shot Hilton with a crossbow , causing him to fall backwards onto the floor . As the video ended , Spears started to descend from the ceiling on a suspended platform , wearing a cheetah headdress , a ringmaster jacket , black shorts , high @-@ heeled boots and carrying a whip . The headdress represented an animal . When she reached the stage , she took it off to represent both a ringmaster and a lion tamer and " Circus " started . It featured acrobats taking the stage and spinning on giant rings in the air . The performance ended with Spears taking off her ringleader jacket to reveal a Swarovski @-@ crystal corset , representing a slave . She then ran into the center of the main stage , surrounded by jets of smoke , to enter a golden cage and perform " Piece of Me " . People writer Chuck Arnold wrote that Spears , " descending from above in a red ringmaster @-@ meets @-@ dominatrix outfit " to sing the song , " showed that her body was tight , even if her dancing always wasn 't . " James Montgomery of MTV considered both " Circus " and " Radar " performances " great " . Spears included the song on her current residency show in Las Vegas , Britney : Piece of Me . For the performance , Spears appears from the back of the stage , in the center of a fiery ring , resembling a circus showgirl .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Lukasz Gottwald – songwriting , production , drums , keyboards , programming , guitar
Claude Kelly – songwriting , background vocals
Benjamin Levin – songwriting , production , drums , keyboards , programming
Serban Ghenea – mixing
John Hanes – Protools editing
Cathy Dennis – background vocals
Myah Marie – background vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Joseph Massino =
Joseph Charles Massino ( born January 10 , 1943 ) is an American former mobster . He was a member of the Mafia ( Cosa Nostra ) and was the boss of the Bonanno crime family from 1991 until 2004 , when he became the first boss of one of the Five Families in New York City to turn state 's evidence .
Massino was a protégé of Philip Rastelli , who took control of the troubled Bonanno family after the assassination of Carmine Galante . Originally a truck hijacker , Massino secured his own power after arranging two 1981 gang murders , first a triple murder of three rebel captains , then his rival Dominick Napolitano . In 1991 , while Massino was in prison for a 1986 labor racketeering conviction , Rastelli died and Massino succeeded him . Upon his release the following year he set about rebuilding a family that had been in turmoil for almost a quarter @-@ century . By the dawn of the new millennium , he was reckoned as the most powerful Mafia leader in the nation . Massino became known as " The Last Don " , the only full @-@ fledged New York boss of his time who was not in prison .
In July 2004 Massino was convicted in a murder and racketeering indictment based on the testimony of several cooperating made men , including Massino 's disgruntled underboss and brother @-@ in @-@ law Salvatore Vitale . He was also facing the death penalty if convicted in a separate murder trial due to be held later that year , but after agreeing to testify against his former associates he was sentenced to life imprisonment for both indictments in 2005 . Massino testified twice for the government , helping win a murder conviction against his acting boss Vincent Basciano in 2011 , and was resentenced to time served in 2013 , though he will be on supervised release for the rest of his life .
= = Early years = =
Joseph Massino was born on January 10 , 1943 in New York City . He was one of three sons of the Neapolitan @-@ American Anthony and Adeline Massino . Raised in Maspeth , Queens , Massino has admitted to being a juvenile delinquent by the age of 12 and claimed that at 14 he ran away from home to Florida . He dropped out of Grover Cleveland High School in tenth grade .
Massino first met his future wife Josephine Vitale in 1956 , and married her in 1960 . The couple had three daughters . Massino also befriended Josephine 's brother , Salvatore Vitale , who , after briefly serving in the Army , became one of Massino 's most trusted allies . While athletic in youth , Massino was an avid cook , and he grew overweight in adulthood . His weight gained him the nickname " Big Joey " and during a 1987 racketeering trial , when he asked FBI agent Joseph Pistone who was to play him in a film adaptation of his undercover work , Pistone joked that they could not find anyone fat enough . By 2004 , Massino was suffering from diabetes and high blood pressure as well .
After he turned state 's evidence , Massino claimed his first murder victim was a Bonanno crime family associate named Tommy Zummo , whom he shot dead some time in the 1960s . The killing gained the ire of a Maspeth @-@ based Bonanno caporegime Philip Rastelli , but he remained unaware of Massino 's participation , and a nephew of Rastelli ultimately helped Massino become his protégé . Rastelli would set Massino up as a lunch wagon operator as part of his " Workmen 's Mobile Lunch Association " , an effective protection racket ; after paying a kickback to Rastelli in the form of membership dues , Massino was assured no competition where he operated .
= = Bonanno crime family = =
= = = Rise to power = = =
By the late 1960s Massino was a Bonanno associate . He led a successful truck hijacking crew , with the assistance of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Salvatore Vitale and carjacker Duane Leisenheimer , while fencing the stolen goods and running numbers using the lunch wagon as a front . He also befriended another mob hijacker , the future Gambino crime family boss John Gotti . Increasingly prosperous , Massino opened his own catering company , J & J Catering , which became another front for his activities . Massino 's mentor Rastelli was expected to become Bonanno boss upon the 1973 death of Natale Evola , but he had been convicted the previous year of loansharking and then of extortion in 1976 , leaving him imprisoned . In his absence Carmine Galante , a former consigliere and convicted drug trafficker , seized control of the Bonannos as an unofficial acting boss .
In 1975 , Massino and Vitale participated in the murder of Vito Borelli , who Massino claimed was primarily executed by Gotti , at the behest of Paul Castellano of the Gambino crime family . The Borelli hit was significant for Massino " making his bones " – proving his loyalty to the Mafia by killing on its behalf – putting him close to becoming a made man , a full member , in the Bonanno family . Massino also arranged the murder of one of his hijackers , Joseph Pastore , in 1976 after having Vitale borrow $ 9 @,@ 000 from him on his behalf . While later acquitted of the crime , both Vitale and Massino would admit to participation after turning state 's evidence .
In March 1975 , Massino was arrested at the scene of the arrest of one of his hijackers , Raymond Wean , and charged with conspiracy to receive stolen goods . Massino was scheduled to go on trial in 1977 , but the charges were dropped after he successfully argued that he had not been properly mirandized , disqualifying statements Massino gave to police from being used in trial .
On June 14 , 1977 , Massino was inducted into the Bonanno family along with Anthony Spero , Joseph Chilli , Jr. and a group of other men in a ceremony conducted by Carmine Galante . He worked as a soldier in James Galante 's crew , and later worked in Philip " Phil Lucky " Giaccone 's crew . Massino nevertheless remained loyal to Rastelli , then vying to oust Galante despite his imprisonment . Fearing Galante wanted him dead for insubordination , Massino delivered a request to the Commission , the governing body of the American Mafia , on Rastelli 's behalf to have Galante killed . The hit was approved and executed on July 12 , 1979 ; Rastelli subsequently took full control of the family and rewarded Massino 's loyalty by promoting him to capo .
By the beginning of the 1980s Massino ran his crew from the J & S Cake social club , a property just behind J & J Catering . The building was seized in 1988 during a crackdown on the Bonannos ' gambling activities .
= = = Three capos and Napolitano murders = = =
Following the Galante hit , Massino began jockeying for power with Dominick " Sonny Black " Napolitano , another Rastelli loyalist capo . Both men were themselves threatened by another faction seeking to depose the absentee boss led by capos Alphonse " Sonny Red " Indelicato , Dominick " Big Trin " Trincera and Philip Giaccone . The Commission initially tried to maintain neutrality , but in 1981 , Massino got word from his informants that the three capos were stocking up on automatic weapons and planning to kill the Rastelli loyalists within the Bonanno family to take complete control . Massino turned to Colombo crime family boss Carmine Persico and Gambino boss Paul Castellano for advice ; they told him to act immediately .
Massino , Napolitano and Gerlando Sciascia , a Sicilian @-@ born capo linked to the Montreal Rizzuto crime family , arranged a meeting at a Brooklyn social club with the three capos for May 5 , 1981 . The three had four gunmen , including Vitale and Bonanno @-@ affiliated Montreal boss Vito Rizzuto , hiding in a closet to ambush them . When Trinchera , Giaccone and Indelicato arrived with Frank Lino to meet Massino they were shot to death , with Massino himself stopping Indelicato from escaping . Lino escaped unscathed by running out the door . The hit further improved Massino 's prestige , but was marred by both Lino 's escape and the discovery of Indelicato 's body on May 20 .
Massino quickly won Lino over to his side , but Indelicato 's son Anthony " Bruno " Indelicato vowed revenge . Napolitano assigned associate Donnie Brasco , who he hoped to make a made man , to kill Indelicato . " Brasco " , however , was in fact an undercover FBI agent named Joseph Pistone ; shortly after the hit was ordered Pistone 's assignment was ended and Napolitano was informed of their infiltration .
Already skeptical of Napolitano 's support of " Brasco " , Massino was deeply disturbed by the breach of security when he learned of the agent 's true identity . Vitale would later testify that this was the reason Massino subsequently decided to murder Napolitano as well ; as he would later quote Massino , " I have to give him a receipt for the Donnie Brasco situation . " In his own testimony , Massino instead claimed Napolitano was targeted for trying to take over the Bonannos himself . On August 17 the former renegade Frank Lino and Steven Cannone drove Napolitano to the house of Ronald Filocomo , a Bonanno family associate , for a meeting . Napolitano was greeted by captain Frank Coppa , then thrown down the stairs to the house 's basement by Lino and shot to death . Napolitano 's body was discovered the following year .
Benjamin " Lefty " Ruggiero , who helped Pistone formally become a Bonanno associate , was also targeted , but was arrested en route to the meeting where he was expected to be murdered . On February 18 , 1982 , Anthony Mirra , the soldier who first " discovered " Pistone , was assassinated on Massino 's orders . Mirra had gone into hiding upon Pistone 's exposure but was ultimately betrayed and murdered by his protégé and cousin Joseph D 'Amico .
= = = Fugitive and Bonventre murder = = =
On November 23 , 1981 , based on information gained by Pistone 's infiltration , six Bonanno mobsters , including the then @-@ missing Napolitano , were indicted on racketeering charges and conspiracy in the three capos hit .
In March 1982 , Massino was tipped off by a Colombo @-@ associated FBI insider that he was about to be indicted and went into hiding in Pennsylvania with Leisenheimer . On March 25 , 1982 , Massino was also charged with conspiracy to murder Indelicato , Giaccone and Trinchera and truck hijacking . In hiding , Massino was able to see the prosecution 's strategy and better plan his defense as well as eventually face trial without association with other mobsters . Pistone later speculated Massino also feared retaliation upon the revelation that his associate Raymond Wean had turned state 's evidence . Massino was visited by many fellow mobsters , including Gotti , and Vitale would secretly deliver cash to support him .
In 1984 , Rastelli was released from prison , and he and Massino ordered the murder of Bonanno soldier Cesare Bonventre . Still a fugitive , Massino summoned Vitale , Louis Attanasio and James Tartaglione to his hideout and gave them the order . By this time , Massino was considered by most mobsters to be the boss in all but name , even though Rastelli was still officially head of the family , as well as heir apparent for the title itself . According to Vitale , Massino had Bonventre killed for giving him no support when he was in hiding .
Bonventre was called to a meeting with Rastelli in Queens . He was picked up by Vitale and Attanasio and driven to a garage . En route , Attanasio shot Bonventre twice in the head but only wounded him ; he would kill Bonventre with two more shots when they reached their destination . The task of disposing of Bonventre 's corpse was handed to Gabriel Infanti . Infanti promised Vitale that Bonventre 's remains would disappear forever . However , after a tipoff , the remains were discovered on April 16 , 1984 , in a warehouse in Garfield , New Jersey , stuffed into two 55 @-@ gallon glue drums .
For his part in the hit , Massino had Vitale initiated into the Bonanno family .
= = = 1986 conviction and 1987 acquittal = = =
Through Gotti associate Angelo Ruggiero , Massino was able to meet with defense attorney John Pollok in 1984 to negotiate his surrender . He finally turned himself in on July 7 and was released on $ 350 @,@ 000 bail . That year , Massino and Salvatore Vitale secured no @-@ show jobs with the Long Island based King Caterers in exchange for protecting them from Lucchese extortion .
In 1985 Massino was indicted twice more , first as a co @-@ conspirator with Rastelli in a labor racketeering case for controlling the Teamsters Local 814 , then with a conspiracy charge for the Pastore murder that was added to the original three capos indictment . The second indictment also charged Vitale as a co @-@ conspirator in the hijacking cases .
The labor racketeering trial began in April 1986 , with Massino as one of twelve defendants including Rastelli and former underboss Nicholas Marangello . While Massino protested in confidence to other mobsters he never had the opportunity to profit from the racket , he was implicated by both Pistone and union official Anthony Gilberti , and on October 15 , 1986 was found guilty of racketeering charges for accepting kickbacks on the Bonannos ' behalf . On January 16 , 1987 Massino was sentenced to ten years imprisonment , his first prison term . Rastelli , also convicted and in poor health during the trial , was sentenced to twelve . Around this time Massino was believed to be the Bonanno family 's official underboss . With Rastelli in declining health , Massino was also reckoned as the operating head of the family , though consigliere Anthony " Old Man " Spero was nominally acting boss .
On April 1987 , Massino and Vitale went on trial for truck hijacking and conspiracy to commit the triple murder , defended by Samuel H. Dawson and Bruce Cutler respectively . Prosecutor Michael Chertoff , describing Massino 's rise in his opening statements , would characterize him as the " Horatio Alger of the mob . " Raymond Wean and Joseph Pistone testified against Massino , but both proved unable to conclusively link Massino with any of the murder charges . On June 3 , while both men were convicted on hijacking charges they were cleared of the murder conspiracy charges . Further , the only proven criminal acts took place outside the RICO act 's five @-@ year statute of limitations ; without evidence that the " criminal enterprise " was still active in this timeframe the jury returned a special verdict clearing Massino and Vitale of these charges as well .
During Massino 's imprisonment at Talladega Federal Prison for his 1986 conviction Vitale functioned as his messenger , effectively becoming co @-@ acting boss alongside Spero . On Massino 's orders , Vitale organized the murder of Gabriel Infanti , who had also botched a 1982 hit on Anthony Gilberti and was suspected of being an informant .
= = Bonanno boss = =
= = = The family regroups = = =
During his meetings with Massino in prison Vitale , on behalf of the Bonannos ' capos , urged his brother @-@ in @-@ law to become boss in name as well as in fact . Rastelli had spent all but two years of his reign behind bars , and many felt Massino would bring the family stability . Massino was reluctant to take over as long as Rastelli was alive . Not only was he respectful of Rastelli 's sponsorship of his Mafia career , but Mafia tradition dictates that a boss keeps his title for life unless he abdicates . However , in the spring of 1991 , Massino ordered Vitale to " make me boss " as soon as Rastelli died . Rastelli died in June 1991 . A few days after his funeral , Massino instructed Vitale to call a meeting of the family 's capos , and Massino was acclaimed as boss .
Upon his release on November 13 , 1992 Massino retained Vitale as his messenger during his probation and promoted him to underboss . He could not associate with convicted mafiosi during his probation . While the FBI suspected Vitale was a mafioso , he had never been convicted of a crime , and the FBI would have no reason to be suspicious of him associating with Massino since they were brothers @-@ in @-@ law . He returned to his job at King Caterers , and in 1996 became co @-@ owner of Casablanca , a well @-@ reviewed Maspeth Italian restaurant .
Massino was 48 years old at the time of his accession , and knew that he potentially had a long reign ahead of him . With this in mind , he was determined to avoid the pitfalls that landed other Mafia bosses in prison . Inspired by Genovese boss Vincent Gigante , Massino forbade his men from saying his name out loud due to FBI surveillance . Instead , they were to touch their ears when referring to him . Massino gained the nickname " The Ear " because of this . Massino took a great number of precautions in regards to security and the possibility of anything incriminating being picked up on a wiretap . He closed the long @-@ standing social clubs of the Bonanno family . He also arranged family meetings to be conducted in remote locations within the United States . In some cases , he held meetings in foreign countries , and had his capos bring their wives along so they could be passed off as vacations . Remembering how Pistone 's infiltration had damaged the family , he also decreed that all prospective made men had to have a working relationship with an incumbent member for at least eight years before becoming made , in hopes of ensuring new mafiosi were as reliable as possible . Unusually for bosses of his era , he actively encouraged his men to have their sons made as well . In Massino 's view , this would make it less likely that a capo would turn informer , since if that happened the defector 's son would face almost certain death .
To minimize the damage from informants or undercover investigations Massino introduced a clandestine cell system for his crews , forbidding them from contacting one another and avoiding meeting their capos . He would instead create a new committee that would relay his orders to the crews . In contrast to his contemporaries , particularly the publicity @-@ friendly Gotti and the conspicuous feigned insanity of Gigante , Massino himself was also able to operate with a relatively low public profile ; both Pistone and mob writer Jerry Capeci would consequently refer to Massino as the " last of the old @-@ time gangsters . "
A side effect of these reforms was the reduction of Vitale , in his own words , to " a figurehead . " By the time of Massino 's release the Bonanno family had grown tired of Vitale , regarding him as greedy and overstepping his authority . In the new structure of the family , Vitale lost the underboss 's usual role as a go @-@ between for the boss , as well as the share of the family 's profits those duties entailed , and Massino made it clear to Vitale his unpopularity was a factor in these changes . Vitale remained loyal , however , and helped Massino organize the March 18 , 1999 murder of Gerlando Sciascia . Massino indicated to fellow mobsters that Sciascia was killed for feuding with fellow Massino @-@ confidant capo Anthony Graziano , accusing him of using cocaine , while in his own testimony Massino claimed Sciascia was killed for killing another mobster 's son . Sciascia 's body was not covertly buried but instead left to be discovered in a street in the Bronx , an attempt to make the hit look like a botched drug deal rather than a Mafia @-@ ordered hit , and Massino had his capos attend Sciascia 's funeral .
Shortly after becoming boss , Massino announced that his men should no longer consider themselves as part of the Bonanno family . Instead , he renamed it the Massino family , after himself . Like many mafiosi , he was angered at family namesake Joseph Bonanno 's tell @-@ all autobiography , A Man of Honor , and regarded it as a violation of the code of omertà . He told Vitale that in his view , " Joe Bonanno disrespected the family by ratting . " The new name was first disclosed after Massino was indicted in 2003 and did not catch on outside the Mafia .
= = = Relations with other families = = =
Before Massino became boss , John Gotti was one of his closest allies . Massino had backed Gotti in his plot to take over the Gambino family , and as Gambino boss , Gotti tried to get Massino a seat on the Commission as the Bonannos ' acting boss . Gotti was reportedly infuriated that Massino had been officially promoted without him being consulted , and Massino would later testify he believed Gotti conspired with Vitale to kill him . Gotti , however , was marginalized by his 1992 racketeering and murder conviction and consequent life imprisonment . Massino , for his own part , was angered at Gotti 's high public profile and later criticized Gotti for killing his predecessor Paul Castellano . Massino also had a poor relationship with Vincent Gigante , who had backed the opposition to Rastelli and blocked Gotti 's attempts to bring Massino onto the Commission .
The Bonanno family had been in decline for the better part of the last quarter century since Joseph Bonanno 's ousting , and it was kicked off the Commission altogether following Pistone 's infiltration . By the late 1990s the situation was reversed , and the Bonanno family was now reckoned as the most powerful crime family in New York and the nation , in no small part because Massino was the only full @-@ fledged New York boss who was still on the streets . As it turned out , being thrown off the Commission actually worked in the Bonannos ' favor ; they were the only family whose leadership wasn 't decimated in the Mafia Commission Trial . Wary of surveillance , Massino generally avoided meeting with members of other Mafia families and encouraged his crews to operate independently as well . In January 2000 , however , Massino did preside over an informal Commission meeting with the acting bosses of the other four families . As the most powerful Mafia leader in both New York and the nation , Massino was in a position to make general policies for the Five Families . Under his direction , the Commission tightened qualifications to become a made man , requiring candidates have full Italian descent ( previously having an Italian @-@ American father was the minimum requirement ) and imposed restrictions on initiating associates convicted on drug charges .
According to Capeci , the murder of Sciascia soured relations between the Bonanno and Rizzuto families . Originally considered merely a Canadian Bonanno crew , the Rizzutos responded by taking even less heed from New York .
= = = Run @-@ up to prosecution = = =
At the beginning of his reign as boss , Massino enjoyed the benefit of limited FBI attention . In 1987 , with the Bonannos weakened , the FBI merged its Bonanno squad with its Colombo family squad , and this squad was initially preoccupied with the Colombos ' third internal war . Another dedicated Bonanno squad would be established in 1996 .
The Bonanno squad 's chief , Jack Stubing , was well aware of the measures Massino had taken to avoid scrutiny . He therefore decided to go after Massino with a rear @-@ guard action . He convinced his bosses to lend him a pair of forensic accountants normally used in fraud investigations , believing that they could easily pinpoint conspirators in the family 's money laundering schemes . Stubing believed that the threat of long prison sentences would be sufficient to get any conspirators to turn informer , and thus make it easier to trace how the money flowed to Massino . In the meantime , the FBI also targeted other members of the Bonanno administration . In 1995 , consigliere Anthony Spero was sentenced to two years imprisonment after being convicted of loansharking , then to life imprisonment in 2002 for murder . Graziano would assume Spero 's duties , but he too plead guilty to racketeering charges in December 2002 and was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment . Vitale would also plead guilty to loansharking charges in June 2002 . Vitale was not immediately sentenced , and was placed under house arrest in the interim , but the relatively low maximum sentence he was eligible for lead Massino to wrongly suspect he was cooperating with law enforcement . He secretly ordered that , if he was arrested , Vitale was to be " taken down " - demoted or killed .
Until 2002 , the Bonannos had been the only family in the modern history of the New York Mafia ( i. e . , since the Castellammarese War ) to have never had a made man turn informant or government witness . Massino used this as a point of pride to rally his crime family . That year Frank Coppa , convicted on fraud and facing further charges from the FBI 's forensic accounting investigation , became the first to flip . He was followed shortly by acting underboss Richard Cantarella , a participant in the Mirra murder , who was facing racketeering and murder charges . A third , Joseph D 'Amico , subsequently turned state 's evidence with the knowledge that Cantarella could implicate him for murder as well . All of these defections left Massino , at last , vulnerable to serious charges .
= = 2004 conviction = =
On January 9 , 2003 , Massino was arrested and indicted , alongside Vitale , Frank Lino and capo Daniel Mongelli , in a comprehensive racketeering indictment . The charges against Massino himself included ordering the 1981 murder of Napolitano . Massino was denied bail , and Vincent Basciano took over as acting boss in his absence . Massino hired David Breitbart , an attorney he had originally wanted to represent him in his 1987 trial , for his defense .
Three more Bonanno made men would choose to cooperate before Massino came to trial . The first was James Tartaglione ; anticipating he would shortly be indicted as well he went to the FBI and agreed to wear a wire while he remained free . The second was Salvatore Vitale . In custody Massino again put out the word , to a receptive Bonanno family , that he wanted Vitale killed . After learning of Massino 's earlier plans to kill his brother @-@ in @-@ law from Coppa and Cantarella , prosecutors informed Vitale . Vitale was already dissatisfied by the lack of support he and his family received from Massino after his arrest . On the day he was arraigned with Massino , Vitale decided to flip as soon as it was safe to do so ; he formally reached a deal with prosecutors in February . He was followed in short order by Lino , knowing Vitale could implicate him in murder as well . Also flipping was longtime Bonanno associate Duane Leisenheimer , concerned for his safety after an investigator for Massino 's defense team visited to find out if he intended to flip .
With these defections , Massino was slapped with a superseding indictment charging him with seven additional murders : the three capos ( this time for participation in the murder itself rather than conspiracy ) , Mirra , Bonventre , Infanti and Sciascia . Of particular interest was the Sciascia hit , which took place after a 1994 amendment to racketeering laws that allowed the death penalty for murder in aid of racketeering .
Massino 's trial began on May 24 , 2004 , with judge Nicholas Garaufis presiding and Greg D. Andres and Robert Henoch heading the prosecution . He now faced 11 RICO counts for seven murders ( due to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty for the Sciascia murder , that case was severed to be tried separately ) , arson , extortion , loansharking , illegal gambling , and money laundering . By this time , Time magazine had dubbed Massino as " the Last Don " , in reference to his status as the only New York boss not serving a prison sentence at that point . The name stuck .
Despite a weak start , with opening witness Anthony Gilberti unable to recognize Massino in the courtroom , the prosecution would establish its case to link Massino with the charges in the indictment through an unprecedented seven major turncoats , including the six turned made men . Vitale , the last of the six to take the stand , was of particular significance . He had spent most of his three decades in the Mafia as a close confidant to Massino , and his closeness to his brother in law allowed him to cover Massino 's entire criminal history in his testimony . Brietbart 's defense rested primarily on cross @-@ examination of the prosecution witnesses , with his only witness being an FBI agent to challenge Vitale 's reliability . His defense was also unusual in that he made no attempt to contest that Massino was the Bonanno boss , instead stressing the murders in the case took place before he took over and that Massino himself " showed a love of life ... because the murders ceased . "
After deliberating for five days the jury found Massino guilty of all eleven counts on July 30 , 2004 . His sentencing was initially scheduled for October 12 , and he was expected to receive a sentence of life imprisonment with no possibility of parole . The jury also approved the prosecutors ' recommended $ 10 million forfeiture of the proceeds of his reign as Bonanno boss on the day of the verdict .
= = Turning state 's evidence = =
Immediately after his July 30 conviction , as court was adjourned , Massino requested a meeting with Judge Garaufis , where he made his first offer to cooperate . He was facing the death penalty if found guilty of Sciascia 's murder – indeed , one of John Ashcroft 's final acts as Attorney General was to order federal prosecutors to seek the death penalty for Massino . Massino thus stood to be the first Mafia boss to be executed for his crimes , and the first mob boss to face the death penalty since Lepke Buchalter was executed in 1944 .
In hopes of saving his life , Massino decided to break his blood oath and turn informer . Massino subsequently claimed he decided to turn informer due to the prospect of his wife and mother having to forfeit their houses to the government . Mob authors and journalists Anthony D. DeStefano and Selwyn Raab both consider the turning of so many made men as a factor in disillusioning Massino with Cosa Nostra , the former also assuming Massino had decided to flip " long before the verdict " . Massino was the first sitting boss of a New York crime family to turn state 's evidence , and the second in the history of the American Mafia to do so ( Philadelphia crime family boss Ralph Natale had flipped in 1999 when facing drug charges ) . It also marked the second time in a little more than a year that a New York boss had reached a plea bargain ; Gigante had pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice charges in 2003 after prosecutors unmasked his long charade of feigning insanity .
At his advice , that October the FBI revisited the Queens mob graveyard where Alphonse Indelicato 's body was found , and unearthed the bodies of Trinchera and Giaccone as well . They also hoped to find the body of John Favara , who accidentally killed Gotti 's son , and the body of Tommy DeSimone . Massino also reported that Vincent Basciano , arrested in November , had conspired to kill prosecutor Greg Andres , but after failing a polygraph test regarding the discussion he agreed to wear a wire when meeting the acting boss in jail . While Massino was unable to extract an unambiguous confession regarding Andres , he did record Basciano freely admit to ordering the murder of associate Randolph Pizzolo .
By the end of January 2005 , when Basciano was indicted for the Pizzolo murder , Massino was identified by news sources as the then @-@ anonymous fellow mobster who secretly recorded his confession , to the public disgust of Massino 's family . Further confirmation of Massino 's defection came in February as he was identified as the source for the graveyard , then in May when the Justice Department dropped the threat of the death penalty regarding the Sciascia case . In a hearing on June 23 , 2005 , Massino finalized his deal and plead guilty to ordering the Sciascia murder . For this and his 2004 conviction he was sentenced to two consecutive life sentences , with a possible reduction depending on his service as a witness . That same day Josephine Massino negotiated a settlement to satisfy the forfeiture claim , keeping the homes of herself and Massino 's mother as well as some rental properties while turning over , among other assets , a cache of $ 7 million and hundreds of gold bars , and the Casablanca restaurant .
Massino was not replaced as Bonanno boss until 2013 when Michael Mancuso , who had replaced Basciano as acting boss , was reported to have formally assumed the title .
= = = Massino 's testimony and release = = =
Massino was conspicuously absent from the prosecution witnesses at the 2006 racketeering trial of Basciano , the prosecution deciding he was not yet needed ; he was also expected to testify against Vito Rizzuto regarding his role in the three capos murder , but the Montreal boss accepted a plea bargain in May 2007 . He finally made his debut as a witness at Basciano 's trial for the murder of Randolph Pizzolo in April 2011 ; Massino 's testified both during the trial itself and , after Basciano was convicted , on behalf of the prosecution 's unsuccessful attempt to impose the death penalty . During his testimony Massino noted , as a result of his cooperation , " I ’ m hoping to see a light at the end of the tunnel . "
Massino testified again in the 2012 extortion trial of Genovese capo Anthony Romanello , primarily to provide background as an expert on the American Mafia . While Massino had not worked closely with Romanello , prosecutors decided to use him after another mobster @-@ turned @-@ witness was dropped ; the case ended in an acquittal . Massino had also been considered as a witness in the 2013 murder trial of Colombo acting boss Joel Cacace , but was dropped after he was unable to fully remember the meeting where he claimed Cacace indicated his involvement in the murder of NYPD officer Ralph Dols .
In June 2013 the U.S. Department of Justice filed a request to Judge Garaufis for a reduction of Massino 's sentence ; prosecutors cited both the impact of Massino 's unprecedented cooperation and his failing health as reasons for a reduction of his sentence . Garaufis granted their request on July 10 , resentencing Massino to time served and supervised release for the remainder of his life .
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= Airbus A380 =
The Airbus A380 is a double @-@ deck , wide @-@ body , four @-@ engine jet airliner manufactured by European Union manufacturer Airbus . It is the world 's largest passenger airliner , and the airports at which it operates have upgraded facilities to accommodate it . It was initially named Airbus A3XX and designed to challenge Boeing 's monopoly in the large @-@ aircraft market . The A380 made its first flight on 27 April 2005 and entered commercial service in 25 October 2007 with Singapore Airlines .
The A380 's upper deck extends along the entire length of the fuselage , with a width equivalent to a wide @-@ body aircraft . This gives the A380 @-@ 800 's cabin 550 square metres ( 5 @,@ 920 sq ft ) of usable floor space , 40 % more than the next largest airliner , the Boeing 747 @-@ 8 , and provides seating for 525 people in a typical three @-@ class configuration or up to 853 people in an all @-@ economy class configuration . The A380 @-@ 800 has a design range of 8 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 700 km ) , serving the second longest non @-@ stop scheduled flight in the world , and a cruising speed of Mach 0 @.@ 85 ( about 900 km / h , 560 mph or 490 kn at cruising altitude ) .
As of May 2016 , Airbus had received 319 firm orders and delivered 190 aircraft ; Emirates is the biggest A380 customer with 142 on order and 80 delivered . Thai Airways International , British Airways , Asiana Airlines , Qatar Airways , Etihad Airways are other operators .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In mid @-@ 1988 , Airbus engineers led by Jean Roeder began work in secret on the development of an ultra @-@ high @-@ capacity airliner ( UHCA ) , both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the early 1970s with its 747 . McDonnell Douglas unsuccessfully offered its smaller , double @-@ deck MD @-@ 12 concept for sale . Roeder was given approval for further evaluations of the UHCA after a formal presentation to the President and CEO in June 1990 . The megaproject was announced at the 1990 Farnborough Air Show , with the stated goal of 15 % lower operating costs than the 747 @-@ 400 . Airbus organised four teams of designers , one from each of its partners ( Aérospatiale , British Aerospace , Deutsche Aerospace AG , CASA ) to propose new technologies for its future aircraft designs . The designs were presented in 1992 and the most competitive designs were used .
In January 1993 , Boeing and several companies in the Airbus consortium started a joint feasibility study of a Very Large Commercial Transport ( VLCT ) , aiming to form a partnership to share the limited market . This joint study was abandoned two years later , Boeing 's interest having declined because analysts thought that such a product was unlikely to cover the projected $ 15 billion development cost . Despite the fact that only two airlines had expressed public interest in purchasing such a plane , Airbus was already pursuing its own large plane project . Analysts suggested that Boeing would instead pursue stretching its 747 design , and that air travel was already moving away from the hub and spoke system that consolidated traffic into large planes , and toward more non @-@ stop routes that could be served by smaller planes .
In June 1994 , Airbus announced its plan to develop its own very large airliner , designated the A3XX . Airbus considered several designs , including an unusual side @-@ by @-@ side combination of two fuselages from its A340 , the largest Airbus jet at the time . The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeing 's own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747 . From 1997 to 2000 , as the East Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook , Airbus refined its design , targeting a 15 – 20 % reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747 @-@ 400 . The A3XX design converged on a double @-@ decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single @-@ deck design , in line with traditional hub @-@ and @-@ spoke theory as opposed to the point @-@ to @-@ point theory with the Boeing 777 , after conducting an extensive market analysis with over 200 focus groups . Although early marketing of the huge cross @-@ section touted the possibility of duty @-@ free shops , restaurant @-@ like dining , gyms , casinos & beauty parlours on board , the realities of airline economics have kept such dreams grounded .
On 19 December 2000 , the supervisory board of newly restructured Airbus voted to launch an € 8 @.@ 8 @-@ billion programme to build the A3XX , re @-@ christened as the A380 , with 50 firm orders from six launch customers . The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families , which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340 . It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double @-@ deck cross section , and is a lucky number in some Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed . The aircraft configuration was finalised in early 2001 , and manufacturing of the first A380 wing box component started on 23 January 2002 . The development cost of the A380 had grown to € 11 @-@ 14 billion when the first aircraft was completed .
= = = Production = = =
Major structural sections of the A380 are built in France , Germany , Spain , and the United Kingdom . Due to the sections ' large size , traditional transportation methods proved infeasible , so they are brought to the Jean @-@ Luc Lagardère Plant assembly hall in Toulouse , France , by specialised surface transportation , though some parts are moved by the A300 @-@ 600ST Beluga transport aircraft , which is also used in the movement of other Airbus model components . A380 components are provided by suppliers from around the world ; the four largest contributors , by value , are Rolls @-@ Royce , Safran , United Technologies and General Electric .
For the surface movement of large A380 structural components , a complex route known as the Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit was developed . This involved the construction of a fleet of roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ( RORO ) ships and barges , the construction of port facilities and the development of new and modified roads to accommodate oversized road convoys . The front and rear fuselage sections are shipped on one of three RORO ships from Hamburg in northern Germany to the United Kingdom . The wings are manufactured at Broughton in North Wales , then transported by barge to Mostyn docks for ship transport .
In Saint @-@ Nazaire in western France , the ship exchanges the fuselage sections from Hamburg for larger , assembled sections , some of which include the nose . The ship unloads in Bordeaux . The ship then picks up the belly and tail sections from Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA in Cádiz in southern Spain , and delivers them to Bordeaux . From there , the A380 parts are transported by barge to Langon , and by oversize road convoys to the assembly hall in Toulouse . In order to avoid damage from direct handling , parts are secured in custom jigs carried on self @-@ powered wheeled vehicles .
After assembly , the aircraft are flown to Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport ( XFW ) to be furnished and painted . Airbus sized the production facilities and supply chain for a production rate of four A380s per month .
= = = Testing = = =
Five A380s were built for testing and demonstration purposes . The first A380 , registered F @-@ WWOW , was unveiled in Toulouse 18 January 2005 . It first flew on 27 April 2005 . This plane , equipped with Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 engines , flew from Toulouse Blagnac International Airport with a crew of six headed by chief test pilot Jacques Rosay . Rosay said flying the A380 had been " like handling a bicycle " .
On 1 December 2005 , the A380 achieved its maximum design speed of Mach 0 @.@ 96 , ( its design cruise speed is Mach 0 @.@ 85 ) in a shallow dive . In 2006 , the A380 flew its first high @-@ altitude test at Bole International Airport , Addis Ababa . It conducted its second high @-@ altitude test at the same airport in 2009 . On 10 January 2006 , it flew to José María Córdova International Airport in Colombia , accomplishing the transatlantic testing , and then it went to El Dorado International Airport to test the engine operation in high @-@ altitude airports . It arrived in North America on 6 February 2006 , landing in Iqaluit , Nunavut in Canada for cold @-@ weather testing .
On 14 February 2006 , during the destructive wing strength certification test on MSN5000 , the test wing of the A380 failed at 145 % of the limit load , short of the required 150 % level . Airbus announced modifications adding 30 kg ( 66 lb ) to the wing to provide the required strength . On 26 March 2006 , the A380 underwent evacuation certification in Hamburg . With 8 of the 16 exits arbitrarily blocked , 853 mixed passengers and 20 crew exited the darkened aircraft in 78 seconds , less than the 90 seconds required for certification . Three days later , the A380 received European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) and United States Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) approval to carry up to 853 passengers .
The first A380 using GP7200 engines — serial number MSN009 and registration F @-@ WWEA — flew on 25 August 2006 . On 4 September 2006 , the first full passenger @-@ carrying flight test took place . The aircraft flew from Toulouse with 474 Airbus employees on board , in a test of passenger facilities and comfort . In November 2006 , a further series of route @-@ proving flights demonstrated the aircraft 's performance for 150 flight hours under typical airline operating conditions . As of 2014 , the A380 test aircraft continue to perform test procedures .
Airbus obtained type certificates for the A380 @-@ 841 and A380 @-@ 842 model from the EASA and FAA on 12 December 2006 in a joint ceremony at the company 's French headquarters , receiving the ICAO code A388 . The A380 @-@ 861 model obtained its type certificate on 14 December 2007 .
= = = Production and delivery delays = = =
Initial production of the A380 was troubled by delays attributed to the 530 km ( 330 mi ) of wiring in each aircraft . Airbus cited as underlying causes the complexity of the cabin wiring ( 98 @,@ 000 wires and 40 @,@ 000 connectors ) , its concurrent design and production , the high degree of customisation for each airline , and failures of configuration management and change control . The German and Spanish Airbus facilities continued to use CATIA version 4 , while British and French sites migrated to version 5 . This caused overall configuration management problems , at least in part because wire harnesses manufactured using aluminium rather than copper conductors necessitated special design rules including non @-@ standard dimensions and bend radii ; these were not easily transferred between versions of the software .
Airbus announced the first delay in June 2005 and notified airlines that deliveries would be delayed by six months . This reduced the total number of planned deliveries by the end of 2009 from about 120 to 90 – 100 . On 13 June 2006 , Airbus announced a second delay , with the delivery schedule slipping an additional six to seven months . Although the first delivery was still planned before the end of 2006 , deliveries in 2007 would drop to only 9 aircraft , and deliveries by the end of 2009 would be cut to 70 – 80 aircraft . The announcement caused a 26 % drop in the share price of Airbus ' parent , EADS , and led to the departure of EADS CEO Noël Forgeard , Airbus CEO Gustav Humbert , and A380 programme manager Charles Champion . On 3 October 2006 , upon completion of a review of the A380 program , Airbus CEO Christian Streiff announced a third delay , pushing the first delivery to October 2007 , to be followed by 13 deliveries in 2008 , 25 in 2009 , and the full production rate of 45 aircraft per year in 2010 . The delay also increased the earnings shortfall projected by Airbus through 2010 to € 4 @.@ 8 billion .
As Airbus prioritised the work on the A380 @-@ 800 over the A380F , freighter orders were cancelled by FedEx and UPS , or converted to A380 @-@ 800 by Emirates and ILFC . Airbus suspended work on the freighter version , but said it remained on offer , albeit without a service entry date . For the passenger version Airbus negotiated a revised delivery schedule and compensation with the 13 customers , all of which retained their orders with some placing subsequent orders , including Emirates , Singapore Airlines , Qantas , Air France , Qatar Airways , and Korean Air .
On 13 May 2008 , Airbus announced reduced deliveries for the years 2008 ( 12 ) and 2009 ( 21 ) . After further manufacturing setbacks , Airbus announced its plan to deliver 14 A380s in 2009 , down from the previously revised target of 18 . A total of 10 A380s were delivered in 2009 . In 2010 Airbus delivered 18 of the expected 20 A380s , due to Rolls @-@ Royce engine availability problems . Airbus planned to deliver " between 20 and 25 " A380s in 2011 before ramping up to three a month in 2012 . In fact , Airbus delivered 26 units , thus outdoing its predicted output for the first time . As of July 2012 , production was 3 aircraft per month . Among the production problems are challenging interiors , interiors being installed sequentially rather than concurrently as in smaller planes , and union / government objections to streamlining .
At the July 2016 Farnborough Airshow Airbus announced that in a “ prudent , proactive step , ” starting in 2018 it expects to deliver 12 A380 aircraft per year , down from 27 deliveries in 2015 . The firm also warned production might slip back into red ink on each aircraft produced at that time , though it anticipates production will remain in the black for 2016 and 2017 . “ The company will continue to improve the efficiency of its industrial system to achieve breakeven at 20 aircraft in 2017 and targets additional cost reduction initiatives to lower breakeven further . ” Airbus expects that healthy demand for its other aircraft would allow it to avoid job losses from the cuts .
= = = Entry into service = = =
Nicknamed Superjumbo , the first A380 , MSN003 , ( registered as 9V @-@ SKA ) was delivered to Singapore Airlines on 15 October 2007 and entered service on 25 October 2007 with flight number SQ380 between Singapore and Sydney . Passengers bought seats in a charity online auction paying between $ 560 and $ 100 @,@ 380 . Two months later , Singapore Airlines CEO Chew Choong Seng stated the A380 was performing better than either the airline and Airbus had anticipated , burning 20 % less fuel per seat @-@ mile than the airline 's 747 @-@ 400 fleet . Emirates ' Tim Clark claimed that the A380 has better fuel economy at Mach 0 @.@ 86 than at 0 @.@ 83 , and that its technical dispatch reliability is at 97 % , same as Singapore Airlines . Airbus is committed to reach the industry standard of 98 @.@ 5 % .
Emirates was the second airline to receive the A380 and commenced service between Dubai and New York in August 2008 . Qantas followed , with flights between Melbourne and Los Angeles in October 2008 . By the end of 2008 , 890 @,@ 000 passengers had flown on 2 @,@ 200 flights .
In February 2009 , the one millionth passenger was flown with Singapore Airlines and by May of that year 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 passengers had flown on 4 @,@ 200 flights . Air France received its first A380 in October 2009 . Lufthansa received its first A380 in May 2010 . By July 2010 , the 31 A380s then in service had transported 6 million passengers on 17 @,@ 000 flights between 20 international destinations .
Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013 to Malaysia Airlines . In June 2014 , over 65 million passengers had flown the A380 , and more than 100 million passengers ( averaging 375 per flight ) by September 2015 , with an availability of 98 @.@ 5 % . In 2014 , Emirates stated that their A380 fleet had load factors of 90 @-@ 100 % , and that the popularity of the aircraft with its passengers had not decreased in the past year .
= = = Post @-@ delivery issues = = =
During repairs following the Qantas Flight 32 engine failure incident , cracks were discovered in wing fittings . As a result , the European Aviation Safety Agency issued an Airworthiness Directive in January 2012 which affected 20 A380 aircraft that had accumulated over 1 @,@ 300 flights . A380s with under 1 @,@ 800 flight hours were to be inspected within 6 weeks or 84 flights ; aircraft with over 1 @,@ 800 flight hours were to be examined within four days or 14 flights . Fittings found to be cracked were replaced . On 8 February 2012 , the checks were extended to cover all 68 A380 aircraft in operation . The problem is considered to be minor and is not expected to affect operations . EADS acknowledged that the cost of repairs would be over $ 130 million , to be borne by Airbus . The company said the problem was traced to stress and material used for the fittings . Additionally , major airlines are seeking compensation from Airbus for revenue lost as a result of the cracks and subsequent grounding of fleets . Airbus has switched to a different type of aluminium alloy so aircraft delivered from 2014 onwards should not have this issue .
Airbus is changing about 10 % of all doors , as some leak during flight . One occurrence resulted in dropped oxygen masks and an emergency landing . The switch is expected to cost over € 100 million . Airbus states that safety is sufficient , as the air pressure pushes the door into the frame .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The A380 was initially offered in two models , the A380 @-@ 800 and the A380F . The A380 @-@ 800 's original configuration carried 555 passengers in a three @-@ class configuration or 853 passengers ( 538 on the main deck and 315 on the upper deck ) in a single @-@ class economy configuration . Then in May 2007 , Airbus began marketing a configuration with 30 fewer passengers , ( 525 total in three classes ) , traded for 200 nmi ( 370 km ) more range , to better reflect trends in premium class accommodation . The design range for the − 800 model is 8 @,@ 500 nmi ( 15 @,@ 700 km ) ; capable of flying from Hong Kong to New York or from Sydney to Istanbul non @-@ stop . The second model , the A380F freighter , would carry 150 tonnes of cargo with a range of 5 @,@ 600 nmi ( 10 @,@ 400 km ) . The freighter development was put on hold as Airbus prioritised the passenger version and all cargo orders were cancelled . Future variants may include an A380 @-@ 900 stretch seating about 656 passengers ( or up to 960 passengers in an all economy configuration ) and an extended @-@ range version with the same passenger capacity as the A380 @-@ 800 .
= = = Engines = = =
The A380 is available with two types of turbofan engines , the Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 ( variants A380 @-@ 841 , − 842 and − 843F ) or the Engine Alliance GP7000 ( A380 @-@ 861 and − 863F ) . The Trent 900 is a derivative of the Trent 800 , and the GP7000 has roots from the GE90 and PW4000 . The Trent 900 core is a scaled version of the Trent 500 , but incorporates the swept fan technology of the stillborn Trent 8104 . The GP7200 has a GE90 @-@ derived core and PW4090 @-@ derived fan and low @-@ pressure turbo @-@ machinery . Noise reduction was an important requirement in the A380 design , and particularly affects engine design . Both engine types allow the aircraft to achieve well under the QC / 2 departure and QC / 0 @.@ 5 arrival noise limits under the Quota Count system set by London Heathrow Airport , which is a key destination for the A380 . The A380 has received an award for its reduced noise . However , field measurements suggest the approach quota allocation for the A380 may be overly generous compared to the older Boeing 747 , but still quieter . Rolls @-@ Royce is supporting CAA in understanding the relatively high A380 / Trent 900 monitored noise levels .
The A380 was initially planned without thrust reversers , incorporating sufficient braking capacity to do without them . However Airbus elected to equip the two inboard engines with thrust reversers in a late stage of development , helping the brakes when the runway is slippery . The two outboard engines do not have reversers , reducing the amount of debris stirred up during landing . The A380 has electrically actuated thrust reversers , giving them better reliability than their pneumatic or hydraulic equivalents , in addition to saving weight .
In 2008 , the A380 demonstrated the viability of a synthetic fuel comprising standard jet fuel with a natural @-@ gas @-@ derived component . On 1 February 2008 , a three @-@ hour test flight operated between Britain and France , with one of the A380 's four engines using a mix of 60 % standard jet kerosene and 40 % gas to liquids ( GTL ) fuel supplied by Shell . The aircraft needed no modifications for the GTL fuel , which was designed to be mixed with normal jet fuel . Sebastien Remy , head of Airbus SAS 's alternative fuel programme , said the GTL used was no cleaner in CO2 terms than standard fuel but contains no sulphur , generating air quality benefits .
The auxiliary power comprises the Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) , the electronic control box ( ECB ) , and mounting hardware . The APU in use on the A380 is the PW 980A APU . The APU primarily provides air to power the Analysis Ground Station ( AGS ) on the ground and to start the engines . The AGS is a semi @-@ automatic analysis system of flight data that helps to optimise management of maintenance and reduce costs . The APU also powers electric generators which provide auxiliary electric power to the aircraft .
= = = Wings = = =
The A380 's wing is sized for a maximum takeoff weight ( MTOW ) over 650 tonnes to accommodate these future versions , albeit with some internal strengthening required on the A380F freighter . The optimal wingspan for this weight is about 90 m ( 300 ft ) , but airport restrictions limited it to less than 80 m ( 260 ft ) , lowering aspect ratio to 7 @.@ 8 which reduces fuel efficiency about 10 % and increases operating costs a few percent , given that fuel costs constitute about 50 % of the cost of long @-@ haul airplane operation . The common wing design approach sacrifices fuel efficiency ( due to a weight penalty ) on the A380 @-@ 800 passenger model , but Airbus estimates that the aircraft 's size , coupled with the uses of advanced technology , will provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747 @-@ 400 and older 747 variants . The A380 also includes wingtip devices similar to those found on the A310 and A320 to reduce induced drag , thereby increasing fuel efficiency and range .
= = = Materials = = =
While most of the fuselage is aluminium , composite materials comprise more than 20 % of the A380 's airframe . Carbon @-@ fibre reinforced plastic , glass @-@ fibre reinforced plastic and quartz @-@ fibre reinforced plastic are used extensively in wings , fuselage sections ( such as the undercarriage and rear end of fuselage ) , tail surfaces , and doors . The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing box made of carbon fibre reinforced plastic . It is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross section . The wings of other commercial airliners are partitioned span @-@ wise into sections . This flowing , continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency . Thermoplastics are used in the leading edges of the slats . The hybrid fibre metal laminate material GLARE ( glass laminate aluminium reinforced epoxy ) is used in the upper fuselage and on the stabilisers ' leading edges . This aluminium @-@ glass @-@ fibre laminate is lighter and has better corrosion and impact resistance than conventional aluminium alloys used in aviation . Unlike earlier composite materials , GLARE can be repaired using conventional aluminium repair techniques . The application of GLARE on the A380 has a long history , which shows the complex nature of innovations in the aircraft industry .
Newer weldable aluminium alloys are also used . This enables the widespread use of laser beam welding manufacturing techniques , eliminating rows of rivets and resulting in a lighter , stronger structure . High @-@ strength aluminium ( type 7449 ) reinforced with carbon fibre was used in the wing brackets of the first 120 A380s to reduce weight , but cracks have been discovered and new sets of the more critical brackets will be made of standard aluminium 7010 , increasing weight by 90 kg ( 198 lb ) . Repair costs for earlier aircraft are expected to be around € 500 million ( US $ 629 million ) .
It takes 3 @,@ 600 L ( 950 US gal ) of paint to cover the 3 @,@ 100 m2 ( 33 @,@ 000 sq ft ) exterior of an A380 . The paint is five layers thick and weighs about 650 kg ( 1 @,@ 433 lb ) .
= = = Avionics = = =
The A380 employs an integrated modular avionics ( IMA ) architecture , first used in advanced military aircraft , such as the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , and Dassault Rafale . The main IMA systems on the A380 were developed by the Thales Group . Designed and developed by Airbus , Thales and Diehl Aerospace , the IMA suite was first used on the A380 . The suite is a technological innovation , with networked computing modules to support different applications . The data networks use Avionics Full @-@ Duplex Switched Ethernet , an implementation of ARINC 664 . These are switched , full @-@ duplex , star @-@ topology and based on 100baseTX fast @-@ Ethernet . This reduces the amount of wiring required and minimises latency .
Airbus used similar cockpit layout , procedures and handling characteristics to other Airbus aircraft , reducing crew training costs . The A380 has an improved glass cockpit , using fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight controls linked to side @-@ sticks . The cockpit has eight 15 by 20 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 by 7 @.@ 9 in ) liquid crystal displays , all physically identical and interchangeable ; comprising two primary flight displays , two navigation displays , one engine parameter display , one system display and two multi @-@ function displays . The MFDs were introduced on the A380 to provide an easy @-@ to @-@ use interface to the flight management system — replacing three multifunction control and display units . They include QWERTY keyboards and trackballs , interfacing with a graphical " point @-@ and @-@ click " display system .
The Network Systems Server ( NSS ) is the heart of A380 's paperless cockpit ; it eliminates bulky manuals and charts traditionally used . The NSS has enough inbuilt robustness to eliminate onboard backup paper documents . The A380 's network and server system stores data and offers electronic documentation , providing a required equipment list , navigation charts , performance calculations , and an aircraft logbook . This is accessed through the MFDs and controlled via the keyboard interface .
Power @-@ by @-@ wire flight control actuators have been used for the first time in civil aviation to back up primary hydraulic actuators . Also , during certain manoeuvres they augment the primary actuators . They have self @-@ contained hydraulic and electrical power supplies . Electro @-@ hydrostatic actuators ( EHA ) are used in the aileron and elevator , electric and hydraulic motors to drive the slats as well as electrical backup hydrostatic actuators ( EBHA ) for the rudder and some spoilers .
The A380 's 350 bar ( 35 MPa or 5 @,@ 000 psi ) hydraulic system is a significant difference from the typical 210 bar ( 21 MPa or 3 @,@ 000 psi ) hydraulics used on most commercial aircraft since the 1940s . First used in military aircraft , high @-@ pressure hydraulics reduce the weight and size of pipelines , actuators and related components . The 350 bar pressure is generated by eight de @-@ clutchable hydraulic pumps . The hydraulic lines are typically made from titanium ; the system features both fuel- and air @-@ cooled heat exchangers . Self @-@ contained electrically powered hydraulic power packs serve as backups for the primary systems , instead of a secondary hydraulic system , saving weight and reducing maintenance .
The A380 uses four 150 kVA variable @-@ frequency electrical generators , eliminating constant @-@ speed drives and improving reliability . The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for weight reduction . The electrical power system is fully computerised and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid @-@ state devices for better performance and increased reliability .
= = = Passenger provisions = = =
The cabin has features to reduce traveller fatigue such as a quieter interior and higher pressurisation than previous generation of aircraft ; the A380 is pressurised to the equivalent altitude of 1 @,@ 520 m ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) up to 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft ) . It has 50 % less cabin noise , 50 % more cabin area and volume , larger windows , bigger overhead bins , and 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) extra headroom versus the 747 @-@ 400 . Seating options range from 3 @-@ room 12 m2 ( 130 sq ft ) " residence " in first class to 11 @-@ across in economy . On other aircraft , economy seats range from 41 @.@ 5 cm ( 16 @.@ 3 in ) to 52 @.@ 3 cm ( 20 @.@ 6 in ) in width , A380 economy seats are up to 48 cm ( 19 in ) wide in a 10 @-@ abreast configuration ; compared with the 10 @-@ abreast configuration on the 747 @-@ 400 which typically has seats 44 @.@ 5 cm ( 17 @.@ 5 in ) wide .
The A380 's upper and lower decks are connected by two stairways , fore and aft , wide enough to accommodate two passengers side @-@ by @-@ side ; this cabin arrangement allows multiple seat configurations . The maximum certified carrying capacity is 853 passengers in an all @-@ economy @-@ class layout , Airbus lists the " typical " three @-@ class layout as accommodating 525 passengers , with 10 first , 76 business , and 439 economy class seats . Airline configurations range from Korean Air 's 407 passengers to Emirates ' two @-@ class 615 seats for Copenhagen , and average around 480 – 490 seats . The Air Austral 's proposed 840 passenger layout has not come to fruition . The A380 's interior illumination system uses bulbless LEDs in the cabin , cockpit , and cargo decks . The LEDs in the cabin can be altered to create an ambience simulating daylight , night , or intermediate levels . On the outside of the aircraft , HID lighting is used for brighter illumination .
Airbus 's publicity has stressed the comfort and space of the A380 cabin , and advertised onboard relaxation areas such as bars , beauty salons , duty @-@ free shops , and restaurants . Proposed amenities resembled those installed on earlier airliners , particularly 1970s wide @-@ body jets , which largely gave way to regular seats for more passenger capacity . Airbus has acknowledged that some cabin proposals were unlikely to be installed , and that it was ultimately the airlines ' decision how to configure the interior . Industry analysts suggested that implementing customisation has slowed the production speeds , and raised costs . Due to delivery delays , Singapore Airlines and Air France debuted their seat designs on different aircraft prior to the A380 .
Initial operators typically configured their A380s for three @-@ class service , while adding extra features for passengers in premium cabins . Launch customer Singapore Airlines introduced partly enclosed first class suites on its A380s in 2007 , each featuring a leather seat with a separate bed ; center suites could be joined to create a double bed . A year later , Qantas debuted a new first class seat @-@ bed and a sofa lounge at the front of the upper deck on its A380s , and in 2009 Air France unveiled an upper deck electronic art gallery . In late 2008 , Emirates introduced " shower spas " in first class on its A380s allowing each first class passenger five minutes of hot water , drawing on 2 @.@ 5 tonnes of water although only 60 % of it was used . Emirates , Etihad Airways and Qatar Airways also have a bar lounge and seating area on the upper deck , while Etihad has enclosed areas for two people each . In addition to lounge areas , some A380 operators have installed amenities consistent with other aircraft in their respective fleets , including self @-@ serve snack bars , premium economy sections , and redesigned business class seating . The Hamburg Aircraft Interiors Expo in April 2015 saw the presentation of an 11 @-@ seat row economy cabin for the A380 . Airbus is reacting to a changing economy ; the recession which began in 2008 saw a drop in market percentage of first class and business seats to six percent and an increase in budget economy travelers . Among other causes is the reluctance of employers to pay for executives to travel in First or Business Class . Airbus ' chief of cabin marketing , Ingo Wuggestzer , told Aviation Week and Space Technology that the standard three class cabin no longer reflected market conditions . The 11 seat row on the A380 is accompanied by similar options on other widebodies : nine across on the Airbus A330 and ten across on the A350 .
= = = Integration with infrastructure and regulations = = =
= = = = Ground operations = = = =
In the 1990s , aircraft manufacturers were planning to introduce larger planes than the Boeing 747 . In a common effort of the International Civil Aviation Organization , ICAO , with manufacturers , airports and its member agencies , the " 80 @-@ metre box " was created , the airport gates allowing planes up to 80 m ( 260 ft ) wingspan and length to be accommodated . Airbus designed the A380 according to these guidelines , and to operate safely on Group V runways and taxiways with a 60 metres ( 200 ft ) loadbearing width . The US FAA initially opposed this , then in July 2007 , the FAA and EASA agreed to let the A380 operate on 45 m ( 148 ft ) runways without restrictions . The A380 @-@ 800 is approximately 30 % larger in overall size than the 747 @-@ 400 . Runway lighting and signage may need changes to provide clearance to the wings and avoid blast damage from the engines . Runways , runway shoulders and taxiway shoulders may be required to be stabilised to reduce the likelihood of foreign object damage caused to ( or by ) the outboard engines , which are more than 25 m ( 82 ft ) from the centre line of the aircraft , compared to 21 m ( 69 ft ) for the 747 @-@ 400 , and 747 @-@ 8 .
Airbus measured pavement loads using a 540 @-@ tonne ( 595 short tons ) ballasted test rig , designed to replicate the landing gear of the A380 . The rig was towed over a section of pavement at Airbus ' facilities that had been instrumented with embedded load sensors . It was determined that the pavement of most runways will not need to be reinforced despite the higher weight , as it is distributed on more wheels than in other passenger aircraft with a total of 22 wheels ( that is , its ground pressure is lower ) . The A380 undercarriage consists of four main landing gear legs and one noseleg ( a similar layout to the 747 ) , with the two inboard landing gear legs each supporting six wheels .
The A380 requires service vehicles with lifts capable of reaching the upper deck , as well as tractors capable of handling the A380 's maximum ramp weight . When using two jetway bridges the boarding time is 45 min , and when using an extra jetway to the upper deck it is reduced to 34 min . The A380 has an airport turnaround time of 90 – 110 minutes . In 2008 the A380 test aircraft were used to trial the modifications made to several airports to accommodate the type .
= = = = Takeoff and landing separation = = = =
In 2005 , the ICAO recommended that provisional separation criteria for the A380 on takeoff and landing be substantially greater than for the 747 because preliminary flight test data suggested a stronger wake turbulence . These criteria were in effect while the ICAO 's wake vortex steering group , with representatives from the JAA , Eurocontrol , the FAA , and Airbus , refined its 3 @-@ year study of the issue with additional flight testing . In September 2006 , the working group presented its first conclusions to the ICAO .
In November 2006 , the ICAO issued new interim recommendations . Replacing a blanket 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) separation for aircraft trailing an A380 during approach , the new distances were 6 nmi ( 11 km ) , 8 nmi ( 15 km ) and 10 nmi ( 19 km ) respectively for non @-@ A380 " Heavy " , " Medium " , and " Light " ICAO aircraft categories . These compared with the 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) , 5 nmi ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) and 6 nmi ( 11 km ) spacing applicable to other " Heavy " aircraft . Another A380 following an A380 should maintain a separation of 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) . On departure behind an A380 , non @-@ A380 " Heavy " aircraft are required to wait two minutes , and " Medium " / " Light " aircraft three minutes for time based operations . The ICAO also recommends that pilots append the term " Super " to the aircraft 's callsign when initiating communication with air traffic control , to distinguish the A380 from " Heavy " aircraft .
In August 2008 , the ICAO issued revised approach separations of 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) for Super ( another A380 ) , 6 nmi ( 11 km ) for Heavy , 7 nmi ( 13 km ) for medium / small , and 8 nmi ( 15 km ) for light . In November 2008 , an incident on a parallel runway during crosswinds made the Australian authorities change procedures for those conditions .
For takeoff , " Light " and " Medium " aircraft must wait 3 minutes behind an A380 takeoff , compared to the standard 2 minutes for takeoffs behind other aircraft types .
Singapore Airlines describe the A380 's landing speed of 130 – 135 kn ( 240 – 250 km / h ) as " impressively slow " .
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
As the A380 fleet grows older , airworthiness authority rules require certain scheduled inspections from approved aircraft tool shops . The increasing fleet size ( to about 286 in 2020 ) cause expected maintenance and modification to cost $ 6 @.@ 8 billion for 2015 @-@ 2020 , of which $ 2 @.@ 1 billion are for engines . Emirates performed its first 3C @-@ check for 55 days in 2014 . During lengthy shop stays , some airlines will use the opportunity to install new interiors .
= = Variants = =
= = = Improved A380 @-@ 800 = = =
In 2010 , Airbus announced a new A380 build standard , incorporating a strengthened airframe structure and a 1 @.@ 5 ° increase in wing twist . Airbus will also offer , as an option , an improved maximum take @-@ off weight , thus providing a better payload / range performance . Maximum take @-@ off weight is increased by 4 t ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) , to 573 t ( 1 @,@ 263 @,@ 000 lb ) and the range is extended by 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) ; this is achieved by reducing flight loads , partly from optimising the fly @-@ by @-@ wire control laws . British Airways and Emirates are the first two customers to have received this new option in 2013 . Emirates has asked for an update with new engines for the A380 to be competitive with the 777X around 2020 , and Airbus is studying 11 @-@ abreast seating .
In 2012 Airbus announced another increase in the A380 's maximum take @-@ off weight to 575 t ( 1 @,@ 268 @,@ 000 lb ) , a 6 t hike on the initial A380 variant and 2 t higher than the increased @-@ weight proposal of 2010 . It will stretch the range by some 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ) , taking its capability to around 8 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 460 km ) at current payloads . The higher @-@ weight version was offered for introduction to service early in 2013 .
= = = A380 @-@ 900 = = =
In November 2007 Airbus top sales executive and chief operating officer John Leahy confirmed plans for an enlarged variant , the A380 @-@ 900 , with more seating space than the A380 @-@ 800 . This version would have a seating capacity for 650 passengers in standard configuration , and approximately 900 passengers in an economy @-@ only configuration . Airlines that had expressed an interest in the − 900 included Emirates , Virgin Atlantic , Cathay Pacific , Air France , KLM , Lufthansa , Kingfisher Airlines , and leasing company ILFC . In May 2010 , Airbus announced that A380 @-@ 900 development was postponed , until production of the A380 @-@ 800 stabilises .
On 11 December 2014 at the annual Airbus Investor Day forum Airbus CEO controversially announced that " We will one day launch an A380neo and one day launch a stretched A380 " following speculation sparked by Airbus CFO Harald Wilhelm that Airbus could axe the A380 ahead of its time due to softening demand . On 15 June 2015 , John Leahy , Airbus 's chief operating officer for customers , stated Airbus was looking at the A380 @-@ 900 programme again . Airbus 's newest concept is a stretch of the A380 @-@ 800 offering 50 seats more , not 100 as originally envisaged . The stretch would be tied to a potential re @-@ engining of the A380 @-@ 800 . According to FlightGlobal , an A380 @-@ 900 would make better use of the A380 's existing wing .
= = = A380neo = = =
On 19 July 2015 , Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier stated that the company will build a new version of the A380 featuring new improved wings and new engines . Speculation about the development of a so @-@ called A380neo ( neo for new engine option ) had been going on for a few months after earlier press releases in 2014 , and in 2015 the company was considering whether to end production of the type prior to 2018 or develop a new A380 variant . Later it was revealed that Airbus was looking at both the possibility of a longer A380 in line of the previously planned A380 @-@ 900 and a new engine version , i.e. A380neo . It was also revealed by Brégier that the new variant would be ready to enter service by 2020 . The engine would most likely be one of a variety of all @-@ new options from Rolls @-@ Royce , ranging from derivatives of the A350 's XWB @-@ 84 / 97 to the future Advance project due at around 2020 .
On 3 June 2016 , Emirates President Tim Clark stated that talks between Emirates and Airbus on the A380neo have " lapsed " .
= = = A380F = = =
Airbus originally accepted orders for the freighter version , offering the largest payload capacity of any cargo aircraft in production , exceeded only by the single Antonov An @-@ 225 Mriya in service . An aerospace consultant has estimated that the A380F would have 7 % better payload and better range than the 747 @-@ 8F , but also higher trip costs . However , production has been suspended until the A380 production lines have settled with no firm availability date . In 2015 Airbus removed A380F from the range of freighters on the corporate website .
= = Market = =
In 2006 , industry analysts Philip Lawrence of the Aerospace Research Centre in Bristol and Richard Aboulafia of the consulting Teal Group in Fairfax anticipated 880 and 400 A380 sales respectively by 2025 , whereas Airbus and Boeing estimate 1 @,@ 700 and 700 VLA ( very large aircraft ; those with more than 400 seats ) , respectively . According to Lawrence , parallel to the design of the A380 , Airbus conducted the most extensive and thorough market analysis of commercial aviation ever undertaken , justifying its VLA plans , while according to Aboulafia , the rise of mid @-@ size aircraft and market fragmentation reduced VLAs to niche market status , making such plans unjustified . The two analysts ' market forecasts differed in the incorporation of spoke @-@ hub and point @-@ to @-@ point models . The difference was illustrated in 2014 when British Airways replaced three B777 flights between London and Los Angeles with two A380 , per day .
In contrast , the airline strategy of frequency ( offering multiple flights between the same two cities at different times of day ) typically relies on smaller aircraft . United Airlines told Reuters that it follows this strategy because it offers business travelers more choices . Moreover , United 's Chief Financial Officer observed that the airline 's Boeing 787 Dreamliners operate at a lower trip cost than the A380 . Hence , the A380 " just doesn 't really work for us . " Operators Air France and China Southern have found that the A380 's capacity is too large for some markets ; China Southern has faced mounting losses on A380 operations out of its Guangzhou hub , although Emirates ' Tim Clark sees a large potential for Asian A380 @-@ users , and criticised Airbus ' marketing efforts . In 2013 , Air France withdrew A380 services to Singapore and Montreal and switched to smaller aircraft .
In 2007 , Airbus estimated a demand for 1 @,@ 283 passenger planes in the VLA category for the next 20 years if airport congestion remains at the current level . According to this estimate , demand could reach up to 1 @,@ 771 VLAs if congestion increases . Most of this demand will be due to the urbanisation and rapid economic growth in Asia . The A380 will be used on relatively few routes , between the most saturated airports ; 15 of the world 's 20 biggest airports are saturated . Airbus also estimates a demand for 415 freighters in the category 120 @-@ tonne plus . Boeing , which offers the only competition in that class , the 747 @-@ 8 , estimates the demand for passenger VLAs at 590 and that for freighter VLAs at 370 for the period 2007 – 2026 .
At one time the A380 was considered as a potential replacement for the existing Boeing VC @-@ 25 serving as Air Force One , but in January 2009 EADS declared that they were not going to bid for the contract , as assembling only three planes in the US would not make financial sense .
The break @-@ even for the A380 was initially supposed to be reached by selling 270 units , but due to the delays and the falling exchange rate of the US dollar , it increased to 420 units . In 2010 , EADS CFO Hans Peter Ring said that break @-@ even ( on the aircraft that are delivered ) could be achieved by 2015 , despite the delays ; there should be around 200 deliveries by that time , on current projections . In 2012 , Airbus clarified that in 2015 , production costs to build the aircraft would be less than the sales price . As of March 2010 the average list price of an A380 was US $ 375 @.@ 3 million ( about € 261 million or £ 229 million ) , depending on equipment installed . As of July 2012 this list price was US $ 390 million , but negotiated discounts made the actual prices much lower , and industry experts questioned whether the A380 project would ever pay for itself .
On 11 December 2014 , after slower than expected orders for the aircraft in 2014 , Harald Wilhelm , the company 's Chief Finance Officer , voiced the possibility to end the program in 2018 . His statement was met by protests from customers and a fall in share prices . Airbus responded to the protests by playing down the possibility the A380 would be abandoned , instead emphasizing that enhancing the airplane was a likelier scenario . On 22 December 2014 , CEO Fabrice Brégier ruled out that the cancellation of the A380 program , stating that it will break even in 2015 but also that the A380 was introduced a decade too early . While no longer losing money on each plane sold , Airbus admits that the company will never recoup the $ 25 billion investment it made in the project .
As of mid @-@ 2015 , several airlines have expressed their interest in selling their aircraft , partially coinciding with expiring lease contracts for the aircraft . Several A380 which are in service have been offered for lease to other airlines . The suggestion has prompted concerns on the potential for new sales for Airbus , although these were dismissed by Airbus COO John Leahy stated that " Used A380s do not compete with new A380s " , stating that the second @-@ hand market is more interesting for parties otherwise looking to buy smaller aircraft such as the Boeing 777 .
On 15 June 2015 , Reuters reported that Airbus was discussing a stretched version of the A380 with a half dozen customers . This aircraft , which could also feature new engines , would accommodate an additional fifty passengers . Were this " A380neo " to be built , it would be delivered to customers sometime in 2020 or 2021 . On 9 July 2015 , Business Insider reported that Airbus had filed a patent application for an A380 " combi " which would offer the flexibility of not only carrying both passengers and cargo , but being rapidly reconfigurable to expand or contract the cargo area and passenger area as needed for a given flight .
An A380 's hourly cost is about $ 26 @,@ 000 , or around $ 50 per seat hour , which compares to $ 44 per seat hour for a Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , and $ 90 per seat hour for a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 as of November 2015 .
= = Orders and deliveries = =
Nineteen customers have ordered the A380 . Total orders for the A380 stand at 319 as of May 2016 . The biggest customer is Emirates , which has ordered or committed to order a total of 142 A380s as of 31 May 2016 . One VIP order was made in 2007 but later cancelled by Airbus . The A380F version totalled 27 orders before they were either cancelled ( 20 ) or converted to A380 @-@ 800 ( 7 ) , following the production delay and the subsequent suspension of the freighter programme .
Delivery takes place in Hamburg for customers from Europe and the Middle East and in Toulouse for customers from the rest of the world . EADS explained that deliveries in 2013 were to be slowed temporarily to accommodate replacement of the wing rib brackets where cracks were detected earlier in the existing fleet .
In hopes of raising the number of orders placed , Airbus announced ' attractable discounts ' to airlines who placed large orders for the A380 . Emirates soon after , ordered 50 aircraft , totalling $ 20 @.@ 75 billion . Airbus gave a $ 2 @.@ 75 billion total discount , equal to $ 55 million in savings per aircraft for Emirates .
Airbus says that some A380s may not be delivered to customers or even built . This decision came when Airbus had not met the ' Accord and Satisfaction ' for three already built aircraft for an undisclosed Japanese airline . " Without referring to any specific airline , I can assure you that we have cases where airlines are in the order backlog but not in the production plan , " chief executive officer Tom Enders said in August 2014 during a conference call to discuss earnings with Bloomberg . " We are watching the situation carefully , and know about the strengths and weaknesses of customers . " Among customers that have ordered superjumbos yet remain undecided about actually taking them is Virgin Atlantic , with six units on the order book . Qantas had also planned to top up its existing fleet by as many as eight airplanes , an expansion that has been thrown into doubt amid a cost @-@ cutting drive . Amedeo , an aircraft lessor that ordered 20 A380s , has yet to find a single client for the jet .
Cumulative orders and deliveries
Data from Airbus through the end of June 2016 .
Orders
Deliveries
= = Operators = =
There were 193 aircraft in service with 13 operators as of 30 June 2016 .
Singapore Airlines first service on 25 October 2007
Emirates first service on 1 August 2008
Qantas first service on 20 October 2008
Air France first service on 20 November 2009
Lufthansa first service on 6 June 2010
Korean Air first service on 17 June 2011
China Southern Airlines first service on 17 October 2011
Malaysia Airlines first service on 1 July 2012
Thai Airways first service on 6 October 2012 .
British Airways first service on 2 August 2013 .
Asiana Airlines first service on 13 June 2014
Qatar Airways first service on 10 October 2014
Etihad Airways first service on 27 December 2014
= = = Notable routes = = =
The shortest regular commercial route that the A380 flies is from Dubai International Airport to Kuwait International Airport ( 861 km or 535 miles great circle distance ) with Emirates , although Air France briefly operated the A380 on the much shorter Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle to London @-@ Heathrow route ( 344 km or 214 miles ) in mid @-@ 2010 . The longest A380 route — and the second longest non @-@ stop commercial flight in the world — is Qantas ' service from Sydney International Airport to Dallas @-@ Fort Worth International Airport at 13 @,@ 804 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 577 mi ) .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
The A380 has been involved in one aviation occurrence and no hull loss accidents with no fatalities as of January 2016 , according to the Aviation Safety Network .
On 4 November 2010 , Qantas Flight 32 , en route from Singapore Changi Airport to Sydney Airport , suffered an uncontained engine failure , resulting in a series of related problems , and forcing the flight to return to Singapore . There were no injuries to the passengers , crew or people on the ground despite debris falling onto the Indonesian island of Batam . The A380 was damaged sufficiently for the event to be classified as an accident . Qantas subsequently grounded all of its A380s that day subject to an internal investigation taken in conjunction with the engine manufacturer Rolls @-@ Royce plc . A380s powered by Engine Alliance GP7000 were unaffected but operators of Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 @-@ powered A380s were affected . Investigators determined that an oil leak , caused by a defective oil supply pipe , led to an engine fire and subsequent uncontained engine failure . Repairs cost an estimated A $ 139 million ( ~ US $ 145M ) . As other Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 engines also showed problems with the same oil leak , Rolls @-@ Royce ordered many engines to be changed , including about half of the engines in the Qantas A380 fleet . During the airplane 's repair , cracks were discovered in wing structural fittings which also resulted in mandatory inspections of all A380s and subsequent design changes .
= = Specifications = =
Sources : Airbus A380 specifications
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= City Girl ( song ) =
" City Girl " is a song by the Irish alternative rock musician Kevin Shields . It is the second track from the soundtrack to the 2003 film Lost in Translation and was released as a standalone single in June 2003 . Recorded during summer 2002 with Lost in Translation 's music co @-@ ordinator Brian Reitzell , " City Girl " was among the first original material released by Shields since My Bloody Valentine 's second studio album , Loveless ( 1991 ) — on which he was the main composer , musician and producer .
Produced by Shields , " City Girl " has been described as a mid @-@ tempo garage @-@ influenced alternative rock song and since its original release , critics have drawn comparisons between it and songs from Loveless . An accompanying music video for " City Girl " was directed by Sofia Coppola , the director of Lost in Translation . " City Girl " was well received upon its release , and its inclusion on the Lost in Translation soundtrack , and earned Shields nominations for a number of awards ; these include a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for Best Film Music , an Irish Film and Television Academy ( IFTA ) award for Best Music in a Film and an Online Film Critics Society award for Best Original Score .
= = Origin and recording = =
" City Girl " is one of four songs Kevin Shields composed for Sofia Coppola 's 2003 film , Lost in Translation . Shields became involved with the film 's original score after being contacted by the film 's music co @-@ ordinator Brian Reitzell in Tokyo , Japan . Reitzell and Shields began impromptu jam sessions in London , United Kingdom during summer 2002 , where Shields composed " City Girl " . The duo " adopted a late @-@ night recording schedule " that consisted of them recording between midnight " and seven in the morning " . According to Shields , " it was [ their ] productive time . It 's basically as though the world 's disappeared . "
Describing the song 's origins in an interview with National Public Radio ( NPR ) , Shields said that the writing and recording of " City Girl " was " very simple , in the sense that it was just me teaching Brian the chord structure and Brian just jamming along to it . " The duo recorded an instrumental rehearsal version of the song , after which Shields said there was " no point in rerecording it . " He later wrote lyrics and recorded vocals for the song but emphasised that there was no need for " elaborations [ or ] overdubs . " Shields described this method of recording as a " slapdash approach " , noting that there was no " point in labouring over something … because you don 't know what 's going to work " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" City Girl " has been described as " mid @-@ tempo , with an unusual repeating melody and a two @-@ note chorus . The guitar is simple and rough , a bit garage @-@ rock , bouncing over characteristically buried drums that seem an afterthought . " Rolling Stone noted that the song — and other tracks Shields contributed to the Lost in Translation soundtrack — feature " My Bloody Valentine 's ethereal sensibility , but they are more fragile in their construction , without Shields ' furious sheets of guitar . "
Shields has referred to " City Girl " ' s composition as " average and vulnerable " and said of the lyrics : " It 's kind corny words , like ' I love you ' and ' you 're beautiful ' and the kind of corny , simple things that people tend to think when they actually get infatuated with somebody . " According to Rolling Stone , the song 's lyrics " aptly reflects the quiet nature of the film " and Shields has said that both he and Reitzell were " under the influence of the film " while Shields composed the song .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " City Girl " was directed by Lost in Translation director Sofia Coppola . The video was filmed in Tokyo , Japan — where Lost in Translation is based — and features the use of handheld cameras , production techniques such as jump cuts , and " blurry visuals " of the city . Coppola used footage from Lost in Translation that was not included in the final cut alongside selected sequences from the film to create the video .
Critic Geoff King said that the " City Girl " music video , like others Coppola directed around the same time period , " offer little else to go on for an auteurist account . " He noted the contrast between Coppola 's direction and overall quality in the " City Girl " video and her music video for " I Just Don 't Know What to Do with Myself " by The White Stripes , which was released the same year . The music video for " City Girl " was included as a bonus feature on the Lost in Translation DVD , released on 3 February 2004 . A high definition version of the video was later included as a bonus feature on the Blu @-@ ray release of the film , released on 7 December 2010 .
= = Release and reception = =
" City Girl " was released as a one @-@ track promotional CD single in June 2003 on the Australian independent record label , Inertia . It was later released in the United States as a split 7 " single with The Jesus and Mary Chain song " Just Like Honey " , which was also featured on the Lost in Translation soundtrack . The split single was a limited edition release and pressed on yellow and clear vinyl . " City Girl " was later included as the second track on the Lost in Translation soundtrack , released in August 2003 on V2 Records , alongside three other songs Shields composed for the film : " Goodbye " , " Ikebana " and " Are You Awake ? "
Upon its release , " City Girl " received moderate critical acclaim . Pitchfork Media writer Mark Richardson said that " on first listen it sounds like a demo of a pre @-@ Loveless track , possibly from the You Made Me Realise era " and while there was " no exploration on that front … the melody and voice are familiar and welcome . " Writing for Stylus Magazine , Andrew Unterberger called " City Girl " " a worthy opener " and added that " [ the song is ] where Kevin 's at right now — making pretty pop songs . There is so little to this song that it 's almost enough to make you think Kevin 's lost his mind . " Unterberger summarised the song as " gorgeous , and definitely has that sighing quality to it that makes the film so delectable . " Exclaim ! journalist Michael White noted that it was " the indisputable highlight of the soundtrack " and AllMusic 's Heather Phares described " City Girl " as an " open @-@ ended piece " and " naïve [ and ] guitar @-@ driven " but added that it did not compare to Shields ' compositions on Loveless ( 1991 ) .
" City Girl " was among the material that earned Shields nominations for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for Best Film Music , an Irish Film and Television Academy ( IFTA ) award for Best Music in a Film , and an Online Film Critics Society award for Best Original Score in 2003 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Lost in Translation : Original Soundtrack 's liner notes .
Performers
Kevin Shields – vocals , guitar , production , engineering
Brian Reitzell – drums , engineering
Technical personnel
Bryan Mills – engineering
James Brown – engineering
Rob Kirwan – engineering
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= Leonore Annenberg =
Leonore Cohn Annenberg ( February 20 , 1918 – March 12 , 2009 ) , also known as Lee Annenberg , was an American businesswoman , government official , and philanthropist , noted for serving as Chief of Protocol of the United States from 1981 to 1982 . Annenberg was married to Walter Annenberg , who was an Ambassador to the United Kingdom and newspaper publishing magnate . She also served as the chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation from 2002 until 2009 .
Born in New York City and raised in Los Angeles , she graduated from Stanford University . After her first two marriages ended in divorce , she married noted businessman Walter Annenberg , who was appointed U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1969 under President Richard Nixon . In her role as the ambassador 's wife , Leonore directed a major renovation of the ambassador 's official residence . The Annenbergs contributed to Ronald Reagan 's 1980 presidential campaign and upon his inauguration , Leonore was named Chief of Protocol , placing her in charge of advising the president , vice president , and Secretary of State on matters relating to diplomatic protocol .
The Annenbergs became major philanthropists , donating money to education facilities , charitable causes , and the arts . Leonore served on many committees and boards as well . After her husband 's death in 2002 , she continued to donate money and succeeded him as chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation .
= = Early life and family = =
Leonore Cohn was born into a Jewish family in New York City on February 20 , 1918 , to Maxwell and Clara Cohn . Nicknamed " Lee " , her father operated a textile business . She was seven years old when her mother died . She and her younger sister were raised in Fremont Place , an upper @-@ class neighborhood of Los Angeles , by her uncle Harry Cohn , the founder of Columbia Pictures . Leonore and her younger sister , Judith , attended the Page Boarding School for Girls in Pasadena . Harry Cohn 's wife , Rose , raised the girls as Christian Scientists .
Leonore Cohn graduated from Stanford University in 1940 with a B.A. After graduating , she married Beldon Katleman , whose family owned real estate and a national parking lot chain ; they had a daughter , Diane , but the marriage ended in divorce after a few years . In 1946 , she married Lewis Rosensteil , the multimillionaire founder of the Schenley liquor distillery , and they had a daughter named Elizabeth ; that marriage , too , ended in divorce .
She and Walter Annenberg , then editor of The Philadelphia Inquirer , met in 1950 at a party in Florida and the two were married the following year .
= = Ambassador 's wife = =
Upon her husband 's appointment as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1969 , Mrs. Annenberg ordered a renovation of the thirty @-@ five room Winfield House , the ambassador 's official London residence . The total cost of the project was about US $ 1 million and took six months to complete . While in London , Leonore founded the American Friends of Covent Garden , an organization designed to foster goodwill between the U.S. and Great Britain through musical expression .
= = Chief of Protocol = =
The Annenbergs contributed substantially to Ronald Reagan 's 1980 presidential campaign , and upon Reagan 's election in 1981 , Lee Annenberg was named as Chief of Protocol of the United States . This position placed her in charge of advising the President , Vice President , and Secretary of State on matters dealing with diplomatic protocol , and formally welcoming foreign dignitaries upon their arrival to the United States . Annenberg oversaw a staff of 60 who worked on myriad details , ranging from the choice of the state gifts that will be given to the guest , to the bathrooms the foreign delegation may visit . She said of her position , " It 's all about making your guests feel respected and welcome " . Annenberg attracted some controversy during her tenure when she curtsied before the visiting Prince Charles upon arriving for a diplomatic visit , commentators saying it was unseemly in a republic which gained its independence from the same monarchy .
As Chief of Protocol , she achieved the rank of Ambassador . Friends of Ronald and Nancy Reagan , the Annenbergs hosted the Reagans annually at their Rancho Mirage , California estate , " Sunnylands " . Annenberg resigned her post in January 1982 , stating that she wanted to spend more time with her husband .
= = Philanthropy and committee work = =
After leaving her post at the State Department , Lee Annenberg began work to promote and enhance cultural appreciation in the United States . She and her husband continued to donate money to worthy causes as philanthropists . In 2001 , Annenberg was awarded the Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy . Upon being presented the award , she explained why she and her husband donated to causes as philanthropists :
" Walter and I believe that education is the foundation of a democratic society . When asked what motivates his philanthropic work , my husband has responded with a very powerful statement : ' I regard my philanthropic work as an investment in the future of America . It is the most effective way I can serve my country and help to ensure its benefits for the next generation . ' "
Mrs. Annenberg served many charitable organizations and on many committees . Stemming from her interest in and endowments to the arts , she was a trustee emerita and a member of the Acquisitions Committee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , member of the Board of Trustees of the Philadelphia Museum of Art , one of the managing directors of The Metropolitan Opera , honorary trustee and former board president of the Palm Springs Art Museum , and a member of the American Philosophical Society . Mrs. Annenberg was chairwoman emerita of the Foundation of Art and Preservation in Embassies , and a member of the Committee for the Preservation of the White House .
She was also a member of the Distinguished Daughters of Pennsylvania and an active trustee emeritus of the University of Pennsylvania . She served on the governing boards of both Annenberg Schools for Communication . In 1993 , she and her husband , Walter , were awarded the National Medal of Arts . She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2004 .
= = Later life = =
Walter Annenberg died on October 1 , 2002 , aged 94 . Lee Annenberg succeeded her husband as chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation , an organization founded by her late husband which funds nonprofit organizations as well as education institutes and programs of the arts . She continued to donate money to worthy causes in the fields of science , education , and art until her death . In 2006 , she was ranked as the 382nd wealthiest person in the world by Forbes magazine , and the 488th in 2007 . Annenberg , in 2007 , was the 165th richest person in the United States , according to Forbes , with a net worth of 2 @.@ 5 billion dollars . Annenberg traveled to Washington , D.C. in May 2007 to attend the state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II , hosted by President George W. Bush . The following month , she accepted the prestigious Philadelphia Award , an honor given to those in the Philadelphia region who worked to better the area .
Most recently before her death , Annenberg became an honorary board member of the Richard Nixon Foundation and an honorary fellow of the Royal Academy of Arts .
= = Death = =
Lee Annenberg resided in Rancho Mirage , California prior to her death on March 12 , 2009 , aged 91 . According to a family spokesperson , Leonore Annenberg died at Eisenhower Medical Center of natural causes . At the time of her death , Annenberg had been in declining health .
At the announcement of her death , statements were issued by former President George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush , as well as former First Lady Nancy Reagan . Mrs. Reagan called Annenberg " a dear and longtime friend " and praised the Annenbergs ' philanthropic work as having " left an indelible print on education in the United States " .
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= Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming =
" Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 26 , 1995 . In the episode , Sideshow Bob becomes disturbed when he hears the other inmates laughing at the inane antics of Krusty the Clown 's television show and decides to rid the world of television . He escapes while on work duty at a local Air Force Base , which is being cleaned for an annual air show . He steals a 10 @-@ megaton nuclear weapon and threatens to detonate it unless Springfield gives in to his demand to shut down all television broadcasts .
The episode , the fifth of the series to feature Sideshow Bob , was written by freelance writer Spike Feresten . Although he received credit for the episode , the writing staff completely rewrote the episode and very little of Feresten 's original script was left in the finished version . It was the first episode of The Simpsons to be directed by Dominic Polcino , who described it as being very difficult to direct . R. Lee Ermey , known for his role in Full Metal Jacket , guest stars as Col. Leslie " Hap " Hapablap while Kelsey Grammer reprises his role as Sideshow Bob .
The episode is a parody of " ' 60s @-@ era nuclear war movies " and contains several references to Cold War films including Twilight 's Last Gleaming , Dr. Strangelove and Fail @-@ Safe . In its original broadcast , the episode finished 49th in ratings for the week of November 20 – 26 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 and a 13 % share of the audience .
= = Plot = =
While watching The Krusty the Clown Show , Homer asks what happened to Sideshow Bob , Krusty 's former sidekick . Bart and Lisa remind their father of Bob 's attempts to frame Krusty , kill Selma , rig an election and kill Bart. Meanwhile , at Springfield Minimum Security Prison , Sideshow Bob is disturbed when he hears the other inmates laughing at the inane antics of Krusty 's television show . He believes that television is a fountain of " mindless drivel " and wants to rid the world of it . Bob hatches a plan and escapes while on work duty at a local Air Force Base , which is being cleaned for an annual air show . He impersonates Air Force colonel Leslie " Hap " Hapablap in order to gain access to a restricted area of the hangar , where he finds a 10 @-@ megaton nuclear weapon .
The air show begins , with the Simpson family in attendance , but the signal on the big screen is interrupted by Bob . Bob announces that life would be better without television and so he threatens to detonate the nuclear bomb unless Springfield gives in to his demand to shut down all television broadcasts . Upon hearing the announcement , everyone flees the airfield in panic except for Bart and Lisa , who get separated from their parents during the crowd 's mad rush to evacuate . National Guardsmen frantically search the base for Sideshow Bob to no avail . All out of options , Mayor Quimby decides to give in to Bob 's ultimatum — despite Krusty the Clown 's objections . In accordance with Bob 's demands , television transmitters are destroyed and studios hastily plan farewell programs . Bob , who was televising his demands from a stolen Duff Blimp , celebrates the success of his plan .
Krusty , refusing to submit to Bob 's demands , takes refuge in a civil defense shed in the desert . He uses the emergency broadcast system to transmit a heavily improvised show . Bob finds out about this and becomes outraged . Bart and Lisa find their way into the cockpit of the Duff Blimp , where Bob , having lost his patience thanks to Krusty , tries to detonate the bomb . However , the bomb turns out to be a dud ( there was a label inside the bomb saying " Best Before November 1959 " ) and does not blow up . The police eventually find Bob , thanks to Lisa , who uses the controls inside the blimp to print a message on its electronic ticker outside . When Chief Wiggum tries to arrest Bob , Bob deflates the blimp and kidnaps Bart. Bob steals the original Wright Brothers aircraft , which had been an exhibit at the air show . He then reveals to Bart that he plans to start out a kamikaze attack into the civil defense shed where Krusty is hiding . However , the plane ends up merely bouncing harmlessly off the shack . The authorities quickly arrest Bob and take him into custody while Bart is reunited with his family .
= = Production = =
Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " was the fifth episode of The Simpsons to feature Sideshow Bob after " Krusty Gets Busted " , " Black Widower " , " Cape Feare " and " Sideshow Bob Roberts " . Executive producers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein believed that every season of the show should contain an episode featuring Bob . However , Bob had already been in four episodes and the writers were having a difficult time coming up with new ways to include him . The first draft of the episode was written by Spike Feresten , a freelance writer who later became known for his work on Seinfeld . Although he received credit for the episode , the writing staff completely rewrote the episode and very little of Feresten 's original script was left in the episode . Oakley describes the episode as " one of the most arduous rewrites in the history of the show " because much of the dialogue had to be re @-@ written .
" Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " was the first episode of The Simpsons directed by Dominic Polcino . Polcino had worked as an assistant director on the show and had left the show but was offered a chance to be a director . He describes the episode as a " tough one to start with , " especially the scenes with the Wright Flyer . An early version of the script featured a longer scene at the air show that featured Hans Moleman flying an early flying machine . The scene where Milhouse is in a jet pretending to fire missiles at his parents because he 's upset with them , would later inspire the episode " A Milhouse Divided " . In that episode , Milhouse 's parents become divorced .
A character modelled after Fox Network owner Rupert Murdoch briefly appears in a scene set in jail . The censors said that Murdoch could not be shown but Rupert Murdoch himself gave his permission for his caricature to be used . R. Lee Ermey , known for his role in Full Metal Jacket , guest stars as Col. Leslie " Hap " Hapablap . The role was specifically written for him and much of his dialogue was difficult to write . The line " What is your major malfunction ? " is based on dialogue from Full Metal Jacket .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is a parody of " ' 60s @-@ era nuclear war movies " and contains several references to Cold War films . There were also several references to Dr. Strangelove : the underground compound resembles the War Room from the film ; Professor Frink was redesigned to parody the title character ; The tune that Sideshow Bob whistles while preparing the bomb is " We 'll Meet Again , " as sung by Vera Lynn at the end of the film ; and Krusty 's acting whilst he defends television is based on George C. Scott 's performance as General Buck Turgidson . The appearance of the stereotypical grey alien found in Hangar 18 is a reference to the Megadeth song of the same name .
Another parodied film is the 1964 thriller Fail @-@ Safe by Sidney Lumet : at the beginning of the third act of the episode , we see scenes of everyday life across Springfield , and one by one , with a " zooming " sound effect , they all freeze @-@ frame in anticipation of the ( supposedly ) imminent nuclear blast ; such was the ending of Fail @-@ Safe . One of the scenes before the supposed nuclear blast shows Maggie picking flowers in a field , with the camera zooming into her eye , and then the minuscule blast occurs . This is a parody of the infamous and controversial Daisy ad used by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 United States presidential election .
The inmate who argues with Sideshow Bob about tabloids and network television has the likeness and Australian accent of Rupert Murdoch .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " finished 49th in ratings for the week of November 20 – 26 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 and a 13 % share of the audience . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week behind The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Probably the least satisfying of Sideshow Bob 's gleamings - but there 's enough slapstick and satire to keep things ticking along nicely . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star listed " Brother From Another Series , " amongst other Sideshow Bob episodes , as one of the best episodes of The Simpsons , writing " forget Frasier , these are Kelsey Grammer 's best roles . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that " Though it doesn ’ t compete with the best Bob shows , it has more than a few nice moments . " He added that he enjoyed R. Lee Ermey 's guest appearance as well as the jokes about the Fox network . Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Milhouse was playing in the fighter jet at the air show . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B − .
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= Epaulette shark =
The epaulette shark ( Hemiscyllium ocellatum ) is a species of longtailed carpet shark , family Hemiscylliidae , found in shallow , tropical waters off Australia and New Guinea ( and possibly elsewhere ) . The common name of this shark comes from the very large , white @-@ margined black spot behind each pectoral fin , which are reminiscent of military epaulettes . A small species usually under 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , the epaulette shark has a slender body with a short head and broad , paddle @-@ shaped paired fins . The caudal peduncle ( to which the tail fin is attached ) comprises over half the shark 's length . Adults are light brown above , with scattered darker spots and indistinct saddles .
Epaulette sharks have nocturnal habits and frequent shallow water on coral reefs or in tidal pools . This shark has evolved to cope with the severe night time oxygen depletion ( hypoxia ) in isolated tidal pools by increasing the blood supply to its brain and selectively shutting down non @-@ essential neural functions . It is capable of surviving complete anoxia for an hour without ill effects , and at a much higher temperature than most other hypoxia @-@ tolerant animals . Rather than swim , epaulette sharks often " walk " by wriggling their bodies and pushing with their paired fins . This species feeds on a wide range of small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . Epaulette sharks are oviparous , with females depositing pairs of egg capsules around every 14 days from August to December . Due to their hardiness and small size , epaulette sharks are popular with both public and home aquaria . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as of Least Concern , as outside of the small aquarium trade it is of little interest to fisheries .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The epaulette shark was originally described as Squalus ocellatus by the French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature . The name was later changed to the currently valid Hemiscyllium ocellatum . The type specimen was a 35 cm ( 14 in ) long immature male caught near Cooktown , Queensland , Australia . Other common names for this species are the itar shark and the blind shark ( also used for Brachaelurus waddi ) . Goto 's 2002 morphological analysis of the carpet sharks showed the genus Hemiscyllium as a polytomy , meaning that the phylogenetic relationships between the epaulette shark and its sister species could not be resolved .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the epaulette shark extends from the southern coast of New Guinea to the northern coast of Australia , as far south as Sydney . The Capricorn @-@ Bunker Group of the Great Barrier Reef contains a particularly large population , with thousands estimated to inhabit the reefs around Heron Island alone . Additionally , there are unsubstantiated reports of this species from Malaysia , Sumatra , and the Solomon Islands . Epaulette sharks are found in shallow water to a maximum depth of 50 m ( 160 ft ) , and are often seen in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies . They prefer tidal pools , coral flats , and stands of staghorn coral .
= = Description = =
The epaulette shark has an elongated body , over half of which is comprised by the slender caudal peduncle . The snout is short and rounded , with the nares placed almost at the tip along with a pair of tiny barbels ; there are grooves running from the nares to the mouth . There are 26 – 35 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 21 – 32 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The teeth are small , with broad bases and triangular cusps . The eyes are oval in shape and elevated , with a large spiracle below each . The five pairs of gill slits are small , with the fourth and fifth very close together .
The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and rounded and are thickly muscled . The two similarly @-@ sized dorsal fins are placed well back on the body . The anal fin is low and positioned just in front of the caudal fin . The caudal fin has only an upper lobe , which contains a prominent ventral notch near the tip and is angled almost horizontally relative to the body . Adult epaulette sharks are beige to brownish above with many widely spaced brown spots and subtle darker bands . There is a very large black spot ringed in white located behind each pectoral fin ; this pair of spots are the origin of this shark 's common name . Juveniles have alternating light and dark bands over their body and fins , which break up as they mature . Epaulette sharks are typically 70 – 90 cm ( 27 – 35 in ) long ; the maximum reported length is 107 cm ( 42 in ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
As an adaptation for navigating its complex reef environment , the epaulette shark moves by seemingly walking , bending its body from side @-@ to @-@ side and pushing off of the substrate with its paddle @-@ shaped pectoral and pelvic fins . Its gait is similar to that of salamanders , an example of convergent evolution . The shark is capable of swimming , but often prefers to walk along the sandy or coral bottom even when the water is deep enough to allow it to swim freely . The cartilaginous supports of the epaulette shark 's paired fins are reduced and separated when compared to other sharks , allowing them to be rotated for use as limbs . This mode of locomotion even enables the shark to crawl out of the water to access isolated tidal pools . The gait of the epaulette shark is convergently similar to those of tetrapods such as salamanders , suggesting that the movements needed for walking on land may predate , and facilitated the evolution of , the first terrestrial vertebrates . Epaulette sharks are largely nocturnal and are most active in low water . They often hide inside or below coral heads , though it is enough for the head to be covered even if the rest of the body is exposed . Sometimes they perch in the open on sandy flats or atop reefs facing into the current , a form of orientation known as rheotaxis that may improve respiration or predator awareness .
Epaulette sharks are preyed upon by larger fishes such as other sharks . Its coloration provides protective camouflage , while its epaulette is speculated to be an eyespot for distracting or deterring predators . Epaulette sharks are almost all parasitized by the praniza ( parasitic ) larval stage of gnathiid isopods . The larvae feed on blood and mostly attach to the skin around the cloaca and the claspers , though they are also found inside the mouth and on the gills . These parasites cause little damage and are not believed to adversely affect the health of the shark . Other parasites of this species include a species of myxosporean in the genus Kudoa , which infests the skeletal muscles , the hemogregarine protozoan Haemogregarina hemiscyllii , which infects the blood , the ostracod Sheina orri , which attaches to the gills , and the nematode Proleptus australis , which infests the stomach .
= = = Hypoxia tolerance = = =
At night , the shallow reef platforms inhabited by the epaulette shark often become isolated from the ocean by the receding tide . The amount of dissolved oxygen in the pool can drop 80 % or more overnight from the combined respiration of all the organisms within the pool . The epaulette shark has evolved to cope with these hypoxic conditions , being able to survive for over three hours in 5 % of the atmospheric O2 level without losing behavioral responsiveness . In the laboratory , epaulette sharks have survived for an hour without any oxygen at 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , which is also unusual in that most animals capable of tolerating oxygen deprivation do so at low temperatures .
The physiological responses of the epaulette shark to low oxygen are mediated by the nucleoside adenosine . In hypoxic conditions , the heart and ventilation rates drop sharply . The shark 's blood pressure falls by half as the blood vessels dilate to deliver more blood to the brain and heart . Unlike in bony fishes and tetrapods , the blood flow rate remains constant and there is no elevation of blood glucose levels . The brains of sharks only consume a third as much ATP as those of teleosts . The epaulette shark is able to lower this energy demand further by reducing the metabolism of certain areas of its brain , e.g. keeping the sensory nuclei functional while deactivating the motor nuclei . This allows the shark to supply enough ATP to prevent neuron death , while still remaining alert to its environment .
= = = Feeding = = =
The epaulette shark is an opportunistic predator of benthic crustaceans , worms , and small bony fish . Off Heron Island , over 90 % of the epaulette shark 's diet consists of polychaete worms and crabs , with juveniles taking mostly the former and adults mostly the latter . It hunts most actively at dawn and dusk , though feeding can occur at any time during the day . This shark relies mainly on its olfactory and electroreceptive senses to locate hidden prey . It is capable of sucking prey into its mouth by expanding its muscular buccal cavity . While searching for food , the epaulette shark sometimes turns over debris with its snout or thrusts its head into the sand , swallowing food items while expelling the sand grains through its gill slits . Unlike most sharks , the epaulette shark may chew its food for up to 5 – 10 minutes . Its teeth can be depressed to form a flat surface for crushing hard @-@ shelled prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Mating in the epaulette shark takes place from July to December , though in captivity reproduction occurs continuously . Courtship may be initiated by the female following and biting the male . The male then holds onto the pectoral fin of the female with his mouth and lies alongside her , while inserting one of his claspers into her cloaca . Copulation lasts about one and a half minutes . Epaulette sharks readily breed in aquariums , even in tanks as small as 135 gallons , but larger tanks are recommended to allow room for the hatched offspring . This species is oviparous , with females depositing eggs from August to December . The female drops the egg capsules two ( rarely four ) at a time every 14 days , producing a total of 20 – 50 eggs per year . Each egg case measures 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The young emerge after 120 – 130 days , at a length of 14 – 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) . The growth rate of the young is slow at first but increases to about 5 cm ( 2 in ) per year after three months . Both males and females mature sexually at a length of 54 – 64 cm ( 21 – 25 in ) , corresponding to an age of at least seven years .
= = Human interactions = =
Epaulette sharks are harmless to humans , though if handled they may nip their captors . They are easily observed and handled by beachgoers as they move slowly whilst out of water , and show little fear of humans ; the shark is often injured by these encounters . This species adapts readily to captivity and is displayed by many public aquariums in the United States , Canada , and Australia . In an article for Aquarium Fish Magazine , Scott W. Michael referred to the epaulette shark as " the best shark for the home aquarium . " They will breed in captivity , even in tanks as small as 510 L ( 135 gal ) , though full @-@ grown sharks are best housed in tanks of 680 L ( 180 gal ) or more . They are not compatible with community tanks as they will eat other fish .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the epaulette shark as of Least Concern . This species is common in Australian waters , where it is not captured by either commercial or recreational fisheries , and is minimally affected by collection for the aquarium trade and fishery bycatch . Much of its Australian habitat is encompassed by protected marine parks . Off New Guinea , the epaulette shark has been assessed as Near Threatened , as there it faces habitat degradation , destructive fishing practices , and over @-@ exploitation by artisan fishers .
In 2015 , the behaviour of an Epaulette shark was filmed in detail by the BBC for the first episode of a new documentary series named Shark , released around the 40th anniversary of Jaws . The documentary shows an Epaulette shark 's ability to walk over land , and its hunting behaviours in the ebbing tide .
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= Renewable energy in Iceland =
About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources .
In 2011 , geothermal energy provided about 65 percent of primary energy , the share of hydropower was 20 percent , and the share of fossil fuels ( mainly oil products for the transport sector ) was 15 percent . In 2013 , Iceland also became a producer of wind energy .
The main use of geothermal energy is for space heating with the heat being distributed to buildings through extensive district @-@ heating systems . About 85 % of all houses in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy .
Renewable energy provides almost 100 percent of electricity production , with about 75 percent coming from hydropower and 25 percent from geothermal power . Most of the hydropower plants are owned by Landsvirkjun ( the National Power Company ) which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland . In 2011 , the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 17 @,@ 210 GWh .
Iceland is the world ’ s largest green energy producer per capita and largest electricity producer per capita .
= = Geology = =
Iceland 's unique geology allows it to produce renewable energy relatively cheaply , from a variety of sources . Iceland is located on the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , which makes it one of the most tectonically active places in the world . There are over 200 volcanoes located in Iceland and over 600 hot springs . There are over 20 high @-@ temperature steam fields that are at least 150 ° C [ 300 ° F ] ; many of them reach temperatures of 250 ° C. This is what allows Iceland to harness geothermal energy and these steam fields are used for everything from heating houses to heating swimming pools . Hydropower is harnessed through glacial rivers and waterfalls , which are both plentiful in Iceland .
= = Hydropower = =
The first hydropower plant was built in 1904 by a local entrepreneur . It was located in a small town outside of Reykjavík and produced 9 kW of power . The first municipal hydroelectric plant was built in 1921 , and it could produce 1 MW of power . This plant single @-@ handedly quadrupled the amount of electricity in the country . The 1950s marked the next evolution in hydroelectric plants . Two plants were built on the Sog River , one in 1953 which produced 31 MW , and the other in 1959 which produced 26 @.@ 4 MW . These two plants were the first built for industrial purposes and they were co @-@ owned by the Icelandic government . This process continued in 1965 when the national power company , Landsvirkjun , was founded . It was owned by both the Icelandic government and the municipality of Reykjavík . In 1969 , they built a 210 MW plant on the Þjórsá River that would supply the southeastern area of Iceland with electricity and run an aluminum smelting plant that could produce 33 @,@ 000 tons of aluminum a year .
This trend continued and increases in the production of hydroelectric power are directly related to industrial development . In 2005 , Landsvirkjun produced 7 @,@ 143 GWh of electricity total of which 6 @,@ 676 GWh or 93 % was produced via hydroelectric power plants . Additionally 5 @,@ 193 GWh or 72 % was used for power @-@ intensive industries like aluminum smelting . In 2009 Iceland built its biggest hydroelectric project to date , a 690 MW hydroelectric plant to provide energy for another aluminum smelter — the Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant . This project was opposed strongly by environmentalists .
Other hydroelectric power stations in Iceland include : Blöndustöð ( 150 MW ) , Búrfellsstöð ( 270 MW ) , Hrauneyjafosstöð ( 210 MW ) , Laxárstöðvar ( 28 MW ) , Sigöldustöð ( 150 MW ) , Sogsstöðvar ( 89 MW ) , Sultartangastöð ( 120 MW ) , and Vatnsfellsstöð ( 90 MW ) .
Iceland is the first country in the world to create an economy generated through industries fueled by renewable energy , and there is still a large amount of untapped hydroelectric energy in Iceland . In 2002 it was estimated that Iceland only generated 17 % of the total harnessable hydroelectric energy in the country . Iceland ’ s government believes another 30 TWh of hydropower every year could be produced , whilst taking into account the sources that must remain untapped for environmental reasons .
= = Geothermal power = =
For centuries , the people of Iceland have used their hot springs for bathing and washing clothes . The first use of geothermal energy for heating did not come until 1907 when a farmer ran a concrete pipe from a hot spring that led steam into his house . In 1930 , the first pipeline was constructed in Reykjavík , and was used to heat two schools , 60 homes , and the main hospital . It was a 3 km pipeline that ran from one of the hot springs outside the city . In 1943 , the first district heating company was started with the use of geothermal power . An 18 km pipeline ran through the city of Reykjavík and by 1945 it was connected to over 2 @,@ 850 homes .
Currently geothermal power heats 89 % of the houses in Iceland and over 54 % of the primary energy used in Iceland comes from geothermal sources . Geothermal power is used for many things in Iceland . 57 @.@ 4 % of the energy is used for space heat , 25 % is used for electricity , and the remaining amount is used in many miscellaneous areas : swimming pools , fish farms , and greenhouses , for example .
The government of Iceland has played a major role in the advancement of geothermal energy . In the 1940s , the State Electricity Authority was started by the government in order to increase the knowledge of geothermal resources and the utilization of geothermal power in Iceland . It was later changed to the National Energy Authority ( Orkustofnun ) in 1967 . This agency has been very successful and has made it economically viable to use geothermal energy as a source for heating in many different areas throughout the country . Geothermal power has been so successful that the government no longer has to lead the research in this field because it has been taken over by the geothermal industries .
Geothermal power plants in Iceland include Nesjavellir ( 120 MW ) , Reykjanes ( 100 MW ) , Hellisheiði ( 303 MW ) , Krafla ( 60 MW ) , and Svartsengi ( 46 @.@ 5 MW ) power plants . The Svartsengi power plant and the Nesjavellir power plant produce both electricity and hot @-@ water for heating purposes . The move from oil @-@ based heating to geothermal heating saved Iceland an estimated total of US $ 8 @.@ 2 billion from 1970 to 2000 and lowered the release of carbon dioxide emissions by 37 % . The equivalent amount of oil that would have been needed in 2003 to heat Iceland ’ s homes was 646 @,@ 000 tons .
The Icelandic government also believes that there are many more untapped geothermal sources throughout the country , estimating that over 20 TWh per year of unharnessed geothermal energy is available . This is about 3 @.@ 3 % of the 600TWh per year of electricity used in Germany . Combined with the unharnessed feasible hydropower , tapping these sources to their full extent would provide Iceland another 50 TWh of energy per year , all from renewable sources .
Iceland 's abundant geothermal energy has also enabled renewable energy initiatives , such as Carbon Recycling International 's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process , which could help reduce Iceland 's dependence on fossil fuels .
= = Solar power = =
Iceland has relatively low insolation , due to the latitude , about 20 % less than Paris , and half as much as Madrid , with very little in the winter . Unlike geothermal , solar power is a non @-@ dispatchable renewable energy source - the sun follows a predictable path but the weather is not controllable . This makes both wind power and solar power variable renewable energy ( VRE ) sources . Net metering credits electricity generated during the summer for use during the winter . If net metering nor local energy storage is not available , the largest array that is practical for a consumer to install is that which will generate less than or equal to the amount of electricity used during the sunniest month , a much smaller array .
= = Hydrogen = =
Currently , imported oil fulfils most of Iceland 's remaining energy needs . This cost has caused Iceland to focus on domestic , renewable energy . Bragi Arnason , a local professor , first proposed the idea of using hydrogen as a fuel source in Iceland during the 1970s , which is also when the oil crisis occurred . At that point in time this idea was considered untenable , but in 1999 Icelandic New Energy was established to govern the project of transitioning Iceland into the first hydrogen society by 2050 . This followed a decision in 1998 by the Icelandic Parliament to convert vehicle and fishing fleets to hydrogen produced from renewable energy .
Iceland provides an ideal location to test the viability of hydrogen as a fuel source for the future , since it is a small country of only 320 @,@ 000 people , with over 60 % living in the capital , Reykjavík . The relatively small scale of the infrastructure will make it easier to transition the country from oil to hydrogen . There is also a plentiful supply of natural energy that can be harnessed to produce hydrogen in a renewable way , making it perfect for hydrogen production . Iceland is a participant in international hydrogen fuel research and development programs , and many countries are following the nation 's progress with interest . However , these factors also make Iceland an advantageous market for electric vehicles . Because electric vehicles are four times more efficient , and less expensive than hydrogen vehicles , the country may switch to electric vehicles .
Iceland already converts its surplus electricity into exportable goods and hydrocarbon replacements . In 2002 it produced 2 @,@ 000 tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis — primarily for the production of ammonia for fertilizer .
ECTOS demonstration project
The first step towards becoming a hydrogen society was the ECTOS demonstration project , which ran from 2001 until August 2005 and was very successful . ECTOS ( Ecological City TranspOrt System ) involved three hydrogen fuel cell buses and one fuel station . Many international companies contributed to the project including Daimler Chrysler , who made the hydrogen fuel cell buses , and Shell which produced the hydrogen fuel station . The European Commission 5th framework programme sponsored the project .
The first hydrogen fuel station in Iceland opened in 2003 in Reykjavík . To avoid transportation difficulties hydrogen is produced on site using electrolysis to break down water into hydrogen and oxygen . All of the energy used to produce the hydrogen comes from Iceland ’ s renewable energies and the full cycle of energy , from the water to the hydrogen in the fuel cells , emits no CO2 .
During the project the researchers studied the efficiency of using hydrogen as a fuel source . They examined the reliability of the fuel and effectiveness of hydrogen as a fuel in buses . They also studied the cost effectiveness of using hydrogen as a fuel source and how the process of introducing hydrogen into the country could be implemented . They examined specific areas like the ease of incorporating fuel stations and producing hydrogen , and the safety precautions involved with distributing and using hydrogen , a very explosive fuel .
HyFLEET : CUTE project
In January 2006 it was decided to continue testing the hydrogen buses as part of the HyFLEET : CUTE project , which spans 10 cities in Europe , China and Australia and which is sponsored by the European Commission 's 6th framework programme . This project studies the long @-@ term effects and most efficient ways of using hydrogen powered buses . The buses are run for longer periods of time and the durability of the fuel cell is compared to the combustion engine , which can theoretically last a lot longer . The project also compares the fuel efficiency of the original buses with new buses from different manufacturers that are supposed to be more fuel efficient .
The project ended in January 2007 , and as a result of the research an improved bus prototype is expected in 2008 . Details of further demonstrations involving private cars and a boat were expected in April 2007 .
Other projects
Iceland has also begun many other projects involving hydrogen .
The EURO @-@ HYPORT project is investigating the feasibility of exporting hydrogen fuel to Europe . Options include transporting the gas through an undersea pipeline or by boat , or exporting electricity generated in Iceland through a submarine cable .
Another project to build a hydrogen @-@ powered H @-@ ship started in February 2004 and is looking at the practicalities of using hydrogen as a fuel for Iceland 's fishing fleet , one of the country 's main industries . The project will identify and try to remove barriers that may prevent marine vehicles from using hydrogen as a fuel , such as problems caused by water and salt . It will also try to identify and remedy weakness within the fuel cell to ensure the protection of marine life . The H @-@ ship project is a major step in the plan for Iceland to become the first country to phase out the use of fossil fuels . Government funding as well as private organizations such as the World Renewable Energy Congress are the primary sponsors of research in this sector .
From hydrogen to electricity
Electric cars with strategically located charging stations make a lot of sense for Iceland , where 75 percent of the country ’ s residents live within 37 miles of the capital city . Hydrogen cars are not expected to be mass @-@ produced anywhere in the world until at least 2015 , and with the first electric cars rolling off production lines in 2010 , it will be faster to introduce electric vehicles . Iceland 's 840 @-@ mile @-@ long ring road could theoretically be covered with just 14 fast @-@ charging stations .
= = Education and research = =
There are several educational institutions that offering education in Renewable Energy in Iceland on university level .
The University of Iceland is a progressive educational and scientific institution , renowned in the global scientific community for its research . It is a state university , situated in Reykjavík , the capital of Iceland . A modern , diversified and rapidly developing institution , the University of Iceland offers opportunities for study and research in almost 300 programmes spanning most fields of science and scholarship : Social Sciences , Health Sciences , Humanities , Sciences and Engineering . Some 9700 students are registered at UI and 1000 full @-@ time employees .
Reykjavik University has the mission to create and communicate knowledge , in order to increase the competitiveness of individuals , firms and society as a whole , while at the same time enhancing the quality of life of their students and staff . The aim is to make Reykjavik University the centre for international research collaborations in Europe and across the Atlantic . The university consists of five academic schools : School of Law , School of Business , School of Health and Education , School of Computer Science and the School of Science and Engineering . Reykjavik University is a community of over 3000 students and over 500 full @-@ time and part @-@ time employees . About half of all instructors at RU are active in Icelandic industry , and about 10 % are guest instructors from overseas .
Keilir , Atlantic center of excellence in Ásbrú next to the Keflavik International Airport , offer a multidisciplinary BSc. programs in energy technology in co @-@ operation with the University of Iceland . The school also runs a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research center in energy sciences .
RES - The School for Renewable Energy Science , located in Akureyri North Iceland is offering an intensive and unique interdisciplinary research oriented one @-@ year graduate ( M.Sc. ) programme in Renewable Energy Science . The program is offered in cooperation with University of Iceland and University of Akureyri , as well as in partnership with a number of leading technical universities around the world . In 2009 the school offers four specializations of study : 1 . Geothermal Energy ; 2 . Fuel Cell Systems and Hydrogen ; 3 . Biofuels and Bioenergy ; and 4 . Energy Systems & Policies . RES offers also summer programs and individual courses in the field .
Iceland School of Energy located in Reykjavik , offers MSc . Studies in the field of Renewable Energy Engineering , Policy and Science . The foundation for the ISE was laid in April 2007 when Reykjavik Energy , the University of Iceland and Reykjavik University signed an agreement on establishing an international graduate program on sustainable energy . ISE is an interdisciplinary school in higher education for engineers and scientists , has a focus on global environmental protection and sustainable use of energy resources and creates leading experts in management , design and research in utilization of sustainable energy . The unique expertise of all its founding partners forms an excellent platform for the school to build on .
The largest research institution in renewable energy in the country is University of Iceland which is state university , founded in 1911 and situated in the heart of Reykjavík , the capital of Iceland . As a scientific institution is it renowned in the global scientific community for its research in renewable energy .
Another state university University of Akureyri , located in Akureyri in North Iceland , is also conducting various research in the field of renewable energy .
One of the main tasks of the National Energy Authority of Iceland is to carry out energy research and provide consulting services related to energy development and energy utilization .
Several companies , public and private are conducting extensive research in the field of renewable energy .
Landsvirkjun the national electricity company of the Republic of Iceland , is both in research of hydro and geothermal as well and funding a great deal of research work in the field in the country .
The Icelandic Energy Portal is an independent information source on the Icelandic energy sector .
Iceland Geosurvey ( ÍSOR ) is a public consulting and research institute providing specialist services to the Icelandic power industry , dedicated mainly to geothermal and hydro research .
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= 18th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 18th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) is an engineer brigade of the United States Army . It is currently a subordinate unit of 21st Sustainment Command ( Theater ) and is headquartered at Conn Barracks in Schweinfurt , Germany . Soldiers of the 18th Engineer Brigade provide various supportive duties to other Army units , including construction , engineering , and mechanical work on other Army projects .
The brigade served in Europe during World War II , a fact which was included on its Distinctive Unit Insignia when the 20th Engineer Brigade received one on 10 February 1966 . The four corners of the crenelated square allude to their four campaigns in World War II , Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland and Central Europe .
The 18th Engineer Brigade later deployed to Vietnam , during the Vietnam War , where its battalions saw six years of combat service and supported fourteen campaigns , building infrastructure for both military and civilian projects . The brigade participated in a massive number of road construction projects and airfield constructions , supporting numerous infantry units and operating all over Vietnam . After serving in Vietnam , the brigade became attached to Seventh United States Army . It has since undertaken and completed numerous projects in support of US Army , Europe , and participated in Operation Desert Storm , Operation Enduring Freedom , and Operation Iraqi Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The US Army 's 18th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of 21st Sustainment Command ( Theater ) . The brigade has been assigned to Europe since February 2007 . The brigade is headquartered at Conn Barracks in Schweinfurt , Germany . The brigade 's current commander is Colonel Scott A. Petersen , while its Command Sergeant Major is Lauro F. Obeada .
In addition to Headquarters and Headquarters Company and the 243d Engineer Detachment ( Construction Management ) , which is located in Grafenwhoer , Germany two subordinate engineer battalions are permanently attached : the 15th Engineer Battalion headquartered at Grafenwöhr , Germany , and the 54th Engineer Battalion headquartered at Bamberg , Germany .
= = History = =
= = = World Wars = = =
The lineage of the 18th Engineer Brigade can be traced to 29 July 1921 , when its predecessor , the 347th Engineers ( General Service ) , was constituted as an Organized Reserves unit . The 347th Engineers would not be activated for almost twenty years , until the military buildup after the United States entered World War II . The unit was ordered into active military service on 6 May 1942 at Camp Claiborne , Louisiana .
On 1 August 1942 , the unit was reorganized and re @-@ designated as the 347th Engineer General Services Regiment . The Regiment deployed to England in February 1944 . It entered combat in France on 29 June 1944 and participated in the Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland and Central Europe campaigns of World War II , earning its first Meritorious Unit Commendation . After V @-@ E Day , the regiment remained on occupation duty in Germany until its inactivation on 1 June 1946 .
On 15 June 1947 , the regiment was reactivated in the organized reserves headquartered in Salt Lake , Utah , and remained there until it was again inactivated on 16 March 1949 . On 25 October 1954 , the 347th Engineer General Services Regiment was re @-@ designated the 18th Engineer Brigade for the first time and activated as a Regular Army unit at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , where it remained until inactivation on 26 March 1963 .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 18th Engineer Brigade was reactivated on 16 July 1965 at Fort Bragg , N.C. and prepared for deployment to Vietnam . The 18th Engineer Brigade entered Vietnam in September 1965 with the responsibility for overseeing all Army Engineering operations in Vietnam until the establishment of the U.S. Army Engineer Command , Vietnam , in late 1966 .
Under the command of Colonel C. Craig Cannon , the Brigade prepared for deployment to Vietnam . The Advance Party of the 18th Engineer Brigade arrived at Saigon 's Tan Son Nhut Air Base on 3 September 1965 . Three days later , Brigadier General Robert R. Ploger assumed command of the Brigade . Within two weeks , the Brigade Headquarters at Tan Son Nhut was fully operational . It had been preceded by the 35th Engineer Group , which built Cam Ranh Bay on a peninsula of sand and in a hostile environment . The brigade assumed responsibility for I Corps and II Corps in the northern part of South Vietnam . The 937th Engineer Group ( Combat ) at Qui Nhơn was assigned to the Brigade in June 1966 .
Its initial activities centered around rapid development of the port facilities , ammunition dumps , base camps and airfields necessary to support the build @-@ up of US combat forces deploying to Vietnam . During the initial construction phases its combat engineer battalions also provided support for search and destroy missions and defensive operations with the 101st Airborne Division near Ninh Hoa and the 4th Infantry Division at Pleiku .
On 18 January 1969 , an ammunition storage area was completed at Cam Ranh Bay . It had taken two years to build this complex , which covered over 191 @,@ 700 square feet ( 17 @,@ 810 m2 ) . English Airfield was completed on 21 March 1969 near Qui Nhơn . The runway was 3 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , and included a 150 — foot by 150 — foot turn around area .
On 3 May 1969 , Brigadier General John W. Morris assumed command of the Brigade . Soon afterwards , Brigade engineers finished construction of a cold storage warehouse at the Qui Nhơn Support Command , the first of its kind in Vietnam . Construction of the Tandem Switch Building at Vung Chau Mountain was also completed about this time . This 4 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 370 m2 ) building housed almost US $ 1 million of communications equipment . During the summer months of 1969 , Brigade engineers completed the 200 @,@ 000 @-@ barrel ( 32 @,@ 000 m3 ) capacity Air Force tank farm at Cam Ranh Bay , after laying over 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) of pipe to complete the project .
The beginning of 1970 saw the initiation of the 18th Engineers Brigade 's Operation Last Chance , a program of command emphasis and organization for motivation and success of that year 's engineer operations . The goals of the program were to maintain primary missions of the combat support as well as insure the completion of the many projects planned for the 1970 construction operations .
February 1970 saw the completion of a project begun in the summer of the previous year at Qui Nhơn that replaced a temporary floating steel dock with a more permanent structure which could accommodate six ammo barges at once . The port of Qui Nhơn became one of the few supply points where ammunition for the First and Second Military Regions could be handled in bulk quantities simultaneously . Prior to the completion of this new facility , the handling of ammunition there had to take place in other areas , near public housing and fuel storage depots .
On 3 May 1970 , Brigadier General Henry C. Schrader assumed command of the 18th Engineer Brigade . Shortly after this , the most difficult stretch of the roadway that the Brigade had ever undertaken — the 27 @-@ kilometer stretch of National Highway QL @-@ 11 South in the central highlands region known as Tây Nguyên , commonly referred to as the " Good View Pass " , was completed . This road had been carved out from a dangerous mountain pass to a national road in less than one year .
The Lines of Communication Program , which represents the most significant contribution that the 18th Engineer Brigade had made to the economic growth of Vietnam , consisted of about 1 @,@ 500 kilometers of road upgrade from 1967 to 1972 . After a slow start in the beginning of this work , the Brigade finished some 560 kilometers of highway reconstruction , and improvement in 1970 and another 450 kilometers were scheduled for completion in 1971 by Brigade units .
In conjunction with the Brigade efforts on the Lines of Communication Program , 18th Brigade engineers was involved in a program of affiliation with ARVN ( Army of the Republic of Vietnam ) engineers . In addition to continuous training programs which the Brigade established to train ARVN equipment operators , the engineers of the 18th provided technical assistance and logistical support to several projects undertaken by the Vietnamese Army , most notably in the construction of the 3 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) bridge at Tuy Hòa . Upon its completion and opening on 13 February 1971 , this bridge became the longest overpass of its type ever constructed in the Republic of Vietnam . It would be one of 77 such bridges that the Brigade would construct in the country .
In support of the XXIV Corps , the 18th Brigade mounted what was described as the " most ambitious engineering effort in Vietnam " at the end of January 1971 . The Brigade engineers pushed a roadway across the rugged terrain of the northern Quảng Trị Province to the Laotian border and constructed a 3 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 980 m ) by 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) airfield in little more than a month at Khe Sanh . This construction effort was part of Operation Dewey Canyon II .
On 20 September 1971 the Brigade was inactivated . Over the six years that it served in Vietnam , the 18th Engineer Brigade was involved in 14 of 17 campaigns , earning four Meritorious Unit Commendations .
= = = Post Vietnam = = =
On 21 October 1977 the 18th Engineer Brigade was reactivated at Karlsruhe , Germany . For 15 years , the Brigade served as the principal construction brigade for the United States Army , Europe and 7th Army . During this period , the Brigade performed numerous construction , rehabilitation and renovation missions in military communities and training areas of the 7th Army . These included an extensive range upgrade of the Grafenwohr Major Training Area in the early 1980s and the construction of the Range 23 complex at the Wildflecken Major Training Area in 1989 and 1990 . Additionally , the Brigade was responsible for providing topographic support to the European Theater .
In 1990 and 1991 , during Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , the 18th Engineer Brigade provided rail and sea deployment support to the VII Corps and , in addition , deployed a Combat Heavy Battalion and Topographic Company to support VII Corps operations in Southwest Asia . In April 1991 , the Brigade Headquarters , along with elements of the 94th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) , deployed to Zakho , Iraq in support of Operation Provide Comfort . While there , the Brigade coordinated all engineer efforts of a Joint and Combined engineer force providing construction and relief support to the Kurdish refugees . The 18th Engineer Brigade was awarded the Joint Meritorious Unit Award for its action during Operation Provide Comfort . As part of the reduction of forces in Europe , the Brigade was inactivated on 15 October 1992 .
= = = Present day = = =
On 18 October 2002 the Vice Chief of Staff of the Army approved the USAREUR and 7th Army Concept Plan to activate the Theater Army Engineer Brigade ( TAEB ) . Today , the 18th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) marks the return to service of the only active duty TAEB . The unit was officially reactivated on 6 June 2004 .
= = = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = = =
The 18th Engineer Brigade was deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in April 2005 . Its primary areas of operation were in and around Bagram , Kandahar , and Sharana , among other locations . The commander of the Brigade , Colonel Matthew H. Russell issued a memorandum to all soldiers that " preventable accidents " were the largest source of personnel and material losses during the deployment , enforcing a new safety policy throughout the brigade intended to prevent these from occurring .
In 2007 , the 18th Engineer Brigade was reassigned to V Corps , taking the place of the 130th Engineer Brigade , which returned to the United States . Some of the 130th 's units either merged or were reassigned to the 18th Brigade . During this time , the unit participated in road work , construction of Forward Operating Bases , and other activities that enhanced training readiness in and around Campbell Barracks .
= = = = Operation Iraqi Freedom 08 @-@ 10 = = = =
In 2008 , the unit was notified of another upcoming deployment to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . It commands three to five engineer battalions in Multinational Division – North . The battalions support individual Brigade Combat Teams of other units in " Task Force Iron " , a combat group led by the 1st Armored Division . They are working to rebuild Iraqi infrastructure , with the cooperation of Iraqi engineers , including construction of roads , airfields , and land moving . The unit cased its colors on 29 April 2008 , formally signifying the beginning of its deployment to Iraq .
The Brigade spent the first six months of its deployment to Tikrit in central Iraq , working on projects there for Multinational Division @-@ Center under the 10th Mountain Division . On 6 November , the brigade relocated to Kirkuk , unfurling its colors at Forward Operating Base Warrior . The brigade conducted route clearance and construction projects in northern Iraq , while partnered with Iraqi engineers . It replaced the 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division in Kirkuk and will was under the area of responsibility of Multinational Division @-@ North led by the 1st Armored Division . In February 2009 , the brigade again moved , this time to Ninewa Province to focus on construction projects in areas in and around Mosul . It was relieved by 2nd Brigade Combat Team , 1st Cavalry Division . On 17 July 2009 , the brigade handed over responsibility of Mosul to the 130th Engineer Brigade . The brigade subsequently returned to Schwetzingen , Germany after its 15 @-@ month deployment was finished .
= = = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = = =
The Brigade deployed to Afghanistan for its second deployment to the country since 2001 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= = Notable soldiers = =
Three soldiers from the 18th Engineer Brigade have gone on to serve as Chief of Engineers , the head of the US Army 's Corps of Engineers , this is the highest number to come from a single engineer brigade . These three are Lieutenant Generals Joe N. Ballard , John W. Morris , and Walter K. Wilson , Jr .. In addition to commanding the brigade from 1987 to 1990 , while it was stationed outside of Karlsruhe in Germany , LTG Ballard had also commanded a company in one of the brigade 's subordinate battalions , the 864th Engineer Battalion , during its earlier years in Vietnam .
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= Earthsuit =
Earthsuit was a New Orleans @-@ based Christian rock band formed in 1995 . The band consisted of guitarist Dave Rumsey , keyboardist / vocalist Paul Meany , bassist Roy Mitchell , drummer David " Hutch " Hutchison , and vocalist Adam LaClave . Earthsuit 's sound was primarily rock , but also possessed strong hip @-@ hop , electronica , reggae , soul , and experimental elements .
The group recorded several independent EPs and played primarily in their New Orleans area before becoming noticed by Sparrow Records at a concert in 1999 . The ensuing record deal saw the band 's only commercial release , a critically acclaimed album entitled Kaleidoscope Superior , in 2000 . Shortly after , the band left Sparrow and drifted out of the public eye . A final album , entitled The Rise of Modern Simulation was independently released before the group disbanded in 2003 . Many of the band members continue to play together and collaborate in various bands , namely Mutemath and Club of the Sons .
= = Biography = =
Earthsuit began in 1995 as a collaboration between Adam LaClave and Paul Meany , who began composing music together after being introduced at a church in New Orleans . In an interview with Family Christian Stores , Meany explained that a sermon was the inspiration for the band 's name : " ... This man was preaching about how humans are really spirit beings encased in fleshly bodies . The term " earth suit " came up . At the time we liked it , and we took it . " The two regularly performed at Café Joel , a small coffeehouse their church had started where Meany was music director . These performances helped cultivate their unique sound and introduced them to future band member David Rumsey .
In 1997 they released a self @-@ titled EP , which is sometimes called the Headless Clown EP due to its album cover . The record featured an early version of " One Time " ( of which they later made a music video ) as well as portions of live performances where Earthsuit covered Roberta Flack 's " Killing Me Softly " , albeit with re @-@ written lyrics . Rumsey helped produce the EP and played guitar ; however , the official band lineup only comprised LaClave and Meany . Shortly after , Rumsey officially joined along with bassist Roy Mitchell , another Café Joel regular . The band played and ministered in their hometown and did not tour much . In 1998 , the band recorded and released a second EP , entitled Noise for Your Eyes . The EP included a remix of " One Time " and early song demos , which were interspersed with short clips of live performances . Drummer David Hutchison joined the band after they met him through a friend . In 1999 , Earthsuit performed two sets at the Cornerstone Festival , one in a label showcase and the other opening for P.O.D. on the main stage . This garnered the attention of several major Christian labels , and the band subsequently signed to Sparrow Records .
The band began working with Prince producer David Leonard on their debut record , which excited Meany : " [ Sparrow ] loved what we were doing musically , and they wanted to find the producer who would capitalize on that . " Kaleidoscope Superior was released on June 20 , 2000 and elicited positive reviews from critics . It also received a Dove Award nomination and experienced some success on Christian radio stations . Christian rock peers Rebecca St. James and dc Talk members , Kevin Max and Michael Tait , expressed excitement over the record . The same year , Earthsuit embarked on a tour called Festival Con Dios with other Christian bands , such as the Elms , PAX 217 , and Switchfoot . The following year saw the band embark on their " Do You Feel The Distortion " tour with Ill Harmonics and The Benjamin Gate .
Despite critical reception , Kaleidoscope Superior would remain the band 's only commercial release ; they were soon dropped from Sparrow 's lineup due to " creative differences and marketing conundrums " . Earthsuit disappeared from the public eye and began posting on a website about a new independent album . In September 2001 , Hutchison left the band so he could spend more time with his family . Rumors began circling that the band would break up . In 2003 , Earthsuit revealed they were disbanding and released their last record , The Rise of Modern Simulation . The final collection featured six original studio songs and ten bonus tracks , including a live remix of " Against the Grain " , practice sessions of concert material , and covers of various songs . The album could only be purchased on the internet . Meany would later state " most people didn 't care when [ they ] broke up " .
Shortly after Earthsuit 's break up , Meany began working with drummer Darren King in a production team called " The Digitals " . The name later changed to " Math " while the group helped produce music for Christian music stalwart TobyMac . The band recruited guitarist Greg Hill and changed their name to Mutemath . To accommodate new recordings , Meany and producer Tedd T started an independent label named Teleprompt Records . Their first release was an EP titled Reset in September 2004 . Earthsuit alumnus Roy Mitchell joined the venture in 2005 . Teleprompt later signed a distribution deal directly with Warner Bros. Records , allowing Mutemath to release a full @-@ length self @-@ titled album on September 26 , 2006 .
Adam LaClave formed two bands , Macrosick and Club of the Sons . Macrosick has released only an independent CD titled demodisk ; the Hurricane Katrina disaster of 2005 forced the band members to go on hiatus . LaClave then turned his attention towards Club of the Sons with friend and bassist Jonathan Allen . They released an EP called The Roughs in spring 2007 and an album entitled Young Quanta on July 7 , 2009 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Earthsuit music was primarily rock , but also possessed strong hip @-@ hop , electronica , reggae , soul , and experimental elements . Their sound had sometimes been compared to The Police , while Meany 's rapping had been likened to the Beastie Boys . Adam LaClave stated the differing musical tastes of the band helped cultivate their sound : " Each one of us is really into a lot of different things ... it helps make our sound because you can hear all kinds of things " . Live performances were characterized by sunglasses , futuristic costumes , and energetic showmanship . Many bands have influenced Earthsuit 's style ; the group has performed covers of songs by Basement Jaxx , Black Sheep , Kraftwerk , and The Talking Heads . They have also utilized samples by DJ Shadow and The Verve .
Adam LaClave and Paul Meany were the primary songwriters for Earthsuit . As Christians , the two wrote lyrics that often communicated a Christian message . For example , the song " Said the Sun " is an allegory about God telling Christians to be carriers of light . " Whitehorse " was written to present a different view of the return of Jesus , as LaClave stated in an interview , " Most people , when they hear the term " white horse , " think of the analogy of Jesus coming back ... [ We ] wanted to bring a different meaning to it , because ... He comes to rescue us in our everyday life [ too ] . " The men 's lyrics also reflect experiences they have had . Meany once had a dream that inspired him to write " Gummy Buffalo " ; he found himself in a candy store and squeezed a gummy buffalo whereupon he heard the melody for the song . Christianity Today has proposed the lyrics in " Foreign " may have been inspired by their departure from Sparrow Records . The lyrics read " There 's no place in your world for me / I 've been from sea to shining sea / And I can 't retain your policies , excuse me / If I 'm just hanging around , I 'm foreign . "
= = Discography = =
Earthsuit ( aka The Headless Clown EP ) ( independent , 1997 )
Noise for Your Eyes ( independent , 1998 )
Kaleidoscope Superior ( Sparrow Records , 2000 )
The Rise of Modern Simulation ( independent , 2003 )
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= Slashdot =
Slashdot ( sometimes abbreviated as / . ) is a news website that originally billed itself as " News for Nerds . Stuff that Matters " . It features news stories on science and technology that are submitted and evaluated by its users . Each story has a comments section attached to it .
Slashdot was founded in 1997 by Hope College student Rob Malda , also known as " CmdrTaco " , and classmate Jeff Bates , also known as " Hemos " . In 2012 , it was acquired by DHI Group , Inc . ( i.e. , Dice Holdings International , which created the Dice.com website for tech job seekers . )
Summaries of stories and links to news articles are submitted by Slashdot 's own readers , and each story becomes the topic of a threaded discussion among users . Discussion is moderated by a user @-@ based moderation system . Randomly selected moderators are assigned points ( typically 5 ) which they can use to rate a comment . Moderation applies either -1 or + 1 to the current rating , based on whether the comment is perceived as either " normal " , " offtopic " , " insightful " , " redundant " , " interesting " , or " troll " ( among others ) . The site 's comment and moderation system is administered by its own open source content management system , Slash , which is available under the GNU General Public License .
In 2012 , Slashdot had around 3 @.@ 7 million unique visitors per month and received over 5300 comments per day . The site has won more than 20 awards , including People 's Voice Awards in 2000 for " Best Community Site " and " Best News Site " . Occasionally , a story will link to a server causing a large surge of traffic , which can overwhelm some smaller or independent sites . This phenomenon is known as the " Slashdot effect " .
= = History = =
Slashdot was preceded by Rob Malda 's personal website " Chips & Dips " , which , launched in October 1997 , featured a single " rant " each day about something that interested its author – typically something to do with Linux or open source software . At the time , Malda was a student at Hope College in Holland , Michigan , majoring in computer science . The site became " Slashdot " in September 1997 under the slogan " News for Nerds . Stuff that Matters , " and quickly became a hotspot on the Internet for news and information of interest to computer geeks . The name " Slashdot " came from a somewhat " obnoxious parody of a URL " – when Malda registered the domain , he desired to make a name that was " silly and unpronounceable " – try pronouncing out , " h @-@ t @-@ t @-@ p @-@ colon @-@ slash @-@ slash @-@ slashdot @-@ dot @-@ org " .
By June 1998 , the site was seeing as many as 100 @,@ 000 page views per day and advertisers began to take notice . By December 1998 , Slashdot had net revenues of $ 18 @,@ 000 , yet its Internet profile was higher , and revenues were expected to increase . On June 29 , 1999 , the site was sold to Linux megasite Andover.net for $ 1 @.@ 5 million in cash and $ 7 million in Andover stock at the IPO price . Part of the deal was contingent upon the continued employment of Malda and Bates and on the achievement of certain " milestones " . With the acquisition of Slashdot , Andover.net could now advertise itself as " the leading Linux / Open Source destination on the Internet " . Andover.net merged with VA Linux on February 3 , 2000 , which changed its name to SourceForge , Inc. on May 24 , 2007 , and became Geeknet , Inc. on November 4 , 2009 .
Slashdot 's 10,000th article was posted after two and a half years on February 24 , 2000 , and the 100,000th article was posted on December 11 , 2009 after 12 years online . During the first 12 years , the most active story with the most responses posted was the post @-@ 2004 US Presidential Election article " Kerry Concedes Election To Bush " with 5 @,@ 687 posts . This followed the creation of a new article section , politics.slashdot.org , created at the start of the 2004 election on September 7 , 2004 . Many of the most popular stories are political , with " Strike on Iraq " ( March 19 , 2003 ) the second @-@ most @-@ active article and " Barack Obama Wins US Presidency " ( November 5 , 2008 ) the third @-@ most @-@ active . The rest of the 10 most active articles are an article announcing the 2005 London bombings , and several articles about Evolution vs. Intelligent Design , Saddam Hussein 's capture , and Fahrenheit 9 / 11 . Articles about Microsoft and its Windows Operating System are popular . A thread posted in 2002 titled " What 's Keeping You On Windows ? " was the 10th @-@ most @-@ active story , and an article about Windows 2000 / NT4 source @-@ code leaks the most visited article with more than 680 @,@ 000 hits .
Some controversy erupted on March 9 , 2001 after an anonymous user posted the full text of Scientology 's " Operating Thetan Level Three " ( OT III ) document in a comment attached to a Slashdot article . The Church of Scientology demanded that Slashdot remove the document under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act . A week later , in a long article , Slashdot editors explained their decision to remove the page while providing links and information on how to get the document from other sources .
Slashdot Japan was launched on May 28 , 2001 ( although the first article was published April 5 , 2001 ) and is an official offshoot of the US @-@ based Web site . As of January 2010 the site was owned by OSDN @-@ Japan , Inc . , and carried some of the US @-@ based Slashdot articles as well as localized stories .
An external site , New Media Services , has reported the importance of Online Moderation last December 1 , 2011 .
On Valentine 's Day 2002 , founder Rob Malda proposed to longtime girlfriend Kathleen Fent using the front page of Slashdot . They were married on December 8 , 2002 , in Las Vegas , Nevada .
Slashdot implemented a subscription service on March 1 , 2002 . Slashdot 's subscription model works by allowing users to pay a small fee to be able to view pages without banner ads , starting at a rate of $ 5 per 1 @,@ 000 page views – non @-@ subscribers may still view articles and respond to comments , with banner ads in place . On March 6 , 2003 , subscribers were given the ability to see articles 10 to 20 minutes before they are released to the public .
Slashdot altered its threaded discussion forum display software to explicitly show domains for links in articles , as " users made a sport out of tricking unsuspecting readers into visiting [ Goatse.cx ] . "
In observance of April Fools ' Day in 2006 , Slashdot temporarily changed its signature teal color theme to a warm palette of bubblegum pink and changed its masthead from the usual , " News for Nerds " motto to , " OMG ! ! ! Ponies ! ! ! " Editors joked that this was done to increase female readership . In another supposed April Fools ' Day joke , User Achievement tags were introduced on April 1 , 2009 . This system allowed users to be tagged with various achievements , such as " The Tagger " for tagging a story or " Member of the { 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 } Digit UID Club " for having a Slashdot UID consisting of a certain number of digits . While it was posted on April Fools ' Day to allow for certain joke achievements , the system is real .
Slashdot unveiled its newly redesigned site on June 4 , 2006 , following a CSS Redesign Competition . The winner of the competition was Alex Bendiken , who built on the initial CSS framework of the site . The new site looks similar to the old one but is more polished with more rounded curves , collapsible menus , and updated fonts . On November 9 that same year , Malda wrote that Slashdot attained 16 @,@ 777 @,@ 215 ( or 224 − 1 ) comments , which broke the database for three hours until the administrators fixed the issue .
On January 25 , 2011 , the site launched its third major redesign in its 13 @.@ 5 @-@ year history , which gutted the HTML and CSS , and updated the graphics .
On August 25 , 2011 , Malda resigned as Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief with immediate effect . He did not mention any plans for the future , other than spending more time with his family , catching up on some reading , and possibly writing a book . His final farewell message received over 1 @,@ 400 posts within 24 hours on the site .
On December 7 , 2011 , Slashdot announced that it would start to push what the company described as " sponsored " Ask Slashdot questions .
On March 28 , 2012 , Slashdot launched Slashdot TV . Two months later , in May 2012 , Slashdot launched SlashBI , SlashCloud , and SlashDataCenter , three Websites dedicated to original journalistic content . The Websites proved controversial , with longtime Slashdot users commenting that the original content ran counter to the Website 's longtime focus on user @-@ generated submissions . Nick Kolakowski , the editor of the three Websites , told The Next Web that the Websites were meant to “ meant to complement Slashdot with an added layer of insight into a very specific area of technology , without interfering with Slashdot ’ s longtime focus on tech @-@ community interaction and discussion . ” Despite the debate , articles published on SlashCloud and SlashBI attracted attention from io9 , NPR , Nieman Lab , Vanity Fair , and other publications .
In September 2012 , Slashdot , SourceForge , and Freecode were acquired by online job site Dice.com for $ 20 million , and incorporated into a subsidiary known as Slashdot Media . While initially stating that there were no plans for major changes to Slashdot , in October 2013 , Slashdot launched a " beta " for a significant redesign of the site , which featured a simpler appearance and commenting system . While initially an opt @-@ in beta , the site automatically began migrating selected users to the new design in February 2014 ; the rollout led to a negative response from many longtime users , upset by the added visual complexity , and the removal of features , such as comment viewing , that distinguished Slashdot from other news sites . An organized boycott of the site was held from February 10 to 17 , 2014 . The " beta " site was eventually shelved .
In July 2015 , Dice announced that it planned to sell Slashdot and SourceForge ; in particular , the company stated in a filing that it was unable to " successfully [ leverage ] the Slashdot user base to further Dice 's digital recruitment business " . On January 27 , 2016 , the two sites were sold to the San Diego @-@ based BizX , LLC for an undisclosed amount .
= = Administration = =
= = = Team = = =
It was run by its founder , Rob " CmdrTaco " Malda , from 1998 until 2011 . He shared editorial responsibilities with several other editors including Timothy Lord , Patrick " Scuttlemonkey " McGarry , Jeff " Soulskill " Boehm , Rob " Samzenpus " Rozeboom , and Keith Dawson . Jonathan " cowboyneal " Pater is another popular editor of Slashdot , who came to work for Slashdot as a programmer and systems administrator . His online nickname ( handle ) , CowboyNeal , is inspired by a Grateful Dead tribute to Neal Cassady in their song , " That 's It for the Other One " . He is best known as the target of the usual comic poll option , a tradition started by Chris DiBona .
= = = Slash = = =
Slashdot runs on Slash , a content management system available under the GNU General Public License .
= = = Peer moderation = = =
Slashdot 's editors are primarily responsible for selecting and editing the primary stories daily from submitters ; they provide a one @-@ paragraph summary for each and a link to an external site where the story originated . Each story becomes the topic for a threaded discussion among the site 's users . A user @-@ based moderation system is employed to filter out abusive comments .
Every comment is initially given a score of − 1 to + 2 , with a default score of + 1 for registered users , 0 for anonymous users ( Anonymous Coward ) , + 2 for users with high " karma " , or − 1 for users with low " karma " . As moderators read comments attached to articles , they click to moderate the comment , either up ( + 1 ) or down ( − 1 ) . Moderators may choose to attach a particular descriptor to the comments as well , such as " normal " , " offtopic " , " flamebait " , " troll " , " redundant " , " insightful " , " interesting " , " informative " , " funny " , " overrated " , or " underrated " , with each corresponding to a − 1 or + 1 rating . So a comment may be seen to have a rating of " + 1 insightful " or " − 1 troll " . Comments are very rarely deleted , even if they contain hateful remarks .
Moderation points add to a user 's karma , and users with high " karma " are eligible to become moderators themselves . The system does not promote regular users as " moderators " and instead assigns five moderation points at a time to users based on the number of comments they have entered in the system – once a user 's moderation points are used up , they can no longer moderate articles ( though they can be assigned more moderation points at a later date ) . Paid staff editors have an unlimited number of moderation points .
A given comment can have any integer score from − 1 to + 5 , and registered users of Slashdot can set a personal threshold so that no comments with a lesser score are displayed . For instance , a user reading Slashdot at level + 5 will only see the highest rated comments , while a user reading at level − 1 will see a more " unfiltered , anarchic version " .
A meta @-@ moderation system was implemented on September 7 , 1999 , to moderate the moderators and help contain abuses in the moderation system . Meta @-@ moderators are presented with a set of moderations that they may rate as either fair or unfair . For each moderation , the meta @-@ moderator sees the original comment and the reason assigned by the moderator ( e.g. troll , funny ) , and the meta @-@ moderator can click to see the context of comments surrounding the one that was moderated .
= = Features = =
Slashdot features discussion forums on a variety of technology- and science @-@ related topics , or " News for Nerds " , as its motto states . Articles are divided into the following sections :
Apple – news related to products from Apple Inc . , such as Mac OS X or iPhone .
Ask Slashdot – articles that seek advice from users about jobs , computer hardware , software glitches , philosophical problems , or more .
Book Reviews – original book reviews on ( not necessarily ) tech books .
BSD – news about the various modern versions of UNIX derived from the UCB distribution .
Developers – news about software or programming .
Features – original , feature @-@ length articles .
Games – gaming news .
Geeks in Space – a web audio broadcast featuring several of the editors of Slashdot ( outdated ; no new episodes have been posted recently ) .
Idle – miscellaneous and humorous articles , pictures , and videos .
Interviews – interviews with various people related to science and technology .
Information Technology ( IT ) – anything that people with " Information Technology " in their job description might be interested to know .
Linux – news specific to the Linux operating system ( any variant or distribution ) .
Politics – news typically relevant to politics of the United States , but occasionally featuring international political news . It was originally created to cover the 2004 United States Presidential Election .
Polls – a poll is usually run on the site in the right @-@ hand margin , asking users their choice on a variety of topics . In the earlier years of the site , one of the options that could be selected was CowboyNeal , the handle of Jonathan Pater , an administrator of the site . This became known as the CowboyNeal option . During the summer of 2005 , he stopped being in charge of the polls , and as a result the CowboyNeal option disappeared .
Science – news on science @-@ related topics ( e.g. cool technology , space telescope observations , interesting medical research ) .
Your Rights Online ( YRO ) – news on topics pertaining to internet privacy and digital rights .
= = = Tags = = =
Slashdot uses a system of " tags " where users can categorize a story to group them together and sorting them . Tags are written in all lowercase , with no spaces , and limited to 64 characters . For example , articles could be tagged as being about " security " or " mozilla " . Some articles are tagged with longer tags , such as " whatcouldpossiblygowrong " ( expressing the perception of catastrophic risk ) , " suddenoutbreakofcommonsense " ( used when the community feels that the subject has finally figured out something obvious ) , " correlationnotcausation " ( used when scientific articles lack direct evidence ; see correlation does not imply causation ) , or " getyourasstomars " ( commonly seen in articles about Mars or space exploration ) .
= = Culture = =
As an online community with primarily user @-@ generated content , many in @-@ jokes and internet memes have developed over the course of the site 's history . A popular meme ( based on an unscientific Slashdot user poll ) is , " In Soviet Russia , noun verb you ! " This type of joke has its roots in the 1960s or earlier , and is known as a " Russian reversal " . Other popular memes usually pertain to computing or technology , such as " Imagine a Beowulf cluster of these " , " But does it run Linux ? " , or " Netcraft now confirms : BSD ( or some other software package or item ) is dying . " Some users will also refer to seemingly innocent remarks by correcting them and adding " you insensitive clod ! " to the statement – a reference to a February 14 , 1986 , Calvin & Hobbes cartoon . Also , on the television show Cheers , Season 8 Episode 23 ( 4 / 12 / 1990 ) , Frasier , in protest to a seance , rattles glasses to startle the participants . His wife Lilith remarks , " Frasier , don 't be such an insensitive clod ! " Or the 11th season of The Simpsons episode , " Last Tap Dance in Springfield " ( 5 / 7 / 2000 ) , wherein Frink exclaims to Homer , " I was merely trying to spare the girl 's feelings , you insensitive clod ! " Users will also typically refer to articles referring to data storage and data capacity by inquiring how much it is in units of Libraries of Congress . Sometimes bandwidth speeds are referred to in units of Libraries of Congress per second . When numbers are quoted , people will comment that the number happens to be the " combination to their luggage " ( a reference to the Mel Brooks film Spaceballs ) and express false anger at the person who revealed it .
Slashdotters often use the abbreviation TFA which stands for The fucking article or RTFA ( " Read the fucking article " ) , which itself is derived from the abbreviation RTFM . Usage of this abbreviation often exposes comments from posters who have not read the article linked to in the main story .
Slashdotters typically like to mock United States Senator Ted Stevens ' 2006 description of the Internet as a " series of tubes " or Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer 's chair @-@ throwing incident from 2005 . Microsoft founder Bill Gates is a popular target of jokes by Slashdotters , and all stories about Microsoft were once identified with a graphic of Gates looking like a Borg from Star Trek : The Next Generation . Many Slashdotters have long talked about the supposed release of Duke Nukem Forever , which was promised in 1997 but was delayed indefinitely ( the game was eventually released in 2011 ) . References to the game are commonly brought up in other articles about software packages that are not yet in production even though the announced delivery date has long passed ( see vaporware ) .
Having a low Slashdot user identifier ( user ID ) is highly valued since they are assigned sequentially ; having one is a sign that someone has an older account and has contributed to the site longer . For Slashdot 's 10 @-@ year anniversary in 2007 , one of the items auctioned off in the charity auction for the Electronic Frontier Foundation was a 3 @-@ digit Slashdot user ID .
= = Traffic and publicity = =
As of 2006 , Slashdot had approximately 5 @.@ 5 million users per month . As of January 2013 , the site 's Alexa rank is 2 @,@ 000 , with the average user spending 3 minutes and 18 seconds per day on the site and 82 @,@ 665 sites linking in . The primary stories on the site consist of a short synopsis paragraph , a link to the original story , and a lengthy discussion section , all contributed by users . Discussion on stories can get up to 10 @,@ 000 posts per day . Slashdot has been considered a pioneer in user @-@ driven content , influencing other sites such as Google News and Wikipedia . There has been a dip in readership as of 2011 , primarily due to the increase of technology @-@ related blogs and Twitter feeds . In 2002 , approximately 50 % of Slashdot 's traffic consisted of people who simply check out the headlines and click through , while others participate in discussion boards and take part in the community . Many links in Slashdot stories caused the linked site to get swamped by heavy traffic and its server to collapse . This is known as the " Slashdot effect " , a term which was first coined on February 15 , 1999 that refers to an article about a " new generation of niche Web portals driving unprecedented amounts of traffic to sites of interest " . Today , most major websites can handle the surge of traffic , but the effect continues to occur on smaller or independent sites . These sites are then said to have been " Slashdotted " .
Slashdot has received over twenty awards , including People 's Voice Awards in 2000 in both of the categories for which it was nominated ( Best Community Site and Best News Site ) . It was also voted as one of Newsweek 's favorite technology Web sites and rated in Yahoo ! ' s Top 100 Web sites as the " Best Geek Hangout " ( 2001 ) . The main antagonists in the 2004 novel Century Rain , by Alastair Reynolds – The Slashers – are named after Slashdot users . The site was mentioned briefly in the 2000 novel Cosmonaut Keep , written by Ken MacLeod .
Several celebrities have stated that they either checked the website regularly or participated in its discussion forums using an account . Some of these celebrities include : Apple co @-@ founder Steve Wozniak , writer and actor Wil Wheaton , and id Software technical director John Carmack .
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= Empire of the Sun ( film ) =
Empire of the Sun is a 1987 American epic coming @-@ of @-@ age war film based on J. G. Ballard 's semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name . Steven Spielberg directed the film , which stars Christian Bale , John Malkovich , Miranda Richardson , and Nigel Havers . The film tells the story of Jamie " Jim " Graham , a young boy who goes from living in a wealthy British family in Shanghai , to becoming a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp , during World War II .
Harold Becker and David Lean were originally to direct before Spielberg came on board , initially as a producer for Lean . Spielberg was attracted to directing the film because of a personal connection to Lean 's films and World War II topics . He considers it to be his most profound work on " the loss of innocence " . The film received critical acclaim but was not initially a box office success , earning only $ 22 @,@ 238 @,@ 696 at the US box office , but it eventually more than recouped its budget through revenues in other markets .
= = Plot = =
Amidst Japan 's invasion of China during World War II , Jamie Graham — a British upper middle class schoolboy — is enjoying a privileged and spoiled life in the Shanghai International Settlement . After the Attack on Pearl Harbor , the Japanese begin to occupy the settlement , and in the ensuing chaos to escape the city Jamie is separated from his parents . Jamie 's mother shouts at him over the panicked mob to wait at their house and promises that they will come back for him . He spends some time living in his deserted home , but after eating all the food he ventures out into the city .
Hungry , Jamie tries to surrender to some Japanese soldiers , who shrug and laugh him off . After being chased by a street urchin , he is taken in by Basie — an American expatriate and hustler — and his partner Frank , who nicknames him " Jim " . They intend to leave the boy in the streets when they are unable to sell his teeth for cash , but Jamie promises to lead them back to his neighborhood where there are valuables to loot . There , Jamie finds his house lit and sees a figure in the window whom he thinks is his mother . He runs to the door only to discover the house is occupied by Japanese troops , who take the trio prisoner . They are then taken to Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center in Shanghai for processing . A truck later arrives to take selected internees to the Suzhou Creek Internment Camp ; Basie is among those selected to go but Jamie is not . Because he knows of the camp 's location , a desperate Jamie convinces the soldiers to take him . On arrival at the camp Jim wanders to the airfield to witness workers servicing a squadron of Zero fighters . As Jim reaches out to touch one he is confronted by a trio of fighter pilots . Jim salutes the pilots , and they salute Jim in return .
It is now 1945 , nearing the end of the Pacific War . Despite the terror and poor living conditions of the camp , Jim survives by establishing a successful trading network — which even involves the camp 's commander , Sergeant Nagata . Dr. Rawlins , the camp 's British doctor , becomes a father figure and teacher to Jim . One night after a bombing raid , Nagata orders the destruction of the prisoners ' infirmary as reprisal . He only stops when Jim ( now fluent in Japanese ) begs forgiveness . Through the barbed wire fencing , Jim befriends a Japanese teenager , who is a trainee pilot . Jim also visits Basie in the American POW barracks , where Jim idolizes the Americans and their culture . Basie eventually sends Jim to set snare traps outside the camp 's wire ; though Jim succeeds , Basie is only using him to test the area for land mines — plotting to escape . As a reward , Basie allows Jim to move into the American barracks with him .
One morning at dawn , Jim witnesses a kamikaze ritual . Overcome with emotion , he salutes and sings the Welsh song " Suo Gân " . The base is suddenly attacked by a group of American P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter aircraft . Jim is overjoyed and climbs the ruins of a nearby pagoda to better watch the airstrike . Dr. Rawlins chases Jim up the pagoda to save him , where the boy breaks down in tears — he cannot remember what his parents look like . As a result of the attack the Japanese decide to evacuate the camp . Basie escapes during the confusion , though he had promised to take Jim with him . The camp 's prisoners march through the wilderness where many die of fatigue , starvation , and disease .
Arriving at a football stadium near Nantao — filled with luxuries confiscated by the Japanese — Jim recognizes his parents ' Packard . Waking up next to the corpse of a woman , Jim witnesses flashes from the atomic bombing of Nagasaki hundreds of miles away . Jim slips away from the group and wanders back to Suzhou Creek . Along the way he hears news of Japan 's surrender and the end of the war . He encounters the Japanese teenager he befriended earlier , who has since become a pilot but is now disillusioned . The youth remembers Jim and offers him a mango , and will cut it for him with his katana . Basie reappears with a group of armed Americans who have arrived to loot the Red Cross containers being airdropped over the area . One of the Americans , thinking Jim is in danger , shoots and kills the Japanese youth . Basie offers to help Jim find his parents , but Jim — infuriated over his friend 's death — chooses to stay behind .
Jim is eventually found by American soldiers and placed in an orphanage . Here , the film ends with a deeply traumatized Jim reuniting with his mother and father over the sound of the Welsh lullaby .
The final scene shows " Jim ’ s suitcase floating in the river in Shanghai ( which he had thrown in the water during the march to Nantao stadium ) . We know that inside are Jim ’ s cherished cutouts of American magazines , the closest thing he has to memories , and aptly echoes the opening shot of a coffin floating in the same river . "
= = Cast = =
Christian Bale as Jamie " Jim " Graham , who goes from living in a wealthy British family in Shanghai , to becoming a prisoner of war during World War II . J.G. Ballard felt Bale had a physical resemblance to himself at the same age . The actor was 12 years old when he was cast . Amy Irving , Bale 's co @-@ star in the television movie Anastasia : The Mystery of Anna , recommended Bale to her then @-@ husband , Steven Spielberg , for the role . More than 4 @,@ 000 child actors auditioned . Jim 's singing voice was provided by English performer James Rainbird .
John Malkovich as Basie : An American ship steward stranded in Shanghai during the Japanese occupation . He forms a friendship with Jamie , giving him the nickname " Jim " .
Miranda Richardson as Mrs. Victor : A British woman who was Jim 's " neighbor " at Suzhou . She dies in a stadium to which they moved right after the bombing of the prison camp . Jim sees a bright light in the sky to the East . He believes it is her soul floating to Heaven but finds out later it was the flash from the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , hundreds of miles away .
Nigel Havers as Dr. Rawlins : Jim 's father figure at Suzhou . Rawlins finds difficulty teaching Jim humility .
Joe Pantoliano as Frank Demarest : A companion of Basie , he was the one who almost hit Jamie with a truck . He joins Basie and Jamie at the prison camp .
Leslie Phillips as Maxton
Masatō Ibu as Sergeant Nagata
Emily Richard as Mary Graham
Ben Stiller as Dainty
Robert Stephens as Mr. Lockwood
Guts Ishimatsu as Sergeant Uchita
James Walker as Mr. Radik
Yvonne Gilan as Mrs. Lockwood
Ralph Michael as Mr. Partridge
James Greene as British Prisoner
Peter Copley as British Prisoner
Burt Kwouk as Mr. Chen
Paul McGann as Lieutenant Price
J.G. Ballard as Masquerade Party Guest
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Warner Bros. purchased the film rights , intending Harold Becker to direct and Robert Shapiro to produce . Tom Stoppard wrote the first draft of the screenplay , on which Ballard briefly collaborated . Becker dropped out , and David Lean came to direct with Spielberg as producer . Lean explained , " I worked on it for about a year and in the end I gave it up because I thought it was too similar to a diary . It was well @-@ written and interesting , but I gave it to Steve . " Spielberg felt " from the moment I read J. G. Ballard 's novel I secretly wanted to direct myself . " Spielberg found the project to be very personal . As a child , his favorite film was Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai , which similarly takes place in a Japanese prisoner of war camp . Spielberg 's fascination with World War II and the aircraft of that era was stimulated by his father 's stories of his experience as a radio operator on North American B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers in the China @-@ Burma Theater . Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes to do an uncredited rewrite before Stoppard was brought back to write the shooting script .
= = = Filming = = =
Empire of the Sun was filmed at Elstree Studios in the United Kingdom , and on location in Shanghai and Spain . The filmmakers searched across Asia in an attempt to find locations that resembled 1941 Shanghai . They entered negotiations with Shanghai Film Studios and China Film Co @-@ Production Corporation in 1985 . After a year of negotiations , permission was granted for a three @-@ week shoot in early March 1987 . It was the first American film shot in Shanghai since the 1940s . The Chinese authorities allowed the crew to alter signs to traditional Chinese characters , as well as closing down city blocks for filming . Over 5 @,@ 000 local extras were used , some old enough to remember the Japanese occupation of Shanghai 40 years earlier . Members of the People 's Liberation Army played Japanese soldiers . Other locations included Trebujena in Andalusia , Knutsford in Cheshire and Sunningdale in Berkshire . Lean often visited the set during the England shoot .
Spielberg attempted to portray the era accurately , using period vehicles and aircraft . Four Harvard SNJ aircraft were lightly modified in France to resemble Mitsubishi A6M Zero aircraft . Two additional non @-@ flying replicas were used . Three restored P @-@ 51D Mustangs , two from ' The Fighter Collection ' of England , and one from the ' Old Flying Machine Company ' , were flown in the film . These P @-@ 51s were flown by Ray Hanna ( who was featured in the film flying at low @-@ level past the child star with the canopy back , waving ) , his son Mark and " Hoof " Proudfoot and took over 10 days of filming to complete due to the complexity of the planned aerial sequences , which included the P @-@ 51s actually dropping plaster @-@ filled replica 500 lb bombs at low level , with simulated bomb blasts . A number of large scale remote control flying models were also used , including an 18 @-@ foot wingspan B @-@ 29 , but Spielberg felt the results were disappointing , so he extended the film contract with the full @-@ size examples and pilots on set in Trebujena , Spain . J.G. Ballard makes a cameo appearance at the costume party scene .
= = = Special effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic designed the visual effects sequences with some computer @-@ generated imagery also used for the atomic bombing of Nagasaki . Norman Reynolds was hired as the production designer while Vic Armstrong served as the stunt coordinator .
= = Reception = =
Empire of the Sun was given a limited release on December 11 , 1987 , before being wide released on Christmas Day , 1987 . The film earned $ 22 @.@ 24 million in North America , and $ 44 @.@ 46 million in other countries , accumulating a worldwide total of $ 66 @.@ 7 million , earning more than its budget but still considered a box office disappointment by Spielberg .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 83 % based on reviews from 40 critics . By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 60 out of 100 based on 17 reviews . J. G. Ballard gave positive feedback , and was especially impressed with Christian Bale 's performance . Critical reaction was not universally affirmative , but Richard Corliss of Time stated that Spielberg " has energized each frame with allusive legerdemain and an intelligent density of images and emotions . " Janet Maslin from The New York Times called the film " a visual splendor , a heroic adventurousness and an immense scope that make it unforgettable . " Julie Salamon of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the film as " an edgy , intelligent script by playwright Tom Stoppard , Spielberg has made an extraordinary film out of Mr. Ballard 's extraordinary war experience . " J. Hoberman from The Village Voice decried that the serious subject was undermined by Spielberg 's " shamelessly kiddiecentric " approach . Roger Ebert gave a mixed reaction , " Despite the emotional potential in the story , it didn 't much move me . Maybe , like the kid , I decided that no world where you can play with airplanes can be all that bad . " On his TV show with Gene Siskel , Ebert said that the film “ is basically a good idea for a film that never gets off the ground ” . Siskel added , “ I don ’ t know what the film is about . It ’ s so totally confused and taking things from different parts . On one hand , if it wants to say something about a child ’ s @-@ eye view of war , you got a movie made by John Boorman called Hope and Glory that was just released that is much better , and much more daring in showing the whimsy that children ’ s view of war is . On the other hand , this film wants to hedge its bet and make it like an adventure film , so you ’ ve got like Indiana Jones with the John Malkovich character helping the little kid through all the fun of war . I don ’ t know what Spielberg wanted to do . "
= = = Awards = = =
In his second starring role , Bale received a special citation for Best Performance by a Juvenile Actor from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , an award specially created for his performance in Empire of the Sun . At the 60th Academy Awards , Empire of the Sun was nominated for Art Direction , Cinematography , Editing , Original Music Score , Costume Design ( Bob Ringwood ) , and Sound ( Robert Knudson , Don Digirolamo , John Boyd and Tony Dawe ) . It did not convert any of the nominations into awards . Allen Daviau , who was nominated as cinematographer , publicly complained , " I can 't second @-@ guess the Academy , but I feel very sorry that I get nominations and Steven doesn 't . It 's his vision that makes it all come together , and if Steven wasn 't making these films , none of us would be here . " The film won awards for cinematography , sound design , and music score at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards . The nominations included production design , costume design , and adapted screenplay . Spielberg was honored by his work from the Directors Guild of America , while the American Society of Cinematographers honored Allen Daviau . Empire of the Sun was nominated for Best Motion Picture ( Drama ) and Original Score at the 45th Golden Globe Awards . John Williams earned a Grammy Award nomination .
= = Themes = =
Flying symbolizes Jim 's possibility and danger of escape from the prison camp . His growing alienation from his prewar self and society is reflected in his hero @-@ worship of the Japanese aviators based at the airfield adjoining the camp . " I think it 's true that the Japanese were pretty brutal with the Chinese , so I don 't have any particularly sentimental view of them , " Ballard recalled . " But small boys tend to find their heroes where they can . One thing there was no doubt about , and that was that the Japanese were extremely brave . One had very complicated views about patriotism [ and ] loyalty to one 's own nation . Jim is constantly identifying himself , first with the Japanese ; then , when the Americans start flying over in their Mustangs and B @-@ 29s , he 's very drawn to the American . "
The apocalyptic wartime setting and the climactic moment when Jim sees the distant white flash of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki gave Spielberg powerful visual metaphors " to draw a parallel story between the death of this boy 's innocence and the death of the innocence of the entire world . " Spielberg reflected he " was attracted to the idea that this was a death of innocence , not an attenuation of childhood , which by my own admission and everybody 's impression of me is what my life has been . This was the opposite of Peter Pan . This was a boy who had grown up too quickly . " Other topics that Spielberg previously dealt with , and are presented in Empire of the Sun , include a child being separated from his parents ( The Sugarland Express , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , Close Encounters of the Third Kind and Poltergeist ) and World War II ( 1941 , and Raiders of the Lost Ark ) . Spielberg explained " My parents got a divorce when I was 14 , 15 . The whole thing about separation is something that runs very deep in anyone exposed to divorce . "
= = In popular culture = =
The dramatic attack on the Japanese prisoner of war camp carried out by P @-@ 51 Mustangs is accompanied by Jim 's whoops of " ... the Cadillac of the skies ! " , a phrase believed to be first used in Ballard 's text as " Cadillac of air combat " and in the screenplay that has now entered urban mythology as being attributed to the war years . Steven Bull quotes the catchwords in the Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation ( 2004 ) as originating in 1941 . John Williams ' soundtrack includes the " Cadillac of the Skies " as an individual score cue . The phrase has now been appropriated by other aircraft including the General Dynamics F @-@ 111 Aardvark in Australian service . Ben Stiller conceived the idea for Tropic Thunder while performing in Empire of the Sun .
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= Lovas killings =
The Lovas killings ( Croatian : masakr u Lovasu , Serbian : zločini u Lovasu , Cyrillic : злочини у Ловасу ) involved the killing of 70 Croat civilian residents of the village of Lovas between 10 – 18 October 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The killings took place during and in the immediate aftermath of the occupation of the village by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) supported by Croatian Serb forces and Dušan Silni paramilitaries on 10 October , two days after Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia . The occupation occurred during the Battle of Vukovar , as the JNA sought to consolidate its control over the area surrounding the city of Vukovar . The killings and abuse of the civilian population continued until 18 October , when troops guarding a group of civilians forced them to walk into a minefield at gunpoint and then opened fire upon them .
After the Croatian Serb forces , the JNA and the paramilitaries established their control in the village , the Croat population was required to wear white armbands and mark their houses using white sheets . The church in Lovas was torched and 261 houses were looted and destroyed , while 1 @,@ 341 civilians were forced to leave their homes . The bodies of the victims were retrieved from a mass grave and ten individual graves in 1997 . Lovas was rebuilt after the war , but its population size shrunk by one third compared to its pre @-@ war level .
The occupation of Lovas and the killing and expulsion of its civilian population was included in the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) indictments of the President of Serbia , Slobodan Milošević , and Goran Hadžić — a high @-@ ranking official of the Croatian Serb @-@ declared wartime breakaway region of SAO Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Syrmia . Milošević died before his trial was completed , and as of 2014 Hadžić 's trial is ongoing . Serbian authorities tried and convicted a group of four for the killings , but a retrial was ordered following an appeal in 2014 . Croatia indicted 17 persons in connection with the killings , although only two were available to the authorities . One of them was acquitted and the other declared unfit to stand trial .
= = Background = =
After the Croatian Democratic Union won 1990 parliamentary elections in the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs within the Republic worsened . The ethnic groups are also divided along religious lines as the Croats are Catholics while the Serbs are Orthodox Christians . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana - TO ) forces to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , and parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . This revolt was followed in January 1991 , by two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces .
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authorities and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and in consequence , Serbia abandoned the goal of a more centralised Yugoslavia for that of the Greater Serbia . The leadership of the JNA , fragmented between supporters of the federal government of Ante Marković and others aligned with Serbia since the breakup of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990 , came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . The control shifted after Milošević publicly declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Federal Presidency and planned to establish a Serbian army which would draw JNA 's Serbian personnel to the new force . The initial objective of the JNA , that of Yugoslav unity , was either abandoned or sought through support for Milošević . Even though he preferred a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia , the JNA equated protecting Serbs in Croatia with preservation of Yugoslavia . By summer , Milošević had the JNA under full control through his control of the rump Federal Presidency and his influence over the federal defence minister and top @-@ ranked JNA officer , General of the Army Veljko Kadijević and JNA chief of staff , Colonel General Blagoje Adžić .
By the end of March , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting the Croatian Serb insurgents and preventing Croatian police from intervening . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as SAO Krajina , with Serbia . The Government of Croatia viewed this declaration as an attempt to secede .
In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde - ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September . On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia . Late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , as the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
= = Timeline = =
Armed clashes in eastern Slavonia gradually intensified as the JNA committed significant new units to the Battle of Vukovar , including the 453rd Mechanised Brigade , the 1st Proletarian Guards Mechanised Division , and the 252nd Armoured Brigade . During the initial stage of the battle , the JNA bypassed a number of Croat villages southeast of the city of Vukovar — including Lovas . In late September 1991 , the easternmost Croatian positions in the area ran along a line connecting the villages of Nijemci – Ilača – Lovas and those were defended by the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade and the 109th Infantry Brigade .
On 1 October , after the JNA took control of the Nuštar – Marinci – Bogdanovci – Vukovar road , the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade and the 109th Infantry Brigade were moved south of Vukovar in an attempt to restore Croatian control of the route between Vinkovci and Vukovar . The JNA tasked the 2nd Proletarian Guards Mechanised Brigade , to clear the Croatian pocket centered on Lovas . The JNA was supported by Dušan Silni Serbian paramilitaries under control of Dragoslav Bokan and the Serbian National Renewal party , as well as Croatian Serb TO forces .
The JNA , supported by the paramilitaries and the TO , entered Lovas unopposed on the morning of 10 October . According to court testimony of one of the paramilitaries who took part in the events , the troops moving against Lovas were told to expect 300 – 400 ZNG troops defending the village . Once the attacking force entered the village , the troops continued to throw grenades and shoot at houses at random for several hours . During the assault , 22 civilians were killed in their homes or back yards . In the immediate aftermath of the takeover of Lovas , Croat civilians were required to wear white armbands and their houses were marked using white sheets . The marked houses were looted and torched by the TO and paramilitaries . Authority in the village was turned over to Ljuban Devetak , a member of the Dušan Silni paramilitaries . He was styled as the commander of the village , but the JNA remained in overall control of the entire region . Over the following week , 23 more civilians were killed by the paramilitaries and the TO troops in improvised detention facilities . The improvised prisons were also used for torture and abuse of captives , including war rape , causing serious injuries to 18 civilians .
On 17 October , all men aged 18 to 60 were ordered to report for a meeting , but were detained overnight instead on the pretext that someone had fired shots in the village the previous night . The detainees were beaten , and otherwise abused that night . Approximately 20 were released in the morning , and the rest were told that they were assigned to grape harvest duty . The civilians walked out of the village under a military escort . One of the civilians was killed by the guards , before the group reached a point within 1 to 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 to 1 @.@ 24 miles ) of the Vukovar – Tovarnik road , where they were ordered into a cloverfield at gunpoint . The men were told to hold hands and sweep their feet in front of them across the ground . The JNA had previously placed land mines in the field . Several mines were set off , while the troops guarding the civilian detainees fired at the men in the field . The survivors were then forced to retrieve the dead and injured and clear the remaining mines . Out of 50 civilians forced into the minefield , 21 were killed in the minefield itself . The number of persons wounded by mine explosions or gunfire is variously reported as 14 or 15 . Three more civilians were killed in Lovas by the end of November .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the takeover of the village by the JNA and the paramilitaries , 1 @,@ 341 civilians were forced to leave Lovas . The local Roman Catholic church of St. Michael was torched and 261 houses destroyed . In 1995 , the establishment of the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) and the gradual restoration of Croatian control in the region was agreed between Croatian authorities and Croatian Serbs in the region through the Erdut Agreement . United Nations experts began exhuming victims from a mass grave in Lovas on 2 June 1997 . Sixty @-@ eight bodies , including those of people killed in Lovas , were ultimately recovered from the mass grave , and ten more were recovered from nearby individual graves . The exhumed victims were reburied on 21 March 1998 . A monument to the civilian victims was erected at the site of the mass grave on 27 May 1999 , as was a cross to mark the location of the minefield . Another mass grave containing the bodies of six individuals was discovered in nearby Jelaš Forest , along with three individual graves . Similar to the other burial sites , the victims buried there included those killed in Lovas , as well as others , killed elsewhere in the area . Lovas was rebuilt after the war , but its population declined by one third compared to the pre @-@ war level .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) included war crimes against civilians and property committed in Lovas in October 1991 in its indictment of Milošević . Milošević 's trial commenced on 12 February 2002 , but Milošević died in March 2006 before a verdict could be reached .
In 1994 and 2004 Croatian authorities filed two separate cases against a total of 17 persons , including Devetak , and indicted them on charges of genocide and war crimes committed against the civilian population of Lovas . The group included fifteen who were tried in absentia . In 2009 , the process was split for Milan Tepavac and Ilija Vorkapić who were available to Croatian authorities , and once more a year later when Tepavac was judged not fit to stand trial . Vorkapić was acquitted in 2012 .
Serbian authorities charged four persons associated with former Croatian Serb authorities in the eastern Slavonia with war crimes committed in Lovas , consisting of four JNA officers and six former members of the Dušan Silni paramilitaries . The trial started in 2008 . In 2012 , the group was convicted of killing of 70 Croat civilians and sentenced to a total of 128 years in prison . Devetak received a prison term of 20 years , while the others received prison sentences ranging from four to fourteen years . However , in 2014 , the court of appeals ordered a new trial .
The ICTY also indicted Goran Hadžić , the Croatian Serb political leader in the eastern Slavonia region and head of the SAO Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Syrmia government declared by the Croatian Serbs in the region at the time before it merged into the Republic of Serbian Krajina . The charges include war crimes of persecutions , extermination , murder , imprisonment , torture , inhumane acts and cruel treatment , deportation , forcible transfer of population , wanton destruction and plunder of property . As of March 2014 his trial , which commenced on 16 October 2012 , is in progress .
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= Royal Tunbridge Wells =
Royal Tunbridge Wells ( often shortened to Tunbridge Wells ) is a large affluent town in western Kent , England , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) south @-@ east of central London by road , 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) by rail . The town is close to the border of the county of East Sussex . It is situated at the northern edge of the High Weald , the sandstone geology of which is exemplified by the rock formations at the Wellington Rocks and High Rocks .
The town came into being as a spa in the Restoration and had its heyday as a tourist resort under Beau Nash when the Pantiles and its chalybeate spring attracted visitors who wished to take the waters . Though its popularity waned with the advent of sea bathing , the town remains popular and derives some 30 percent of its income from the tourist industry .
The town has a population of around 56 @,@ 500 and is the administrative centre of Tunbridge Wells Borough and the UK parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells . In the United Kingdom , Royal Tunbridge Wells has a reputation as being the archetypal conservative " Middle England " town , a stereotype that is typified by the fictional letter @-@ writer " Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells " .
= = History = =
Evidence suggests that during the Iron Age people farmed the fields and mined the iron @-@ rich rocks in the Tunbridge Wells area , and excavations in 1940 and 1957 – 61 by James Money at High Rocks uncovered the remains of a defensive hill @-@ fort . It is thought that the site was occupied into the era of Roman Britain , and the area continued to be part of the Wealden iron industry until its demise in the late eighteenth century — indeed , an iron forge remains in the grounds of Bayham Abbey , in use until 1575 and documented until 1714 .
The area which is now Tunbridge Wells was part of the parish of Speldhurst for hundreds of years , but the origin of the town as it is today , however , came in the seventeenth century . In 1606 Dudley , Lord North , a courtier to James I who was staying at a hunting lodge in Eridge in the hope that the country air might improve his ailing constitution , discovered a chalybeate spring . He drank from the spring and , when his health improved , he became convinced that it had healing properties . He persuaded his rich friends in London to try it , and by the time Queen Henrietta Maria , wife of King Charles I , visited in 1630 it had established itself as a spa retreat . By 1636 it had become so popular that two houses were built next to the spring to cater for the visitors , one for the ladies and one for the gentlemen , and in 1664 Lord Muskerry , Lord of the Manor , enclosed it with a triangular stone wall , and built a hall " to shelter the dippers in wet weather . "
Until 1676 little permanent building took place — visitors were obliged either to camp on the downs or to find lodgings at Southborough , — but at this time houses and shops were erected on the walks , and every " convenient situation near the springs " was built upon . Also in 1676 a subscription for a " chapel of ease " was opened , and in 1684 the Church of King Charles the Martyr was duly built and the town began to develop around it . In 1787 Edward Hasted described the new town as consisting of four small districts , " named after the hills on which they stand , Mount Ephraim , Mount Pleasant and Mount Sion ; the other is called the Wells ... "
The 1680s saw a building boom in the town : carefully planned shops were built beside the 175 yards ( 160 m ) long Pantiles promenade ( then known as the Walks ) , and the Mount Sion road , on which lodging house keepers were to build , was laid out in small plots . Tradesmen in the town dealt in the luxury goods demanded by their patrons , which would certainly have included Tunbridge ware , a kind of decoratively inlaid woodwork .
" They have made the wells very commodious by the many good building all about it and two or three miles around which are lodgings for the company that drink the waters . All the people buy their own provisions at the market , which is just by the wells and is furnished with great plenty of all sorts of fish and fowl . The walk which is between high trees on the market side which are shops full of all sorts of toys , silver , china , milliners and all sorts of curious wooden ware besides which there are two large coffee houses for tea , chocolate etc. and two rooms for the lottery and hazard board ( i.e. for gambling ) . " — Celia Fiennes , 1697
Following Dr Richard Russell 's 1750 treatise advocating sea water as a treatment for diseases of the glands , fashions in leisure changed and sea bathing became more popular than visiting the spas , which resulted in fewer visitors coming to the town . Nevertheless , the advent of turnpike roads gave Tunbridge Wells better communications — on weekdays a public coach made nine return journeys between Tunbridge Wells and London , and postal services operated every morning except Monday and every evening except Saturday . During the eighteenth century the growth of the town continued , as did its patronage by the wealthy leisured classes — it received celebrity cachet from visits by figures such as Cibber , Johnson , Garrick , Richardson and the successful bookseller Andrew Millar and his wife — and in 1735 Richard ( Beau ) Nash appointed himself as master of ceremonies for all the entertainments that Tunbridge Wells had to offer . He remained in this position until his death in 1762 , and under his patronage the town reached the height of its popularity as a fashionable resort .
By the early nineteenth century Tunbridge Wells experienced growth as a place for the well @-@ to @-@ do to visit and make their homes . It became a fashionable resort town again following visits by the Duchess of Kent , Queen Victoria and Prince Albert , and benefited from a new estate on Mount Pleasant and the building of the Trinity church in 1827 , and improvements made to the town and the provision of facilities such as gas lighting and a police service meant that by 1837 the town population had swelled to 9 @,@ 100 . In 1842 an omnibus service was set up that ran from Tonbridge to Tunbridge Wells , enabling visitors to arrive from London within two hours , and in 1845 the town was linked to the railway network via a branch from South Eastern Railway 's London @-@ Hastings Hastings Line at Tonbridge . During this time Decimus Burton developed John Ward 's Calverley Park estate .
In 1889 the town was awarded the status of a Borough , and it entered the 20th century in a prosperous state . 1902 saw the opening of an Opera House , and in 1909 the town received its " Royal " prefix . Due to its position in South East England , during the First World War Tunbridge Wells was made a headquarters for the army , and its hospitals were used to treat soldiers who had been sent home with a " blighty wound " ; the town also received 150 Belgian refugees . The Second World War affected Tunbridge Wells in a different way — it became so swollen with refugees from London that accommodation was severely strained . Over 3 @,@ 800 buildings were damaged by bombing , but only 15 people lost their lives .
= = = Toponymy = = =
Edward Hasted made the assertion that although the wells were originally named the " Queen 's @-@ Wells " , they soon took on the name of Tunbridge Wells due to their proximity to the town of Tonbridge ( then known as " Tunbridge " ) :
In compliment to [ queen Henrietta Maria 's ] doctor , Lewis Rowzee , in his treatise on them , calls these springs the Queen 's @-@ wells ; but this name lasted but a small time , and they were soon afterwards universally known by that of Tunbridge @-@ wells , which names they acquired from the company usually residing at Tunbridge town , when they came into these parts for the benefit of drinking the waters — Edward Hasted , 1797
The prefix " Royal " dates to 1909 , when King Edward VII granted the town its official " Royal " title to celebrate its popularity over the years among members of the royal family . Royal Tunbridge Wells is one of only three towns in England to have been granted this ( the others being Royal Leamington Spa and Royal Wootton Bassett , which became a Royal town in 2011 ) .
Although " Wells " has a plural form , it refers to the principal source , the chalybeate spring in the Pantiles ( where the waters were taken ) .
= = Governance = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells is the administrative centre for both Tunbridge Wells Borough and the parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells . The Borough is governed by 48 Councillors , representing 20 wards ( eight wards fall within the town of Tunbridge Wells itself ) . Elections are held for 16 Council seats each year on a rotational basis , with elections to Kent County Council taking place in the fourth year of the cycle . Each councillor serves a four @-@ year term .
Tunbridge Wells local elections show a pattern since 1973 of Conservative party dominance , apart from a two @-@ year period from 1994 to 1996 of no overall control and a two @-@ year period from 1996 to 1998 when the Liberal Democrats held a majority . The most recent elections , held in May 2008 , gave the Conservatives a large majority with 44 seats compared with the Liberal Democrats ' four . The extent of the Conservatives ' dominance is further illustrated by the fact that in some wards ( e.g. Park ) Labour did not even field a candidate in the 2008 council elections .
The Member of Parliament for Tunbridge Wells is the Conservative Greg Clark , who was elected in 2005 with a majority of 9 @,@ 988 and held the seat in 2010 with a majority of 15 @,@ 576 . The constituency has been Conservative since its inception in 1974 for the 1974 General Election ; the two previous MPs were Sir Patrick Mayhew ( 1974 – 1997 ) and the former Asda chairman Archie Norman ( 1997 – 2005 ) .
= = Demography = =
In 2006 the town of Royal Tunbridge Wells was estimated to have a population of approximately 56 @,@ 500 . The wider borough of Royal Tunbridge Wells is home to considerably more people — some 104 @,@ 000 in 2001 , up from around 99 @,@ 500 in 1991 .
The population of Royal Tunbridge Wells is predominantly White and British in its ethnic origin and Christian in its religious affiliation : 97 @.@ 5 % of residents of the district described themselves as white in the 2001 census , and 75 @.@ 0 % identified themselves as being Christian .
The statistics for crime in Royal Tunbridge Wells show that in 2005 / 6 there were fewer crimes occurring in the area than the national average .
= = Geography = =
Tunbridge Wells is located at 51 ° 07 ′ 55 ″ N 00 ° 15 ′ 46 ″ E on the Kentish border with East Sussex , about 31 miles ( 50 km ) south of London ; the original centre of the settlement lies directly on the Kent / East Sussex border , as recalled by the county boundary flagstone that still lies outside the church of King Charles the Martyr .
The town is situated at the northern edge of the High Weald , a ridge of hard sandstone that runs across southern England from Hampshire along the borders of Surrey , West Sussex , East Sussex and Kent — the town 's geology is illustrated by the exposed sandstone outcrops at the Wellington Rocks and High Rocks ( a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to its exposed gulls ) , and the quarries at nearby Langton Green from which sandstone was taken to build houses in Tunbridge Wells . The town is sited at the head of a valley that runs south @-@ east to Groombridge ; like the River Teise , which originates in Tunbridge Wells , the stream in the valley is one of the many tributaries of the River Medway , which runs through a much larger valley north of the High Weald .
Nearby villages have been subsumed into the built @-@ up area of the town , so that now it incorporates High Brooms to the north , Hawkenbury to the south , and Rusthall ( whose name resonates with the iron content of the rocks ) to the west .
= = = Twinning = = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells is twinned with :
Wiesbaden , Germany
In 1960 , through an advertisement in the national press , contact was made between former paratroopers in Wiesbaden and four English ex @-@ servicemen in Royal Tunbridge Wells . Through this contact the friendship that now exists between the two towns sprang up , leading to the signing in 1989 of the official Twinning Charter . Also through this the Tunbridge Wells Twinning and Friendship Association ( TWTFA ) was formed .
= = = Climate = = =
Tunbridge Wells , like the rest of Britain , has a temperate maritime climate , lacking in weather extremes . The nearest official weather station is Goudhurst , about 8 @.@ 5 mi ( 14 km ) to the east of the town centre .
The absolute maximum temperature in Goudhurst stands at 34 @.@ 7 ° C ( 94 @.@ 5 ° F ) , recorded in August 1990 , compared to the average annual warmest day maximum of 28 @.@ 7 ° C ( 83 @.@ 7 ° F ) . In total , 11 @.@ 8 days should attain a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above .
The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Goudhurst was − 19 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 2 @.@ 6 ° F ) during January 1940 , compared to the average annual coldest night minimum of − 8 @.@ 3 ° C ( 17 @.@ 1 ° F ) . In total 52 @.@ 8 nights should report an air frost .
Annual rainfall averages in Goudhurst 823 @.@ 3 mm ( 32 @.@ 41 in ) , with over 1 mm ( 0 in ) falling on 120 @.@ 7 days .
= = Economy = =
The economy of the town no longer depends on the chalybeate spring . Hardly anyone comes to the town purely to take the waters .
As of 2002 there were around 50 @,@ 000 people employed in the borough of Tunbridge Wells . The largest sector of the local economy consists of hotels , restaurants , and retail ( the centrally located Royal Victoria Place shopping centre , opened in 1992 , covers 29 @,@ 414 square metres ( 316 @,@ 610 sq ft ) ) , which accounts for around 30 % of all jobs ; the finance and business sector makes up just under a quarter of jobs , as does the public administration , education and health sector . Royal Tunbridge Wells is arguably the most important retail centre between London and Hastings .
The largest single employer in the town used to be the Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust , at the Kent and Sussex and Pembury Hospitals , employing around 2500 people ; the largest single commercial employer was AXA PPP healthcare , employing around 1 @,@ 700 in four offices ( PPP House , Union House , Phillips House and International House ) . Tunbridge Wells enjoys a relatively low unemployment rate of around 1 @.@ 0 % as of August 2008 , compared to a UK national rate of around 5 @.@ 4 % .
= = Transport = =
Tunbridge Wells is at the hub of a series of roads , the primary ones being the A26 , which runs from Maidstone to Newhaven ; the A264 , which runs from Five Oaks to Pembury ( via Crawley and East Grinstead ) ; and the A267 , which runs south from Tunbridge Wells to Hailsham . The A21 passes to the east of the town , following the route of its turnpike ancestor , from London to Hastings .
Bus services are operated chiefly by Arriva Kent & Sussex , providing local town and rural services to Tonbridge , Paddock Wood and Sevenoaks , as well as express services to locations such as Bromley and Maidstone . Eastbourne and Brighton on the south coast are accessible on services run by Stagecoach in Eastbourne and Brighton & Hove respectively , and Metrobus operates hourly services to Crawley .
Tunbridge Wells town historically had three railway stations : two of these are still in use by National Rail services . Tunbridge Wells station is , as its former name of Tunbridge Wells Central suggests , centrally located within the town at the end of the High Street , whilst High Brooms station is situated in High Brooms , to the north of the town . Both stations are located on the double @-@ tracked electrified Hastings Line ; services are operated by the Southeastern train operating company .
Tunbridge Wells West station was opened by the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway in 1866 as the terminus of its competing line to Tunbridge Wells , but closed in 1985 along with that line . The station building — a Grade II listed building — is now a restaurant , and a Sainsbury 's supermarket occupies the former goods yard . In 1996 , however , part of the line was reopened by the Tunbridge Wells and Eridge Railway Preservation Society , which now — as the Spa Valley Railway — operates a steam heritage railway that runs from Tunbridge Wells West to Eridge via High Rocks and Groombridge . The western end of the service was extended from Groombridge to Eridge , on the London @-@ Uckfield line of Southern Railway , on 25 March 2011 , serving a platform at Eridge which had been disused for many years . The tunnelled link line between the West and erstwhile Central stations , opened in 1876 , remains closed .
In 2009 Network Rail installed a 12 @-@ car turnback siding just south of Tunbridge Wells station between the Grove Hill and Strawberry Hill tunnels , at a cost of £ 10 @.@ 4 million , to allow London trains starting or terminating at Tunbridge Wells to be operated in 12 @-@ car formations , providing the rolling stock was equipped with Selective Door Opening ( e.g. the Class 375 trains which currently run to Tunbridge Wells ) . Previously such services were 11 @-@ car at most due to the platform length between the tunnels at each end of Tunbridge Wells station . The new turnback siding also facilitated the operation of the new timetable from December 2009 with 4 trains per hour between London Charing Cross and Tunbridge Wells in the off @-@ peak , instead of only 2 trains per hour .
Average daily passenger flows on trains between Tunbridge Wells and London have increased from about 10 @,@ 000 in 1999 to over 12 @,@ 500 in 2008 , a compound growth rate of about 2 @.@ 5 percent per year . Average daily passenger flows between Tunbridge Wells and Sevenoaks , and between Tunbridge Wells and Tonbridge , have grown considerably faster , though are still much smaller than the flows between Tunbridge Wells and London .
= = Education = =
Kent County Council is one of fifteen local authorities in the UK that still provides selective education through the eleven plus exam .
Royal Tunbridge Wells does not have a university of its own , but the Salomons Campus of Canterbury Christ Church University is located just outside the town ( near Southborough ) and provides postgraduate programmes .
= = Sports = =
= = = Football = = =
Tunbridge Wells ' football team , Tunbridge Wells F.C. , plays in the Southern Counties East Football League at the Culverden Stadium , and has a history that stretches back to 1886 . Tunbridge Wells F.C. were finalists in the 2013 FA Vase and competed at Wembley Stadium on 4 May , coming second to Spennymoor .
= = = Motorsport = = =
Tunbridge Wells Motor Club is one of the oldest motor clubs in the UK , being founded in 1911 . It is still active in the Tunbridge Wells area promoting grass roots motorsport organising an autotest series and several sprint races throughout the year at circuits such as Lydden Hill and Goodwood .
= = = Rugby Union = = =
Tunbridge Wells RFC plays its home games at St Mark 's , and plays London 2 South East Rugby at RFU level 7 .
= = = Rugby League = = =
Weald Warriors RLFC are a Rugby League team based in the town , also at St Mark 's . The Warriors were founded in 2012 and currently compete in the 4th tier of English rugby league in the London & South East Men 's League .
= = = Cricket = = =
The Nevill Ground hosts county and international cricket , and Kent County Cricket Club uses it regularly as one of its outgrounds . Tunbridge Wells came into the cricketing spotlight during the 1983 Cricket World Cup when Kapil Dev and Syed Kirmani scored 126 not out for India against Zimbabwe at the Nevill Ground on 6 July 1983 ; this is the record for the highest 9th wicket partnership score in a one @-@ day international . Also based at the Nevill Ground is Tunbridge Wells Hockey Club , which competes in the Kent / Sussex Regional ( men ) and East Premier ( women ) divisions .
Linden Park Cricket Club , which plays in local leagues , hosts its home matches at the Higher Cricket Ground on Tunbridge Wells Common .
= = = Swimming = = =
The RTW Monson Swimming Club competes in swimming , diving and water polo and is based at the Tunbridge Wells Sports Centre . Former Monson member Joanne Rout , née Round , took part in the Swimming events at the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , aged just 12 , winning two relay Gold Medals ( also setting two new world records ) and three individual Silver Medals ; and as of 2012 remains the youngest ever British Paralympian . A plaque can be found located in the club 's trophy display . Tunbridge Wells Borough Council honoured Joanne with the award of their Civic Medallion after her return from Seoul in recognition of her efforts and achievements at such a young age .
= = = Running = = =
The Tunbridge Wells Half Marathon is an open road race that takes place every February , organised by the Tunbridge Wells Harriers running club .
= = = Squash = = =
Tunbridge Wells Squash Club on London Road is a traditional Squash ( sport ) club with three courts . There are internal leagues for squash and raquetball , and both men 's and ladies ' teams in the Kent Priory squash league .
= = Public services = =
Health services are provided by the West Kent Primary Care Trust . Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust runs the new Tunbridge Wells Hospital at Pembury ( usually referred to as Pembury Hospital ) , nearly three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the town , which opened in 2011 .
Royal Tunbridge Wells is policed by Kent Police , and in May 2000 the main police station for the area moved from Royal Tunbridge Wells to a new building in Tonbridge and operations at the Royal Tunbridge Wells station , in Crescent Road , were scaled back so that it now operates as an administrative centre . Fire services are carried out by Kent Fire and Rescue Service , which operates one station in Grove Hill Road that is manned 24 hours a day by both full @-@ time and retained firefighters .
The electricity Distribution Network Operator is UK Power Networks , and water services are managed by Southern Water ; the main reservoir in the area is Bewl Water .
The Kent and Sussex Crematorium and Cemetery opened in 1873 , known initially as the Frant Forest Cemetery due to its location , laid out over 23 acres ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) by the then town surveyor .
Royal Tunbridge Wells also has a library , museum and art gallery in Civic Way .
= = Cultural references = =
References to Royal Tunbridge Wells occur in literature as diverse as Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Valley of Fear , H. G. Wells ' Christina Alberta 's Father , Thomas Pynchon 's Gravity 's Rainbow , Philip Reeve 's Mortal Engines , E. M. Forster 's A Room with a View , Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest and Zadie Smith 's White Teeth . The Inspector Bone mysteries by Susannah Stacey are also set in and around Tunbridge Wells . In Fanny Burney 's 1796 novel Camilla , several characters make an excursion to Tunbridge Wells , and there are many references to The Pantiles and other local sites . In Bleak House by Charles Dickens the children find a mug in the cupboard entitled " A Present From Tunbridge Wells . "
David Lean 's epic film Lawrence of Arabia closes with Mr. Dryden answering King Feisal : " Me , your Highness ? On the whole , I wish I 'd stayed in Tunbridge Wells " , and in the James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service Tracy Di Vicenzo says to Bond that she " looks forward to living as Mr and Mrs James Bond of Acacia Avenue , Tunbridge Wells " . Less well known is H. G. Wells 's sending up in his 1925 book Christina Alberta 's Father : " Tunbridge Wells is Tunbridge Wells , and there is nothing really like it upon our planet " .
In Spitting Image , when Britain enters a revolution , Royal Tunbridge Wells declares independence under the slogan of ' liberty , equality , gardening ' .
In the TV sketch comedy series Rutland Weekend Television , there is a musical sketch that tells the tale of 3 US Navy sailors who plan to spend an exciting — " More exciting than a book of Norman Mailer 's " — and glamour @-@ filled 24 hours in Royal Tunbridge Wells .
= = = " Disgusted " = = =
In the UK Royal Tunbridge Wells has a reputation as being a bastion of the middle class and a typical example of " Middle England " . This is reflected by the locution " Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells " , a fictional writer of letters to national newspapers in the 1950s to express outrage and defend conservative values .
= = Parks and landmarks = =
The Pantiles and its chalybeate spring have been the landmarks most readily associated with Royal Tunbridge Wells ever since the founding of the town , though the 5 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 16 ft ) steel Millennium Clock at the Fiveways area in the centre of town , designed by local sculptor Jon Mills for the Millennium celebrations , stakes a claim to be a modern landmark .
Tunbridge Wells contains green spaces that range from woodland to maintained grounds and parks . The most substantial areas of woodland are the Tunbridge Wells and Rusthall Commons , which comprise 250 acres ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) of wood and heathland and are close to the centre of the town . Open areas of the common are popular picnic spots , and there is a maintained cricket ground situated next to Wellington Rocks .
Located in the town centre opposite the railway station , Calverley Grounds is a historic park with ornamental gardens and a bandstand ( now demolished ) . The park was part of Mount Pleasant House — which was converted into a hotel in 1837 — until 1920 when the Borough Council purchased it for the town . The bandstand dated from 1924 and was damaged by an incendiary bomb in 1940 and parts of the metalwork were sold for scrap metal . The subsequently repaired bandstand and the adjacent pavilion were intended to form part of a new centre to the park but were never completed . The bandstand was demolished in 2010 although the pavilion still exists as a café . Just inside the entrance to the park coming from the station is a memorial to Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding , hero of the Battle of Britain , who lived and died in Tunbridge Wells .
Dunorlan Park , at 78 acres ( 0 @.@ 122 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 32 km2 ) the largest maintained green space in the town , was once a private garden that was part of the millionaire Henry Reed 's now demolished mansion , and only passed into public possession in 1941 . The gardens were designed by the renowned Victorian gardener James Green , but over the years they became overgrown , making it hard to distinguish the full scope of Marnock 's design . In 1996 Tunbridge Wells Borough Council applied to the Heritage Lottery Fund for a grant to restore the park in line with the original designs , and in 2003 / 4 Dunorlan underwent a £ 2 @.@ 8 million restoration . The River Teise rises in the park , and two dams on it have created a pond and a boating lake . Dunorlan is listed as Grade II on English Heritage 's National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
Great Culverden Park is a small , 9 ½ acre woodland in the Mt . Ephraim area behind the site of the old Kent and Sussex Hospital and is the remnant grounds of the previous Great Culverden House designed by Decimus Burton that used to stand on Mt . Ephraim .
The oldest public park in Royal Tunbridge Wells is Grosvenor Recreation Ground designed by landscape architect Robert Marnock , located close to the town centre on Quarry Road . It was opened in 1889 by Mayor John Stone @-@ Wigg , on the land that was formerly Caverley Waterworks . The lake area with dripping wells remains , but the other lakes , bandstand and open air pool have all gone . There is a bowls club , café , toilets and children 's play area , including cycle track . It is adjoined by the Hilbert recreation ground , parts of which have been designated as a local nature reserve by the Kent High Weald Partnership ; these include Roundabout Woods and the adjoining grass areas . The Hilbert Recreation Ground was donated to the town by Cllr Edward Strange in 1931 , on the site of the form John Beane 's Charity Farm . There are two football pitches , built as part of the King George V playing fields scheme , and a skatepark .
The Salomons Museum preserves the home of Sir David Salomons , the first Jew to serve as Lord Mayor of London and the first non @-@ Christian to sit in Parliament . It preserves the bench from which Salomons rose to speak as the first Jewish MP ever to speak in Parliament .
= = The arts = =
The town 's largest theatre is the Assembly Hall in Crescent Road , which has a capacity of 1020 . Nearby , in Church Road , is the Trinity Arts Centre which is a converted church .
The Forum is a 250 @-@ capacity live music venue in the town , run by Jason Dormon , where many bands have played their early concerts on their way to success .
Unfest is an annual free music festival which takes place in May .
Royal Tunbridge Wells held its first TEDxRoyalTunbridgeWells on 6 June 2015 .
= = Local media = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells has one local commercial radio station , KMFM West Kent . Many London stations can also be picked up in the town . The BBC has its regional centre in the town at the Great Hall Arcade . It is the base of BBC Radio Kent and for BBC South East regional programming , the complex containing studios , offices and a BBC shop .
= = Notable people = =
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= New Jersey Route 184 =
Route 184 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States . It is an old section of Route 440 that was rerouted . Route 184 's western end is at an intersection with the Garden State Parkway in Woodbridge Township ; NJ 184 's eastern end is at an intersection with Route 35 in Perth Amboy . The highway passes several local landmarks along the highway , but is less populated than the surrounding area . The entire highway is concurrent with County Route 501 , but is not county @-@ maintained .
The route originated as Route S4 , which became NJ 440 on January 1 , 1953 . In 1974 , a part of Route 440 was bypassed and rerouted , and the New Jersey State Highway Department reassigned the former alignment as NJ 184 .
= = Route description = =
Route 184 begins at an interchange with the Garden State Parkway 's exit 129 and County Route 501 ( CR 501 ) n Woodbridge Township . The route , immediately concurrent with CR 501 is known as King Georges Road , which turns to the north near Fords Park . Just after the split from King Georges Road , Route 184 enters a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 9 and passes south of Hopelawn Park . After passing the local cemetery , the route crosses a junction with CR 655 ( Florida Grove Road ) . Continuing east , the route becomes known as Pfieffer Boulevard and crosses an interchange with Route 440 in Perth Amboy .
Just east of Route 440 , the route continues northward until reaching an intersection with Route 35 ( Convery Boulevard ) , marking the eastern terminus of Route 184 .
= = History = =
Route 184 originated as a prefixed spur of Route 4 ( currently an alignment of U.S. Route 9 ) , New Jersey State Highway Route S @-@ 4 , first defined in 1927 . The highway was an alignment from the new Outerbridge Crossing to Route 4 . It was eventually extended from Route 4 to the recently built Route 4 Parkway ( now the Garden State Parkway ) in 1951 . In the 1953 renumbering on January 1 , 1953 , Route S @-@ 4 was decommissioned and renumbered to Route 440 to match up with New York State Route 440 in Staten Island .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Middlesex County .
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= John Morrison and The Miz =
John Morrison and The Miz was a professional wrestling tag team in World Wrestling Entertainment . The duo performed on its ECW brand , but also appeared on the SmackDown and Raw brands due to ECW 's talent exchanges with those brands during their tenure as a team . The team had no official name , although they had been referred to as " The In Crowd " or " The Dirt Sheet Duo " , after the name of their Slammy Award @-@ winning online webshow , The Dirt Sheet . Both were former WWE Tough Enough contestants , with Morrison winning the show 's third season and Miz the runner @-@ up of its fourth season .
They first began teaming together in 2007 . Originally rivals , John Morrison and The Miz became partners as a result of winning the WWE Tag Team Championship and making the title exclusive to the ECW brand , for a brief time . They eventually dropped the title in July 2008 . During their title reign , Morrison and The Miz developed a gimmick that resulted in the duo being given their own webshow , The Dirt Sheet , and their own in @-@ ring interview segment of the same name on ECW . In December 2008 they won the Slammy Award in the category for Tag Team of the Year and won the World Tag Team Championship . The team split in April 2009 , after the Miz was drafted to the Raw brand and Morrison was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 WWE Draft .
= = History = =
= = = Tag Team Champions ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
Before they formed a partnership , John Morrison and The Miz were opponents , competing for the ECW Championship in October 2007 . On the November 16 , 2007 , episode of SmackDown ! , then @-@ rivals Morrison and The Miz were paired together to face Matt Hardy and MVP in a match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , which they subsequently won after MVP turned on Hardy . After winning the title , Morrison and The Miz brought the title to the ECW brand . Soon after winning the WWE Tag Team Championship , the two were no longer portrayed as enemies , but rather as trusting friends . They would defend the title on numerous occasions on both ECW and SmackDown as well as multiple pay @-@ per @-@ views against opponents like Shannon Moore and Jimmy Wang Yang , Jesse and Festus , and Tommy Dreamer and Colin Delaney . The team 's gimmick was further expanded upon when they were given a show on WWE.com called The Dirt Sheet . During the sixth annual WWE Draft on June 23 , 2008 , on Monday Night Raw , the duo defeated the Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) which earned ECW its only draft pick , which turned out to be Matt Hardy . At the Great American Bash in July , Morrison and The Miz lost the title in a four team tag match to Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder ; however , neither The Miz nor Morrison were pinned during the match .
After losing the tag team title , Morrison and The Miz entered a feud with ECW newcomers Evan Bourne and Ricky Ortiz , who they had previously mocked ( and continued to do so ) on the Dirt Sheet . They also had an Internet @-@ centered feud with Raw 's Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG ) based on which WWE.com online show was better : the Dirt Sheet or Cryme Tyme 's Word Up . Morrison and The Miz won a match between the two teams at Cyber Sunday , which was voted for by fans over a World Tag Team Championship match .
Throughout October , the team mocked D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) , using phrases such as " Are you 50 ? " instead of DX 's usual catchphrase " Are you Ready ? " to mock their ages due to DX being formed in 1997 , when both Morrison and Miz were in high school . On the October 28 episode of ECW , their feud with DX continued as they mocked them after a live Dirt Sheet and then proceeded to attack two impostors playing Michaels and Triple H. On the 800th episode celebration of Raw , Morrison and The Miz competed in a match against DX , and were defeated . During the match , they mocked DX 's signature moves , with Morrison successfully performing a superkick ( mocking Michaels ' Sweet Chin Music ) on Triple H as well as The Miz attempting a Pedigree on Triple H. Following their feud with DX , they continued to feud with Cryme Tyme . Morrison and The Miz were part of John " Bradshaw " Layfield 's team at the annual Survivor Series but they lost to the team of Shawn Michaels .
On the December 8 episode of Raw , Morrison and The Miz won the 2008 Slammy Award for Tag Team of the Year and also for the Best WWE.com exclusive , for their show , The Dirt Sheet . On December 13 , at a house show in Hamilton , Ontario , Morrison and The Miz won the World Tag Team Championship for the first time , defeating Kofi Kingston and CM Punk . In a dark match at WrestleMania XXV , Morrison and the Miz lost the World Tag Team title to The Colóns ( Carlito and Primo ) in a Lumberjack match to unify the World Tag Team and the WWE Tag Team Championships .
= = = Split and feud ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
On the April 13 episode of Raw , The Miz lost a match to Kofi Kingston after Morrison accidentally got Miz disqualified , which gave Raw a draft pick in the 2009 WWE Draft . The pick was then revealed to be The Miz , and he subsequently attacked Morrison , ending their partnership . Two days later on April 15 , Morrison was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft .
In October 2009 , WWE premiered a new pay @-@ per @-@ view event based around inter @-@ brand matches . At the time , The Miz was the second @-@ tier champion on Raw after winning the United States Champion and was subsequently booked against SmackDown 's Intercontinental Champion , John Morrison . In the build up to their first match since splitting , the two hosted a one @-@ off edition of The Dirt Sheet on the October 16 episode of SmackDown where the two compared themselves to ' 80s tag team The Rockers , debating over which is more comparable to the successful Shawn Michaels and which was the less successful Marty Jannetty . At Bragging Rights , Miz pinned Morrison to become the only member of the Raw roster to win an interpromotional match . The following month at Survivor Series , Miz captained a team of five wrestlers against Team Morrison in a five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series elimination match and once again bested his former partner . At the Tribute to the Troops in December , Miz rolled up Morrison for the win in a singles match . The two had another match the following March , when John Morrison and his new partner R @-@ Truth challenged for the Unified Tag Team Championships held by The Miz and the Big Show . Morrison was finally able to defeat The Miz in a singles match , however Morrison could not pick up the victory for the titles at WrestleMania XXVI .
In 2011 , after The Miz won the WWE Championship , he retained the title against Morrison in a Falls Count Anywhere match on the January 3 , 2011 , episode of Raw . At May 's Extreme Rules , Cena won the title in a triple threat steel cage match against The Miz and Morrison . Later that year in November , The Miz and Morrison had another Falls Count Anywhere match , in which The Miz caused Morrison a scripted injury ; this was used to write Morrison off WWE television as his contract had expired .
= = In wrestling = =
Signature tag team moves
Catapult ( Miz ) into a forearm smash ( Morrison ) , knocking the opponent backwards , followed by a slingshot elbow drop ( Morrison ) onto the opponent draped over Miz 's knees
Double belly to back wheelbarrow facebuster
Double gutbuster
Double spinebuster
Simultaneous powerbomb ( Morrison ) / neckbreaker ( The Miz ) combination
Morrison 's finishing moves
Moonlight Drive ( Corkscrew neckbreaker )
The Miz 's finishing moves
Reality Check ( Running knee lift followed by a neckbreaker slam )
Managers
Nikki Bella
Nicknames
" The ( self – proclaimed ) Greatest Tag Team of the 21st Century "
" The Dirt Sheet Duo "
" The In Crowd "
Entrance themes
" Ain 't No Make Believe " by Stonefree Experience
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2009 ) – Morrison
Ranked Morrison 43 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
Ranked The Miz 54 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Award ( 2 time )
Best WWE.com Exclusive ( 2008 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Awards
Most Improved ( 2008 and 2009 ) – The Miz
Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 )
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= Islands of the Forth =
The Islands of the Forth are a group of small islands located in the Firth of Forth and in the estuary of the River Forth on the east coast of Scotland . Most of the group lie in the open waters of the firth , between the Lothians and Fife , with the majority to the east of the city of Edinburgh . Two islands lie further west in the river estuary .
The islands have a varied geology and history and several have both ecclesiastical connections and were involved in military occupations throughout the centuries of recorded history . Various lighthouses and other aids to navigation have been erected on the islands and skerries , one dating to the 17th century , but only one of the islands is still permanently inhabited . The area has a diversity of bird and sea life and the scientific name for the northern gannet is derived from this bird 's connection with the Bass Rock .
There are few islands off eastern Scotland and most of any size are in this group .
= = Geography = =
Furthest east is the Isle of May , off the coast of Fife south of Crail . To the south in the outer Firth there is a group of islands off East Lothian near North Berwick and Gullane ; from east to west they are the Bass Rock ( also known simply as " The Bass " ) , Craigleith , The Lamb , Fidra and Eyebroughy . A second group lie in the inner Firth of Forth . Inchkeith and Inchcolm are off Kinghorn and Aberdour on the north shore , Inchgarvie lies midway between North and South Queensferry , and Inchmickery and Cramond Island are nearer to Edinburgh on the south shore . Alloa Inch and Tullibody Inch are furthest west in the estuarine waters of the River Forth .
Only one of these islands , Inchcolm , has had a resident population in recent years , although there have been monasteries , hermitages , lighthouses and fortifications on most of them in the past . In the late 19th century the Isle of May had a population of over 20 . Many of the island names have the first element , " Inch- " ( from Innis , the Gaelic word for " island " ) .
= = Geology = =
Geologically , most of the islands are the remnants of igneous intrusions . The Isle of May 's rock is " fine grained basalt of a dark @-@ grey colour with tinges of green and greenstone " . Fidra is also largely basalt and The Bass is a phonolite volcanic plug . Craigleith is a laccolith made up of essexite which is popular for making curling stones and Cramond island is made up of dolerite . Inchmickery and Inchgarvie are of igneous origin and the latter is partly made up of picrite . Studies of the landscape beneath the waters of the firth have revealed that the visible surface of Inchgarvie is only the top of a larger crag and tail structure similar in structure to Edinburgh Castle and the Royal Mile created by glacial action . The tidal islet of Eyebroughy is about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) to the west of Fidra . Its component rock is trachyte and Lower Carboniferous in origin .
Most of Inchkeith is of volcanic origin but there are also sections of sandstone , coal , limestone and shale , the last named containing numerous fossils . There are also several springs on the island . Inchcolm is similarly varied , consisting of greenstone , sandstone , shale and limestone .
= = Natural history = =
The Firth is an important area for nature conservation and has a range of habitats including extensive mudflats , shingle shorelines and saltmarsh . The last named , which is well developed on Alloa Inch , is typically dominated by saltmarsh rush , sea club @-@ rush , sea aster and common saltmarsh @-@ grass . The inner Firth is important for nationally and internationally important numbers of wintering wildfowl and wading birds and hosts populations of shelduck , knot , redshank , great crested grebe , teal and goldeneye . The outer islands support significant numbers of nesting seabirds . The Bass Rock has more than 150 @,@ 000 nesting northern gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world . When viewed from the mainland much of the rock looks white due to the sheer number of birds ( and their droppings , which give off 152 tonnes of ammonia per year ) . The scientific names for this gannet , Sula bassana and Morus bassanus , are derived from the rock . The bird was traditionally known locally as the solan goose , and its eggs and meat were considered delicacies . It is estimated that in 1850 almost 2000 birds were harvested from the rock . Other bird species on the rock include guillemot , razorbill , cormorant , puffin , eider duck and numerous gulls .
Craigleith lies close to North Berwick 's harbour and historically was used as a rabbit warren . The rabbits were bred for food but they were wiped out by myxomatosis in the 1950s . The Atlantic puffin colony on Craigleith , once one of the largest in Britain with 28 @,@ 000 pairs , became endangered from 1999 onwards , due to an invasion of the non @-@ endemic plant tree mallow , which choked the puffins ' burrows , preventing them from rearing their chicks , or " pufflings " . A five @-@ year project , SOS Puffin , led by the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick , was launched early in 2007 . Since then , hundreds of volunteers have been working hard to rid the island of the problem , ferried out by boat from the Seabird Centre during the winter months , when the puffins are at sea . There are signs that the puffins are starting to return to the island to breed . Fidra , Inchmickery and Eyebroughy are RSPB reserves , the last being noted for its cormorants . Over 240 species of bird and 60 varieties of seaweed have been recorded on the Isle of May .
= = History = =
Several of the islands contain pre @-@ historic remains created by cultures whose names are unknown . They have also been affected by the successive influences of Celtic , Norse and English @-@ speaking peoples during the historic period and this is reflected in their names . The islands also came under attack from Vikings during the early Historic period .
= = = 15th century = = =
During the reign of King James IV Inchkeith was the site of an extraordinary experiment . According to the historian Robert Lyndsay of Pitscottie , in 1493 James directed that a dumb woman and two infants be transported to the island , to ascertain which language the infants would grow up to speak when isolated from the rest of the world . It was thought that this would be the " original " language , or language of God . There is no reliable account of how the infants spoke although Lyndsay of Pitscottie reported that " some say they spoke good Hebrew " .
In 1497 Inchkeith and Inchgarvie were used as an isolated refuge for victims of syphilis and in 1589 , history repeated itself when Inchekith was used to quarantine the passengers of a plague @-@ ridden ship . ( More plague sufferers came from the mainland in 1609 and in 1799 , Russian sailors who died of an infectious disease were buried there . )
Inchcolm is mentioned in Shakespeare 's Macbeth where it is described as " Saint Colmes ynch " .
= = = English garrisons = = =
Inchcolm was raided by English troops during the 14th century Wars of Independence . In the 16th century Inchkeith , Inchcolm and Inchgarvie all suffered English occupation . The Earl of Somerset garrisoned the islands in 1547 after the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . His force of marines were ordered to reinforce Inchkeith , and they built a large square fort , with corner towers , on the site of the present day lighthouse . His forces , mainly Italian mercenaries , were ejected by a combined Franco @-@ Scottish force under General D ’ Essé in 1549 .
= = = Later fortifications = = =
Several islands including Inchkeith and Inchgarvie were fortified in subsequent years both from fear of Napoleonic invasion , and during the two World Wars . Inchmickery was used as a gun emplacement during both World Wars and the derelict concrete structures were designed to make the island look like a battleship from a distance . These buildings were later used for filming scenes of the film Complicity .
= = = Ecclesiastical associations = = =
Many of the islands were said to have Culdee connections , and had chapels on them . Various saints also have connections with the islands . St Thaney or Thenaw was reputedly the mother of St Kentigern and is said to have been cast adrift in an oarless coracle in deep waters beyond the Isle of May by her father King Leudonus , which resulted in an abundance of fish in the seas nearby . St Adrian of May was murdered there by invading Danes in 870 ( who killed St Monance in the same raid ) . He was buried in a stone coffin on the island but is said to have floated across the Firth before coming to rest in a churchyard at Anstruther . The Isle of May has a long history of ecclesiastical activity and there are various remains including that of a 13th @-@ century Benedictine church .
The Irish missionary Saint Baldred of Tyninghame resided on The Bass in the 8th century and there is a ruined 12th century chapel on Fidra dedicated to St Nicholas . Inchcolm has connections to St Columba and King Alexander I was marooned on the island , and decided to make it the site of an Augustinian monastery . In the 7th century St Adomnán of Iona founded a " school of the prophets " on Inchkeith in the late 7th century having met St Serf there . Inchmickery 's name may be derived from the Gaelic for " island of the vicar " .
= = Navigation = =
Many of the isles act as an aid to navigation . There are various lighthouses and numerous devices to guide shipping in the busy waters near the ports of Leith and Rosyth .
In 1803 , construction was begun of Inchkeith Lighthouse , designed and built by Thomas Smith and Robert Stevenson . The lighthouse stands 67 metres high and was operational by 1804 . The Fidra light was built in 1885 and automated in 1970 . The light on the small rock of Oxcars was automated as early as 1894 . At that time it was controlled by a clockwork timer and was powered using gas delivered weekly from Granton gasworks . A lighthouse was constructed on the Bass Rock in 1902 .
The Isle of May light has a long history having been in operation since 1635 when a crude coal @-@ fired structure was erected . The existing building was constructed in 1816 , which was converted to a " rock station " in 1972 and automated in March 1989 . The island is owned by the Commissioners of the Northern Lights although managed by Scottish Natural Heritage as a National Nature Reserve .
None of the islands are accessible by public transport except Inchcolm , which has a regular summer service .
= = Islands = =
= = = Outer islands = = =
The Isle of May is in the north of the outer Firth of Forth , about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) off the coast of mainland Fife . It is 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) long , less than 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) wide and has a total area of 45 hectares ( 110 acres ) making it by far the largest of the Forth islands . Although often inhabited in the past nobody has been recorded as living there since the automation of the lighthouse . Rona is a tidal islet to the north joined to the main island by a bridge . Further north are North Ness , the Mars Rocks and Norman Rock . Clett and the Middens are stacks to the east and The Pillow is a skerry to the south east . Maiden Rocks and Maiden Hair lie just offshore to the south .
The Bass Rock is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) offshore , and 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north @-@ east of North Berwick . This steep @-@ sided island is currently uninhabited , but was lived on for many centuries . It has a castle dating from the 14th century , which was later used as a prison and there are the remains of a chapel built circa 1491 . The Lauder family owned the island for almost six centuries , and it now belongs to Sir Hew Dalrymple whose family purchased it in 1701 . The rock features in various works of fiction , including Robert Louis Stevenson 's Catriona . At 7 @.@ 5 hectares ( 19 acres ) in extent the Bass Rock is the second largest of the islands of the Forth . The Middens is a small stack that lies just offshore to the northwest .
Craigleith lies north of North Berwick harbour . It was also purchased by Sir Hew Dalrymple , from North Berwick Town Council in 1814 .
The Lamb is an uninhabited island about 100m long by 50m wide , flanked by the skerries North Dog and South Dog . There are other skerries between it and the shore including Bubbly Buss , the Law Rocks and the Hummel Ridges . In February 2009 , the island was bought by the Israeli paranormalist Uri Geller for £ 30 @,@ 000 .
Fidra , archaically Fetheray , is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) north @-@ west of North Berwick . Like the nearby islands it is the result of volcanic activity and has a substantial seabird population . It can be accessed via a primitive jetty on the eastern shore . It is said that R. L. Stevenson based his map of Treasure Island on the shape of Fidra . The island is also attended by companion islets called North Dog and South Dog and Castle Tarbet is another islet to the south separated from the main bulk at high tides .
= = = Inner islands = = =
Inchkeith is close to the shores of Fife . Its history has been dominated by religion , its use as a quarantine and military events ( see above ) . It is currently owned by Tom Farmer , founder of Kwikfit , although he doesn 't live there .
Inchmickery lies about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) east of Inchkeith and it is about 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the city of Edinburgh . It is only about 100 metres by 200 metres in size . Rocks known as the Cow and Calf lie to the north and beyond that , about half way to Inchcolm , are the Oxcars , a hazard identified by a permanent light .
Incholm is the only island in the Firth with a recent resident population , of whom there were two in the 2001 census although there was no usually resident population recorded at the time of the 2011 census . There is a resident custodian employed by Historic Scotland who maintains the island and runs the shop during the summer . In the 14th century John of Fordun records the name as " Euomonia " ( referring to the monasterium Sancti Columbe in insula Euomonia ) . There are various skerries in the sea to the north including Swallow Craig , Car Craig , Meadulse and Craigdimas .
Inchgarvie 's name is from Innis Gharbhaidh which is Scottish Gaelic for " rough island " or possibly " Garbhach 's island " . This island has a long history of fortification and is now incorporated into the Forth Bridge . In 1878 , foundations for Thomas Bouch 's Forth Bridge were laid on Inchgarvie but after the Tay Bridge Disaster these plans were abandoned . When construction of the bridge recommenced in 1882 , the west end of the island was extended with a pier and used as the foundation for one of the cantilevers . The island was also used for a construction office and the castle buildings were re @-@ roofed to accommodate workers . Some of the stone from the former castle was used to build the caissons of the bridge .
Cramond Island in the Almond estuary is a tidal island that is 7 @.@ 7 hectares ( 19 acres ) in extent and is currently part of the Dalmeny Estate . It lies about a mile from the shore and is a popular recreation area . The speed with which the water rises can catch visitors unawares , leaving them stranded .
Alloa Inch is an island in the tidal reaches of the River Forth near Alloa that consists of reed beds and salt marshes . There is a derelict farmhouse on the island and the Scottish Wildlife Trust has managed the island as a nature reserve since 1996 . Just upstream is the smaller Tullibody Inch - both are part of the Firth of Forth SSSI , which also includes the John Muir Country Park .
= = = Small outliers and former islands = = =
There are various other small islets and skerries in the Firth . Along the north shore , from west to east , Preston Island near Culross is an artificial former island . This reclaimed land was created c . 1800 for salt production . More land was then reclaimed using ash slurry from Longannet power station from 1970 onwards and it is now part of the mainland . Just offshore are the Craigmore Rocks at grid reference NT001845 , which were called " Kraig Maur " in Blaeu 's Atlas . " Dow Kraig " on the same 17th century map appears to be under reclaimed land just along the coast south of Dunsyre House at grid reference NT116817 Nearby Rosyth Castle is a former tidal island and Long Craig is now part of the Forth Road Bridge .
There is another Long Craig south of Dalgety Bay and Haystack lies between it and Inchcolm . The Common Rocks are in Silversands Bay at Aberdour and West Vows , East Vows and another Long Craig lie off Kirkcaldy . Much farther along the coast there is another West Vows and East Vows at Earlsferry . The Carr Brigs are a hazard to shipping at the entrance to the Firth just off Fife Ness .
There are fewer skerries on the south coast of the Firth . Little Ox lies off Musselburgh and the Black Rocks , including the Middle and Eastern Craigs lie just outside the Port of Leith .
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= Folk Singer ( album ) =
Folk Singer is the fourth studio album by Muddy Waters , released in April 1964 by Chess Records . The album features Waters on acoustic guitar , backed by Willie Dixon on string bass , Clifton James on drums , and Buddy Guy on acoustic guitar . It is Waters 's only all @-@ acoustic album . Numerous reissues of Folk Singer include bonus tracks from two subsequent sessions , in April 1964 and October 1964 .
Despite not charting in any country , Folk Singer received critical acclaim ; most reviewers praised its high @-@ quality sound , especially on remastered versions , as well as the instrumentation . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 280 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
After his successful performance at Newport Jazz Festival and tours through America , Chess Records encouraged Waters to record songs for a new studio album . Before the recording , several musicians had Waters 's band , and other had joined Waters . Andrew Stephens , who played at Newport , was replaced in the following years with numerous bassists . The drummer Francis Clay was replaced by Willie " Big Eyes " Smith , who played in the Muddy Waters Junior Band . Pat Hare was sentenced to life in prison for the murder of his wife ( while in jail , he formed the band Sounds Incarcerated ) . Hare was replaced by a succession of guitarists , including James " Pee Wee " Madison , who played a right @-@ handed guitar left handed . Madison played guitar on some of the reissue bonus tracks , as did Sammy Lawhorn . Lawhorn allegedly suffered from narcolepsy ( Elvin Bishop denied this , believing that Lawhorn 's sleepiness was due to alcoholism ) . The electric guitarist Buddy Guy , who had recorded with Waters on Blues from Big Bill 's Copacabana , released by Chess in 1963 , was hired . Guy had been discovered by Waters shortly after Guy arrived in Chicago from Louisiana .
= = Recording = =
Folk Singer is an " unplugged " recording and differs from his earlier albums , which featured an electric blues sound . The title of the album was chosen by Chess Records because it was recorded during the time when folk music was popular . In order to appeal to fans of folk music , Chess recorded a more acoustic album with two acoustic guitarists . Buddy Guy was hired as the second guitarist . Other guitarists played on bonus tracks . Guy played on all original songs , except the last song , " Feel Like Going Home " , together with Waters .
The recording took place at the Tel Mar Recording Studios , in Chicago , in September 1963 , and was produced by Willie Dixon . The original vinyl release includes nine songs , most of which are performed at a slower tempo , with the exception of the uptempo " Good Morning Little Schoolgirl " . During recording , Waters emphasized his singing with hums and sighs .
= = Releases and tour = =
The original album was released as an LP in April 1964 by Chess Records . Since then , numerous record labels have released different versions on CD , with different bonus tracks from Waters 's 1964 sessions . One of the first CD versions was released in 1993 by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab , containing two bonus tracks , " You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " and " The Same Thing . " The 1999 remastered version contains five bonus tracks , " The Same Thing " , " You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " , " My John the Conqueror Root " , " Short Dress Woman " and " Put MeiIn Your Lay Away " .
The supporting tour through Europe , the second American Folk Blues Festival , began one month after the recording of Folk Singer . The first gig out of seventeen took place in London ; other performances were in Belgium , Germany , France and Denmark . In London , Waters began with the unreleased " My Captain " , followed by " Rollin ' Stone " . In keeping with the folk theme , quiet versions of " Five Long Years " , " Blow Wind Blow " , " Trouble No More " , " My Home Is in the Delta " and " Got My Mojo Working " were performed .
= = Critical reception = =
In a contemporary review , Down Beat magazine found Waters 's singing " forced and artificial " , writing that Folk Singer suffers from a major flaw : " He only begins to come close to the power and unforced intensity of the original numbers and style from time to time , as on ' You Gonna Need My Help ' and ' My Home Is in the Delta ' " . In a retrospective review , Cub Koda , writing for AllMusic was more enthusiastic , deeming the record 's sound fresh and vital . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked Folk Singer number 280 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of AllTime " , writing that the " unplugged " playing was pioneering and has since been " beloved by blues and folk fans alike " . In a 1994 issue of Rolling Stone , a reviewer wrote , " ... There aren 't too many blues albums that qualify as audiophile recordings , but Muddy Waters Folk Singer surely does . A wonderfully intimate session , it delivers Waters ' voice in all its power and subtlety , while rendering his guitar work ... with such vivid realism , you would think you were sitting in the studio .... "
= = Track listing = =
" My Home Is in the Delta " ( Waters ) – 3 : 58
" Long Distance " ( Waters ) – 3 : 30
" My Captain " ( Willie Dixon ) – 5 : 10
" Good Morning Little Schoolgirl " ( Sonny Boy Williamson ) – 3 : 12
" You Gonna Need My Help " ( Waters ) – 3 : 09
" Cold Weather Blues " ( Waters ) – 4 : 40
" Big Leg Woman " ( John Temple ) – 3 : 25
" Country Boy " ( Waters ) – 3 : 26
" Feel Like Going Home " ( Waters ) – 3 : 52
= = = 1993 bonus tracks = = =
" The Same Thing " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 57
" You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " ( Waters ) – 2 : 46
= = = 1999 bonus tracks = = =
" The Same Thing " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 57
" You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " ( Waters ) – 2 : 46
" My John the Conqueror Root " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 22
" Short Dress Woman " ( John T. Brown ) – 2 : 49
" Put Me in Your Lay Away " ( L.J. Welch ) – 2 : 56
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
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= Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class cruiser =
The Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class cruisers were a group of four light cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy just before World War I began in 1914 . Construction was interrupted by the Russian Revolution and only two of the ships were eventually completed well after the end of the Russian Civil War by the Soviets . Chervona Ukraina was the first ship completed and was built to essentially the original design . Krasnyi Kavkaz was much modified and completed five years after Chervona Ukraina . Both ships participated in the Sieges of Odessa and Sevastopol after the Germans invaded Russia in June 1941 . They ferried troops into the cities , evacuated wounded and bombarded the besieging German troops . Chervona Ukraina was bombed and sunk by dive bombers in November during one of these missions and Krasny Kavkaz was badly damaged by the same type of aircraft in January 1942 . After her lengthy repairs were completed , the ship transported reinforcements to cities on the Black Sea coast during the Battle of the Caucasus . She was reclassified as a training ship in 1947 before she was sunk as a target in 1956 . Chervona Ukraina was salvaged in 1947 and then became a hulked . She became a target ship in 1950 .
= = Description = =
The ships were essentially enlarged versions of the Svetlana @-@ class cruisers , modified after consultations with the Scottish firm of John Brown & Company .
As designed , the ships displaced 7 @,@ 600 long tons ( 7 @,@ 700 t ) . They had an length at the waterline of 535 ft 6 in ( 163 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 51 ft 6 in ( 15 @.@ 7 m ) and a mean draft of about 18 ft 3 in ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) . They were powered by four Brown @-@ Curtis steam turbines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 55 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ; 33 @.@ 9 mph ) . The engines were powered by 14 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . Four were coal @-@ fired while the rest were mixed @-@ firing . The ship carried a maximum of 540 long tons ( 550 t ) of coal and an additional 690 long tons ( 700 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate in the mixed @-@ firing boilers . At full capacity , she could steam for 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ships ' crew numbered 630 officers and men .
The ships ' main armament consisted of fifteen 55 @-@ caliber 130 mm / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts . Six of these were mounted in casemates . Her anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of four 63 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . They also mounted two submerged 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes . The ships were intended to carry one seaplane .
The cruisers ' waterline belt consisted of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of Krupp cemented armor and above it was an upper belt 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick . The gun shields were protected by 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of armour . Each of the armored decks was .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The armor of the conning tower was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
In 1917 , the Naval General Staff decided to add another seaplane and a crane to handle them . It also decided to upgrade Admiral Nakhimov 's anti @-@ aircraft guns to 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) weapons and the other ships of the class would receive 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) AA guns . Neither decision was implemented before construction was suspended .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and modifications = =
The first pair of ships was ordered in March 1914 and the second in October . The hulls of all four ships were to be built by the Russud Shipyard and fitted out by the Naval Shipyard . Construction was slowed by the Russian Revolution and the hulls of both Admiral Nakhimov and Admiral Lazarev were seized by the Germans when they captured Nikolayev in 1918 . They were later turned over the Allies in November in accordance with the Armistice . The Allies in turn handed them over to the White Russians the following year who assigned them to Wrangel 's fleet . Admiral Nakhimov was run aground by the dock workers while fitting @-@ out in Nikolayev later in 1919 to prevent her use by the Whites . She was later salvaged in 1920 by the Bolsheviks . Neither Admiral Istomin nor Admiral Kornilov were in shape to be completed after years of neglect and they were scrapped in 1922 – 23 .
Admiral Nakhimov was renamed Chervona Ukraina , ( Червона Украина – Red Ukraine ) on 26 December 1922 by the Soviets and completed on 21 March 1927 . She was mostly finished to the original design with some of the modifications proposed by the Naval General Staff in 1917 . A pair of cranes was fitted abreast the central funnel to lift the pair of seaplanes on and off the water and the area immediately abaft that funnel was modified to stow the aircraft . Her foremast was converted from a pole to a tripod and the submerged torpedo tubes were removed and replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts carried on her deck , two on each broadside . Chervona Ukraina was given a lengthy refit in 1939 – 41 where her aircraft and their handling equipment was removed and fire @-@ control equipment was modernized . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was replaced by three twin Italian Minizini 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun mounts , ten single 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns and seven 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns . One pair of her torpedo tubes was also removed .
Admiral Lazarev was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz ( Красный Кавказ – Red Caucasus ) on 14 December 1926 . The Soviets intended to upgrade her armament and finally settled on the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun in four single gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to accommodate these turrets and all of her original armament removed , as was her forward funnel . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) Lender guns mounted between her funnels . Like her sister , she also received four triple torpedo mounts . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines .
She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns were exchanged for four twin 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 45 mm 21 @-@ K gun were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more Minizini mounts salvaged from the sunken Chervona Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon .
= = Service = =
The light cruiser Komintern collided with Krasnyi Kavkaz in May 1932 , shortly after she was commissioned , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 meters ( 36 ft 1 in ) . Both ships made port visits to Turkey , Greece and Italy before World War II .
Chervona Ukraina , in company with Krasnyi Kavkaz , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive minefield protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June 1941 . They provided gunfire support to Soviet forces during the Siege of Odessa and escorted convoys bringing reinforcements into Odessa . Krasny Kavkaz transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . Both ships escorted convoys from Odessa to Sevastopol in October when the evacuation of Odessa was ordered . During the Siege of Sevastopol , they provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . Chervona Ukraina was hit three times by bombs from German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers on 12 November 1941 , but didn 't sink until the next day after her crew was ordered to abandon her . Her guns were salvaged and most of the guns and crew were incorporated into the port 's defenses ,
Krasnyi Kavkaz continued to ferry reinforcements into Sevastopol . During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation the ship sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 , landed reinforcements , and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . In early January 1942 , she was severely damaged by German dive bombers . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer Sposobnyi , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament .
She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , she helped to transport 12 @,@ 600 men from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Kavkaz provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of the ship 's active participation in the war .
= = = Post @-@ war activities = = =
Chervona Ukraina was raised on 3 November 1947 , repaired , and used as a training hulk until 30 October 1950 when she became a target ship . On 10 May 1952 , she was grounded on a spit to serve as a fixed target . Little is known about Krasny Kavkaz 's activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 13 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 .
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= Altes Stadthaus , Bonn =
The Altes Stadthaus is a former administration building in Bonn , built for the French occupation forces after World War I. It was designed by the Munich architect German Bestelmeyer in 1922 . Construction was completed in 1924 – 25 . The building most recently served as a public library and administration building . As of 2012 , the Altes Stadthaus is being renovated and extended as a " House of Learning " ( German : " Haus der Bildung " ) , which will accommodate the community college and the library .
= = Location and architecture = =
German Bestelmeyer designed the building to make an impressive entry point to the city on the north side . It was erected on a bastion that remained from the former city walls , opposite the University of Bonn , which occupies the former residential palace of the prince @-@ elector of Cologne on the site of the south bastion . A curved section adjoins Windeckstraße on the south side and defines the remaining bastion as a garden space . Along with the " Old Toll @-@ House " , this bastion is one of the few parts of the old fortifications accessible to the public . In the 1980s , a new access route was created from the Florentiusgraben , and the courtyard was landscaped and trees planted . In the late 1990s part of this small park was turned into a playground .
The Altes Stadthaus is arranged around two rectangular internal courtyards . The main section , which faces Mühlheimer Platz , has a mansard roof and is framed by four @-@ storey turrets . The main entrance is at the southwest corner of Bottlerplatz , and the building bridges Windeckstraße , with two low arched openings . Bestelmayer 's building was intended to be the nucleus of future development in the centre of Bonn . However , the only other construction there was the tax office on the corner of Mülheimer Platz and Münsterstraße , built in 1937 , and some further building on Bottlerplatz . After the Neues Stadthaus — the new city administration building — was built , the main floor of the section of Altes Stadthaus facing Mühlheimer Platz was rebuilt to house the library . In the course of this restructuring , the two courtyards were roofed over and several interior walls replaced with columns . The east wing of the building was demolished to make way for a C & A department store .
= = History = =
After World War II , the Bundesministerium für gesamtdeutsche Fragen was housed in the Altes Stadthaus between 1949 and 1957 , primarily in the now demolished section of the building .
In the summer of 2006 , the mayor and the speaker of the Social Democratic Party of Germany group in the city council announced plans to sell the Altes Stadthaus , relocating the library , the community college , and the city museum to a new building in Quantiusstraße , near the station . The Stadthaus was to be used as retail space .
= = = House of Learning = = =
The announcement to sell the building sparked a fierce public debate . The Green Party , at the time in a coalition with the SPD , strongly disagreed with the plan . The Christian Democratic Union party held a meeting in October 2006 . The director of the Bonn Women 's Museum , Marianne Pitzen , accused the initiators of the plan of selling off public property and underestimating the value of cultural heritage .
At the end of October 2006 , a citizens ' group was formed to promote the creation of a " House of Learning " ( German : " Haus der Bildung " ) at Bottlerplatz . The group demanded that the existing building and library should be kept and renovated .
At its session of 23 November 2006 , the planning committee of the city council charged its staff with examining how the Altes Stadthaus could be used for large @-@ scale retail without damaging it as an architectural landmark . The report , which was presented at the end of December , recommended reuse of the already modified internal space housing the library , and creation of additional usable space up to a total of approximately 1600 m ² . This could be done by lowering the floor to street level and modifying stairway areas without changing the external appearance of the building , which is characteristic of government buildings of the 1920s , particularly in its blocky ground floor . Changes to the upper floors , which remained largely in their original condition , were not recommended .
On 21 January 2007 , the SPD and CDU city councillors announced that they had agreed to house the " Haus der Bildung " in the Altes Stadthaus . The building will be extended to accommodate it . On 31 January 2007 , the city council voted to accept this plan , with Greens , Citizens ' Coalition , CDU and SPD members voting for it . The cost of the necessary remodelling and renovations is expected to exceed € 19 million .
An architectural contest concluded in October 2008 ; the entry of the Alexander Koblitz architecture firm of Berlin was chosen . The adjacent office building , the Siemenshaus , was demolished and on its site an extension to the Stadthaus is being erected that will incorporate a new main entrance . The work was planned to be completed in 2013 .
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= Belenggu =
Belenggoe ( Perfected Spelling : Belenggu ; translated to English as Shackles ) is a novel by Indonesian author Armijn Pane . The novel follows the love triangle between a doctor , his wife , and his childhood friend , which eventually causes each of the three characters to lose the ones they love . Originally published by the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe in three instalments from April to June 1940 , it was the magazine 's only published novel . It was also the first Indonesian psychological novel .
Belenggu was based on themes present in two of Pane 's early short stories : " Barang Tiada Berharga " ( " Worthless Thing " ; 1935 ) and " Lupa " ( " Forget " ; 1936 ) . The resulting novel , written to represent a stream of consciousness and using ellipses and monologues to show internal struggle , was very different from earlier Indonesian novels . Unlike said works , which kept to traditional themes such as good versus evil , Belenggu mainly focused on its characters ' psychological conflict . It also showed modernity and traditionalism as a binary system , unable to reach a compromise .
After completion , Belenggu was offered to the Dutch colonial government 's state publisher , Balai Pustaka , in 1938 , but rejected as " immoral " . It was then picked up by Poedjangga Baroe . Initial critical reception to the novel was mixed . Proponents argued that it served as an honest representation of the internal conflicts faced by Indonesian intellectuals , while opponents dismissed the novel as " pornographic " because of its inclusion of prostitution and adultery as normal facets of life . Later reviews have been more positive : in 1976 , the writer Muhammad Balfas called Belenggu " in every respect the best novel of pre @-@ war Indonesian literature " . The novel has been translated into several languages , including into English in 1989 .
= = Background = =
The first modern Indonesian novels published by the state @-@ owned publisher of the Dutch East Indies Balai Pustaka were often written to show intergenerational conflict and conflict between traditional ( adat ) and modern culture . These novels , published beginning in the 1920s , spearheaded the use of Indonesian as a national language . This national awakening , which was also realised through political actions , was followed in July 1933 with the establishment of the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe ( New Writer ) . The literary magazine , which Belenggu 's author Armijn Pane helped establish , was the first written mainly in Indonesian and with exclusively Indonesian editors .
Of the staff and contributors to Poedjangga Baroe , Pane was one of the biggest proponents for Westernisation . While others , such as his elder brother Sanusi , stressed the need for " Asian " values , the younger Pane disregarded conventional Indonesian morality . The literary historian Heather Sutherland writes that this may have been a result of Pane 's education at a school for Dutch children ; the others received Dutch @-@ language education for Indonesians .
= = Plot = =
The novel begins as Sukartono ( Tono ) , a Dutch @-@ trained doctor , and his wife Sumartini ( Tini ) , residents of Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , are suffering a marital breakdown . Tono is busy treating his patients , leaving no time for him to be with Tini . In response , Tini has become active in numerous social organisations and women 's groups , leaving her little time to deal with household work . This further distances Tono from her , as he expects her to behave like a traditional wife and be waiting for him at home , with dinner ready , when he returns from work .
One day , Tono receives a call from a Miss Eni , who asks him to treat her at a hotel . After Tono arrives at the hotel where Eni is staying , he discovers that she is actually his childhood friend Rohayah ( Yah ) . Yah , who has had romantic feelings for Tono since childhood , begins seducing him , and after a while he accepts her advances . The two begin furtively meeting , often taking long walks at the port Tanjung Priok . When Tini goes to Surakarta to attend a women 's congress , Tono decides to stay at Yah 's house for a week .
While at Yah 's , Tono and Yah discuss their pasts . Tono reveals that after he graduated from elementary school in Bandung , where he studied with Yah , he attended medical school in Surabaya and married Tini for her beauty . Meanwhile , Yah was forced to marry an older man and move to Palembang . After deciding that life as a wife was not for her , she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute , before serving as a Dutchman 's mistress for three years . Tono falls further in love with Yah , as he feels that she is more likely to be a proper wife for him ; Yah , however , does not consider herself ready for marriage .
Tono , a fan of traditional kroncong music , is asked to judge a singing competition at Gambir Market . While there , he discovers that Yah is also his favourite singer , who sings under the pseudonym Siti Hayati . At Gambir , he also meets with his old friend Hartono , a political activist with the political party Partindo , who enquires about Tini . On a later date , Hartono visits Tono 's home and meets Tini . It is revealed that Tini was romantically involved with Hartono while the two of them were in university , where Tini surrendered her virginity to him ; this action , unacceptable in traditional culture , made her disgusted with herself and unable to love . Hartono had made the situation worse by breaking off their relationship through a letter . When Hartono asks her to take him back , Tini refuses .
Tini discovers that Tono has been having an affair , and is furious . She then goes to meet Yah . However , after a long talk she decides that Yah is better for Tono and tells the former prostitute to marry him ; Tini then moves back to Surabaya , leaving Tono in Batavia . However , Yah feels that she would only ruin Tono 's respected status as a doctor because of her history . She decides to move to New Caledonia , leaving a note for Tono as well as a record with a song recorded especially for him as a way of saying goodbye . On the way to New Caledonia , Yah pines for Tono and hears his voice calling from afar , giving a speech on the radio . Tono , now alone , dedicates himself to his work in an attempt to fill the void left in his heart .
= = Characters = =
Sukartono
Sukartono ( abbreviated as Tono ) is a doctor , Tini 's husband and Yah 's lover . He treats poor patients for free and thus is well @-@ liked by the general populace . He is also a big fan of traditional kroncong music : in medical school he preferred to sing rather than study , and as a doctor he keeps a radio in his treatment room . Suffering from loneliness in his loveless marriage with the modern @-@ minded Tini , he becomes involved with Yah , whom he perceives as being more willing to play the traditional wife . However , when Tini and Yah leave him , he is left alone .
The Australian scholar of Indonesian literature A. Johns writes that Tono 's inner turmoil is caused by his inability to understand Tini , Yah , or the bacteria which he must kill to cure his patients .
Sumartini
Sumartini ( abbreviated as Tini ) is Tono 's ultra @-@ modern wife . While in university , she was very popular and enjoyed partying . During this time she lost her virginity to Hartono , an act which is viewed as unacceptable in traditional Indonesian culture ; when Hartono left her , Tini became increasingly aloof and distant from men . After marrying Tono , she felt increasingly lonely and became involved in social work as an effort to give her life meaning . After learning of Tono 's infidelity and seeing that Yah could take better care of him , Tini leaves her husband and moves to Surabaya .
Yoseph Yapi Taum , a lecturer at Sanata Dharma University in Yogyakarta , views Tini 's aloof nature as a major force driving Tono to Yah ; her lifestyle , of which Tono is not a part , alienates him and drives him to find a more traditional woman . Tham Seong Chee , a political scientist from Singapore , views her as a weak @-@ willed character , unwilling to act before meeting Hartono again and even then unable to solve her marital difficulties with Tono . He also sees her as being fettered by her own values , which are incompatible with those held by the general Indonesian populace . The Indonesian writer and literary critic Goenawan Mohamad views her as driven in part by the stress placed on her by her husband 's expectations .
Rohayah
Rohayah ( also known by the pseudonyms Nyonya Eni and Siti Hayati ; abbreviated Yah ) is Tono 's childhood friend and later lover , as well as a popular kroncong singer . After Tono , who is three years her elder , graduated from elementary school , Yah was forcibly married to a man twenty years her senior and brought from Bandung to Palembang . After escaping him and returning to Bandung , where she found that her parents had died , she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute ; she also became a popular kroncong singer under the pseudonym Siti Hayati . When she discovers that Tono has become a doctor in Batavia , she pretends to be a patient and seduces him . Although the two fall deeply in love , Yah decides to leave Tono and move to New Caledonia because she feels that society would view the doctor poorly if he married a former prostitute .
Tham sees Yah as being a good match for Tono in personality , as she shows a willingness to serve as the traditional wife . The American scholar of Indonesian literature Harry Aveling writes that Yah 's employment as a prostitute was likely a capitulation by Pane to cultural constraints ; Indonesian readers at the time would not have accepted Tono having an affair with someone of the same socio @-@ economic status . Mohamad describes her as being fatalistic and notes that she downplays her past by saying that any of a thousand girls in Tanjung Priok could tell the same story ; he found her touching without being melodramatic , and notes that Yah was the first prostitute featured portrayed sympathetically in an Indonesian work .
Hartono
Hartono is Tini 's lover from university ; he was also Tono 's friend . After hearing that Tini enjoys partying , he approaches her and they begin dating . After they have sex , he breaks off their relationship through a letter . He then drops out of university and becomes involved with the nascent nationalist movement , following future @-@ president Sukarno ; these acts cause his family to disown him . He later comes to Batavia to search for Tono and is surprised to find that Tini has married the doctor . Hartono asks her to run away with him , but she refuses . He then goes to Surabaya .
Clive Christie , a lecturer on Southeast Asian Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London , describes Hartono as the only overtly political character in the novel .
Women 's group
The various members of Tini 's women 's group , including Mrs. Sutatmo , Mrs. Padma , Mrs. Rusdio , and Aminah , aid her in planning different social events . Mrs. Rusdio is Tini 's friend from university . Aminah was one of Tini 's competitors for Tono and enjoys interfering in the couple 's lives . The other two disapprove of Tini 's modernness and her lack of attention to Tono .
Servants
Tono and Tini are served by two men , Karno and Abdul . Karno , Tono 's loyal manservant , dislikes Tini and considers her overly emotional . Abdul is their driver , who usually drives Tono to meet his patients .
= = Influences = =
Bakri Siregar , an Indonesian literary critic associated with the socialist literary organisation Lekra , notes that Pane was influenced in part by Sigmund Freud 's theories on psychoanalysis ; he writes that it is most evident in the dialogue , especially that of Tini . Taum , while noting psychoanalysis ' influence , notes that the novel follows the individual characters stream of consciousness , which gives the reader a greater understanding of the characters and their conflicts . The novel was written in the middle of the writer 's career , and two of Pane 's earlier short stories , " Barang Tiada Berharga " ( " Worthless Thing " ; 1935 ) and " Lupa " ( " Forget " ; 1936 ) , contained plot points used in Belenggu . " Barang Tiada Berharga " also dealt with a doctor and his wife , named Pardi and Haereni , who were characterised in a similar manner as Sukartono and Sumartini , while " Lupa " introduced the main character Sukartono . As the reigning Dutch colonial government forbade the involvement of politics in literature , Pane minimised the explicit effects of colonialism in the novel . Taum writes that Belenggu 's theme of contrasting modernity and traditionalism may have been influenced by , or even written as a response to , Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana 's 1936 novel Layar Terkembang ( With Sails Unfurled ) , which dealt with a similar theme but fully supported modernisation .
= = Style = =
Belenggu uses ellipses and internal monologues heavily to represent the main characters ' turmoil ; the Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw calls it a " three @-@ pronged interior monologue " , noting that the novel has minimal use of descriptive passages and dialogue . Unlike works published by Balai Pustaka , Belenggu does not provide full exposition ; instead , it only explicitly states key points and leaves the rest for the reader to interpret , thus inviting more active participation . Siregar notes that the characters are introduced one at a time , almost as if the novel were a film ; he writes that , as a result , at times the transition between characters is unclear .
Unlike authors of earlier works published by Balai Pustaka , Pane does not use old Malay proverbs ; he instead uses similes . Another way in which he writes differently from earlier writers is by limiting his use of the Dutch language ; earlier writers such as Abdul Muis and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana had used Dutch words – representative of the dominant colonial power – to illustrate the intellectualism of the main characters . Instead , in Belenggu Pane relies on the Indonesianised loanwords , with a glossary of difficult or uncommon words provided with early editions of the novel . Siregar wrote that Pane 's language reflected the actual use of Indonesian well .
= = Symbolism = =
According to Taum , the title Belenggu reflects the inner conflicts the main characters face that limit their actions . Taum points to the climax of the novel – in which Rohayah refuses to marry Sukartono because if she were to marry him he would lose face because of her past – as a prime example of these limitations . Siregar notes that such a reading is supported by dialogue between Hartono and Sukartono , in which they note that humans are inherently held back by their reminiscences of the past .
Uncommonly for Indonesian literature during this time period , Belenggu 's chapters were labelled with only a number – other works , such as Abdul Muis ' 1928 novel Salah Asuhan ( Wrong Upbringing ) , gave both a number and subtitle to the chapters . According to Taum , this change in style represents a stream of consciousness , as opposed to the earlier style which kept chapters separate .
= = Themes = =
= = = General = = =
Teeuw notes that , unlike most Indonesian novels at the time , Belenggu did not feature a good and pure protagonist in a struggle against an evil antagonist , or present conflict and differences between generations . It also eliminated the common themes of forced marriage and the youth 's nonacceptance of adat ( traditional culture ) . Instead , it showed a love triangle – common in Western literature but then unheard of in Indonesian literature – without an indication of whether any characters were good , evil , right , or wrong . Teeuw writes that the novel portrayed the interior struggle of a " new kind of human " , one who is the result of a mixture of Eastern and Western cultures . According to Christie , earlier themes in Indonesian literature such as feudalism and forced marriage are not intrinsically significant to the character 's lives in Belenggu .
= = = Living in the past = = =
A main theme found in Belenggu , reflected in the title , is if one is " shackled " to the past , then one cannot flourish ; Taum notes that this is reflected in Hartono 's dialogue to Tini , as follows :
" Mengapa tidak ? Mengapa bergantung kepada zaman dahulu ? ... Jangan dibesar @-@ besarkan , jangan persusah perkara mudah , nanti pikiran sebagai dibelenggu . ... Lupakanlah , matikanlah angan @-@ angan . Lepaskanlah belenggu ini . Buat apa tergantung pada zaman dulu ? "
" Why not ? Why be hung up on the past ? ... Don 't blow it out of proportion , don 't complicate simple things , your thoughts will be as if they are shackled . ... Forget it , kill those reveries . Release these shackles . Why be hung up on the past ?
Several further instances have been expounded by critics . Taum notes that Yah 's guilt over her past as a prostitute leads her to the ( unfounded ) fear that Tono would leave her if their relationship were known ; her guilt ultimately causes their separation , while Tono feels nostalgic for the past , in which he felt happier . Balfas notes that a factor driving Tono from Tini is the latter 's former relationship with Hartono ; due to her guilt over the affair , she is unable to express her love for the doctor . Siregar writes that such a theme is reflected in dialogue between Tono and Hartono , from which he suggests the novel derives its title . Balfas writes that there is no solution to the human problems presented in the novel .
= = = Modernity and traditionalism = = =
Taum indicates that Belenggu presents modernity and traditionalism as a binary system , contrasting the new with the old . For example , Sukartono , a doctor ( a position considered a symbol of modernity ) , is obsessed with the past , including his schoolmate Rohayah , and prefers traditional kroncong music over modern genres . Through the contrast of Sukartono and his ultra @-@ modern , emancipatory wife Sumartini , Pane emphasises that modernity does not necessarily bring happiness . Aveling agrees , writing that the conflict arises over Tini 's refusal to " mother " her husband as expected from a traditional wife . According to Taum , Tono wishes for Tini to perform traditional duties , such as removing his shoes . However , Tini , refuses to do so and instead keeps herself busy with social activities . This need for a wife who behaves as he wishes ultimately becomes a factor in his falling for Yah , who does everything expected from a traditional wife . However , in the end neither modern nor traditional values alone are enough to guarantee happiness .
= = = Intellectuals in society = = =
Christie notes that Belenggu contains a strong sense of alienation . He writes that the characters seem to be part of a " society suspended in a vacuum " , without an explicit connection to colonialism but also unable to come to terms with traditional mores . Christie describes Sukartono 's relationship with Rohayah as symbolic of attempts by intellectual to engage with the masses through a shared popular culture , but ultimately failing ; Taum notes such an thing occurring in a scene where Tini plays a sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven on her violin in front of a group of regular citizens who prefer local music . Teeuw agrees , writing that the novel shows a psychological burden borne by native intellectuals who found themselves physically fit for a modern existence , but mentally unprepared for the transition from a traditional lifestyle to a more modern one . He notes that the sceptical , modern intellectual , a category in which he includes Tono and Tini , was uncommon in local literature at the time . Tham sees the underlying message of Yah 's refusal to marry Tono as that " morals and ethical standards are frequently beyond the ken of intellect , reason , or rationality " , indicating that intellectuals may not be able to collaborate effectively with the masses . Johns notes that , although the Tono and Tini are thought to be decisive persons by society , they are actually confused and unsure .
= = Release = =
Belenggu was submitted to Balai Pustaka for publication in 1938 , but was accepted because of its perceived dissonance with public morality , particularly its portrayal of adultery and prostitution – key components of the plot – as acceptable . Eventually Belenggu was picked up by Poedjangga Baroe and published in a serial format in three editions between April and June 1940 . Belenggu was the only novel published by the magazine and the first Indonesian psychological novel . In 1969 , Belenggu received the first annual Literary Prize from the government of Indonesia , along with Marah Rusli 's Sitti Nurbaya ( 1922 ) , Salah Asuhan , and Achdiat Karta Mihardja 's Atheis ( Atheist ; 1949 ) .
Belenggu has been translated into multiple languages : in 1962 , Mandarin as 桎梏 ( Zhìgù ) ; in 1964 , Russian as Okovy ; in 1965 , Malay under the original title ; in 1989 , English as Shackles ; and in 1993 , German as In Fesseln . The Russian translation was done by A Pavlenko . The English translation , published by the Lontar Foundation , was done by John H. McGlynn . The German translation was done by Renate Lödel . As of 2008 the Indonesian @-@ language edition has seen twenty @-@ one printings .
= = Reception = =
Belenggu received a mixed reception upon its release . Proponents of the novel stated that it was daring , as it dealt with themes based on societal realities . For example , journalist S. K. Trimurti wrote that the novel clearly reflected issues faced by highly educated Indonesians in dealing with traditional culture . However , opponents of the novel dismissed it as " pornographic " , emphasising traditionally taboo acts like prostitution and adultery . The December 1940 issue of Poedjangga Baroe included comments from several other writers and literary critics , including Alisjahbana , HB Jassin , Karim Halim , and S. Djojopoespito . Alisjahbana wrote that the novel was fatalistic and defeatist , as he felt it did not portray the freedom of spirit necessary for people to choose their own destiny ; he decried the plot as lacking causality . Jassin found the characters to resemble caricatures , as their emotions were overly melodramatic , but considered the novel representative of works yet to come . Halim wrote that Belenggu represented a new school in Indonesian literature , with new language and new stories . Djojopoespito decried the book 's language , which he did not consider smooth , and plotlines , which he found uninteresting . According to Teeuw , the initial mixed reception was due in part to Indonesian readers – accustomed to idealised literature – being shocked by the realistic portrayals in Belenggu .
Later reviews have generally been more positive . In 1955 Johns wrote that Belenggu was a " great advance on any previous work " , with which the Indonesian novel came to maturity ; he praises the structure , plot , and presentation . Siregar , writing in 1964 , praised the novel 's diction , noting that Pane handled technical discussions especially well . Jassin wrote in 1967 that , although he found the characters still came across as caricatures , the novel was capable of making readers stop and think about modern conditions . In 1969 , Indonesian writer and literary critic Ajip Rosidi wrote that the novel was more interesting than earlier works because of its multi @-@ interpretable ending . The Indonesian writer and literary critic Muhammad Balfas wrote in 1976 that Belenggu was " in every respect the best novel of pre @-@ war Indonesian literature " . In his 1980 book on Indonesian literature , Teeuw wrote that despite several flaws in the psychological portrayal of the main characters , Belenggu was the only novel from before the Indonesian National Revolution in which a Western reader would feel truly involved ; he also called the novel Pane 's greatest contribution to Indonesia literature . Tham , writing in 1981 , described the novel as the best reflection of the then @-@ growing consciousness that Western values , such as individualism and intellectualism , contradicted traditional values .
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= Trucking industry in the United States =
The trucking industry serves the American economy by transporting large quantities of raw materials , works in process , and finished goods over land — typically from manufacturing plants to retail distribution centers . Trucks are also used in the construction industry , as dump trucks and portable concrete mixers move the large amounts of rocks , dirt , concrete , and other building materials used in construction . Trucks in America are responsible for the majority of freight movement over land , and are tools in the manufacturing , transportation , and warehousing industries .
Large trucks and buses require a commercial driver 's license ( CDL ) to operate . Obtaining a CDL requires extra education and training dealing with the special knowledge requirements and handling characteristics of such a large vehicle . Drivers of commercial motor vehicles ( CMVs ) must adhere to the hours of service , which are regulations governing the driving hours of commercial drivers . These , and all other rules regarding the safety of interstate commercial driving , are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) . The FMCSA is a division of the United States Department of Transportation ( USDOT ) , which governs all transportation @-@ related industries such as trucking , shipping , railroads , and airlines . Some other issues are handled by another branch of the USDOT , the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) .
Developments in technology , such as computers , satellite communication , and the Internet , have contributed to many improvements within the industry . These developments have increased the productivity of company operations , saved the time and effort of drivers , and provided new , more accessible forms of entertainment to men and women who often spend long periods of time away from home . In 2006 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implemented revised emission standards for diesel trucks ( reducing airborne pollutants emitted by diesel engines ) which promises to improve air quality and public health .
= = History = =
The trucking industry has affected the political and economic history of the United States in the 20th century . Before the invention of automobiles , most freight was moved by train or horse @-@ drawn vehicle .
Trucks were first used extensively by the military during World War I. With the increase in construction of paved roads , trucking began to achieve significant foothold in the 1930s . Public safety concerns made it necessary to implement various government regulations ( such as the 1965 hours of service rule ; recently revised with a compliance date of July 1 , 2012 ) of how long drivers were allowed to work and drive each day / week . In 1956 , Congress provided funds to build the Interstate Highway System , an extensive network of highways and freeways that linked major cities across the continent . The addition of Interstate Highway System also made it possible for the trucking industry to grow substantially in the late 1950s and early 1960s and trucking has come to dominate the freight industry in the latter portion of the 20th century .
Trucking achieved national attention during the 1960s and 70s , when songs and movies about truck driving were major hits . Truck drivers participated in widespread strikes against the rising cost of fuel , during the energy crises of 1973 and 1979 . Congress deregulated the trucking industry with the passage of the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 .
= = 1990s @-@ present = =
Advances in modern technology have enabled significant improvements within the trucking industry . Trucks are commonly equipped with satellite communication features , automatic transmissions are gaining in popularity , and truck stops featuring WiFi Internet access are now commonplace .
= = = Exhaust emissions = = =
Components of diesel exhaust were confirmed as an animal carcinogen in 1988 by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , and by 2002 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) considered it " likely to be carcinogenic to humans " . The particulate matter of diesel exhaust has been linked to ( among other health effects ) lung cancer , chronic bronchitis , and aggravated asthma ; it has also been identified as a greenhouse gas . " For these and other reasons , alternatives and improvements to standard diesel fuel have been developed .
Biodiesel ( in its pure form ) is a non @-@ toxic , biodegradable form of diesel fuel made from vegetable oil , usually soybean oil or recycled restaurant grease . Biodiesel promises a reduction in some exhaust emissions , as well as reduced dependence on foreign petroleum supplies .
Starting in June 2006 , petroleum refiners were required by the EPA to begin producing ultra @-@ low sulfur diesel ( ULSD ) fuel , which has 97 % less sulfur than the previous low sulfur diesel fuel . When fuel containing sulfur is burned , sulfur dioxide is produced , a main component of acid rain . ULSD , together with new air pollution control technologies required in trucks ( starting with model year 2007 ) , will reduce harmful emissions by 90 % .
By the time the action is fully implemented , the EPA estimates that 2 @.@ 6 million tons of smog @-@ causing nitrogen oxide emissions will be eliminated each year . Soot or particulate matter will be reduced by an estimated 110 @,@ 000 tons a year . The reduction in sulfur will also prevent an estimated 8 @,@ 300 premature deaths , 5 @,@ 500 cases of chronic bronchitis and 17 @,@ 600 cases of acute bronchitis in children . In addition , an estimated 360 @,@ 000 asthma attacks and 386 @,@ 000 cases of respiratory symptoms in asthmatic children will also be avoided every year .
When not driving , truck drivers need to idle their engines to maintain climate control within the truck cab ( interior ) , as well as provide electricity for appliances . Engine idling is inefficient and only adds to the problem of air pollution . This unnecessary idling can be remedied with shore power ( which is a term and idea borrowed from the shipping industry ) , or Truck Stop Electrification . When ships are docked in a port , they connect to a land @-@ based power supply to provide electricity and eliminate the need to idle their engines . The idea of shore power was transferred to the trucking industry , and now there are companies such as IdleAire and Shorepower which provide electricity to diesel trucks , which eliminates the need for the driver to idle the engine . IdleAire also provides access to the Internet , cable television , and land line phone services . IdleAire promises to eliminate one @-@ eighth of nitrogen oxide pollution through " electrified parking " , however , particulate pollution may increase in those areas where the electricity is provided by coal burning power plants . Some drivers are also experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells , which provide clean and silent power for appliances when trucks are not running .
= = = Fuel efficiency = = =
With the fuel price increases of the 2000s , the EPA and many companies have sought to increase diesel truck fuel economy . One such example is the hydraulic hybrid vehicle , which stores energy in hydraulic tanks and hydraulic motors ( as opposed to the electric hybrid vehicle which uses batteries and regenerative brakes ) . Electric hybrid vehicles are another option , with savings of 35 to 60 percent over traditional vehicles . Drivers themselves may improve fuel efficiency by using a method called progressive shifting , in which the driver shifts through the gears ( typical trucks may have between 10 and 18 gears ) in such a manner as to optimize the power range of the engine .
= = = Technology = = =
Like many other industries , the trucking industry has benefited from the use of computers and the Internet . The Internet helps firms explore new opportunities by aggressive sales and marketing . The incremental cost of conducting business transactions on the Internet is as little as one fifteenth as expensive as paper transactions .
Given the limitations on truck weight and size , increased productivity in the industry comes from two sources : fewer empty miles and less time waiting between loads . U.S. Department of Transportation figures indicate that empty routes have continued to account for 29 % of single @-@ unit truck traffic ; this has been equated to an annualized 15 billion gallons of gasoline , $ 30 billion cost , or 149 million tons of excess carbon emissions . Traditional freight brokers acted as intermediaries to manage the coordination of freight , helping independent drivers or companies match loads with available empty trucks . Increasingly , computerized brokers are threatening the future of traditional human brokers by offering increased efficiency . In addition , shipper @-@ driven brokerage over the Internet enables shippers to post loads and solicit bids directly from carriers . Instead of relying upon traditional freight brokers , shippers function as their own brokers , dealing directly with freight companies .
Developments in satellite technology have fostered increased communication and productivity within the trucking industry . Drivers may input the information from a bill of lading into a simple text @-@ only dot matrix display screen ( commonly called a " Qualcomm " , for their ubiquitous OmniTRACS system ) . This allows the driver to communicate with their dispatcher , who is normally responsible for determining and informing the driver of their pick @-@ up and drop @-@ off locations . Drivers are no longer required to find the nearest public phone in order to relay information regarding their load status , it can be done without leaving the truck cab .
The driver inputs the information , using a keyboard , into an automated system of pre @-@ formatted messages known as macros . There are macros for each stage of the loading and unloading process , such as " loaded and leaving shipper " and " arrived at final destination " . This system also allows the company to track the drivers fuel usage , speed , gear optimization , engine idle time , location , direction of travel , and amount of time spent driving .
Trucks equipped with GPS satellite navigation units have enabled drivers to forgo a traditional paper @-@ based map , saving time and effort . Drivers willing to pay for satellite radio or who work for a company that pays for it can listen to commercial @-@ free music , sports , news , and talk radio coast @-@ to @-@ coast without interruption of signals between cities ( as terrestrial radio signals are limited to a certain radius from the broadcasting tower ) . Digital satellite television allows smaller dish sizes , which means truck drivers are not limited to free terrestrial broadcast television , and have more options about what they watch during their off @-@ duty periods .
= = = Automatic transmissions = = =
Increasingly , companies have been equipping their trucks with automatic transmissions for a variety of reasons . Operating a manual transmission requires more skill and attention on the part of the driver , partly due to the unsynchronized transmission found in heavy @-@ duty trucks . Companies have found that switching from manual to automatic transmissions has many benefits , including increased fuel efficiency , increased driver retention , reduced wear and tear on the internal gears of transmissions ( inexperienced drivers may frequently grind the gears if proper shifting techniques are not followed ) , reduced driver fatigue , and reduced accidents ( manuals require more attention from the driver , thus increasing the chances for an accident ) . All of these factors together add up to benefit the company by reducing costs incurred from transmission repairs , accidents , and driver turnover ( a driver frustrated by a manual transmission may decide to quit his / her job ) .
= = = Top US trucking firms = = =
As of May 2015 , over 90 @.@ 0 % of players in the United States long @-@ distance freight trucking industry are owner @-@ operators . Therefore , even the top corporate operators only hold a small share of the total market . According to the industry market research firm IBISWorld , J.B. Hunt Transport Services holds an estimated 2 @.@ 5 % market share , YRC Worldwide holds 1 @.@ 8 % , FedEx holds 1 @.@ 6 % , United Parcel Service of America owns 1 @.@ 5 % , and Con @-@ way holds 1 @.@ 4 % .
In 2005 the Logistics Management ranked the top 10 US trucking firms ( by net revenue ) as :
( Industry overview , ranking TL and LTL trucking firms together . )
= = Economic impact = =
The importance of trucking is communicated by the industry adage : " If you bought it , a truck brought it . " Retail stores , hospitals , gas stations , garbage disposal , construction sites , banks , and even a clean water supply depends entirely upon trucks to distribute vital cargo . Even before a product reaches store shelves , the raw materials and other stages of production materials that go into manufacturing any given product are moved by trucks .
In modern times , railroads are primarily used to haul bulk quantities of cargo over long distances . Unless a manufacturing or distribution facility has a direct connection to the railroad , the remainder of the trip must be handled by truck . Recent implementation of " just in time " strategies have resulted in the increased use of trucks to help satisfy businesses ' fluid inventory needs . Using this strategy , businesses gain the ability to reduce the costs associated with excess inventory and larger warehousing facilities by requiring more frequent deliveries . According to an industry group , many retail , commercial , and government services require daily or weekly deliveries to keep supplies or merchandise on hand . Many hospitals have also moved to " just in time " inventory systems . The nation 's busiest gas stations require deliveries of fuel several times per day , while the average station receives fuel every two to three days . Grocery stores require deliveries of perishable food items every two to three days .
Trucks are vitally important to U.S. industry , however , measuring the impact of trucking on the economy is more difficult , because trucking services are so intertwined with all sectors of the economy . According to the measurable share of the economy that trucking represents , the industry directly contributes about 5 percent to the gross domestic product annually . In addition , the industry plays a critical support role for other transportation modes and for other sectors of the economy such as the resource , manufacturing , construction , and wholesale and retail trade industries .
Within the energy industry , approximately 4 percent of crude oil and petroleum products were shipped by truck in 2012 . These shipments are handled by oil and gas logistics firms , which are midstream service providers that also handle transport by pipeline , rail , and barge . Dominant companies in this space include Aux Sable , Bridger Group , DCP Midstream , Enbridge Energy Partners , Enterprise Products Partners , Genesis Energy , Gibson Energy , Inergy Midstream , Kinder Morgan Energy Partners , Oneok Partners , Sunoco Logistics , Targa Midstream Services , TransCanada , and Williams Companies .
Agricultural products totaling $ 118 @,@ 832 @,@ 000 , or 82 @.@ 7 percent , were shipped by truck in 2007 ( excluding animal feed , cereal grains , and forage products ) . About half of that agricultural freight was shipped by for @-@ hire trucks and half by private trucks . More than 92 percent of prepared foods , including dairy products and prepared fruit , vegetable , and nut products , were moved by truck in 2007 .
Within the health care industry , trucking moved $ 501 @,@ 445 @,@ 000 worth , or 65 percent of the total value , of pharmaceutical products in 2007 .
Lumber and other wood products totaling $ 168 @,@ 913 @,@ 000 were shipped by truck in 2007 , accounting for 91 @.@ 9 percent of this class of product .
Over 80 percent of all communities in the US rely exclusively on trucks to deliver all of their fuel , clothing , medicine , and other consumer goods . The trucking industry employs 10 million people ( out of a total national population of 300 million ) in jobs that relate directly to trucking . The trucking industry is the industry of small business , considering 93 percent of interstate motor carriers ( over 500 @,@ 000 ) operate 20 or fewer trucks .
= = Rules and regulations = =
A division of the U.S. Department of Transportation , the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) regulates nearly all aspects of the trucking industry . Truck drivers are limited by the number of daily and weekly hours they may drive , the roads and highways they may drive upon , and a lower legal definition of drunkenness . The Federal Highway Administration has established 0 @.@ 04 percent as the blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) level at or above which a CMV driver is deemed to be driving under the influence of alcohol . States maintain a BAC level between 0 @.@ 08 and 0 @.@ 10 percent for non @-@ CMV drivers . In some states , trucks also have special speed limits , in addition to restrictions on driving in certain lanes ( normally the far left lanes of multi @-@ lane highways ) .
= = = Commercial driver 's license = = =
Trucks come in many different sizes , creating the need for a truck classification system . Truck drivers are required to have a commercial driver 's license ( CDL ) to operate a CMV carrying more than 16 passengers , carrying a certain amount of hazardous materials , or weighing in excess of 26 @,@ 000 pounds ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) . Acquiring a CDL requires a skills test ( driving test ) , and knowledge test ( written test ) covering the unique handling qualities of driving a large , heavily loaded 18 @-@ wheeler ( e.g. , backing maneuvers ) , and the mechanical systems required to operate such a vehicle ( e.g. , air brakes and vehicle inspection procedures ) .
= = = Hours of service = = =
The FMCSA defines a CMV as a single or combination ( truck and trailer ) vehicle with a gross weight of 10 @,@ 001 pounds ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) or more , or a vehicle used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under the hazardous materials regulations . The length of time a driver may spend operating a CMV is limited by a set of rules known as the hours of service ( HOS ) . These laws are designed to protect the general motoring public by reducing accidents caused by driver fatigue .
The first version of the HOS were enacted in 1938 , and four revisions have been made since . The more recent revisions have relied on research into the human circadian rhythm ( the tendency for humans to follow a natural 24 @-@ hour cycle with 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep ) . As of July 1 , 2013 a driver is limited to 11 hours of actual driving within a 14 @-@ hour period , and requires a 30 @-@ minute break during the first 8 hours of on duty time . After which he / she must rest for 10 hours . The rules do not explicitly require that a driver must sleep , only that a driver must take a period of " rest " within the sleeper berth or off duty ( i.e. , at home ) .
Keeping track of a driver 's HOS requires the use of a log book . A truck driver 's log book is a legally defined form containing a grid outlining the 24 @-@ hour day into 15 @-@ minute increments . The driver must specify where and when he / she stopped between driving shifts , what duties were performed ( if any ) , along with the driver 's name , truck number , company info , and other information . The driver must also present his or her log book to authorities upon request , for inspection . In lieu of a log book , a motor carrier may substitute an electronic on @-@ board recorder to record the driver 's hours .
= = = Weight , size , and route restrictions = = =
The FMCSA regulates the length , width , and weight limits of CMVs for interstate commercial traffic . Interstate commercial traffic is generally limited to a network of interstate freeways , U.S. highways and state highways known as the National Network ( NN ) . Provided the truck remains on the NN , they are not subject to the state limits . State limits ( which can be lower or higher than federal limits ) come into effect for intrastate commercial traffic , provided the vehicle is not on the NN .
There is no federal height limit , and states may set their own limits which range from 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) ( mostly on the east coast ) to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) ( west coast ) . , As a result , the majority of trucks are somewhere between 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) high . Truck drivers are responsible for checking bridge height clearances ( usually indicated by a warning sign ) before passing underneath an overpass or entering a tunnel . Not having enough vertical clearance can result in a " top out " or " bridge hit , " causing considerable traffic delays and costly repairs for the bridge or tunnel involved .
The federal gross weight limit for a Class 8 truck is 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) ( combined weight of truck , trailer , and cargo ) with axle weights limited to 12 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) ( steering axle ) and 34 @,@ 000 pounds ( 15 @,@ 000 kg ) ( tandem axles ) . Truck drivers are responsible for checking their own vehicle 's weight , usually by paying to be weighed at a truck stop scale . CMVs are subject to various state and federal laws regarding limitations on truck length ( measured from bumper to bumper ) , and truck axle length ( measured from axle to axle , or fifth wheel kingpin to axle for trailers ) . The relationship between axle weight and spacing , known as the Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula , is designed to protect bridges . Truck weights and sizes are checked by state authorities at a weigh station or port @-@ of @-@ entry .
= = Truck drivers = =
= = = Definition = = =
Truck drivers are persons employed as the operator of a CMV . CMVs can be of varying shapes and sizes , from 10 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) pickup trucks assigned to haul specialized or small quantities of freight , all the way up to 80 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) semi @-@ trailer trucks . Trucks are assigned a class rating based upon the gross vehicle weight rating ( GVWR ) . The facts in this section refer to drivers of " heavy duty " trucks ( with a GVWR of at least 26 @,@ 000 pounds ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) , which require a commercial driver 's license to operate ) .
= = = Working environment = = =
Truck drivers spend up to 11 hours a day driving , and up to 14 hours a day engaged in various duties ( including driving time ) such as fueling , filling out paperwork , obtaining vehicle repairs and conducting mandatory vehicle inspections . Long @-@ haul drivers often spend weeks away from home , spending their time off and sleeping at truck stops or rest areas . Driving is relatively dangerous work , as truck drivers account for 12 percent and the highest total number of all work @-@ related deaths , and are five times more likely to die on the job than the average worker . Smoking , lack of exercise , unhealthy eating habits , and work @-@ related injuries also contribute to the driver 's generally risk @-@ prone lifestyle . A survey by the National Institutes of Health found 67 percent of long @-@ haul drivers were smokers or had quit smoking .
= = = Turnover = = =
In 2006 , the U.S. trucking industry employed 1 @.@ 8 million drivers of heavy trucks . A major problem for the long @-@ haul trucking industry is that a large percentage of these drivers are aging , and are expected to retire . Very few new hires are expected in the near future , resulting in a driver shortage . As of 2005 , within the long @-@ haul sector , there is an estimated shortage of 20 @,@ 000 drivers . That shortage was projected to increase to 111 @,@ 000 by 2014 , however the actual shortage of truck drivers in 2014 was around 38 @,@ 000 . The trucking industry ( especially the long @-@ haul sector ) is also facing an image crisis due to the long working hours , long periods of time away from home , the dangerous nature of the work , and the average earnings compared to other forms of labor ( such as construction , which was 1 percent higher than trucking in 2004 ) .
Employee turnover within the long @-@ haul trucking industry is notorious for being extremely high . In the 4th quarter of 2005 , turnover within the largest carriers in the industry reached a record 136 percent , which means for every 100 new employees hired , 136 quit their jobs . This has resulted in a " revolving door " within most long @-@ haul trucking companies , as drivers are constantly switching jobs or quitting the industry altogether . Driver turnover within the short @-@ haul and less @-@ than @-@ truckload ( LTL ) industries is considerably less ( around 15 percent ) , mainly due to the better working conditions , higher pay , and unionized workers . One study suggests that larger companies with irregular routes , longer average lengths of hauls , and older equipment experience much higher rates of driver turnover .
= = = Serial killings controversy = = =
In 2009 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) released the results of a five @-@ year @-@ long study ( the Highway Serial Killings Initiative ) investigating the unsolved murders of prostitutes , hitchhikers , and stranded motorists . Over 500 female victims have been compiled in a database , most of whom were killed or discarded at truck stops , hotels , and roadsides . The FBI has speculated that many of these victims were murdered by long @-@ haul truck drivers , some of whom may be serial killers . Investigators speculate that the easy access to potential victims , mobility , and lack of supervision enjoyed by long @-@ haul truck drivers have contributed to this phenomenon . The head of the initiative , Michael Harrigan , says most of the victims lead high @-@ risk lifestyles ( e.g. , prostitution ) which left them particularly vulnerable . In 2004 , the FBI began investigating a string of murders in which the victims were found along the Interstate 40 corridor in Oklahoma and several other states , which sparked the creation of the Highway Serial Killings Initiative .
In response to the investigation , executive vice president of the Owner @-@ Operator Independent Drivers Association , Todd Spencer , said " Truckers are just absolutely outraged that various media sources or the FBI would draw the conclusion that truckers are over @-@ represented in the ranks of serial killers " .
= = Trucking organizations = =
Teamsters Union
Owner @-@ Operator Independent Driver Association
American Trucking Association
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= The Baby Shower ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Baby Shower " is the tenth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld , and the show 's 15th episode overall . In the episode , Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) throws a baby shower for her friend Leslie ( Christine Dunford ) at Jerry 's ( Jerry Seinfeld ) apartment , while he is out of town . Jerry 's friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) once had a terrible date with Leslie and intends to confront her at the shower . Meanwhile , Jerry is convinced by his neighbour Kramer ( Michael Richards ) to install illegal cable television .
Larry Charles wrote the episode , which was directed by Tom Cherones , and was partly based on a friend of his who was pregnant but did not want to experience childbirth . The episode also contained a dream sequence in which the title character was killed , as Charles was interested in " the Quentin Tarantino version of a sitcom " . All of the characters ' storylines intersect in the final scenes , an element that the writing staff would continue to use in later episodes . The episode 's first broadcast in the United States on May 16 , 1991 gained a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 / 21 and was negatively received by critics .
= = Plot = =
Elaine holds a baby shower for her friend Leslie at Jerry 's apartment , while Jerry is performing in Buffalo . George is excited , as he expects the baby shower to be the perfect opportunity to confront the woman who gave him the worst date of his life by pouring Bosco chocolate sauce on his red collared shirt while doing performance art . Jerry is frustrated by his television 's bad reception , and is convinced by Kramer to have cable illegally installed by two Russians ( Vic Polizos and James Lashly ) .
As Jerry is sleeping on the plane he dreams of returning to his apartment only to find several FBI agents there interrogating Kramer , who apparently has ratted out Jerry . When Jerry protests that he had nothing to do with it , they reveal that the Russian was an undercover FBI agent . Jerry tries to flee only to be gunned down by the agents . This jolts him awake . He finds his show is canceled due to bad weather , and George picks up Jerry at the airport . Jerry is initially amazed that George is perfectly willing , even anxious to drive Jerry home . When he informs George they cannot go back to his apartment because of the baby shower , George insists and Jerry discovers that George is wearing the red shirt and is just using the favor as a chance to encounter Leslie at the baby shower . Meanwhile , Kramer and the two Russians crash the shower to install cable television , start to eat all the food and get into a heated argument . When George and Jerry arrive , George 's plan proves unsuccessful , as he cannot muster the courage confront Leslie and instead awkwardly tries to curry her favor . He is interrupted when one of the other party guests suddenly confronts Jerry because he never called her back after a date . This unpleasant scene is the final straw and the guests leave hurriedly . On the way out of the bathroom the angry woman bumps Leslie and her dessert into George , adding a chocolate cake stain to the Bosco stain already on the shirt . Jerry changes his mind about the cable hook @-@ up , but is still charged with a large amount of money . When he refuses to pay , the Russians break the picture tube of his television set .
= = Production = =
" The Baby Shower " was written by Larry Charles and directed by Tom Cherones , who directed all of season two 's episodes . The episode was the first episode written by Charles , who would remain with the show through the fifth season . Charles had met Seinfeld co @-@ creator Larry David and Richards , when he was part of the writing staff of the ABC sketch show Fridays , David and Richards were part of the show 's ensemble cast . He had been unable to write for the show 's first season , as Charles had been writing for The Arsenio Hall Show during its production . Charles frequently had difficulty with writing Jerry 's stand @-@ up material , therefore , in " The Baby Shower " , Seinfeld used some of his own material . The episode was a combination of loose storylines that had been brought to the writers table . Charles explained that the writing staff of the show considered it a challenge to weave together loose ideas into one episode . The episode was partly based on a friend of Charles , who was pregnant but did not want to experience childbirth and therefore asked the doctor to anesthetize her . Charles thought this was very ironic . The Leslie character was largely based on Karen Finley and Johanna Went , two performance artists who both used foods in their acts , Charles considered them " a ripe target for satire " .
As Charles was always trying to find elements that were unusual in sitcoms , the episode had a scene in which Jerry dreams he is interrogated by the FBI for his illegal cable hookup , and is killed when he tries to escape . Charles recalled the dream sequence as " one of the most ambiguous scenes we did [ in season two ] " and felt it was very Tarantino @-@ like . At the end of the dream Kramer holds Jerry in his arm , stating " what have you done to my little cable boy ? " ; this scene had to be filmed multiple times , as it was hard for Seinfeld not to laugh when Richards stated the line . In audio commentary he recorded for the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD set , Charles noted how he established three of the episode 's four storylines in one scene , in which the characters eat and talk at Monk 's Cafe . " The Baby Shower " also is one of the few episodes of season two in which the primary storylines of all four characters come together in the final scene . In " The Busboy " , which had been filmed earlier , the four storylines also intersected in the final scene , but the episode aired as the final episode of season two . Charles also felt the episode defined the Kramer character more , as it is the first episode in which Kramer speaks out against the system . In addition , the episode also establishes Elaine 's interest in the Kennedys , a plot element that would return later in the season four episode " The Virgin " .
" The Baby Shower " was first read by the show 's cast on November 14 , 1990 . It was filmed in front of a live audience on November 20 . A technique called " Poor Man 's Process " was used during the car scene with George and Jerry ; one or two crew members would shake the car to give the impression that it was moving , though it never actually was . Other crew members would move lights around the set to simulate street lights or headlights of other cars . Behind the car , two lights on a wheeled stand were placed to give the impression that there was a car behind it . A cheap plastic sticker was put on Jerry 's television screen to give the impression that it was broken . A number of scenes were changed or cut during production of the episode . In early drafts of the script , the episode opened with Kramer telling Jerry about the Russian cable installers . In the first draft of the script Elaine and Jerry would realize ahead of time that the baby shower and the cable installation would take place at the same time . This was changed as the writers felt it would be better left as a surprise . Some dialogue was removed from the scene , as Kramer initially told Jerry Benjamin Franklin would have wanted free cable . Additional dialogue between the baby shower guests regarding turning off men was also cut . The scene in which Mary Cantardi , a woman Jerry went out with once but never called afterwards , makes a scene at the baby shower was not in the original script , but was added during rehearsals to give Seinfeld more involvement in the final scene .
Don Perry guest starred as an airplane passenger next to Jerry , when he wakes up from his nightmare . Perry states that he might be the last person Jerry will see alive . This line was not in the original script , but was added because Perry , as Charles explained , " just had the right look " . Christine Dunford was cast as Leslie , Charles commented " she just came in ; gave a great reading . At this point in our show business history , I don 't think we knew anybody " . Dunford would return later as a saleswoman in the season five episode " The Pie " . Margaret Reed , best known for her role on the soap opera As the World Turns , appeared as Mary Cantardi , a woman who screams at Jerry for not calling her back after a date . Vic Polizos and James Lashly guest @-@ starred as the Russian cable installers . Norman Brenner , who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons , appears as an extra in the first scene of the episode , standing at the counter at Monk 's Cafe .
= = Reception = =
" The Baby Shower " was first broadcast in the United States on NBC on May 16 , 1991 . It received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 21 , indicating that 12 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 21 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it .
" The Baby Shower " met with negative responses from critics . Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode with a D , stating " After a promising opening , this baby quickly degenerates into heavy @-@ handed farce " . The episode was ranked third on a list of Seinfeld 's " Not @-@ so @-@ top episodes " , compiled by the New York Daily News .
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= Cynthia Lennon =
Cynthia Lennon ( née Powell ; 10 September 1939 – 1 April 2015 ) was the first wife of English musician John Lennon , and mother of Julian Lennon . She grew up in the middle @-@ class section of Hoylake , on the Wirral Peninsula in North West England . At the age of 12 , she was accepted into the Junior Art School , and was later enrolled in the Liverpool College of Art . John Lennon also attended the college ; a meeting with Powell in a calligraphy class led to their relationship .
When John was performing in Hamburg with the Beatles , she rented his bedroom from his aunt and legal guardian , Mimi Smith . After Powell became pregnant , she and John were married on 23 August 1962 at the Mount Pleasant register office in Liverpool and from 1964 to 1968 , they lived at Kenwood in the Surrey town of Weybridge , where she kept house and participated with her husband in a London @-@ based social life . In 1968 , John left her for Japanese avant @-@ garde conceptual artist Yoko Ono and as a result , the couple 's divorce was legally granted on 8 November 1968 on the grounds of John 's adultery with Ono .
She married Italian hotelier Roberto Bassanini in 1970 , divorcing him in 1973 . In 1976 , she married John Twist , an engineer from Lancashire , but divorced him in 1983 . After her divorce from Twist , she changed her name back to " Lennon " by deed poll and met Jim Christie , her partner for 17 years . She was later married to Noel Charles , a night club owner , from 2002 until his death in 2013 . She published a book of memoirs , A Twist of Lennon , in 1978 , and a more intimate biography , John , in 2005 . Over the years she staged several auctions of memorabilia associated with her life with John Lennon . In 2006 , she and her son Julian Lennon attended the Las Vegas premiere of the Cirque du Soleil production of Love whose theme is the music of the Beatles . Until her death in 2015 , she lived in Majorca , Spain .
= = Early years = =
Cynthia Powell was born on 10 September 1939 in Blackpool , Lancashire , England , the youngest of three children of Charles Powell and his wife Lillian ( née Roby ) , who already had two sons a number of years older , Charles and Anthony . Charles Powell worked for the GEC company . The Powells had lived in Liverpool , but along with other pregnant women , Lillian Powell was sent to the safer Blackpool after World War II had been declared , and lived in a small room in a bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast on the Blackpool seafront . After the birth , with Liverpool becoming a frequent target of German air raids , the Powell family moved to a two @-@ bedroomed semi @-@ detached house in Hoylake . This was a middle @-@ class area on the Wirral Peninsula , considered " posh " by those in Liverpool .
At the age of 11 , she won an art prize in a competition organised by the Liverpool Echo . One year later she was accepted into Liverpool 's Junior Art School , which was also attended by Bill Harry , later editor of Liverpool 's Mersey Beat newspaper .
= = Art college = =
When Powell was 17 , her father died after a long battle with lung cancer . Before he died , he told her she would have to get a job to support her mother , and would not be able to go to art school . As her mother wanted her to receive an education , she rented out a room to four apprentice electricians . In September 1957 , Powell gained a place at the Liverpool College of Art . Although studying graphics , she also took lettering classes , as did Lennon . He never had any drawing tools with him , so he constantly borrowed pens and pencils from Powell , who discovered he was only there because other teachers had refused to instruct him . She had an air of respectability and moved in different social circles than her future husband . Lennon and an art school friend , Geoff Mohammed , used to make fun of her by stopping the conversation when she walked in the room , saying : " Quiet please ! No dirty jokes ; it 's Cynthia . "
Powell once overheard Lennon give a compliment to a girl with blonde hair in the college , who looked similar to the French actress Brigitte Bardot . The next Saturday , Powell turned up at the college with her hair several shades blonder . Lennon noticed straight away , exclaiming , " Get you , Miss Hoylake ! " ( Lennon 's nickname for her , along with " Miss Powell " or " Miss Prim " ) . Dressed like a Teddy Boy , he sometimes brought a guitar with him into class , and once sang " Ain 't She Sweet " directly to Powell .
= = = Relationship with John Lennon = = =
After a college party to celebrate the end of term , Lennon asked Powell if she would like to " go out " with him . She quickly replied that she was engaged to a young man in Hoylake , he replied , " I didn 't ask you to marry me , did I ? " He later approached her and asked if she would go to the Ye Cracke pub . She was confused when he ignored her all evening , but eventually invited her into the group with a joke .
They began dating , with Lennon now referring to her as " Cyn " . In the autumn of 1958 , she ended her engagement to be with him , and he ended his relationship with another art student , Thelma Pickles . His jealousy could also manifest itself in violent behaviour towards her , as when he slapped her across the face ( causing her head to hit a wall ) , after watching her dance with Stuart Sutcliffe . After the incident , she broke up with Lennon for three months , but resumed their relationship after his profuse apology . Another time a cleaning woman at the college caught Lennon hitting her and suggested she stay away from him .
Her work at art school began to suffer , and teachers told her the relationship with Lennon was doing her no good . Lennon continued to be casually inconsiderate towards her , later saying , " I was in sort of a blind rage for two years . I was either drunk or fighting . It had been the same with other girl friends I 'd had . There was something the matter with me . " Tony Bramwell — a friend of Lennon 's since his youth — later said : " Cynthia was beautiful , physically , and on the inside . Although she knew he [ Lennon ] was apt to find love on the road , she was totally dedicated to his success ... and extremely influential . He was insecure and Cynthia was there to pump him up , to buttress , sort of , his weak side . "
The Beatles ' first Hamburg residency took place in 1960 , with Lennon writing frequent and passionate letters back home to Powell . After returning home , Lennon 's aunt and legal guardian , Mimi Smith , threw a hand @-@ mirror at him for spending a lot of money on a suede coat for Powell . Smith later referred to her as " a gangster 's moll " , and was often unpleasant towards her . The Beatles went to Hamburg for a second time in 1961 , and both Powell and Dot Rhone ( Paul McCartney 's girlfriend at the time ) , visited them two weeks later , during the Easter holidays . They had to stay up all night because of the long sets , with both taking Preludin to stay awake , which the group were also taking . Lennon and Powell stayed with Sutcliffe 's girlfriend , Astrid Kirchherr , at her mother 's house . After the trip to Hamburg , Powell 's mother Lillian said Powell 's cousin and husband were emigrating to Canada with their new @-@ born baby , and that she , Lillian , would be going with them while they studied to become teachers . Powell waited until Lennon came back from Hamburg before she asked Smith — who had taken in lodgers before at 251 Menlove Avenue — if she would rent a room to her . Smith rented out the box @-@ room above the front door ( which had been Lennon 's bedroom ) , but insisted she also do chores around the house . To pay the rent , she took a job at a Woolworths store in Liverpool , after her student grant had run out . In the same year , when Lennon was 21 years old , he received £ 100 from his aunt Mater who lived in Edinburgh , and went to Paris with McCartney . Powell could not accompany them as she was studying for her final exams .
When Lennon went to Hamburg again in April 1962 , she found a bedsit in a terraced house at 93 Garmoyle Road , Liverpool . Shortly after having failed her art teacher 's diploma exam , in August 1962 , she found she was pregnant with Lennon 's child . She later explained that she and Lennon had never used contraception , had never talked about it , and didn 't think about it at the time . When she told Lennon he said , " There 's only one thing for it Cyn , we 'll have to get married " .
= = Marriage and Julian = =
The Lennons were married on 23 August 1962 at the Mount Pleasant Register office in Liverpool . Fellow Beatles McCartney and George Harrison were in attendance , as was their manager , Brian Epstein , who was best man ; no parents were there . The wedding was farcical , because as soon as the ceremony began a workman in the backyard of the building opposite started using a pneumatic drill which drowned out anything the registrar , Lennon , or Powell said . When the registrar asked for the groom to step forward , Harrison stepped forward instead . With no photographs or flowers the wedding party celebrated afterwards , at Epstein 's invitation , in Reece 's restaurant in Clayton Square , which was the same restaurant where Lennon 's parents , Alfred Lennon and Julia Lennon , had celebrated their marriage in 1938 . Lennon was 21 years old , and Powell 22 . The newlyweds had no honeymoon , as Lennon had to play an engagement at the Riverpark Ballroom in Chester the same night , although they did travel to the Hotel George V in Paris , for a belated honeymoon on 16 September , but were accompanied by Epstein , even though he had not been invited to join them .
During her pregnancy , Epstein offered the couple the use of his flat at 36 Falkner Street , and later paid for a private hospital room when the pregnancy was coming to term . Although still completely unknown outside Liverpool , by now the Beatles had a fanatical following among girls within the city . Epstein had one condition which the Lennons had to follow : the marriage and the baby were to be kept a close secret , so as not to upset any of these fans . One time when news of the wedding leaked out , the group denied it . Cynthia was happy to keep a low profile , not wanting to be the subject of public attention the way her husband was .
The Lennons ' son , John Charles Julian Lennon , was born at 7 @.@ 45 am on 8 April 1963 , in Sefton Hospital . Lennon , being on tour at the time , did not see his son until three days later , and when he finally arrived at the hospital , said : " He 's bloody marvellous , Cyn ! ... Who 's gonna be a famous rocker like his Dad then ? " He then explained that he would be going on a four @-@ day holiday to Barcelona , with Epstein . Lennon later referred to Julian as a " Saturday night special ; the way that most people get here " , or said that his son " came out of a whisky bottle " .
= = Beatlemania = =
Around the time of Julian 's birth , the Beatles became a pop sensation across Britain , a phenomenon which became known as Beatlemania . That one of the members was married and had a son was not publicly known at the time ; a 1963 " Lifelines of the Beatles " page in the New Musical Express detailed over 25 biographical facts about each member of the group , but never gave any hint Lennon was married , even reporting " girls " as one of his hobbies . The press heard rumours about Lennon 's wife and child at the end of 1963 — after Beatlemania had already swept the UK and Europe — and descended on her mother 's house in Hoylake ( where mother and son were staying ) , in November and December . Friends and neighbours protected their anonymity , but she was often approached by journalists . In November she had her son christened at the Hoylake parish church , but didn 't tell Lennon ( who was on tour at the time ) , because she feared a media circus . She told him two days after , and he was angry as he hadn 't wanted his son to be christened , even though Epstein had asked to be Julian 's godfather . Not long after the christening , every newspaper was full of the story about Lennon 's secret wife and baby boy . Epstein told the other Beatles to make the best of the situation , and hoped newspapers would not say Cynthia was pregnant before marrying him . After living at Lennon 's aunt 's house for some months , the couple moved to London and found a three @-@ bedroomed flat at 13 Emperor 's Gate , off Cromwell Road . The top floor flat was the third of three , which were each built over two floors . This meant climbing six flights of stairs , as the building had no lift . Cynthia firstly had to carry Julian up to the flat , and then go back down to collect shopping bags . The Beatles ' fans soon found out where they were living , and she would find them camping out in the hallway , and have to push through them when leaving or arriving .
She accompanied Lennon to America on the first Beatles ' tour there , with Lennon allowing the press to photograph them together , which infuriated Epstein , as he had wanted to keep their marriage a secret . On the tour , she was left behind in New York when Lennon and the other Beatles were quickly ushered into a car , and in Miami she had to ask the help of fans to convince a security guard who she was . Lennon 's response was , " Don 't be so bloody slow next time — they could have killed you " . It would be the only time Cynthia would go on tour with them . At the Emperor 's Gate address the situation grew worse , with fans sticking chewing gum in the lock of the flat and tearing at any article of clothing when she or Lennon were leaving or arriving . American girls would write her letters proclaiming their desperate love for John ; the women in the lives of the other Beatles received equivalent missives . As late as 1967 , Beatles ' wives were still dealing with occasional physical danger from female Beatles ' fans , with Cynthia being kicked in the legs by one who demanded she " leave John alone ! "
As Lennon was either touring or recording , supposed family holidays in 1966 were skiing in St. Moritz , with producer George Martin and his girlfriend , or staying at a castle in Ireland , with George Harrison and Pattie Boyd ( Harrison 's wife ) . Even these were subject to being discovered by fans , with Cynthia and Pattie having to escape the Irish location by being dressed as maids . As a result of the long recording sessions and tours , Lennon usually slept for days afterwards . When Lennon started filming How I Won the War in Almeria , Spain , he promised his wife and son they could join him there after two weeks of filming . The small apartment they were allocated was swiftly replaced by a villa when Starr and his wife joined them .
= = Kenwood = =
= = = Domestic life = = =
The Beatles ' accountant told Epstein the group members should move to houses near his in Esher , so Lennon bought a house called Kenwood in July 1964 . It was a mock @-@ Tudor @-@ style house on three acres in Weybridge , where Cliff Richard already lived . Lennon then spent twice the original £ 20 @,@ 000 purchase price on renovations for Kenwood , reducing its 22 rooms to 17 . The new kitchen was so modern and complicated , someone had to be sent to explain how everything worked , and during the extensive renovations the couple had to live in the attic bedroom for nine months . Although Cynthia enjoyed entertaining in the larger rooms , Lennon could usually be found in a small sunroom at the back of the house overlooking the swimming pool , which was similar to his aunt 's conservatory in Liverpool . They had a cat called " Mimi " , named after Lennon 's aunt . Cynthia took care of Julian herself , without a nanny , although babysitters were frequently employed . She also did the cooking herself , but employed a housekeeper , gardener , and chauffeur , who lived off the premises .
When she passed her driving test , Lennon serially bought her a white Mini , a gold Porsche , a red Ferrari , and a green Volkswagen Beetle , usually as surprises without consulting her first . Cynthia enjoyed the closeness of Pattie Boyd ( George Harrison 's wife ) and Maureen Starkey ( Ringo Starr 's wife ) , as both lived nearby , often going on holiday together or shopping . She was often photographed at Beatles ' movie premieres and special occasions , and sometimes with Lennon and Julian at home , which meant she had the role of a Beatle wife , as well as being a mother . The Lennons often went to a nightclub in central London until nearly dawn , after which she took Julian to school . Kenwood became the place to visit for the other Beatles , various American musicians , and total strangers who Lennon had met the previous night in London nightclubs .
In 1965 , she opened the front door of Kenwood to see a man who " looked like a tramp " , but with her husband 's features . He explained that he was Alfred Lennon , the father whom Lennon had supposedly not seen for years . Lennon was annoyed when he came home , telling her for the first time that his father had visited the NEMS office , Epstein 's business , a few weeks before . Three years after the meeting in the NEMS office , Alfred Lennon ( who was then 56 years old ) turned up at Kenwood again with his fiancée , 19 @-@ year @-@ old student Pauline Jones . He asked if the Lennons could give Pauline a job , so she was hired to help with Julian and the piles of Beatles ' fan mail . Lennon 's father and his fiancée then spent a few months living in the attic bedroom . During an interview at Kenwood with Evening Standard reporter Maureen Cleave , Lennon said , " Here I am in my Hansel and Gretel house , famous and loaded , and I can 't go anywhere . There 's something else I 'm going to do , only I don 't know what it is , but I do know this isn 't it for me " .
= = = Drugs = = =
Cynthia knew her husband took drugs like Preludin , and regularly smoked cannabis but thought of them as not being very dangerous , especially the cannabis . On 27 March 1965 , at a dinner party given by a dentist , John Riley , the Lennons , Harrison , and Boyd were given LSD without their knowledge . Although told not to leave the house , Harrison drove them to various nightclubs , with Riley following them by taxi . At the Ad Lib club , they thought the lift up to the club was on fire and started screaming , before finally crawling out of the lift for which Mick Jagger , Marianne Faithfull , and Starr were waiting . Harrison later drove them back home in Boyd 's Mini Cooper at no more than 10 mph , as he was also feeling the effects of the drug . They stayed up all night at Kenwood , experiencing the full effects of their first LSD trip .
Lennon then started taking LSD on a regular basis , as well as his daily use of cannabis . After much encouragement from him , Cynthia agreed to try LSD one more time , but the adverse effects were the same . Although she said at the time she would never take the drug again , she relented and took it for the last time a few weeks later , on the way to a party at Epstein 's country house in Warbleton , East Sussex . Although she hated the psychological effects of the drug , from this point she could see the change taking place in her husband : " It was like living with someone who had just discovered religion ... Tensions , bigotry , and bad temper were replaced by understanding and love " . In 1970 , Lennon confessed he had probably taken LSD one thousand times since 1965 , saying : " I used to just eat it all the time " . In the decades ahead , Cynthia would always maintain that John 's drug use was the beginning of the end for the couple .
On 22 July 1967 , Harrison , Boyd , Starr , and assistant Neil Aspinall flew to Athens , where they stayed overnight until Lennon , his wife and son , McCartney , and Jane Asher ( McCartney 's girlfriend ) , Boyd 's 16 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Paula , roadie Mal Evans , and publicist Alistair Taylor set off for Athens . Looking for an island they could buy to live on together , they chartered a yacht , the MV Arvi . McCartney later said that whilst sailing around Greek islands , everybody just " sat around and took LSD " . Lennon and the other Beatles publicly renounced drugs — although never completely — after their initial meetings with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in London , and Bangor , Wales .
By 1967 , Lennon 's aggressive edges from his childhood had disappeared , and he spent considerable amounts of time sitting in his sunroom or garden and daydreaming for hours at end . He became somewhat uncommunicative towards most people , including Cynthia ( but not with the other Beatles , who had an almost unspoken ability to understand one another ) . Cynthia once complained , saying : " What I 'd like is a holiday of our own ... John , Julian and me " . Lennon replied with , " OK , I know , we 'll all retire to a little cottage on a cliff in Cornwall , all right ? " Then adding , " No , I 've got these bloody songs to write . I have to work , to justify living . " She understood his temperament , but felt frustrated at never having developed her own career by using her art college background .
= = = India and Ono = = =
The Beatles were scheduled to fly to India to visit the Maharishi for two or three months of Transcendental Meditation . Before they left , Cynthia found letters from Yoko Ono to Lennon which indicated he had had contact with her over a period of some time . Lennon denied he was involved with Ono , explaining that she was just some " crazy artist " who wanted to be sponsored , although Ono kept up a stream of telephone calls and visits to Kenwood . On 15 February 1968 , the Lennons flew to India , followed by the other Beatles and their partners four days later : Boyd , Asher , and Maureen Starkey ( Starr 's wife ) . The division between the sexes was emphasised by the male musicians sitting outside at night composing songs , while their partners gathered together in one of their rooms , often talking about life as the wife or partner of a Beatle . The Lennons shared a four @-@ poster bed at the ashram , with Lennon playing guitar and Cynthia drawing and writing poetry between their long sessions of meditation .
" Magic Alex " ( Greek @-@ born Alex Mardas , who controlled Apple Electronics ) arrived later , smuggling in alcohol from the nearest village as it was not allowed in the ashram . After two weeks Lennon asked to sleep in a separate room , saying he could only meditate when he was alone , but walked down to the local post office every morning to see if he had received a telegram from Ono , who sent one almost daily . Cynthia found out about these secretive trips much later , saying : " I had thought our magical interlude with the Maharishi would be the making of our marriage – but in reality it just presaged the end " . Paul Saltzman later published a book of photographs , The Beatles in Rishikesh , showing Lennon deep in thought , and Cynthia 's confused expression . Despite the alienation from Lennon , she later spoke about her time there , saying : " I loved being away from the fans , hordes of people , deadlines , demands and flashing cameras " .
= = = Divorce = = =
During the flight back to England , Lennon got very drunk on Scotch and confessed that he had been involved with other women during their marriage . He went on to detail his liaisons with groupies , friends ( such as Joan Baez , actress Eleanor Bron , journalist Cleave ) and " thousands " of women around the globe . Although not wanting to hear Lennon 's confession , she knew women were attracted to him , " like moths to a flame " . Two weeks later , in May 1968 , Lennon suggested Cynthia take a holiday in Greece with Mardas , Donovan , and two friends , as he would be very busy recording songs for what would become The White Album . She arrived back at Kenwood from Greece earlier than expected , at four o 'clock on 22 May 1968 , to discover Lennon and Ono sitting cross @-@ legged on the floor in matching white robes , staring into each other 's eyes , and then found Ono 's slippers outside the Lennons ' bedroom door . Shocked , she asked Jenny Boyd and Mardas if she could spend the night at their apartment . At the apartment Boyd went straight to bed , but she and Mardas drank more alcohol , with Mardas trying to convince her to run away together . After she had vomited in the bathroom , she collapsed on a bed in the spare bedroom , with Mardas joining her and trying to kiss her until she pushed him away .
Lennon seemed absolutely normal when she returned home the next day , and steadfastly maintained his love for her and their son , saying : " It 's you I love Cyn ... I love you now more than ever before " . Lennon went to New York with McCartney shortly after , but as she was specifically not invited , a trip to Pesaro , in Italy , was arranged with her mother . After an evening with Italian hotelier , Roberto Bassanini , Mardas was waiting at the hotel to break the news that Lennon was planning to sue for divorce on grounds of adultery , seek sole custody of Julian , and " send her back to Hoylake " . She said in 2005 : " The mere fact that ‘ Magic Alex ’ [ Mardas ] arrived in Italy in the middle of the night without any prior knowledge of where I was staying made me extremely suspicious . I was being coerced into making it easy " ... [ for Lennon and Ono ] " to accuse me of doing something that would make them not look so bad . " As Lennon had initiated divorce proceedings , it prompted her to exclaim : " Suing me for divorce ? On what grounds is he suing me ? " When the news of Ono 's pregnancy broke , Cynthia started her own divorce proceedings against Lennon on 22 August 1968 . The financial settlement was hampered by Lennon 's refusing to offer any more than £ 75 @,@ 000 , telling her on the phone that the payment was akin to winning the football pools and that she was not worth any more . The settlement was then raised to £ 100 @,@ 000 , £ 2 @,@ 400 annually , and custody of Julian . Another £ 100 @,@ 000 was put into a trust fund which Julian would inherit when he was 21 . Until that time , his mother would receive the interest payments . Their decree nisi was granted on 8 November 1968 . The trust fund had one codicil , which provided for any further children by Lennon , so when Sean Lennon was born in 1975 , Julian 's inheritance was cut to £ 50 @,@ 000 .
She lived for a few months in a flat Starr owned at 34 Montagu Square , central London , but returned to Kenwood as Lennon and Ono preferred to live there instead , rather than in isolated Weybridge . Lennon and Cynthia had one last short meeting at Kenwood ( with Ono alongside Lennon ) , with Lennon accusing her of having an affair in India , saying she was no " innocent little flower " . McCartney visited her and Julian that year , and on the way to Kenwood he composed a song in his head which later became " Hey Jude " . Talking about their divorce , McCartney later said : " We 'd been very good friends for millions of years and I thought it was a bit much for them suddenly to be personae non gratae and out of my life " . Cynthia recalled , " I was truly surprised when , one afternoon , Paul arrived on his own . I was touched by his obvious concern for our welfare ... On the journey down he composed ' Hey Jude ' in the car . I will never forget Paul 's gesture of care and concern in coming to see us . " She was once asked if Lennon had written any songs about their time together , and answered : " It was too sloppy when you were young to dedicate anything to anybody . Macho Northern men didn 't do that in those days " . In contrast , Lennon said he wrote the 1965 song " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " about an affair he was having , but rendered it in " gobbledegook " so Cynthia would not know .
= = Subsequent life = =
On 31 July 1970 , Cynthia married Bassanini , whom she had started dating after parting with Lennon ; the couple divorced in 1973 . She then opened a restaurant in Ruthin , Wales , called Oliver 's Bistro , which also had a B & B above the premises . She enrolled her son into the Ruthin School and he later joined the local Combined Cadet Force . During Lennon 's separation from Ono in 1973 / 74 , his partner at the time , May Pang , actively tried to get Lennon to spend more time with his son , forming a friendship with Lennon 's ex @-@ wife in the process , which continued even after Lennon and Ono were reconciled . A meeting during this period was the last time Cynthia saw John . Previously , Julian had been allowed to visit his father twice a year by himself , but Lennon complained that during his time with Pang his ex @-@ wife also wanted to be present , saying : " She [ Cynthia ] thought she could walk back in ' cos I wasn 't with Yoko ! " After his reconciliation with Ono , he complained again that his son was not being allowed to visit him .
On 1 May 1976 , Cynthia married John Twist , an engineer from Lancashire . She published a memoir during their time together , A Twist of Lennon , in 1978 , telling about her life before and with Lennon , and containing her own illustrations and poetry . Lennon tried to stop the publication of the book after an excerpt was published in a newspaper .
On 9 December 1980 ( UK time ) , whilst staying at Starr 's ex @-@ wife 's home , she received a phone call from Starr , two hours after Lennon had been shot in New York . " The memory of Ringo 's words , the sound of his tearful voice crackling over the transatlantic line , is crystal clear : ' Cynthia , I 'm so sorry , John 's dead ' . I had only one clear thought . My son , our son , [ Julian ] was at home in bed , I had to get back to Ruthin so that I could tell him about his father 's death . "
Cynthia 's memoir gained renewed interest and went to a third printing of 200 @,@ 000 copies in the weeks after Lennon 's death . She and Twist separated in 1981 and were divorced in 1983 . She sold the Bistro and changed her name back to Lennon by deed poll , later commenting about why it was financially necessary : " Do you imagine I would have been awarded a three @-@ year contract to design bedding and textiles [ for Vantona Vyella in 1983 ] with the name Powell ? Neither did they . When it is necessary to earn a living , it is necessary to bite the bullet and take the flack . "
She began a relationship with Liverpudlian chauffeur Jim Christie in 1981 , who became her partner for 17 years as well as her business manager , living in Penrith , Cumbria . She said at the time : " Jim has never felt he 's living in John Lennon 's shadow . He 's four years younger than me and wasn 't really part of that whole Beatles ' scene . " They later lived on the Isle of Man and then Normandy for some years , but separated in 1998 .
She had kept mementos of Lennon for years , but began auctioning them off after his death , including a personally drawn Christmas card from Lennon to her , which fetched £ 8 @,@ 800 at Christie 's in August 1981 . With her finances in an unsteady state – would say in 1999 that " Apart from John , the men I have fallen in love with have never been good at earning a living " – more of her memorabilia of Lennon went up for auction in 1991 , including antiques from Kenwood . She said at the time , " I 've enjoyed these things for 30 years . But it 's time for a change . " Another set of items , including some of Lennon 's drug paraphernalia , brought over $ 60 @,@ 000 for her in 1995 . She later said , " I think in life we collect so much baggage , when you have a clearout , you send it to a car @-@ boot sale , etc . My baggage was in demand and sold at Christie 's . When you have to pay the bills , you 're not proud and you can 't take it with you . "
Over the years she entered some failed business ventures , including in 1988 a perfume named Woman ( after the 1980 John Lennon song ) and , in April 1989 , a restaurant named Lennon 's — at 13 / 14 Upper St. Martin 's Lane , Covent Garden — which had menu items such as Rubber Sole ( a play on the already @-@ punning 1965 Beatles album ) , as well as Sgt. Pepper 's Steak and Penny Lane Pâté . It had a short life as a business venture , as it was considered to be far too expensive . She would later blame some of these efforts on the men in her life encouraging her .
The Beatles ' Hamburg days were the subject of the 1994 film Backbeat , with Jennifer Ehle portraying Cynthia Powell . The film characterises Lennon and Cynthia 's relationship as one that will eventually be doomed by their wanting different things from life , but with Lennon not wanting to hurt her . Cynthia later complained that the film made her out " as a clingy , dim , little girlfriend in a headscarf " . She was portrayed in 2000 television film In His Life : The John Lennon Story by Gillian Kearney ; the negative aspects of John 's treatment towards her were not overlooked . Cynthia was subsequently portrayed in the troubled , Ono @-@ centric 2005 American musical Lennon , with her character – played by Julia Murney – gaining a little more prominence during one of the show 's rewrites . Her life had a more central role in the 2010 BBC Four film Lennon Naked , with Claudie Blakley playing the part . However , her character was absent from the 2009 British film Nowhere Boy , which purported to cover the story of Lennon from 1955 to 1960 but focused on his relationships with his aunt and mother .
In 1995 , Cynthia made her recording début with a rendition of " Those Were the Days " , which as produced by McCartney had been a number one hit for Mary Hopkin in 1968 . It failed to chart . Whilst living in Normandy , an exhibition of her drawings and paintings were displayed at Portobello Road 's KDK Gallery in 1999 . By the 1990s she was appearing at some Beatles conventions , but appeared ambivalent about the practice . At times she maintained she was moving on with her life and putting her Beatles past behind her and at other times seemed to embrace continued interest in that past as inevitable . The Daily Telegraph said in a 1999 profile , " In essence , she is a suburban woman who – almost in spite of herself – got caught up with one of the most extraordinary men of modern times . More than 30 years since her marriage to John Lennon ended , she is as entangled as ever . "
= = Later years and death = =
In 2002 , she married Noel Charles , a Barbadian night club owner . In September 2005 , she published a new biography , John , re @-@ examining her life with Lennon and the years afterwards , including the events following his death . Michel Faber , writing in The Guardian , said of the book : " John is Cynthia 's attempt to prove how much more she was worth . In theory , the disclosures of Lennon 's loyal partner from 1958 to 1968 cannot fail to be valuable . On the page , the potential withers " . In 2006 , she and her son attended the Las Vegas premiere of the Cirque du Soleil production of Love , which marked a rare public appearance with Ono . In 2009 , she and her son opened an exhibition of memorabilia at The Beatles Story exhibition in Liverpool , and she and Pattie Boyd staged a first @-@ ever joint appearance at the opening of the Cafesjian Center for the Arts in Yerevan , Armenia . On 30 September 2010 , Julian opened his " Timeless " exhibition of photographs at the Morrison Hotel Gallery in New York . In attendance were Cynthia , Julian , Ono , Sean , and Pang , which was the first time all five had been in the same room together .
The John Lennon Peace Monument was unveiled by Cynthia and Julian at a ceremony in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , on 9 October 2010 to celebrate what would have been Lennon ’ s 70th birthday . Cynthia lived with her husband , Noel , on the island of Majorca in Spain until his death on 11 March 2013 .
She died on 1 April 2015 at her home in Majorca , Spain , at the age of 75 after a short struggle with cancer , with her son Julian Lennon by her side . Public messages of condolence were made by McCartney and Starr , with the former saying " She was a lovely lady who I 've known since our early days together in Liverpool . She was a good mother to Julian and will be missed by us all ... " and the latter " Peace and love to Julian Lennon God bless Cynthia " . Ono also issued a statement , emphasizing the position she held in common : " Being a single parent of a strong and intelligent boy is never easy . Cynthia and I understood each other in that way , wishing well for our sons and their future . " Beatles biographer Hunter Davies , who had spent considerable time with her and John in the 1960s while researching his book , remembered her as " a lovely woman ... She was totally different from John in that she was quiet , reserved and calm . "
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= Maryland Terrapins football =
The Maryland Terrapins football team represents the University of Maryland , College Park in the sport of American football . The Terrapins compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and the Big Ten Conference . The Terrapins joined the Big Ten Conference on July 1 , 2014 , following 62 years in the Atlantic Coast Conference as a founding member . The Terrapins are currently coached by D.J. Durkin . Since 1950 , the Terrapins have played their home games at Maryland Stadium in College Park , Maryland with occasional home games from time to time in Baltimore , Maryland , making them one of two FBS football teams in the Baltimore – Washington metropolitan area ( Navy Midshipmen ) and the closest Football Bowl Subdivision team to Washington , DC . The team 's official colors of red , white , black , and gold have been in use in some combination since the 1920s and are taken from Maryland 's state flag , and the Terrapins nickname — often abbreviated as " Terps " — was adopted in 1933 after a turtle species native to the state . Maryland shares storied rivalries with Virginia and West Virginia .
The program 's achievements have included one NCAA @-@ recognized national championship , nine ACC championships , two Southern Conference championships , eleven consensus All @-@ Americans , several Hall of Fame inductees , and twenty @-@ four bowl game appearances . Maryland possesses the third @-@ most ACC championships with nine , which places them behind Clemson and Florida State with 15 each . Many former Terrapins players and coaches have gone on to careers in professional football including 16 first @-@ round NFL Draft picks .
= = History = =
= = = Early history ( 1892 – 1946 ) = = =
In 1892 , the school then known as the Maryland Agricultural College fielded its first officially sanctioned college football team . They went scoreless in all three of that season 's games , but the following year , posted a perfect record of 6 – 0 . For the first two decades of the program , the team primarily competed against local universities and high schools due to the prohibitive nature of long @-@ distance travel at the time .
In 1911 , Harry C. " Curley " Byrd became head coach and held that position for more than two decades until he was named the university president . In 1921 , Maryland joined the Southern Conference where it remained for thirty years . Between 1935 and 1946 , the school had several coaches that achieved fame elsewhere : Frank Dobson , a former assistant coach under John Heisman ; Clark Shaughnessy , architect of Stanford 's undefeated 1940 turnaround ; and Paul " Bear " Bryant , who later became the long @-@ time Alabama head coach . Bryant resigned after one season when a player he had suspended was reinstated by President Byrd .
= = = Jim Tatum ( 1947 – 1955 ) = = =
Jim Tatum was hired in 1947 , after a brief stint at Oklahoma where he had led the Sooners to a conference championship in his only season there . He was Maryland 's sixth head coach in eight years , but Tatum stayed for nine seasons and became the school 's most successful head coach in modern history . During his tenure , he led Maryland to two national championships ( one retroactive ) , three conference championships , three perfect seasons , six top @-@ 20 final rankings , and five bowl game appearances . Seven of his players were named first @-@ team All @-@ Americans , including five consensus All @-@ Americans . Under Tatum , Maryland finished every season with a winning record .
After the 1947 season , the Terrapins participated in their first bowl game , the 1948 Gator Bowl , in which they tied Georgia , 20 – 20 . NCAA season @-@ scoring leader Lu Gambino recorded all three Maryland touchdowns . In 1949 , Maryland again played in the Gator Bowl , where they defeated 20th @-@ ranked Missouri , 20 – 7 . The Terrapins finished the season ranked 14th by the Associated Press . Maryland 's current home field , Maryland Stadium , was constructed in 1950 , and named in honor of former coach and contemporary Maryland president Curly Byrd . Maryland started the 1950 season ranked 15th and defeated Navy , 35 – 21 , in the Byrd Stadium dedication game .
The Terrapins won the 1951 Southern Conference co @-@ championship alongside the Virginia Military Institute . Their perfect season culminated with an upset over first @-@ ranked Tennessee in the 1952 Sugar Bowl . At the time , however , the wire services released their final rankings before the bowl games , and Maryland finished third in the Associated Press Poll . Several selectors , including analyst Jeff Sagarin , have retroactively credited Maryland with the national championship . In 1953 , Maryland and six other schools split from the Southern Conference to form the Atlantic Coast Conference . That year , Maryland shut @-@ out two 11th @-@ ranked teams : Mississippi , 38 – 0 , and Alabama , 21 – 0 , won the ACC co @-@ championship alongside Duke , and were named the national champions as the only undefeated and untied team in the nation . The Terrapins were defeated by fourth @-@ ranked Oklahoma in the Orange Bowl . After the 1955 season , Tatum resigned to return to North Carolina , where he soon died of Rocky Mountain spotted fever .
= = = Tommy Mont ( 1956 – 1958 ) = = =
After Tatum resigned to coach at his own alma mater , North Carolina , Tommy Mont was appointed as his replacement . In his first season , Maryland was riddled with injuries and posted a disappointing 2 – 7 – 1 record . Mont had great difficulty recruiting to the same standard that his predecessor had , but managed to secure Rod Breedlove , a highly touted guard prospect . Breedlove later went on to play eight years in the NFL and made a Pro Bowl appearance .
In 1957 , the Terrapins improved to a 5 – 5 record . The highlight of the season was a game featuring Jim Tatum 's return to College Park , Maryland . On October 19 , at Byrd Stadium , Maryland met the North Carolina team led by their former head coach . The game also had in attendance Queen Elizabeth II who had expressed a wish to see her first game of American football . The Tar Heels were ranked 6th in the nation and possessed a 3 – 1 record . The Terrapins , on the other hand , were 1 – 3 . In the first quarter , Maryland halfback Howard Dare fumbled and North Carolina linebacker Jack Lineberger recovered the ball on the Terrapins ' 44 @-@ yard line . North Carolina was subsequently forced to punt , but recovered it at the Maryland 35 . On the ensuing possession , Tar Heel halfback Daley Goff rushed 11 yards for a touchdown . In the third quarter , Maryland gained excellent field position when Goff received a bad punt snap and the Terps took over on the Carolina 38 @-@ yard line . Maryland quarterback Bob Rusevlyan later scored on a one @-@ yard sneak . In the fourth quarter , halfback Ted Kershner broke away for an 81 @-@ yard touchdown run . Fullback Jim Joyce capped a 67 @-@ yard drive with a 13 @-@ yard rush for a score . With a final result of 21 – 7 , the Maryland players carried Mont to the Queen and Prince Philip 's box . Mont said it was a day that " I will revel in for the rest of my life . "
In 1958 , however , Maryland again backslided with a 4 – 6 record and Mont subsequently resigned .
= = = Tom Nugent ( 1959 @-@ 1965 ) = = =
At the first practice before the 1959 season , new Terps head football coach Tom Nugent addressed his team , " Hi , I 'm Tom Nugent and I hate West Virginia . " The Mountaineers were Maryland 's first opponent of the season , and Nugent guided the Terrapins to a 27 – 7 victory in that game .
In 1961 , Nugent 's Maryland team became the first college football program in the nation to put players ' names on the back of their jerseys . That season , he led the Terrapins to the best season of his tenure and finished with a 7 – 3 record . The Terrapins also defeated seventh @-@ ranked Syracuse , 22 – 21 .
Nugent amassed a 36 – 34 record during his tenure at Maryland . He remained the last Maryland coach to win his inaugural game with the team until Ralph Friedgen matched that feat in 2001 .
Under Nugent , in 1962 , Maryland integrated its football team after Darryl Hill caught the eye of Maryland assistant coach Lee Corso. who had been encouraged by Nugent to find a black athlete to play for his team . Hill became not only the first African @-@ American football player at Maryland but the first in the Atlantic Coast Conference and at any college or university in " the old South . "
= = = Lou Saban ( 1966 ) = = =
In a surprising move , Lou Saban unexpectedly resigned as head coach of the AFL 's Buffalo Bills in January 1966 to the head football coach position at Maryland . He said he was leaving because " there can be little left to conquer in professional football " . His record at Buffalo was 36 – 17 – 3 . Saban , however , only stayed at Maryland for one season in which the team posted a 4 – 6 record , as he departed back to the AFL to become head coach of the Denver Broncos .
= = = Bob Ward ( 1967 @-@ 1968 ) = = =
In 1967 , Bob Ward returned to his alma mater to take the head coaching position . Before the season , 12 players failed to academically qualify to play on the team . During that first season , the team lost all nine of their games for the first time in the modern era . Ward 's second year saw slight improvement , recording eight losses but with wins over North Carolina and South Carolina . However , many of his players were growing increasingly disgruntled with his coaching style .
In March 1969 , Maryland athletic director Jim Kehoe called a meeting among 120 players , Ward , his assistants , and a three @-@ man committee . Thirty @-@ one of those players told Ward that they no longer wished to play for the Terrapins and accused him of using intimidation tactics , including verbal and physical abuse . Ward listened to the player 's grievances , but did not respond at the time . Two days later , he resigned as head coach . Later that year , Sports Illustrated interviewed Ward , and he said :
" I won 't go into all the specifics , but it wasn 't the good players who started it . It was the guys who couldn 't fight their way out of a paper bag , guys who sat on the bench and couldn 't take it and a couple of pip @-@ squeak cub newspaper guys who don 't know what football 's all about ... He gets on the campus newspaper and all of a sudden he 's got power he never thought of having . "
The Diamondback , the university 's student newspaper , had criticized Ward for moving the team into one dormitory , which forced some other students out . Ward stated that the move was done on the advice of Kehoe — which Kehoe denied — and with the intent of focusing the players on their studies and building camaraderie . Ward and his assistants monitored the players ' academic performance , enforced class attendance , and placed curfews on perceived troublemakers . Ward stated that , in his first year , only two of his players failed out of the school that he claimed had a history of poor athlete academics . He complained that he was a scapegoat and that there had been poor communication between him and Kehoe . In fact , Penn State head coach Joe Paterno was concerned with the situation surrounding Ward 's resignation and sent a letter to the American Football Coaches Association demanding an investigation . Paterno said :
" I don 't know who 's right or wrong , but ... I don 't think it 's a good thing for a squad to fire a coach . As an association , we ought to know what happened . If a university fired an English professor because his class didn 't like the way he was doing things , I know darn well that the American Association of University Professors would want to know what happened . "
= = = Roy Lester ( 1969 @-@ 1971 ) = = =
In 1969 , Roy Lester was hired as Maryland 's fourth head coach in five years .
Lester had previously twice applied for the Maryland head coach position , but didn 't get it . The Daytona Beach Morning Journal speculated that Lester 's undisclosed salary probably matched that of Ward : $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Lester reintroduced the split @-@ T formation at Maryland , which Jim Tatum had used to great effect there in the 1950s .
Lester 's philosophy was explained by the Maryland sports information director Jack Zane : " the pass should open up the defense for the running game . " In the sixth game of his first season , Maryland 's starting quarterback , junior Dennis O 'Hara , was injured in a loss at South Carolina , and was replaced by sophomore Jeff Shugars .
In the season 's penultimate game , Maryland lost to Penn State , 48 – 0 . Penn State halfback Lydell Mitchell had been recruited by Lester and originally intended to go to Maryland before he opted for Penn State instead . Lester was bothered by a similar situation with fullback Franco Harris , whose high school coach was a friend of Lester 's . Lester attributed Maryland 's football woes to the turnover at head coach and lack of depth because of recruitment shortcomings . Maryland won the finale against Virginia to finish the season with a 3 – 7 record .
In 1970 , Lester 's Terrapins finished with a 2 – 9 record . After an upset loss in the season opener against Villanova , 21 – 3 , Lester shuffled the roster . He switched the positions of eight players , which included Tom Miller from fullback to linebacker.The season prior , Miller had gained 629 yards , the second @-@ most ever by a Maryland sophomore .
After losing their first five games , Maryland beat South Carolina on Homecoming weekend , 21 – 15 , which prompted Maryland fans to tear down the goalposts in celebration.In the 25 @-@ mile per hour winds , the Terrapins capitalized on the Gamecocks ' poor punting game , which included one blocked punt .
Two weeks later , Maryland was beaten by Clemson , which scored 21 points in the fourth quarter to win , 24 – 11 .
With the loss , Maryland slid to a 1 – 7 record , and Lester said he was giving serious consideration to stepping down before the next season . He said , " If I 'm not doing the proper job I 'm willing to relinquish the job . I took this loss very personally . "
In 1971 , some observers considered Maryland , which returned 37 lettermen , to be the dark horse in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) . Lester said he expected a winning season and that " a lot of people may be surprised . "
However , the Terrapins dropped the season opener to underdog Villanova once again , 28 – 13.Star @-@ News called it the most stunning of five upsets in the ACC teams ' opening weekend , rating it ahead of NC State 's loss to Kent State , Virginia 's loss to Navy , South Carolina 's win against Georgia Tech , and Duke 's win against Florida.Maryland won the following week against NC State , but then dropped five straight before beating the Virginia Military Institute on Homecoming . Maryland closed the season with losses to Penn State , Clemson , and Virginia to again finish with a 2 – 9 record.Lester was fired at the conclusion of the 1971 season . Athletic director Jim Kehoe cited Maryland 's worst record in the ACC for two consecutive years and stated his goal of making Maryland a " nationally ranked caliber " team .
Kehoe also said , " financial factors are a serious consideration , " and that home game attendance had fallen to its lowest point , which threatened the financial well @-@ being of the athletic department . Lester was replaced by Jerry Claiborne , who later went on to considerable success in the position .
In September 1973 , Maryland All @-@ American guard Paul Vellano , then playing under Claiborne , said of the past coaches ' difficulties : " A lot of the kids said that Ward was a good coach but that he had a lot of bad apples . Lester was a high school coach and nobody had ever heard of him . I can 't understand it . We had nine freshman who were All @-@ Americans my first year here under Lester . Maybe if they had let him stay he could have done the job .
One of Lester 's lasting contributions was the recruitment of future Maryland and NFL star Randy White .
At the end of his tenure , Lester had a combined collegiate coaching record of 7 – 25 .
= = = Jerry Claiborne ( 1972 – 1981 ) = = =
In 1972 , Jerry Claiborne took over as head coach of the Terrapins , which had only nine wins in the past five years . In his first season , Maryland improved to 5 – 5 – 1 , and the following year , they reached their first bowl game in almost two decades . The team steadily improved until his fifth season , 1976 , when they finished the regular season with an 11 – 0 record , their first perfect mark since Tatum 's 1955 squad . Boomer Esiason later described Claiborne 's coaching style as " vanilla " , and said his strategy was " run right , run left , run up the middle , punt , and play good defense . " He went on to say , " But , there 's no question he made me a tougher player . . . We 'd do drills where the quarterback had to take on a linebacker . It was like he had a sign on our back , ' Hit us , we 're stupid ' . It made you a tougher player . "
In 1974 , Maryland had a preseason rank of 14th and later beat 17th @-@ ranked NC State to win the ACC championship . The Terrapins were defeated by 20th @-@ ranked Tennessee in the Liberty Bowl and finished the season ranked 13th . In 1975 , Maryland again won the ACC and defeated 13th @-@ ranked Florida in the Gator Bowl to finish 13th in the nation . That season , the Terrapins led the ACC in total offense with 375 @.@ 2 yards per game . Maryland started 1976 ranked 12th , and quarterback Mark Manges led them to eleven consecutive wins to secure their third straight ACC championship . Maryland 's loss to sixth @-@ ranked Houston in the Cotton Bowl Classic , 30 – 21 , ended any hopes for a national championship .
In 1978 , Maryland beat 20th @-@ ranked NC State and finished with a ranking of 20th . The game that pitted 11th @-@ ranked Maryland against 12th @-@ ranked Clemson has been described as one of the most exciting games of the era . The " big @-@ play caravan " ultimately saw Clemson triumph , 28 – 24 . From 1974 to 1978 , Claiborne and the Terrapins secured five consecutive bowl game berths and three consecutive ACC championships . Maryland made it to a sixth bowl game in 1980 . After the 1981 season , Claiborne left the program for his alma mater , Kentucky , and was replaced by Bobby Ross , an assistant coach for the Kansas City Chiefs .
= = = Bobby Ross ( 1982 – 1986 ) = = =
In a surprising choice , former Maryland assistant coach and Citadel head coach Bobby Ross , who was not a big name at the time , was selected as head coach in 1982 . In contrast to Claiborne 's style , Ross implemented a high @-@ powered offense . He replaced the I @-@ veer triple option with an NFL @-@ style offense that emphasized dropback passes , bootlegs , and play action passes . This change in tactics and strategy enabled starting quarterback Boomer Esiason the opportunity to excel to a degree not seen under Claiborne the season prior . Esiason said , " Ross has an uncanny knack of putting players in a position to not only succeed , but to overachieve . . . If he didn 't show up at Maryland , I don 't know what would have happened to me . I don 't know if I would have turned into the player I was and played in the NFL . " In the following years , several Maryland quarterbacks went on to careers in the National Football League ( NFL ) , and the school was nicknamed " Quarterback U " as a result .
In Ross 's inaugural season , Maryland defeated 10th @-@ ranked North Carolina , and then edged Miami before their most important conference game of the season against the 1981 national champions , the Clemson Tigers . Between 1974 and 1988 , either Clemson or Maryland won the ACC title all but three years . Clemson had lost to the 1980 national champions , seventh @-@ ranked Georgia , 13 – 7 , and tied Boston College , 17 – 17 , after the opposing quarterback , Doug Flutie , led a comeback . Clemson was therefore unable to defend their NCAA championship , but either Clemson or Maryland , with perfect conference records , would secure the ACC title . Thus , decades before the official ACC Championship Game , 1982 saw a rare de facto title match . Clemson scored first , then pulled away 14 – 7 before half . In the second half , a favorable wind twice yielded Maryland excellent field position , Esiason threw for two rapid @-@ fire touchdowns and a two @-@ point conversion , and the defense held Clemson at bay . However , the Terrapins also turned the ball over five times in the second half and lost , 24 – 22 . With the win , Clemson won the ACC and Maryland finished second . Immediately after the game , the NCAA announced its investigation into Clemson recruiting had found improprieties . As a result , the Tigers were denied a bowl game and television coverage in the following season . The ACC instituted further punishment , making Clemson ineligible for a conference title for the next two years . Maryland finished 1982 ranked 20th after losing to ninth @-@ ranked Washington in the Aloha Bowl . In 1983 , Maryland lost to third @-@ ranked Auburn and 20th @-@ ranked West Virginia , but beat 17th @-@ ranked Pittsburgh and third @-@ ranked North Carolina . Clemson and Maryland once more met with perfect ACC records , and Maryland again lost , this time blown out , 52 – 27 . Despite the loss , Maryland was awarded the conference championship because of the sanctions against Clemson .
In 1984 , Maryland defeated the defending national champions , sixth @-@ ranked Miami , in what was then the biggest comeback in college football history and judged by some as the most exciting . At half time , Maryland trailed Miami , 31 – 0 . Back @-@ up quarterback Frank Reich replaced Stan Gelbaugh and proceeded to throw four touchdown passes , and capitalizing on Miami errors , the Terrapins won , 42 – 40 . The recovery from the 31 @-@ point halftime deficit stood as the greatest college football comeback for the next 22 years , until the record was finally broken by Michigan State against Northwestern . Reich later repeated the feat in his professional career when he led the Buffalo Bills to overcome a 32 @-@ point deficit and set the NFL comeback record . That season , Maryland also defeated 17th @-@ ranked West Virginia and 20th @-@ ranked Clemson , and secured the ACC championship . In the postseason , they edged Tennessee , 28 – 27 , in the Sun Bowl and finished 12th in the nation . Maryland entered the 1985 season with a number @-@ one preseason rank , and set its all @-@ time home attendance record in Byrd Stadium with an average of 49 @,@ 385 over five games . However , they dropped to a ranking of 17th in Week 2 , and then out of the polls in Week 4 after a shutout by Michigan . Despite the early setbacks , the Terrapins finished undefeated in six conference games to take the ACC championship for the third consecutive year . Maryland defeated Syracuse , 35 @-@ 18 , in the Cherry Bowl and earned a final ranking of 18th . In 1986 , the Terrapins posted a mediocre 5 – 5 – 1 record .
After the season , Ross resigned as head coach . He expressed frustration over the university 's failure to improve Byrd Stadium and its associated facilities . Ross had shown recruits stadium and facility renovation plans as an indication of the program 's direction , and when they did not come to fruition , he felt that he had misled the players . Ross also stated that he was hurt by " innuendo , insinuation , and guilt by association " with respect to the cocaine @-@ induced death of Maryland basketball star Len Bias . He said , " I feel the football team has represented the university well , both on and off the field . " The athletics department investigation report had commended the propriety of the football program , but university chancellor John B. Slaughter did not offer his vocal support for Ross until a month later .
= = = Joe Krivak ( 1987 – 1991 ) = = =
Maryland athletics in general were marred by the death of Len Bias , and the football team was no exception . After Ross resigned , offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach Joe Krivak was promoted to head coach . This was the beginning of a lackluster period for Terrapins football . From 1987 to 2000 , the Terrapins went 55 – 88 overall ( .385 ) with only two winning seasons and one bowl appearance . The Krivak era was met with a brutal schedule with non @-@ conference opponents consisting of national powers Michigan , Miami , Penn State , and Syracuse among others . After a 4 @-@ 7 season in 1987 , a controversial loss to Virginia in the final game of 1988 cost the team a sixth win for bowl eligibility . In 1989 , Maryland tied Joe Paterno 's 13th @-@ ranked Penn State. existence . The following season , the Terrapins beat 25th @-@ ranked West Virginia and upset 8th @-@ ranked Virginia . Maryland received a bid to the Independence Bowl and tied Louisiana Tech in what would be their only postseason appearance during this period . Athletic director Andy Geiger rewarded Krivak with a five @-@ year contract extension , but the 1991 season unraveled after a rash of injuries , and Maryland had its worst finish in two decades with a 2 – 9 mark . After public criticism from several players , Krivak felt he lost credibility as the head coach and resigned on December 6 .
= = = Mark Duffner ( 1992 @-@ 1996 ) = = =
Geiger named Holy Cross head coach Mark Duffner as Krivak 's replacement . Duffner had amassed a 60 – 5 – 1 record and two undefeated seasons in his six years at Holy Cross . At Maryland , he installed a run and shoot offense which shattered many school records . However , his defenses were notoriously weak , usually giving up points so quickly that even his prolific offense couldn 't keep up . For example , in the 1993 game against Virginia Tech , the Terrapins lost by 27 points despite gaining 649 yards of total offense . During this time , quarterbacks Scott Milanovich and John Kaleo set numerous school records for passing under Duffner , most of which still stand . In 1993 , Maryland earned the dubious honor of most yards allowed per game , a record which also stands : in eleven games , the Terrapins surrendered 6 @,@ 083 yards — an average of 553 @.@ 0 yards per game . Maryland also gave up 236 more points than they scored , the worst point differential in school history . After the season , Duffner reorganized his staff by firing three assistant coaches . The team showed moderate improvement the next two years , and in 1995 finished 6 – 5 , which was the first winning record since 1990 . However , Maryland backslid in 1996 with a 5 – 6 record and a struggling offense . Duffner was fired after the season , having accumulated a combined record of 20 – 35 .
= = = Ron Vanderlinden ( 1997 @-@ 2000 ) = = =
Ron Vanderlinden was hired as head coach for the 1997 season under a five @-@ year contract . Vanderlinden had helped engineer turnarounds at Northwestern as defensive coordinator and at Colorado as a defensive assistant . The 1995 Northwestern team in particular had shocked observers when it recorded a 10 – 2 season and the Big Ten championship . In 1999 , Maryland showed signs of significant improvement , and a winning season appeared certain when Maryland possessed a 5 – 2 record . The Terrapins , however , then suffered a three @-@ game losing streak . In their finale against Virginia , the Terrapins needed a win to garner a likely invitation to either the Aloha Bowl or Oahu Bowl — a Maryland alumnus was the chief executive officer of both events . The Terrapins came from behind and held the lead , 30 – 27 , with 5 : 18 left to play . They regained possession with 1 : 40 remaining , but an inexperienced quarterback unintentionally stopped the clock by going out of bounds . After the ensuing punt , Virginia mounted a touchdown drive to win the game and end Maryland 's bowl hopes . Despite narrowly missing a winning season , Vanderlinden was granted a two @-@ year contract extension . In 2000 , Maryland again fell short of a winning season and bowl game . The Terrapins entered their season closer with a 5 – 5 record , and again fell , this time in a rout by 24th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech . Vanderlinden was fired the following day .
Despite the failure to deliver a winning season , Vanderlinden did oversee substantive improvement in the program . In 1998 , the Terrapins were one of the most improved teams in defense , scoring defense , passing defense , and rushing . In 1999 , Maryland allowed a conference low of 11 sacks compared with 56 in 1997 . In that same period , Maryland also improved from last to first in the conference in rushing , due in large part to Heisman Trophy candidate and school career rushing leader LaMont Jordan . During Vanderlinden 's tenure , Maryland also recruited several key players who were instrumental in the team 's later success .
= = = Ralph Friedgen ( 2001 – 2010 ) = = =
Ralph Friedgen , a former Maryland player and assistant under Bobby Ross , was hired as Vanderlinden 's replacement for the 2001 season . Friedgen had previously been denied an interview for the position twice by his alma mater . While offensive coordinator at Georgia Tech , he had been described as an " offensive genius " , and Friedgen later received similar plaudits while at Maryland . When he took over , Maryland had not won a bowl game in 16 years and had only one winning season since 1990 .
In 2001 , Maryland won its first four games and entered the AP Poll for the first time since September 1995 . Maryland beat 15th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech in overtime when placekicker Nick Novak , the ACC 's future all @-@ time scoring leader , equalized and then won the game with 46- and 26 @-@ yard field goals , thereby ensuring a winning season and bowl appearance . In Tallahassee , 18th @-@ ranked Florida State broke a stalemate in the fourth quarter to hand Maryland its only defeat of the regular season , 52 – 31 . Maryland closed the year with a win over NC State , which secured the ACC championship and made the Terrapins the first team other than Florida State to take the title outright since the Seminoles joined the conference in 1991 . Sixth @-@ ranked Maryland then faced fifth @-@ ranked Florida in the Orange Bowl — their first @-@ ever BCS appearance , and their first major bowl of any sort since the 1977 Cotton Bowl . The Terrapins lost , 56 – 23 , and finished with a 10 – 2 record and ranked 10th in the nation .
In 2002 , Maryland had a preseason rank of 20th , but their first three games included a shutout by 12th @-@ ranked Notre Dame , 22 – 0 , and a loss to 16th @-@ ranked Florida State , 37 – 10 . The Terrapins rallied to defeat 13th @-@ ranked West Virginia and 17th @-@ ranked NC State , while losing only to Virginia . That loss , however , prevented Maryland from earning a share of the ACC championship alongside Florida State . The Terrapins routed Tennessee in the Peach Bowl , 30 – 3 , and finished with an 11 – 3 record and final ranking of 18th . Maryland began the 2003 season with losses to Northern Illinois and eighth @-@ ranked Florida State . They later defeated 23rd @-@ ranked West Virginia , but were edged by Georgia Tech . In the postseason , 24th @-@ ranked Maryland delivered a second crushing defeat against 20th @-@ ranked West Virginia in the Gator Bowl , 41 – 7 , and finished the season ranked 17th . The New York Times computer poll ranked Maryland third in the nation , behind only split @-@ national champions Louisiana State and Southern California . The 2004 season was Friedgen 's first with a losing record . Maryland finished with a 5 – 6 mark that included an overtime loss to West Virginia , 19 – 16 . The highlight of the season was an upset victory over fifth @-@ ranked Florida State , which was Maryland 's first against the Seminoles and their first win against a top @-@ 10 team since 1990 . The Terrapins again ended the 2005 season with a 5 – 6 record . That season opened with a victory over Navy , which was the first meeting between the intrastate foes in 40 years .
In 2006 , Maryland returned to a bowl game and finished with a 9 – 4 record . During the season , the Terrapins upset 19th @-@ ranked Clemson , 13 – 12 , and five of their games were won by four points or less . In the Champs Sports Bowl , Maryland beat Purdue , 24 – 7 . In 2007 , Maryland overcame extensive injuries to again secure a postseason appearance . During the season , unranked Maryland tallied two shocking upsets against 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , 34 – 24 , and eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , 42 – 35 . They finished the season with a rout of NC State to attain bowl eligibility , 37 – 0 , but lost to Oregon State in the Emerald Bowl , 21 – 14 . According to the final Sagarin computer @-@ generated rankings , Maryland had the second @-@ hardest schedule in the ACC and the 27th @-@ hardest schedule among Division I teams .
Numerous observers described Maryland 's 2008 season as " wildly inconsistent " . The Terrapins defeated four of their five ranked opponents — 25th @-@ ranked California , 19th @-@ ranked Clemson , 19th @-@ ranked Wake Forest , and 17th @-@ ranked North Carolina — but also lost to heavy underdogs Middle Tennessee and Virginia . Ultimately , Maryland defeated Nevada in the Humanitarian Bowl and finished the season with an 8 – 5 record . Before the 2009 season , many analysts projected the Terrapins to finish last or second @-@ to @-@ last in the Atlantic Division of the ACC , and expressed particular concern with the inexperienced offensive line . The prognostications proved accurate , and Maryland finished 2 – 10 for their first ten @-@ loss season in program history . Maryland rebounded in 2010 to finish with a 9 – 4 record , including a win in the Military Bowl , and ranked 23rd in the AP Poll . The ACC named Friedgen Coach of the Year , while freshman quarterback Danny O 'Brien became the first Terrapin ever named ACC Rookie of the Year . Citing lack of fan support , the athletic department bought out the final year of Friedgen 's contract for $ 2 million .
= = = Randy Edsall ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =
After Friedgen was let go , the Terrapins hired Randy Edsall away from Connecticut to be Maryland 's head coach . The 2011 season was not a successful one for Maryland . After a nationally televised win over Miami , the Terrapins struggled for the remainder of the season . They only managed to record one more win ( against FCS opponent Towson ) and finished with a 2 – 10 record . The team did attract national attention for its " Maryland Pride " uniforms that were created by Under Armour , who had become the official outfitter of the Maryland Athletic Department in September 2008 .
After the 2011 season , Edsall fired both his offensive coordinator Gary Crowton and his defensive coordinator Todd Bradford . Mike Locksley , who had been fired in 2011 from his head coaching position at New Mexico , was hired to be the new offensive coordinator . Locksley had previously worked at Maryland under head coaches Vanderlinden and Friedgen , and was the recruiting coordinator for Maryland before and during the three consecutive 10 + win seasons under Friedgen . Brian Stewart , who had been the defensive coordinator for the Houston Cougars , was hired to replace Bradford as the new defensive coordinator .
Edsall 's 2012 team compiled a 4 – 8 record , losing four quarterbacks to injury , and eventually starting a linebacker at the position . The team 's record improved from 2011 nonetheless but still not as much as fans , alumni and the administration had hoped .
The 2013 Maryland Terrapins football team under head coach Edsall improved to 7 – 6 , capping the season with a loss in the Military Bowl to Marshall , The 61st and final season the Terrapins would be playing football in the Atlantic Coast Conference .
Edsall 's 2014 Terps finished their regular season with a 7 – 5 record , comprising a 4 – 4 record in Big Ten Conference play that put them third in the Big Ten East Division , their Inaugural season in the Big Ten Conference . Maryland ended its season at the Foster Farms Bowl , where it lost to Stanford .
On October 11 , 2015 , Edsall was relieved of his duties with offensive coordinator Mike Locksley named as the interim head coach for the rest of the 2015 season .
= = = D. J. Durkin ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On December 2 , 2015 , the Terps announced that former Michigan defensive coordinator D. J. Durkin will be named the new head coach .
= = Home stadium = =
During its first few decades , the football program had only one poorly suited athletic field on which to play and practice and had no dedicated facilities such as locker rooms . Former coach and contemporary university president Dr. Harry C. Byrd allocated funds for the construction of a stadium in 1915 , and it was completed in 1923 . The Board of Regents voted to name it Byrd Stadium in honor of its main advocate . The stadium 's capacity was 5 @,@ 000 . During this time , it was common for Maryland to play its better @-@ drawing games in larger stadiums in Washington , D.C. or Baltimore .
In 1950 , that small field was replaced by the identically named but much larger Byrd Stadium , which was constructed at the cost of $ 1 million . The new stadium had an initial capacity of 34 @,@ 680 , which has since been upgraded to 51 @,@ 055 through extensive additions . Shortly after its construction , the stadium hosted its dedication game against Navy , which Maryland won 35 – 21 . That same year , the new field held its first and only bowl game , the Presidential Cup Bowl , which featured Texas A & M and Georgia . In 2006 , the University of Maryland became the first school to sell naming rights to its field . The home field was officially branded " Chevy Chase Bank Field at Byrd Stadium " in a 25 @-@ year , $ 20 million contract . In 2008 , Chevy Chase Bank was bought out by Capital One , and the stadium was renamed Capital One Field at Byrd Stadium . On December 11 , 2015 , the Board of Regents voted 12 @-@ 5 to remove the " Byrd " from the stadium 's name because of Harry " Curley " Byrd 's segregationist history , renaming it Maryland Stadium for the time being .
= = Traditions = =
= = = In @-@ Game = = =
A cannon furnished by the Mighty Sound of Maryland is fired to signify that the Terrapins have scored . This tradition has been in place since 1960 . Also , the cannon is fired before the game to let the tailgaters know that the game is about to start .
= = = Nickname = = =
When the school was known as the Maryland Agricultural College , from 1856 to 1916 , the media called the athletics teams the " Farmers " and the " Aggies " . As the University of Maryland , the teams became known as " The Old Liners " in reference to the state nickname . During the 1923 season , The New York Times referred to Maryland as the Orioles , after a bird species endemic to the region that was already the namesake for several baseball teams . In 1932 , Curley Byrd suggested that the namesake become the diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin ) , a species of land @-@ dwelling turtle common throughout the state , particularly the Chesapeake Bay area where Dr. Byrd spent his early life . The student newspaper had already been named The Diamondback since 1921 , and the athletics teams were sometimes referred to as the " Terrapins " as early as 1928 . Newspapers began referring to the team simply as the " Terps " to shorten headlines . The truncated name stuck and is now in official use by the school .
The mascot is a diamondback terrapin named Testudo , which means " turtle " in Latin . It is also the name of an ancient Roman military tactic , in which soldiers protected their infantry square from projectiles by completely enclosing it with their shields . Derivations of the word have also been used in scientific nomenclature related to the reptile , such as the order Testudine and the family Testudinidae . In 1933 , the graduating class raised funds for a 300 @-@ pound bronze replica of a terrapin . It was initially placed in front of Ritchie Coliseum , which was then the home arena of the basketball team . In 1951 , after being the subject of numerous pranks , the statue was relocated to Maryland Stadium , reinforced with 700 pounds of concrete , and anchored with steel rods . It was moved again in the 1960s , in front of McKeldin Library , and a second replica was placed at Maryland Stadium in 1992 . In the 2000s , under coach Ralph Friedgen , it was a pregame tradition for the football players to walk 200 yards , through what is known as " Terp Alley " , to the locker rooms , and touch the bronze Testudo .
= = = Colors = = =
Originally , the athletic teams had no official colors and often used gray or maroon and gray for their uniforms . Senior classes would sometimes select colors of their own choosing . In modern times , the uniforms have been based on some combination of the four colors of the Maryland flag : red , white , black , and gold . The dominant colors have occasionally changed back and forth with changes of the head coach . In 1904 , Maryland adopted a state flag based on the heraldry of Lord Calvert : the Calvert family arms ( black and gold ) quartered with his mother 's Crossland family arms ( red and white ) . From the early 1920s until 1942 , the black and gold were adopted as the official school colors .
In 1942 , Clark Shaughnessy left Stanford to coach at Maryland . He brought with him an affinity for a red and white color scheme and changed the team 's uniforms . Shaughnessy left after one season , and the school switched back to the more traditional black and gold . He returned in 1946 and again changed the colors to red and white . When Jim Tatum replaced him the following season , Shaughnessy 's colors were retained . In 1961 , Maryland wore gold jerseys with black numerals for the first time since 1945 for their season opener against Southern Methodist . In 1987 , Joe Krivak introduced black jerseys with the Maryland flag on the sleeves for selected games and then black pants followed in 1991 . Ron Vanderlinden took over in 1997 and a new black and white uniform was adopted . Under Ralph Friedgen , Maryland returned to red and white in 2001 , with black uniforms being reserved for select games . Maryland was one of the first schools to utilize the " blackout " concept , where fans uniformly wear the color to stand out in the stadium . It was introduced unofficially as the " Byrd Blackout " in 2005 . For the 2011 season , Maryland wore new Under Armour uniforms that offered a " dizzying array " of combinations in the four school colors . In the season opener against Miami , the Terrapins unveiled a unique uniform based on the Maryland state flag that received nationwide media attention . In recent years since 2001 under Ralph Friedgen and continued by Randy Edsall , Maryland has worn a uniform combination of all @-@ red , red jerseys and red pants for the annual game on homecoming weekend .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Penn State = = =
Main Article : Maryland – Penn State football rivalry
Maryland and Penn State have met 39 times since the 1917 season . Although Penn State leads the series with a lopsided 36 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 record against Maryland , many of those games were decided by field goals and turnovers . Because Maryland was in the ACC before joining the Big 10 Conference in July of 2014 , this rivalry was mainly kept alive through recruiting . The teams seldom played each other while Maryland was in the ACC but they competed in recruiting in the Baltimore @-@ Washington metropolitan area and Delaware Valley . The teams met in State College on November 1st 2014 for the first time in 11 years . Maryland defeated Penn State 20 @-@ 19 , and at the conclusion of the game , Randy Edsall finished his interview by saying " You know what ? Let the rivalry begin " . The following year , the rivalry game was played at M & T Bank Stadium in Baltimore , Penn State defeated Maryland 31 @-@ 30 .
= = = Virginia = = =
Main Article : Maryland @-@ Virginia football rivalry
The Maryland @-@ Virginia rivalry was a designated official ACC cross @-@ divisional series when Maryland was an ACC member and the teams have a long @-@ standing rivalry due to proximity and history . The programs also vie for recruits in the same region , and more recently , an additional factor has been the schools ' academic competition . Maryland and Virginia have occasionally served as spoilers for one another by precluding a championship or bowl game appearance . Since Maryland is moving out of the ACC and into the Big Ten , the future of this series is in question .
= = = West Virginia = = =
Main Article : Maryland @-@ West Virginia football rivalry
West Virginia has often been called Maryland 's biggest rival , and the teams have met 51 times since their first game in 1919 . The Maryland @-@ West Virginia rivalry had a chance of becoming an annual game with West Virginia potentially joining the ACC in 2012 , but the Mountaineers wound up joining the Big 12 Conference . In 2001 , both programs hired new head coaches , with West Virginia being taken over by Rich Rodriguez . Due to their proximity , the schools regularly raid their opponent 's recruiting areas . The long @-@ running series was put on hiatus for the 2008 and 2009 seasons , but resumed in 2010 .
= = = Navy = = =
Main Article : Crab Bowl Classic
Maryland played the Naval Academy , which is also located in the state of Maryland , several times between the 1930s and 1960s . The rivalry is known as the Crab Bowl Classic . In 1964 , an incident in which a Terrapins player flashed an obscene gesture prompted Navy officials to suspend the series for 40 years . They finally played again in 2005 . As of 2010 , the winner of the Crab Bowl Classic is awarded the Crab Bowl Trophy .
= = = Top 10 rivals = = =
Below are Maryland 's record against its top ten most @-@ played opponents .
= = = Big Ten rivals = = =
Below are Maryland 's record against its Big Ten opponents .
= = = = East = = = =
= = = = West = = = =
= = Team achievements = =
Maryland has accumulated various titles and distinctions in its 116 years of intercollegiate competition . Some of the most prestigious achievements are annotated below :
National championships : 1951 ( retroactive ) , 1953
Atlantic Coast Conference championships : 1953 , 1955 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 2001
Southern Conference championships : 1937 , 1951
Undefeated regular seasons : 1893 , 1951 , 1953 , 1955 , 1976
Undefeated conference seasons : 1937 , 1943 , 1949 , 1951 , 1953 , 1954 , 1955 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1984 , 1985
Bowl appearances : 1947 , 1949 , 1951 , 1953 , 1955 , 1973 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1977 , 1978 , 1980 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1990 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014
= = Individual honors = =
Over the years , many Maryland players have received All @-@ American honors . Eleven Terps have been named consensus ( received a majority of votes ) first @-@ team All @-@ Americans and one , E.J. Henderson , has received that honor twice . Additionally , some have been awarded prestigious awards , including the Bednarik Award , Butkus Award , Lou Groza Award , Outland Trophy , and Lombardi Award . While no Terrapin has ever received the Heisman Trophy , which is bestowed upon college football 's most outstanding player , several have received votes by the award 's selection committee . Quarterbacks Jack Scarbath and Bernie Faloney finished second and fourth in the voting in 1952 and 1953 , respectively . Additionally , Bob Pellegrini , Gary Collins , Randy White , and Boomer Esiason all finished in the top @-@ ten of the voting for a Heisman . Six Maryland players and four coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . Bear Bryant , Jerry Claiborne , Clark Shaughnessy , and Jim Tatum were inducted as coaches . The players included Dick Modzelewski , Bob Pellegrini , Jack Scarbath , and Bob Ward . Stan Jones and Randy White were also inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = = College Football Hall of Famers = = =
^ denotes player is also in Pro Football Hall of Fame
= = Future non @-@ conference opponents = =
Announced schedules as of February 2 , 2016
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= Washington State Route 525 =
State Route 525 ( SR 525 ) is a 30 @.@ 68 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 49 @.@ 37 km ) state highway located in Snohomish and Island counties in the western region of the U.S. state of Washington . SR 525 begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and I @-@ 405 in Lynnwood and travels north to SR 99 as a four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access freeway . From Lynnwood , the highway serves Mukilteo and becomes the terminus of SR 526 before taking its ferry route to Clinton on Whidbey Island . SR 525 traverses the island 's interior as part of the Whidbey Island Scenic Byway before the designation ends at an intersection with SR 20 south of Coupeville .
SR 525 was established during the 1964 state highway renumbering as the successor to Secondary State Highway 1D ( SSH 1D ) on Whidbey Island and SSH 1I in Mukilteo and Lynnwood , themselves established in 1937 . The highway , at its codification in 1970 , traversed the north – south length of Whidbey Island and ended at SR 536 near Anacortes until it was replaced by SR 20 in 1973 . SR 525 was converted to its present freeway in Lynnwood during the 1980s and widened to four lanes during the late 1990s , including an overpass over SR 99 . The highway also has a spur route in Mukilteo that has connected SR 525 to SR 526 via Paine Field Boulevard since it was signed in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
SR 525 begins at the Swamp Creek Interchange with I @-@ 5 , also serving as the northern terminus of I @-@ 405 , located in Lynnwood in southern Snohomish County . The four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access freeway travels north past Alderwood Mall and a partial cloverleaf interchange with Alderwood Mall Parkway , which serves the eponymous mall . SR 525 continues north under overpasses carrying 164th Street and 148th Street before reaching its partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 99 , where the freeway ends . The highway becomes the four @-@ lane Mukilteo Speedway and travels northwest into the city of Mukilteo , serving its commercial and industrial areas located south of Paine Field . SR 525 intersects its spur route , which travels north as Paine Field Boulevard towards the Boeing Everett Factory , before it serves as the western terminus of SR 526 . The highway gains a ferry holding lane on its northbound shoulder as it approaches the Mukilteo ferry terminal , located between the Mukilteo Lighthouse Park and the local train station , where the designation of SR 525 is carried onto the Whidbey Island Ferry across Possession Sound . The ferry , operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) , takes approximately 20 minutes for each of its 39 daily round @-@ trip crossings . As of May 2012 , WSF charges a fare of $ 4 @.@ 65 per walk @-@ on passenger and $ 7 @.@ 85 per vehicle during off @-@ peak seasons , with varying fares depending on passenger age and vehicle size . SR 525 leaves the ferry terminal at Clinton and travels west through the interior of Whidbey Island in unincorporated Island County as part of the Whidbey Island Scenic Byway , a state scenic byway . The highway turns north along Holmes Harbor in Freeland and continues through Greenbank before SR 525 terminates at SR 20 south of Coupeville .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 525 was its southern terminus at I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 , serving 61 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was at the Mukilteo ferry terminal , serving 5 @,@ 700 vehicles . SR 525 is designated as part of the National Highway System from Lynnwood to the Mukilteo ferry terminal , classifying it as important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . WSDOT designates the entire route of SR 525 as a Highway of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 525 uses the Whidbey Island Ferry between Mukilteo and Clinton , which began as a route of the Island Transportation Company in 1919 . The ferry was later taken over by the Puget Sound Navigation Company , who were sold to the state of Washington in 1951 during the formation of the WSF . The discontinuous road sections of SR 525 were added to the state highway system in 1937 as SSH 1D and SSH 1I , both branches of PSH 1 . SSH 1D traveled 54 @.@ 73 miles ( 88 @.@ 08 km ) on Whidbey and Fidalgo islands from the Clinton ferry dock to an intersection with the Anacortes branch of PSH 1 at Sharps Corner . SSH 1I traveled 10 @.@ 63 miles ( 17 @.@ 11 km ) in a circular arc from Everett to Lynnwood , traveling on Mukilteo Boulevard and the Mukilteo Speedway .
SR 525 was established during the 1964 state highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to both SSH 1D and SSH 1I , traveling 62 @.@ 04 miles ( 99 @.@ 84 km ) north from the newly constructed Swamp Creek Interchange at I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 in Lynnwood , opened in 1965 , to SR 536 south of Anacortes . The highway was truncated to its present terminus south of Coupeville after SR 20 was extended east as the North Cascades Highway in 1973 . SR 525 was re @-@ aligned onto a two @-@ lane freeway within Lynnwood in the 1980s replacing the local streets it had used to connect to I @-@ 5 and SR 99 . The Swamp Creek Interchange , where SR 525 meets I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 , was opened in November 1984 .
WSF ferry routes were added to its respective state highways in 1994 , eliminating one of two gaps along the route of SR 525 , the other being a concurrency with SR 99 that was replaced by a partial cloverleaf interchange in 2000 during the widening of the freeway segment in Lynnwood . A spur route , located completely in Mukilteo , was added to SR 525 in 2001 along the route of the four @-@ lane Paine Field Boulevard , connecting the main highway to SR 526 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Spur route = =
SR 525 has a 0 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 38 km ) spur route on Paine Field Boulevard in Mukilteo that connects the northbound lanes of the Mukilteo Speedway to SR 526 eastbound towards Everett and the local Boeing factory . Paine Field Boulevard was built in 1999 and signed as SR 525 Spur in 2001 , subsequently being widened and improved in 2003 by WSDOT . A proposal to extend Paine Field Boulevard through Japanese Gulch and create a bypass of the Mukilteo ferry terminal has been a part of the city 's transportation plan since 2001 , but has not been built . WSDOT estimated , during its annual AADT survey , that 21 @,@ 000 vehicles used the highway in 2012 .
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= Lady Gaga =
Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta ( / ˈstɛfəniː dʒɜːrməˈnɒtə / STEF @-@ ə @-@ nee jur @-@ mə @-@ NOT @-@ ə ; born March 28 , 1986 ) , known professionally as Lady Gaga , is an American singer , songwriter , and actress . She performed initially in theater , appearing in high school plays , and studied at CAP21 through New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts before dropping out to pursue a musical career . After leaving a rock band , participating in the Lower East Side 's avant garde performance art circuit , and being dropped from a contract with Def Jam Recordings , Gaga worked as a songwriter for Sony / ATV Music Publishing . There , recording artist Akon noticed her vocal abilities and helped her to sign a joint deal with Interscope Records and his own KonLive Distribution .
Her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) was a critical and commercial success that produced global chart @-@ topping singles such as " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " . A follow @-@ up extended play ( EP ) , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , was met with a similar reception and " Bad Romance " , " Telephone " , and " Alejandro " were released becoming successful singles . Her second full @-@ length album Born This Way was released in 2011 , topping the charts in more than 20 countries , including the United States , where it sold over one million copies in its first week . The album produced the number @-@ one single " Born This Way " . Her third album Artpop , released in 2013 , topped the US charts and included the successful single " Applause " . In 2014 , Gaga released a collaborative jazz album with Tony Bennett titled Cheek to Cheek , which became her third consecutive number one in the United States . For her work in the television series American Horror Story : Hotel , Gaga won a Golden Globe Award in 2016 .
With global album and single sales of 27 million and 146 million respectively , as of January 2016 , she is one of the best @-@ selling musicians of all time . Her achievements include twelve Guinness World Records , three Brit Awards , and six Grammy Awards . She is also the first artist to win the Songwriters Hall of Fame 's Contemporary Icon Award . Other accolades include a Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award from the Council of Fashion Designers of America ( 2011 ) , regular appearances on Billboard 's Artists of the Year lists and Forbes 's power and earnings rankings . In 2013 , Gaga finished second on Time 's readers ' poll of the most influential people of the past ten years , while in 2015 , she was named Billboard 's Woman of the Year . She is known for her philanthropic work and social activism , including LGBT rights and the Born This Way Foundation .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1986 – 2004 : Early life = = =
Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta was born on March 28 , 1986 , at the Lenox Hill Hospital on Manhattan 's Upper East Side to a Catholic family . She is the elder daughter of Cynthia Louise " Cindy " ( Bissett ) and Internet entrepreneur Joseph Anthony " Joe " Germanotta , Jr . Gaga is of 75 percent Italian descent , and also has French Canadian ancestry . Gaga 's sister Natali is a fashion student . Despite her affluent upbringing on Manhattan 's Upper West Side , she says that her parents " both came from lower @-@ class families , so we 've worked for everything — my mother worked eight to eight out of the house , in telecommunications , and so did my father . " From age eleven , she attended the Convent of the Sacred Heart , a private , all @-@ girls Roman Catholic school on Manhattan 's Upper East Side . She described her academic life in high school as " very dedicated , very studious , very disciplined " but also " a bit insecure " . " I used to get made fun of for being either too provocative or too eccentric , so I started to tone it down . I didn 't fit in , and I felt like a freak . " Gaga began playing the piano at the age of four , wrote her first piano ballad at thirteen , and started to perform at open mic nights by the age of fourteen . She performed lead roles in high school productions , including Adelaide in Guys and Dolls and Philia in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum . She also appeared in a very small role as a mischievous classmate in the television drama series The Sopranos in a 2001 episode titled " The Telltale Moozadell " . She auditioned for New York shows without success . She also studied method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute for ten years .
After high school , her mother encouraged her to apply for the Collaborative Arts Project 21 ( CAP21 ) , a musical theater training conservatory at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts . One of 20 students to gain early admission , she , aged 17 , lived in an NYU dorm on 11th Street . In addition to sharpening her songwriting skills , she composed essays and analytical papers on art , religion , social issues , and politics , including a thesis on pop artists Spencer Tunick and Damien Hirst . She also auditioned for various roles and won the part of an unsuspecting diner customer for MTV 's Boiling Points , a prank reality television show .
= = = 2005 – 07 : Career beginnings = = =
At age 19 , Gaga withdrew from CAP21 in the second semester of her sophomore year , deciding to focus on her musical career . In the mid @-@ 2005 , Gaga recorded a couple of songs with hip @-@ hop singer Grandmaster Melle Mel , for an audio book accompanying Cricket Casey 's children 's book The Portal in the Park . She also formed a band called the Stefani Germanotta Band ( SGBand ) with some friends from NYU . The band played at gigs around New York becoming a local fixture of the downtown Lower East Side club scene . After the 2006 Songwriters Hall of Fame New Songwriters Showcase at The Cutting Room in June , Gaga was recommended to music producer Rob Fusari by talent scout Wendy Starland . Fusari collaborated with Gaga , who traveled daily to New Jersey , to work on songs she had written and to compose new material with him . According to the producer , they began dating in May 2006 , and he claimed to have created the " Lady Gaga " moniker after the Queen song " Radio Ga Ga " . The singer was in the process of trying to come up with a stage name when she received a text message from Fusari that read " Lady Gaga " . He explained , " Every day , when Stef came to the studio , instead of saying hello , I would start singing ' Radio Ga Ga ' " . The text message was the result of a predictive text glitch that changed " radio " to " lady " . Fusari said she texted back , " That 's it " , and declared , " Don 't ever call me Stefani again . "
Fusari and Gaga established a company called Team Lovechild LLC to promote her career . They recorded and produced electropop tracks and sent them to music industry executives . Joshua Sarubin , the head of A & R at Def Jam Recordings , responded positively and after agreement from his boss , Antonio " L.A. " Reid , Gaga was signed to Def Jam in September 2006 . However , she was dropped by the label after only three months – a period of her life that later inspired the music video of her 2011 single " Marry the Night " . Devastated , Gaga returned to the solace of the family home for Christmas and the nightlife culture of the Lower East Side . She became increasingly experimental : fascinating herself with emerging neo @-@ burlesque shows , go @-@ go dancing at bars dressed in little more than a bikini , in addition to experimenting with drugs . Gaga explained her antics represented freedom : " I went to a Catholic school but it was on the New York underground that I found myself . " Her relationship with Fusari ended in January 2007 following which she became romantically involved with a heavy metal drummer . She compared this relationship and the subsequent breakup to the musical film Grease : " I was his Sandy , and he was my Danny , and I just broke . "
During this time , she met performance artist Lady Starlight , who helped mold her onstage persona . Like SGBand , the pair soon began performing at many of the downtown club venues like the Mercury Lounge , The Bitter End , and the Rockwood Music Hall . Their live performance art piece was known as " Lady Gaga and the Starlight Revue " and , billed as " The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rockshow " , was a low @-@ fi tribute to 1970s variety acts . Their performance at the 2007 Lollapalooza music festival was critically acclaimed .
Having initially focused on avant @-@ garde electronic dance music , Gaga found her musical niche when she began to incorporate pop melodies and the glam rock of David Bowie and Queen into her music . While Gaga and Starlight were busy performing , Fusari continued to work on the songs he had created with Gaga . He sent these songs to his friend , producer and record executive Vincent Herbert . The latter was quick to sign her to his label Streamline Records , an imprint of Interscope Records , established in 2007 . Gaga later credited Herbert as the man who discovered her , adding : " I really feel like we made pop history , and we 're gonna keep going . " Having served as an apprentice songwriter during an internship at Famous Music Publishing , ( later acquired by Sony / ATV Music Publishing ) , Gaga subsequently struck a music publishing deal with Sony / ATV . As a result , she was hired to write songs for Britney Spears and label mates New Kids on the Block , Fergie , and The Pussycat Dolls . At Interscope , singer @-@ songwriter Akon recognized her vocal abilities when she sang a reference vocal for one of his tracks in studio . Akon then convinced Interscope Geffen A & M Chairman and CEO Jimmy Iovine to form a joint deal by having her also sign with his own label Kon Live , making her his " franchise player " .
Towards the end of 2007 , Gaga met with songwriter and producer RedOne . Gaga collaborated with him in the recording studio for a week on her debut album , and also joined the roster of Cherrytree Records , an Interscope imprint established by producer and songwriter Martin Kierszenbaum ; she also wrote four songs with Kierszenbaum . Despite her secure record deal , she admitted that there was fear about her being too " racy " , " dance @-@ oriented " and " underground " for the mainstream market . Her response : " My name is Lady Gaga , I 've been on the music scene for years , and I 'm telling you , this is what 's next . "
= = = 2008 – 10 : The Fame and The Fame Monster = = =
By 2008 , Gaga relocated to Los Angeles in order to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album , The Fame , and set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga , modeled on Andy Warhol 's Factory . The Fame was released on August 19 , 2008 , with positive reception . Critics noted the album 's combination of genres , " from Def Leppard drums and hand claps to metal drums on urban tracks " , the inspiration drawn from 1980s synthpop and incorporation of dance music . The Fame went to number one in Austria , Canada , Germany , Ireland , Switzerland and the UK and appeared in the top five in Australia , the US and 15 other countries . Its first two singles , " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " , became worldwide commercial successes . " Poker Face " won the award for Best Dance Recording at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards while The Fame won Best Dance / Electronica Album at the same ceremony . Three other successful singles were released from the album — " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , " LoveGame " , and " Paparazzi " .
Following her opening act on The Pussycat Dolls ' 2009 Doll Domination Tour in Europe and Oceania , Gaga embarked on her own worldwide The Fame Ball Tour , which ran from March to September 2009 . While she traveled the globe , Gaga released The Fame Monster , an EP of eight songs , in November 2009 . Each song dealt with the darker side of fame from personal experience , expressed through a monster metaphor . Lead single " Bad Romance " topped the charts in 18 countries and reached number two in the US , Australia and New Zealand ; it won the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Short Form Music Video . Two other singles were released from the EP , " Telephone " ( featuring Beyoncé ) and " Alejandro " . The former became Gaga 's fourth UK number one single , while the latter faced controversy for its music video , which was deemed blasphemous by the Catholic League . Despite the controversy surrounding her music videos , Gaga became the first artist to gain over one billion viral views on video @-@ sharing website YouTube . At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , Gaga won 8 of her 13 nominations , including Video of the Year for " Bad Romance " . In addition , The Fame Monster won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album . Gaga also released , The Remix , which became her final record with Cherrytree Records . Forbes first listed Gaga on their 2010 Celebrity 100 and World 's Most Powerful Women lists ranking her fourth and seventh , respectively .
The success of The Fame and The Fame Monster allowed Gaga to start her second worldwide concert tour , The Monster Ball Tour , just weeks after finishing The Fame Ball Tour . Critically and commercially successful , the tour began in November 2009 and ended in May 2011 , and grossed $ 227 @.@ 4 million , making it the highest @-@ grossing for a debut headlining artist . Concerts performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for an HBO television special titled Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . Gaga also performed songs from the albums at international events such as the 2009 Royal Variety Performance , 52nd Annual Grammy Awards , and the 2010 BRIT Awards . Other performances might have included her participation in Michael Jackson 's This Is It concert series at London 's O2 Arena had he not died of a drug overdose . Gaga clarified that she was : " actually asked to open for Michael on his tour ... We were going to open for him at the O2 and we were working on making it happen . I believe there was some talk about us , lots of the openers , doing duets with Michael on stage . "
During this era Gaga ventured into business , collaborating with consumer electronics company Monster Cable Products to create a pair of in @-@ ear , jewel @-@ encrusted , headphones titled Heartbeats . " They are designed to be the first ever fashion accessories that double as the absolute best sonically sounding headphones in the world , " she commented . Gaga also partnered with Polaroid in January 2010 as their Creative Director and revealed a trio of new photo capturing products called Grey Label . But her collaboration with past producer , and ex @-@ boyfriend , Rob Fusari led to her production team , Mermaid Music LLC , being sued in March 2010 when he claimed that he was entitled to a 20 % share of the company 's earnings . The New York Supreme Court dismissed both the lawsuit and a countersuit by Gaga . In addition to such strife , Gaga was tested borderline positive for lupus , but claimed not to be affected by the symptoms . The singer addressed the matter in an interview with Larry King , saying she hopes to avoid symptoms by maintaining a healthy lifestyle .
= = = 2011 – 14 : Born This Way , Artpop and Cheek to Cheek = = =
In February 2011 , Gaga released the lead single " Born This Way " from her studio album of the same name . The song debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the 1,000th number @-@ one single in the history of the charts . Its second single " Judas " also peaked within the top ten in several major musical markets , while " The Edge of Glory " , first a commercial success in digital outlets , was later released as a single to rave critical reviews . Born This Way , released on May 23 , 2011 , debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 1 @.@ 108 million copies , and topped the charts in more than 20 other countries . The album sold eight million copies worldwide , and received three Grammy Award nominations , including her third Album of the Year listing . The album 's following singles " You and I " and " Marry the Night " failed to match the international success . In July 2011 , she started dating actor and model Taylor Kinney , whom she met while filming the " You and I " music video . The accompanying tour for Born This Way , titled the Born This Way Ball , began in April 2012 and concluded in February 2013 . Some of the tour 's shows were cancelled due to a labral tear of her right hip . Shortly thereafter Gaga confirmed that she had hip surgery , and was recovering . The tour earned $ 183 million globally . Gaga was ranked as the second most @-@ played artist of 2011 in the United Kingdom by the PPL . She also topped the Celebrity 100 List , with earnings of US $ 90 million , and was the highest ranked entertainer on Forbes World 's Most Powerful Women in the eleventh position . In March 2012 , Gaga was ranked fourth on Billboard 's list of top moneymakers of 2011 with earnings of $ 25 million , which included sales from Born This Way and her Monster Ball Tour .
During this period , Gaga recorded a jazz version of " The Lady Is a Tramp " with Tony Bennett and lent her vocals to a song with Elton John for the animated feature film , Gnomeo & Juliet . She held a concert at the Sydney Town Hall , Australia , to promote Born This Way , and at the celebration of former US president Bill Clinton 's 65th birthday . Later that year , Gaga directed the critically acclaimed Thanksgiving Day television special , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving , which attained 5 @.@ 749 million American viewers , and spawned the release of her fourth EP , A Very Gaga Holiday . In May 2012 , Gaga guest @-@ starred as an animated version of herself on the 23rd season finale of The Simpsons , titled " Lisa Goes Gaga " . She also appeared n Tony Bennett 's documentary film , The Zen of Bennett ( 2012 ) . The following month , she announced her first fragrance in association with Coty , Inc . , Lady Gaga Fame , which was released worldwide in September 2012 .
New songs for Gaga 's third studio album , Artpop , were beginning to take definite form as she worked with producer Fernando Garibay in early 2012 . Work on the album continued well into the Born This Way Ball tour . She yearned to make audiences have " a really good time " with Artpop , crafting the album to mirror " a night at the club " . Artpop was released in November 2013 . Despite mixed reviews , it debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart , and has sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies as of July 2014 . The album spawned successful singles in " Applause " and " Do What U Want " , featuring R & B singer R. Kelly . A third release , " G.U.Y. " , became Gaga 's weakest performing single to date . Gaga embarked on the accompanying ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour several months later , building upon concepts from her ArtRave promotional event . Scooping up $ 83 million , the itinerary saw her visit new cities and several locations initially included in the Born This Way Ball tour . Meanwhile , Gaga split from longtime manager Troy Carter over " creative differences " , and by June 2014 , she and new manager Bobby Campbell joined Artist Nation , the artist management division of Live Nation Entertainment . She topped Forbes ' List of Top @-@ Earning Celebs Under 30 , and ranked second on the Celebrity 100 List and Time 's anniversary poll of the most influential people of the past ten years .
Gaga starred in Robert Rodriguez 's Machete Kills ( 2013 ) , a critical and commercial failure that earned her a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress nomination . The singer also hosted the November 16 , 2013 episode of Saturday Night Live , where she performed " Do What U Want " ( with Kelly ) and an album cut , " Gypsy " . Later that month , she held her second Thanksgiving Day television special on ABC , Lady Gaga and the Muppets ' Holiday Spectacular . Gaga had a cameo in another Robert Rodriguez film , Sin City : A Dame to Kill For , released on August 22 , 2014 . She was confirmed as the Versace 's spring @-@ summer 2014 face with a campaign called " Lady Gaga For Versace " .
In 2014 , Gaga collaborated with American jazz singer Tony Bennett on the jazz album Cheek to Cheek . It debuted atop the Billboard 200 , becoming Gaga 's third consecutive number @-@ one record in the United States . The album won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . The duo recorded a concert special , called Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , and embarked on the Cheek to Cheek Tour , which began in December 2014 and concluded in August 2015 . The same year , Gaga also had a seven @-@ day residency show commemorating the final performance at New York 's Roseland Ballroom before its closure . She also released her second fragrance in association with Coty Inc . , named Eau de Gaga .
= = = 2015 – present : American Horror Story and fifth studio album = = =
In February 2015 , Gaga became engaged to Taylor Kinney . At the 87th Academy Awards , she performed a tribute to The Sound of Music , singing a medley of songs from the film . The performance triggered over 214 @,@ 000 interactions per minute globally on Facebook . Gaga performed a piano version of John Lennon 's " Imagine " at the opening ceremony of the 2015 European Games in Baku , Azerbaijan . Gaga and Diane Warren co @-@ wrote a song titled " Til It Happens to You " for the documentary The Hunting Ground , which earned them the Satellite Award for Best Original Song and an Academy Award nomination in the same category . On October 2 , 2015 , a fashion film , directed by Nick Knight , was released for Tom Ford 's 2016 spring campaign , which depicts Gaga among several models dancing around a catwalk . It featured a new version of Chic 's " I Want Your Love " , recorded by Gaga in collaboration with Nile Rodgers . The singer received other accolades in 2015 , including the Contemporary Icon Award at the 2015 Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame Awards , the Young Artist Award at the 2015 National Arts Awards , and she ranked number 25 as the third female singer on the 2015 Forbes Celebrity 100 list , with earnings of US $ 59 million . Billboard also named Gaga its 2015 Woman of the Year . In November 2015 , Gaga and Bennett were featured in a commercial for Barnes & Noble 's 2015 holiday campaign , for which they recorded a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " .
Gaga starred in American Horror Story : Hotel , the fifth season of American Horror Story , which ran from October 2015 to January 2016 . She played Elizabeth , the owner of the titular hotel . Despite her performance receiving mixed reviews , she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film at the 2016 ceremony . Following her win , she signed with the Creative Artists Agency ( CAA ) having previously been signed with William Morris Endeavor ( WME ) . Gaga told Entertainment Weekly that the experience with American Horror Story will influence the creative process of her fifth studio album , claiming : " I have returned to something I 've believed in so much , which is the art of darkness . " She confirmed that the album will be released during 2016 . In March 2016 , she announced that she would return for the sixth season of American Horror Story .
In January 2016 , Gaga was invited to be the guest editor for the V magazine for its 99th issue , which features sixteen different covers . She subsequently received the award for Editor of the Year for her work on the magazine in March during the Fashion Los Angeles Awards . Her live performances in 2016 included singing the US national anthem on February 7 , at Super Bowl 50 , partnering with Intel and Nile Rodgers for a tribute performance to the late David Bowie at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards , and singing " Til It Happens to You " at the 88th Academy Awards , where she was introduced by Joe Biden and accompanied on @-@ stage by 50 sexual assault survivors . On April 4 , 2016 she was honored at the Jane Ortner Education Award by The Grammy Museum , with the Jane Ortner Artist Award , which recognizes artists who has demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts . Gaga and Elton John released a clothing and accessories line on Macy 's on May 9 , 2016 , to support their charities .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Continually experimenting with new musical ideas and images , Gaga 's musical and performance style is the subject of much analysis and scrutiny from critics . She professes that she is " liberating " herself by constantly reinventing her sound and image , insisting that she has been drawn to such a practice since her childhood . Refusing to lip sync , Gaga – whose range is frequently compared to those of Madonna and Gwen Stefani – has manipulated her vocal style over the course of her career yet considers Born This Way ( 2011 ) " much more vocally up to par with what I 've always been capable of . " In summation of her voice , Entertainment Weekly wrote : " There 's an immense emotional intelligence behind the way she uses her voice . Almost never does she overwhelm a song with her vocal ability , recognizing instead that artistry is to be found in nuance rather than lung power . "
Although her early lyrics have been criticized for lacking intellectual stimulation , " [ Gaga ] does manage to get you moving and grooving at an almost effortless pace . " Gaga believes that " all good music can be played on a piano and still sound like a hit . " She has covered a wide variety of topics in her songs : while The Fame ( 2008 ) meditates on the lust for stardom , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) expresses fame 's dark side through monster metaphors . Born This Way ( 2011 ) is sung in English , French , German , and Spanish and includes common themes in Gaga 's controversial songwriting such as : sex , love , religion , money , drugs , identity , liberation , sexuality , freedom , and individualism .
Her music style has been described as electropop and as dance @-@ pop and the structure of her music is said to be influenced by classic 1980s pop and 1990s Europop . Her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) provoked The Sunday Times to assert " in combining music , fashion , art and technology , [ Gaga ] evokes Madonna , Gwen Stefani circa ' Hollaback Girl ' , Kylie Minogue 2001 or Grace Jones right now " , and a critic from The Boston Globe to comment that she draws : " obvious inspirations from Madonna to Gwen Stefani ... in [ her ] girlish but sturdy pipes and bubbly beats . " Music critic Simon Reynolds wrote that : " Everything about Gaga came from electroclash , except the music , which wasn 't particularly 1980s , just ruthlessly catchy naughties pop glazed with Auto @-@ Tune and undergirded with R & B @-@ ish beats . " The follow @-@ up The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , saw Gaga 's taste for pastiche , drawing on " Seventies arena glam , perky ABBA disco , and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q " while Born This Way ( 2011 ) also draws on the records of her childhood and still has the " electro @-@ sleaze beats and Eurodisco chorus chants " of its predecessor but includes genres as diverse as opera , heavy metal , disco , and rock and roll . " There isn 't a subtle moment on the album , but even at its nuttiest , the music is full of wide @-@ awake emotional details , " wrote Rolling Stone , which concluded : " The more excessive Gaga gets , the more honest she sounds . " With 2014 's Cheek to Cheek , Gaga dabbled in the jazz genre . Although critically appreciated for her love of the music , and the songs she recorded on the album , it was noted that Gaga 's attempt to switch genres , with " her rhythmically square , shouty delivery " , left her vocals sounding more like a Broadway singer than a real jazz musician .
= = = Influences = = =
Gaga grew up listening to artists such as : The Beatles , Stevie Wonder , Queen , Bruce Springsteen , Pink Floyd , Mariah Carey , The Grateful Dead , Led Zeppelin , Whitney Houston , Elton John , Blondie , and Garbage , who all influenced her . She has cited heavy metal bands as an influence , stating that Iron Maiden " changed my life " and describing herself as " the biggest Black Sabbath fan on Earth " . Gaga 's musical inspiration varies from dance @-@ pop singers like Madonna and Michael Jackson to glam rock artists like David Bowie and Freddie Mercury , as well as the theatrics of the pop artist Andy Warhol and her own performance roots in musical theater . Gaga has often been compared to Madonna who admits that she sees herself reflected in Gaga . In response to the comparisons , Gaga stated in February 2011 : " I don 't want to sound presumptuous , but I 've made it my goal to revolutionize pop music . The last revolution was launched by Madonna 25 years ago " in addition to commenting that : " there is really no one that is a more adoring and loving Madonna fan than me . " Like Madonna , Gaga has continued to reinvent herself and has drawn inspiration from the music and performances of a diverse mix of artists including : Whitney Houston , Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry , Lily Allen , Marilyn Manson , Yoko Ono , Beyoncé , Britney Spears , and Christina Aguilera .
Another spiritual influence on Gaga has been the Indian physician , public speaker , and writer Deepak Chopra . Labeling him a " true inspiration " , she stated that " he 's always reminded me to work in a life of service to my fans and to fulfill my vision and my destiny " in addition to thinking about Chopra when it comes to her work as a musician : " I want so much for it to go beyond the music for my fans . " Gaga also lifted a quote from Osho 's book Creativity on Twitter . When asked about her connection to him , Gaga said she was influenced by his work and that , for her , " the creativity is the greatest way of rebellion " : " Equality " , she concluded , " is one of the most important things in my life . "
Gaga has identified fashion as a major influence and claimed that her interest in fashion came from her mother who was " always very well kept and beautiful . " Her musical endeavors are directly linked with fashion with the singer explaining : " When I 'm writing music , I 'm thinking about the clothes I want to wear on stage . It 's all about everything altogether — performance art , pop performance art , fashion . " Gaga has been stylistically compared to Leigh Bowery , Isabella Blow , and Cher . She commented that as a child , she somehow absorbed Cher 's out @-@ there fashion sense and made it her own . Gaga considers Donatella Versace her muse , and the late English fashion designer and close friend Alexander McQueen as an inspiration , admitting that " I miss Lee every time I get dressed " while channeling him in some of her work . In turn , Versace calls Lady Gaga " the fresh Donatella " . Modeled on Andy Warhol 's Factory , Gaga has her own creative production team , which she handles personally , called the Haus of Gaga , who create many of her clothes , stage props , and hairdos . Other fashion influences came from Princess Diana : " I love Princess Diana so much . She was an enormous influence on me when I was younger because my mother worshiped her so much . When she died , I 'll never forget , my mother was crying . It was this very powerful moment in my childhood watching my mother so connected to someone " .
= = = Videos and stage = = =
With constant costume changes and provocative visuals , Gaga 's music videos are often described as short films . " Being provocative is not just about getting people 's attention . It 's about saying something that really affects people in a real way , in a positive way , " she professes . According to author Curtis Fogel , exploring bondage and sadomasochism in addition to highlighting prevalent feminist themes , " the three central themes that shape Gaga 's music videos are sex , violence , and power . " While she labels herself " a little bit of a feminist " and asserts that she is " sexually empowering women " , Gaga strives to empower young women to stand up for what they believe in . " She not only reiterates her assertion of total originality , " professed pop critic Ann Powers , " but also finesses it until it 's both a philosophical stance about how constructing a persona from pop @-@ cultural sources can be an expression of a person 's truth — a la those drag queens Gaga sincerely admires — and a bit of a feminist act . " In summation of her videos , Rolling Stone used the rhetoric : " does anyone look to a Lady Gaga video for restraint ? "
Her performances are described as " highly entertaining and innovative " ; the blood @-@ spurting performance of " Paparazzi " at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards was described as " eye @-@ popping " by MTV News . She continued the " blood soaked " theme during The Monster Ball Tour , and triggered protests in England from family groups and fans in the aftermath of a local tragedy , in which a taxi driver had murdered 12 people . Her unconventionality continued at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards : appearing in drag as her male alter ego , Jo Calderone , and delivering a lovesick monologue before a performance of her song " You and I " . As Gaga 's choreographer and creative director , Laurieann Gibson provided material for her shows and videos for four years only to be replaced by Gibson 's assistant Richard Jackson . Gaga admits to being a perfectionist when it comes to her elaborate shows . " I 'm very bossy . I can scream my head off if I see one light fixture out . I 'm very detailed – every minute of the show has got to be perfect . "
= = Public image = =
Public reception of Gaga 's music , fashion sense and persona are polarized . Her status as a role model , self @-@ esteem booster for her fans , trailblazer , and fashion icon who breathes new life into the industry is by turns affirmed and denied . Critics have pointed out her unique place in pop music , the need for new movements in popular culture , the attention Gaga brings to modern social issues , and the inherently subjective nature of her art . In view of her influence on modern culture and her rise to global fame , sociologist Mathieu Deflem of the University of South Carolina has offered a course titled " Lady Gaga and the Sociology of the Fame " since spring 2011 with the objective of unravelling : " some of the sociologically relevant dimensions of the fame of Lady Gaga . " When Gaga briefly met with US president Barack Obama at a Human Rights Campaign fundraiser , he described the interaction as " intimidating " as she was dressed in 16 @-@ inch heels making her undoubtedly the tallest woman in the room .
Towards the end of 2008 , comparisons were made between the fashions of Gaga and Aguilera , that noted similarities in their styling , hair , and make @-@ up . Aguilera stated that she was " completely unaware of [ Gaga ] " . Comparisons continued into 2010 , when Aguilera released the music video of her single " Not Myself Tonight " . Critics noted similarities between the song and its accompanying music video and Gaga 's video for " Bad Romance " . When interviewed by Barbara Walters for her annual ABC News special 10 Most Fascinating People in 2009 , Gaga dismissed the claim that she is intersex as an urban legend . Responding to a question on this issue , she stated , " At first it was very strange and everyone sorta said , ' That 's really quite a story ! ' But in a sense , I portray myself in a very androgynous way , and I love androgyny . "
Gaga 's outlandish fashion sense has also been one of her characteristic aspects . The Global Language Monitor named " Lady Gaga " as the Top Fashion Buzzword with her trademark " no pants " a close third . Entertainment Weekly put her outfits on its end of the decade " best @-@ of " list , saying : " Whether it 's a dress made of Muppets or strategically placed bubbles , Gaga 's outré ensembles brought performance art into the mainstream . " Time placed Gaga on their All @-@ Time 100 Fashion Icons List amongst some of Gaga 's inspirations such as Michael Jackson , Madonna , and The Beatles , stating : " Lady Gaga is just as notorious for her outrageous style as she is for her pop hits . After all , Gaga , born Stefani Germanotta , has sported outfits made from plastic bubbles , Kermit the Frog dolls , and raw meat . "
Gaga wore a dress made of raw beef to the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards which was supplemented by boots , a purse , and a hat also made out of raw beef . Partly awarded in recognition of the dress , Vogue named her one of the Best Dressed people of 2010 while Time named the dress the Fashion Statement of 2010 . However , it promted divided opinions , attracting the attention of worldwide media but also invoking the fury of animal rights organization PETA . In 2012 , Gaga became a feature of a temporary exhibition The Elevated : From the Pharaoh to Lady Gaga marking the 150th anniversary of the National Museum in Warsaw . Gaga was presented in a dress of raw meat , described by Polish weekly Wprost as : " an icon of modernity elevated by the power which she exercises over mass media " . The meat dress was later displayed at the National Museum of Women in the Arts , and entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in September 2015 . As Gaga appeared at the 87th Academy Awards and subsequent events , she changed her style and fashion , transforming into a more glamorous person ; Vogue compared her to that of Marilyn Monroe and MTV News described the change as " more acceptably ' natural ' or ' classic ' " .
While devout followers call Gaga " Mother Monster " , Gaga often refers to her fans as " Little Monsters " which she had tattooed on herself in dedication . To some , this dichotomy contravenes the concept of outsider culture . Camille Paglia , in her 2010 cover story " Lady Gaga and the death of sex " in The Sunday Times , asserts that Gaga : " is more an identity thief than an erotic taboo breaker , a mainstream manufactured product who claims to be singing for the freaks , the rebellious and the dispossessed when she is none of those . " Writing for The Guardian , Kitty Empire opined that the dichotomy : " ... allows the viewer to have a ' transgressive ' experience without being required to think . At [ her performance 's ] core , though , is the idea that Gaga is at one with the freaks and outcasts . " In July 2012 , Gaga also co @-@ founded the website LittleMonsters.com with Silicon Valley entrepreneur Joseph Primiani , which became the first official social network devoted to fans of an artist .
= = Activism = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Alongside her music career , Gaga has contributed to various charities . For natural disasters , Gaga has helped various relief efforts . Although declining an invitation to appear on the single " We Are the World 25 " to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , she donated the proceeds of her concert of January 24 , 2010 , at New York 's Radio City Music Hall to the country 's reconstruction relief fund . All profits from her official online store on that day were also donated . Gaga announced that an estimated total of US $ 500 @,@ 000 was collected for the fund . Hours after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Japan on March 11 , 2011 , Gaga tweeted a message and a link to Japan Prayer Bracelets . All revenue from a bracelet she designed in conjunction with the company was donated to relief efforts . As of March 29 , 2011 , the bracelets raised $ 1 @.@ 5 million . However , attorney Alyson Oliver filed a lawsuit against Gaga in Detroit in June 2011 , noting that the bracelet was subject to a sales tax and an extra $ 3 @.@ 99 shipping charge was added to the price . She also believed that not all proceeds from the bracelets would go to the relief efforts , demanding a public accounting of the campaign and refunds for people who had bought the bracelet . Gaga 's spokesperson called the lawsuit " meritless " and " misleading " . On June 25 , 2011 , Gaga performed at MTV Japan 's charity show in Makuhari Messe , which benefited the Japanese Red Cross .
In 2012 , Gaga joined the anti fracking campaign Artists Against Fracking . In October 2012 , Gaga was reported to have met the founder of Wikileaks , Julian Assange , at the Ecuadorean embassy in London . On October 9 , 2012 , Yoko Ono gave Gaga and four other activists the LennonOno Grant for Peace in Reykjavík , Iceland . On November 6 , 2012 , Gaga pledged to donate $ 1 million to the American Red Cross to help the victims of Hurricane Sandy . Gaga also contributes in the fight against HIV and AIDS , focusing on educating young women about the risks of the disease . In collaboration with Cyndi Lauper , Gaga joined forces with MAC Cosmetics to launch a line of lipstick under their supplementary cosmetic line , Viva Glam . In a press release , Gaga declared , " I don 't want Viva Glam to be just a lipstick you buy to help a cause . I want it to be a reminder when you go out at night to put a condom in your purse right next to your lipstick . " The sales of Gaga @-@ endorsed Viva Glam lipstick and lip gloss have raised more than $ 202 million to fight HIV and AIDS .
On April 7 , 2016 , Gaga joined Vice President Joe Biden at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas , to support Biden 's It 's On Us campaign as he travels to colleges on behalf of the organization , which has seen 250 @,@ 000 students from more than 530 colleges sign a pledge of solidarity and activation . On June 26 , 2016 , Gaga attended the 84th Annual US Conference of Mayors in Indianapolis where she joined with Dalai Lama to talk about the power of kindness and how to make the world a more compassionate place . The Chinese government added Gaga to list of hostile foreign forces , and Chinese websites and media organizations were ordered to stop uploading or distributing her songs . The Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China ( CCPPD ) also issued order for State @-@ controlled media to condemn this meeting .
= = = Born This Way Foundation = = =
In 2012 , she launched the Born This Way Foundation ( BTWF ) , a non @-@ profit organization that focuses on youth empowerment and issues like self @-@ confidence , well @-@ being , anti @-@ bullying , mentoring , and career development . It takes its name from the 2011 single and album . The foundation plans to work with a number of partners , including the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation , The California Endowment , and the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University . Media proprietor Oprah Winfrey , writer Deepak Chopra , and United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius spoke at the inauguration at Harvard University . The foundation 's original funding included $ 1 @.@ 2 million from Gaga , $ 500 @,@ 000 from the MacArthur Foundation , and $ 850 @,@ 000 from Barneys New York . The foundation works in partnership with the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University , the MacArthur Foundation , the California Endowment , and , as lead media partner , Viacom . In July 2012 , the BTWF partnered with Office Depot , which will donate 25 % of the sales @-@ a minimum of $ 1million @-@ of a series of limited edition back @-@ to @-@ school products that promote the foundation 's message The foundation 's initiatives have included , in March – April 2012 , a poster competition that asked participants to submit images that answer the question " What does bravery mean to you ? " ; the " Born Brave Bus " that would follow her on tour as a youth drop @-@ in center as an initiative against bullying , and the " Born Brave " community and school groups .
On October 24 , 2015 , at the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence , Gaga joined 200 high school students , top policy makers , and academic officials , including Yale President Peter Salovey , a pioneer in the study of emotional intelligence , to discuss ways to recognize and channel emotions for positive outcomes . In 2016 , the foundation partnered with Intel , Vox Media and Re / code to fight online harassment . It was also announced that the sale of the cover of the 99th issue of the V magazine , which featured Gaga and Kinney , was donated to the foundation to bring cutting @-@ edge , social @-@ emotional intelligence research . Gaga and Elton John released a clothing and accessories line on Macy 's on May 9 , 2016 , entitled Love Bravery , in which twenty @-@ five percent of each purchase will support the Born This Way Foundation and the Elton John AIDS Foundation .
= = = LGBT advocacy = = =
Gaga is an outspoken activist for LGBT rights worldwide . She attributes much of her early success as a mainstream artist to her gay fans and is considered a gay icon . Early in her career she had difficulty getting radio airplay , and stated , " The turning point for me was the gay community . " She thanked FlyLife , a Manhattan @-@ based LGBT marketing company with whom her label Interscope works , in the liner notes of The Fame . One of her first televised performances was in May 2008 at the NewNowNext Awards , an awards show aired by the LGBT television network Logo . In June of the same year , she performed at the San Francisco Pride event . After The Fame was released , she revealed that the song " Poker Face " was about her bisexuality . In an interview with Rolling Stone , she spoke about how her boyfriends tended to react to her bisexuality , saying : " The fact that I 'm into women , they 're all intimidated by it . It makes them uncomfortable . They 're like , ' I don 't need to have a threesome . I 'm happy with just you ' . " When she appeared as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in May 2009 , she praised DeGeneres for being : " an inspiration for women and for the gay community " .
Gaga spoke at the 2009 National Equality March in Washington , D.C. in support of LGBT movement , and described the appearance as " the single most important moment " of her career . She attended the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards accompanied by four gay and lesbian former members of the United States Armed Forces who had been unable to serve openly under the U.S. military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " ( DADT ) policy . Gaga released three videos on YouTube urging her fans to contact their Senators in an effort to overturn DADT . In September 2010 she spoke at a Servicemembers Legal Defense Network 's rally in Portland , Maine . Following this event , editors of The Advocate commented that she had become a " fierce advocate " for gays and lesbians . Gaga appeared at Europride , a pan @-@ European international event dedicated to LGBT pride , held in Rome in June 2011 . She criticized the intolerant state of gay rights in many European countries and described gay people as " revolutionaries of love " . Gaga was ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery so that she could officiate the wedding of long @-@ time friends , both of whom were women . In June 2016 , during a vigil held in Los Angeles for victims of the attack at the gay nightclub Pulse in Orlando , Gaga read aloud the names of the 49 people killed in the attack , and also gave a supporting speech . Also in June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of that attack ; in the video , Gaga and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Legacy = =
Gaga has been regarded as a trail blazer throughout several points in her career , sometimes utilizing controversy to bring attention to various issues . With the meteoric success of The Fame , Gaga is credited as being one of the frontrunners of the rise in the popularity of synthpop in the late 2000s and early 2010s . Writer Brian Solis says , " It 's all about how you cultivate your community , " Solis said . " Celebs have never shied away from causes and in many ways it 's expected that they will use their celebrity to gain attention for those causes . But it 's what ( Gaga ) does over time and how her community responds that starts the lean @-@ over into the influence factor . Polaroid CEO , after working with Gaga , said : " she 's a true artist who inspires her fans and the creative community . The relationship she has with her fans is exceptionally close and she is consistently in contact with them via social networks , making her messages accessible , authentic and far reaching . " Named the " Queen of Pop " by Rolling Stone magazine , her work has influenced Miley Cyrus , Nicki Minaj , Ellie Goulding , Nick Jonas , Tyler Oakley , Lohanthony , Sam Smith , Greyson Chance , Debbie Harry of Blondie , and MGMT .
Gaga has been commemorated in the scientific names of several organisms . A new genus of ferns , Gaga , and two species , G. germanotta and G. monstraparva have been named in her honor . The name monstraparva alluded to Gaga 's fans known as " little monsters " since their symbol is the outstretched " monster claw " hand , which resembles a tightly in @-@ rolled young fern leaf prior to unfurling . Gaga also has an extinct mammal , Gagadon minimonstrum , and a parasitic wasp , Aleiodes gaga , named for her .
= = Achievements = =
As of January 2016 , Gaga had sold an estimated 27 million albums and 146 million singles worldwide ; her singles are some of the best @-@ selling worldwide , making her one of the best @-@ selling music artists . She is also noted as a touring force as she has grossed more than $ 300 million in revenue from 3 @.@ 2 million tickets for her first three worldwide concert tours . Her other achievements include six Grammy Awards , three Brit Awards , a Golden Globe Award , thirteen MTV Video Music Awards , twelve Guinness World Records , a Songwriters Hall of Fame 's Contemporary Icon Award , which she was the first artist ever to win , a National Arts Awards ' Young Artist Award , which honors individuals who have achieved incredible accomplishments and exemplary leadership while still early in their career , and honored at the Jane Ortner Education Award by The Grammy Museum , with the Jane Ortner Artist Award , which recognizes artists who has demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts . She has also been recognized by the Council of Fashion Designers of America ( CFDA ) with the Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award , a special prize reserved for : " an individual whose style has made a significant impact on popular culture on an international stage " .
Gaga has consecutively appeared on Billboard magazine 's Artists of the Year ( scoring the definitive title in 2010 ) , and named as Woman of the Year in 2015 , is the fourth best selling digital singles artist in the United States according to RIAA with a total of 59 million certified . She also became the first woman to receive the Digital Diamond Award from RIAA , and is the first and only artist to have two songs pass 7 million downloads ( " Poker Face " and " Just Dance " ) . She is regularly placed on lists composed by Forbes magazine , including their list of The World 's 100 Most Powerful Women from 2010 to 2014 , named one of the most influential people in the world by Time magazine in 2010 , and the " second most influential people of the past ten years " through a readers ' poll in 2013 .
= = Discography = =
The Fame ( 2008 )
The Fame Monster ( 2009 )
Born This Way ( 2011 )
Artpop ( 2013 )
Cheek to Cheek ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
The Zen of Bennett ( 2012 )
Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )
Machete Kills ( 2013 )
Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 )
Sin City : A Dame to Kill For ( 2014 )
Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer ( 2015 )
= = Concerts = =
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= Flag of Bhutan =
The national flag of Bhutan ( Dzongkha : ཧྥ ་ རན ་ ས ་ ཀྱི ་ དར ་ ཆ ་ ; Wylie : hpha @-@ ran @-@ sa @-@ kyi dar @-@ cho ) is one of the national symbols of Bhutan . The flag is based upon the tradition of the Drukpa Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism and features Druk , the Thunder Dragon of Bhutanese mythology . The basic design of the flag by Mayum Choying Wangmo Dorji dates to 1947 . A version was displayed in 1949 at the signing of the Indo @-@ Bhutan Treaty . A second version was introduced in 1956 for the visit of Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuk to eastern Bhutan ; it was based upon photos of its 1949 predecessor and featured a white Druk in place of the green original .
The Bhutanese subsequently redesigned their flag to match the measurements of the flag of India , which they believed fluttered better than their own . Other modifications such as changing the red background color to orange led to the current national flag , in use since 1969 . The National Assembly of Bhutan codified a code of conduct in 1972 to formalize the flag 's design and establish protocol regarding acceptable flag sizes and conditions for flying the flag .
= = Origins = =
Historically Bhutan is known by numerous names , but the Bhutanese call the country Druk after the name of the Bhutanese thunder dragon . This tradition dates to 1189 when Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje , founder of the Drukpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism , was in Phoankar ( Tibet ) where he reportedly witnessed the Namgyiphu valley glowing with rainbow and light . Considering this an auspicious sign , he entered the valley to choose a site for the construction of a monastery , whereupon he heard three peals of thunder – a sound produced by the druk ( dragon ) according to popular Bhutanese belief . The monastery that Tsangpa Gyare built that year was named Druk Sewa Jangchubling , and his school of teaching became known as Druk . The Druk school later split into three lineages . One of these three , Drukpa , was founded by Tsangpa Gyare 's nephew and spiritual heir Önrey Dharma Sengye and afterward spread throughout Bhutan . The nation itself would also later become known as Druk . This legend offers one explanation for how the symbolism of the dragon came to form the basis of the national flag of Bhutan . An alternative hypothesis maintains that the notion of symbolizing sovereign and state in the form of a dragon emerged in neighboring China and was adopted by the rulers of Bhutan as a symbol of royalty in the early 20th century .
= = Current national flag = =
= = = Design = = =
The current flag is divided diagonally from the lower hoist @-@ side corner , with the upper triangle yellow and the lower triangle orange . Centred along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side . The dragon is holding a norbu , or jewel , in each of its claws . The background colours of the flag , yellow and orange , are identified as Pantone 116 and 165 respectively . Equivalents of these shades and the white of the Druk are specified by various other codes according to particular matching systems as indicated below .
The dimensions of the flag must maintain a 3 : 2 ratio . The following sizes have been declared standard by the Government of Bhutan :
21 ft × 14 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m × 4 @.@ 3 m )
12 ft × 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 4 m )
6 ft × 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m × 1 @.@ 2 m )
3 ft × 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 m × 0 @.@ 6 m )
9 in × 6 in ( 23 cm × 15 cm ) , for car flags .
= = = Symbolism = = =
According to The Legal Provisions of the National Flag of the Kingdom of Palden Drukpa as Endorsed in Resolution 28 of the 36th Session of the National Assembly held on June 8 , 1972 , and as restated in the Constitution of 2008 , the yellow signifies civil tradition and temporal authority as embodied in the Druk Gyalpo , the Dragon King of Bhutan , whose royal garb traditionally includes a yellow kabney ( scarf ) . The orange half signifies Buddhist spiritual tradition , particularly the Drukpa Kagyu and Nyingma schools . Druk , the Thunder Dragon , spreads equally over the line between the colors . The placement of Druk in the center of the flag over the dividing line between the flag 's two colors signifies the equal importance of both civic and monastic traditions in the Kingdom of Druk ( Bhutan ) and evokes the strength of the sacred bond between sovereign and people . The white color of Druk signifies the purity of inner thoughts and deeds that unite all the ethnically and linguistically diverse peoples of Bhutan . The jewels held in Druk 's claws represent Bhutan 's wealth and the security and protection of its people , while the dragon 's snarling mouth symbolizes Bhutanese deities ' commitment to the defense of Bhutan .
= = Historic evolution = =
The Centre for Bhutan Studies , an independent Bhutanese research centre , in 2002 issued a paper ( henceforth the " CBS document " ) that is the only readily available account from Bhutan of the historical development of the national flag . The document draws heavily on first @-@ hand accounts obtained through interviews with individuals personally involved in the creation and modification of the flag in Bhutan , from the late 1940s until the adoption of the current flag around 1970 . This report is therefore a significant primary source for information about the history of the Bhutanese flag . But in the description of the flag from 1949 , the document is not in complete accord with photos of the flag ( as discussed below ) , making it difficult to interpret some of the document 's assertions . As a record , however , of the few primary sources remaining – namely , the people involved in the flag 's history and the handful of existing government records – it represents a valuable source of information about the otherwise poorly documented evolution of the Bhutanese flag .
= = = First national flag ( 1949 ) = = =
The CBS document states that the first national flag was designed upon the request of Jigme Wangchuk , the second Druk Gyalpo of the 20th @-@ century Kingdom of Bhutan , and was introduced in 1949 during the signing of the Indo @-@ Bhutan Treaty . While the document does not provide an illustration of the original design , black @-@ and @-@ white photographs taken at this historic event provide images of the first Bhutanese flag at the ceremony .
The design of the flag is credited to Mayeum Choying Wongmo Dorji in 1947 . Lharip Taw Taw , one of the few painters available to the royal court at the time , is said to have embroidered the flag . Druk was colored green in accordance with traditional and religious references to yu druk ngonm ( Dzongkha : གཡུ ་ རབྲུག ་ སྡོནམ ) , or " turquoise druk . " Today , a modern reproduction of this historic original ( with several significant changes influenced by the modern flag ) is displayed behind the throne in the National Assembly Hall in Thimphu .
According to the CBS document , the original Bhutanese flag was a bicolour square flag divided diagonally from the lower hoist to the upper fly . The field of yellow extended from the hoist to the upper fly , and the red field extended from the fly end to the lower hoist . In the centre of the flag , at the convergence of the yellow and red fields , is a green Druk , located parallel to the bottom edge and facing the fly .
However , the CBS document does not illustrate the early versions of the flag and its description of the 1949 flag is not entirely consistent with the photos surviving from 1949 . It describes the flag as " square " , while the proportions of the flag in the photographs appear closer to 4 : 5 . The document describes the dragon as " facing the fly end " , while the dragon visible in the photos faces the hoist . The dragon is described as " parallel to the fly " ( meaning , according to a diagram in the document , parallel to the length along the bottom edge of the flag ) , while the dragon in the photos appears to have a slightly rising vertical slant . The dragon is described as " green " , but the shade in the photos , if indeed green , must be very pale .
Western flag books until after 1970 generally show the Bhutanese flag closely resembling the 1949 photos .
= = = Changes in 1956 = = =
The second version of the national flag was developed in 1956 for the visit of the third Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuk to eastern Bhutan . During the trip the Druk Gyalpo 's Secretariat began to use flags of a new design based upon a photograph of the first national flag of 1949 , with the colour of the dragon changed from green to white . The retinue of the Druk Gyalpo included a convoy consisting of over one hundred ponies ; a small version of the flag was placed on the saddle of every tenth pony , and a large flag approximately 6 square feet ( 0 @.@ 56 m2 ) in size was flown in the camp every evening , hoisted to the sound of a bugle .
= = = Changes after 1956 = = =
Beginning in the late 1950s , Dasho Shingkhar Lam , former Secretary to Jigme Dorji Wangchuck and Sixth Speaker of the National Assembly ( 1971 – 74 ) , was requested by the king to make several modifications to the flag ; he is responsible for its current design , which has remained unchanged since 1969 . The king was reportedly dissatisfied that the early square Bhutanese flags did not flutter like the rectangular Indian flag displayed on the visit of an Indian official to the country . The standard measurements of the flag of Bhutan were thereafter altered to resemble the flag of India , which was 9 feet by 6 feet .
In another change , the dragon , which had formerly been placed in a roughly horizontal position in the center of the flag , was repositioned to spread out over the diagonal dividing line between the background colours . This change sought to avoid having the dragon " face the earth " when the flag was hanging limp . Bhutanese artist Kilkhor Lopen Jada painted a new design for the druk in which the curves of the dragon 's body are relaxed to create a somewhat longer and more gently undulating shape .
The CBS document states that the king ordered the colour of the lower half changed from red to orange " sometime in 1968 or 69 . "
The Bhutanese flag was flown abroad beside another nation 's flag for the first time in 1961 during a state visit to India by Jigme Dorji Wangchuck . This visit inaugurated a new level of relations between the two countries .
= = Code of conduct = =
On 8 June 1972 the National Assembly of Bhutan approved Resolution 28 , bringing into effect National Flag Rules drafted by the Cabinet . The rules have eight provisions covering the description and symbolism of the flag 's colouring , fields and design elements . Other rules relate to the size of the flag as well as flag protocol including the appropriate places and occasions for flying the flag and who may display the flag on cars . In general , the flag is given as much respect as the Bhutanese state and the head of state . As in the United States Flag Code , no other flags must be placed higher than the Bhutanese flag , the flag cannot be used as a cover or drape ( with some exceptions ) and the flag must not touch the ground . Other provisions include prohibitions on including the design in other objects or in a logo . Exceptionally , the flag may be used to drape coffins , but only those of high @-@ ranking state officials such as ministers or military personnel .
The 1972 rules also provide that " every dzongkhag [ district headquarters ] will hoist the national flag . Where there are no dzongkhag , the national flag will be hoisted in front of the office of the main government officer . "
Officials above the rank of minister are allowed to fly the flag at their residence provided they do not live near the capital . The tradition of flying the national flag in front of government offices had not existed in Bhutan prior to 1968 but was decreed standard practice by the Druk Gyalpo after his Secretariat was moved from the city of Taba to Tashichho Dzong in that year . The only flag day prescribed in the 1972 rules is National Day , which is held annually on December 17 . National Day commemorates the crowning of Ugyen Wangchuck as the first king of Bhutan on December 17 , 1907 .
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= Meat ( Torchwood ) =
" Meat " is the fourth episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was first broadcast by BBC Two on 6 February 2008 . It was written by Catherine Tregenna , who had previously written episodes for the first series of the show , directed by Colin Teague and produced by Richard Stokes and Chris Chibnall . The episode featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd plus recurring actor Kai Owen in a central role .
Torchwood initially depicts a small team of alien @-@ hunters known as Torchwood Three , based in the Welsh city of Cardiff . In the premiere episode of the first series Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) is introduced as a newcomer to the organisation who keeps her job secret from boyfriend Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) . The episode " Meat " depicts the two aspects of Gwen 's double life coming into conflict as Rhys finds himself caught up in Torchwood 's investigation into a corrupt meat trade stemming from human exploitation of a stranded benevolent alien . Rhys helps Torchwood in their attempts to apprehend the human villains of the episode and his bravery makes Gwen realise that she should no longer keep secrets from him .
The episode was filmed in and around Cardiff between June and July 2007 as part of the second production block of the series . The production team used the episode to expand Rhys ' role in the series , due to their appreciation of actor Kai Owen 's performances in the first series and the contention of executive producer Russell T Davies that the character should be seen as less of a " sap " in the second series . The alien " space whale " seen in the episode was created using computer @-@ generated imagery , with the exception of a cut section wound where the humans had been carving meat from . Tregenna characterised the monster as resembling " a giant kebab " . A more elaborate design was previously considered , but both Tregenna and Davies felt that this would detract from the alien 's suitability to the plot .
According to consolidated figures the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 28 million viewers on its BBC two debut , aggregated to 4 @.@ 74 million viewers after taking into consideration two repeat broadcasts the same week . Reviews of the episode ranged from mostly negative to very positive . Most commentators praised the larger role of Rhys in the episode , the performance of actor Kai Owen and the realism of the acting and dialogue overall . However , a large proportion of reviewers criticised the special effects used to create the alien and it was subsequently compared by some to resembling a sock puppet or hand puppet . Whilst some reviewers identified with the plight of the alien , others felt that its poor realisation meant that it was hard to feel any sympathy for it .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The central premise of the first two series of Torchwood is focused on a team of alien investigators known as Torchwood Three tracking down alien life which arrives in Cardiff via a space @-@ time rift located in the city . Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) , a South Wales Police officer , is recruited into the organisation by its leader , Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , in the premiere episode but due to the pressures of her work keeps it a secret from her boyfriend , trucking manager , Rhys ( Kai Owen ) . He believes reports of alien sightings to be a result of hallucinations induced by psychotropic drugs in the water supply and Gwen 's job to be working in " special ops " . By the second series Gwen is the second in command of Torchwood Three and now engaged to Rhys , who still remains in the dark regarding her vocation .
= = = Events = = =
Rhys is out driving when he is telephoned by his secretary Ruth ( Patti Clare ) , who informs him that one of their firm 's lorry drivers has crashed . At the crash Rhys discovers that one of his employees and friends has died whilst transporting meat to an abattoir . As he contemplates moving the lorry , a police officer ( Colin Baxter ) tells him that there is something suspicious in the back and that Torchwood want to investigate . The secret alien response team appears on the scene and Rhys spots his fiancée Gwen amongst them . The Torchwood team confiscate the meat that the lorry was transporting , due to suspicions that it originates from an alien . Gwen recognises the lorry as one from Harwood 's — Rhys ' firm . Back at their base of operations , known as the Hub , the team briefly consider that Rhys may be involved with the alien meat . Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) rings Rhys ' office for information , pretending to be the police . Meanwhile , analysing a sample of the meat , Torchwood 's resident medic Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) conjectures that it is being used for human consumption . Rhys texts Gwen asking for her to come home . He attempts to get her to confess to being at the crash site by questioning her on the police response to the lorry crash , but she is evasive .
After following Gwen from home , Rhys sees her meeting up with her boss Jack Harkness near the invisible lift in Roald Dahl Plass and follows them to a warehouse on the outskirts of Cardiff . While there he is captured by a group of men ( Garry Lake , Gerard Carey and Matt Ryan ) and subsequently taken inside the warehouse . Jack and Gwen see this and mistake his actions for collaboration . When questioned by his captors Rhys informs them of his colleagues death and in an act of self @-@ preservation claims to have destroyed the meat sample and offers to assume his colleagues job in trafficking the alien meat . The men subsequently show Rhys that they have captured a live " space whale " ( nicknamed the " cash cow " by its captors ) which is the source of the meat and which continues to grow despite them cutting chunks of its flesh away while it is still alive . Back at their flat , Rhys and Gwen argue over his presence at the warehouse and her presence at the lorry crash . Rhys suspects Gwen of infidelity with Jack . After their argument escalates , she is forced to confess that she catches aliens for a living . Rhys is initially disbelieving , and demands that she proves it . In response she takes him to the Hub . After recounting his findings and discussing the situation , Rhys agrees to help Torchwood investigate the warehouse .
As Rhys is expected by the alien 's captors , the team hides in his van as he drives them to the factory where the team sneaks in . They locate the creature and plan to stun the men and sedate it so they can move it back to the Hub until the Cardiff space @-@ time Rift reopens so they can send it back . They confirm that the creature is sentient , and experience empathy over its plight . The presence of Torchwood is discovered , Rhys is handcuffed by the three men . During the ensuing confrontation Rhys breaks free and takes a bullet for Gwen . Torchwood are able to stun the men and feed them amnesia pills . The creature becomes distressed and Owen can see no other option but to reluctantly euthanise it as it poses a threat to them by struggling . Back at the Hub , Owen patches up Rhys ' wound and Jack orders Gwen to give Rhys a pill too . After realising that Rhys is willing to support her life with Torchwood and that she enjoys being honest with him , Gwen cannot bring herself to do so . Jack relents , disappointed about this but unwilling to fire Gwen and face losing her from the team .
= = Production = =
" Meat " was made alongside " Sleeper " , the second episode of the series which was also directed by Teague , as part of block two of production which ran from 3 June to 5 July 2007 . It originally had the working title " Another Working Day " . In discussing the origins of the central alien writer Catherine Tregenna states that " we were just throwing ideas around and true to form Russell [ T Davies ] said " why isn 't it just a great big whale in a warehouse ? " " Davies states the alien was designed to be " one of Torchwood and Doctor Who 's biggest monsters " not in terms of concept but its " literal size " . He felt this provided insight into " the strangeness of life " . Producer Richard Stokes states that the concept design team created an idea of what they envisaged the whale to look like . Tregenna felt that the original design for the creature was " a little fanciful " in that it was a bit too " beautiful and exotic " before deciding " if it looked like that they [ the villains ] would exhibit it , it would be a freak show . " She characterises the final design as resembling " a giant kebab " . Contrary to observations from commentators , Tregenna did not intend the story to promote vegetarianism as she is not a vegetarian — she simply wanted to write an episode that was more action based than her series one episodes ( " Out of Time " and " Captain Jack Harkness " ) . The hypothetical size of the space whale resulted in Teague having to find this " huge great warehouse " and hire a fifty @-@ foot crane for camera angles . Whilst the main body of the alien was created using computer @-@ generated imagery a prosthetic version of the cut wound in the side of the alien was available for the actors to interact with on set . Actor Eve Myles describes it as being like filming within a " blood soaked , soppy big sponge " . The opening of the creature 's eye was created using green screen . Owen felt having to react to this to be the most unusual acting experience he 'd had whilst filming Torchwood .
In regards to the relationship between Gwen and Rhys , Davies felt that the episode provided a " rite of passage for the couple " . Director Colin Teague remarked that the character of Rhys " puts up with a lot from his wife to be . " The production team had previously planned to kill the character off at the end of the previous series but retained the character , partly because they liked Owen as an actor . In storylining the second series Davies states that " one of the first decisions we made was that we can 't make this guy look like a sap any longer . He 's got to be made aware of what 's going on . " Tregenna identified one of the central themes of the episode as the " love triangle between Gwen , Rhys and Jack " . The argument in which Gwen ultimately reveals to Rhys that she catches aliens for a living was partly improvised by Owen and Myles . The denouement of the episode sees the character of Rhys take a bullet to protect Gwen . To create this scene Owen 's clothing was fitted with a minor explosive , the gunshot effect " [ nipped ] a bit " which both Teague and Owen felt helped with the timing of the actor 's reaction . Location filming for the episode took place around Roald Dahl Plass on 3 July for several scenes , including the final scene with Gwen and Rhys on Mermaid Quay , and the earlier scene where Rhys observes Jack and Gwen by the water fountain . A warehouse near Roath Dock , Cardiff Bay was used as the location for the abandoned warehouse @-@ meat processing plant , whilst the Imperial Park Bypass was used for some of the road scenes . During the episode Gwen asks " What is this , Scooby @-@ Doo ? " in regards to Rhys ' suggestion the team hide in his van in order to carry out a sting operation . Torchwood Magazine suggest that this was a knowing reference from Tregenna to the critic and satirist Charlie Brooker 's reaction to the first series of the show .
= = Broadcast = =
On overnight returns , The Guardian reported that the episode had an 11 % audience share and 2 @.@ 9 million viewers for its first BBC Two broadcast at 9pm on 6 February . According to consolidated figures released by the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board the episode 's first broadcast had an estimated total audience of 3 @.@ 28 million viewers . The episode had an audience appreciation index of 85 , regarded as excellent . A late night repeat of the episode aired on BBC sister channel BBC Three the same night at 11pm and a further pre @-@ watershed repeat , edited to be child friendly , of the episode aired the next day , 7 February , at 7pm . Stephen James Walker , a writer of reference works on Doctor Who and its spin @-@ offs , noted that " Meat " " was one of the more heavily edited episodes of the series for its pre @-@ watershed repeat " . Cut scenes included " some of the particularly gory scenes " and an exchange between Gwen and Jack which implied the latter performing oral sex on an alien . The dialogue in Gwen and Rhys ' big argument was also censored with two instances of the phrase " piss off ! " being removed , whilst Rhys ' line " you fucking him ( Jack ) , or what ? " was redubbed to the less profane " you seeing him , or what ? " . The edited repeat had an air time of 49m 33s , as opposed to the original episode 's air time of 50m 15s . Overnight ratings suggested that the pre @-@ watershed version of the episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 00 million viewers and had a 4 @.@ 9 % audience share . Final figures released by BARB indicated that the total viewing figures for the BBC3 repeat and the pre @-@ watershed BBC2 repeat were 0 @.@ 37 million viewers and 1 @.@ 09 million viewers respectively , giving the episode an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 74 million viewers across its three initial broadcasts .
A corresponding 10 @-@ minute episode of Torchwood Declassified , a behind the scenes documentary on the production of the show , entitled " Save the Whale " was broadcast on BBC Two following the episode between 9.50pm and 10pm and featured contributions from Tregenna , Davies , Teague , Myles and Owen .
= = = Reception = = =
Previewing the episode as one of his TV choices for the day , The Guardian 's Gareth McClean stated that amongst " the snarling , shouting and awful , contrived sexual tension between Captain Pratt and the team , there 's an interesting idea here — the consequences of leading a double life . " He described Gwen as " the moral centre of the show " and joked that her " nice @-@ but @-@ dim boyfriend " must be the last person in Cardiff not to know of Torchwood 's existence . He concluded by stating " that a giant telepathic alien manatee is involved should by no means discourage viewing . " The Daily Mirror 's Jane Simon also selected the episode as her single pick of the day , praising scenes where Rhys and Torchwood formulate their infiltration plan as containing " the kind of sharp , sarcastic banter that made Buffy such fun to watch " . However , she felt that it was a " shame they can 't keep it up for the entire episode . " Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode four out of five stars , feeling it to be a " juicy treat to devour , combining heightened drama , genuine emotion and nice touches of humour . " He praised the decision to foreground the character of Rhys , the contrast he provided to the operations of the Torchwood team and the realism of the arguments between him and Gwen . He also felt that the episode 's " eco @-@ friendly plot " made it easy to sympathise with the alien space whale stating " the emotive howls of pain , big puppy @-@ dog eyes and heartfelt score all [ combined ] to test the tear ducts . " However , he criticised the human antagonists for being " two @-@ dimensional plot functions rather than humans " and pointed out the " moral black hole " of Torchwood continuing to buy meat products despite condemning the plight of the space whale . Richard Edwards of SFX magazine also gave the episode four stars , feeling it highlighted how the " series has evolved " in that " the in @-@ fighting and gratuitous swearing have been replaced with slick dialogue that sizzles with humour and drama – not to mention a team that feels like a properly cohesive unit . " He also praised the increased role of Rhys and opined that the episode made the relationship between him and Gwen " the show 's most believable . " However , he felt that Jack , as the leader of a top secret organisation , should have pressed harder to have Rhys ' memory wiped .
Alan Stanley Blair of Airlock Alpha gave the episode a mixed review . He felt it was refreshing to have a story about aliens that weren 't invading and opined that " the brutal scenes at the abattoir and the whale @-@ like moans of agony from the beast tug on a few heartstrings . " However , he criticised the realisation of the alien describing it as " basically a giant , moaning turd sitting in the middle of a warehouse " and " a large lump of putty with eyes " . He felt that the episode gave Rhys " a chance to step into the spotlight for a change and prove he has what it takes to carry a story " and felt his reaction to the existence of aliens to be " perhaps the most realistic that the genre has produced " . Despite this , he felt that Rhys finding out about Torchwood put an end to the " fun " of Gwen " keeping secrets and concealing her double life " and expressed disappointment that Jack didn 't wipe his memory at the end of the episode . Travis Fickett of IGN rated the episode 7 @.@ 6 on a one to ten scale and felt it provided a " messy , odd and somewhat unsettling twist on alien encounters " but felt the episode had several weak points . He felt it was hard not to see Rhys as " a buffoon " and questioned why Torchwood would use a civilian during a sting operation . He also felt that it pushed " beyond the limits of its capacity to create convincing special effects " and the creature itself looked like " a hand puppet " . Andrew Mickel of Den of Geek felt that Rhys has always been the " Welsh heart of the show " and praised his role in the episode for being " actually rather entertaining , approaching everything with invigorating gusto . " However he also criticised the denouement of the episode for being " daftly mawkish " and opined that " it ’ s always impossible to care about CGI characters " .
Jason Hughes of AOL TV felt the creature to look like a " sock puppet when it was loose and flailing about angrily " and felt this to be " almost like a nod to old Doctor Who , which had awesomely awful special effects at times " . He also felt that Rhys becoming aware of Torchwood " adds a new and interesting dynamic to the show . " Stephen Frank , writing for the gay and bisexual male entertainment site AfterElton indicated that he was " all in favour " of getting " to know our favorite Cardiff cuckold [ Rhys ] a little bit better " . Though critical of Gwen 's characterisation in previous episodes , he praised her defense of Rhys ' memories at the end of the episode as her " finest moment on this show " and stated that it " helps rehabilitate her " . He stated overall that " Meat " had " performed something of a minor miracle in the way it ’ s made me reassess my views of both Gwen and Rhys and their relationship . " Alasdair Stewart of Firefox News felt that Tregenna had written some of the strongest episodes of the series in the past and stated the episode " should be one of the highlights of the series " but " instead , it 's a mess " . He criticised the plausibility of the villains , the poor special effects of the alien and the incompetency of the Torchwood team , describing the episode as containing a " total lack of consistency " and " a total lack of basic understanding of what Torchwood are supposed to be capable of " . He felt Kai Owen provided " a bright spot in the episode " describing him as " clearly a powerhouse of an actor " and opining that " the scenes where he uncorks on first Eve Myles and then John Barrowman " also brought out " the best in both actors " . Conversely , io9 's Charlie Jane Anders felt the alien half of the episode to be " one of the best examples of a humans @-@ are @-@ the @-@ real @-@ monsters story ever " but felt that " the other half of the episode was Torchwood at its rock @-@ bottom worst " . She criticised the argument scenes stating : " I was having psychic chunks carved off me by a man in a yellow helmet , every time Gwen screamed at Rhys or Jack " and felt overall that the episode contained " too much screaming " . She enjoyed the innuendos made by Jack , but criticised the scene where Gwen stared " psycho @-@ killerishly " at him whilst kissing Rhys .
John Beresford of TV Scoop felt that " Meat " finally provided " a story that was well conceived , realised and paced " opining that at last " Torchwood came of age " and that it was " easily the best Torchwood story so far . " He did have some problems such as " really pathetic alien , the odd off @-@ colour innuendo about alien " meat " and the lazy convenience of the amnesia pills " but felt that these were relatively minor . The strongest points of the episode for him were the acting which he felt to be " uniformly better than usual and on occasion almost incandescent " and the dialogue which was " so natural it didn ’ t actually sound like " dialogue " at all " . Stephen James Walker , in his own analysis of the episode , gave a mostly favourable review . He criticised the alien space whale as the " one less @-@ than @-@ wonderful " aspect of the episode but praised the opening sequence and the use of the " bleak industrial setting " by director Colin Teague . He felt that the expanded role of Rhys was one of the most pleasing aspects of the scripts and praised the humorous interactions that constituted " male bonding " between him and Jack . He singled out a scene where Gwen turns " a gesture of affection " toward Rhys " into a teasing come @-@ on " to Jack by making eye @-@ contact with the latter whilst kissing the former as characteristic of the " moral ambiguity " which makes her " such a great character " . He also felt that whilst they did not have much to do , Tosh , Owen and Ianto had some good scenes which further demonstrated " Tregenna 's adeptness at handling the show 's regular characters " .
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= Willy Vandersteen =
Willy Vandersteen ( 15 February 1913 – 28 August 1990 ) was a Belgian creator of comic books . In a career spanning 50 years , he created a large studio and published more than 1 @,@ 000 comic albums in over 25 series , selling more than 200 million copies worldwide .
Considered together with Marc Sleen the founding father of Flemish comics , he is mainly popular in Belgium , the Netherlands and Germany . Hergé called him " The Brueghel of the comic strip " , while the creation of his own studio and the mass production and commercialization of his work turned him into " the Walt Disney of the Low Countries " .
Vandersteen is best known for Suske en Wiske ( published in English as Spike and Suzy , Luke and Lucy , Willy and Wanda or Bob and Bobette ) , which in 2008 sold 3 @.@ 5 million books . His other major series are De Rode Ridder with over 200 albums and Bessy ) with almost 1 @,@ 000 albums published in Germany .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1913 – 1939 = = =
Willebrord Jan Frans Maria Vandersteen was born in Antwerp in 1913 . His family lived in the Seefhoek , a poor quarter of the city , where his father Francis Vandersteen worked as a decorator and stone sculptor . His studio lay next to a printer that produced De Kindervriend , one of the first weekly youth magazines in Flanders . Willy Vandersteen , only four years old , read the new magazine there every week , including Blutske , an early comic strip . His mother Anna Gerard was more interested in ballet and singing . One of her favourites , Wiske Ghijs , may well have been the inspiration for the name " Wiske " he gave to one of the main characters in his main series " Spike and Suzy " .
Vandersteen was creatively active from his youth . He drew pictures with crayons on sidewalks , and invented stories for his friends about knights and legends . He even convinced his young friends to buy him crayons so he could depict the local cycling championship . At school as well , he was more interested in telling stories and learning about art than anything else . His best memory of these schooldays is of a teacher who introduced him to the works of Pieter Brueghel . Outside school , he spent most of his time with comic magazines and adventure books by Jules Verne or books about Nick Carter and Buffalo Bill . At 13 , he enrolled at the Academie voor Schone Kunsten in Antwerp to study sculpture , and two years later he started working as sculptor and decorator , just like his father .
The same year , the family moved to Deurne , a suburb of Antwerp , where he came in contact with nature and with scouting , which both had a profound impact on his character and his later work . With the scouts , he became the troop reporter , writing down heavily illustrated reports on their outings and adventures , in a similar vein as what Hergé did in his scouting period . Through the scouts , he also came into contact with Le Boy @-@ Scout Belge , the Walloon scouting magazine where Hergé made Totor , his first published comic . Vandersteen made a few sequels to these adventures for his friends as amusement , which are the earliest preserved comics he made . He continued to follow the work of Hergé later on . Meanwhile , Vandersteen combined his studies at the Academy with his work in his father 's workshop until 1935 , when the market for stone decorations for houses collapsed .
In between some odd jobs , Vandersteen became an avid sporter , from gymnastics over cycling to wrestling . His chances improved in 1936 when he was hired as a decorator for the shop and the display windows of L 'Innovation , a Belgian chain of supermarkets . In the same year , he met Paula Van Den Branden , whom he married on 9 October 1937 . After living in Antwerp for two years and having a daughter , Helena , in 1938 , the first of their four children , the couple moved to the more rural Schilde in 1939 .
While doing research for his decorations , he read in an American magazine the article Comics in your Life . Fascinated , Vandersteen searched for more information on the subject . He rediscovered Hergé with The Adventures of Tintin in Le Petit Vingtième , but also the realistic work of Hal Foster in Prince Valiant . But it took a few more years before this fascination translated into steady publication of his own comics . Meanwhile , his first published drawings appeared in Entre Nous , the internal magazine of L 'Innovation .
= = = 1940 – 1944 = = =
In March 1940 , two months before the start of World War II in Belgium , Bob , his second child , was born . When the first tribulations of the war were over , Vandersteen could restart his work at L 'Innovation . From November 1940 until August 1942 , he created his first published comic , Kitty Inno , for the company , consisting of short , simple gags . When the German occupier forbade the publication of American and British comics in the Belgian newspapers and magazines , opportunies arose for local people . On 19 March 1941 , the first comic strip of Tor de holbewoner ( Tor the troglodyte ) appeared in the newspaper De Dag . It continued until January 1942 . Already on 26 March 1941 it was joined by De lollige avonturen van Pudifar ( The funny adventures of Pudifar ) , a weekly comic strip about a cat . This was in May of the same year replaced by Barabitje , another comic about a cat , which ended in October 1941 .
In 1942 , Vandersteen quit his job at L 'Innovation and started working at the Landbouw- en Voedingscorporatie ( a government organisation for the agricultural sector ) , where he illustrated some magazines . In those years , the family Vandersteen moved , this time to Wilrijk , another suburb of Antwerp .
That same year , he illustrated the pro @-@ occupation book Zóó zag Brussel de Dietsche Militanten under the pen name Kaproen . In the 1970s Willy denied rumors , based on drawing style , that he had been the real artist behind Kaproen , but in 2010 these allegations were confirmed after an investigation demanded by his own family . Unlike his partners , Vandersteen was later not persecuted for his part in publishing the antisemitic drawings , which were considered collaboration with the Nazis .
At the Corporatie , Vandersteen met a colleague whose wife worked at Bravo , a weekly Flemish comics magazine that appeared since 1936 and had a French @-@ language version since 1940 . Due to the war conditions , they were desperately in need of local artists to replace the American comics they used to publish . Led by established Walloon illustrator Jean Dratz , a young team was gathered , with artists like Edgar P. Jacobs and Jacques Laudy . Vandersteen joined in 1943 , and here his comics career really took off . First he created Tori , a reprise of the prehistoric Tor , and a few weeks later his new comic Simbat de Zeerover ( Simbat the Sailor ) was published on the cover and in colour , a first for Vandersteen .
For the Antwerp publisher Ons Volk , he created three comics , published as books without a prepublication in a newspaper or magazine . Piwo , about the adventures of a wooden horse , became his first comic album in 1943 , and was followed by two sequels in 1944 and 1946 . Those comics were also published in French . For the same editor , he illustrated 11 children books . In the same years , he also created the cover illustration for a number of novels from other publishers . In 1944 , he also started working for two more magazines , De Rakker and De Illustratie , where he created some comics and made numerous illustrations . To help him with all this work , his wife Paula inked many of his pencil drawings in these years .
= = = 1944 – 1949 = = =
After the liberation of Belgium in September 1944 , there was a boom of new magazines for the youth , both in French and Dutch . Many of those tried to mix American comics with local artists . Vandersteen worked in these early years for countless publications . He continued publishing in Bravo , with the medieval gags of Lancelot . Having moved to the suburbs of Brussels to avoid the bombardments of Antwerp , he came into contact with some French language editors . French language magazines he contributed to included Franc Jeu , Perce @-@ Neige , and Le Petit Monde . Two of the comics he created for Franc Jeu were also published in albums . By 1947 , all these magazines had disappeared .
Defining for his career was the invitation he got in 1944 from the people of Standaard Boekhandel , a chain of libraries who were also active as publishers . They were interested in his work and wanted to publish some books . Vandersteen presented them with the first designs for a daily comic strip , but they put that on hold and first ordered four juvenile books from Vandersteen . These were published in 1945 and 1946 in Dutch and French ( by Casterman ) .
On 30 March 1945 , the daily comic strip Rikki en Wiske started to appear in the newspaper De Nieuwe Standaard , after a positive review by the young illustrator Marc Sleen . It was an immediate success , and the first story ran uninterrupted until 15 December 1945 . Vandersteen though was disappointed to see the editor had renamed the strip Rikki en Wiske instead of his suggestion Suske en Wiske , and also felt that Rikki too closely resembled Tintin .
The next story , Rikki disappeared , and the long series of adventures of Suske en Wiske began with the story Op het eiland Amoras , achieving success beyond the author 's expectations . The first album appeared in 1946 . This story introduced most of the recurring figures and means of transport through space and time , and set the framework for the complete series . Already in 1946 , it was also published in the Dutch newspaper De Stem .
On 22 December 1945 , three days after the start of Suske en Wiske op het eiland Amoras , appeared the first page of De Familie Snoek ( The Family Snoek ) , a weekly series of gags revolving around a contemporary Flemish family . It lasted for 11 albums .
Apart from these two long lasting newspaper comic strips , Vandersteen made a number of other comics in these years . Most important was his work for Ons Volkske , the youth supplement of the weekly magazine Ons Volk , which from the end of 1945 on became an independent comic magazine . Marc Sleen was editor @-@ in @-@ chief and filled most pages together with Vandersteen . Vandersteen created a number of realistic stories of about 20 pages each , where he developed his own style after starting very much as a follower of Harold Foster . In his usual more caricatural style , he created in August 1946 the recurring gagstrip De Vrolijke Bengels ( The Happy Rascals ) . More adult comics appeared in the magazine Ons Volk .
In 1947 , two publishers started a legal battle for the right to the names of the newspapers and magazines . Vandersteen , caught in the middle , worked a while for both , but eventually switched to the new owners of De Standaard . He continued to work for Ons Volkske , which was now renamed ' t Kapoentje for a few more months . The publishers of De Standaard also continued the album series of Suske en Wiske , which started modestly with one album in 1946 and one in 1947 . By 1947 , seven albums were available , and the first ones were already reprinted . The first albums of De Familie Snoek had also appeared by then . Supported by large publicity campaigns , they sold very well : the first Snoek album was in its third impression by 1948 . The popularity of Vandersteen , and the impact comics had in Flanders , is attested by the 25 @,@ 000 readers who switched to the Standaard at the same time as Vandersteen did .
Vandersteen worked the rest of his life for De Standaard , but contributed also to the other publications of the publisher : Ons Volkske , a new newspaper supplement continuing the name of the older magazine , and Het Nieuwsblad , the more popular newspaper of the group . Vandersteen made illustrations and comics when needed . For Ons Volk , which also reappeared , he made realistic stories until 1951 .
Vandersteen was now at the height of his productivity as a solo artist . Apart from his work for De Standaard and Het Nieuwsblad , he contributed to Ons Volk and Ons Volkske , he made a special Suske en Wiske story for het Parochieblad ( a weekly Christian newspaper ) , and he started to contribute to Kuifje journal ( Tintin magazine ) that published Hergé . The magazine was very popular in Wallonia , but struggled in Flanders , where The Adventures of Tintin was not yet as well known . A popular Flemish author would give the sales a boost , while it could mean the breakthrough on the French language market for Vandersteen . However , Hergé , as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , set a very high quality standard for his magazine , and Vandersteen had to improve and stylize his drawings , and had to remove the more Flemish , popular aspects of his comics . Vandersteen obliged , and the stories of Suske en Wiske he created for Kuifje are now considered the best of his career , with the first one , Het Spaanse Spook ( The Spanish Ghost ) , which started on 16 September 1948 , as his masterpiece . It was because of his work for Kuifje that Hergé nicknamed Vandersteen " The Brueghel of the Comic Strip " .
= = = 1950s = = =
Vandersteen could no longer handle the work load on his own . In 1949 , he hired his first collaborator , François @-@ Joseph Herman . Herman stayed with Vandersteen only three years , but his tenure was the start of the large Studio Vandersteen , which has continued the series . He was followed by Karel Boumans in 1952 , who was an anonymous contributor until 1959 . He worked mainly for De grappen van Lambik , a Suske en Wiske spin @-@ off Vandersteen created for the weekly newspaper De Bond , which ran from 24 January 1954 on . But he also inked many Suske en Wiske comics , including those in Tintin . Vandersteen devoted himself more and more towards the storytelling and the initial pencil drawing , which he considered the artistic process , while the inking was more of a craft .
The years from 1949 to 1953 are often considered the highlight of Vandersteen 's career , when he combined large production with consistent high quality in his stories , the jokes , the many characters , and the graphical aspects , in which the charming quirkiness of the early years was balanced with the more rigorous ligne claire of Hergé . Many of these stories were loosely based on popular classics , ranging from Alexandre Dumas over Buffalo Bill to Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen , with as culmination his comic in two parts of the legend of Till Eulenspiegel , made for Kuifje .
Vandersteen spent a lot more time at documentation from this point on . While the early comics were mostly filled by his imagination and visited imaginary countries or stayed close to home , he now started travelling to visit locations for new comics . Visits to Bruges , Monaco and Venice were the inspiration for three stories in Kuifje
In 1953 , when Tijl Uilenspiegel was finished , Vandersteen created a new comical strip for Kuifje . ' t Prinske told the humorous adventures of a young prince in a fictional country . It lasted until 1959 and ran for some 300 comics .
In 1951 , Vandersteen encountered Karel Verschuere , a young unemployed artist . Vandersteen hired him , and Verschuere soon became his mayor artist for the realistic series . His first series was Judi , a retelling of the Old Testament in four albums , which first appeared in Ons Volkske . The series was not very successful , and Verschuere later finished a fifth part on his own . Verschuere also contributed to the second part of Tijl Uilenspiegel , just like Bob de Moor and Tibet did , but his main contribution to the output of Vandersteen was his work on Bessy , a Western series inspired by the success of Lassie , which started in 1952 in the Walloon newspaper La Libre Belgique . The series appeared under the pseudonym WiRel , a combination of Willy and Karel , indicating the importance of Verschueren 's work . He continued working with Vandersteen until 1967 , helping with many of the realistic series Vandersteen created in these years , including Karl May , Biggles and especially De Rode Ridder .
The success of Bessy , which from 1953 on also appeared in Dutch , led to the creation of the Studio Vandersteen , acknowledging , albeit mostly anonymously , that many of the comics were no longer made by Willy Vandersteen on his own . Together with the publications in Kuifje , it made Vandersteen a popular artist in Wallonia as well , and all Bessy and Suske en Wiske comics were published by Erasme in French .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1966 , Vandersteen finally moved back from Brussels , where he had lived at different locations since World War II , towards Antwerp , and more precisely Kalmthout , a rural village to the north of Antwerp . There , next to his villa , he created the location for his main Studio .
The Bessy comics were also published in Felix , a German comic magazine by Bastei Verlag . From 1965 on , they wanted to publish a complete new story every month , a rhythm they increased to twice a month in 1966 . Unable to produce so fast , Vandersteen had to expand his Studio considerably . Led by Karel Verschuere , a team of some ten young artists mass @-@ produced the comics , which were of considerable lower quality . The most important of these artists were Frank Sels and Edgar Gastmans , while many stories were produced by Daniël Janssens . When in late 1967 Verschuere quit , and at the same time Bastei increased the rhythm again , now to one complete comic a week , the Studio was disbanded and Sels and Gastmans started to work on a free lance basis . The next year , they decided to go behind Vandersteen 's back and to sell directly to the Germans . Vandersteen then had to reorganize the Bessy Studio and hired Jeff Broeckx . The Studio continued until 1985 , with artists like Patrick van Lierde , Ronald Van Riet , Eugeen Goossens , and Walter Laureyssens . It produced more than 900 Bessy @-@ comics .
Bastei Verlag , enamoured by the success of Bessy , asked Vandersteen to provide a second weekly series . With the popularity of superheroes , especially Batman , in Belgium and Germpany in these years , Vandersteen proposed a spinoff series of Suske en Wiske , based on Jerom , the strongman of the series . Called Wastl in German , 173 stories were produced between 1968 and 1972 , with a publication that reached 150 @,@ 000 copies at its summit . The best of these stories were published in Dutch as well , just like it was done with the later Bessy 's , but the weakness of the stories ended the series after only four years .
The main artists in the Studio Vandersteen in the 1960s and later were Karel Verschuere , Frank Sels , Eduard De Rop , Eugeen Goossens , Karel Biddeloo and Paul Geerts . Eduard De Rop joined the Studio in 1959 , after Karel Boumans departed , and stayed for over thirty years . He worked mostly on minor series like Jerom and Pats , but contributed to almost all series , including Suske en Wiske . One of his main contributions was the early adventures of De Rode Ridder . De Rode Ridder was in 1946 created by writer Leopold Vermeiren , and published in books since 1954 , with illustrations by Karel Verschuere . The success led to the creation of a comics series as well , with as main contributors Verschuere , Eduard De Rop , and Vandersteen 's son Bob . De Rode Ridder became the third main success story of Vandersteen , and is now the longest running series behind Suske en Wiske . Karel Verschuere was replaced by Frank Sels in 1963 .
Karel Verschuere also started the series Karl May , based on the famous books , in 1962 . The contributions of Vandersteen to this and similar series like Biggles was minimal and consisted mainly of supervision and some first sketches . Frank Sels continued the series between 1963 and 1966 .
Vandersteen had to deliver a number of pages each week for the newspaper supplement Pats , increased to 16 pages in 1965 . Eduard De Rop revived De Familie Snoek with a new series of gags for a few years , and other series like Karl May were published here as well . The place of Karl May in the main newspaper was taken by Biggles , yet another realistic series started by Verschuere in 1965 .
When Frank Sels left the Studio in 1967 , Karel Biddeloo took over most of the realistic series of Vandersteen . He made Karl May from 1967 until 1969 , when the Bessy @-@ studio took over the job . He also took over Biggles , which ended in 1969 , when it was replaced by the jungle series Safari , inspired by Daktari . At the start of the series , Vandersteen did most of the creative work , but after a few albums he left most of the work to Biddeloo . The series ended in 1974 . Biddeloo then devoted most of his time to De Rode Ridder , where he started inking the stories by Vandersteen in 1967 and took completely over in 1969 , when Vandersteen lost his interest . He continued working on it until his death in 2004 .
= = = 1970s = = =
Paul Geerts joined the Studio in 1968 , where he at first worked as an artist on the German Jerom comics . Already in 1969 , he replaced De Rop as the main inker for Suske en Wiske . Geerts also drew Vandersteens attention when he proposed a few scenario 's for Jerom , and in 1971 he made his first story for Suske en Wiske . From 1972 on , he became the main creator of the flagship series Suske en Wiske , which he continued until the late 1990s . De Rop and Goossens again became the main inkers , with Geerts responsible for the stories and the pencil art . In these years , Suske en Wiske reached its peak popularity , and the older stories now were republished in colours in the main series . In 1975 and 1976 , the Dutch television broadcast six puppet movies with new Suske en Wiske stories . They were very successful and sales of new albums reached over 200 @,@ 000 copies . The merchandising business boomed as well , and commercial comics were one of the main new jobs for the Studio .
The Studio was mainly established with the artists that joined in the 1960s , but two new artists were Erik De Rop and Robert Merhottein , who became the only artist to leave Studio Vandersteen and start his own successful series .
Vandersteen , liberated of the work on the daily comic , started on a comic series based on one of the novels he had read as a youth : Robert en Bertrand , the story of two Flemish tramps at the fin de siècle . The series debuted in De Standaard in 1972 . The series was the first in a long time to renew the enthusiasm of Vandersteen , and the graphical quality and the stories were a lot better than most of the Studio production of the time .
For the newspaper supplement Pats , he also created the title series in 1974 , but he left most of the work to Merhottein . The series changed its name to Tits in 1977 after a lawsuit , and disappeared in 1986 .
In 1976 , Vandersteen 's wife Paula died . He remarried on 25 June 1977 with Anne @-@ Marie Vankerkhoven . Vandersteen , now a celebrated artist with complete TV shows made about him , both in the Netherlands and in Belgium , continued to work on his comics . The same year 1977 gave him a coveted Alfred award from the Angoulême International Comics Festival for the best scenario , for the Robert en Bertrand story De stakingbreker ( The Strike Breaker ) , while in 1978 a Suske en Wiske statue was unveiled in the Antwerp Zoo .
= = = 1980s = = =
The next decade was one of mixed successes . Some of the minor or less successful series ended : Robert en Bertrand , a critical but never a commercial success , folded in 1993 , 8 years after Vandersteen had stopped writing the stories . Jerom and Bessy both were restyled but disappeared a few years later in 1988 and 1993 . Pats , later renamed Tits , already disappeared in 1986 .
Suske en Wiske meanwhile was a steady success , and although the sales have dropped from the peaks of the 1970s continues to be one of the most popular Flemish comics .
Willy Vandersteen created one last new series in 1985 : De Geuzen , a historical , humoristic comic set in Flanders in the sixteenth century . Similar in theme to the thirty years older Tijl Uilenspiegel , the comic combined many of Vandersteen 's passions , including the art of Pieter Brueghel the Elder . It contained his most mature , developed characters , compared to the often one @-@ dimensional characters of his earlier series , and reached a graphical level that approached his work for Kuifje . The comics were not prepublished and were mostly created by Vandersteen alone , which ensured the quality but also decreased the publication rhythm . Only ten albums appeared , and the series ended with the death of Vandersteen .
= = = Death = = =
Willy Vandersteen died on 28 August 1990 , weakened by a long disease . He continued working until shortly before his death , and his Studio still continues , with Suske en Wiske and De Rode Ridder as main series .
= = Themes and influences in the work of Vandersteen = =
Willy Vandersteen used a wild variety of themes and influences in his work from early on . He made fairytales , historic series , westerns , but also science fiction and many contemporary comics . While some series like De Familie Snoek and Bessy stuck very close to their origin ( an everyday Flemish contemporary family for the former , and a pioneer family in the American Old West in the latter ) , others were more loose . De Rode Ridder , the story of a medieval knight , wandered from Arthurian tales over the crusades until the explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth century , thereby spanning some ten centuries , and later ( when Vandersteen was less involved in the series ) brought in many elements of sword and sorcery and fantasy .
Suske and Wiske is a contemporary series , but many stories used the plot device of time travelling , either by a machine or by some poetic device . This enabled stories to evolve in a myriad of periods , often again in the Middle Ages though . Furthermore , did Vandersteen use local legends of Antwerp and Limburg , parodies of American superhero series like Batman , science fiction , and popular TV series . Vandersteen also got inspiration from the different long journeys he made , like his long trip to the Far East in 1959 . Some of the earliest realistic comics of Willy Vandersteen also clearly show the strong influence he has had from American comics like Prince Valiant and Tarzan , but he later developed his own distinctive style .
= = International success = =
Vandersteen always strived to have success beyond Flanders , and reduced the typically Flemish character of his comics soon after his debut . He already worked and published in French during the War , and already in the 1940s he expanded the reach of Suske en Wiske to the Netherlands with some newspaper publications , and to Wallonia and France through the publication in Tintin magazine . All Suske en Wiske albums , and many albums of other series like De Familie Snoek , were also published in French by Erasme . Bessy was even first created for a Walloon newspaper , before being translated in Dutch . By 1978 , an estimated 80 million Suske en Wiske albums had been sold in Dutch alone .
Other countries and languages followed soon . The first German translations appeared in 1954 , and in the 1960s Bessy and to a lesser extent Jerom were an enormous success , with combined over a 1000 weekly comics with a circulation of some 200 @,@ 000 copies . Later in the 1950s followed publications in Chile and Portugal , and Spain followed in the 1960s . In the following years , Vandersteen 's comics and especially Suske en Wiske are published in dozens of languages , but in most cases only one or a few albums are translated . More than 10 albums are published in the United States , and in Sweden 69 albums are published , accompanied by a lot of merchandising . The Finnish series is a big success as well .
= = Merchandising = =
In the 1950s started the merchandising around Suske en Wiske . Vandersteen , always a businessman as well as an artist , was enthusiastic when he got the proposal to make a puppet show of the series . Already in 1947 , the first puppets were for sale . They were followed by a series of 5 hand puppets in 1957 and a Jerom @-@ game in 1960 . In 1955 , two years after the start of television in Flanders , an animated adventure of Suske en Wiske was broadcast every Saturday afternoon . Other merchandising ranged from Suske en Wiske drinking glasses in 1954 to 5 large handpainted ceramic statues of the main heroes in 1952 . Coloring books , calendars , puzzles , ... followed soon.Two records were released by Decca in 1956 . Vandersteen also created a number of commercial comics with Suske en Wiske , starting with a touristic comic for the province of Antwerp in 1957 .
= = Awards and recognition = =
1959 : Honorary citizen of the community Deurne near Antwerp
1977 : Angoulême International Comics Festival prize for Best Foreign Author , France
2007 : Prestige award at the Prix Saint @-@ Michel in Brussels
Vandersteen is also honorary citizen of Kalmthout . A statue of Vandersteen is located on Willy Vandersteen Square .
According to UNESCO 's Index Translationum , Vandersteen is the sixth most often translated Dutch language author , after Anne Frank , Dick Bruna , Cees Nooteboom , Guido van Genechten , and Phil Bosmans and before such famous authors as Janwillem van de Wetering , Harry Mulisch , Hugo Claus , and Johan Huizinga .
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= Christine Love ( writer ) =
Christine Love is a Canadian independent visual novelist best known for her three original works : Digital : A Love Story , Don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , and Analogue : A Hate Story . Love began creating visual novels while in university , making a few small games , visual novels , and pieces of written fiction before coming into prominence with the release of Digital in 2010 . She went on to work on Love and Order , a dating simulation by video game designer Riva Celso , as well as Don 't take it personally , both released in 2011 . Her latest work and first commercial project on which she was the primary developer is Analogue , released in February 2012 ; Love dropped out of her English degree during its development , and is currently fully supported financially on the proceeds . She released an expansion to the game , titled Hate Plus in 2013 . Her current project is called Ladykiller in a Bind , and is expected to be released in July 2016 .
= = Biography = =
Christine Love began creating visual novels while in school at Trent University . By January 2010 , she had made a few small video games , written a novel and a few short stories , which she largely unsuccessfully tried to sell , and had made a visual novel each March for three consecutive years for NaNoRenO ( National Ren 'ai Game Writing Month ) , a month @-@ long contest in the vein of National Novel Writing Month ( NaNoWriMo ) where developers attempt to create a visual novel in one month . In February 2010 , she started a fourth visual novel , which resulted in Digital : A Love Story , her first game to receive widespread attention and acclaim . Set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , Digital tells the story of the silent protagonist 's online relationship with a girl named * Emilia , and a mystery surrounding the " murders " of several AI programs . The game is presented entirely through the interface of a 1980s computer with online bulletin board system posts and messages from other characters ; the protagonist 's own messages are implied but never shown . Love expected the game to reach as many people as her prior work , " a dozen or so people " ; instead , the free game was noticed by video game publications and websites such as PC Gamer and Gamasutra and received much more attention , becoming what Love believes was " a defining point in [ her ] writing career " . Widely praised by critics , Digital earned an honorable mention in Gamasutra 's " Best Indie Games of 2010 " list . Love felt that Digital 's success turned her from a writer into an indie game developer .
After Digital , Love worked on her first commercial game project , Love and Order , a dating simulation by video game designer Riva Celso . She did writing and design work for the game , set in the Crown attorney 's office in Montreal , which was released in February 2011 . Love describes the game as " not really my best work " , as dating simulations are not her strong point . Nevertheless , proceeds from the game were enough to support her financially for a while , and showed Love that creating games and visual novels could be a full @-@ time profession . In 2011 , she spent the month of March working on another visual novel : don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , which was released as a free download on 4 April 2011 . A spiritual sequel to Digital , the game follows John Rook , a private school literary teacher in 2027 , over the course of a semester . He can see students ' private messages at any time via the school 's social network . Don 't take it personally deals with themes of internet privacy and relationships in the future . The game was again widely praised by critics , with The Daily Telegraph awarding the game for " Best Script " in its video game awards of 2011 .
That summer , Love began working on a larger , commercial game . She was beginning to believe that her games could be successful commercially , a belief supported by messages to that effect by fans of her previous works . The game , Analogue : A Hate Story , was released in February 2012 . Love dropped out of university during the game 's development in her fourth year of an English undergraduate degree . She felt that she was " not really learning a whole lot " and was unable to balance school and work on the game . Set centuries after Digital : A Love Story , the plot of Analogue revolves around an unnamed investigator , who is tasked with discovering the reason for an interstellar ship 's disappearance once it reappears 600 years after " going dark " . The game 's themes focus similarly around human / computer interaction , interpersonal relationships , and LGBT issues ; but focus primarily on " transhumanism , traditional marriage , loneliness and cosplay . " The release of Analogue , Love 's first commercial game as main developer , currently fully supports her financially . Although Analogue is a sequel " of sorts " to Digital , the time difference between the two games means that they are connected more in spirit than directly , similar to the connections between Digital and Don 't take it personally . Analogue sold over 30 @,@ 000 copies by August 2012 , and has inspired the release of a soundtrack album by the game 's composer , Isaac Schankler , as well as a commercial expansion to the game , titled Hate Plus , which is intended to further develop the backstory of * Mute and the ship .
Since the release of Hate Plus , Love has begun work on a new game , titled Ladykiller in a Bind . The full name of the game is My Twin Brother Made Me Crossdress As Him And Now I Have To Deal With A Geeky Stalker And A Domme Beauty Who Want Me In A Bind ! ! , and the game is described by Love as " an erotic visual novel about social manipulation and girls tying up other girls " .
= = Influences and philosophy = =
Christine Love describes herself as " a writer first , and a game designer second " , as writing was her initial goal . She originally pictured her future as that of a novelist , with a day job as a programmer to support herself . Love describes her games as being about " our relationship with technology , about human relationships in general , and about seeing things from different perspectives , " as well as having " a ton of words " . She strives for her stories to be true and sincere , but not necessarily realistic . Love is also interested in the portrayal of gender and sexuality in video games ; in Digital and Analogue , she was careful to avoid mentioning or assuming the gender of the player or the character they control , though the love interests in the games are female . Privately , however , she thinks of them as female , as her intention was to create games that could be easily appreciated by queer people such as herself , without having to project themselves onto a relationship that did not match up to their perceptions . Love believes that indie games have " more meaningful depictions of queer experiences " than those from larger studios .
Love 's design process has become more refined as time goes on . For Digital , she did not plan anything in advance ; while for Analogue , she worked out the entire design and pacing game in flowcharts before starting . For all of her games , however , she does a lot of research into the time periods and issues involved . Love does not feel that text is necessarily the best way to tell a story in a game , but finds it easier to communicate with it as a writer .
= = Works = =
Digital : A Love Story ( 2010 )
Love and Order ( 2011 )
don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story ( 2011 )
Analogue : A Hate Story ( 2012 )
Hate Plus ( 19 August 2013 )
Interstellar Selfie Station ( 2014 )
My Twin Brother Made Me Crossdress as Him and Now I Have to Deal with a Geeky Stalker and a Domme Beauty Who Want Me in a Bind ! ! ( aka Ladykiller in a Bind ) ( 2016 )
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= Observer Effect ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Observer Effect " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise and the eighty @-@ eighth overall . It was first aired on January 21 , 2005 , on UPN . It was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , and directed by Mike Vejar . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . This episode sees alien entities test the Enterprise crew by observing their reactions to a deadly silicon @-@ based infection . Actual first contact with these aliens – the Organians – would occur about a century later , during the events of the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " .
As it was a bottle episode , the episode did not use any additional sets or guest stars with the intention of cutting down on costs for the series . This also gave time for the visual effects team to finish earlier work . The episode received mixed reactions from critics , with praise directed at the links to The Original Series , while criticism directed towards some of the characterization of the characters . " Observer Effect " was watched by 2 @.@ 76 million viewers on first broadcast , which formed part of an overall drop of viewers for the series .
= = Plot = =
Lieutenant Reed ( Dominic Keating ) and Ensign Mayweather ( Anthony Montgomery ) play chess while serving as hosts to non @-@ corporeal aliens . Returning from an away mission on the planet below , Commander Tucker ( Connor Trinneer ) and Ensign Sato ( Linda Park ) soon exhibit symptoms of a strange disease . Upon examination by Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) , it is found to be a highly contagious silicon @-@ based virus , and Captain Archer ( Scott Bakula ) explains that Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) and Phlox are seeking a cure . To pass the time , while isolated in Decontamination , the two try to learn more about each other .
The aliens take a keen interest examining the human response to this crisis , and compare notes to previous reactions by Klingons and Cardassians . They are members of an advanced species looking to make " first contact " . So far , based on 10 @,@ 000 years of observations , no species has been deemed ready . Seeking a different view of the crew , they temporarily shift to the bodies of Phlox , T 'Pol , and Archer . A difference in opinion between the two aliens starts to form : one seems determined to maintain their non @-@ interference protocol , while the other feels the protocol is outdated and unnecessary .
With time running out , Phlox and T 'Pol find a way to disrupt the virus using deadly levels of radiation . Archer and Phlox , while wearing environmental suits , escort Tucker and Sato to Sickbay for treatment . Sato soon goes into cardiac @-@ arrest , and Archer removes his gloves and helmet to assist her , but she cannot be resuscitated . They then administer a dose of radiation to Tucker , but that too is ineffective . Phlox then leaves to resume work from the Bridge . Suddenly , Tucker and Sato are reanimated by the aliens , who – while possessing the crewmen – explain the situation to a surprised Archer , who then makes an impassioned speech on behalf of his crew . The aliens decide to modify their procedures , choosing to resurrect and cure the infected crew members , when they previously would have left them to die . The aliens erase the encounter from crew 's memory . Archer orders a warning beacon to be placed above the planet , and the aliens leave to begin planning first contact with more advanced humans at a later time .
= = Production = =
" Observer Effect " was created as a bottle episode , the second in a row after " Daedalus " . These episodes were intended to reduce costs on the series by not requiring additional set production . Unlike the " Daedalus " , " Observer Effect " also did not use any guest actors . It was the second to be written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , who wrote a plot which brought back the Organians from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " . The Organians were originally created for The Original Series by Gene L. Coon , and were intended as a balance to the Klingons . Mind replacement or mind invasion plotlines are common in science fiction . Other episodes in the Star Trek franchise exploring the theme include " Wolf in the Fold " and " Turnabout Intruder " from The Original Series , " Sub Rosa " from Star Trek : The Next Generation and " Cathexis " from Star Trek : Voyager .
This was one of show runner Manny Coto 's deliberate moves to link Enterprise closer to The Original Series during the fourth season . It was the second time that the crew of the Enterprise ( NX @-@ 01 ) had met non @-@ corporal entities following the second season episode " The Crossing " . Filming began on the episode on October 22 , 2004 , and continued for the following seven working days . While the makeup department needed to present Park 's and Trinneer 's characters as they progressed through the sickness introduced by the Organians , the visual effects team was freed up to complete production on earlier episodes .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Observer Effect " was first broadcast in the United States on January 21 , 2005 , on UPN . It was watched by 2 @.@ 76 million viewers , which was a decrease from the 3 @.@ 03 million who watched " Daedalus " but more than the 2 @.@ 53 million viewers for the following episode , " Babel One " . Writing for The A.V. Club in 2014 , Alasdair Wilkins included " Observer Effect " in his list of the twenty best episodes of the series .
Jamahl Epsicokhan , at his website Jammer 's Reviews , described the plot of " Observer Effect " as not being as predictable as it might initially seem due to the crew 's inability to save Tucker and Hoshi and their reliance on the aliens to do so . He felt that the links to " Errand of Mercy " were both " subtle " and " sublime " , while describing the overall bottle show as " No slam @-@ bang excitement ; just a commitment to observation and plausible procedure . " He adds that the episode was an example of " humanist science fiction " rather than an " adventure show " .
Michelle Erica Green disliked the episode , writing about it in a review for TrekNation . She called it " clichéd , predictable and boring " , saying that the sudden differences in characterization in this episode , compared to how those characters acted in earlier appearances , could potentially lead to confusion as to when they were actually controlled by the aliens . She criticized the plot which only affected the senior crew members on the ship and said that it had " ripped off " several prior episodes of the franchise including " The Empath " , " Homeward " and " Scientific Method " .
" Observer Effect " was released on home media in the United States on November 1 , 2005 , as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
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= Cerne Abbas Giant =
The Cerne Abbas Giant is a hill figure near the village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset , England . Made by a turf @-@ cut outline filled with chalk , it depicts a large naked man with an erect penis and is typically described as a giant wielding a club . The figure is listed as a scheduled monument in the United Kingdom and the site where he stands is owned by the National Trust .
The origin and age of the figure are unclear . It is often thought of as an ancient construction , though the earliest mention of it dates to the late 17th century . Early antiquarians associated it , on little evidence , with a Saxon deity , while other scholars sought to identify it with a Celtic British figure of the Roman Hercules or some syncretization of the two . Archaeological evidence that parts of the drawing have been lost over time strengthen the Hercules identification . The lack of earlier descriptions leads modern scholars to conclude that it may date from the 17th century , and perhaps originated as political satire .
Regardless of its age , the Cerne Abbas Giant has become an important part of local culture and folklore , which often associates it with fertility . It is one of England 's best known hill figures and is a visitor attraction in the region .
= = Description = =
The Cerne Abbas Giant is located just outside the small village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset , about 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) west of Bournemouth and 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) north of Weymouth . The figure depicts a huge naked man , about 55 metres ( 180 ft ) high and 51 metres ( 167 ft ) wide . It is carved into the white chalk rock on the steep west @-@ facing side of a hill known as Giant Hill or Trendle Hill . Atop the hill is another landmark , the Iron Age earthwork known as the " Trendle " or " Frying Pan " . The carving is formed by outlines cut into the turf about 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep , and filled with crushed chalk . In his right hand the giant holds a knobbled club 37 metres ( 121 ft ) in length , and adding 11 metres ( 36 ft ) to the total height of the figure . A line across the waist is considered to be a belt . Writing in 1901 in the Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society , Henry Colley March noted that : " The Cerne Giant presents five characteristics : ( 1 ) It is petrographic ... It is , therefore , a rock carving ... ( 2 ) It is colossal ... ( 3 ) It is nude . ... ( 4 ) It is ithyphallic ... ( 5 ) The Giant is clavigerous . It bears a weapon in its right hand . "
A 1996 study found that some features have changed over time , concluding that the figure originally held a cloak in its left arm and stood over a disembodied head . The former presence of a cloak was corroborated in 2008 when a team of archaeologists using special equipment determined that part of the carving had been allowed to be obliterated . The cloak may have been a depiction of an animal skin , giving credence to the theory that the giant was a depiction of a hunter , or alternatively , Hercules with the skin of the Nemean lion over his arm . Additionally , reviewing historical depictions of the giant , it has been suggested that the Giant 's current large erection is , in fact , the result of merging a circle representing his navel with a smaller penis during a re @-@ cut . In 1993 , the National Trust gave the Giant a " nose job " after years of erosion had worn it away .
The Giant has been described as " renowned for its manhood " , " markedly phallic " , " sexually explicit " and " ithyphallic " . The Giant sports an erection , including its testicles , some 11 metres ( 36 feet ) long , and nearly the length of its head . It has been called " Britain 's most famous phallus " . One commentator noted that postcards of the Giant were the only indecent photographs that could be sent through the English Post Office .
The carving is most commonly known as the Cerne Abbas Giant . The National Trust and others call it the " Cerne Giant " , while English Heritage and Dorset County Council call it simply " The Giant " . The carving has also been referred to as the " Old Man " , and more recently it has been referred to as the " Rude Man " of Cerne .
Although the best view of the Giant is from the air , most tourist guides recommend a ground view from the " Giant 's View " lay @-@ by and car park off the A352 . This area was developed in 1979 in a joint project between the Dorset County Planning Department , the National Trust , Nature Conservancy Council ( now called English Nature ) , the Dorset Naturalists Trusts , the Department of the Environment , and local land @-@ owners . The information panel there was devised by the National Trust and Dorset County Council .
= = History = =
= = = Early accounts = = =
Like several other chalk figures carved into the English countryside , the Cerne Abbas Giant is often thought of as an ancient creation . However , as with many of the other figures , its history cannot be traced back further than the late 17th century , making an origin during the Celtic , Roman or even Early Medieval periods difficult to demonstrate . Medieval sources refer to the hill on which the giant is located as Trendle Hill – possibly in reference to the nearby landmark known as the Trendle . Joseph Bettey noted that none of the earlier sources for the area , including a detailed 1617 land survey , refer to the giant , suggesting that it may not have been there at the time . In contrast , the Uffington White Horse has been shown to be 3 @,@ 000 years old , and there are references to it across the ages .
The earliest known written reference to the giant is a 4 November 1694 entry in the Churchwardens ' Accounts from St Mary 's Church in Cerne Abbas , which reads " for repairing ye Giant , 3 shillings " . In 1734 , The Bishop of Bristol noted and inquired about the giant during a visitation to Cerne Abbas . The bishop 's account , as well as subsequent observations such as those of William Stukeley , were discussed at meetings of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1764 . Additionally , in 1738 the antiquarian Francis Wise mentioned the giant in a letter .
Beginning in 1763 descriptions of the giant appeared in contemporary magazines . The earliest known survey was published in the Royal Magazine in September 1763 . Derivative versions subsequently appeared in the October 1763 St James Chronicle , the July 1764 Gentleman 's Magazine , and the 1764 edition of The Annual Register . The Gentleman 's Magazine account in particular was prominent , and contained the oldest known drawing of the figure . In 1774 , the antiquarian John Hutchins reviewed various previous accounts in his book The History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset . In it , he wrote that the carving had only been done the previous century .
The earliest known drawing of the Giant appears in the August 1764 issue of Gentleman 's Magazine . A map referred to as the " 1768 Survey Map of Cerne Abbas by Benjamin Pryce " is held at the Dorset History Centre . However , a record at the National Archives notes that " the cartouche refers to Lord Rivers by that title which he did not acquire until 1776 . Numbers on the map appear to correspond with the survey of 1798 " . By the Victorian period ( after 1837 ) the penis was removed from academic and tourist depictions ,
Cerne Abbas Giant at different dates
= = = Interpretation = = =
There are three main ideas concerning the age of the Giant , and whom he might represent :
The first argues that because there is no medieval documentary evidence , then the Giant was created in the 17th century , perhaps by Lord Holles , who resided in Cerne Abbas , and perhaps as a parody of Oliver Cromwell .
The second idea is that the Giant dates to the time of the Romans in Britain ( i.e. Romano @-@ British ) , because the Giant resembles the Roman god Hercules , who was based on the Greek god Heracles .
The third idea is that the Giant is of Celtic origin , because it is stylistically similar to a Celtic god on a skillet handle found at Hod Hill , Dorset , and dated to around AD 10 to AD 51 .
Various studies on the Cerne Abbas Giant have been undertaken . In 1896 the Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society noted the consensus of members that the giant " is of very great antiquity " . Modern scholarship largely rejects this , and argues for an origin shortly before the 18th century . Modern histories of the Cerne Giant have been published by Bettey 1981 , Legg 1990 , and Darvill et al . 1999 .
Early antiquarians associated the figure with a Saxon god whose name contained some variant of the element Hel- . This god is attested in several medieval and early modern texts , and was associated with the Cerne Abbas Giant by an editor of a 1789 edition of William Camden 's Britannia and by William Stukeley , who indicated that locals referred to the giant as " Helis " . A Saxon origin is unlikely , but Stukeley was also the first to hypothesize that the figure was Hercules , a suggestion that has found more support . Some 19th @-@ century sources describe the giant as having " between his legs , three rude letters , scarcely legible , and over them in modern figures , 748 " , ( rude meaning " roughly cut " ) and being the representation of Cenric , the son of Cuthred , King of Wessex .
Proponents of a 17th @-@ century origin suggest that the giant was carved during the English Civil War by servants of the Lord of the Manor , Denzil Holles , and was intended as a parody of Oliver Cromwell . Cromwell was sometimes mockingly referred to as " England 's Hercules " by his enemies . The Hercules connection is strengthened by the 1996 discovery of the cloak , as Hercules was often depicted with a cloak made from the Nemean Lion 's skin .
= = = Modern history = = =
In 1920 , the giant and the 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) site where he stands was donated to the National Trust by its then land @-@ owners , Alexander and George Pitt @-@ Rivers , and it is now listed as a Scheduled Monument . During World War II the giant was camouflaged with brushwood by the Home Guard in order to prevent use as a landmark for enemy aircraft .
According to the National Trust , the grass is trimmed regularly and the giant is fully re @-@ chalked every 25 years . Traditionally , the National Trust has relied on sheep from surrounding farms to graze the site . However , in 2008 a lack of sheep , coupled with a wet spring causing extra plant growth , forced a re @-@ chalking of the giant , with 17 tonnes of new chalk being poured in and tamped down by hand . In 2006 , the National Trust carried out the first wildlife survey of the Cerne Abbas Giant , identifying wild flowers including the green @-@ winged orchid , clustered bellflower and autumn gentian , which are uncommon in England .
In 1921 Walter Long of Gillingham , Dorset objected to the giant 's nudity and conducted a campaign to either convert it to a simple nude , or to cover its supposed obscenity with a leaf . Long 's protest gained some support , including that of two bishops , and eventually reached the Home Office . The Home Office considered the protest to be in humour , though the chief constable responded to say the office could not act against a protected scheduled monument .
= = = Archaeology = = =
A 1617 land survey of Cerne Abbas makes no mention of the Giant , suggesting that it may not have been there at the time or perhaps overgrown . The first published survey appeared in the September 1763 issue of Royal Magazine , reprinted in the October 1763 issue of St James Chronicle , and also in the August 1764 edition of Gentleman 's Magazine together with the first drawing that included measurements .
Egyptologist and archaeology pioneer Sir Flinders Petrie surveyed the Giant , probably during the First World War , and published his results in a Royal Anthropological Institute paper in 1926 . Petrie says that he made 220 measurements , and records slight grooves across the neck , and from the shoulders down to the armpits . He also notes a row of pits suggesting the place of the spine . He concludes that the Giant is very different from the Long Man of Wilmington , and that minor grooves may have been added from having been repeatedly cleaned .
In 1764 , William Stukeley was one of the first people to suggest that the Giant resembles Hercules ( Heracles ) . In 1938 , British archaeologist Stuart Piggott agreed , and like Hercules , should also be carrying a lion @-@ skin . In 1979 , a resistivity survey was carried out , and together with drill samples , confirmed the presence of the lion @-@ skin . Another resistivity survey in 1995 also found evidence of a cloak and changes to the length of the phallus , but did not find evidence ( as rumoured ) of a severed head , horns , or symbols between the feet .
= = = = Earthworks = = = =
North @-@ east of the head of the Giant is an escarpment called Trendle Hill , on which are some earthworks now called The Trendle or Frying Pan . It is a scheduled monument in its own right . Antiquarian John Hutchins wrote in 1872 that " These remains are of very interesting character , and of considerable extent . They consist of circular and other earthworks , lines of defensive ramparts , an avenue , shallow excavations , and other indications of a British settlement . "
Unlike the Giant , the earthworks belong to Lord Digby , rather than the National Trust . Its purpose is unknown , though it is thought to be the site of maypole dancing . It has been considered to be Roman , or perhaps an Iron @-@ Age burial mound containing the tomb of the person represented by the Giant .
= = Folklore = =
Whatever its origin , the giant has become an important part of the culture and folklore of Dorset . Some folk stories indicate that the image is an outline of the corpse of a real giant . One story says the giant came from Denmark leading an invasion of the coast , and was beheaded by the people of Cerne Abbas while he slept on the hillside .
Other folklore , first recorded in the Victorian era , associates the figure with fertility . In the past locals would erect a maypole on the earthwork , around which childless couples would dance to promote fertility . According to folk belief , a woman who sleeps on the figure will be blessed with fecundity , and infertility may be cured through sexual intercourse on top of the figure , especially the phallus .
In 1808 , Dorset poet William Holloway published his poem " The Giant of Trendle Hill " , in which the Giant is killed by the locals by piercing its heart .
= = In popular culture = =
In modern times the giant has been used for several publicity stunts and as an advertisement . For example , Ann Bryn @-@ Evans of the Pagan Federation recalls that the Giant has been used to promote " ... condoms , jeans and bicycles . "
In 1998 , pranksters made a pair of jeans out of plastic mesh with a 21 @-@ metre ( 69 ft ) inside leg , and fitted them to the giant to publicise American Jeans manufacturer Big Smith . In 2002 , the BLAC advertising agency on behalf of " ... the Family Planning Association ( FPA ) as part of its mission to promote condom @-@ wearing [ .. ] donned balaclavas and spent Sunday night rolling the enormous latex sheet down the Giant 's member . "
As a publicity stunt for the opening of The Simpsons Movie on 16 July 2007 , a giant Homer Simpson brandishing a doughnut was outlined in water @-@ based biodegradable paint to the left of the Cerne Abbas giant . This act displeased local neopagans , who pledged to perform rain magic to wash the figure away .
An August 2007 report in the Dorset Echo said that a man claiming to be the " Purple Phantom " had painted the Giant 's penis purple . It was reported that the man was from Fathers 4 Justice but the group said that they did not know who it was .
The Cerne Abbas Giant has appeared in several films and TV programmes , including the title sequence of the 1986 British historical drama film Comrades , a 1996 episode of the Erotic Tales series " The Insatiable Mrs Kirsch " , directed by Ken Russell ( featuring a replica of the Giant ) , in 1997 , the series 6 finale " Sofa " of the comedy series Men Behaving Badly , and the 2000 film Maybe Baby directed by Ben Elton .
In 2012 , pupils and members of the local community recreated the Olympic torch on the Giant , to mark the passing of the official torch in the run @-@ up to the 2012 London Olympics .
In November 2013 , the National Trust supported Movember , which raises awareness of prostate and testicular cancer . It authorised the temporary placement of a huge grass moustache on the giant . The moustache was 12 metres ( 39 ft ) wide and 3 metres ( 10 ft ) deep according to the designer but both the National Trust and the BBC reported it as being 11 by 27 metres ( 36 by 89 ft ) .
= = = Representations = = =
In 1980 , Devon artist Kenneth Evans @-@ Loud planned to produce a companion 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) female figure on the opposite hill , featuring Marilyn Monroe in her iconic pose from the film The Seven Year Itch where her dress is blown by a subway grating .
In 1989 , Turner Prize winning artist Grayson Perry designed a set of motorbike leathers inspired by the Cerne Abbas Giant . In 1994 , girls from Roedean School painted an 24 @-@ metre ( 79 ft ) replica of the Giant on their playing field , the day before sports day . In 1999 , a plaque was discovered near the nose of the Marree Man , a modern geoglyph discovered a year earlier , " claiming that a clue to its origins are to be found buried in a sealed container near the Cerne Giant " .
In 2003 , pranksters created their own 23 @-@ metre ( 75 ft ) version of the Giant on a hill in English Bicknor , but " wearing wellies , an ear of corn hanging from its mouth and a tankard of ale in its hand " . In 2005 , the makers of Lynx deodorant created a 9 @.@ 300 square metres ( 100 @.@ 10 sq ft ) advert on a field near Gatwick , featuring a copy of the Giant wearing underpants , frolicking with two scantily @-@ clad women . In 2006 , artist Peter John Hardwick produced a painting " The Two Dancers with the Cerne Abbas Giant , with Apologies to Picasso " that is on display at Poole Hospital NHS Foundation Trust . In 2009 , the Giant was given a red nose , to publicize the BBC 's Comic Relief charity event . In 2011 , English animators The Brothers McLeod produced a 15 @-@ second cartoon giving their take on what the Giant does when no one is watching .
In 2015 , the giant was used as a character in an online comic book published by Eco Comics ; the giant 's character appeared in various adventures accompanying a character based on St George , though his erect penis was removed from the artwork as many " outlets , particularly in the US , refuse any form of nudity in comic books " .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Books = = =
Rodney Castleden , with a foreword by Rodney Legg , The Cerne Giant , published by Wincanton DPC , 1996 , ISBN 0948699558 .
Michael A. , Hodges MA . , Helis , the Cerne Giant , and his links with Christchurch , Christchurch , c.1998 , 15pp .
Dr. T. William Wake Smart , Ancient Dorset , 1872 , " The Cerne Giant , " p . 319 – 327 .
Darvill , T , Barker , K , Bender , B , and Hutton , R. , The Cerne Giant : An Antiquity on Trial , 1999 , . Oxbow . ISBN 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 5 , 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 4 , [ 3 ]
Legg , R , 1990 , Cerne ; Giant and Village Guide , Dorset Publishing Company , 2nd edition , ISBN 0948699175 , 978 @-@ 0948699177 . [ 4 ]
Knight , Peter , The Cerne Giant – Landscape , Gods and the Stargate , 2013 , Stone Seeker Publishing .
= = = Journal articles = = =
Dr Wake Smart , " The Cerne Giant " , Journal of the British Archaeological Association , Volume : 28 , 1872 .
Hy . Colley March M.D. F.S.A. , " The Giant and the Maypole of Cerne " , Proceedings , Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society , Vol.22 , 1901 .
W. M. F. Petrie , The Hill Figures of England , " III . The Giant of Cerne " , Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Occasional Paper No. 7 , 1926
O. G. S. Crawford , " The Giant of Cerne and other Hill @-@ figures " , Antiquity , Vol.3 No.11 , September 1929 , Pages 277 – 282
Stuart Piggott , " Notes and News : The name of the giant of Cerne " , Antiquity Vol.6 , No.22 , June 1932 , pages 214 – 216 .
Stuart Piggott , " The Hercules Myth — beginnings and ends " , Antiquity Vol.12 No.47 , September 1938 , Page : 323 – 331
" Editorial : regarding the Home Office file , Obscene Publications : the Cerne Abbas Giant ( PRO HO 45 / 18033 ) " , Antiquity , Vol.50 No.198 , June 1976 , pages 93 – 94 .
Leslie Grinsel , " The Cern Abbas Giant 1764 – 1980 " , Antiquity , Vol.54 No.210 , March 1980 , pp. 29 – 33 .
J. H. Bettey , " The Cerne Abbas giant : the documentary evidence " , Antiquity , Vol.55 , No.214 , July 1981 , pages 118 – 121 .
J. H. Bettey , " Notes and News : The Cerne Giant : another document ? " , Antiquity , Vol.56 No.216 , March 1982 , pages 51 – 52
Temple Willcox , " Hard times for the Cerne Giant : 20th @-@ century attitudes to an ancient monument " ( abstract ) , Antiquity , Vol.62 No.236 , September 1988 , pages 524 – 526
Chris Gerrard , " Cerne Giant " , British Archaeology , Issue no 55 , October 2000 . A review of the book : The Cerne Giant : an Antiquity on Trial by Timothy Darvill , Katherine Barker , Barbara Bender and Ronald Hutton ( eds ) , Oxbow , ISBN 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 5 .
= = = National Monument Records = = =
1979 Resistivity survey by A J Clark , A D H Bartlett and A E U David , which " found evidence for the ' lion skin ' feature over the giant 's left arm "
1988 – 1989 Resistivity surveys , testing for the existence of possible additional features , 1988 , 1989 , 1994
1995 Resistivity survey finding evidence of a cloak , penis length change , and naval , but , not for a severed head , horns , nor lettering / symbols between the feet
" Cerne Giant " , National Monument Records , No . ST 60 SE 39 ( on Pastscape.org.uk )
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= Tropical Storm Zeke ( 1992 ) =
Tropical Storm Zeke was the final named storm of the record @-@ breaking 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Forming out of a tropical wave on October 25 , Zeke began as a disorganized depression . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the system gradually developed organized convection and intensified into a tropical storm . However , it soon entered a high wind shear environment , causing Zeke to weaken to a tropical depression . The following day , the storm re @-@ intensified despite unfavorable conditions and later attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 29 . Rapid weakening followed shortly thereafter as convection dissipated and the center became exposed . During the afternoon of October 30 , Zeke degenerated into a remnant low pressure system and dissipated several days later several hundred miles south of Baja California Sur .
On October 29 , tropical storm watches and warnings were issued for portions of the Mexican coastline ; however , these were canceled the following day due to the storm 's rapid weakening . Although the storm did not move over land , its outer bands brought locally heavy rain and gusty winds to Sinaloa and Jalisco .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Zeke originated from a tropical wave that was first identified off the west coast of Africa on October 6 , 1992 . Initially , well @-@ organized convection was associated with the system as it tracked westward ; however , once over the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity diminished . Between October 21 and 23 , the poorly defined wave moved across Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean . Over the following few days , convection gradually increased and the system became better organized . On October 25 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Seven @-@ E , at which time the storm was situated roughly 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California Sur , Mexico . Upon being classified , the depression was relatively disorganized , but deep convection had maintained itself near the center of circulation .
Throughout October 25 , banding features developed and the upper @-@ level outflow became better established . In response to a ridge to the east , the depression tracked in a general west @-@ northwest direction . Intensification was likely as the system was forecast to remain within an environment characterized by low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures . Later that day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Zeke , the record @-@ breaking twenty @-@ fourth named storm of the year . Within several hours of being upgraded , Zeke began to degrade for unknown reasons , with convection lessening around the center . Increasing westerly wind shear , associated with a mid to upper @-@ level trough approaching the west coast of the United States , later caused the system to weaken further ; however , Zeke managed to maintain tropical storm intensity until the morning of October 27 .
As Zeke continued to be hampered by strong shear , it gradually began to turn towards the north as the trough that caused it to weaken moved further east . Late on October 27 , convection redeveloped over the center of circulation , allowing the storm to re @-@ attain tropical storm intensity . The strengthening followed the passage of a shortwave trough ; however , shear over the system remained strong . Despite the unfavorable conditions , Zeke maintained its intensity , through intermittent bursts of convection , and began to turn towards the northeast . Late on October 29 , a large burst of deep convection over the center of the storm allowed for intensification . Around this time , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) with a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) .
Not long after attaining its peak intensity , Zeke began to weaken once more due to increasing westerly wind shear . By the early morning of October 30 , the center of circulation became devoid of thunderstorm activity and the system had turned eastward . Later that day , Zeke weakened to a tropical depression before degenerating into a remnant low pressure system . The NHC continued to monitor the low @-@ level swirl of clouds associated with Zeke for several more days as the system meandered several hundred miles south of Baja California Sur .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
On October 29 , the forecast track for Zeke produced by the National Hurricane Center indicated that the storm would skirt Baja California before striking the western coast of Mexico as a tropical depression . In response to this , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for areas between Cabo San Lázaro and Los Burros . Additionally , a tropical storm watch was raised for areas along mainland Mexico between Los Mochis , Sinaloa and Puerto Vallarta . Roughly 24 hours after these advisories were issued , they were canceled as Zeke rapidly dissipated over open waters . Although the center of the storm never moved over land , the system 's outer bands brought locally heavy rain and gusty winds to parts of Sinaloa and Jalisco . When the National Hurricane Center upgraded Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Seven @-@ E to Tropical Storm Zeke on October 25 , it marked the first time that a storm name beginning with the letter " Z " was used on record in the basin . Zeke also continued to further the record of named storms in a single season in the eastern Pacific , being the 24th tropical storm .
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= Pope Paul III and His Grandsons =
Pope Paul III and His Grandsons ( Italian : Paolo III e i nipoti Alessandro e Ottavio Farnese ) is a painting in oil on canvas by Titian , housed in the Museo di Capodimonte , Naples . It was commissioned by the Farnese family and painted during Titian 's visit to Rome between autumn 1545 and June 1546 . It depicts the thorny relationship between Pope Paul III , born Alessandro Farnese , and two of his grandsons , Ottavio and Alessandro . Ottavio is shown in the act of kneeling , to his left ; Alessandro , wearing a cardinal 's dress , stands behind him to his right . The painting explores the effects of ageing and the manoeuvring behind succession ; Paul was at the time in his late seventies and operating within an uncertain political climate as Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor , came into ascendancy .
Paul was not a religious man ; he viewed the papacy as a means to consolidate his family 's position . He appointed Alessandro as cardinal against accusations of nepotism , fathered a number of illegitimate children , and spent large sums of church money collecting art and antiquities . Around 1545 Charles took the political and military advantage , weakening Paul 's hold on the papacy . Aware of the changing tides of influence , Titian abandoned the commission before completion , and for the next 100 years the painting languished unframed in a Farnese cellar .
Pope Paul III and His Grandsons ranks as one of Titian 's finest and most penetrating works . Although unfinished and less technically accomplished than his Portrait of Pope Paul III of a few years earlier , it is renowned for its rich colouring ; the deep reds of the tablecloth and the almost spectral whites of Paul 's gown . The panel contains subtle indications of the contradictions in the character of the Pope , and captures the complex psychological dynamic between the three men .
= = Background = =
Alessandro Farnese , as Paul III , was the last of the popes appointed by the ruling Medici family of Florence . He was socially ambitious , a careerist and not particularly pious . He kept a concubine , fathered four children out of wedlock and viewed the throne as an opportunity to fill his coffers while he placed his relatives in high positions . A talented and cunning political operator , Paul was precisely the sort of man the Florentines needed to assist them in their defence against French and Spanish threats .
He became pope in 1534 when he was 66 years old , and immediately appointed members of his family to key positions . He anointed his eldest grandson Alessandro , the eldest child of his illegitimate son Pier Luigi , cardinal at the age of 14 , marking a break with the Farnese tradition of marrying off the first @-@ born to carry on the family name . This move was considered necessary because the next oldest grandson , Ottavio , was then just 10 years old ; such a young cardinal would have been politically unacceptable . Paul 's advanced years meant that the family could ill afford to wait until the younger brother was of age . Thus Alessandro became a cardinal deacon ; this appointment did not necessitate taking major orders , but it compelled him to celibacy and to forgo the rights of primogeniture , which instead went to Ottavio . Alessandro was to bitterly regret the obligations . Paul appointed Ottavio as Duke of Camerino in 1538 , and in the same year married him to Charles V 's daughter , Margaret , later Margaret of Parma . Both of Paul 's grandsons ' advancements were widely criticised as evidence of nepotism .
Ottavio 's marriage troubled Alessandro ; he struggled with the burden of chastity and entertained fantasies of marrying a princess . He resented his younger brother 's arrangement ; during the wedding ceremony he " became more deathly pale than death itself , and , so they say , is unable to bear this thing , that he , the first @-@ born , should see himself deprived of such splendid status and of the daughter of an Emperor . " In 1546 Paul gave Pier Luigi the duchies of Parma and Piacenza as papal fiefs , a highly political move by the pope : in doing so he gave titles and wealth to Pier and appointed a lord who was subservient and owed a debt of gratitude , guaranteeing that the duchies would remain under papal control . At the same time , Ottavio was posted to the North of Italy to support Charles . By 1546 Ottavio was 22 years old , married to Margaret of Austria and an accomplished and distinguished individual . In 1547 his father was assassinated and Ottavio claimed the dukedom of Parma and Piacenza against the express wishes of both Charles , his father @-@ in @-@ law , and Paul . In doing so , Ottavio acted in opposition to the pope 's desire to maintain the duchies as papal fiefs , and to Charles , whom he believed responsible for the plot to assassinate Pier Luigi .
Titian was a personal friend of Charles ; the commissioning of the portrait was most likely intended by Paul as a signal of allegiance to the emperor . Pressure from reforming monarchs in France and Spain , coupled with a general shift of influence in France 's favour , ended the Farnese hold on the papacy soon after Paul 's death . Ottavio excelled as a military commander and was awarded the Golden Fleece by the emperor . While the post had been given as a means to strengthen the family position , it did not come without cost . His success bred resentment amongst his family , as he began to see himself unaccountable to Rome .
At the time of the portrait Paul had convinced Alessandro to retain the post , hinting that he would later succeed him as pope – an aspiration that was ultimately frustrated . As Alessandro realised the emptiness of the promise he lost confidence in both his grandfather 's word and political credibility .
= = Commission = =
The painting was commissioned in 1546 after Titian had made a number of portraits of Paul . He had already depicted Pier Luigi and three of his children – Vittoria , Alessandro and Ranuccio . Ottavio was perhaps again portrayed by him in 1552 , and most likely commissioned the original Naples panel in Titian 's Danaë series , although Lodovico Dolce believed it was Alessandro who had approached Titian .
The artist 's reputation was such that he had already been called to Rome a number of times in the early 1540s ; first by Cardinal Pietro Bembo and then by the Farnese family . By the mid @-@ 1540s Titian was the preferred portraitist for the Farnese . Following a number of earlier portraits of Pier Luigi and Paul , they commissioned a set to mark their ascendancy after Paul 's papacy , all of which were – given their political awareness and ambition – clearly intended as public statements on their social elevation . Paul was aware of Titian 's influence in Venice , and after 1538 allowed only Titian to portray him .
Titian disliked travelling and refused the offers . When Paul travelled to northern Italy for negotiations with Charles in 1543 he met Titian for the first time and sat for Portrait of Paul III without a Cap . Around this time , Titian 's son Pomponio decided to enter the clergy , and the painter sought to use his contacts with the papacy to gain a church and lands for him . Working through his contacts with Cardinal Alessandro , he asked that in return for the Farnese portraits Pomponio be granted the abbey of San Pietro in Colle Umberto , in grounds bordering Titian 's own in Ceneda . Charles respected Titian and so the painter had influence in negotiating with the Farnese . When he received their offers of a commission and invitation to Rome , he made it clear he would only undertake the patronage in return for the grant of the benefice . This was at first rejected , but on 20 September 1544 Titian seemed assured enough to send a message to Cardinal Alessandro that he would visit to " paint Your Honor 's illustrious household down to the last cat " . Even so , Titian made no move until October of the following year . When he did finally arrive in Rome , he was treated as the most important guest to the city and given an apartment at the Belvedere . In the end the portrait was not completed . Probably once the benefice was granted , he no longer felt there was any reason to remain in Rome and abandoned the composition .
= = Description = =
The portrait depicts the tensions and manoeuvrings of 16th century court politics . The deep red background and heavy brushstrokes establish an anxious and tense atmosphere , and the uneasy relationship between the Pope and his suitors . The pope is old , ill and tired , and glares at Ottavio in an accusatory manner . His hat or camauro cloaks his baldness , but there are tell @-@ tale signs of age in his long nose , dark beady eyes , stooped shoulders and long uneven beard . He is noticeably older than in the second Naples portrait of 1543 . This fact is reinforced by the clock placed on the table beside him , which serves both as a memento mori and a reminder that time is running out . Given this , the presence of his grandsons indicates that the commission was prompted by thoughts of succession .
Nevertheless , Paul retains elements of a powerful and alert patriarch . The painting is set at a curious angle , so that although Paul is positioned low in the pictorial space , the viewer still looks upwards towards him as if in respect . He is dressed in full pomp , wearing wide fur @-@ lined sleeves ( a typical Venetian device to convey status ) , and his cape is laid across his upper body to suggest physical presence .
The work is often compared to Raphael 's Pope Leo X with Cardinals of 1518 – 19 and the 1511 – 12 portrait of Julius II for its colouring and psychological dynamic . Titian follows the older master in some respects , emphasising the pope 's age and showing him in a naturalistic , rather than reverential , setting , but Titian goes further : while Raphael 's portraits show a high @-@ minded and introspective pope , Titian presents his subject glaring outwards , caught in a moment of fearful but ruthless calculation . His piercing glare has been described by art historian Jill Dunkerton as having captured his " small bright eyes , but ... missed his genius " .
The canvas is dramatically divided in two by a diagonal line separated by colour and tone . The lower two @-@ thirds are dominated by heavy red and white pigments ; browns and whites are prominent in the upper right @-@ hand section . This division is delineated by a diagonal reaching from the upper edge of the curtain down to Ottavio 's leggings in the right mid @-@ ground . Other echoes of the colours and patterns include the red of Paul 's robes against the velvet of his chair and the overhanging curtain . This dramatic colour and luminosity can be in part attributed to this design , and to the manner in which Titian reverses the usual painterly technique in building tone : he began with a dark background , then layered the lighter hues before the darker passages . The effect has been described as a " tour de force of symphonic colourism " , and a high point of his blending of red and ochre pigments . Titian uses a variety of brushstrokes . While the pope 's robes are painted with very broad strokes , his cape ( mozzetta ) , ageing face and visible hand were captured in minute detail with thin brushes , with his hairs rendered at the level of individual strands .
Ottavio , shown as tall and muscular , is about to kneel to kiss the Pope 's feet , a contemporary manner of greeting a pope : a guest would make three short bows followed by the kissing of the papal feet . Titian indicates this step in the ceremony by showing Paul 's shoe decorated with a cross , poking from underneath his gown . Ottavio 's head is bowed , but his stern facial expression conveys that he is acting as protocol dictates , rather than with genuine diffidence .
The grandsons are depicted in very different styles : Alessandro acts in a formal manner and wears clothes of similar colour and tones to Paul . Ottavio , by contrast , wears the browns of the upper right @-@ hand passage , an area of the painting that cuts him physically from the pope . His pose is awkward and difficult to interpret , but he is rendered in a more naturalistic manner than his brother . Alessandro has a distracted , brooding expression . He holds the knob of Paul 's backrest , in an echo of Raphael 's portrait where Clement VII holds the chair of Leo X as an indicator of his ambitions of succession . Thus Alessandro seems better placed politically , standing to Paul 's right in a pose that recalls traditional depictions of Paul the Apostle , and his hand is raised as if in blessing . In the end , Paul was unable to influence his succession after Charles V weakened the Medici hold on the office .
The work is unfinished ; a number of details , most noticeably the pope 's right hand , are missing . Other passages are bland and uniform , with some key areas still blocked by the underdrawing . Many of Titian 's characteristic finishing touches are missing ; Paul 's fur @-@ lined sleeves do not contain the polishing white strokes of the 1543 portrait , or his usual final overglaze or glossing .
= = Interpretation = =
Although the work is often thought of as an unflattering and cold look at an ageing pope besieged by cunning and opportunistic relatives , the reality is more complex and the artist 's intention more subtle . It is certainly a very unguarded portrait of one of the most powerful men of his day , and in stark contrast to Titian 's two earlier portraits of Paul , both of which were deferential . It is widely accepted as one of the most politically difficult portrait commissions in art history , requiring an understanding of the interplay of relationships with a depth " worthy of Shakespeare " , in the opinion of art historians Rodolfo Pallucchini and Harold Wethey . However , it was one Titian seems to have resolved ; while the complexity of the relationships is all on the canvas , it may have been intended as an indicator to Charles that Paul retained his position as the dominant patriarch – old and frail but still a man of vitality , and in control of his squabbling descendants .
Moreover , working under commission from the Farnese family , Titian would not have sought to portray the sitters in an obviously unsympathetic manner . While Paul is shown as old and frail , he is given a broad chest and cunning eyes that indicate his intelligence and guile . Ottavio is presented as cold and impervious , but this was probably a device to show his strength of character and conviction . Alessandro is favoured by his positioning closest to the Pope , yet x @-@ ray analysis reveals he had originally stood to the left of the pope and was moved , probably on request by Alessandro himself , to a position where his hand was resting on the papal throne , indicating his claim on the papacy .
= = Provenance = =
Titian abandoned the painting before completion and for the next hundred years it was kept unframed and unhung in a Farnese cellar . Alessandro 's large collection of art and antiques , which included the Titian portraits commissioned by Paul , was eventually inherited by Elisabetta Farnese ( 1692 – 1766 ) . Elisabetta , who married Philip V of Spain in 1714 , passed on the collection to her son Carlos , who became Duke of Parma and later King of Spain . In 1734 , he conquered the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples , and the collection was transferred to Naples . In 1738 Carlos built the Palace of Capodimonte , which includes the Museo di Capodimonte , in part to house the Farnese art collection . The painting remains there today , hanging in the Farnese Gallery section . The Museo di Capodimonte was designated a national museum in 1950 .
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= This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) =
" This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1975 studio album Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . Harrison wrote the song as a sequel to his popular Beatles composition " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , in response to the personal criticism he had received during and after his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar , particularly from Rolling Stone magazine . " This Guitar " was issued as a single in December 1975 – the final release for Apple Records in its original incarnation – but it failed to chart in either the United States or Britain .
The song follows in a tradition established by singers such as Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger , of attributing emotions and actions to a musical instrument . The lyrics also serve as an example of a dialogue that was commonplace during the 1970s between songwriters and music critics . Contributing to Harrison 's sense of injustice in " This Guitar " , he and his tour musicians believed that detractors had ignored the successful aspects of the 1974 shows – which blended rock , jazz , funk and Indian classical music – and had focused instead on his failure to pay due respect to the legacy of the Beatles . Rolling Stone 's scathing assessment of Harrison 's tour and accompanying album , Dark Horse , represented an about @-@ face by the publication , previously one of his most vocal supporters , and led to Harrison 's continued resentment towards the magazine over subsequent decades .
Harrison recorded " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " in Los Angeles during April and May 1975 , a period marked by his post @-@ tour despondency . The recording features guitar solos played by Harrison and American musician Jesse Ed Davis . The song serves as a rare guitar @-@ oriented selection on the keyboard @-@ heavy Extra Texture album , although David Foster , Gary Wright and Harrison all contributed keyboard parts to the track . " This Guitar " has traditionally received a mixed reception from reviewers , partly due to the inevitable comparisons with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . Harrison re @-@ recorded the song in 1992 with former Eurythmic Dave Stewart , who used it to promote his Platinum Weird project in 2006 . This version appears as a bonus track on the 2014 Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Extra Texture .
= = Background = =
George Harrison 's stated aim for his North American tour with Indian musician Ravi Shankar , which took place from 2 November to 20 December 1974 , was to offer concert @-@ goers " another kind of experience " from the typical mid @-@ 1970s rock show . With its blending of Western rock , funk and jazz genres with Indian classical music , author Robert Rodriguez describes the result as a musical form " [ that ] one day would be called ' world music ' " . Of the critical reception given to the Harrison – Shankar venture , tour @-@ wide , Rodriguez writes of the " genuine highlights that went mostly unreported " , since : " Smaller press outlets without axes to grind tended to review the shows the best , whereas rock establishment coverage , such as Rolling Stone 's , tended to spin the tour as something close to an unmitigated disaster ... "
Along with Harrison and band leader Tom Scott , tour musicians Jim Horn , Jim Keltner and Andy Newmark have each challenged the reliability of these negative reports , Horn declaring the Harrison – Shankar tour " one of the best I 've been on " . Concert @-@ goers likewise questioned their accuracy ; according to author Nicholas Schaffner , Beatles fanzine Strawberry Fields Forever had been " deluged with letters protesting the nasty reviews " .
Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes this phenomenon as " one of the stranger episodes in rock music " and writes : " While the majority of reviews were positive , in some cases ecstatic , the ' given ' view of the tour comes from the Rolling Stone articles . " Chief among these was a feature by Ben Fong @-@ Torres , titled " Lumbering in the Material World " , covering the opening , West Coast portion of the tour . Feng @-@ Torres condemned Harrison for refusing to pander to critics ' and the public 's nostalgia for the Beatles , and for the perilous state of his singing voice , after Harrison had contracted laryngitis while rushing to complete his new album during the tour rehearsals . In addition to Scott airing his objections to Fong @-@ Torres ' article for focusing excessively on the uneven opening concert at Vancouver 's Pacific Coliseum , Harrison complained that Rolling Stone had deliberately " edited everything positive out " about the shows , which Fong @-@ Torres later told him had been the case .
Leng writes that " Testimony " on the Harrison – Shankar tour , and a " savagely personal " attack on Harrison , came with the magazine 's review for his delayed Dark Horse album . Under the heading " Transcendental mediocrity " , Rolling Stone critic Jim Miller wrote of the " disastrous album " appearing " in the wake of his disastrous tour " – completing what Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley describes as the magazine 's " volte @-@ face " on an artist it had traditionally supported .
Harrison never completely forgave Rolling Stone for its treatment of the so @-@ called " Dark Horse Tour " . While members of his 1974 tour group , including future wife Olivia Arias , have spoken of Harrison 's defiant attitude towards the negative reviews , Leng suggests that he " reacted to them as personal attacks " . During a holiday in Hawaii with Arias over Christmas that year , Harrison wrote " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , a song that , he told Musician magazine in 1987 , " came about because the press and critics tried to nail me on the 1974 – 5 tour , [ and ] got really nasty " .
= = Composition = =
The song title is a play on that of his 1968 composition " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , released on the Beatles ' White Album and performed by Harrison throughout the 1974 tour . While concert reviewers had focused on his altering of the lyric to " While my guitar gently smiles " and " ... tries to smile " , Harrison told BBC Radio 1 's Paul Gambaccini in September 1975 that it was a track that was consistently well received by audiences during the tour . Harrison described the new composition as " Son of ' Guitar Gently Weeps ' " .
Like the Beatles track , " This Guitar " is structured around short , minor @-@ key verses ( in this case , in the key of G minor ) that conclude with the song title , rather than distinct choruses . Author Ian Inglis also notes the " evident similarity " between the melody of the two compositions . As with Harrison 's lyrics for " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , Inglis writes , " This Guitar " follows in a tradition established by Woody Guthrie , Pete Seeger and Bo Diddley , of attributing emotions and actions to a musical instrument .
The song lyrics begin , " Found myself out on a limb / But I 'm happier than I 've ever been " , the second line of which echoes Harrison 's statements to Fong @-@ Torres and other interviewers during the tour , that he had never been as happy as he was now – in a band with Scott , Billy Preston and Willie Weeks , and as a servant of the Hindu god Krishna instead of living out the public 's perception of him as " Beatle George " . Referring to the released recording of the song , Inglis opines that , rather than happiness , " the bitterness in his vocal performance tells a different story . "
In his brief discussion of " This Guitar " in his autobiography , Harrison introduces the lyrics to verse two with a mention of the need to " struggle " through adversity , in an effort " to become better human beings " :
Learned to get up when I fall
Can even climb Rolling Stone walls
This guitar can 't keep from crying .
Noting that Harrison was " bound to fight back against what he saw as unfair , malicious criticism " , Leng views these and other lines in the song as typical of a dialogue then common in rock music , between artists and critics . Leng cites Joni Mitchell , Neil Young and John Lennon as other singer @-@ songwriters who encouraged this dialogue and in some instances suffered for doing so .
Theologian Dale Allison writes of Harrison 's " deep hurt " being reflected in the lyrics to " This Guitar " . The two bridge sections document the " unwarranted abuse that comes his way " , Inglis writes , while typifying the theme that " [ Harrison ] is the guitar " :
This here guitar can be quite sad
Can be high strung , sometimes gets mad
Can 't understand or deal with hate
Responds much better to love .
After Harrison has named Rolling Stone as the main perpetrator of his anguish , Leng suggests that he is unable to sustain the previous " artifice " , whereby the lyrics ' shift in perspective from first @-@ person to third @-@ person represented the apparently " happy " private man versus the " wounded " musician , as " personified by his guitar " . Instead , Harrison " flays his detractors " in the song 's subsequent verses . These final verses contain the rhyming couplets " Thought by now you knew the score / You missed the point just like before " and " While you attack , create offence / I 'll put it down to your ignorance " . Lindsay Planer of AllMusic describes the lines as " suggesting that there is more to Harrison 's music than is being taken into consideration by narrow @-@ minded journalists " .
= = Recording = =
Harrison started recording his follow @-@ up to Dark Horse , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) , in April 1975 , while in Los Angeles working on business associated with his Dark Horse record label . Leng remarks on Harrison 's " almost unseemly " haste in returning to a studio and suggests that his " bitterness and dismay " post @-@ Dark Horse was evident on much of the recording . Early on in the sessions , during his radio interview with WNEW @-@ FM 's Dave Herman , Harrison bemoaned the abandoning of 1960s idealism within the music industry and related this to the critical backlash he had recently received , from people who were " just dropping apart at the seams with hate " , adding : " I 'm talking about Rolling Stone actually – talking about [ founding editor ] Jann Wenner . "
Harrison recorded the basic track for " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " at A & M Studios in Hollywood between 21 April and 7 May . Harrison played 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , with support from David Foster on piano , and sparse , floor tom @-@ heavy drumming from Jim Keltner . Klaus Voormann , Harrison 's regular bass player and a friend since the Beatles ' Hamburg years , chose to not participate in many of the sessions for Extra Texture , later citing the abundance of cocaine and Harrison 's " frame of mind when he was doing this album " . Harrison overdubbed the song 's bass part using an ARP synthesizer , while Gary Wright provided the ARP strings atmospherics , a sound that characterised his hit album The Dream Weaver around this time .
When discussing " This Guitar " with Paul Gambaccini in London , in September , Harrison described the song as " a cheap excuse to play some guitar " . Harrison played the slide guitar parts throughout the track , including the closing solo . Leng identifies both " Pete Drake stylings " and the influence of " raga microtones " in Harrison 's performance . The wah @-@ effected guitar solo midway through the song was performed by Jesse Ed Davis , who , having first supported Harrison at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 , had since mirrored the ex @-@ Beatle 's guitar style on John Lennon 's recent hit song " # 9 Dream " . Davis overdubbed his contribution to " This Guitar " on 5 June , the day before the Foster @-@ arranged orchestrated strings were recorded .
= = Release = =
Extra Texture was issued on Apple Records in September 1975 , with " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " sequenced as the third track , in between " The Answer 's at the End " and Harrison 's Smokey Robinson tribute " Ooh Baby ( You Know That I Love You ) " . Aside from the well @-@ received lead single , " You " , the album offered little in the way of " hook @-@ laden potential hit [ s ] " , author Bruce Spizer writes . On 8 December , Apple released " This Guitar " as the follow @-@ up single in America , with Apple catalogue number 1885 . The single version of the song was edited down to a running time of 3 : 49 , by fading out early during Harrison 's closing solo . Underlining the paucity of radio @-@ friendly selections on Extra Texture , the B @-@ side was " Māya Love " , taken from the Dark Horse album . The single 's UK release ( as Apple R 6012 ) was delayed until 6 February 1976 .
In America and Britain , " This Guitar " was available only in a plain sleeve . The German picture sleeve , featuring black text on a white background , contained a large black @-@ on @-@ red Om symbol , reflecting an aspect of Roy Kohara 's design for Extra Texture , where the symbol appeared in blue on a vivid orange background . The Japanese sleeve incorporated Kohara 's colour scheme from the parent album , surrounding an image of Harrison on stage during the 1974 tour . The picture was taken by tour photographer Henry Grossman , who worked extensively with the Beatles in the 1960s . Harrison did no promotion for the single , but his guest appearance on friend Eric Idle 's Rutland Weekend Television 1975 Christmas special , singing the purpose @-@ written " The Pirate Song " , heralded a return to form for him in 1976 .
" This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " failed to place on either the US Billboard Hot 100 or the UK 's official singles chart , then just a top 50 . " This Guitar " ' s failure to chart in America was a surprise , since all of Harrison 's previous singles had made the top 40 there . Robert Rodriguez attributes its lack of success to the fact that Apple was " [ r ] unning on fumes " by this point and the company 's promotion for the single was therefore nonexistent . By the time the single appeared in Britain , close to five months after the song 's initial release , Harrison 's involvement with Apple was officially over , following his signing with A & M @-@ distributed Dark Horse Records in January 1976 .
Despite its commercial failure , " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " is notable as the final release on the original Apple record label . While observing that the song became the first single by a former Beatle not to place on any of the three main US charts , Spizer adds : " It was a sad end and [ a ] far cry from the success of Apple 's first release , ' Hey Jude ' . "
= = Reception = =
In his discussion of Extra Texture in The Beatles Forever ( 1977 ) , Nicholas Schaffner wrote of Harrison 's " worldly critics " responding " like bulls to a red flag " to " This Guitar " and other " treatises on how reviewers always ' miss the point ' " . Aside from their objections to the song 's subject matter , Robert Rodriguez observes , " Critics by nature tended to regard the Beatles ' catalog as sacrosanct " and therefore " dissed [ Harrison ] for producing a sequel to ' While My Guitar Gently Weeps ' " . The consensus of critical opinion was that " This Guitar " paled beside the Beatle original , with NME writers Roy Carr and Tony Tyler adding : " The lack of a tune doesn 't help . " Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone dismissed much of the album 's first side as " padded subterfuge " while opining that " there just isn 't compensation here for the failed promise of ' This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) ' " .
More recently , AllMusic 's Richard Ginell views the song as an " attractive " sequel to " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and includes it among Harrison 's best solo compositions . Elliot Huntley has written of reviewers ' derision of the track as a " lame " follow @-@ up : " Harrison made a fatal mistake in making it sound like a sequel . ' This Guitar ( Can 't Keep From Crying ) ' is a good song in its own right , with excellent lead guitar work from the master ... " Author Andrew Grant Jackson features the track in his book Still the Greatest : The Essential Solo Beatles Songs , and admires " the group 's synergy " on the recording , as well as Forster 's " fine string arrangement " . Jackson adds : " Probably no one bitched more about their critics than the solo Beatles until Public Enemy and Eminem came along … [ ' This Guitar ' ] could have been one of the most depressing ex @-@ Beatles tunes ever , but its strange groove compels repeated listening . "
Writing in Mojo magazine , John Harris describes " This Guitar " as " a serviceable sequel … in which GH 1 ) does a neat Dylan impression , and 2 ) plays yet another lovely slide solo " . Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years reissues of Harrison 's catalogue , New Zealand Herald journalist Graham Reid considers the track to be " a much better song than it seemed at the time " , while Oregano Rathbone of Record Collector cites it as an example of how each of Harrison 's Apple albums after the acclaimed All Things Must Pass " contains shivery moments of release " . Writing for the website Vintage Rock , Shawn Perry views the track as one of its composer 's " most overshadowed songs " and a highlight of " a creative and introspective album that 's aged well " .
Among Harrison biographers , Alan Clayson sees " This Guitar " as the " soundest choice " for a second single off an album that represents Harrison 's " lowest ebb " . Simon Leng describes it as a " harrowing song " , with a " passionate and powerful " Harrison vocal , and draws parallels between " This Guitar " and Neil Young 's similarly anti @-@ journalistic " Ambulance Blues " . Ian Inglis writes of the " gulf " separating Harrison 's 1968 composition from the 1975 song : " While the first was a poignant and satisfying commentary that drew attention to his newfound maturity as a songwriter , this is a petulant and rather arrogant statement in which he appears to want to put himself above criticism ... Both words and music depict a sour and troubled performer , whose resentment is all too clear . " Dale Allison describes " This Guitar " as a " beautiful song " with " ardent lyrics " , and groups it with Harrison compositions such as " Isn 't It a Pity " , " The Light That Has Lighted the World " , " Blow Away " and " Sat Singing " – all songs that " remain close to the hearts of those familiar with them " .
= = Other versions = =
Harrison 's experiences as a headline performer in 1974 led to him not touring again for seventeen years , when he undertook a short tour of Japan with Eric Clapton 's band in December 1991 . In November that year , during rehearsals at Bray Studios in Berkshire , " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " was one of 35 songs that Harrison considered for the concert setlist , but he did not perform it at any of the shows .
Former Eurythmic Dave Stewart recalls recording a version of " This Guitar " with Harrison in London . The recording was made in 1992 , ten years after which Ringo Starr , Dhani Harrison and Kara DioGuardi overdubbed contributions , on drums , acoustic guitar and backing vocals , respectively . The song was then published over the internet to promote Stewart 's Platinum Weird project , in March 2006 – over four years after Harrison 's death from cancer at the age of 58 . Although it did not appear on Platinum Weird 's album , Make Believe , this version of " This Guitar " was included as a bonus track on the 2014 reissue of Extra Texture . Writing for Blogcritics , Seattle @-@ based critic Chaz Lipp views it as a " tighter rock @-@ oriented remake " , while Graham Reid describes the bonus track as " a fascinating undated update " .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians played on the original version of " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " :
George Harrison – vocals , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , ARP bass , slide guitars
Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar
David Foster – piano , string arrangement
Gary Wright – ARP strings
Jim Keltner – drums
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= McBride & the Ride =
McBride & the Ride was an American country music band initially composed of Terry McBride ( lead vocals , bass guitar ) , Ray Herndon ( background vocals , guitar , Dobro ) , and Billy Thomas ( background vocals , drums , percussion ) . The group was founded in 1989 through the assistance of record producer Tony Brown . McBride & the Ride 's first three albums — Burnin ' Up the Road , the gold @-@ certified Sacred Ground , and Hurry Sundown , released in 1991 , 1992 , and 1993 , respectively — were all issued on MCA Nashville . These albums also produced several hits on the Billboard country charts , including the Top 5 hits " Sacred Ground " ( their highest @-@ peaking , at number 2 ) , " Going Out of My Mind " , " Just One Night " , and " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " .
In 1994 , the label removed Herndon and Thomas from the group , which was renamed Terry McBride & the Ride . McBride remained lead singer , while the other members were replaced with Keith Edwards ( drums ) , Kenny Vaughan ( electric guitar ) , Gary Morse ( steel guitar ) , Jeff Roach ( keyboards ) , and Randy Frazier ( bass guitar ) , who had formerly been a member of the band Palomino Road . Roach and Vaughan were respectively replaced by Rick Gerken and Bob Britt shortly before their fourth album ( 1994 's Terry McBride & the Ride ) , after which McBride & the Ride disbanded . During the hiatus , MCA issued a compilation called Country 's Best , while McBride and Herndon wrote singles for other artists . McBride , Thomas , and Herndon reunited as McBride & the Ride in 2000 , releasing Amarillo Sky on Dualtone Records in 2002 before splitting up again . McBride then joined the backing band for the duo Brooks & Dunn , and co @-@ wrote several of the duo 's singles , while Herndon self @-@ released a solo album .
= = History = =
McBride & the Ride was created in 1989 when Tony Brown , then the executive vice president of MCA Records , decided to establish a new country music band in order to compete with Alabama , who he thought was falling out of favor with country radio . At the time , guitarist Ray Herndon ( born July 14 , 1960 ) was serving as a backing musician for Lyle Lovett , then a recording artist for MCA . Brown suggested that Herndon join lead vocalist Terry McBride ( born September 16 , 1958 ) , whom Herndon did not yet know , in the new band that Brown had planned . McBride , a musician since childhood , had worked as a backing musician for his father , Dale McBride , and later for Delbert McClinton and Rosie Flores . At the Fan Fair in Nashville , Tennessee , Brown introduced McBride and Herndon to drummer Billy Thomas ( born October 24 , 1953 ) , who had previously played for Emmylou Harris and Mac Davis , and the band 's lineup was in place .
= = Musical career = =
McBride & the Ride performed its first concert in Detroit , Michigan . In 1990 , the band released its first single , " Felicia , " which peaked at number 74 on the RPM country charts in Canada in 1990 but did not enter the U.S. country charts . Its followup , " Every Step of the Way " , failed to chart in both countries . The band was almost dropped from MCA 's roster due to poor chart performance , until the release of " Can I Count on You " , which peaked at number 15 on the Billboard country charts and was made into a music video . This song 's success led to the release of McBride & the Ride 's 1991 debut album Burnin ' Up the Road , on which McBride co @-@ wrote all but one of the songs . The last single from this album , " Same Old Star , " peaked at number 28 . After the album 's release , the band began touring the United States with The Judds and Highway 101 . Thomas also played drums for The Remingtons , a country vocal group featuring former Bread member Jimmy Griffin , on its 1991 debut album Blue Frontier , while Thomas and Herndon sang background vocals on then @-@ labelmate Marty Stuart 's 1991 album Tempted .
Sacred Ground , the band 's second album , came out in 1992 . This album was McBride & the Ride 's most successful , with all three of its singles reaching Top 5 on the country charts : " Sacred Ground " at number 2 , followed by " Going Out of My Mind " ( which McBride co @-@ wrote with Kostas ) and " Just One Night , " both at number 5 . " Sacred Ground " was co @-@ written by Kix Brooks , who had previously released the song in 1989 from his self @-@ titled debut album for Capitol Records before joining Ronnie Dunn to form Brooks & Dunn in 1991 . In 1992 , McBride & the Ride received a Best New Vocal Group or Duo nomination from the Country Music Association and Vocal Group of the Year nomination from the Academy of Country Music . More than four years after its release , Sacred Ground was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies .
McBride & the Ride 's third album , Hurry Sundown , was released in 1993 . It produced the band 's fourth and final Top 5 hit in the number 3 " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " ( which Kostas also co @-@ wrote ) , as well as a Top 20 in its title track , the only other single release . " Hangin ' In and Hangin ' On " , the B @-@ side to " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " , was later released by David Ball as a single from his 1996 album Starlite Lounge . In 1994 , the band charted its last Top 40 hit , " No More Cryin ' " , which McBride and Josh Leo co @-@ wrote for the soundtrack to the film 8 Seconds . The same album featured John Anderson 's rendition of the title track to Burnin ' Up the Road . Also that same year , McBride & the Ride recorded a cover version of Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Saturday Night Special " on the MCA compilation album Skynyrd Frynds , which featured country artists ' renditions of Lynynrd Skynyrd songs .
= = = Change to Terry McBride & the Ride and first disbanding = = =
By March 1994 , Herndon and Thomas left the group , as the label had decided to shift the band 's focus to McBride , and Herndon did not want to be " push [ ed ] to the background . " According to Herndon , the members " parted as friends . " A new bass guitarist , Randy Frazier , was brought in , also as part of the label 's decision to focus more on McBride . Frazier had previously been a member of Palomino Road , which recorded one album for Liberty Records in 1992 . Completing the new lineup were Keith Edwards ( drums ) , Kenny Vaughan ( lead guitar ) , Gary Morse ( steel guitar ) , and Jeff Roach ( keyboards ) , who had previously played in McBride & the Ride 's road band . McBride then bought the naming rights to the band and renamed it Terry McBride & the Ride . One album ( also titled Terry McBride & the Ride ) and three singles were released under the new name , with Josh Leo serving as producer . By the time of the album 's release , Rick Gerken had replaced Roach , and Bob Britt had replaced Vaughan . Additionally , only McBride and Morse performed on it , with the rest of the instruments performed by session musicians and Roach . The album 's singles , " Been There " , " High Hopes and Empty Pockets " , and " Somebody Will " , all failed to reach Top 40 , and the band broke up in 1995 . MCA released a compilation package entitled Country 's Best in 1996 , which included their first ten singles , from " Felicia " to " No More Cryin ' " . River Road later released a version of " Somebody Will " from their 1997 self @-@ titled debut album .
Herndon and McBride both worked as songwriters during McBride & the Ride 's hiatus . Herndon co @-@ wrote Kenny Chesney 's 1996 single " Me and You " with Skip Ewing , while McBride co @-@ wrote four singles for Brooks & Dunn : the Top Five hits " I Am That Man " , " He 's Got You " and " I Can 't Get Over You " , as well as the Number One " If You See Him / If You See Her " , which featured guest vocals from Reba McEntire . Thomas , meanwhile , worked as a backing musician for Vince Gill , and Vaughan went on to join Trent Summar & the New Row Mob in 2000 .
= = = Reunion and second disbanding = = =
In September 2000 , Herndon reunited with McBride and Thomas after meeting them at a party at the Handlebar @-@ J Restaurant & Bar in Scottsdale , Arizona , to celebrate the club 's 25th anniversary . After they performed " No More Cryin ' " there , Herndon suggested that they officially reunite as McBride & the Ride , saying " This thing in my gut was telling me that this was the right time for this . " The trio recorded demo tapes and began searching for a record deal , signing to the independent Dualtone Records in 2002 . Working with pianist and record producer Matt Rollings , McBride & the Ride recorded its only album for Dualtone , titled Amarillo Sky , and released it in September of that year . Unlike previous albums , the band wrote most of the songs and played most of the instruments itself because , according to Thomas , " Terry thought this would be even more of a band @-@ like situation if we wrote together more . It would bring us even tighter as a unit . "
Lead @-@ off single " Anything That Touches You " reached number 50 on the country charts in 2002 , representing the band 's final chart entry . Following it were the non @-@ charting singles " Squeeze Box " ( a cover of a song made famous by The Who ) and " Amarillo Sky . " The latter was co @-@ written by Big Kenny and John Rich ( who would later form the duo Big & Rich ) , and was later recorded by Jason Aldean on his 2005 self @-@ titled debut album . Aldean 's version was released in late 2006 and peaked at number 4 on the country charts in early 2007 . Also included on Amarillo Sky was the track " Hasta Luego " , co @-@ written by McBride and previously found on David Ball 's 1999 album Play .
McBride & the Ride 's members disbanded a second time after the release of Amarillo Sky . After this disbanding , McBride became the bass guitarist in Brooks & Dunn 's road band . He continued to co @-@ write songs for them , including the Number One hit " Play Something Country " from 2005 , as well as " Proud of the House We Built " , " Cowgirls Don 't Cry " , and several album cuts . McBride also co @-@ wrote Josh Gracin 's 2005 single " Stay with Me ( Brass Bed ) " with Jedd Hughes and Brett James . Herndon self @-@ released a solo album entitled Livin ' the Dream in late 2005 . This album included his own rendition of " Me and You " with background vocals from Sonya Isaacs , and a duet with Clint Black on " Grain of Salt . " McBride has also written for Reba McEntire and Casey James . Meanwhile , Thomas toured with the Little River Band .
= = Musical stylings and critical reception = =
McBride & the Ride 's sound was defined by close , three @-@ part vocal harmonies . Between their vocal styles and the " crisp , gentle rockers " that the MCA albums contained , McBride & the Ride was compared to other rock @-@ influenced country vocal bands such as Alabama and Southern Pacific . In his book The Encyclopedia of Country Music , writer Paul Kingsbury describes McBride & the Ride as having " found success with a series of middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road singles with tight harmonies . "
Ronnie Dunn , with whom McBride collaborated when he wrote songs for Brooks & Dunn , said that he was a fan of the band before McBride joined the duo 's road band . In an interview with CMT , Dunn said , " They 're amazingly tight as a group . I first heard them on the radio in the early ' 90s , shortly after their first single . I liked Terry 's singing style . It had a familiar Texas twang . " Dunn has also said that he enjoys writing with McBride , because both of them are Texas natives with a similar upbringing and musical influences .
The band 's albums have received mixed reception from music critics . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Alanna Nash criticized the first two albums for lacking strong material outside of " Sacred Ground " ( a ballad in which the male narrator tries to convince another man not to commit adultery on the narrator 's wife ) , but gave Hurry Sundown a B rating , saying it was " filled with catchy hooks , tight hillbilly harmonies , soulful songs , and [ … ] a collective personality . " Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny gave four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five for both the second and third albums , noting of Hurry Sundown that it " continue [ d ] to hone the group 's close @-@ harmony style . " Amarillo Sky received a three @-@ star review from Allmusic critic Robert L. Doerschuk , who considered it " tight , seamless , [ and ] a bit impersonal " , while About.com critic Matt Bjorke said it was a " wonderful collection of songs " .
= = Former members = =
Terry McBride – lead vocals , bass guitar ( 1989 – 1995 , 2000 – 2002 )
Ray Herndon – background vocals , electric guitar , Dobro ( 1989 – 1994 , 2000 – 2002 )
Billy Thomas – background vocals , drums ( 1989 – 1994 , 2000 – 2002 )
Keith Edwards – drums ( 1994 – 1995 )
Randy Frazier – bass guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Gary Morse – steel guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Jeff Roach – keyboards ( 1994 – 1995 )
Kenny Vaughan – electric guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Bob Britt — lead guitar ( 1995 )
Rick Gerken — keyboards ( 1995 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
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= Candide =
Candide , ou l 'Optimisme ( / ˌkænˈdiːd / ; French : [ kɑ ̃ did ] ) is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire , a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment . The novella has been widely translated , with English versions titled Candide : or , All for the Best ( 1759 ) ; Candide : or , The Optimist ( 1762 ) ; and Candide : or , Optimism ( 1947 ) . It begins with a young man , Candide , who is living a sheltered life in an Edenic paradise and being indoctrinated with Leibnizian optimism ( or simply " optimism " ) by his mentor , Professor Pangloss . The work describes the abrupt cessation of this lifestyle , followed by Candide 's slow , painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world . Voltaire concludes with Candide , if not rejecting optimism outright , advocating a deeply practical precept , " we must cultivate our garden " , in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss , " all is for the best " in the " best of all possible worlds " .
Candide is characterised by its sarcastic tone as well as by its erratic , fantastical and fast @-@ moving plot . A picaresque novel with a story similar to that of a more serious Bildungsroman , it parodies many adventure and romance clichés , the struggles of which are caricatured in a tone that is mordantly matter @-@ of @-@ fact . Still , the events discussed are often based on historical happenings , such as the Seven Years ' War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . As philosophers of Voltaire 's day contended with the problem of evil , so too does Candide in this short novel , albeit more directly and humorously . Voltaire ridicules religion , theologians , governments , armies , philosophies , and philosophers through allegory ; most conspicuously , he assaults Leibniz and his optimism .
As expected by Voltaire , Candide has enjoyed both great success and great scandal . Immediately after its secretive publication , the book was widely banned because it contained religious blasphemy , political sedition and intellectual hostility hidden under a thin veil of naïveté . However , with its sharp wit and insightful portrayal of the human condition , the novel has since inspired many later authors and artists to mimic and adapt it . Today , Candide is recognized as Voltaire 's magnum opus and is often listed as part of the Western canon ; it is among the most frequently taught works of French literature . The British poet and literary critic Martin Seymour @-@ Smith listed Candide as one of the 100 most influential books ever written .
= = Historical and literary background = =
A number of historical events inspired Voltaire to write Candide , most notably the publication of Leibniz 's " Monadology " , a short metaphysical treatise , the Seven Years ' War , and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . Both of the latter catastrophes are frequently referred to in Candide and are cited by scholars as reasons for its composition . The 1755 Lisbon earthquake , tsunami , and resulting fires of All Saints ' Day , had a strong influence on theologians of the day and on Voltaire , who was himself disillusioned by them . The earthquake had an especially large effect on the contemporary doctrine of optimism , a philosophical system which implies that such events should not occur . Optimism is founded on the theodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz that says all is for the best because God is a benevolent deity . This concept is often put into the form , " all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds " ( Fr . Tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles ) . Philosophers had trouble fitting the horrors of this earthquake into the optimist world view .
Voltaire actively rejected Leibnizian optimism after the natural disaster , convinced that if this were the best possible world , it should surely be better than it is . In both Candide and Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ( " Poem on the Lisbon Disaster " ) , Voltaire attacks this optimist belief . He makes use of the Lisbon earthquake in both Candide and his Poème to argue this point , sarcastically describing the catastrophe as one of the most horrible disasters " in the best of all possible worlds " . Immediately after the earthquake , unreliable rumours circulated around Europe , sometimes overestimating the severity of the event . Ira Wade , a noted expert on Voltaire and Candide , has analysed which sources Voltaire might have referenced in learning of the event . Wade speculates that Voltaire 's primary source for information on the Lisbon earthquake was the 1755 work Relation historique du Tremblement de Terre survenu à Lisbonne by Ange Goudar .
Apart from such events , contemporaneous stereotypes of the German personality may have been a source of inspiration for the text , as they were for Simplicius Simplicissimus , a 1669 satirical picaresque novel written by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and inspired by the Thirty Years ' War . The protagonist of this novel , who was supposed to embody stereotypically German characteristics , is quite similar to the protagonist of Candide . These stereotypes , according to Voltaire biographer Alfred Owen Aldridge , include " extreme credulousness or sentimental simplicity " , two of Candide 's , and Simplicius 's , defining qualities . Aldridge writes , " Since Voltaire admitted familiarity with fifteenth @-@ century German authors who used a bold and buffoonish style , it is quite possible that he knew Simplicissimus as well . "
A satirical and parodic precursor of Candide , Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels ( 1726 ) is one of Candide 's closest literary relatives . This satire tells the story of " a gullible ingenue " , Gulliver , who ( like Candide ) travels to several " remote nations " and is hardened by the many misfortunes which befall him . As evidenced by similarities between the two books , Voltaire probably drew upon Gulliver 's Travels for inspiration while writing Candide . Other probable sources of inspiration for Candide are Télémaque ( 1699 ) by François Fénelon and Cosmopolite ( 1753 ) by Louis @-@ Charles Fougeret de Monbron . Candide 's parody of the bildungsroman is probably based on Télémaque , which includes the prototypical parody of the sagacious tutor on whom Pangloss may have been partly based . Likewise , Monbron 's protagonist undergoes a disillusioning series of travels similar to those of Candide .
= = Creation = =
Born François @-@ Marie Arouet , Voltaire ( 1694 – 1778 ) , by the time of the Lisbon earthquake , was already a well @-@ established author , known for his satirical wit . He had been made a member of the Académie Française in 1746 . He was a deist , a strong proponent of religious freedom , and a critic of tyrannical governments . Candide became part of his large , diverse body of philosophical , political and artistic works expressing these views . More specifically , it was a model for the eighteenth- and early nineteenth @-@ century novels called the contes philosophiques . This genre , of which Voltaire was one of the founders , included previous works of his such as Zadig and Micromegas .
It is unknown exactly when Voltaire wrote Candide , but scholars estimate that it was primarily composed in late 1758 and begun as early as 1757 . Voltaire is believed to have written a portion of it while at his house in Ferney and also while visiting Charles Théodore , the Elector @-@ Palatinate at Schwetzingen , for three weeks in the summer of 1758 . Despite solid evidence for these claims , a popular legend persists that Voltaire wrote Candide in three days . This idea is probably based on a misreading of the 1885 work La Vie intime de Voltaire aux Délices et à Ferney by Lucien Perey ( real name : Clara Adèle Luce Herpin ) and Gaston Maugras . The evidence indicates strongly that Voltaire did not rush or improvise Candide , but worked on it over a significant period of time , possibly even a whole year . Candide is mature and carefully developed , not impromptu , as the intentionally choppy plot and the aforementioned myth might suggest .
There is only one extant manuscript of Candide that was written before the work 's 1759 publication ; it was discovered in 1956 by Wade and since named the La Vallière Manuscript . It is believed to have been sent , chapter by chapter , by Voltaire to the Duke and Duchess La Vallière in the autumn of 1758 . The manuscript was sold to the Bibliothèque de l 'Arsenal in the late eighteenth century , where it remained undiscovered for almost two hundred years . The La Vallière Manuscript , the most original and authentic of all surviving copies of Candide , was probably dictated by Voltaire to his secretary , Wagnière , then edited directly . In addition to this manuscript , there is believed to have been another , one copied by Wagnière for the Elector Charles @-@ Théodore , who hosted Voltaire during the summer of 1758 . The existence of this copy was first postulated by Norman L. Torrey in 1929 . If it exists , it remains undiscovered .
Voltaire published Candide simultaneously in five countries no later than 15 January 1759 , although the exact date is uncertain . Seventeen versions of Candide from 1759 , in the original French , are known today , and there has been great controversy over which is the earliest . More versions were published in other languages : Candide was translated once into Italian and thrice into English that same year . The complicated science of calculating the relative publication dates of all of the versions of Candide is described at length in Wade 's article " The First Edition of Candide : A Problem of Identification " . The publication process was extremely secretive , probably the " most clandestine work of the century " , because of the book 's obviously illicit and irreverent content . The greatest number of copies of Candide were published concurrently in Geneva by Cramer , in Amsterdam by Marc @-@ Michel Rey , in London by Jean Nourse , and in Paris by Lambert .
Candide underwent one major revision after its initial publication , in addition to some minor ones . In 1761 , a version of Candide was published that included , along with several minor changes , a major addition by Voltaire to the twenty @-@ second chapter , a section that had been thought weak by the Duke of Vallière . The English title of this edition was Candide , or Optimism , Translated from the German of Dr. Ralph . With the additions found in the Doctor 's pocket when he died at Minden , in the Year of Grace 1759 . The last edition of Candide authorised by Voltaire was the one included in Cramer 's 1775 compilation , l 'éditions encadrées , meaning " supervised editions " .
Voltaire strongly opposed the inclusion of illustrations in his works , as he stated in a 1778 letter to the writer and publisher Charles Joseph Panckoucke :
Je crois que des Estampes seraient fort inutiles . Ces colifichets n 'ont jamais été admis dans les éditions de Cicéron , de Virgile et d 'Horace . ( I believe that these illustrations would be quite useless . These baubles have never been allowed in the works of Cicero , Virgil and Horace . )
Despite this protest , two sets of illustrations for Candide were produced by the French artist Jean @-@ Michel Moreau le Jeune . The first version was done , at Moreau 's own expense , in 1787 and included in Kehl 's publication of that year , Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire . Four images were drawn by Moreau for this edition and were engraved by Pierre @-@ Charles Baquoy . The second version , in 1803 , consisted of seven drawings by Moreau which were transposed by multiple engravers . The twentieth @-@ century modern artist Paul Klee stated that it was while reading Candide that he discovered his own artistic style . Klee illustrated the work , and his drawings were published in a 1920 version edited by Kurt Wolff .
= = List of characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Candide : The title character . Illegitimate son of the sister of the baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh . In love with Cunégonde .
Cunégonde : The daughter of the baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh . In love with Candide .
Professor Pangloss : The royal educator of the court of the baron . Described as " the greatest philosopher of the Holy Roman Empire " .
The Old Woman : Cunégonde 's maid while she was the mistress of Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal . Fled with Candide and Cunégonde to the New World . Illegitimate daughter of Pope Urban X.
Cacambo : From a Spanish father and a Peruvian mother . Lived half his life in Spain and half in Latin America . Candide 's valet while in America .
Martin : Dutch amateur philosopher and Manichaean . Met Candide in Suriname , travelled with him afterwards .
The baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh : Son of the original Baron ( a secondary character ) and brother of Cunégonde . Thought to have been killed by the Bulgarians . Became a Jesuit in Paraguay .
= = = Secondary characters = = =
The baron and baroness of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh : Father and mother of Cunégonde and the second baron . Both slain by the Bulgarians .
The king of the Bulgarians .
Jacques the Anabaptist : Saved Candide from a lynching in the Netherlands . Drowned in the port of Lisbon .
Don Issachar : Jewish landlord in Portugal . Cunégonde became his mistress , shared with the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal . Killed by Candide .
The Grand Inquisitor of Portugal : Sentenced Candide and Pangloss at the auto @-@ da @-@ fé . Cunégonde was his mistress jointly with Don Issachar . Killed by Candide .
Don Fernando d 'Ibarra y Figueroa y Mascarenes y Lampourdos y Souza : Spanish governor of Buenos Aires . Wanted Cunégonde as a mistress .
The king of El Dorado , who helped Candide and Cacambo out of El Dorado and made them rich .
Mynheer Vanderdendur : Dutch ship captain . Offered to take Candide from America to France for 30 @,@ 000 gold coins , but then departed without him , stealing all his riches .
The abbot of Perigord : Befriended Candide and Martin , led the police to arrest them ; he and the police officer accepted three diamonds each and released them .
The marchioness of Parolignac : Parisian wench who took an elaborate title .
The scholar : One of the guests of the " marchioness " . Argued with Candide about art .
Paquette : The one who gave Pangloss syphilis . After the slaying by the Bulgarians , worked as a prostitute . Became the property of Friar Giroflée .
Friar Giroflée : Theatin friar . In love with the prostitute Paquette .
Signor Pococurante : A Venetian noble . Candide and Martin visited his estate , where he discussed his disdain of most of the canon of great art .
In an inn in Venice , Candide and Martin ate with six foreigners who turned out to be deposed monarchs . They were :
Ahmed III
Ivan VI of Russia
Charles Edward Stuart
Augustus III of Poland
Stanisław Leszczyński
Theodore of Corsica
= = Synopsis = =
Candide contains thirty episodic chapters , which may be grouped into two main schemes : one consists of two divisions , separated by the protagonist 's hiatus in El Dorado ; the other consists of three parts , each defined by its geographical setting . By the former scheme , the first half of Candide constitutes the rising action and the last part the resolution . This view is supported by the strong theme of travel and quest , reminiscent of adventure and picaresque novels , which tend to employ such a dramatic structure . By the latter scheme , the thirty chapters may be grouped into three parts each comprising ten chapters and defined by locale : I – X are set in Europe , XI – XX are set in the Americas , and XXI – XXX are set in Europe and the Ottoman Empire . The plot summary that follows uses this second format and includes Voltaire 's additions of 1761 .
= = = Chapters I – X = = =
The tale of Candide begins in the castle of the Baron Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh in Westphalia , home to : the Baron 's daughter , Lady Cunégonde ; his bastard nephew , Candide ; a tutor , Pangloss ; a chambermaid , Paquette ; and the rest of the Baron 's family . The protagonist , Candide , is romantically attracted to Cunégonde . He is a child of " the most unaffected simplicity " , whose face is " the index of his mind " . Dr. Pangloss , professor of " métaphysico @-@ théologo @-@ cosmolonigologie " ( English translation : " metaphysico @-@ theologo @-@ cosmoronology " ) and self @-@ proclaimed optimist , teaches his pupils that they live in the " best of all possible worlds " and that " all is for the best " .
All is well in the castle until Cunégonde sees Pangloss sexually engaged with Paquette in some bushes . Encouraged by this show of affection , Cunégonde drops her handkerchief next to Candide which entices him to kiss her . For this infraction , Candide is evicted from the castle , at which point he is captured by Bulgar ( Prussian ) recruiters and coerced into military service , where he is flogged , nearly executed , and forced to participate in a major battle between the Bulgars and the Abares ( an allegory representing the Prussians and the French ) . Candide eventually escapes the army and makes his way to Holland where he is given aid by Jacques , an Anabaptist , who strengthens Candide 's optimism . Soon after , Candide finds his master Pangloss , now a beggar with syphilis . Pangloss reveals he was infected with this disease by Paquette and shocks Candide by relating how Castle Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh was destroyed by Bulgars , and that Cunégonde and her whole family were killed . Pangloss is cured of his illness by Jacques , losing one eye and one ear in the process , and the three set sail to Lisbon .
In Lisbon 's harbor , they are overtaken by a vicious storm which destroys the boat . Jacques attempts to save a sailor , and in the process is thrown overboard . The sailor makes no move to help the drowning Jacques , and Candide is in a state of despair until Pangloss explains to him that Lisbon harbor was created in order for Jacques to drown . Only Pangloss , Candide , and the " brutish sailor " who let Jacques drown survive the wreck and reach Lisbon , which is promptly hit by an earthquake , tsunami and fire that kill tens of thousands . The sailor leaves in order to loot the rubble while Candide , injured and begging for help , is lectured on the optimistic view of the situation by Pangloss .
The next day , Pangloss discusses his optimistic philosophy with a member of the Portuguese Inquisition , and he and Candide are arrested for heresy , set to be tortured and killed in an " auto @-@ da @-@ fé " set up to appease God and prevent another disaster . Candide is flogged and sees Pangloss hanged , but another earthquake intervenes and he escapes . He is approached by an old woman , who leads him to a house where Lady Cunégonde waits , alive . Candide is surprised : Pangloss had told him that Cunégonde had been raped and disemboweled . She had been , but Cunégonde points out that people survive such things . However , her rescuer sold her to a Jewish merchant who was then threatened by a corrupt Grand Inquisitor into sharing her . Her owners arrive , find her with another man , and Candide kills them both . Candide and the two women flee the city , heading to the Americas . Along the way , Cunégonde falls into self @-@ pity , complaining of all the misfortunes that have befallen her . The old woman reciprocates by revealing her own tragic life , which included having a buttock cut off in order to feed some starving men .
= = = Chapters XI – XX = = =
The trio arrives in Buenos Aires , where Governor Don Fernando d 'Ibarra y Figueroa y Mascarenes y Lampourdos y Alejandro asks to marry Cunégonde . Just then , an alcalde ( a Spanish fortress commander ) arrives , pursuing Candide for killing the Grand Inquisitor . Leaving the women behind , Candide flees to Paraguay with his practical and heretofore unmentioned manservant , Cacambo .
At a border post on the way to Paraguay , Cacambo and Candide speak to the commandant , who turns out to be Cunégonde 's unnamed brother . He explains that after his family was slaughtered , the Jesuits ' preparation for his burial revived him , and he has since joined the order . When Candide proclaims he intends to marry Cunégonde , her brother attacks him , and Candide stabs him through with his rapier . After lamenting all the people ( mainly priests ) he has killed , he and Cacambo flee . In their flight , Candide and Cacambo come across two naked women being chased and bitten by a pair of monkeys . Candide , seeking to protect the women , shoots and kills the monkeys , but is informed by Cacambo that the monkeys and women were probably lovers .
Cacambo and Candide are captured by Oreillons , or Orejones ; members of the Inca nobility who widened the lobes of their ears , and are depicted here as the fictional inhabitants of the area . Mistaking Candide for a Jesuit by his robes , the Oreillons prepare to cook Candide and Cacambo ; however , Cacambo convinces the Oreillons that Candide killed a Jesuit to procure the robe . Cacambo and Candide are released and travel for a month on foot and then down a river by canoe , living on fruits and berries .
After a few more adventures , Candide and Cacambo wander into El Dorado , a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones , there exist no priests , and all of the king 's jokes are funny . Candide and Cacambo stay a month in El Dorado , but Candide is still in pain without Cunégonde , and expresses to the king his wish to leave . The king points out that this is a foolish idea , but generously helps them do so . The pair continue their journey , now accompanied by one hundred red pack sheep carrying provisions and incredible sums of money , which they slowly lose or have stolen over the next few adventures .
Candide and Cacambo eventually reach Suriname , where they split up : Cacambo travels to Buenos Aires to retrieve Lady Cunégonde , while Candide prepares to travel to Europe to await the two . Candide 's remaining sheep are stolen , and Candide is fined heavily by a Dutch magistrate for petulance over the theft . Before leaving Suriname , Candide feels in need of companionship , so he interviews a number of local men who have been through various ill @-@ fortunes and settles on a man named Martin .
= = = Chapters XXI – XXX = = =
This companion , Martin , is a Manichaean scholar based on the real @-@ life pessimist Pierre Bayle , who was a chief opponent of Leibniz . For the remainder of the voyage , Martin and Candide argue about philosophy , Martin painting the entire world as occupied by fools . Candide , however , remains an optimist at heart , since it is all he knows . As they arrive in England , they see an admiral ( based on Admiral Byng ) being shot for not killing enough of the enemy . Martin explains that Britain finds it necessary to shoot an admiral from time to time " pour l 'encouragement des autres " ( to encourage the others ) . Candide , horrified , arranges for them to leave Britain immediately . After various scenes satirising other European institutions , Candide and Martin meet Paquette , the chambermaid who infected Pangloss with his syphilis , in Venice . She is now a prostitute , and is spending her time with a monk , Brother Giroflée . Although both appear happy on the surface , they reveal their despair : Paquette has led a miserable existence as a sexual object , and the monk detests the religious order in which he was indoctrinated .
Later , while Candide and Martin are eating supper , Cacambo returns to Candide and informs him that Cunégonde is in Constantinople , and that she has been enslaved . She is now washing dishes for a prince of Transylvania , and has become ugly . On the way to rescue her , Candide finds Pangloss and Cunégonde 's brother rowing in the galley . Candide buys their freedom and further passage at steep prices . The baron and Pangloss relate how they survived , but despite the horrors he has been through , Pangloss 's optimism remains unshaken : " I still hold to my original opinions , because , after all , I 'm a philosopher , and it wouldn 't be proper for me to recant , since Leibniz cannot be wrong , and since pre @-@ established harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world , along with the plenum and subtle matter . "
The travellers arrive on the Ottoman coast where they rejoin Cunégonde and the old woman . Cunégonde has indeed become hideously ugly , but Candide nevertheless buys their freedom and marries Cunégonde to spite her brother ( who is secretly sold back into slavery ) . Paquette and Brother Giroflée , too , are reconciled with Candide on a farm which he just bought with the last of his finances .
One day , the protagonists seek out a dervish known as a great philosopher of the land . Pangloss asks him why Man is made to suffer so , and what they all ought to do . The dervish responds by asking rhetorically why Pangloss is concerned about the existence of evil and good . The dervish describes human beings as mice on a ship sent by a king to Egypt ; their comfort does not matter to the king . The dervish then slams his door on the group . Returning to their farm , Candide , Pangloss , and Martin meet a Turk whose philosophy is to devote his life only to simple work and not concern himself with external affairs . He and his four children work a small farm to keep " free of three great evils : boredom , vice and necessity " , or " poverty " as per John Butt 's 1947 translation . Candide , Pangloss , Martin , Cunégonde , Paquette , Cacambo , the old woman , and Brother Giroflée all set to work ( on this " louable dessein " , or " commendable plan " , as the narrator calls it ) on a farm of their own , each to one specific task . Candide ignores Pangloss 's insistence that all turned out for the best by necessity , instead telling him " we must cultivate our garden " .
= = Style = =
As Voltaire himself described it , the purpose of Candide was to " bring amusement to a small number of men of wit " . The author achieves this goal by combining his sharp wit with a fun parody of the classic adventure @-@ romance plot . Candide is confronted with horrible events described in painstaking detail so often that it becomes humorous . Literary theorist Frances K. Barasch described Voltaire 's matter @-@ of @-@ fact narrative as treating topics such as mass death " as coolly as a weather report " . The fast @-@ paced and improbable plot — in which characters narrowly escape death repeatedly , for instance — allows for compounding tragedies to befall the same characters over and over again . In the end , Candide is primarily , as described by Voltaire 's biographer Ian Davidson , " short , light , rapid and humorous " .
Behind the playful façade of Candide which has amused so many , there lies very harsh criticism of contemporary European civilization which angered many others . European governments such as France , Prussia , Portugal and England are each attacked ruthlessly by the author : the French and Prussians for the Seven Years ' War , the Portuguese for their Inquisition , and the British for the execution of John Byng . Organised religion , too , is harshly treated in Candide . For example , Voltaire mocks the Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic Church . Aldridge provides a characteristic example of such anti @-@ clerical passages for which the work was banned : while in Paraguay , Cacambo remarks , " [ The Jesuits ] are masters of everything , and the people have no money at all … " . Here , Voltaire suggests the Christian mission in Paraguay is taking advantage of the local population . Voltaire depicts the Jesuits holding the indigenous peoples as slaves while they claim to be helping them .
= = = Satire = = =
The main method of Candide 's satire is to contrast ironically great tragedy and comedy . The story does not invent or exaggerate evils of the world — it displays real ones starkly , allowing Voltaire to simplify subtle philosophies and cultural traditions , highlighting their flaws . Thus Candide derides optimism , for instance , with a deluge of horrible , historical ( or at least plausible ) events with no apparent redeeming qualities .
A simple example of the satire of Candide is seen in the treatment of the historic event witnessed by Candide and Martin in Portsmouth harbour . There , the duo spy an anonymous admiral , supposed to represent John Byng , being executed for failing to properly engage a French fleet . The admiral is blindfolded and shot on the deck of his own ship , merely " to encourage the others " ( Fr . " pour encourager les autres " ) . This depiction of military punishment trivializes Byng 's death . The dry , pithy explanation " to encourage the others " thus satirises a serious historical event in characteristically Voltairian fashion . For its classic wit , this phrase has become one of the more often quoted from Candide .
Voltaire depicts the worst of the world and his pathetic hero 's desperate effort to fit it into an optimistic outlook . Almost all of Candide is a discussion of various forms of evil : its characters rarely find even temporary respite . There is at least one notable exception : the episode of El Dorado , a fantastic village in which the inhabitants are simply rational , and their society is just and reasonable . The positivity of El Dorado may be contrasted with the pessimistic attitude of most of the book . Even in this case , the bliss of El Dorado is fleeting : Candide soon leaves the village to seek Cunégonde , whom he eventually marries only out of a sense of obligation .
Another element of the satire focuses on what William F. Bottiglia , author of many published works on Candide , calls the " sentimental foibles of the age " and Voltaire 's attack on them . Flaws in European culture are highlighted as Candide parodies adventure and romance clichés , mimicking the style of a picaresque novel . A number of archetypal characters thus have recognisable manifestations in Voltaire 's work : Candide is supposed to be the drifting rogue of low social class , Cunégonde the sex interest , Pangloss the knowledgeable mentor and Cacambo the skilful valet . As the plot unfolds , readers find that Candide is no rogue , Cunégonde becomes ugly and Pangloss is a stubborn fool . The characters of Candide are unrealistic , two @-@ dimensional , mechanical , and even marionette @-@ like ; they are simplistic and stereotypical . As the initially naïve protagonist eventually comes to a mature conclusion — however noncommittal — the novella is a bildungsroman , if not a very serious one .
= = = Garden motif = = =
Gardens are thought by many critics to play a critical symbolic role in Candide . The first location commonly identified as a garden is the castle of the Baron , from which Candide and Cunégonde are evicted much in the same fashion as Adam and Eve are evicted from the Garden of Eden in Genesis . Cyclically , the main characters of Candide conclude the novel in a garden of their own making , one which might represent celestial paradise . The third most prominent " garden " is El Dorado , which may be a false Eden . Other possibly symbolic gardens include the Jesuit pavilion , the garden of Pococurante , Cacambo 's garden , and the Turk 's garden .
These gardens are probably references to the Garden of Eden , but it has also been proposed , by Bottiglia , for example , that the gardens refer also to the Encyclopédie , and that Candide 's conclusion to cultivate " his garden " symbolises Voltaire 's great support for this endeavour . Candide and his companions , as they find themselves at the end of the novella , are in a very similar position to Voltaire 's tightly knit philosophical circle which supported the Encyclopédie : the main characters of Candide live in seclusion to " cultivate [ their ] garden " , just as Voltaire suggested his colleagues leave society to write . In addition , there is evidence in the epistolary correspondence of Voltaire that he had elsewhere used the metaphor of gardening to describe writing the Encyclopédie . Another interpretative possibility is that Candide cultivating " his garden " suggests his engaging in only necessary occupations , such as feeding oneself and fighting boredom . This is analogous to Voltaire 's own view on gardening : he was himself a gardener at his estates in Les Délices and Ferney , and he often wrote in his correspondence that gardening was an important pastime of his own , it being an extraordinarily effective way to keep busy .
= = Philosophy = =
= = = Optimism = = =
Candide satirises various philosophical and religious theories that Voltaire had previously criticised . Primary among these is Leibnizian optimism ( sometimes called Panglossianism after its fictional proponent ) , which Voltaire ridicules with descriptions of seemingly endless calamity . Voltaire demonstrates a variety of irredeemable evils in the world , leading many critics to contend that Voltaire 's treatment of evil — specifically the theological problem of its existence — is the focus of the work . Heavily referenced in the text are the Lisbon earthquake , disease , and the sinking of ships in storms . Also , war , thievery , and murder — evils of human design — are explored as extensively in Candide as are environmental ills . Bottiglia notes Voltaire is " comprehensive " in his enumeration of the world 's evils . He is unrelenting in attacking Leibnizian optimism .
Fundamental to Voltaire 's attack is Candide 's tutor Pangloss , a self @-@ proclaimed follower of Leibniz and a teacher of his doctrine . Ridicule of Pangloss 's theories thus ridicules Leibniz himself , and Pangloss 's reasoning is silly at best . For example , Pangloss 's first teachings of the narrative absurdly mix up cause and effect :
Il est démontré , disait @-@ il , que les choses ne peuvent être autrement ; car tout étant fait pour une fin , tout est nécessairement pour la meilleure fin . Remarquez bien que les nez ont été faits pour porter des lunettes ; aussi avons @-@ nous des lunettes .
It is demonstrable that things cannot be otherwise than as they are ; for as all things have been created for some end , they must necessarily be created for the best end . Observe , for instance , the nose is formed for spectacles , therefore we wear spectacles .
Following such flawed reasoning even more doggedly than Candide , Pangloss defends optimism . Whatever their horrendous fortune , Pangloss reiterates " all is for the best " ( Fr . " Tout est pour le mieux " ) and proceeds to " justify " the evil event 's occurrence . A characteristic example of such theodicy is found in Pangloss 's explanation of why it is good that syphilis exists :
c 'était une chose indispensable dans le meilleur des mondes , un ingrédient nécessaire ; car si Colomb n 'avait pas attrapé dans une île de l 'Amérique cette maladie qui empoisonne la source de la génération , qui souvent même empêche la génération , et qui est évidemment l 'opposé du grand but de la nature , nous n 'aurions ni le chocolat ni la cochenille ;
it was a thing unavoidable , a necessary ingredient in the best of worlds ; for if Columbus had not caught in an island in America this disease , which contaminates the source of generation , and frequently impedes propagation itself , and is evidently opposed to the great end of nature , we should have had neither chocolate nor cochineal .
Candide , the impressionable and incompetent student of Pangloss , often tries to justify evil , fails , invokes his mentor and eventually despairs . It is by these failures that Candide is painfully cured ( as Voltaire would see it ) of his optimism .
Interestingly , this critique of Voltaire 's seems to be directed almost exclusively at Leibnizian optimism . Candide does not ridicule Voltaire 's contemporary Alexander Pope , a later optimist of slightly different convictions . Candide does not discuss Pope 's optimistic principle that " all is right " , but Leibniz 's that states , " this is the best of all possible worlds " . However subtle the difference between the two , Candide is unambiguous as to which is its subject . Some critics conjecture that Voltaire meant to spare Pope this ridicule out of respect , although Voltaire 's Poème may have been written as a more direct response to Pope 's theories . This work is similar to Candide in subject matter , but very different from it in style : the Poème embodies a more serious philosophical argument than Candide .
= = = Conclusion = = =
The conclusion of the novella , in which Candide finally dismisses his tutor 's optimism , leaves unresolved what philosophy the protagonist is to accept in its stead . This element of Candide has been written about voluminously , perhaps above all others . The conclusion is enigmatic and its analysis is contentious .
Voltaire develops no formal , systematic philosophy for the characters to adopt . The conclusion of the novel may be thought of not as a philosophical alternative to optimism , but as a prescribed practical outlook ( though what it prescribes is in dispute ) . Many critics have concluded that one minor character or another is portrayed as having the right philosophy . For instance , a number believe that Martin is treated sympathetically , and that his character holds Voltaire 's ideal philosophy — pessimism . Others disagree , citing Voltaire 's negative descriptions of Martin 's principles and the conclusion of the work in which Martin plays little part .
Within debates attempting to decipher the conclusion of Candide lies another primary Candide debate . This one concerns the degree to which Voltaire was advocating a pessimistic philosophy , by which Candide and his companions give up hope for a better world . Critics argue that the group 's reclusion on the farm signifies Candide and his companions ' loss of hope for the rest of the human race . This view is to be compared to a reading that presents Voltaire as advocating a melioristic philosophy and a precept committing the travellers to improving the world through metaphorical gardening . This debate , and others , focuses on the question of whether or not Voltaire was prescribing passive retreat from society , or active industrious contribution to it .
= = = Inside vs. outside interpretations = = =
Separate from the debate about the text 's conclusion is the " inside / outside " controversy . This argument centers on the matter of whether or not Voltaire was actually prescribing anything . Roy Wolper , professor emeritus of English , argues in a revolutionary 1969 paper that Candide does not necessarily speak for its author ; that the work should be viewed as a narrative independent of Voltaire 's history ; and that its message is entirely ( or mostly ) inside it . This point of view , the " inside " , specifically rejects attempts to find Voltaire 's " voice " in the many characters of Candide and his other works . Indeed , writers have seen Voltaire as speaking through at least Candide , Martin , and the Turk . Wolper argues that Candide should be read with a minimum of speculation as to its meaning in Voltaire 's personal life . His article ushered in a new era of Voltaire studies , causing many scholars to look at the novel differently .
Critics such as Lester Crocker , Henry Stavan , and Vivienne Mylne find too many similarities between Candide 's point of view and that of Voltaire to accept the " inside " view ; they support the " outside " interpretation . They believe that Candide 's final decision is the same as Voltaire 's , and see a strong connection between the development of the protagonist and his author . Some scholars who support the " outside " view also believe that the isolationist philosophy of the Old Turk closely mirrors that of Voltaire . Others see a strong parallel between Candide 's gardening at the conclusion and the gardening of the author . Martine Darmon Meyer argues that the " inside " view fails to see the satirical work in context , and that denying that Candide is primarily a mockery of optimism ( a matter of historical context ) is a " very basic betrayal of the text " .
= = Reception = =
Though Voltaire did not openly admit to having written the controversial Candide until 1768 ( until then he signed with a pseudonym : " Monsieur le docteur Ralph " , or " Doctor Ralph " ) , his authorship of the work was hardly disputed .
Immediately after publication , the work and its author were denounced by both secular and religious authorities , because the book openly derides government and church alike . It was because of such polemics that Omer @-@ Louis @-@ François Joly de Fleury , who was Advocate General to the Parisian parliament when Candide was published , found parts of Candide to be " contrary to religion and morals " .
Despite much official indictment , soon after its publication , Candide 's irreverent prose was being quoted . " Let us eat a Jesuit " , for instance , became a popular phrase for its reference to a humorous passage in Candide . By the end of February 1759 , the Grand Council of Geneva and the administrators of Paris had banned Candide . Candide nevertheless succeeded in selling twenty thousand to thirty thousand copies by the end of the year in over twenty editions , making it a best seller . The Duke de La Vallière speculated near the end of January 1759 that Candide might have been the fastest @-@ selling book ever . In 1762 , Candide was listed in the Index Librorum Prohibitorum , the Roman Catholic Church 's list of prohibited books .
Bannings of Candide lasted into the twentieth century in the United States , where it has long been considered a seminal work of Western literature . At least once , Candide was temporarily barred from entering America : in February 1929 , a US customs official in Boston prevented a number of copies of the book , deemed " obscene " , from reaching a Harvard University French class . Candide was admitted in August of the same year ; however by that time the class was over . In an interview soon after Candide 's detention , the official who confiscated the book explained the office 's decision to ban it , " But about ' Candide , ' I 'll tell you . For years we 've been letting that book get by . There were so many different editions , all sizes and kinds , some illustrated and some plain , that we figured the book must be all right . Then one of us happened to read it . It 's a filthy book " .
= = Legacy = =
Candide is the most widely read of Voltaire 's many works , and it is considered one of the great achievements of Western literature . However , Candide is not necessarily considered a true " classic " . According to Bottiglia , " The physical size of Candide , as well as Voltaire 's attitude toward his fiction , precludes the achievement of artistic dimension through plenitude , autonomous ' 3D ' vitality , emotional resonance , or poetic exaltation . Candide , then , cannot in quantity of quality , measure up to the supreme classics . " Bottiglia instead calls it a miniature classic , though others are more forgiving of its size . As the only work of Voltaire which has remained popular up to the present day , Candide is listed in Harold Bloom 's The Western Canon : The Books and School of the Ages . It is included in the Encyclopædia Britannica collection Great Books of the Western World . Candide has influenced modern writers of black humour such as Céline , Joseph Heller , John Barth , Thomas Pynchon , Kurt Vonnegut , and Terry Southern . Its parody and picaresque methods have become favourites of black humorists .
Charles Brockden Brown , an early American novelist , may have been directly affected by Voltaire , whose work he knew well . Mark Kamrath , professor of English , describes the strength of the connection between Candide and Edgar Huntly ; or , Memoirs of a Sleep @-@ Walker ( 1799 ) : " An unusually large number of parallels ... crop up in the two novels , particularly in terms of characters and plot . " For instance , the protagonists of both novels are romantically involved with a recently orphaned young woman . Furthermore , in both works the brothers of the female lovers are Jesuits , and each is murdered ( although under different circumstances ) . Some twentieth @-@ century novels that may have been influenced by Candide are dystopian science @-@ fiction works . Armand Mattelart , a French critic , sees Candide in Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World , George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and Yevgeny Zamyatin 's We , three canonical works of the genre . Specifically , Mattelart writes that in each of these works , there exist references to Candide 's popularisation of the phrase " the best of all possible worlds " . He cites as evidence , for example , that the French version of Brave New World was entitled Le Meilleur des mondes ( En. literally " The best of worlds " ) .
Readers of Candide often compare it with certain works of the modern genre the Theatre of the Absurd . Haydn Mason , a Voltaire scholar , sees in Candide a few similarities to this brand of literature . For instance , he notes commonalities of Candide and Waiting for Godot ( 1952 ) . In both of these works , and in a similar manner , friendship provides emotional support for characters when they are confronted with harshness of their existences . However , Mason qualifies , " the conte must not be seen as a forerunner of the ' absurd ' in modern fiction . Candide 's world has many ridiculous and meaningless elements , but human beings are not totally deprived of the ability tomake [ sic ] sense out of it . " John Pilling , biographer of Beckett , does state that Candide was an early and powerful influence on Beckett 's thinking .
= = = Derivative works = = =
In 1760 , one year after Voltaire published Candide , a sequel was published with the name Candide , ou l 'optimisme , seconde partie . This work is attributed both to Thorel de Campigneulles , a writer unknown today , and Henri Joseph Du Laurens , who is suspected of having habitually plagiarised Voltaire . The story continues in this sequel with Candide having new adventures in the Ottoman Empire , Persia , and Denmark . Part II has potential use in studies of the popular and literary receptions of Candide , but is almost certainly apocryphal . In total , by the year 1803 , at least ten imitations of Candide or continuations of its story were published by authors other than Voltaire .
The operetta Candide was originally conceived by playwright Lillian Hellman , as a play with incidental music . Leonard Bernstein , the American composer and conductor who wrote the music was so excited about the project that he convinced Hellman to do it as a " comic operetta " . Many lyricists worked on the show , including James Agee , Dorothy Parker , John Latouche , Richard Wilbur , Leonard and Felicia Bernstein , Stephen Sondheim and Hellman . Hershy Kay orchestrated all the pieces except for the overture , which Bernstein did himself . Candide first opened on Broadway as a musical on 1 December 1956 . The premier production was directed by Tyrone Guthrie and conducted by Samuel Krachmalnick . While this production was a box office flop , the music was highly praised , and an original cast album was made . The album gradually became a cult hit , but Hellman 's libretto was criticised as being too serious an adaptation of Voltaire 's novel . Candide would be more popular seventeen years later with a new libretto by Hugh Wheeler .
Candido , ovvero un sogno fatto in Sicilia ( 1977 ) or simply Candido is a book by Leonardo Sciascia . It was at least partly based on Voltaire 's Candide , although the actual influence of Candide on Candido is a hotly debated topic . A number of theories on the matter have been proposed . Proponents of one say that Candido is very similar to Candide , only with a happy ending ; supporters of another claim that Voltaire provided Sciascia with only a starting point from which to work , that the two books are quite distinct .
The BBC produced a television adaptation for their Play of the Month series in 1973 , with Ian Ogilvy as Candide and Frank Finlay as Voltaire himself , acting as narrator .
Nedim Gürsel wrote his 2001 novel Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul about a minor passage in Candide during which its protagonist meets Ahmed III , the deposed Turkish sultan . This chance meeting on a ship from Venice to Istanbul is the setting of Gürsel 's book . Terry Southern , in writing his popular novel Candy with Mason Hoffenberg adapted Candide for a modern audience and changed the protagonist from male to female . Candy deals with the rejection of a sort of optimism which the author sees in women 's magazines of the modern era ; Candy also parodies pornography and popular psychology . This adaptation of Candide was itself adapted for the cinema by director Christian Marquand in 1968 .
In addition to the above , Candide was made into a number of minor films and theatrical adaptations throughout the twentieth century . For a list of these , see Voltaire : Candide ou L 'Optimisme et autres contes ( 1989 ) with preface and commentaries by Pierre Malandain .
In May 2009 , a play called " Optimism , " based on Candide opened at the CUB Malthouse Theatre in Melbourne . It followed the basic storyline of Candide , incorporating anachronisms , music and stand up comedy from comedian Frank Woodley . It toured Australia and played at the Edinburgh International Festival .
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= Mal Evans =
Malcolm Frederick " Mal " Evans ( 27 May 1935 – 5 January 1976 ) was the road manager , assistant , and a friend of the Beatles .
In the early 1960s , Evans was employed as a telephone engineer , and also worked part @-@ time as a bouncer at the Cavern Club . The Beatles ' manager , Brian Epstein , later hired Evans as the group 's assistant road manager , in tandem with Neil Aspinall . Peter Brown ( one of Epstein 's staff ) later wrote that Evans was " a kindly , but menacing @-@ looking young man " . Evans contributed to recordings , and appeared in some of the films the group made . After The Beatles stopped touring in 1966 , Evans carried on assisting them until their break @-@ up in 1970 . From 1969 , Evans also found work as a record producer ( most notably with Badfinger 's top 10 hit " No Matter What " ) .
Evans was killed by police on 5 January 1976 , at his home in Los Angeles . Officers were called when his girlfriend phoned the police and told them that Evans was confused and had a gun . The police mistook the air rifle Evans was holding for a rifle and shot him dead .
= = Early life = =
Details of Evans ’ early life are unknown , apart from his birth date . No book has been written about him , although he wrote his memoirs , Living The Beatles ' Legend , from which extracts were released on 20 March 2005 . Anything known about him starts in 1961 , when Evans married a Liverpool girl , Lily , after meeting her at a funfair in New Brighton opposite Liverpool on the Wirral . Their first child , Gary , was born in the same year . The Beatles were the resident group at Liverpool 's Cavern Club , when Evans first heard them perform during his lunch break . He was then living in Hillside Road , Mossley Hill and working as a telephone engineer for the Post Office . He became a committed fan , even though his musical hero at the time was Elvis Presley .
He first befriended George Harrison , who put forward Evans ' name to the Cavern Club 's manager , Ray McFall , when he needed a doorman . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old Evans was accepted , even though he wore thick @-@ framed glasses , but mainly because of his burly 6 ft 6in frame ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) , which was an asset when holding back unruly fans at the Cavern 's door . He was later nicknamed the " Gentle Giant " and " Big Mal " . In 1962 , Evans wrote that it was " a wonderful year " , as he had Lily ( his wife ) , his son Gary , a house , a car , and he was working at the Cavern club , which he wrote into a 1963 Post Office Engineering Union diary , which also had information concerning Ohm 's law and Post Office pay rates .
= = The Beatles = =
Three months after starting at the Cavern Club , Evans was hired by Brian Epstein as a road manager , on 11 August 1962 . Evans and Aspinall 's duties were to drive the van while on tour , and to set up and test the equipment . Mal 's telephone engineering experience was valuable in setting up and maintaining the electrical equipment . The Beatles were being driven back to Liverpool from London by Evans through heavy fog on 21 January 1963 , when the windscreen was hit by a pebble and crazed over , so Evans had to break a large hole in it to see the road ahead . This was in winter , so the group had to lie one on top of the other in the back with a bottle of whisky and try to stay warm in the freezing temperatures ; something McCartney later referred to as a " Beatle sandwich " .
Evans had many other duties : as well as acting as a bodyguard , he was sent to buy anything they needed , such as suits , boots , meals , or drinks . If Lennon said " Socks , Mal " , Evans would have to rush to a local store and buy pairs of cotton socks for him . In 1967 , Evans wrote in his diaries that he " bought Ringo [ Starr ] some undies for his visit to the doctor " . Although Beatles ' memorabilia is in continuous demand , a full set of autographs by all four could be forgeries : Evans and Aspinall used to sign many of them when Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr were too busy .
The Beatles started their first European tour in January 1964 , and Evans was allowed to take his wife and son with him , but was involved in a " big punch @-@ up " with photographers in Paris while protecting them . Epstein ’ s associate , Alistair Taylor , once asked him why he was driving an Austin Princess limousine , rather than a Daimler , a Bentley , or a Rolls @-@ Royce . Evans explained that The Beatles were forced to choose an Austin , because they had tested every car to see how wide the doors would open as they ( literally ) had to " dive into the car " to escape their fans .
= = = America and the Philippines = = =
The Beatles were introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan in New York in 1964 . McCartney remembered asking Evans " again and again " to write down McCartney 's newly found cannabis @-@ influenced thoughts about life by repeating " Get [ write ] it down , Mal , get it down ! " Evans was as affected by the drug as everybody else , so took a very long time to find a pencil and a piece of paper . The next morning Evans gave the sheet of paper to McCartney , which read that McCartney had dictated : " There are seven levels ! " ( of life , as he later explained ) . The Beatles attended " The Night of 100 Stars " at the London Palladium on 23 July 1964 , and during the show Evans constantly supplied them with whisky and Coca @-@ Cola , which he delivered to them balanced on a wooden oar he had found backstage .
The Beatles were always assisted by Evans on their American tours , and when they played two shows at the Hollywood Bowl in the summer of 1965 Epstein arranged for them all to have a four @-@ day rest in a luxurious horseshoe @-@ shaped house on stilts in Benedict Canyon off Mulholland Drive in Los Angeles . They spent their time there smoking cannabis joints . Evans and Lennon swam in the large outdoor swimming pool with cigarettes in their mouths , to see who could keep them alight the longest . After recording sessions in London , Lennon , Harrison , and Starr would be chauffeured back to their houses in the " stockbroker belt " of southern England , but Evans , Aspinall , and McCartney would drive to a late @-@ night club to eat steak , chips , and mushy peas . The Bag O 'Nails nightclub was one of their favourites , at 8 Kingly Street in Soho , London , as it also presented live music . In his memoirs Evans wrote : 19 January and 20 : " Ended up smashed in Bag O 'Nails with Paul [ McCartney ] and Neil [ Aspinall ] . Quite a number of people attached themselves , oh that it would happen to me ... freak out time baby for Mal . "
In July 1966 , The Beatles toured the Philippines , and unintentionally snubbed the nation 's first lady , Imelda Marcos . After the supposed snub was broadcast on Philippine television and radio , all of The Beatles ' police protection disappeared . The group and their entourage had to make their way to Manila airport on their own . At the airport , road manager Evans was beaten and kicked , and the group members were pushed and jostled about by a hostile crowd . Once the group boarded the plane , Tony Barrow and Evans were ordered off , and Evans said , " Tell Lil I love her , " thinking he was about to be jailed or killed . Epstein was forced to give back all the money that the group had earned while they were there before being allowed on the plane .
= = = Kenya and Sgt. Pepper = = =
The Beatles ' last concert was at Candlestick Park , San Francisco , on 29 August 1966 , but Evans continued to work for them in the studio , and to run errands . After recording Revolver in 1966 , McCartney went by himself on holiday to France , but asked to meet Evans in Bordeaux , at the Grosse Horloge church ( on the corner of cours Victor Hugo and rue St. James ) . At exactly the pre @-@ arranged time of one o 'clock , Evans was standing under the church clock when McCartney arrived . They then drove to Madrid together , but after feeling bored , McCartney phoned Epstein 's office in London and asked to be booked on a safari holiday in Kenya . When they arrived they visited the Amboseli Reserve at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro , and also stayed at the exclusive Treetops Hotel , where the rooms are built on the branches of trees .
They spent their final night in Nairobi at a YMCA , before they returned to London . The Beatles — according to McCartney — needed a new name , so on the flight back to England , Evans and McCartney played with words to see if they could come up with something new . Evans innocently asked McCartney what the letters " S " and " P " stood for on the pots on their meal trays , and McCartney explained that it was for salt and pepper , which led to the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band name . They arrived back in London on 19 November 1966 . Before the cover of Sgt. Pepper could be completed by Peter Blake , Evans and Aspinall were sent out to find photographs of all of the people that were to be shown on the front cover .
In the spring of 1967 — after the album was completed — Evans flew with McCartney to Los Angeles to see McCartney 's then @-@ fiancée , Jane Asher , who was acting there with the Old Vic theatre company . The three of them went on a trip to the Rockies , returning to LA in Frank Sinatra 's jet . Evans : " We left Denver in Frank Sinatra 's Lear Jet , which he very kindly loaned us . A beautiful job with dark black leather upholstery and , to our delight , a well @-@ stocked bar . " When they were back in LA , they were invited to visit the house of Michelle and John Phillips , from the Mamas & the Papas . Brian Wilson was also there , as he was working on the Beach Boys Smile album . Evans wrote about singing " On Top of Old Smokey " with McCartney and Wilson , but was not impressed by Wilson 's avant @-@ garde attitude to music : " Brian [ Wilson ] then put a damper on the spontaneity of the whole affair by walking in with a tray of water @-@ filled glasses , trying to arrange it into some sort of session . "
= = = Greece and the Magical Mystery Tour = = =
The Beatles and Evans flew to Greece in late 1967 , with encouragement from Greek @-@ born " Magic Alex " , the director of Apple Electronics , to buy an island or a group of islands . The general idea was that The Beatles would live on the islands in their own separate homes , but would be connected to each other by tunnels leading to a central dome . Evans and his family were included in the plan , but it was abandoned as being unworkable after McCartney refused to participate . As McCartney had no housekeeper in 1967 , Evans moved in with him at 7 Cavendish Avenue , St John 's Wood , which is near Abbey Road Studios . It was at Cavendish Avenue that McCartney bought his first Old English Sheepdog , Martha , although Evans often complained about the dog fouling the beds . Evans later bought a house in Sunbury @-@ on @-@ Thames , which was situated between McCartney 's , Lennon 's , Harrison 's and Starr 's houses .
While working on the Magical Mystery Tour film , Evans wrote about his work duties : " I would get requests from the four of them to do six different things at one time , and it was always a case of relying on instinct and experience in awarding priorities . They used to be right sods for the first few days , until they realised that everything was going to go smoothly and they could get into the routine of recording . ... Then I would find time between numerous cups of tea and salad sandwiches and baked beans on toast to listen to the recording in the control room . "
After the Magical Mystery Tour recordings , Evans flew to Nice with McCartney to shoot " The Fool on the Hill " promotional film , although McCartney set off without luggage or a passport . McCartney got past customs by saying " You know who I am " , but he and Evans were not allowed into a hotel restaurant in Nice because they " didn 't look the part " , and had to eat dinner in Evans ' room . Because the money they had with them had been spent on clothes ( NEMS was supposed to send them more ) , they arranged for credit over two nights in a nightclub . Evans : " We took advantage of our credit standing , as money had still not arrived from England . News about Paul 's [ McCartney ] visit to the club the previous night had spread , and the place was jammed . Now Paul , being a generous sort of person , had built up quite a bar bill , when the manager of the club arrived demanding that we pay immediately . On explaining who Paul was and what had happened , he answered , ' You either pay the bill , or I call the police . ' It certainly looked like we were going to get thrown in jail . It was ironical , sitting in a club with a millionaire , unable to pay the bill . "
= = = India and Apple = = =
The Beatles flew to India in February 1968 , to visit the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's ashram ( after first meeting him on 24 August 1967 , at the London Hilton hotel ) . Evans arrived in India a few days earlier to inspect the ashram , but as soon as Starr got off the plane , he demanded that Evans find a doctor , as his inoculation shots were causing him pain . Evans : “ When we arrived at the local hospital , I tried to get immediate treatment for him [ Starr ] , to be told curtly by the Indian doctor , ' He is not a special case and will have to wait his turn . ' So off we go to pay a private doctor ten rupees for the privilege of hearing him say ' It will be all right ' . " Evans wrote in his diary on 17 February 1968 : " The press really tried kicking down the gates into the Ashram , the Indian people on the Ashram called me half way through , but as soon as an Indian reporter told me " No bloody foreigner is going to stop me in my own country " , I cooled it . " Evans ' diary says that he enjoyed his time in India : " It 's hard to believe that a week has already passed . I suppose the peace of mind and the serenity one achieves through meditation makes the time fly , " and that he also enjoyed the food , unlike Starr , who had brought a suitcase full of baked beans with him . After leaving India , Harrison and Evans flew to New York , visiting Bob Dylan and The Band , who were rehearsing at their Big Pink house / studio , in Woodstock .
When Apple was formed in 1968 , Evans was promoted from road manager to personal assistant , although his weekly £ 38 salary remained the same . Evans : " January 13 , 1969 : Paul [ McCartney ] is really cutting down on the Apple staff members . I was elevated to office boy [ Evans was made MD of Apple , but very briefly ] and I feel very hurt and sad inside — only big boys don 't cry . Why I should feel hurt and reason for writing this is ego . ... I thought I was different from other people in my relationship with The Beatles and being loved by them and treated so nice , I felt like one of the family . Seems I fetch and carry . I find it difficult to live on the £ 38 I take home each week and would love to be like their other friends who buy fantastic homes and have all the alterations done by them , and are still going to ask for a rise . I always tell myself — look , everybody wants to take from , be satisfied , try to give and you will receive . After all this time I have about £ 70 to my name , but was content and happy . Loving them as I do , nothing is too much trouble , because I want to serve them . Feel a bit better now — EGO ? " Evans ' financial problems started to become such a problem that he had to ask Harrison for money : " April 24 : " Had to tell George [ Harrison ] — ' I 'm broke ' . Really miserable and down because I 'm in the red , and the bills are coming in , poor old Lil [ his wife ] suffers as I don 't want to get a rise . Not really true don 't want to ask for a rise , fellows are having a pretty tough time as it is . "
Evans was the only member of the Apple entourage to be invited to attend ( and be a witness ) when McCartney and Linda Eastman were married at Marylebone Registry Office on 12 March 1969 . Evans wrote in his diary that he was due to be there at 9 @.@ 45 am , but McCartney 's brother , Michael 's train from Birmingham was late . Peter Brown and Evans passed the register office at 9 @.@ 15 , and saw that there were only a few photographers and ardent fans standing in the rain , but when they left , after the wedding at 11 @.@ 30 am , they were mobbed by a crowd of about 1 @,@ 000 people . When the Beatles played on the roof of Apple 's offices in Savile Row , Evans was told to delay the policemen ( who had arrived to stop the concert ) , as long as was possible . Evans was responsible for the signing of Badfinger ( Iveys ) to the Apple label in 1968 . They were the first rock @-@ band to be assigned to the label . Badfinger 's portrait by photographer Les Smithers has now been acquired by the National Portrait Gallery .
= = = Allen Klein = = =
Evans enjoyed an executive position at Apple until 1969 , when Allen Klein was hired as a manager to reorganise the whole company . Evans was fired by Klein the next year , because Klein complained to Lennon that Aspinall and Evans were " living like kings ; like fucking emperors " . Evans was later reinstated after McCartney , Harrison and Starr complained . On 13 September 1969 , Evans accompanied Lennon , Yoko Ono , Klaus Voorman , Alan White and Eric Clapton to Toronto , Canada , for the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival concert . He later wrote : " I was really enjoying myself . It was the first show I had roadied for three years and I was really loving every minute of plugging the amps in and setting them up on stage , making sure that everything was right . Everyone wanted the show to go particularly well because Allen Klein , who had flown over , had organised for the whole of John 's performance to be filmed . This was on top of it being video @-@ taped by Dan Richter . "
= = = Musical contributions = = =
Evans contributed to many recordings , including singing in the chorus of " Yellow Submarine " . He played single organ notes on " You Won 't See Me " , and harmonica on " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! " . McCartney explained that he showed Evans where the notes were on the organ , and then nodded his head when he wanted Evans to play , and shook it when he wanted him to stop .
On " A Day in the Life " , Evans controlled an alarm clock ; counting the measures in the original 24 @-@ bar pause , and was one of the five piano players simultaneously hitting the last chord of the song . He played tambourine on " Dear Prudence " , and trumpet on " Helter Skelter " , where he played a double solo with Lennon , even though neither was proficient on the instrument . Evans contributed background vocals , and stirred a bucket of gravel ( as part of the rhythm ) , on " You Know My Name ( Look Up The Number ) " . He also contributed to the White Album out @-@ take , " What 's the New Mary Jane " , and hit an anvil on " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , because Starr could not lift the hammer high enough to get the right sound and keep in time with the song .
According to Evans ' diaries , he helped to compose songs for the Sgt. Pepper album . He wrote , on 27 January 1967 : " Sgt Pepper . Started writing song with Paul [ McCartney ] upstairs in his room , he on piano " and " Did a lot more of " where the rain comes in " [ a lyric from " Fixing a Hole " ] . Hope people like it . Started Sergeant Pepper " . On 1 February : " Sergeant Pepper sounds good . Paul tells me that I will get royalties on the song — great news , now perhaps a new home . " On 2 February : " Recording voices on Captain [ sic ] Pepper . All six of us doing the chorus in the middle , worked until about midnight . "
Keith Badman — author of The Beatles off the Record — referred to a tape recording of Evans speaking shortly before his death , on which Evans reiterated some of the statements made in the diary . According to Badman , Evans was asked at the time if it would be a problem that he was not credited as a writer , because the Lennon – McCartney writing name was " a really hot item " . For reasons unclear , Evans did not receive any royalties and stayed at his £ 38 @-@ a @-@ week pay ( £ 622 in modern currency ) .
= = = On film = = =
Evans appeared in four ( out of five ) Beatles ' films . During the filming of the Beatles ' first feature film , A Hard Day 's Night , Evans appeared in a cameo role , carrying an upright bass in between John Lennon and Millie in the backstage scene in which Millie mistakes Lennon for someone else . In Help ! , Evans played a confused channel swimmer who pops up through an ice @-@ hole in Austria , and on a beach in the Bahamas . Evans and Aspinall were asked to find and hire the actors that were needed to perform in the Magical Mystery Tour film , and to hire an old 60 @-@ seater coach , on which they were told to paint the Magical Mystery Tour logo , which McCartney had designed . Evans later appeared in the film as one of the magicians , who cast mysterious spells on the passengers of the bus .
In the Let It Be film , Evans can be seen playing the anvil during early versions of " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , and can be seen talking to police officers on the Savile Row rooftop when they came to stop the performance . Before the concert , Evans placed a camera and a microphone in a corner of Apple 's reception area , so that when the police came in to complain about the noise — which was expected — they could be filmed and recorded . The Beatles were often filmed by Evans during his time with them ( without sound ) , and a collection of his own film recordings was later released on DVD .
= = After The Beatles = =
In 1968 , Evans had seen the group Badfinger ( then known as The Iveys ) play live , and suggested that they be signed to Apple . Evans then produced several of their songs in 1969 and 1970 , the most notable of which was " No Matter What " , which charted on Billboard 's Top 10 in December 1970 . Evans also discovered the group Splinter and brought them to the Apple label , although they would subsequently move to George Harrison 's Dark Horse Records . Evans ' other production credits include Jackie Lomax ' 1969 single " New Day " ( on Apple ) and some of the tracks on Keith Moon 's only solo album Two Sides of the Moon ( 1975 ) .
Evans separated from his wife in 1973 and moved to Los Angeles where Lennon had moved to live with May Pang after his own separation from Yoko Ono . Evans is credited on Harrison 's All Things Must Pass and the John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band album as providing " tea and sympathy " . Evans cowrote " You and Me ( Babe ) " with Harrison . The track appeared on Starr 's 1973 solo album Ringo . He also cowrote the Splinter song " Lonely Man " , the musical centrepiece of Little Malcolm , an Apple feature film produced by Harrison .
Evans was asked to produce the group Natural Gas , and was working on a book of memoirs called Living The Beatles ' Legend which he was due to deliver to his publishers , Grosset & Dunlap , on 12 January 1976 . Evans was depressed about the separation from his wife ( who had asked for a divorce before Christmas ) even though he was then living with his new girlfriend , Fran Hughes , in a rented motel apartment at 8122 West 4th Street in Los Angeles .
= = Death = =
On 5 January 1976 , Evans was so despondent that Hughes phoned Evans ' cowriter for his biography , John Hoernie , and asked him to visit them . Hoernie saw Evans " really doped @-@ up and groggy " but Evans told Hoernie to make sure he finished Living The Beatles ' Legend . Hoernie helped Evans up to an upstairs bedroom , but during an incoherent conversation , Evans picked up an air rifle . Hoernie struggled with Evans , but Evans , being much stronger , held onto the weapon .
Hughes then phoned the police and told them that Evans was confused , had a rifle , and was on valium . Four policemen arrived and three of them , David D. Krempa , Robert E. Brannon and Lieutenant Higbie , went up to the bedroom . They later reported that as soon as Evans saw the three policemen he pointed a rifle at them . The officers repeatedly told Evans to put down the rifle ( which they did not know at the time was an air rifle ) but Evans constantly refused . The police fired six shots , four hitting Evans , killing him instantly . Evans had previously been awarded the badge of " Honorary Sheriff of Los Angeles County " , but in the Los Angeles Times , he was referred to as a “ jobless former road manager for the Beatles ” .
Evans was cremated on 7 January 1976 , in Los Angeles . None of the former Beatles attended his funeral , but Harry Nilsson and other friends did . Harrison arranged for Evans ' family to receive £ 5 @,@ 000 , as Evans had not maintained his life insurance premiums , and was not entitled to a pension .
= = Aftermath = =
In 1986 , a trunk containing Evans ' diaries and other effects was found in the basement of a New York publisher , and then sent to his family in London . In 1992 , Lennon 's original pages of lyrics to " A Day in the Life " were sold by the Evans estate for £ 56 @,@ 600 at Sotheby 's in London . In 2010 , a double @-@ sided sheet of paper containing the hand @-@ written lyrics and notes to " A Day in the Life " were sold at auction at Sotheby 's in New York to an anonymous American buyer for $ 1.2m ( £ 810 @,@ 000 ) . Other lyrics collected by Evans have been subject to legal action over the years : In 1996 , McCartney went to the High Court in England and prevented the sale of the original lyrics to " With a Little Help from My Friends " that Evans ' ex @-@ wife had tried to sell , by claiming that the lyrics were collected by Evans as a part of his duties , and therefore belonged to The Beatles , collectively . A 2004 report of the discovery of a further collection of Evans 's Beatles ' memorabilia proved to be false .
A notebook in which McCartney wrote the lyrics for " Hey Jude " was sold in 1998 , for £ 111 @,@ 500 . The notebook also contains lyrics for " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " and " All You Need Is Love " . It also contained lyrics , notes , drawings and poems by Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr , as well as by Evans .
A new one @-@ man play about Mal Evans called Beatle Mal 's Legendary Band was presented at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe between 5 and 27 August 2012 . It had previously previewed at the Cavern Club in Liverpool on Wednesday 25 July , with members of Mal 's family in the audience . Featuring actor Nik Wood @-@ Jones in the role of Mal , the play took the form of Mal looking back at his time with the Beatles and was presented as an entertainment with original music .
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= Turahan Bey =
Turahan Bey or Turakhan Beg ( Turkish : Turahan Bey / Beğ ; Albanian : Turhan Bej ; Greek : Τουραχάνης , Τουραχάν μπέης or Τουραχάμπεης ; died in 1456 ) was a prominent Ottoman military commander and governor of Thessaly from 1423 until his death in 1456 . He participated in many Ottoman campaigns of the second quarter of the 15th century , fighting against the Byzantines as well as against the Crusade of Varna . His repeated raids into the Morea transformed the local Byzantine despotate into an Ottoman dependency and opened the way for its conquest . At the same time , his administration of Thessaly , where he settled new peoples , founded the town of Tyrnavos and revitalized the economy , set the groundwork for Ottoman rule in the area for centuries to come .
= = Life = =
Nothing is known of his birth date or early life , except that he was the son of Pasha Yiğit Bey , who conquered Skopje in 1392 and was the first Ottoman governor of Bosansko Krajište .
He is first mentioned in 1413 as governor of Vidin , and then again in 1422 , when he fought against the Byzantine governor of Lamia , Kantakouzenos Strabomytes . He was one of the supporters of Mustafa Çelebi during the latter 's struggle against Mehmed I and Murad II . He became governor of Thessaly in early 1423 , and led his first major expedition in May – June of the same year , against the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece . His cavalry breached the recently rebuilt Hexamilion wall on 21 / 22 May and ravaged the interior of the peninsula unopposed . He attacked some Byzantine towns and settlements like Mystras , Leontari , Gardiki and Dabia . Aside from the plunder , the expedition was also probably a reconnaissance mission ultimately aimed against Venetian possessions in the area , as Venice was the main driving force behind attempts to unite the various Christian rulers of Greece against the Ottoman advance . Soon after , the Byzantine historian Doukas reports Turahan 's presence on the shores of the Black Sea . At about the same time , he also campaigned in Epirus , defeated local Albanian tribes and made them tributary to the Ottoman state . In the 1430s along with Ali Bey and Ishak Bey he participated in the campaigns that suppressed an Albanian revolt , led by Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia .
Despite the devastation visited upon the Peloponnese , Turahan 's 1423 expedition was only a raid , and the Byzantine Despots of the Morea were able to restore their position and gradually over the next few years bring the entire peninsula under their control . In 1431 however Turahan again breached and destroyed the Hexamilion and took Thebes in 1435 , to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Moreot Byzantines . The Despotate of the Morea , under the constant threat of renewed Turkish invasion clung on to a precarious independence only through continuous gifts and tribute to Turahan .
In November 1443 Turahan participated in the Battle of Niš against John Hunyadi , which ended in an Ottoman defeat . During their retreat from Niš , Turahan Bey and Kasim Pasha burned all villages between Niš and Sofia . Turahan persuaded Sultan Murad II to abandon Sofia as well , and follow a consequent scorched earth strategy against the Hungarian advance . Although the Hungarians were badly mauled in the Battle of Zlatitsa , in a subsequent action at Kunovica they were able to capture Mahmud Bey , the Sultan 's son @-@ in @-@ law , creating the impression of an overall victorious campaign . Contemporary Ottoman sources blame rivalry between Kasim and Turahan for the defeat at Kunovica , while some claim that the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković bribed Turahan not to participate in the battle . Turahan fell from favour as a result and was banished by the Sultan to a prison in Tokat .
Nevertheless , he was soon restored to his position , as he was present in Murad 's 1446 campaign against the Morea . Murad was reportedly disheartened by the strength of the Hexamilion , but Turahan insisted on an assault . Aided by an artillery bombardment , the Ottomans again breached the Byzantine defences and ravaged the Peloponnese at will . As a result , the Morea was now officially reduced to an Ottoman vassal state . In early October 1452 , Turahan and his sons Ahmed and Ömer led a large force into the Peloponnese . Sultan Mehmed II ordered them to remain there during the winter in order to prevent despots Thomas and Demetrios from assisting their brother , Emperor Constantine XI , during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453 . Turahan again stormed the Hexamilion and penetrated into the Morea , raiding from Corinth through the Argolid and Arcadia to Messenia . The Byzantines put up little resistance after Hexamilion , although Turahan 's son Ahmed was captured in an ambush at Dervenakia and imprisoned in Mystras .
The fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 had great repercussions in the Morea . The two despots , the brothers Demetrios and Thomas , heartily detested each other and were unpopular among their own subjects . A rebellion broke out against them in autumn , supported both by the local Albanian immigrants and the native Greeks , and spread quickly . As the Sultan 's vassals , the despots called upon Turkish aid , and Turahan 's son Ömer arrived in December . After a few successes , he departed after securing the release of his brother from captivity . The revolt did not subside , and in October 1454 Turahan himself was forced to intervene . After sacking a few fortresses , the rebellious populace capitulated . Turahan advised the two Palaiologoi to compose their differences and rule well , and then departed the peninsula . The two brothers were however unable to reconcile themselves , and soon reverted to quarrelling and conspiring with Western powers against the Sultan . In retaliation , Mehmed II campaigned in the Morea in 1458 and seized the northwestern half of the country , which became an Ottoman province under Ömer . The rest of the despotate followed in 1460 .
Turahan himself was recalled to Adrianople in October 1455 and died ca . August 1456 . He was buried at Kirk Kvak near Uzun Köprü in Thrace , but his memorial tomb ( türbe ) survives to this day in the city . His descendants , the Turahanoğlu , were wealthy landowners in Thessaly until the end of the Ottoman rule there in the late 19th century ; with the exception of his sons however , they did not rise to any wider prominence .
= = Legacy = =
Turahan Bey ranked among the great , practically semi @-@ autonomous Ottoman " marcher @-@ lords " ( uç beyi ) of the 15th @-@ century Balkans , along the likes of Gazi Evrenos . He was instrumental in the establishment of Ottoman rule in Thessaly and central Greece in general . Aside from his campaigns of conquest , he brought in 5 @,@ 000 Turkish settlers ( Yörüks and Koniars ) whom he settled in a string of twelve villages across the province to strengthen Ottoman military control . In addition , according to Turahan 's Arab @-@ language biography , which the Scottish traveller David Urquhart reported to be still extant in the 1830s in Tyrnavos , he was also the first to institute a Greek militia for the lawless mountainous regions of central Greece , the forerunners of the later Armatoloi .
Turahan also took several measures to restore order and prosperity in his province , most notably the foundation ( or re @-@ foundation ) of the town of Tyrnavos , which before was a small pastoral settlement . To attract and protect the local Greek Orthodox population , he granted it special privileges , such as special administrative status as a waqf ( a religious endowment ) of the Sharif of Mecca , tax exemptions and the prohibition of Ottoman troops from passing through the town . He also endowed it with both a mosque ( destroyed after the Greek annexation of Thessaly in 1881 ) and a church , St Nicholas Turahan , which survives to this day . Turahan also endowed many other public buildings such as mosques , monasteries , madrasas , schools , caravanserais , bridges and baths across the province . He also took care to maintain and foster the Thessalian cotton , silk and wool textile industry , to the extent that later generations attributed to him the introduction of new dye techniques based on yellow berries , madder and the kali plant , used in the manufacture of potash . From there these materials spread to the rest of Rumelia and thence to Western Europe .
= = Family tree = =
After Franz Babinger in the Encyclopedia of Islam :
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= Miami Valley Hospital South =
Miami Valley Hospital South ( MVHS ) is a hospital in Centerville , Ohio . It is a branch of Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton , Ohio and is managed by Premier Health . Designed and constructed in 2007 as an outpatient facility with an emergency room , the facility grew faster than expected and became a full service hospital with as office building for physicians and a five @-@ story patient wing added between 2009 and 2013 . As of 2013 , the hospital is a 579 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 53 @,@ 800 m2 ) complex on a 115 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) campus adjacent to Interstate 675 . It has 60 beds and features a number of specialty care options including oncology , cardiology , sports medicine , and maternity care to cater to the suburban community surrounding the hospital .
= = History = =
Miami Valley Hospital South sits on a 115 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) campus along Interstate 675 south of Dayton , Ohio . The land had been owned by Premier Health for 20 years before the hospital was built in 2007 , after several decades of planning for an outpatient hospital facility to serve southwestern Greene County , specifically Centerville and Bellbrook where significant suburban housing development was taking place . It was also constructed with partnerships with local high schools in mind to expand athletic training services for student athletes . The project was overseen by Premier Health employee Joann Ringer , who later became chief operating officer of the facility .
The original 268 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 24 @,@ 900 m2 ) outpatient facility was opened in October 2007 at a construction cost of $ 79 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 , and featured a general surgery emergency room with 10 operating rooms . It had a total of 200 employees , many of whom were trained at Miami Valley Hospital . The facility also featured a helipad for CareFlight service , as emergencies were transferred to the Level I Trauma Center at Miami Valley Hospital . Originally called Miami Valley South Health Center , traffic to the hospital quickly escalated beyond what was projected , in part because of consumer demand for care in a single facility and without the need to transfer to other hospitals .
In November 2008 , the first inpatient beds were added following demand for recovery services from the emergency room , including several observation beds and 10 short @-@ stay beds , at which point the facility was renamed Miami Valley Hospital South . These expansions were completed in June 2009 . In late 2010 , the hospital added a 215 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) , five story patient wing to the facility , initially planned to cost $ 64 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 . A $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 comprehensive cancer care center was also added along with an office building for physicians . Ultimately this expansion was completed at a cost of $ 51 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , which brought the hospital size to 579 @,@ 000 square feet ( 53 @,@ 800 m2 ) . The new patient wing opened in March 2012 . This new wing included a 24 @-@ bed general surgery floor , a 24 @-@ bed orthopedic surgery floor , and a 12 @-@ bed maternity ward completed in August 2012 , for a total of 60 beds . At the end of this expansion , the number of staff grew to 478 full- and part @-@ time employees . The hospital saw admittance to its emergency room grow from 19 @,@ 500 in 2007 to 2008 to 32 @,@ 000 in 2012 . From August 2012 to February 2013 the number of babies born in the maternity ward was 550 .
The facility features architecture intended to evoke a sense of calm . It was constructed with a central courtyard and a number of windows overlooking it , as well as nature @-@ related artwork and architecture . There are also separate hallways for staff and visitors in order to make the interior appear less crowded . The hospital also features a substantial amount of parking and a shuttle service to the entrance . Miami Valley Hospital South was constructed with future expansion in mind . Two of the five floors in the patient wing are empty and can be filled adding 24 beds each . A third hallway can be added to the wing which will add 60 beds , and the maternity ward can also be expanded with a second floor to add 12 beds , which means the facility could be expanded to 180 beds .
= = Services = =
The hospital features a number of inpatient support services including a cafeteria food facility which also delivers food to patient rooms , housekeeping and environmental services . Among the hospital 's medical specialties are general surgery , obstetrics and orthopedics . The hospital also features a high @-@ risk breast cancer center aimed at preventative care for patients at risk of developing cancer , staffed by surgical oncologists and staff nurses . Among other specialty services are cardiology , sports medicine , and a hyperbaric oxygen therapy chamber . The hospital has equipment for cardiac monitoring , magnetic resonance imaging , and computed tomography
The facility also features a physician office building which houses staff practitioners as well as offices for physicians with independent practices within the community . The 78 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 200 m2 ) building , opened in January 2013 , also features a comprehensive cancer care center focused on outpatient cancer care treatment , as well as space for patient education and support groups . In addition to physician labs , the facility also houses a concrete enclosed vault which houses a linear accelerator , which is used for precision cancer treatments . When Miami Valley Hospital South opened , the specialists for ovarian cancer and uterine cancer were moved there from Miami Valley Hospital .
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= Bart King =
John Barton " Bart " King ( October 19 , 1873 – October 17 , 1965 ) was an American cricketer , active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . King was part of the Philadelphia team that played from the end of the 19th century until the outbreak of World War I. This period of cricket in the United States was dominated by " gentlemen cricketers " — men of independent wealth who did not need to work . King , an amateur from a middle @-@ class family , was able to devote time to cricket thanks to a job set up by his teammates .
A skilled batsman who proved his worth as a bowler , King set numerous records in the continent of North America during his career and led the first @-@ class bowling averages in England in 1908 . He successfully competed against the best cricketers from England and Australia . King was the dominant bowler on his team when it toured England in 1897 , 1903 , and 1908 . He dismissed batsmen with his unique delivery , which he called the " angler " , and helped develop the art of swing bowling in the sport . Sir Pelham Warner described Bart King as " one of the finest bowlers of all time " , and Donald Bradman called him " America 's greatest cricketing son . "
= = Early and personal life = =
King was born in Philadelphia in 1873 . Early in his life , he worked in a linen trade . Although this was the family business , his father later allowed him to leave to enter the insurance industry . King was not a member of the aristocratic and wealthy families of Philadelphia that produced many of the era 's top cricketers . King 's obituary in Cricket Quarterly suggests that his career in insurance was set up for him by those families to allow him to continue playing the game . In 1913 ( or 1911 ) , King married Fannie Lockhart ; the marriage lasted for fifty years . King 's wife died in 1963 , and he died in 1965 in his native Philadelphia two days before his 92nd birthday .
Bart King was regarded by many of his contemporaries as an affable person . Ralph Barker called him the Bob Hope of cricket thanks to his quips and stories . King was also noted for making jabs at opponents , but leaving them laughing at themselves . The same held true when he would question umpires that turned down his appeals . He is said to have spoken for ninety minutes at a dinner during his last tour to England , punctuated every few seconds with laughs . The dinner guests were kept laughing even while King spoke with a dead @-@ pan expression . One man who attended the dinner noted that King " told his impossible tales with such an air of conviction ... that his audiences were always in doubt when to take him seriously . He made their task doubly difficult by sprinkling in a fair mixture of truth with his fiction . "
= = Cricketing career = =
Like most young American men of this era , Bart King came to cricket only after first playing baseball . He began to play club cricket at Tioga Cricket Club in 1888 , aged 15 , starting out as a batsman . Tioga was one of the lesser Philadelphian cricket clubs . King played his first recorded match for the club in 1889 , when he was tried as a bowler due to his physique . He took 37 wickets for 99 runs for the club in the 1889 cricket season .
King played for Tioga until 1896 , when he joined Belmont Cricket Club . King joined the Philadelphian cricket team for three tours of England while playing at Belmont . King 's most dominating matches came during these tours , playing with the premier American team of the era .
= = = Australia in Philadelphia = = =
In 1893 , the Australian team stopped by Philadelphia on its way home from a tour of England . Australia fielded a strong side , but the team was tired after a long tour and trip . In spite of this fatigue , the Australians chose to face the full strength of the Gentlemen of Philadelphia in a three @-@ day match starting September 29 .
On a small ground at Belmont , the September grass was coarse . It had been rolled so that the ball moved very quickly across the ground . The Australian side , fielding first , dropped many catches and could not cope with the short boundary , allowing the Philadelphians to reach a huge total of 525 runs . King came in to bat last , at number 11 , making 36 runs . The leading Australian bowlers , Hugh Trumble and George Giffen , took 2 for 104 and 0 for 114 respectively . When the Australians came to bat , they hoped that they would , by now , have recovered from their tiring journey , but ran into problems when dealing with Bart King 's developing swing bowling . The side was all out for 199 , with King taking 5 wickets for 78 runs . The Australians followed on and were all out again for 268 , allowing the Gentlemen of Philadelphia to win by an innings and 68 runs .
The cricket world was stunned that a single American city could turn out a side capable of beating the full strength of Australia . The Australians won the return match on October 6 by six wickets , but the Australian captain , Jack Blackham , said to the Americans , " You have better players here than we have been led to believe . They class with England 's best . "
= = = Tour of England in 1897 = = =
King won the Child 's Bowling Cup , the premier award for bowling in American cricket , for the first time in 1896 , and joined the Philadelphian cricket team 's tour of England in 1897 . The tour was very ambitious , and was arranged mainly for educational purposes : few of those on the American side expected to win many matches . Previous tours had tended to involve amateur English sides with a low level of competition . In 1897 , the tour started on June 7 at Oxford , ending in late July at The Oval almost 2 months later . The schedule included fifteen matches against all of the top county cricket teams , the Oxford and Cambridge University teams , the Marylebone Cricket Club , and two other sides , though only a few of the counties thought it worthwhile to put their best elevens onto the field .
While the tour initially aroused some curiosity , many English fans lost interest until Bart King and the Philadelphians met the full Sussex team at Brighton on June 17 . King demonstrated his batting ability in the first innings with a fourth @-@ wicket stand of 107 with John Lester . He then took 7 wickets for 13 runs , and Philadelphia dismissed Sussex for 46 in less than an hour . King took 6 for 102 in Sussex 's second innings , helping the Philadelphians to victory by 8 wickets .
Despite the excitement surrounding King 's performance , the Americans did not fare well overall , and the results may have been worse than hoped for by the tour 's promoters . Philadelphia won only two of their fifteen matches , losing nine and earning a draw in the remaining four . After their win against Sussex , the only other win of the tour came against Warwickshire . During this match , King took 5 for 95 and 7 for 72 and scored 46 runs . According to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , King proved himself to be the best bowler on the American side and had to do much of the work . He bowled three hundred overs , more than anyone else in the team , taking 72 wickets with a bowling average of a little over 24 runs . In addition to his bowling , King scored 441 runs as a batsman at a batting average of just over 20 .
Following the 1897 tour , many English counties were interested in securing King 's services . It was thought that he would not play as a professional , so alternative means of remuneration had to be found : one county reportedly offered to arrange a marriage with a widow who had an income of £ 7000 per year . In the end , King returned to the United States , where he continued to perform very well in club cricket .
= = = Tour of England in 1903 = = =
The Philadelphian team returned to England in 1903 . This proved to be King 's most successful tour , particularly his performances in the matches against Lancashire and Surrey . King played in 13 of the 15 matches on the tour , missing two with a strained side . In his first match , against Cambridge University , he took 5 for 136 and 4 for 28 . He followed that with 8 for 39 in the first innings against Oxford University , though the match was eventually abandoned as a draw due to rain . In his next match , against Gloucestershire , he took 2 for 26 in the first innings but did not bowl in the second . He also took 7 for 51 and 2 for 28 against a strong MCC side at Lord 's . Then came the Lancashire match at Old Trafford Cricket Ground .
In Lancashire 's first innings , King bowled 27 overs and took 5 wickets for 46 runs . The Philadelphians passed Lancashire 's first innings score , but their lead was quickly overtaken in Lancashire 's second innings . With the wind strong over King 's left shoulder , the scene was set for him to dominate the opposition . In his first over after the lunch break on day two of the match , he yorked one of Lancashire 's opening batsmen and his replacement with successive balls . He clean bowled two more batsmen in his second over , and bowled a stump out of the ground in the third . In 3 overs , he had taken 5 wickets for 7 runs . After this performance , King had to be rested in the field . One batsman was run out before King returned to take 4 more wickets , ending the innings with 9 for 62 . The Philadelphians won next morning by nine wickets .
Against Surrey on August 6 , King was overpowering again . It was in this match that King gave what Barker called his finest first @-@ class performance ever . Batting first , he scored 98 runs in the Philadelphian 's first innings before being run out , and he then took 3 for 89 in Surrey 's reply . In the second innings , he made 113 not out and then took 3 for 98 . Surrey lost the match by 110 runs . Apparently , King was so exhausted after his performance that he fell asleep during a speech by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Alverstone at a banquet after the match .
= = = Tour of England in 1908 = = =
King toured England with the Philadelphians a third time in 1908 . This tour included both first @-@ class matches and more minor ones . The first match that was played was against South Wales in Cardiff . The Philadelphians won by 36 behind the bowling of King and Ranji Hordern . The pair took all 20 wickets of the Welsh side . After this , the first @-@ class matches began with Worcestershire on July 9 . Again the Philadelphians won and again Hordern and King took most of the wickets . This trend continued throughout the tour . In the first @-@ class matches that King played , the Philadelphians recorded four wins and six losses . Although he was already 35 years old , King had posted extraordinary numbers in his bowling . He topped the bowling averages for the entire 1908 English cricket season at 11 @.@ 01 . This mark was not bettered until 1958 , when Les Jackson of Derbyshire posted an average of 10 @.@ 99 .
= = = Later career = = =
King 's cricketing career did not end with his last first @-@ class match . He continued to play club matches in Philadelphia and participated in non @-@ first @-@ class fixtures around the continent . King is noted for holding the bowling record against Canada . On a rainy afternoon at Philadelphia in 1906 , King bowled into a slight breeze to capture 8 wickets for 17 runs . This record came in a four @-@ year period during which King focused on club cricket in Philadelphia , when he won the city 's batting award three times and the bowling award four times .
King played in his last two international matches in 1912 , against Australia . His performances were of the highest quality , given that he was nearing his fortieth year . In the first match , he took 9 wickets for 78 runs to help Philadelphia win by 2 runs ; in the second , Australia won by 45 runs despite him taking 8 for 74 .
King joined the Philadelphia Cricket Club after the 1912 season . Despite being well past his 40th year , he continued to play competitive cricket for another 4 years . His 27 @-@ year career ended with his last game for the Philadelphia Cricket Club against Frankford , on July 20 , 1916 . On this occasion , his bowling and batting skills had declined , but he maintained a batting average of 43 @.@ 33 for that final season .
= = Death = =
King died at a nursing home in his native Philadelphia in 1965 , two days short of his 92nd birthday . The Times newspaper in the UK ran an obituary for him , which quoted Plum Warner as saying that : " Had he been an Englishman or an Australian , he would have been even more famous than he was . "
= = Achievements and legacy = =
Though King focused on bowling throughout his career , he was also a very fine batsman . In 1905 , he established a North American record batting record by scoring 315 at the Germantown Cricket Club . The following year , he scored 344 not out for Belmont against the Merion Cricket Club , setting a North American batting record which still stands . He scored 39 centuries in his North American career , and he topped 1 @,@ 000 runs in six seasons . He took over 100 wickets in eight seasons , including a double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in four seasons . In his whole career , he scored 19 @,@ 808 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 47 , and took 2 @,@ 088 wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 47 . He took all 10 wickets in an innings on three occasions , and took 9 wickets in an innings five times . One of these occasions , in the Gentlemen of Ireland 's first innings in 1909 , was followed by a hat @-@ trick in the second innings .
There is an apocryphal story of King emulating a famous baseball pitcher of the day , Rube Waddell , by sending all his fielders back into the pavilion and finishing off the opponent 's innings on his own . King and Belmont were playing Trenton in the Halifax Cup at Elmwood Cricket Ground . Some versions of the story have him banishing the fielders and then calling one of them to a position 22 yards ( 20 m ) back and 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) to the leg side . This fielder was stationed there to pick up the bails which landed at his feet after King bowled his trademark " angler " . This story was disputed some years later by the captain of Trenton , who claimed that when he " went in to bat that afternoon , King had four balls left in his over . " He claimed to have " hit the first delivery to cover point but of course there was no one there . The ball stopped within three feet of the boundary , and King had to chase it . By the time he got back we had run six . " The captain claimed to be the only batsmen to have hit four consecutive sixes off King , but commended the bowler on his ability to spin a tale .
Thanks to his dominant performance over his career and his renown in the world of cricket , King was elected an honorary member of the Incogniti Cricket Club in 1908 and an honorary life member of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1962 . When Plum Warner was asked to name the greatest bowler who ever lived , he said that John Barton King , " at the top of his power and speed , was at least the equal of the greatest of them all . "
King is credited as one of the first bowlers to utilise swing bowling deliberately . Other bowlers in his time could sometimes get the ball to swing , but King was one of the first to do so at will with an old or new ball . He made use of a lethal delivery which he called the " angler " , a product of his experience as a baseball pitcher , to confuse the English batsmen . He would come in with the ball clasped above his head in both hands as would a baseball pitcher . He was famous for his late swing — in and out — and would produce the in @-@ swinger with his right hand coming down from a point over his left shoulder . He described it as an in @-@ swinger which , if properly bowled , would change direction sharply in the last 10 or 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of flight . King used this ball only sparingly and only against good batsmen . After a tour to Philadelphia by an Australian side in 1896 , George Giffen said " the Philadelphians really have some high @-@ class players , but it was the fact of their bowlers playing us with baseball curves that upset our batsmen . "
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= Siren ( Millennium ) =
" ' Siren " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on March 20 , 1998 . Millennium concerns offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) as he investigates crimes for the Millennium Group . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed Allen Coulter . " Siren " featured guest appearances by Vivian Wu , Tzi Ma and Kristen Cloke .
When offender profiler Black investigates several deaths on a cargo ship , he encounters a mysterious woman who shows him visions of a life in which he had never joined the Millennium Group . Upon recovering , his experience leads him to doubt his role in the organisation . " Siren " was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 68 million households during its original broadcast . The episode received positive critical reviews , with one reviewer drawing comparisons with the film It 's a Wonderful Life .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is an offender profiler working for a private investigative firm called the Millennium Group , who consult with local or federal law enforcement on criminal cases . The Millennium Group , and Black , specialise in examining violent crimes or those of a millenarian nature .
As a cargo ship pulls into harbour , it is surrounded by Immigration and Naturalization Service agents . On board , the captain , Law ( Tzi Ma ) , sends two of his crew to kill a " monster " in the cargo hold . Before they can do so , the ship is boarded and the men arrested . Inside the hold , INS agents find a glamorous woman ( Vivian Wu ) bound in chains .
Black 's wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) has brought their daughter Jordan to the hospital where she works ; there , Jordan sees the captive woman and is convinced she will be significant to her father . Black works for Catherine brings the woman 's file to Black , who becomes interested in the case . However , attempts to communicate with her fail , as a translator insists the woman is speaking a wholly unknown language .
Stymied , Black and fellow Group member Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) investigate the ship , finding several bodies hidden in a crate , all having died of exposure . Black then interviews Law and his crew individually , each time being given a contradicting story of how the woman came to be on board the ship . However , they all agree that after she boarded , crew were discovered daily , dead of exposure on the ship 's bow ; Law had the woman chained up in the belief she was responsible .
Black traces the woman 's fingerprints through a Millennium Group database , finding they belong to a Tamara Shui Fa Lee , who disappeared at sea near Hong Kong ten years prior — and who Black believes is now dead . Black visits " Lee " at the hospital , where she speaks to him in perfect English , discussing personal events from his life of which she would have no knowledge . As he drives home , he sees her on the side of the highway and stops to investigate ; however , he finds no sign of her and returns home , where he shares an intimate dinner with Catherine and Jordan , later retiring to bed with Catherine — despite their estrangement . Black gradually notices more differences from how his life had been , realizing he has never been a member of the Millennium Group and founded a private investigation firm after leaving the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Returning home again one day , he sees a demon holding Jordan 's lifeless body .
Back on the highway , an ambulance crew try to resuscitate Black , who has been outside his car through the night after his vision of Lee . After he comes to , he realizes this alternate reality was Lee showing him a life without the Millennium Group . However , he is left unsure whether his role within the Group is protecting his family from evil , or exposing them to it . Black seeks out Lee in a refugee camp ; meanwhile , Law and his crewmen are also tracking her , conspiring to kill her to avenge their fellow crew . Lee turns the men against each other with her visions , before Black arrives to rescue her . As Black questions her as to the Group 's influence , she resumes speaking in her unknown tongue , leaving Black without the answer he seeks .
= = Production = =
" Siren " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . It was the fourteenth episode to have been written by the pair , who had penned several across the first and second seasons of the series . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers during the second season . The episode was directed by Allen Coulter , in his third and final contribution to the series ; Coulter had previously helmed the earlier second season episodes " Beware of the Dog " and " The Pest House " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Siren " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 20 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 8 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 8 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 68 million households , and left the episode the eighty @-@ second most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mildly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B " . He compared its central premise to the film It 's A Wonderful Life , and considered this a common trope in television ; VanDerWerff also felt that the plot structure , with a supernatural event being encountered during a criminal investigation , was overly reminiscent of Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files . However , he considered that the episode worked well overall , highlighting its alternate @-@ reality section and its decision not to answer every question raised . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , finding that its motif of temptation was an intriguing one , but that overall the episode 's spiritual themes were muddied by its reliance on a " routine cops and robbers " framework . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Siren " three stars out of five . Shearman found the episode 's alternate reality section to be " touching " but " not especially revelatory " , considering it and the episode as a whole to have been more interesting in premise than in execution . Shearman compared the episode to " The Curse of Frank Black " and " Midnight of the Century " , though finding that the immigration plot left it less focused and interesting than those installments .
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= The Boat Race 1936 =
The 88th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1936 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by the former Boat Race coach Francis Escombe , Cambridge won by five lengths in a time of 21 minutes 6 seconds . The record thirteenth consecutive victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 40 in Cambridge 's favour . The heaviest crew up to that year in Boat Race history , Cambridge were the first to weigh more than an average of 13 st ( 82 @.@ 4 kg ) per individual .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1935 race by four and a half lengths , and led overall with 46 victories to Oxford 's 40 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by William Rathbone ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1927 races ) , and former Cambridge rowers John Houghton Gibbon ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races ) and Kenneth Payne ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races ) . Cambridge 's coaches were F. E. Hellyer ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , B. C. Johnstone , D. H. E. McCowen ( who had rowed in the 1932 race ) and C. H. Rew ( who had coached the Light Blues the previous year ) . The race was umpired by Francis Jerram Escombe who had coached Cambridge fifteen times between 1904 and 1934 , and Oxford the previous year . Both boats were made by Sims and both crews used Ayling 's oars .
The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that on arrival at Putney , " Cambridge were almost certainly the fastest crew ever to come to the tideway . Oxford were equally certain one of the worst " . He went on to report that while Cambridge still looked " remarkably neat " , they " have actually got slower " ; at the same time Oxford " improved their pace , if not their appearance , in a measure that most critics would have thought quite impossible " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 0 @.@ 5 lb ( 82 @.@ 6 kg ) , 3 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents , the heaviest crew ever at the time . It was the first time in the race history that a crew weighed more than an average of 13 st ( 82 @.@ 4 kg ) . Oxford saw two participants with Boat Race experience return to the crew in number five B. J. Sciortino and stroke D. M. de R. Winser . Cambridge 's crew contained five former Blues , four of whom were making their third appearance including cox Noel Duckworth , and Jack Wilson and Ran Laurie , who would win the Coxless pairs Gold medal at the 1948 Olympics . Three of the race participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's J. S. Lewes and S. R. C. Wood , along with Cambridge 's Thomas Cree were all Australian .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Escombe started the race at 11 : 40 a.m in relatively calm water . Cambridge made the quicker start , out @-@ rating the Dark Blues , but struggled in patches of rougher water such that Oxford held a slight lead by the end of the Fulham Wall . With the bend in the river against them , the Dark Blues held a half @-@ length lead as the crews passed the Mile Post and , according to former Oxford rower E. P. Evans , writing in The Manchester Guardian , " were going well ... and seemed to be forging ahead at every stroke " . At Harrods Furniture Depository , Cambridge stroke Ran Laurie pushed on to reduce Oxford 's advantage as the long bend in the river favoured them : the crews passed under Hammersmith Bridge with Cambridge trailing by half a length .
A series of spurts from Cambridge combined with intelligent steering from their cox , pushing the Dark Blue boat out of the tide , resulted in a reversal of fortune with Cambridge leading , and by the end of Chiswick Eyot , they were nearly clear of Oxford . Passing Chiswick Steps four seconds ahead , the Light Blues continued to increase their advantage , passing below Barnes Bridge four lengths ahead . They passed the finishing post five lengths ahead in a time of 21 minutes 6 seconds . It was the largest winning margin since the 1929 race and the slowest winning time since the 1925 race when Oxford sank in adverse conditions . It was Cambridge 's thirteenth consecutive victory , a record streak in the history of the Boat Race , and took the overall record in the event to 47 – 40 in their favour . E. P. Evans wrote that " no praise is too much for the gallant Oxford crew " while of Cambridge he noted " though they may not have produced their best form in the early part of the race they made up for it later " . The rowing correspondent for The Times stated that " it was an exciting race over the first half of the course " and praised the Light Blues saying " all credit is due to the Cambridge crew for the manner in which they recovered themselves after being led through such bad water " . William Beach Thomas , writing in The Observer , claimed " Cambridge were described as the best crew in the chronicles of rowing kings , and Oxford the very worst " .
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= History of Brasenose College , Oxford =
The history of Brasenose College , Oxford stretches back to 1509 , when the college was founded on the site of Brasenose Hall . Its name is believed to derive from the name of a bronze knocker that adorned the hall 's door . The college was associated with Lancashire and Cheshire , the county origins of its two founders – Sir Richard Sutton and the Bishop of Lincoln , William Smyth – a link that was maintained strongly until the latter half of the nineteenth century . The first principals navigated Brasenose , with its Catholic sympathisers , through the reformation and continuing religious reforms . Most of Brasenose favoured the Royalist side during the English Civil War , although it produced notable generals and clergy on both sides . The library and chapel were completed in the mid @-@ seventeenth century , despite Brasenose suffering continuing financial problems .
The post @-@ 1785 period would see an era of prosperity of the college under Principal William Cleaver . The college began to be populated by gentlemen , its income doubling between 1790 and 1810 , and academic success considerable . Efforts to reconstruct Brasenose were not completed , however , until the second half of the century with the addition of New Quad between 1886 and 1911 . Brasenose 's financial position remained secure , although under the tenure of Principal Edward Hartopp Cradock Brasenose 's academic record waned greatly , with much of its success focussed on sports – where it excelled most notably in cricket and rowing . The mid @-@ Century Royal Commissions were navigated – although they were opposed in form , their recommendations welcomed including the submission of accounts . The election of Charles Buller Heberden as Principal in 1889 led to a reversal in Brasenose 's academic failures , although its sporting performance suffered . Heberden was the first lay Principal , presiding over an increasingly secular college , opening up the library to undergraduates , instituting an entrance exam for the first time and accepting Rhodes scholarships .
Brasenose lost 115 men in the First World War ( including a quarter of the 1913 year ) , with its undergraduate numbers greatly reduced . Lord Curzon 's post @-@ War reforms were successfully instituted . The inter @-@ war period was defined by William Stallybrass , who as fellow and eventual Principal ( until 1948 ) dominated college life . Brasenose once again produced top sportsmen – cricketers , rowers , and others . This came at the cost of falling academic standards and poorly performing finances , which would see Stallybrass ' authority challenged . He died in a railway accident before he could be forced out , however . After the war , sporting achievements waned ( although there were notable exceptions ) but academic success did not improve significantly , in what was now one of Oxford 's largest colleges .
The 1970s saw considerable social change in Brasenose : the admission of women beginning in 1974 , more post @-@ graduate attendees and fewer domestic staff . There was also considerable construction work to ensure that undergraduates could be housed for the entirety of their degree on the main site and on the Frewin site ; this task was only completed in 1997 with the opening of the St Cross Building and Frewin extension . Law continued to be a strong subject for Brasenose ( following on from Stallybrass , through Principals Barry Nicholas and Herbert Hart ) as was the emerging subject of Philosophy , Politics and Economics ( PPE ) , starting with the fellowship of Vernon Bogdanor . Brasenose 's finances were secured , and it thus entered the twenty @-@ first century in a good position with regards financial , extracurricular and academic success – the last having significantly recovered from its lows , helped by PPE .
= = Foundation and early history = =
The first reference to a " Brasenose Hall " is found in the forged charter of 1219 , occupying at that time only one small part of the current site . It was recorded in 1278 as having four scholars , although over the next fifty years it was to acquire some corporate strength . The name " Brasenose " is thought to originate from a brass – lead door knocker in the shape of leopard ( or lion ) head ; the nose @-@ shaped door knocker of which one version now hangs above the high table of the main hall of Brasenose College . An alternative theory is that the name is a corruption of brasenhuis ( brewhouse ) , but this is not widely accepted , although the college did have its own brewhouse up until 1889 . This theory is believed to date back only to 1837 .
During the 1333 disturbances in Oxford , a group of clerks from Brasenose Hall left the ongoing violence and made their way to Stamford , Lincolnshire . The Brasenose knocker was taken with them as a symbol of continuity , and only believed returned in 1890 . Although Edward III intervened , ordering the students to return , some persisted in Stamford and acquired a second " Brasenose Hall " there . In 1381 , Brasenose Hall , Oxford , acquired a lease from University College for parts of the current site . The Stamford establishment was considered a rival , and candidates for degrees at Brasenose , Oxford , were required to swear that they would not give or attend lectures in Stamford as late as 1827 . Between 1480 and 1509 the Hall was responsible for supplying a vice @-@ chancellor of the University and two of its proctors . Throughout this period , Brasenose appears to have aligned itself with Oxford 's " Northerners " during periods of Northerner – Southerner violence in Oxford .
= = = Foundation = = =
The College is traditionally considered to have been founded in 1509 by a lawyer , Sir Richard Sutton , of Prestbury , Cheshire , and the Bishop of Lincoln , William Smyth . It was on 1 June 1509 that the foundation stone for Staircase I was laid . It was not until 15 January 1512 that a royal charter was obtained from Henry VIII . It was on 20 October 1508 that Smyth and eight other members of the college leased the site for the college – Brasenose Hall and neighbouring Little University Hall – from University College for ninety @-@ two years at the cost of £ 3 a year , provided that they spend £ 40 improving the site within a year . William Smyth has risen quickly through the ranks of the Church – albeit as a more able administrator than prelate – to become Bishop of Lincoln in 1496 , Chancellor of the university between 1500 and 1503 and Lord President of the Marches in 1501 , assisted by the influence of Lady Margaret Beaufort . The transition between hall and college was not clear @-@ cut ; rather , the hall was left standing whilst the new buildings for the college were completed . Matthew Smyth , last principal of the hall , became first principal of the College , although he was referred to as " Principal of the College and Hall of Brasen Nose " as late as September 1514 . It was in 1523 that Sutton transferred the lease formally over to the Principal and Fellows of the new college .
The Abbey of Oseney leased several halls to the new college , including Haberdasher , Glass , Black and Little St. Edmund , in 1530 , and in 1556 Lincoln College let Staple Hall to Brasenose on a nominal rent of twenty shillings a year . These complemented other halls which had been taken on as Brasenose Hall had grown , including St Thomas 's Hall , Shield Hall , Ivy Hall , St Mary 's Entry , Salissury Hall and Broadgates Hall . The early college was governed by the statutes laid down by the formal charter of foundation in 1511 – 12 ( altered by a revised code of Sutton after Smyth 's death ) which was prefaced with the words :
In the name of the Holy and undivided Trinity , Father , Son and Holy Spirit , and of the most blessed Mother of God , Mary the glorious Virgin , and of Saints Hugh and Chad confessors , and also of St. Michael the archangel : We , William Smyth , Bishop of Lincoln , and Richard Sutton , Esquire , confiding in the aid of the Supreme Creator , who knows , directs , and disposes the wills of all that trust in him , do out of goods which in this life , not by our merits , but of the grace of His fulness , we have received abundantly , by royal authority and charter found , institute and establish in the University of Oxford , a perpetual College of porr and indignant scholars , who shall study and make progress in philosophy and sacred theology ; commonly called The King 's Haule and College of Brasennose in Oxford ; to the praise , glory , and honour of Almighty God , of the glorious Virgin Mary , Saints Hugh and Chad confessors , St. Michael the archangel and All Saints ; for the support and exaltation of the Christian Faith , for the advancement of holy church , and for the furtherance of divine worship .
Smyth had planned for a college of a Principal and sixty bachelor fellows ; however , Sutton lowered this to only twelve . The Principal was required to be over thirty , a graduate and priest , and have the support of the Visitor , the Bishop of Lincoln . He was entitled to take up ecclesiastic office or duties that did not interfere overly with his job as principal ; the fellows were required to be resident for ten months of each year . Entrants to the college would have been only 11 or 12 years old , with an intake both from those whose income was very low , alongside those from gentlemanly backgrounds . Fellows had a high degree of autonomy , but received only board and lodging as reward .
= = = Early history = = =
The college remained associated with Lancashire and Cheshire , with a particular preference for those from Prestbury and Prescot , the founders ' birthplaces . This was also reflected in early benefactors . These included the donation of John Port , serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , for two fellowships for natives of Chester in 1522 ; that of William Clyfton , the sub @-@ dean of York , for residents of York , Lincoln and Nottingham in 1538 ; and for the Brian Higden , Dean of York , who sponsored a fellowship for those in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire in 1549 . Another notable benefactor during this period was John Claymond , the first President of Corpus Christi College , Oxford , who in 1538 gave funds to maintain six scholars at Brasenose , provided that their lectures on humanity and Greek take place at his own college . Only in 1572 was a Lectureship in Greek established at Brasenose , symptomatic of a conservatism that attached Brasenose to a monastic teaching style that was increasingly problematic during the reformation . By the end of the sixteenth century , however , the college did boast lectureships ( " public readerships " ) in the new disciplines of logic and natural philosophy . By 1547 , the income of the college had increased to almost £ 200 yearly , with an endowment that placed it squarely in the midst of other colleges in size ; it did , however , make a yearly loss .
The original buildings took some time to finish ; only the original gateway was lavished upon from the beginning . The buildings were only of a modest splendour : the hall was not completed until the end of the seventeenth century ; the rooms economically decorated without wood panelling ; the main quadrangle only of one story and garrets . Although an earlier chapel is suspected , the area above Staircase I – now the Senior Common Room – was in use by 1521 . It appears that the ecclesiastical furnishings promised by Smyth never arrived , and have been presumed taken by the College 's first Visitor , Cardinal Wolsey . Although the chapel ( or perhaps oratory ) was plain , two chalices and two patens survived from the original three of each and have been identified as older than those of Corpus or Trinity , dating to the late fifteenth century . Similarly the Old Library , now staircase IV , room 4 , was completed in 1520 – 1 , was not intended to be permanent but kept a considerable collection of books , most attained from benefactors , of which the most valuable were those donated by Henry Mason during the reign of James I. The library remained in that location until 1663 .
The first two principals of the college , Matthew Smyth and John Hawarden , successfully navigated the college through the reformation period . The college retained strong Catholic tendencies , and support for the reforms of Henry VIII and Edward VIII was minimal . The Chapel 's Dean , Thomas Hawarden , was opposed to the reforms , and was once called to the King 's Privy Council to answer for his actions . Eventually , though , the continuing reforms were carried through ; in particular , despite an exception for the University from the Act of Uniformity in 1549 for services other than mass , the enforcement of the Book of Common Prayer severely limited the ability of the college to maintain the old Catholic services whilst outwardly adopting the new reforms . The careful , and generally slow , path trod was exposed under Queen Mary , when five Fellows the left the college over its failings to reinstate the full Catholic mass quickly enough . Under Thomas Blanchard and Richard Harris the college finally accepted the reglious reforms , and , moving into the later sixteenth century the college was responsible for housing several important figures of Protestantism : John Foxe , publicist , Christopher Goodman , protégé of Peter Martyr , Nicholas Grimald and Alexander Nowell . Despite producing several Anglican and evangelical sympathisers , the college retained many Catholic sympathisers . Six Brasenose fellows were executed for their loyalty to the pope : John Shert , Thomas Cottam and Laurence Johnson at Tyburn in 1582 , and Robert Anderson , Francis Ingleby and George Nichols thereafter , only smaller in number than St. John 's .
= = Seventeenth century = =
= = = Civil War period = = =
The chancellorship of Archbishop William Laud , beginning in 1630 , was a calm and profitable time for the University as a whole , dominating as it did the city of Oxford . The Parliamentarian occupation during the Civil War in 1642 , and the subsequent Royalist siege ended this , however . Although the Parliamentarian army was careful to protect the University 's buildings and freedoms upon regaining the city following its surrender in 1646 . These events , and the plague that came to Oxford in 1643 , did not escape Brasenose . Brasenose produced members of both sides of the war , although in generally leant in favour of the Royalists : the Protestation of 1641 was met with reservation and ingenious mechanisms to avoid reply on the part of many members of the college . Members of Parliament William Brereton , Humphrey Salway , Henry Brooke and John Cartwright , James Chaloner , Colonel Thomas Croxton , Major General and MP William Jephson and commandant John Bingham all fought for parliament ; James Bradshawe and Peter Ince , among Brasenose 's many clergy , also supported the Roundheads . On the Royalist side stood Sir Alexander Radcliffe , Major Peter Leicester , MP Sir Edward Littleton , Edward Fischer ( author of Appeal to the Conscience ) , Francis Newman ( brother of Cardinal John Henry Newman ) and the majority of Brasenose 's clergy . Some Royalists stayed in the college during the civil war , including Sir William Le Neve ( Clarenceux King of Arms ) , Dr Edward Lake , and the Duchess of Buckingham ; two , Sir John Spelman and Sir Henry St George ( Garter King of Arms ) died during their stay .
Following the war , three visitations reformed the University of Oxford in the Parliamentarians ' preferred style , including purging Brasenose of its remaining loyalists . Sir William Petty , a former student , was among those promoted to fellow of the college . Samuel Radcliffe , Principal , was to be replaced with Dr Daniel Greenwood , a long @-@ term fellow of the college of Puritan sympathies by order of the visitors . However , the college held out repeatedly against efforts to expel or remove its fellows and principal , most through deliberate inactivity . Radcliffe was ill and continued to personally oppose handing over control of the college to Greenwood , particularly the college archives and treasury . The fellows , also opposing Greenwood , instead elected Thomas Yate to replace Radcliffe upon his death , although owing to the visitors ' choice of Greenwood he would not take up his post fully for twelve years . Over this period , thirteen of Brasenose 's sixteen remaining fellows were expelled , but the college survived .
Radcliffe was also responsible for the institution of four lectureships , philosophy , humanity , Greek , and Hebrew , although not all were new to Brasenose . However , Radcliffe 's Principalship continued the mismanagement of Brasenose 's finances , which had sunk into debt by the start of the seventeenth century : battels had gone unpaid , debts to tradesmen run up . Radcliffe 's sale of two college leases landed the College in unsuccessful litigation with Radcliffe 's family . A " draconian " visitation took place in 1643 , when the college owed £ 1 @,@ 750 . By 1646 , after the civil war , Brasenose still owed £ 1 @,@ 214 8s 0d . During the war , the college had loaned the King £ 600 , which it would not get back . However , the post @-@ civil war period saw Brasenose receive support from both current members and those expelled ; Greenwood and the bursar , John Houghton , continued the building work started by Radcliffe . Finances were gradually improved , with assistance from the government , up to the Restoration .
The seventeenth century saw a second wave of building at Brasenose , started under the Principalship of Samuel Radcliffe . Under his leadership an attic story was added to Old Quad in the 1630s , and the current chapel and library both constructed between 1656 and 1666 . The chapel , in particular , was a mix of architectural styles – Gothic revival and baroque – and thus not without criticism . The work totalled some £ 4 @,@ 000 , achieved eventually despite Brasenose 's previous money problems ; by 1680 , college income was a sustainable £ 600 a year . A Senior Common Room , believed to be Staircase 2 , Room 3 , had been added by 1682 .
= = = Restoration period = = =
Throughout the second half of the century , Brasenose remained around the fourth largest college of the University behind Christ Church and Exeter ; the proportion of students and Fellows from lower income groups was much higher than most other colleges , having improved during the second half of the century . Entrants were also heavily biased towards those from Cheshire and Lancashire : two @-@ thirds of Oxford entrants from those counties went to Brasenose in the first half of the century ; three @-@ quarters by its end . Indeed , by that time , the majority of Brasenose student hailed from one of those two north @-@ western counties , assisted by the localised scholarships . In 1679 , the college received an endowment from Sarah Seymour , Duchess of Somerset to fund four " Somerset " scholars , to be drawn from a free school of Manchester . She also donated further money for additional scholarships ( drawn alternately from Manchester , Marlborough , and Hereford ) upon her death in 1686 .
The Restoration , along with a return to the pre @-@ war Laudian church and the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662 , posed few problems for the sympathetic and quickly reformed Brasenose ; only one fellow left without agreeing . For some , nominal allegiance to the new regime was the order of the day , supported by a weary college . The Restoration period was one of disciplinary laxity across the university ; Brasenose was no different , with some of its students taking part in riots . Yate was instituted as successor – and somewhat retrospectively as predecessor – to Greenwood ; six of the thirteen fellows that had been expelled returned ; other personnel in the college were replaced . The period saw a rejuvenation of teaching in the University as a whole and a new cache of new thinkers , including Brasenose 's Petty .
During this time , French physician Samuel de Sorbière and English contemporary Samuel Pepys were among visitors . Alumni of the period included James Alban Gibbes , George Clarke and Elias Ashmole , although only Petty formed part of the emerging mathematics and sciences .
= = = Glorious revolution period = = =
Upon William and Mary 's rise to the throne in 1688 , Oxford became an established centre of the new regime . The revolution itself was smoothly accepted by Brasenose , with the exception of only a handful . Brasenose , however , remained fairly small , with only six senior fellows , although among colleges it retained some power . The College itself remained loyal to the church above the king and allegiance to oaths and ceremony was enforced , even if college members themselves were not always devout Anglicans . William Hulme gave lands in the then county of Lancaster for the maintenance of " four exhibitioners of the poorest sort " in 1691 , drawn from the selections of the Warden of Manchester , the Rector of Prestwich and the Rector of Bury .
= = Eighteenth century = =
Throughout the Georgian period , Brasenose remained " tactically Hanoverian but Jacobite by instinct " , and a strong bias towards Lancashire and Cheshire , and lesserly towards the north of England as a whole , from where over half of members of the college would come in the 1690 – 1799 period . Admissions were predominantly from the lower orders – either in terms of class or wealth . John Meare , Principal since 1681 , was himself a commoner and a supporter of the Glorious revolution ; his election to the Vice @-@ Chancellorship of the University in 1697 was greeted angrily by Tories .
At Brasenose , in 1710 , Meare was replaced by Robert Shippen , a prominent crypto @-@ Jacobite in Oxford . Shippen , a Tory , was personally despised . He mounted several campaigns for further power , acquiring several advowsons in East London , including the rectory of Whitechapel . Shippen wanted it for himself and ejected the incumbent at the cost of much personal animosity from parishioners . He then went on to become Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University , and to continually interfere in the institutions of Oxford – the Ashmolean , the Bodleian and other colleges . He was responsible for the much @-@ need purchase of seven sites on the High Street , the completion of a new common room for fellows . However , he had much grander plans for both Brasenose and Oxford – ostensibly to put Brasenose at the centre of a new " forum " for the University – that were not completed , despite some considerably time and money spent on them . In this regard he worked alongside Dr George Clarke , sometime Brasenose student and more recently designer of several colleges and library buildings , and Nicholas Hawksmoor . Brasenose , and Shippen and his allies , did , however , play a crucial role in formulating and completing the plans for the Radcliffe Camera . Shippen 's own Jacobitism appeared to subside – perhaps adjudicating on the mood of the time – but Brasenose 's did not ; ale verses were sung to " our true English king " ( rather than the Hanoverian George I ) . A panegyric for James II was even said yearly for at least ten years from 1701 , at the bequest of Sir Francis Bridgeman ( married 1673 ) . The First Jacobite Rising of 1715 caused a riot in Oxford , and not without Brasenose involvement .
Little changed in the century up to 1785 ; the average age of fellows , mostly " youthful clerics " , remained a little under thirty , having been elected to the fellowship at 23 , on average , to serve for around fifteen years . Helped by the Duchess of Somerset 's bequest , Manchester Grammar School supplied up to a sixth of Brasenose 's intake , and proportionately far more of its fellows . Despite this , the college resisted the growing cause of Methodism .
Towards the second half of the century , Brasenose began to lose its reputation for ignorance ; it also became wealthier . Its social ranking improved , and it attracted more members . The accounts were much improved : from a deficit of £ 444 in 1761 to a surplus of £ 476 in 1781 . This must have been helped by the introduction of Arabic numerals ( rather than Roman numerals ) as late as 1773 . The Radcliffe Camera was opened in 1749 , assisting the college 's attempts at self @-@ improvement . Social barriers were broken down – both by the reduction in the duties of the lowest groups and the privileges of the richest , and the increasing wealth of entrants to the college generally . The college remained far from the most elite or exclusive of colleges ; nor , by the standards of wealthier colleges , did its members misbehave . Among the 1774 intake , 20 were gentlemen , but it was one of the remaining seven – Henry Addington – who would achieve most fame as Brasenose 's first prime minister . It was into this setting that William Cleaver was made Principal in 1785 , the principals of the previous eighty years – Francis Yarborough , William Gwyn , Ralph Cawley , and Thomas Barker – being without real note . Yarborough oversaw improvements to library and hall , the former guided by the addition of his own considerable collection of books . It was also set upon that improvements to accommodation were needed ; two properties on the High Street were bought , to be turned into the Principal 's residence , the lodgings above the Lodge becoming accommodation for bursar and fellows . This was overseen by Gwyn , but he too did not live to see its completion . It would continue to be the Principal 's residence until 1886 . Barker was a man of modest means ; thus , it was Cleaver who would take Brasenose into a new age of prosperity .
Wholesale reform of Oxford examinations began in the late eighteenth century , proposed by , among others , Brasenose 's John Napleton in his pamphlet Considerations on the Public Exercises for the First and Second Degrees in the University of Oxford . It was Cleaver and his successor Frodsham Hodson that would continue the reforms and apply them to Brasenose itself . Cleaver was from the minor gentry and set out from the start to make Brasenose the place of rich men . Unable to secure the librarianship of the Bodleian whilst fellow , he had instead become tutor to his patron George Nugent @-@ Temple @-@ Grenville , 1st Marquess of Buckingham – a position which he used to lead two of the Duke 's sons and other members of the family to Brasenose ; the sons ' uncle , Baron Grenville , became the University 's Chancellor . Under his leadership into the early nineteenth century , numbers improved dramatically and so did the class of people coming : Brasenose began to be dominated by gentlemen like the Egertons , the Grenvilles , and of Richard Rainshaw Rothwell I. Its income over doubled between 1790 and 1810 to £ 9 @,@ 200 per annum , with the college maintaining its links to the north @-@ west . Among the other acquisitions of Cleaver was the services of Hodson , a Liverpudlian .
The Phoenix Common Room ( the oldest dining club in Oxford ) was founded at Brasenose in 1782 , and certainly in place by 1786 . It came to have a uniform , code of practice , and extensive wine cellar . It also took part of the role of the modern Junior Common Room in respect of social activities – although membership was limited to 12 , it was elected on rotation .
= = Nineteenth century = =
= = = Regency period = = =
Cleaver and Hodson made another attempt to redesign the High Street frontage of Brasenose , securing first the services of James Wyatt and later approaching John Nash when Wyatt failed to deliver . No plans were ever laid down , however . Three sets of designs were produced eventually by John Soane , but rather too expensive for the college . The next years would see only temporary buildings on the High Street site . Hodson was made principal in 1809 following Cleaver 's resignation . A year before , and under Hodson 's guidance , the exiled Louis XVIII had visited Brasenose ; in 1814 , the royal families of the United Kingdom , Russia , and Prussia dined in the Radcliffe Camera – food and pre @-@ dinner arrangements organised by Brasenose . In 1815 , in the first inter @-@ collegiate boat race , Brasenose went to the head of the river . Brasenose 's academic record was good , with seven of thirty @-@ seven first class degrees awarded across Oxford between 1808 and 1810 . Among these was that of William Gregson ( later draughtsman of the Great Reform Bill ) – deemed the best the examiners had ever seen . The 1810 – 20 period contained several academic reforms , particularly to the nature of examinations – the institution of terminally collections , including in mathematics and natural philosophy , something of a break from the focus of the past . Brasenose went into the regency one of only three colleges – the others being Christ Church and Oriel – to be both fashionable and academically successful ; it ran a waiting list whilst other colleges had spare places .
Alongside the Phoenix Common Room ran the Alfred Lodge ( founded in 1769 ) , The Club ( 1790 ) and the Apollo ; together they made Brasenose central to Oxford socialization in this period . Between 1818 and 1837 , however , life at Oxford was changing : it became far more " diligent and orderly " , less boisterous . Brasenose maintained its reputation for some time longer ( there were still stories of excess , particularly drink ) . In 1840 , several members of the Phoenix resigned , and Sunday meetings and Satanic toasts abolished , after John Woodhouse 's death in a meeting – according to tradition , dragged through the bars of a window ovelrooking Brasenose Lane immediately upon toasting the devil . It ushered in a period of Victorian morality for Brasenose .
Ashurst Turner Gilbert was elected Principal in 1822 , aged only 35 ; he had secured the fellowship in 1809 on the strength of a first . He disliked teaching – although he admitted it paid the bills – and much preferred being Principal . There , he would be eventually made Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University and later Bishop of Chichester . Gilbert committed Brasenose to a cause of neutral politics and mainstream Anglicanism , strongly rejecting Tractarian and Evangelical ideas including supporting the censure of Dr. Renn D. Hampden . His time was spent pre @-@ occupied with the religious tensions of the University , having spent time opposing changes to religious services in Oxford on behalf of Oxford Tories .
Despite an intake dominated by commoners at Brasenose , Oxford had become a university dominated by the independently wealthy ; the Edinburgh Review decried it as " simply a great public school " .
= = = Victorian period = = =
Gilbert 's successor in 1842 was Richard Harrington , who inherited a college in good shape : income was around £ 15 @,@ 000 ; only Christ Church was significantly bigger in size . Academic reforms , particularly with regard to examinations – which were to be administered by the university , rather than the college – were instituted across Oxford in the first half of the century . Brasenose 's proportion of first @-@ class degrees fell sharply from its previous peak . By 1850 , no matriculation exam was instituted at Brasenose , as at other colleges , although the other examinations were altered : responsions moved forward and moderations instituted . Brasenose , like the University , was yet to truly reform the range of subjects studied , however . It was only in 1849 that modern sciences were only given a separate School ( and thus examination ) in 1849 ; law and modern history a year later .
Edward Hartopp Cradock ( known as " Chief " ) became Principal in 1853 , and would lead the college until 1886 ; most notable in his tenure was the introduction of organised sports and the resulting public image of Brasenose as a sporting college . This included the membership of oarsman Walter Bradford Woodgate , founder of Vincent 's Club , and sometime president of the club Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss . It produced many blues rowers , seven in 1860 – 1867 alone . Between 1870 and 1872 , the Oxford varsity cricket team was similarly dominated by Brasenose men , including Conrad Wallroth . One , Arthur Heath , went on to become a Conservative Party politician , although legal and careers in the church still dominated . Brasenose was also very well turned out in rugby and football – including Cuthbert Ottaway and Heath – but cricket and rowing defined its success .
Among other pursuits , amateur dramatics flourish ( even though Brasenose was an all @-@ male college ) . Overall , the intake and careers of undergraduates remained dominated by the Church ( up to half ) , drawn from a range of backgrounds . The college remained largely independent of the large public schools . Brasenose 's academic record remained solid , if unremarkable ; its strengths lay in classics , although one of its most prominent academics – Arthur Evans – studied modern history .
Brasenose was staunchly opposed to the establishment of the first Royal Commission of 1850 – 51 into standards at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge , claiming that it lacked authority and served an " ignorant " purpose . The college believed that if it were to support the commission , it might " at all future times be exposed to fluctatuions of political parties , attacks and influences very injurious to the peace and to the steady performance of its duties " . It instead petitioned the crown to abandon the commission , citing certain freedoms under the Bill of Rights 1689 . However , the commissioners were granted the authority to force cooperation and the petition rejected .
As it turned out , the college was happy to pursue many of the commission 's aims : the restriction of the preference for candidates from the north @-@ west ( although the Somerset scholars remained ) , and the reduction of living expenses – something for which new buildings offering cheaper living and even union with Lincoln College were considered but ultimately rejected . More problematic were reforms to the distribution of power and funding between senior and junior fellows – although in 1855 – 7 ordinances were put in place giving junior fellows the same role in governance as their seniors . Thus the situation began to improve for junior fellows as the older fellows were gradually replaced . The changes made by the second Royal Commission ( brought to " inquire into the property and income " of Oxford and Cambridge colleges ) to the running of the accounts and the system of university @-@ wide finances were unopposed by Brasenose . The accounts which the college submitted reveal an income of £ 16 @,@ 000 , of which nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 came from land , other property , stocks and shares . Expenditure was around £ 13 @,@ 600 , which left Brasenose in a secure financial position . Although the university as a whole was hit hard by the agricultural crisis of the latter quarter of the century , Brasenose 's income from agrarian sources was already low , and increasing yields from urban holdings made up most of the fall . Brasenose 's response to the weakening economy was to increase its student intake by 1875 to three times what it had been in 1860 , almost levelling that of the mid @-@ regency period . This did , however , increase considerably the proportion of applicants from public schools .
Between 1859 and 1860 , Frewin Hall housed the future Edward VII whilst he attended Christ Church . The chapel and old kitchen were planned to form part of a new , third , quadrangle for Brasenose . The valuable rents that the shops on the south side of Brasenose earned the college provided the most significant reason for the delay in further expansion , which only began in 1886 when work on the west side was started . It was finally completed in 1911 , the last work having been done to the High Street frontage . Frewin Hall was reconstructed between 1887 and 1896 , as were the chapel and antechapel . It had been in 1886 that Cradock had died and was replaced by Albert Watson .
Walter Pater , a writer , was sometime fellow of Brasenose ; his writing would later be accused of being " immoral " and inappropriate letters to a student at Balliol , Walter Hardinge , got Pater into trouble . He survived , however , and continued to form part of the literary scene in Oxford and London , tutoring poet C. L. Shadwell and writer Humphrey Ward , lecturing Oscar Wilde and dining with Simeon Solomon and Oscar Browning . Another alumnus of this period was Frederic Weatherly , sometime lyricist and lawyer . It was Weatherley , Brasenose 's coxswain , who threw himself out the boat in 1868 and thus invented the coxless four – although Brasenose won the race , they were disqualified . In 1880 , the future Earl Haig entered Brasenose , although he was among very few statesmen to come through its ranks during the century .
Charles Buller Heberden became principal in 1889 . He saw sporting as a means to the institution of civility than an end in itself ; together with Richard Lodge , it was this spirit that dominated his tenure as principal . Academic rigour was reintroduced to the college , and the staff of Brasenose were increasingly successful in maintaining discipline . Until the end of the century , however , the number of students achieving blues outnumbered those attaining firsts . Author John Buchan joined in 1895 , a man of this new era – although his work continued to portray Brasenose as its previous muscular stereotype . Heberden was also the first lay principal , although he was personally committed to the church – purchasing an organ for the chapel out of his own personal funds . Brasenose was frequently represented as boasting no academic prowess at all . Three of the ten fellows were set aside for non @-@ classicists ; a Junior Common Room ( JCR ) was created in 1887 ; in 1897 the library was opened up to undergraduates ; in 1899 , Fellows were granted a right to sabbatical leave . The fellows themselves were increasingly secular ; only four of fourteen fellows were clergy .
= = First half of the twentieth century = =
In the pre @-@ War period , the shift in focus to academia continued . Brasenose 's rowing sides sunk down the tables . In 1901 , the college introduced an entrance exam , and new Rhodes Scholarships were created in 1904 . The Pater Society was founded in 1907 , in memory of the fellow .
Like much of the UK , Brasenose suffered a considerable number of casualties in the First World War : 661 members served , with 114 killed , for the Allies ; four members served in the German military , of whom two were killed . Canadian Talbot Mercer Papineau , who had attended Brasenose on a Rhodes Scholarship , was among those to support the war . Over a quarter of the 1913 year were killed , in a college that was considerably smaller than it had been . Some members were decorated : Arnold Jackson became the British Army 's youngest Brigadier , and received the Distinguished Service Order with three bars . By 1918 , Brasenose had just eight undergraduates .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The inter @-@ war period saw Brasenose adapt to changing conditions within the university : the abolition of Greek as a compulsory language ; the admission of women to degrees ; and the acceptance of the first government funding . Across the university , these were spearheaded by Chancellor Lord Curzon ( appointed in 1907 ) , who wished to avoid another Royal Commission . There were also attempts to broaden the University 's intake of students from poorer backgrounds , but living costs of £ 400 across a three @-@ year degree made this difficult . Curzon was supported by his Vice @-@ Chancellor , now Brasenose 's Heberden . Within Brasenose , however , he was opposed by Brasenose 's youngest fellow , William Teulon Swan Sonnenschein ( who in 1917 took the surname " Stallybrass " ) .
Charles Henry Sampson , Principal between 1920 and 1936 , did little more than " keep the ship on an even keel " : it was Stallybrass as Vice @-@ Principal ( 1914 – 36 ) that defined Brasenose between the wars . Stallybrass was a keen sportsman , although like Heberden he saw it only as a means to an end – albeit a plethora of laudable ends . Brasenose had a middling income of £ 24 @,@ 000 a year , with a similarly average 180 undergraduates . Religious attendance was relaxed , and fees for returning to college between 9 and 11PM abolished . Brasenose 's collegiate link with Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge was established . Staircases XIV and XV were created , the only significant changes to the college buildings ; the twenty fellows gradually replaced in Stallybrass ' own image . Brasenose went back to the head of the river in 1928 , rising from 22nd in 1922 . Although Oxford 's performance in rowing was poor , Brasenose was central to its few successes against Cambridge . It would sink to sixth in 1934 – although notable among its members was John Gorton , future Prime Minister of Australia . Success in rowing was matched in rugby and cricket – with Brasenose producing players such as Alexander Obolensky and Ian Smith . Brasenose rugby only reached its peak after the Second World War , with players such as Brian Boobbyer and Philip Moore , Baron Moore of Wolvercote . In cricket , Geoffrey Legge and Greville Stevens were early players ; Ian Peebles Gerry Chalk and Roger Kimpton followed them : between 1934 and 1938 at least five members of the University team came from Brasenose. it may have been Brasenose 's attachment to sport that meant it was slow to phase out Pass men . The effect on academic success was considerable ; Brasenose slumped in performance except in law , where it excelled . In the 1930s Brasenose recorded no more than six firsts in a year ; a total assisted by seven firsts in 1937 – 9 in law , out a total of 13 across the University . The future Lord Scarman ( Lord of Appeal in Ordinary ) was among undergraduates ; two contemporaries and aspiring students , Richard Holdsworth and Michael Peacock were killed in the Second World War .
In terms of intake , by 1937 there were 201 undergraduates ; it was a uniform selection that was almost completely middle class , like the rest of the University . Over 60 % of entrants came from independent schools , perhaps because of the £ 250 a year cost of reading towards a degree . It had , unlike some other college , students from several other nations : Muhammad Aslam Khan Khattak and Abbas Khaleeli from British India among them . Students were varied : Baptist Thomas George Cowling became an astronomer and member of the Royal Society , in contrast , Jew Paul Dehn went on to become a film critic and screenwriter . Other alumni of this period include Charles Langbridge Morgan , Edward Atiyah and William Golding .
= = = Second World War = = =
Brasenose was a smaller community during the war , but it kept going . Once again , union with Lincoln College was discussed : but in other areas , temporary merger was more appropriate ; thus , Brasenose and Christ Church fielded single sports teams . The College hosted military personnel as it had in the First World War ; a Nissen hut was even set up in Deer Park . Brasenose sent a flood of undergraduates into the forces ; in particular , the college 's sporting , masculine ethos meant many joined the Royal Air Force . This would contribute significantly to a high death total – 123 for the Allies and 1 for the Germans – more than in the First World War , although proportionately less . Many of Brasenose 's sporting heroes died ; among survivors were future Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie and cricketer Pieter van der Bijl .
The immediate post @-@ War period once again reform on the agenda with , in particular , the passing of the Education Act 1944 . The effect was dramatic : state support , through bursaries and central grants , was hugely increased ; the proportion of state school entrants increased considerably ; for the first time in over a hundred years , there was considerable competition over places . Stallybrass , made Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University in 1947 , was sceptical about state education . It was not the quality of the students , but rather the means of state control that worried him . Annual grants from government were made to the University , not colleges , and might yet replace endowments as Brasenose 's primary source of income , making it dependent on University support and increasing " federation " of colleges in a University superstructure . Stallybrass worried over this loss of college autonomy , although it was matched with a doubled grant from the government and huge sums set aside for capital spending . The right of Brasenose to choose its own students might be under threat , he thought ; as it happened , the Labour government decided against corporate admission and threats to Stallybrass ' power mostly resided within Brasenose .
Some members of the governing body , returning in some cases from the war , wished to realign the College with the new national spirit . The Principal 's considerable role in admissions – which Stallybrass had used to elevate sportsmen – was the subject of criticism and accusations of financial under @-@ performance and over @-@ spending were made . A challenge was made directly in the bringing of a motion calling for a review of Brasenose 's financial performance since 1922 . However , before it could be debated , Stallybrass was killed , having apparently fallen from a train whilst returning to Oxford from a University meeting in London . Although the possibility of suicide was considered , the coroner ruled the case one of " death by misadventure " . Hugh Last was elected in his place , although reluctantly : he had been told by his doctor that he was terminally ill , but the fellows were insistent .
= = Second half of the twentieth century = =
Brasenose 's finances entered the second half of the century in poor shape , and considerably worse than the period between 1930 and 1931 , slipping relative to other colleges from 3rd to 8th . But they were improved during Last 's tenure , along with undergraduate admissions ; the college showed a surplus in 1952 – 53 , and income in 1957 ( £ 104 @,@ 000 ) was double what it had been in 1938 . Pay for fellows was still poor , and they were small in number compared to other colleges . There was a sizeable entertainment budget , however , something which , combined with the long hours , have contributed to short lifespans . Only in 1987 did a sitting fellow reach retirement age . Last resigned as Principal in 1956 , dying shortly after . Turnover was considerable , although some fellows stayed on : Maurice Platnauer became Principal in 1956 , and retired in 1960 ; he was replaced by Sir Noel Hall . Hall 's tenure was troubled , not externally , but rather from Hall 's patchy knowledge of the college and staff ; his selection , faute de mieux , was sometimes questioned , although he remained well @-@ liked . However , the college , which had thus far stayed assured , found itself in a changing environment . Herbert Hart , however , Principal between 1973 and 1978 , was the first to be elected from outside Brasenose . Lord Windlesham , made principal in 1989 , was the first to hold Cabinet Office .
Brasenose 's reputation for law remained , under firstly Ron Maudsley – a Tutorial Fellow in the Stallybrass mould – and Roman and Civil law lecturer and tutor Barry Nicholas , then Peter Birks , another Roman lawyer and sometime Regius Professor of Civil Law at All Souls , Harry Lawson , the first Professor of Comparative Law , and Sir Otto Kahn @-@ Freund , an employment law specialist . There was also a growing reputation for English literature – staff Ian Jack and Alastair Fowler among them . Other notable staff included Robert Shackleton , tutor in French , sometime librarian and Senior Dean ; Sir Ronald Syme , Camden Professorship of Ancient History ( previously held by Last , with whom we would continue a personal dispute ) . It would all mean the Brasenose 's fellows in 1970 were dominated by Britain 's top academic minds , however disjunct from academic success that would become . One subject to develop after 1970 , however , was Politics , Philosophy and Economics ( PPE ) . Bogdanor continued to lead a formidable group of fellows and undergraduates : Peter J.N. Sinclair , Michael Woods , John Foster , and Tony Courakis ; Lord Robin Janvrin , Kate Allen , Catharine Hill , and British Prime Minister David Cameron .
In the history department , Syme was succeeded by Peter Brunt . In the sciences , Dr John Baltrop was sometime Bursar ; Bryan Birch , Professor of Arithmetic and co @-@ author of the Birch and Swinnerton @-@ Dyer conjecture ; and Nicholas Kurti , Vice @-@ President of the Royal Society . Overall , although the immediate post @-@ War staff remained traditional – if not overly conservative in nature – with a third drawn from Brasenose itself , the late sixties signalled a change on this front . Then , a wave of new face emerged : among them , Laszlo Solymar ( later Professor of Applied Electromagnetism ) , Vernon Bogdanor ( Professor of Government ) , Robert Evans ( Regius Professor of Modern History ) and Graham Richards , Oxford 's Chairman of Chemistry .
During Last 's tenure , Brasenose had a very high number of undergraduates : a peak of 104 in 1949 , second in the University . Results , however , were poor : two firsts in 1950 , placing the college 18th . It was only near the end that things picked up , perhaps a result of Last 's stern manner ; there were 13 firsts in 1955 . However , until 1970 , they remained poor , with only a small increase on the pre @-@ War years . Brasenose sat twenty @-@ first in the Norrington Table in 1968 , twenty @-@ sixth in 1975 , and twenty @-@ seventh in 1980 . It was into this that Hart made his reforms , to bring students closer to the governing body and make them responsible for more of their own care – cleaning and washing , for example . By 2001 , Brasenose had climbed the tables once again , coming in third place in the Norrington Table with 30 firsts .
There were still sportsmen , though : A. W. Ramsay ( future RFU President ) , Kenneth Spence and Pete Dawkins among a dwindling set of rugby players ; Colin Cowdrey among the college 's cricketers . There were no Brasenose men in the Varsity cricket team between 1972 and 1989 , certainly a slide on previous times . In rowing , the decline was even more significant : sixteenth among colleges in 1964 ; twentieth in 1976 . It was only in the 1990s that rowing would return to success , firstly with the women and then with the men . Outside sport , a young Jeffrey Archer successfully invited The Beatles to Brasenose , the peak of a fundraising campaign for Oxfam .
In the 1960s onwards , there was a certain progressiveness in the air , and the first women guests were admitted in 1964 . Women members were first admitted to the 1974 – 5 year . The college 's first comprehensive @-@ schooled student ( Paul Barker ) had arrived in 1955 . It was also almost completely secular – with the exception of the chaplain and his deputies ; the chaplain 's role itself dominated by pastoral work . The students themselves concentrated more and more on the exams – marks improved across the university – but this left a class gulf between some staff and undergraduates , most visible in " gentlemanly " sports . Michael Palin and Robert Hewison were among new creative talent . Since the 1950s , over 70 % of students were state @-@ assisted , half of undergraduates drawn from state or direct grant schools , a figure very close to the University average . Brasenose merged entrance and scholarship exams in 1961 , abolished closed scholarships in the decade after , and open entrance awards in 1984 . Brasenose 's traditional link with the north @-@ west also floundered , although it is perhaps surprising that it lasted until the 1970s . In its place , there were more entrants , paying higher fees , from elsewhere in the world .
The expectation had been since the 1920s that undergraduates would spend at least one of their years living in College ; however , post @-@ war expectations grew and Brasenose began another construction programme to ensure it could house students for longer . Designs were drawn up by Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya , in a then @-@ modern style . The new buildings cost £ 76 @,@ 000 to design , housing 32 rooms , and forming staircases XVI , XVII and XVIII . The architecture , which has since come to be thoroughly disliked , was praised . The rather more popular rooms on the Frewin site were also constructed , at a total cost of £ 3 million , including commercial units . In 1996 , the St Cross Building was finished ; in 1997 the final extensions to Frewin were completed , allowing the college to house all undergraduates for the duration of their course . Finances had been secured with a late revival , and accounts early in the twenty @-@ first century showed a 6 % surplus and a ranking of 13th out of 36th in endowment income .
= = Twenty @-@ first century = =
Professor Roger Cashmore , a particle physicist , became Brasenose 's first scientist Principal in 2003 . He was replaced in 2011 by Alan Bowman , former Camden Professor of Ancient History . Kitchen and servery areas were rebuilt in 2010 – 12 , along with other changes to dining and some living rooms , in a series of building work known as " Project Q " .
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= Alfie ( Lily Allen song ) =
" Alfie " is a song by British recording artist Lily Allen from her debut studio album , Alright , Still ( 2006 ) . Written by Allen and Greg Kurstin , the song was released as the fourth and final single from the album , on 5 March 2007 , by Regal Recordings . In the United Kingdom , it was marketed as a double A @-@ side single , along with " Shame for You " . While the melody incorporates a sample of Sandie Shaw 's " Puppet on a String " , the lyrics directly describe Allen 's real life younger brother , actor Alfie Allen , criticising him for his lazy behaviour .
Contemporary critics gave the song mixed reviews , some complimenting the production , while others considered it fell flat as the album 's last song . The single peaked inside the top 20 of the charts in New Zealand and on the UK Singles Chart , where it became her third single to do so . The accompanying music video portrayed Allen 's brother as a puppet while the storyline follows the lyrical meaning of the song . The song was performed live by Allen during her 2007 concert tour , as part of the encore .
= = Background = =
Musically , the song is set in common time and has a tempo of 120 beats per minute . While it is played in the key of C major and has backing piano and guitar sounds , " Alfie " also uses a sample from Sandie Shaw 's 1967 Eurovision Song Contest winning song " Puppet on a String " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , Allen stated that the song 's lyrics describe her younger brother , Alfie Allen . She further explained :
When I wrote " Alfie " , nobody really knew who I was . At first he was really upset about it , because he thought that I was just pointing out all of his bad points and attacking him . I thought it was really flattering [ Laughs ] . I thought he 'd be really , really happy because it proved to him how much I loved him , that I care about him , and I want him to do something with his life . I suppose his paranoia — induced by smoking so much weed — made him think , " Why are you trying to be mean ? "
In the song , she tries to persuade him to emerge from his room and stop wasting his life away , while complaining that he is spending too much time stuck in his room smoking weed , watching television and playing computer games . Alfie Allen treated the song with good humour , but declared that his sister was also lazy when she was pregnant : " She 's at home in bed and everyone is running around after her . Mind you , you have to look after Lily even if she isn 't pregnant . "
The cover of the single released in the United Kingdom is different from the EP one used in Japan , as it also shows " Shame for You " written on it . " Alfie " was performed live , as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
Rosie Swash from The Guardian described the song 's sound as " fairground pomp " . She then suggested that Allen has fused together a " uniquely acidic brand of pop " , with the icing on the cake being " that brutally barbed tongue " . Rob Webb from Drowned in Sound considered that " Alfie " rescued the lack of wit and imagination of some previous tracks on the album , while Blender reporter Jon Dolan thought that the " silly waltz @-@ rap " of the song is an example at how Allen " casually and wittily blurs the line between fan and friend " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine praised the production of " Alfie " , as well as " Shame for You " , with " plenty of catchy melodies and clever samples " , but claimed that Allen lacks charisma . Heather Phares of Allmusic gave a negative review for the song , claiming it " falls especially flat as the album 's final song " , with the album losing stream at the end , and NME 's Priya Elan considered that if " the pop dreams get slightly tarnished by the graffiti put @-@ downs of ' Not Big ' and ' Alfie ' , then that 's not too worrying , as with a personality this size , this isn ’ t the last time you ’ ll be hearing from [ Allen ] " . It was considered by reviewer Ronan Hunt @-@ Murphy from Two Way Monologues that the song could be used for a children 's TV show , if the swearing and drug references were cut .
The single failed to achieve commercial success . It debuted at 44 and peaked inside the top 20 of the UK Singles Chart , at number 15 for only one week , where it charted as the double A @-@ sided single , " Alfie " / " Shame for You " . Other moderate chart peaks include Ireland , at 31 , and New Zealand at 15 . In Japan , " Alfie " was only released as an extended play , made exclusively for that country , which was ineligible to chart on the Singles Chart , so it peaked on the Albums Chart at 226 . In Europe , it reached position 55 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles compiled by Billboard .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Sarah Chatfield , who wanted to do a Tom and Jerry @-@ like video , where the human character is cut off at the waist . Hence Allen was not going to be part of it originally . However , she did appear on the video . The singer declared on her official blog that ,
I did a video shoot for the next single , which is Alfie , and that was quite a lot of fun , Alfie was played by a puppet and the whole thing looks like an episode of a mixture Tom and Jerry and Roger Rabbit , you 'll understand when you see it . The whole day was a pleasurable experience [ ... ]
The video starts off with an opening title parodying Looney Tunes and shows Allen in the kitchen preparing a cup of tea , while Alfie , impersonated by a puppet , smokes in his miniature bedroom , watching television . The singer enters the room and takes away his bong , as he unsuccessfully tries to get it back . Next , Allen irons his tuxedo and marks a job announcement called " The Puppet Show " in the newspaper , as the lyric " You need to get a job because the bills need to get paid " is sung . Meanwhile , Alfie is in his bed , staring at a magazine in which there are undressed dolls , titled " Roxy & Babs get it on ! " and proceeds to masturbate . Allen walks in on him with the newspaper and suit as he does so , but immediately exits out of embarrassment . With the start of the bridge , puppet birds sing outside the home , while Alfie sneaks out of his room and tries to get beer out of the refrigerator , but is ultimately caught by Allen . She then takes off his " stupid fitted cap " , as he scrawls a picture of her , which is also the cover of " Littlest Things " . The final scene happens at night , in the kitchen , where Allen is lying on the floor , watching her brother dance . After the last lyrics , " Please don 't despair , my dear , mon frere " is sung , he punches her and the video ends .
There is also an alternate version , where the words " weed " , " THC " and " twat " are blanked , the bong is replaced by a joystick , Alfie does not smoke , and , when Allen walks in on him masturbating , there is a big " censored " sign . The video won " Best Pop Video " and " Best New Director " at the CADs Music Vision Awards in June 2007 , and nominated at the 2007 Q Awards for " Best Video " , but lost to " Ruby " by Kaiser Chiefs .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals — Lily Allen
Written by — Lily Allen and Greg Kurstin
Produced by — Greg Kurstin
Mastered by — Tim Burrell , Tim Debney
Audio mixing — Greg Kurstin
= = Charts = =
Notes :
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= U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( Hagerstown – Frederick , Maryland ) =
U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( US 40 Alternate ) is an alternate route of US 40 in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs 22 @.@ 97 miles ( 36 @.@ 97 km ) from Potomac Street in Hagerstown east to US 40 in Frederick . US 40 Alternate parallels US 40 and much of Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) to the south through eastern Washington County and western Frederick County . The alternate route connects Hagerstown and Frederick with Funkstown , Boonsboro , Middletown , and Braddock Heights . US 40 Alternate crosses two major north – south components of the Blue Ridge Mountains that separate the Great Appalachian Valley and the Piedmont : South Mountain between Boonsboro and Middletown and Catoctin Mountain , which is locally known as Braddock Mountain , at Braddock Heights .
US 40 Alternate is the old alignment of US 40 . The highway 's path was blazed in the mid @-@ 18th century to connect the Hagerstown Valley and Shenandoah Valley with eastern Pennsylvania and central Maryland . In the early 19th century , US 40 Alternate 's path was improved as part of a series of turnpikes to connect Baltimore with the eastern terminus of the National Road in Cumberland . The highway was improved as one of the original state roads in the early 1910s and designated US 40 in the late 1920s . Construction on a relocated US 40 between Hagerstown and Frederick with improved crossings of South Mountain and Braddock Mountain began in the mid @-@ 1930s ; the new highway was completed in the late 1940s . US 40 Alternate was assigned to the old route of US 40 in the early 1950s .
= = Route description = =
US 40 Alternate is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Edgewood Drive in Funkstown to its underpass of I @-@ 70 south of Funkstown and from Old Hagerstown Road near Middletown to US 40 in Frederick .
= = = Hagerstown to South Mountain = = =
US 40 Alternate begins as Baltimore Street at its intersection with one @-@ way southbound Potomac Street within the Hagerstown Historic District on the southern edge of downtown Hagerstown . Baltimore Street , which continues west as a city street toward the Hagerstown City Park , runs east – west two blocks south of US 40 , which comprises a one @-@ way pair of Washington Street eastbound and Franklin Street westbound . After heading east for two blocks , during which US 40 Alternate intersects one @-@ way northbound Locust Street , the municipally @-@ maintained alternate route turns southeast onto Frederick Street at a five @-@ way junction that also includes north – south Mulberry Street . US 40 Alternate intersects Memorial Boulevard , which heads east past Municipal Stadium , home of the minor league baseball Hagerstown Suns . The highway meets a CSX rail spur at grade while passing through an industrial area that extends to the southern city limits of Hagerstown at Kenly Avenue .
US 40 Alternate continues southeast as a state @-@ maintained highway that passes the historic home Garden Hill and crosses Antietam Creek into Funkstown , where the highway 's name changes to Westside Avenue . Within the Funkstown Historic District , the alternate route turns east onto Baltimore Street , then southeast onto Frederick Street . At the southern town limits of Funkstown , US 40 Alternate becomes Boonsboro Pike , which passes through farmland as it parallels Antietam Creek . The highway passes under I @-@ 70 ( Eisenhower Memorial Highway ) with no access and intersects Poffenberger Road , which leads west to the historic home Valentia . The highway veers away from Antietam Creek , passes through the hamlet of Benevola , and traverses Landis Spring Branch and Beaver Creek on its way to Boonsboro .
US 40 Alternate enters the town of Boonsboro and its name changes to Main Street at its intersection with Maryland Route 68 ( MD 68 ) ( Lappans Road ) . The highway meets the south end of MD 66 ( Maple Avenue ) next to the Bowman House and the east end of MD 34 ( Potomac Street ) in the center of town . US 40 Alternate leaves the town of Boonsboro after its intersection with MD 67 ( Rohrersville Road ) . The alternate route continues southeast as Boonsboro Pike and starts to ascend South Mountain . At the summit , known as Turner 's Gap , US 40 Alternate intersects Washington Monument Road , which leads north to Washington Monument State Park , and passes the Dahlgren Chapel and the Old South Mountain Inn .
= = = South Mountain to Frederick = = =
US 40 Alternate 's name changes to Old National Pike as it intersects the Appalachian Trail at the Washington – Frederick county line and begins its curvaceous descent of South Mountain into the Middletown Valley . In the western part of the valley , the highway passes the Henry Shoemaker Farmhouse and intersects Mount Tabor Road , which parallels South Mountain north past the historic Daniel Sheffer Farm and Routzahn @-@ Miller Farmstead . In Spoolsville , US 40 Alternate crosses Catoctin Creek and meets Old Hagerstown Road , which passes the Bowlus Mill House . The alternate route 's name becomes Main Street as it heads east through Middletown . US 40 Alternate passes the Stonebraker and Harbaugh @-@ Shafer Building and intersects MD 17 ( Church Street ) within the Middletown Historic District . The highway passes through the Airview Historic District before leaving the town limits .
East of Middletown , US 40 Alternate passes through a suburban area then begins to ascend Braddock Mountain . The highway gains a climbing lane eastbound to the top of the mountain , which contains the community of Braddock Heights . On the descent of Braddock Mountain , US 40 Alternate expands to a four @-@ lane road , with one lane eastbound , two lanes westbound , and a center turn lane . At the base of the mountain , the alternate route temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway through its half @-@ diamond interchange with I @-@ 70 , which has ramps to and from the direction of Frederick . East of I @-@ 70 , US 40 Alternate reduces to two lanes and passes the Highland Lodge . The alternate route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial intersection with US 40 ( Patrick Street ) at the western edge of Frederick and the Frederick Golden Mile , a heavily commercialized area east to US 15 ( Frederick Freeway ) . There is no direct access from eastbound US 40 Alternate to westbound US 40 or from eastbound US 40 to the westbound alternate route ; those movements are made by using Old Camp Road .
= = History = =
= = = Early paths and turnpikes = = =
The portion of US 40 Alternate between Frederick and Boonsboro roughly follows the Monocacy Road , a pack @-@ horse trail blazed by settlers from Pennsylvania around 1730 . The trail connected Philadelphia , Lancaster , and Hanover with Winchester , Virginia by way of what is now Taneytown , Frederick , Boonsboro , and Williamsport . The portion of the Monocacy Road from Frederick to Williamsport was used by the Braddock Expedition on its way from Alexandria to Cumberland to commence its ill @-@ fated assault on Fort Duquesne . Following the founding of Hagerstown in 1762 , a road was laid out north from Boonsboro to connect the new town with the eastern part of the colony . While the Monocacy Road as a whole was disused by 1794 , the portion followed by US 40 Alternate remained an important connection between Baltimore and Western Maryland .
The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike Company was chartered in 1805 to build a road along the 62 @-@ mile ( 100 km ) path from Baltimore to Boonsboro . This turnpike was the first step in connecting Baltimore with Cumberland , the eastern terminus of the just @-@ commenced National Road . By 1808 , the turnpike had been completed west 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Baltimore and another 17 miles ( 27 km ) was under construction . The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike was completed in 1812 . That same year , keen for an improved road to fully extend between Baltimore and Cumberland , the Maryland General Assembly conscripted the state 's banks to fund turnpike companies to complete the gap between Boonsboro and Cumberland with the benefit of having their charters extended from 1816 to 1835 . The banks opposed this measure but reluctantly bankrolled the construction of a road from Conocheague Creek to Cumberland between 1816 and 1818 and from Hagerstown to Conococheague Creek in 1818 and 1819 . The Maryland General Assembly used their powers again in 1821 , agreeing to extend the banks ' charters to 1845 if they would fund a turnpike in the gap between Boonsboro and Hagerstown . When the National Turnpike was completed in 1823 , it became the first macadam road constructed in the United States . The Baltimore and Fredericktown and National turnpikes remained in operation through 1909 .
= = = State road construction and bypass = = =
In 1909 , the nascent Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSRC ) designated the road between Frederick and Hagerstown for improvement as one of the original state roads . The commission 's first task was to acquire the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way by purchasing the two turnpikes in 1911 . MDSRC reconstructed the road between Frederick and Hagerstown with a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam surface from Frederick to Middletown and from South Mountain to Boonsboro in 1913 . The state road was built from Middletown to South Mountain and from Boonsboro to Hagerstown in 1914 . The portion of the highway within Boonsboro was paved in 1915 . The last portion of the Frederick – Hagerstown state road to be constructed was within Funkstown , where the highway was surfaced with concrete by 1919 . The highway was designated part of US 40 in 1927 .
Around 1926 , US 40 received its first improvement when concrete shoulders were added to expand the roadway from 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in width . By 1934 , MDSRC recommended widening the highway to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Frederick to 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Hagerstown . Ultimately , the commission decided to construct a new highway between the two cities that would shorten the distance by 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) and bypass the sharp curves and limited sight distances of the old road . Grading and drainage work on the new highway began in 1936 and was completed in 1938 for the first roadway of what would ultimately become a divided highway . The first 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide concrete roadway was constructed from downtown Hagerstown southeast to near Beaver Creek Road in 1938 . Surfacing of the remainder of the relocated National Pike was delayed by World War II ; construction resumed in 1946 and the new highway opened in 1948 .
The relocated National Pike was originally designated US 40 Alternate ; the old and new roads switched to their present designations in 1952 . Despite the construction of a new highway , improvements continued on the original road . Trolley tracks of the Hagerstown and Frederick Railway were removed from the highway in Funkstown and the street was resurfaced in 1940 . Hill climbing lanes were added for a length of 800 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 240 to 300 m ) on both sides of Braddock Mountain and South Mountain around 1942 . The highway between Funkstown and Boonsboro had curves modified and was widened and resurfaced in 1949 . US 40 Alternate from US 40 in Frederick west to Braddock Mountain underwent the same type of work in 1951 and 1952 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Work cited = =
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= This Time Around ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" This Time Around " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Michael Jackson that features the vocals from rapper The Notorious B.I.G. The song appears on Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set . The song and lyrics were written by Michael Jackson , while the music was composed by Dallas Austin , Bruce Swedien and Rene Moore . Dallas Austin and Michael Jackson produced the song , while Bruce Swedien and René Moore served as co @-@ producers . The song 's lyrics details a musician 's problems with being famous and dealing with stardom . In December 1995 , the track was released as a promotional single in the United States only , containing a radio edit and remixes . " This Time Around " had a good chart performance , having charted solely due to radio airplay throughout the country . The song received positive reviews from contemporary music critics .
= = Background and composition = =
The song and lyrics were written by Michael Jackson , while the music was composed by Dallas Austin , Bruce Swedien and Rene Moore . " This Time Around " is a song by Jackson that features vocals by rapper The Notorious B.I.G. Austin and Jackson produced the song , while Swedien and Moore co @-@ produced the song . It was recorded by both American musicians in 1994 and 1995 for Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set .
" This Time Around " was written in common time , and was played in the key of D minor . The track 's tempo is a moderate 108 beats per minute . The track has a basic sequence of Dm11 – Dm9 as its chord progression . The song 's lyrics are about Michael and Biggie 's problems with being famous and dealing with stardom , and throughout the song Jackson asserts that he 's been " falsely accused " . On December 26 , 1995 , the track was released by Epic Records as a promotional single in the United States only . The promo was formatted in three different versions , which were as a standalone CD single with just the song , as a 12 " single with remixes and as a maxi @-@ single .
= = Release and reception = =
" This Time Around " received positive reviews from contemporary music critics in their review for the album . James Hunter of Rolling Stone described the song as being a " dynamite jam ... done with Atlanta R & B hotshot Dallas Austin that 's ripe for remixes " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times believed that Jackson " muttered " lyrics such as " They thought they really had control of me " . Although " This Time Around " did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , the track had a good chart performance on music component charts in the United States . The song charted on music charts based solely on radio airplay throughout the country . It charted within the top 40 of the Billboard Rhythmic Top 40 chart in 1995 , peaking at number 36 . The song peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Dance Music / Club Play Singles music charts 1996 . In 1996 , the track also peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts = =
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= Sermons of Jonathan Swift =
Jonathan Swift , as Dean of St. Patrick 's Cathedral in Dublin , produced many sermons during his tenure from 1713 to 1745 . Although Swift is better known today for his secular writings such as Gulliver 's Travels , A Tale of a Tub , or the Drapier 's Letters , Swift was known in Dublin for his sermons that were delivered every fifth Sunday . Of these sermons , Swift wrote down 35 , of which 12 have been preserved . In his sermons Swift attempted to impart traditional Church of Ireland values to his listeners in a plain manner .
Of the surviving twelve sermons , four have received serious consideration : " Doing Good " , " False Witness " , " Mutual Subjection " and " Testimony of Conscience " . These sermons deal with political matters and are used to give insight to Swift 's political writing ; the sermon " Doing Good " and its relationship with the Drapier 's Letters is one such example . However , the audience at St. Patrick 's Cathedral did not come to hear connections to political works , but to enjoy the well @-@ known preacher and be " moved by his [ Swift 's ] manners " .
Each sermon begins with a scriptural passage that reinforces the ideas that will be discussed in the sermon and each was preceded with the same opening prayer ( which Swift also delivered ) . The sermons are plainly written and apply a common @-@ sense approach to contemporary moral issues in Dublin . Swift patterned his sermons on the plain style of the Book of Common Prayer and the Church of Ireland Authorized Version of the Bible .
= = Background = =
As Dean of Saint Patrick 's Cathedral , Jonathan Swift spent every fifth Sunday preaching from the pulpit . Although many of his friends suggested that he should publish these sermons , Swift felt that he lacked the talent as a preacher to make his sermons worthy of publication . Instead , Swift spent his time working more on political works , such as Drapier 's Letters , and justified this by his lacking in religions areas .
Members of St. Patrick 's community would ask , " Pray , does the Doctor preach today ? " Swift 's sermons had the reputation of being spoken " with an emphasis and fervor which everyone around him saw , and felt . " In response to such encouragement to preach , Swift was reported to say that he " could never rise higher than preaching pamphlets . " Swift 's friend , Dr. John Arbuthnot , claimed , " I can never imagine any man can be uneasy , that has the opportunity of venting himself to a whole congregation once a week . " Regardless of what Swift thought of himself , the Cathedral was always crowded during his sermons .
Swift wrote out his sermons before preaching and marked his words to provide the correct pronunciation or to emphasise the word ironically . He always practised reading his sermons , and , as Davis claims , " he would ( in his own expression ) pick up the lines , and cheat his people , by making them believe he had it all by heart . " However , he wanted to express the truth of his words and impart this truth in a down @-@ to @-@ earth manner that could be understood by his listeners .
Swift believed that a preacher had to be understood , and states , " For a divine hath nothing to say to the wisest congregation of any parish in this kingdom , which he may not express in a manner to be understood by the meanest among them . " He elaborates further when he says , " The two principal branches of preaching , are first to tell the people what is their duty ; and then to convince them that it is so . "
Shortly before his death , Swift gave the collection of 35 sermons to Dr. Thomas Sheridan , saying , " You may have them if you please ; they maybe of use to you , they never were of any to me . " In 1744 , George Faulkner , the Dublin publisher of Swift 's 1735 Works , printed the sermons entitled " On Mutual Subjection , " " On Conscience , " and " On the Trinity . "
= = Surviving sermons = =
There are twelve surviving sermons that have been collected , and each sermon was introduced with a corresponding scriptural passage and the following prayer given by Swift :
Almighty and most merciful God ! forgive us all our sins . Give us grace heartily to repent them , and to lead new lives . Graft in our hearts a true love and veneration for thy holy name and word . Make thy pastors burning and shining lights , able to convince gainsayers , and to save others and themselves . Bless this congregation here met together in thy name ; grant them to hear and receive thy holy word , to the salvation of their own souls . Lastly , we desire to return thee praise and thanksgiving for all thy mercies bestowed upon us ; but chiefly for the Fountain of them all , Jesus Christ our Lord , in whose name and words we further call upon thee , saying , ' Our Father , ' & c . "
The order of the sermons is presented according to the 1763 Sermons of the Reverend Dr. Jonathan Swift " carefully corrected " edition , which published the first nine of the twelve known sermons .
= = = On the Trinity = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from First Epistle of John 5 : 7 – " For there are three that bear record in Heaven , the Father , the Word , and the Holy Ghost ; and these Three are One . "
Swift relies on 1 Corinthians in this sermon , but unlike other uses by Swift of 1 Corinthians , his use of the epistle in " On the Trinity " describe man 's inability to understand the complex workings of God . Swift states " Behold I show you a mystery ; we shall not all sleep , but we shall all be changed . " The primarily use of this sermon is to describe the divine mysteries in a simple manner ; Swift is not giving answers to the mysteries , but only explaining how Christians are to understand them . Swift attempts to describe the ambiguous nature of the Trinity and how many should understand it when he says :
Therefore I shall again repeat the doctrine of the Trinity , as it is positively affirmed in Scripture : that God is there expressed in three different names , as Father , as Son , and as Holy Ghost : that each of these is God , and that there is but one God . But this union and distinction are a mystery utterly unknown to mankind .
Although Swift constantly answers moral problems with common sense and reason , Swift believed that reason cannot be used when it comes to the divine mysteries . Instead , faith is all that man needs and , as Swift claims :
This is enough for any good Christian to believe on this great article , without ever inquiring any farther : And , this can be contrary to no man 's reason , although the knowledge of it is hid from him .
= = = On Mutual Subjection = = =
" On Mutual Subjection " was first given on 28 February 1718 , and it was first printed in 1744 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from First Epistle of Peter 5 : 5 – " --Yea , all of you be subject one to another . "
The sermon relies on scripture to emphasise the divine will in calling people to serve their fellow men , which is a common theme in Swift 's sermons . This calling , as Swift claims , is based on historical events that reinforce scripture and allow mankind to know of the divine will . In particular , the development of the state and of the human body are parallel to each other , and England may soon be entering into a decline . However , Swift emphasises that man is imperfect , and that sin is a symbol of this imperfectness .
Swift summarises this message with the Parable of the Talents as he says :
God sent us into the world to obey His commands , by doing as much good as our abilities will reach , and as little evil as our many infirmities will permit . Some He hath only trusted with one talent , some with five , and some with ten . No man is without his talent ; and he that is faithful or negligent in a little shall be rewarded or punished , as well as he that hath been so in a great deal . " To this John Boyle , Lord Orrery states , " A clearer style , or a discourse more properly adapted to a public audience , can scarce be framed . Every paragraph is simple , nervous , and intelligible . The threads of each argument are closely connected and logically pursued .
Although the sermon deals primarily with subjection to higher powers , some of Swift 's contemporaries viewed the sermon as political propaganda . John Evans , Bishop of Meath , told the Archbishop of Canterbury that he heard " a strange sermon ... It was somewhat like one of Montaigne 's essays , making very free with all orders and degrees of men among us – lords , bishops , & c. men in power . The pretended subjects were pride and humiliation . " He later continued to claim that " in short , [ Swift ] is thought to be Tory ... all over , which ( here ) is reckon 'd by every honest man Jacobite . "
However , Evans may have overly emphasised a political interpretation of the sermon for his own political gain ; the see of Derry had just opened and Evans wished to have his friend William Nicolson take the position . Evans ' political intrigue provoked Swift during an inspection of the clergy of Meath at Trim . Swift , as vicar of Laracor spoke during a synod to defend himself , his sermons , and his politics , and instead of resolving the issue , only caused more dispute between the two .
The emphasis on religious unity , also found in " On the Wisdom of this World " , comes from Swift 's understanding of St. Paul 's treatment of religious dissension among the early Christians . Paul 's words , " that there should be no schism in the body " , were important in the formation of this sermon , and served as part of Swift 's encouragement to the people of Ireland to follow the same religion .
= = = On the Testimony of Conscience = = =
" On the Testimony of Conscience " was first printed in 1744 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from 2 Corinthians 1 : 12 – " For our rejoicing is this , the testimony of our conscience . " Part of the sermon relied on discussing the nature of rewards and punishments to come in the afterlife .
Religious dissension is the topic of this sermon and argues that dissenters do not want to embrace freedom , but instead exist only to destroy established Churches , especially the Church of Ireland . In the sermon , Swift conflates all dissenters with the Whig political party , and they are " those very persons , who under a pretence of a public spirit and tenderness towards their Christian brethrene , are so jealous for such a liberty of conscience as this , are of all others the least tender to those who differ from them in the smallest point relating to government . " To Swift , tolerating dissent is the same as tolerating blasphemy .
The work is filled with innuendo towards the rule of King George and his toleration of Whigs and dissenters as tyrannical ; Swift claims that a leader who tolerates religious dissenters was like a " heathen Emperor , who said , if the gods were offended , it was their own concern , and they were able to vindicate themselves . " To Swift , such leaders would eventually lose power , because God 's divine will manifests itself in historic outcomes .
In particular , Swift relies on a quote from Tiberius , as reported by Tacitus , to describe the " heathen " thoughts . Swift relied on Tiberius ' quote when mocking leaders who would undermine religious unity or those who were completely opposed to Christianity , such as in An Argument against Abolishing Christianity . Swift believed in the need for citizens to be required to follow Anglican religious practices and to honor the king as head of the Church , and a king who would who did not believe in the same could be nothing less than pagan .
Part of the sermon is dedicated to comparing the actions of the Irish church , in its struggle against religious dissenters and political uncertainty , with that of the primitive church . In particular , Swift claims , " For a man 's Conscience can go no higher than his Knowledge ; and therefore until he has thoroughly examined by Scripture , and the practice of the ancient Church , whether those points are blamable or no , his Conscience cannot possibly direct him to condemn them . " However , Swift does not believe that experience alone could make one capable of understanding virtue or being capable of teaching virtue .
Regardless of the innuendo about Roman religious tyranny or comparisons to early Christian history , the sermon is given , as Ehrenpreis claims , with an " air of simplicity , frankness , common sense , and spontaneity " that " disarms the listener . " This sermon , in its plain language , is able to convey Swift 's message in a manner that could be seen as contradictory if it was embellished by history , allusions , or complex reasoning .
= = = On Brotherly Love = = =
" On Brotherly Love " was given on 29 November 1717 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Hebrews 8 : 1 – " Let brotherly love continue . "
Although Swift is preaching on " brotherly love " , he dwells on the topic of true religion and political dissent , and he uses his sermon to preach against those who are politically and religiously different from himself and the members of St. Patrick 's community . He introduces this claim when he says :
This nation of ours hath , for an hundred years past , been infested by two enemies , the Papists and fanatics , who , each in their turns , filled it with blood and slaughter , and , for a time , destroyed both the Church and government . The memory of these events hath put all true Protestants equally upon their guard against both these adversaries , who , by consequence , do equally hate us . The fanatics revile us , as too nearly approaching to Popery ; and the Papists condemn us , as bordering too much on fanaticism . The Papists , God be praised , are , by the wisdom of our laws , put out of all visible possibility of hurting us ; besides , their religion is so generally abhorred , that they have no advocates or abettors among Protestants to assist them . But the fanatics are to be considered in another light ; they have had of late years the power , the luck , or the cunning , to divide us among ourselves ;
Throughout this sermon , Swift emphasises that history is connected to the divine will throughout this sermon to criticise those who dissent . For example :
And others again , whom God had formed with mild and gentle dispositions , think it necessary to put a force upon their own tempers , by acting a noisy , violent , malicious part , as a means to be distinguished . Thus hath party got the better of the very genius and constitution of our people ; so that whoever reads the character of the English in former ages , will hardly believe their present posterity to be of the same nation or climate .
This work was printed and distributed as a solo tract in 1754 .
= = = On the Difficulty of Knowing One 's Self = = =
Although " On the Difficulty of Knowing One 's Self " was printed in 1745 along with some of Swift 's other sermons , its authorship is not completely established , since the original printing of the work came with the following disclaimer :
The manuscript title page of the following sermon being lost , and no memorandum writ upon it , as there were upon the others , when and where it was preached , made the editor doubtful whether he should print it as the Dean 's , or not . But its being found amongst the same papers ; and the hand , though writ somewhat better , bearing a great similitude to the Dean 's , made him willing to lay it before the public , that they might judge whether the style and manner also does not render it still more probable to be his . "
The sermon deals with the issues of understanding one 's self and how to act towards others in a Christian manner . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from 2 Kings 8 : 13 - " And Hazael said , But what , is thy servant a dog , that he should do this great thing ? " and the sermon concludes with the golden rule :
let him keep an eye upon that one great comprehensive rule of Christian duty , on which hangs , not only the law and the prophets , but the very life and spirit of the Gospel too : " Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you , do ye even so unto them . " Which rule , that we may all duly observe , by throwing aside all scandal and detraction , all spite and rancour , all rudeness and contempt , all rage and violence , and whatever tends to make conversation and commerce either uneasy , or troublesome , may the God of peace grant for Jesus Christ his sake , & c .
Swift relies on Gospel of Matthew in this sermon ( Swift quotes from the Sermon on the Mount , Matthew 7 : 12 ) instead of the other Gospels ; this is standard practice for Swift , because the Gospel features a simple , non @-@ controversial history that complements Swift 's religious views .
= = = On False Witness = = =
" On False Witness " was given in 1715 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Exodus 20 : 16 – " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour . "
This sermon deals primarily with the topic of informers ; an informer had produced evidence that Swift was breaching King George 's order against preachers involving themselves in political matters . Swift , as a Tory propagandist , had been sent a package from another Tory ; the package was intercepted by a customs officer and it put Swift into hot water from the Whig politicians in power at the time . The sermon was used to attack those who " catch up an accidental word " and misstate situations to hurt others . Swift alludes to such people when he says :
Such witnesses are those who cannot hear an idle intemperate expression , but they must immediately run to the magistrate to inform ; or perhaps wrangling in their cups over night , when they were not able to speak or apprehend three words of common sense , will pretend to remember everything the next morning , and think themselves very properly qualified to be accusers of their brethren . God be thanked , the throne of our King is too firmly settled to be shaken by the folly and rashness of every sottish companion .
Half of the sermon is used to criticise the Whigs and their political activities . The other half is devoted to condemning Tories who betray other Tories as criminals , to gain favour with the Whigs . The Whigs are characterised as the persecutors of the early Christians , and betraying Tories are characterised as apostates .
Although King George I had issued a royal edict against speaking about political informers in regards to potential Jacobite rebellion , Swift felt that the issue was necessary to not only defend himself , but to defend all politically @-@ oppressed people . Immediately after the sermon , Prime Minister Robert Walpole used his power to form " The Committee of Secrecy " and deemed that Swift 's allies , Lord Bolingbroke , Lord Oxford , Lord Strafford , and Duke Ormonde would be sent to the Tower of London . However , Lord Bolingbroke and Duke Ormonde fled to France , and Oxford was taken to the Tower . This placed Swift at a political disadvantage , but he was mostly ignored .
= = = On the Poor Man 's Contentment = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Epistle to the Philippians 4 : 11 – " I have learned , in whatsoever state I am , therewith to be content " .
In this sermon , Swift was worried about how guilt affects mankind or how the lack of guilt is a sign of mankind 's problems : " the Shortness of his Life ; his Dread of a future State , with his Carelessness to prepare for it . " He explains this :
And , it is a mistake to think , that the most hardened sinner , who oweth his possessions or titles to any such wicked arts of thieving , can have true peace of mind , under the reproaches of a guilty conscience , and amid the cries of ruined widows and orphans .
Swift is trying to convince his listeners that they needed to contemplate their life and their death , and that they need to understand the rewards and punishments that await them in the afterlife . He emphasises this point when he explains the importance of meekness and modesty :
Since our blessed Lord , instead of a rich and honourable station in this world , was pleased to choose his lot among men of the lower condition ; let not those , on whom the bounty of Providence hath bestowed wealth and honours , despise the men who are placed in a humble and inferior station ; but rather , with their utmost power , by their countenance , by their protection , by just payment of their honest labour , encourage their daily endeavours for the support of themselves and their families . On the other hand , let the poor labour to provide things honest in the sight of all men ; and so , with diligence in their several employments , live soberly , righteously , and godlily in this present world , that they may obtain that glorious reward promised in the Gospel to the poor , I mean the kingdom of Heaven .
But it is not just knowing your own fate in the afterlife , but also recognising the good in others and respecting that good .
= = = On the Wretched Condition of Ireland = = =
The sermon is properly titled " A Sermon on the Wretched Conditions of Ireland " . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Psalms 144 : 14 – 15 – " That there be no complaining in our streets . Happy is the people that is in such a case . "
This sermon has been characterised as being particularly grounded in politics , and Swift sums up many of the political issues that he had previously addressed in pamphlets and essays . The solution to fixing the misery of the Irish people is :
to found a school in every parish of the kingdom , for teaching the meaner and poorer sort of children to speak and read the English tongue , and to provide a reasonable maintenance for the teachers . This would , in time , abolish that part of barbarity and ignorance , for which our natives are so despised by all foreigners : this would bring them to think and act according to the rules of reason , by which a spirit of industry , and thrift , and honesty would be introduced among them . And , indeed , considering how small a tax would suffice for such a work , it is a public scandal that such a thing should never have been endeavoured , or , perhaps , so much as thought on .
However , lack of education is not the only problem for Ireland ; many problems come from the vices of the Irish citizenry . These vices span the way of dress to the inactivity of the common person . To correct the problems of Ireland , Swift emphasises the need for his people to contribute to various charities , and concludes :
I might here , if the time would permit , offer many arguments to persuade to works of charity ; but you hear them so often from the pulpit , that I am willing to hope you may not now want them . Besides , my present design was only to shew where your alms would be best bestowed , to the honour of God , your own ease and advantage , the service of your country , and the benefit of the poor . I desire you will all weigh and consider what I have spoken , and , according to your several stations and abilities , endeavour to put it in practice ;
Some critics have seen Swift as hopeless in regards to actual change for Ireland . The rich could never change from their absentee landlord mentality that has stripped Ireland of its economic independence , and that is why Swift spends the majority of his sermon discussing the poor . Swift proposes a remedy of sorts that would help the poor ; they should be educated and the free travel of beggars should be restricted . These ideas were intended to limit the amount that the poor consumed in society , which , combined with a proposal for the poor to act more virtuously , should correct many of the problems that plague Ireland , but these ideas were never put into effect .
= = = On Sleeping in Church = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Acts of the Apostles 20 : 9 – " And there sat in a window a certain young man , named Eutychus , being fallen into a deep sleep ; and as Paul was long preaching , he sunk down with sleep , and fell down from the third loft , and was taken up dead . "
In this sermon , Swift criticises a " decay " in preaching that has led to people falling asleep in church . Throughout the Sermon , Swift constantly relies on the Parable of the Sower . Swift emphasises the wording of St. Matthew when he says , " whose Hearts are waxed gross , whose Ears are dulled of hearing , and whose eyes are closed , " and he uses " eyes are closed " to connect back to those sleeping in Church .
People not attending Church is another problem addressed in the sermon . Swift states :
Many men come to church to save or gain a reputation ; or because they will not be singular , but comply with an established custom ; yet , all the while , they are loaded with the guilt of old rooted sins . These men can expect to hear of nothing but terrors and threatenings , their sins laid open in true colours , and eternal misery the reward of them ; therefore , no wonder they stop their ears , and divert their thoughts , and seek any amusement rather than stir the hell within them . "
He describes these people as :
Men whose minds are much enslaved to earthly affairs all the week , cannot disengage or break the chain of their thoughts so suddenly , as to apply to a discourse that is wholly foreign to what they have most at heart . "
The people are unwilling to be confronted by the results of their actions in the afterlife , and it is this problem that Swift wants to prevent .
= = = On the Wisdom of this World = = =
" On the Wisdom of this World " was originally titled " A Sermon upon the Excellence of Christianity in Opposition to Heathen Philosophy " in the 1765 edition of Swift 's Works . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from I Corinthians 3 : 19 – " The wisdom of this world is foolishness with God . " This sermon emphasises the nature of rewards and punishments , and how such aspects of Christianity had been lacking in the classical philosophies .
Except for The Gospel of St. Matthew , Swift relied on I Corinthians more than any other Biblical book . I Corinthians was a favourite work for Swift to rely on , because the epistle emphasises how to act as a proper Christian and how to conform to united principles . Although the Anglican mass emphasises the Epistle to the Romans , Swift relied on Corinthians in order to combat religious schismatic tendencies in a similar manner to his criticism of dissenters in " On Mutual Subjection " .
However , a second aspect of I Corinthians also enters into the sermon ; Swift relies on it to promote the idea that reason can be used to comprehend the world , but " excellency of speech " is false when it comes to knowledge about the divine . To this , Swift said , " we must either believe what God directly commandeth us in Holy Scripture , or we must wholly reject the Scripture , and the Christian Religion which we pretend to confess " .
= = = On Doing Good = = =
" On Doing Good : A Sermon on the Occasion of Wood 's Project " was given in 1724 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Galatians 6 : 10 - " As we have therefore opportunity , let us do good unto all men . "
It is unsure when the sermon was actually given , but some critics suggest it was read immediately following the publication of Swift 's Letter to the Whole People of Ireland while others place it in October 1724 .
According to Sophie Smith , Swift 's " On Doing Good " sermon is about a patriotic ideal that is " higher than most ideals published in text @-@ books on that subject . " " On Doing Good " calls the people to act on a higher level of ethics , which Smith describes as " Baconian " .
Smith claims that Swift discusses this ideal when he says :
Under the title of our neighbour , there is yet a duty of a more large , extensive nature incumbent on us – our love to our neighbour is his public capacity , as he is a member of that greatly body , the Commonwealth , under the same government with ourselves , and this is usually called love of the public , and is a duty to which we are more strictly obliged than even that of loving ourselves , because wherein ourselves are also contained – as well as all our neighbours – is one great body .
And :
But here I would not be misunderstood . By the love of our country , I do not mean loyalty to our King , for that is a duty of another nature , and a man may be very loyal , in the common sense of the word , without one grain of public good in his heart . Witness this very kingdom we live in . I verily believe , that since the beginning of the world , no nation upon earth ever shewed ( all circumstances considered ) , such high constant marks of loyalty in all their action and behaviour as we have done ; and at the same time , no people ever appeared more utterly void of what is called public spirit ... therefore , I shall think my time not ill @-@ spent if I can persuade most and all of you who hear me , to shew the love you have for your country by endeavouring in your several situations to do all the public good you can . For I am certain persuaded that all our misfortunes arise from no other original cause than that general disregard among us to the public welfare .
Swift felt that it was his duty as Dean to raise the " Irish self @-@ esteem " to liberate the Irish from English economic oppression .
Beyond basic " self @-@ esteem " issues , Swift used the sermon to reinforce the moral arguments incorporated into the Drapier 's Letters with religious doctrine and biblical authority . One image , that of Nineveh and Nimrod , appears in both the sermon and the letters . Nimrod represents Ireland 's desire to coin its own currency and he is a warning to the English that Ireland will not tolerate England 's despotic control . Furthermore , the use of " Nineveh " reinforces Swift 's claim that Ireland is under " God 's special providence " .
Because of the correlation between this sermon and the Drapier 's Letters , Swift remarked , " I never preached but twice in my life ; and then they were not sermons , but pamphlets .... They were against Wood 's halfpence . " Even if this sermon was more of a pamphlet , Swift emphasises the divine will and how it guides history . Like the Drapier 's Letters , " On Doing Good " caused the Irish people to respect Swift as a hero and a patriot .
= = = On the Martyrdom of King Charles I = = =
" On the Martyrdom of King Charles I " was given on 30 January 1725 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Genesis 49 : 5 – 7 –
Simeon and Levi are brethren ; instruments of cruelty are in their habitations . / O my soul , come not thou into their secret ; unto their assembly , mine honour , be not thou united : for in their anger they slew a man , and in their self @-@ will they digged down a wall . / Cursed be their anger , for it was fierce ; and their wrath , for it was cruel . I will divide them in Jacob , and scatter them in Israel .
The letter served two purposes : the first was to honour the martyrdom of King Charles I and the second was to criticise dissenters against the Church of Ireland . Swift emphasises both when he says :
I know very well , that the Church hath been often censured for keeping holy this day of humiliation , in memory of that excellent king and blessed martyr , Charles I , who rather chose to die on a scaffold , than betray the religion and liberties of his people , wherewith God and the laws had entrusted him . "
To Swift , the dissent that led to King Charles I 's martyrdom defied God 's divine will .
Swift concludes his sermon with :
On the other side , some look upon kings as answerable for every mistake or omission in government , and bound to comply with the most unreasonable demands of an unquiet faction ; which was the case of those who persecuted the blessed Martyr of this day from his throne to the scaffold . Between these two extremes , it is easy , from what hath been said , to choose a middle ; to be good and loyal subjects , yet , according to your power , faithful assertors of your religion and liberties ; to avoid all broachers and preachers of newfangled doctrines in the Church ; to be strict observers of the laws , which cannot be justly taken from you without your own consent : In short , ' to obey God and the King , and meddle not with those who are given to change.'
= = Reception = =
Lord Orrery favourably described that some of Swift 's sermons were more properly moral or political essays . Lord Orrery prefaced the 1763 edition of The Sermons with :
These Sermons are curious ; and curious for such reason as would make other works despicable . They were written in a careless hurrying manner ; and were the offspring of necessity , not of choice : so that one will see the original force of the Dean 's genius more in these compositions , that were the legitimate sons of duty , than in other pieces that were natural sons of love .
The Bishop of Meath , John Evans , agreed with Lord Orrery 's critique of the sermons as political works , and he compared a sermon to the writing of Montaigne .
Sir Walter Scott wrote :
The Sermons of Swift have none of that thunder which appals , or that resistless and winning softness which melts , the hearts of an audience . He can never have enjoyed the triumph of uniting hundreds in one ardent sentiment of love , of terror , or of devotion . His reasoning , however powerful , and indeed unanswerable , convinces the understanding , but is never addressed to the heart ; and , indeed , from his instructions to a young clergyman , he seems hardly to have considered pathos as a legitimate ingredient in an English sermon . Occasionally , too , Swift 's misanthropic habits break out even from the pulpit ; nor is he altogether able to suppress his disdain of those fellow mortals , on whose behalf was accomplished the great work of redemption . With such unamiable feelings towards his hearers , the preacher might indeed command their respect , but could never excite their sympathy . It may be feared that his Sermons were less popular from another cause , imputable more to the congregation than to the pastor . Swift spared not the vice of rich or poor ; and , disdaining to amuse the imaginations of his audience with discussion of dark points of divinity , or warm them by a flow of sentimental devotion , he rushes at once to the point of moral depravity , and upbraids them with their favourite and predominant vices in a tone of stern reproof , bordering upon reproach . In short , he tears the bandages from their wounds , like the hasty surgeon of a crowded hospital , and applies the incision knife and caustic with salutary , but rough and untamed severity . But , alas ! the mind must be already victorious over the worst of its evil propensities , that can profit by this harsh medicine . There is a principle of opposition in our nature , which mans itself with obstinacy even against avowed truth , when it approaches our feelings in a harsh and insulting manner . And Swift was probably sensible , that his discourses , owing to these various causes , did not produce the powerful effects most grateful to the feelings of the preacher , because they reflect back to him those of the audience .
But although the Sermons of Swift are deficient in eloquence , and were lightly esteemed by their author , they must not be undervalued by the modern reader . They exhibit , in an eminent degree , that powerful grasp of intellect which distinguished the author above all his contemporaries . In no religious discourses can be found more sound good sense , more happy and forcible views of the immediate subject . The reasoning is not only irresistible , but managed in a mode so simple and clear , that its force is obvious to the most ordinary capacity . Upon all subjects of morality , the preacher maintains the character of a rigid and inflexible monitor ; neither admitting apology for that which is wrong , nor softening the difficulty of adhering to that which is right ; a stern stoicism of doctrine , that may fail in finding many converts , but leads to excellence in the few manly minds who dare to embrace it . In treating the doctrinal points of belief , ( as in his Sermon upon the Trinity , ) Swift systematically refuses to quit the high and pre @-@ eminent ground which the defender of Christianity is entitled to occupy , or to submit to the test of human reason , mysteries which are placed , by their very nature , far beyond our finite capacities . Swift considered , that , in religion , as in profane science , there must be certain ultimate laws which are to be received as fundamental truths , although we are incapable of defining or analysing their nature ; and he censures those divines , who , in presumptuous confidence of their own logical powers , enter into controversy upon such mysteries of faith , without considering that they give thereby the most undue advantage to the infidel . Our author wisely and consistently declared reason an incompetent judge of doctrines , of which God had declared the fact , concealing from man the manner . He contended , that he who , upon the whole , receives the Christian religion as of divine inspiration , must be contented to depend upon God 's truth , and his holy word , and receive with humble faith the mysteries which are too high for comprehension . Above all , Swift points out , with his usual forcible precision , the mischievous tendency of those investigations which , while they assail one fundamental doctrine of the Christian religion , shake and endanger the whole fabric , destroy the settled faith of thousands , pervert and mislead the genius of the learned and acute , destroy and confound the religious principles of the simple and ignorant .
Scott 's contemporary Edmund Burke said concerning Swift 's sermon on " Doing Good , " :
The pieces relating to Ireland are those of a public nature ; in which the Dean appears , as usual , in the best light , because they do honour to his heart as well as to his head ; furnishing some additional proofs , that , though he was very free in his abuse of the inhabitants of that country , as well natives as foreigners , he had their interest sincerely at heart , and perfectly understood it . His sermon upon Doing Good , though peculiarly adapted to Ireland and Wood 's designs upon it , contains perhaps the best motives to patriotism that were ever delivered within so small a compass .
= = In Swift 's later works = =
Aspects of " On False Witness " are used by Gulliver in his attack against informers .
" On Doing Good " is alluded to in the Drapier 's fifth letter .
" On Doing Good " is mentioned in the Drapier 's sixth letter when he states , " I did very lately , as I thought it my duty , preach to the people under my inspection , upon the subject of Mr. Wood 's coin ; and although I never heard that my sermon gave the least offence , as I am sure none was intended ; yet , if it were now printed and published , I cannot say , I would insure it from the hands of the common hangman ; or my own person from those of a messenger . "
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= Electricity =
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge . Electricity gives a wide variety of well @-@ known effects , such as lightning , static electricity , electromagnetic induction and electric current . In addition , electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves .
In electricity , charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges . Electricity occurs due to several types of physics :
electric charge : a property of some subatomic particles , which determines their electromagnetic interactions . Electrically charged matter is influenced by , and produces , electromagnetic fields , electric charges can be positive or negative .
electric field ( see electrostatics ) : charges are surrounded by an electric field . The electric field produces a force on other charges . Changes in the electric field travel at the speed of light .
electric potential : the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge , typically measured in volts .
electric current : a movement or flow of electrically charged particles , typically measured in amperes .
electromagnets : Moving charges produce a magnetic field . Electric currents generate magnetic fields , and changing magnetic fields generate electric currents .
In electrical engineering , electricity is used for :
electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment ;
electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies .
Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity , though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . Even then , practical applications for electricity were few , and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use . The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society . Electricity 's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport , heating , lighting , communications , and computation . Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society .
= = History = =
Long before any knowledge of electricity existed , people were aware of shocks from electric fish . Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the " Thunderer of the Nile " , and described them as the " protectors " of all other fish . Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek , Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians . Several ancient writers , such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus , attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric rays , and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects . Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them . Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning , and electricity from any other source , is to be attributed to the Arabs , who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning ( raad ) applied to the electric ray .
Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects , such as rods of amber , could be rubbed with cat 's fur to attract light objects like feathers . Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE , from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic , in contrast to minerals such as magnetite , which needed no rubbing . Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect , but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity . According to a controversial theory , the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating , based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery , which resembles a galvanic cell , though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature .
Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600 , when the English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism , distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber . He coined the New Latin word electricus ( " of amber " or " like amber " , from ἤλεκτρον , elektron , the Greek word for " amber " ) to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed . This association gave rise to the English words " electric " and " electricity " , which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne 's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646 .
Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke , Robert Boyle , Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay . In the 18th century , Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity , selling his possessions to fund his work . In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm @-@ threatened sky . A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature . He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges .
In 1791 , Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics , demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles . Alessandro Volta 's battery , or voltaic pile , of 1800 , made from alternating layers of zinc and copper , provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used . The recognition of electromagnetism , the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena , is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André @-@ Marie Ampère in 1819 @-@ 1820 ; Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821 , and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827 . Electricity and magnetism ( and light ) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell , in particular in his " On Physical Lines of Force " in 1861 and 1862 .
While the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science , the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering . Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell , Ottó Bláthy , Thomas Edison , Galileo Ferraris , Oliver Heaviside , Ányos Jedlik , William Thomson , 1st Baron Kelvin , Charles Algernon Parsons , Werner von Siemens , Joseph Swan , Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse , electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life , becoming a driving force of the Second Industrial Revolution .
In 1887 , Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily . In 1905 Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets , energising electrons . This discovery led to the quantum revolution . Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for " his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect " . The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially .
The first solid @-@ state device was the " cat 's @-@ whisker detector " first used in the 1900s in radio receivers . A whisker @-@ like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal ( such as a germanium crystal ) in order to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect . In a solid @-@ state component , the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it . Current flow can be understood in two forms : as negatively charged electrons , and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes . These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics . The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor .
The solid @-@ state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947 . Common solid @-@ state devices include transistors , microprocessor chips , and RAM . A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in USB flash drives and more recently , solid @-@ state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard disk drives . Solid state devices became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s , during the transition from vacuum tubes to semiconductor diodes , transistors , integrated circuit ( IC ) and the light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) .
= = Concepts = =
= = = Electric charge = = =
The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force : charges exert a force on each other , an effect that was known , though not understood , in antiquity . A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth . If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod , it is found to repel the first : the charge acts to force the two balls apart . Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other . However , if one ball is charged by the glass rod , and the other by an amber rod , the two balls are found to attract each other . These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles @-@ Augustin de Coulomb , who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms . This discovery led to the well @-@ known axiom : like @-@ charged objects repel and opposite @-@ charged objects attract .
The force acts on the charged particles themselves , hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface . The magnitude of the electromagnetic force , whether attractive or repulsive , is given by Coulomb 's law , which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse @-@ square relation to the distance between them . The electromagnetic force is very strong , second only in strength to the strong interaction , but unlike that force it operates over all distances . In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force , the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together .
Study has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge . Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force , one of the four fundamental forces of nature . The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton . Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity , that is , the net charge within an isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system . Within the system , charge may be transferred between bodies , either by direct contact , or by passing along a conducting material , such as a wire . The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence ( or ' imbalance ' ) of charge on a body , usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together , transferring charge from one to the other .
The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign , hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive . By convention , the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative , and that by protons positive , a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin . The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs ; each electron carries the same charge of approximately − 1 @.@ 6022 × 10 − 19 coulomb . The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite , and thus + 1 @.@ 6022 × 10 − 19 coulomb . Charge is possessed not just by matter , but also by antimatter , each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle .
Charge can be measured by a number of means , an early instrument being the gold @-@ leaf electroscope , which although still in use for classroom demonstrations , has been superseded by the electronic electrometer .
= = = Electric current = = =
The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current , the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes . Current can consist of any moving charged particles ; most commonly these are electrons , but any charge in motion constitutes a current .
By historical convention , a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains , or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part . Current defined in this manner is called conventional current . The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit , one of the most familiar forms of current , is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons . However , depending on the conditions , an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction , or even in both directions at once . The positive @-@ to @-@ negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation .
The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction , and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling . Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction , where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal , and electrolysis , where ions ( charged atoms ) flow through liquids , or through plasmas such as electrical sparks . While the particles themselves can move quite slowly , sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second , the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light , enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires .
Current causes several observable effects , which historically were the means of recognising its presence . That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800 , a process now known as electrolysis . Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833 . Current through a resistance causes localised heating , an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840 . One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820 , when , while preparing a lecture , he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass . He had discovered electromagnetism , a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics . The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference , which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment .
In engineering or household applications , current is often described as being either direct current ( DC ) or alternating current ( AC ) . These terms refer to how the current varies in time . Direct current , as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices , is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative . If , as is most common , this flow is carried by electrons , they will be travelling in the opposite direction . Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly ; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave . Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time . The time @-@ averaged value of an alternating current is zero , but it delivers energy in first one direction , and then the reverse . Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current , such as inductance and capacitance . These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients , such as when first energised .
= = = Electric field = = =
The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday . An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it , and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field . The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses , and like it , extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance . However , there is an important difference . Gravity always acts in attraction , drawing two masses together , while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion . Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge , the electric field at a distance is usually zero . Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe , despite being much weaker .
An electric field generally varies in space , and its strength at any one point is defined as the force ( per unit charge ) that would be felt by a stationary , negligible charge if placed at that point . The conceptual charge , termed a ' test charge ' , must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields . As the electric field is defined in terms of force , and force is a vector , so it follows that an electric field is also a vector , having both magnitude and direction . Specifically , it is a vector field .
The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics . The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field . This concept was introduced by Faraday , whose term ' lines of force ' still sometimes sees use . The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it was forced to move within the field ; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence , and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines . Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties : first , that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges ; second , that they must enter any good conductor at right angles , and third , that they may never cross nor close in on themselves .
A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface . The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body . This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage , a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects .
The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high @-@ voltage equipment . There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium . Beyond this point , electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts . Air , for example , tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre . Over larger gaps , its breakdown strength is weaker , perhaps 1 kV per centimetre . The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning , caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air , and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand . The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh .
The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects , and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects . This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor , the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning stroke to develop there , rather than to the building it serves to protect
= = = Electric potential = = =
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field . A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force , and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work . The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point . It is usually measured in volts , and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity . This definition of potential , while formal , has little practical application , and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference , and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points . An electric field has the special property that it is conservative , which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant : all paths between two specified points expend the same energy , and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated . The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage .
For practical purposes , it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared . While this could be at infinity , a much more useful reference is the Earth itself , which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere . This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground . Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge , and is therefore electrically uncharged — and unchargeable .
Electric potential is a scalar quantity , that is , it has only magnitude and not direction . It may be viewed as analogous to height : just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field , so a charge will ' fall ' across the voltage caused by an electric field . As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height , a set of lines marking points of equal potential ( known as equipotentials ) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object . The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles . They must also lie parallel to a conductor 's surface , otherwise this would produce a force that will move the charge carriers to even the potential of the surface .
The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge , but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition : the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential . Usually expressed in volts per metre , the vector direction of the field is the line of greatest slope of potential , and where the equipotentials lie closest together .
= = = Electromagnets = = =
Ørsted 's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism . Moreover , the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces , the two forces of nature then known . The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current @-@ carrying wire , but acted at right angles to it . Ørsted 's slightly obscure words were that " the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner . " The force also depended on the direction of the current , for if the flow was reversed , then the force did too .
Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery , but he observed the effect was reciprocal : a current exerts a force on a magnet , and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current . The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère , who discovered that two parallel current @-@ carrying wires exerted a force upon each other : two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other , while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart . The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere .
This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important , for it led to Michael Faraday 's invention of the electric motor in 1821 . Faraday 's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury . A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury . The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire , making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained .
Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends . Further analysis of this process , known as electromagnetic induction , enabled him to state the principle , now known as Faraday 's law of induction , that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop . Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831 , in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy . Faraday 's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator , but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism , a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work .
= = = Electrochemistry = = =
The ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity , and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses .
Electrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity . From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile , electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries , electroplating and electrolysis cells . Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way , and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells .
= = = Electric circuits = = =
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path ( a circuit ) , usually to perform some useful task .
The components in an electric circuit can take many forms , which can include elements such as resistors , capacitors , switches , transformers and electronics . Electronic circuits contain active components , usually semiconductors , and typically exhibit non @-@ linear behaviour , requiring complex analysis . The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear : while they may temporarily store energy , they contain no sources of it , and exhibit linear responses to stimuli .
The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements : as its name suggests , it resists the current through it , dissipating its energy as heat . The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor : in metals , for example , resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions . Ohm 's law is a basic law of circuit theory , stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it . The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents ; materials under these conditions are known as ' ohmic ' . The ohm , the unit of resistance , was named in honour of Georg Ohm , and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω . 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp .
The capacitor is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge , and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field . It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating dielectric layer ; in practice , thin metal foils are coiled together , increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance . The unit of capacitance is the farad , named after Michael Faraday , and given the symbol F : one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb . A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge ; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills , eventually falling to zero . A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady state current , but instead blocks it .
The inductor is a conductor , usually a coil of wire , that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it . When the current changes , the magnetic field does too , inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor . The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current . The constant of proportionality is termed the inductance . The unit of inductance is the henry , named after Joseph Henry , a contemporary of Faraday . One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second . The inductor 's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor : it will freely allow an unchanging current , but opposes a rapidly changing one .
= = = Electric power = = =
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit . The SI unit of power is the watt , one joule per second .
Electric power , like mechanical power , is the rate of doing work , measured in watts , and represented by the letter P. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean " electric power in watts . " The electric power in watts produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an electric potential ( voltage ) difference of V is
<formula>
where
Q is electric charge in coulombs
t is time in seconds
I is electric current in amperes
V is electric potential or voltage in volts
Electricity generation is often done with electric generators , but can also be supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a wide variety of sources of energy . Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry . Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour ( 3 @.@ 6 MJ ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours . Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters , which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer . Unlike fossil fuels , electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency .
= = = Electronics = = =
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies . The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing , telecommunications , and signal processing . The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible . Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards , electronics packaging technology , and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system .
Today , most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control . The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics , whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering .
= = = Electromagnetic wave = = =
Faraday 's and Ampère 's work showed that a time @-@ varying magnetic field acted as a source of an electric field , and a time @-@ varying electric field was a source of a magnetic field . Thus , when either field is changing in time , then a field of the other is necessarily induced . Such a phenomenon has the properties of a wave , and is naturally referred to as an electromagnetic wave . Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 . Maxwell developed a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field , magnetic field , electric charge , and electric current . He could moreover prove that such a wave would necessarily travel at the speed of light , and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation . Maxwell 's Laws , which unify light , fields , and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics .
Thus , the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents , and via suitably shaped conductors , electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances .
= = Production and uses = =
= = = Generation and transmission = = =
In the 6th century BC , the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods and these experiments were the first studies into the production of electrical energy . While this method , now known as the triboelectric effect , can lift light objects and generate sparks , it is extremely inefficient . It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available . The voltaic pile , and its modern descendant , the electrical battery , store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy . The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications , but its energy storage is finite , and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged . For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines .
Electrical power is usually generated by electro @-@ mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion , or the heat released from nuclear reactions ; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water . The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources . Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday 's homopolar disc generator of 1831 , but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends . The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current . Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations , where it benefited from economies of scale , and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed .
Since electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale , at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required . This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads , and maintain constant co @-@ ordination with their power stations . A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses .
Demand for electricity grows with great rapidity as a nation modernises and its economy develops . The United States showed a 12 % increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century , a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China . Historically , the growth rate for electricity demand has outstripped that for other forms of energy .
Environmental concerns with electricity generation have led to an increased focus on generation from renewable sources , in particular from wind and hydropower . While debate can be expected to continue over the environmental impact of different means of electricity production , its final form is relatively clean
= = = Applications = = =
Electricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy , and it has been adapted to a huge , and growing , number of uses . The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power . Although electrification brought with it its own dangers , replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories . Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting .
The resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating . While this is versatile and controllable , it can be seen as wasteful , since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station . A number of countries , such as Denmark , have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings . Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration , with air conditioning / heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling , the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate .
Electricity is used within telecommunications , and indeed the electrical telegraph , demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone , was one of its earliest applications . With the construction of first intercontinental , and then transatlantic , telegraph systems in the 1860s , electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe . Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems , but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process .
The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor , which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power . A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power , but a motor that moves with its application , such as an electric vehicle , is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery , or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph .
Electronic devices make use of the transistor , perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century , and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry . A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square .
Electricity is also used to fuel public transportation , including electric buses and trains .
= = Electricity and the natural world = =
= = = Physiological effects = = =
A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues , and although the relationship is non @-@ linear , the greater the voltage , the greater the current . The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current , but is about 0 @.@ 1 mA to 1 mA for mains @-@ frequency electricity , though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions . If the current is sufficiently high , it will cause muscle contraction , fibrillation of the heart , and tissue burns . The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard . The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense , leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture . Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution . Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions , though its use has become rarer in recent times .
= = = Electrical phenomena in nature = = =
Electricity is not a human invention , and may be observed in several forms in nature , a prominent manifestation of which is lightning . Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level , such as touch , friction or chemical bonding , are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale . The Earth 's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet 's core . Certain crystals , such as quartz , or even sugar , generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure . This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity , from the Greek piezein ( πιέζειν ) , meaning to press , and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie . The effect is reciprocal , and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field , a small change in physical dimensions takes place .
Some organisms , such as sharks , are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields , an ability known as electroreception , while others , termed electrogenic , are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon . The order Gymnotiformes , of which the best known example is the electric eel , detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes . All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials , whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles . An electric shock stimulates this system , and causes muscles to contract . Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants .
= = Cultural perception = =
In 1850 , William Gladstone asked the scientist Michael Faraday why electricity was valuable . Faraday answered , “ One day sir , you may tax it . ”
In the 19th and early 20th century , electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people , even in the industrialised Western world . The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicts it as a mysterious , quasi @-@ magical force that can slay the living , revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature . This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity . " Revitalization " or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani 's work . These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored Frankenstein ( 1819 ) , although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster . The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films .
As the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew , its wielders were more often cast in a positive light , such as the workers who " finger death at their gloves ' end as they piece and repiece the living wires " in Rudyard Kipling 's 1907 poem Sons of Martha . Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the Tom Swift books . The masters of electricity , whether fictional or real — including scientists such as Thomas Edison , Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla — were popularly conceived of as having wizard @-@ like powers .
With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century , it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing , an event that usually signals disaster . The people who keep it flowing , such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb ’ s song " Wichita Lineman " ( 1968 ) , are still often cast as heroic , wizard @-@ like figures .
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= BOAC Flight 712 =
BOAC Flight 712 ( callsign Speedbird 712 ) was a British Overseas Airways Corporation service operated by a Boeing 707 @-@ 465 from London Heathrow Airport bound for Sydney via Zurich and Singapore . On Monday 8 April 1968 , it suffered an engine failure on takeoff that quickly led to a major fire . The engine fell off the aircraft in flight . After the aircraft had made a successful emergency landing , confusion over checklists and distractions from the presence of a check captain contributed to the deaths of five of the 127 on board .
The actions taken by those involved in the accident resulted in the award of the George Cross posthumously to stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison . Two other crew members received awards ; a BEM and an MBE . As a direct result of the accident , BOAC changed the checklists for engine severe failures and engine fires , combining them both into one checklist , the " engine fire or severe failure " checklist .
= = Flight = =
Flight 712 took off from Heathrow at 15 : 27 GMT ( 16 : 27 BST ) , 12 minutes later than scheduled . Flight 712 had 127 people aboard , including a crew augmented by the addition of an acting flight officer , John Hutchinson , and a check captain for routine performance review of the pilot in command , Captain Cliff Taylor . As well as the passengers , the aircraft was carrying baggage , mail and a radioactive isotope from the Isotope Production Unit at Harwell destined for the University Hospital in Jerusalem .
Seconds after take off from Heathrow 's then 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) long runway 28L ( now 12 @,@ 008 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) long and designated 27L ) , there was an unexpected bang and the aircraft started vibrating . The throttle controlling number two engine was shutting down . While Captain Taylor ordered an engine failure drill , Flight Engineer Thomas Hicks carried out the engine failure drill , but both he and Check Captain Geoffrey Moss reached for the switch to cancel the undercarriage warning horn . At the same time , First Officer Francis Kirkland inadvertently cancelled the fire bell . Hicks reached for , but didn 't pull , the engine fire shut @-@ off handle . Moss , observing the fire , exclaimed " Bloody Hell ! The wing 's on Fire ! " A Mayday was broadcast at 15 : 29 .
In the control tower , the takeoff had been observed by John Davis , who saw what he initially thought was the sun reflecting off the aircraft 's wing during its initial climb . Davis quickly realised that the aircraft was on fire . Davis instructed Flight 712 to make a left turn , with the intention that the aircraft would land on runway 28L . He hit the " crash button " which alerted the emergency services and declared an aircraft accident . The emergency services were informed of the type of aircraft involved and given a rendezvous point at which they were to assemble .
By this time , the windows on the port side at the rear of the fuselage were beginning to melt . As the aircraft flew over Thorpe the burning engine broke away from its mounting and fell into a gravel pit where some children were playing , without causing any injury . At this time , the undercarriage was lowered and full flap selected . The flaps stopped some three degrees short of their full travel . The aircraft was at a height of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) and flying at 225 knots ( 417 km / h ) . Cabin crew member Jennifer Suares repeated the emergency landing drill for the benefit of the passengers despite not being sure herself that they would actually manage to land before the aircraft exploded .
The crew realised that the aircraft would not last long enough to enable a landing back on 28L , and declared a Mayday . Davis cleared the aircraft to land on runway 05R , which was 7 @,@ 733 feet ( 2 @,@ 357 m ) long . He also instructed two other aircraft to perform a go @-@ around , as runway 05R crossed runway 28R , which they were due to land on and Davis did not know whether Flight 712 would be able to stop before reaching that runway . The crew accepted Davis 's offer of runway 05R , even though it was much shorter and not equipped with ILS . Taylor was able to safely land the aircraft on 05R , using wheel brakes and reversing the outboard engines ' thrust to halt the aircraft . The aircraft touched down about 400 yards ( 370 m ) beyond the threshold and stopped in 1 @,@ 400 yards ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) . The aircraft had made a perfect emergency landing after just 3m : 32s of flight . Taylor asked Davis for permission to evacuate , but the cabin crew were already opening the emergency doors . The flight crew started the fire drill , but the port wing exploded before this could be completed . As a result , the fire shut off handles were not pulled , and the booster pumps and electrical supply were left switched on . Due to the short period of time between the Mayday being declared at 15 : 29 and the aircraft landing at 15 : 31 , there was no time for the emergency services to lay a carpet of foam , which was standard practice at the time .
= = = Evacuation = = =
The cabin crew started the evacuation , even before the plane had come to a halt , via both forward galley doors , both rear doors and the starboard overwing exits . 18 passengers escaped via the overwing exits before the fire grew too intense to use that route . The forward port galley door escape slide caught fire before it could be used , but one person jumped from there . 84 people escaped via the starboard galley door . Three of the crew escaped by the emergency cockpit rope . The rear starboard door escape slide had twisted on deployment , so Steward Taylor climbed down to straighten it , leaving stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison , known as Jane Harrison , at the door assisting the passengers . Six passengers escaped via this route before the slide was punctured and deflated . Harrison encouraged the passengers to jump , and pushed out those too frightened to do so . 11 people escaped via this route , and five more escaped via the rear port door before the slide was destroyed . Harrison was last seen alive preparing to jump herself , but then she turned back and disappeared into the burning fuselage in a valiant attempt to save the remaining four female passengers , including a disabled woman and eight @-@ year @-@ old girl . It was these actions which led to the award of the George Cross posthumously to Harrison in recognition of her selfless gallantry . 35 people were injured , and five killed .
= = = Fire @-@ fighting = = =
The first two fire engines to arrive were unable to do much to stop the fire , as the drivers misjudged their distance , and also they were unable to make foam whilst on the move . To make foam , the main transfer gearboxes of the fire engines had to be operated , which meant that the vehicles were unable to move . Problems with couplings on the fire hoses exacerbated the situation – the fire hydrants had been regularly painted , and a build up of paint on the coupling threads prevented the hoses from being attached to the hydrants . The driver of a back @-@ up foam tender drove in closer to the burning aircraft and discharged his foam effectively , but the fire had already gained hold by the time this happened .
= = Passengers = =
The aircraft was carrying 116 passengers and 11 crew . Five people were killed in the accident : stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison and four passengers , Esther Cohen , who was severely disabled , Catherine Shearer , a young Australian teacher who was seated with her mother ( who survived ) next to Mrs Cohen in the back row of seats , Mary Smith , a widow , and Jacqueline Cooper , an eight @-@ year @-@ old girl whose parents and two brothers escaped , helped by Miss Harrison . All five victims were found at the Inquest of 17 September 1968 to have died of " Asphyxia due to Inhalation of Fire Fumes " , and a verdict was returned in all five cases of Accidental Death .
One of the survivors was the pop singer Mark Wynter , who was travelling to Australia for his wedding to Janeece Corlass .
Another notable survivor was Katriel Katz , Israeli Ambassador to the Soviet Union . Katz had been expelled from the Soviet Union by Andrei Gromyko on 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War . Gromyko is said to have told Katz not to let his emotions get the better of him , advice he was to ignore in the emergency that was to befall him . During the evacuation from the aircraft , Katz was the only passenger to escape through the forward port door , despite the efforts of Hutchinson and Unwin to stop him using that door . The two flight crew were almost carried out through the door by Katz , who was a large man . Katz was seriously injured jumping from the doorway . He was taken to Hillingdon Hospital , where it was initially feared that he would become the sixth victim of Flight 712 . Katz recovered after a few days . He died in 1988 aged 80 .
= = Aircraft involved = =
The aircraft involved in the accident was a Boeing 707 – 465 registered G @-@ ARWE ( manufacturer 's serial number 18373 , Boeing line number 302 ) . First flown on 27 June 1962 , the aircraft was originally to have been operated by Cunard Eagle Airways , but before it entered service it was sold to BOAC @-@ Cunard and was delivered on 7 July 1962 . On 21 November 1967 the aircraft suffered an engine failure on take off from Honolulu International Airport . The take off was aborted , and there were no injuries to any of the passengers or crew . At the time of the Heathrow accident , the aircraft had flown for a total of 20 @,@ 870 hours . The aircraft was insured for £ 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 with Lloyd 's of London .
= = = Salvage = = =
The nose section of the 707 was salvaged for use on a Convair CV @-@ 580 ( N21466 ) for test purposes as part of the Total In Flight Simulator program ( TIFS ) . On 12 April 1969 the nose was airlifted by an Aero Spacelines Guppy from Heathrow to Santa Barbara to support the modification .
References that the nose from G @-@ ARWE was used to repair a damaged TWA 707 are incorrect . G @-@ ARWE 's nose was too fire damaged for use as a repair donor for an airliner . TWA 's Boeing 707 @-@ 331B , N28714 , ( Originally N776TW , c / n 18408 ) had been hijacked on a flight from Rome to Athens . Its cockpit had been destroyed by a bomb at Damascus , Syria , on 29 August 1968 . The rest of the airframe was found to be undamaged . N28714 received a new nose section from Boeing 's Renton production line .
= = Investigation = =
In the subsequent investigation , metal fatigue was ultimately blamed for the failure of the number five compressor wheel in the number two Rolls @-@ Royce 508 Conway turbofan engine , starting the rapid chain of failures . The crew 's omitting to shut off the fuel to the engine was blamed for the rapid growth of the fire and the loss of the aircraft . Check Captain Moss had accidentally cancelled the fire warning bell instead of the undercarriage warning bell . Moss had also issued orders to Captain Taylor , in breach of the normal protocol for his duties . However , the report on the accident also stated that Captain Taylor had briefed Moss to act as an extra set of eyes and ears inside and outside the cockpit . Moss 's actions therefore could be seen as acting within that remit . Although Moss had alerted the crew to the fire , none of them were aware that the number 2 engine had fallen off until after the evacuation on the ground .
As a result of the investigation , and lessons learned from the chain of events , BOAC combined the " Engine Fire Drill " and " Engine Severe Failure Drill " checklists into one list , called the " Engine Fire or Severe Failure Drill " . Modifications were also made to the checklist , including adding to the checklist confirmation that the fire handles had been pulled .
Whiskey Echo 's number 2 port engine No.5097 , constructed in 1961 , had run for 14 @,@ 917 hours from new , and had been overhauled in spring 1965 because of vibration caused by metal fatigue that had led to the failure of a stage 8 high pressure compressor blade . In 1967 the engine had been removed from service because of flame tube deterioration , and as part of the repairs , the low pressure compressor , of which the number 5 wheel was an original component , was overhauled , but the wheel itself was not tested for fatigue . On 22 November 1967 the engine was bench tested and rejected because of excessive vibration of the high pressure compressor , but was later released as serviceable following further analysis . After 1 @,@ 415 hours service on another 707 and modification to the turbine seals , on 5 April 1968 No.5097 became number 2 engine of the port wing of Whiskey Echo , scheduled to fly long @-@ haul to Sydney , Australia , three days later .
Shortly after takeoff at 16 @.@ 27 BST ( 15 @.@ 27 GMT ) on 8 April 1968 , according to the investigations of Rolls @-@ Royce , the 5th stage low pressure compressor wheel failed in fatigue at the run out radius of the wheel web with the rim , causing secondary failures to other wheels and other parts of the engine . The wheel then burst through its casing and disconnected the main fuel pipe , igniting the fuel which was being pumped at 50 gallons ( approx . 150 kg ) per minute . The fire could not be put out because the engine 's two extinguishers had become ineffectual following the destruction caused to the engine cowling by the broken compressor casing . The ferocity of the blaze soon after caused the engine pylon to fatally weaken , which when it gave way , led to the engine falling off of the wing . However , the fuel booster pump continued to function , intensifying the fire until it spread to the wing itself , sweeping back from forward of the leading edge towards the tail . Upon landing , the application of reverse thrust and the westerly crosswind on runway 05R blew the flames underneath the wing and set light to the fuselage . The rapidly intensifying fire then spread under the plane and ignited the fuel lines and oxygen tanks , which , within seconds of Whiskey Echo coming to a stop , caused a series of explosions that broke through the fuselage and set fire to the cabin , ultimately resulting in the deaths of five people .
= = Awards = =
Queen Elizabeth II awarded Barbara Jane Harrison a posthumous George Cross ( GC ) , the only GC ever presented to a woman in peacetime . Her medal was accepted on her behalf by her father , Alan . Harrison is the youngest ever female recipient of the George Cross . Neville Davis @-@ Gordon was awarded the British Empire Medal for Gallantry ( BEM ) . John Davis was appointed a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) .
The citation for Barbara Jane Harrison 's GC reads : -
The citation for Neville Davis @-@ Gordon 's BEM reads : -
In addition , Air Traffic Control Officer John Davis , who was responsible for Flight 712 and had first spotted the port engine fire from the ground , was appointed MBE .
While mistakes had been made in the cockpit that fateful day , Captain Cliff Taylor and Acting First Officer John Hutchinson had managed to safely land their aircraft which , having lost an engine , was on fire carrying about 22 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel , in the most testing of circumstances and almost certainly saved 121 lives . Taylor was recommended for an award by BOAC , but following the publication of the official inquiry report in August 1969 , the decision was taken at ministerial level not to recognise any member of the flight crew . Both Taylor and Hutchinson received , along with First Officer Francis Checkland and Check Captain Geoffrey Moss , but not Flight Engineer Thomas Hicks , commendations from BOAC , and Captain Taylor was awarded the British Airline Pilots Association Gold Medal .
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= G and H @-@ class destroyer =
The G- and H @-@ class destroyers were a group of 18 destroyers built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . Six additional ships being built for the Brazilian Navy when World War II began in 1939 were purchased by the British and named the Havant class . The design was a major export success with other ships built for the Argentine and Royal Hellenic Navies . They were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet upon completion and enforced the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 .
Most ships were recalled home or were sent to the North Atlantic from October – November 1939 , after it became clear that Fascist Italy was not going to intervene in World War II . Then they began to escort convoys and patrol for German submarines and commerce raiders . Two ships were lost to German mines in the first six months of the war . Three more were lost during the Norwegian Campaign , one in combat with a German cruiser and two during the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 . The Battle of France was the next test for the destroyers from May – June , with many of the Gs and Havants participating in the evacuation of Dunkirk and the subsequent evacuations of Allied troops from western France . Three ships were sunk , two by bombs and the other to torpedoes . Most of the H @-@ class ships were sent to the Mediterranean in May in case Mussolini decided to attack France and the majority of the surviving Gs were sent to Force H at Gibraltar in July . Several of them participated in the Battle of Dakar , before being assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet with their sister ships . By the end of the year , the ships participated in several battles with the Royal Italian Navy , losing two to Italian mines and torpedoes , while sinking two Italian submarines . The Havants spent most of the war in the North Atlantic on convoy escort duties , losing half their number to German submarines , while helping to sink six in exchange by the end of the war .
The G- and H @-@ class ships of the Mediterranean Fleet escorted numerous Malta convoys , participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and covered the evacuation of troops from Greece and Crete from May – June , losing two to German bombers and another so badly damaged that she was later written off . By the end of the year , they had sunk three submarines , two Italian and one German . Three Hs participated in the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 , during which one was damaged . Further damaged by aerial attacks , she was ordered to Gibraltar and ran aground in transit and had to be destroyed . Another was torpedoed and lost during Operation Vigorous in June . The ships sank two more submarines during 1942 and three destroyers began conversion to escort destroyers late that year and early in 1943 . Two of the four surviving Gs and Hs were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy while under conversion . All of the surviving ships joined their Havant half @-@ sisters on escort duty in the North Atlantic in 1943 .
One ship was sent to the Mediterranean in 1944 while three others were transferred to the UK in preparation for Operation Overlord . Between them they sank five German submarines in 1944 with another in 1945 . Worn @-@ out and obsolete , the survivors were either broken up for scrap or sold off after the war .
= = Design and description ( G and H classes ) = =
The G class were ordered as part of the 1933 Naval Construction Programme , the H class following in 1934 . These ships were based on the preceding F class , but the elimination of cruising turbines and the development of more compact machinery allowed their dimensions and displacement to be slightly reduced . The H class were repeats of the G 's with some minor differences . All of the destroyers were fitted with ASDIC ( sonar ) and the ability to use the Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear .
The G- and H @-@ class destroyers displaced 1 @,@ 340 – 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 360 – 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 854 – 1 @,@ 860 long tons ( 1 @,@ 884 – 1 @,@ 890 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . Their peacetime complement was 137 officers and ratings , which was intended to increase to 146 in wartime . The ships were at their stability limit as built and the Director of Naval Construction believed that no additions in top weight should be made without an equal amount of weight being removed .
They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi ( 2 @,@ 068 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 620 ° F ( 327 ° C ) . Hyperion was fitted with one Johnson boiler in her aft boiler room . The turbines developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . The destroyers carried a maximum of 450 – 475 long tons ( 457 – 483 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
All of the ships had the same main armament , four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The guns had a maximum elevation of 40 ° ; the G class achieved this with a lowered section of the deck around the mount , the " well " , that allowed the breech of the gun to be lowered below deck height , but the new gun mount used in the H class was designed to reach that elevation without the necessity for the clumsy " wells " . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) to a range of 16 @,@ 970 yards ( 15 @,@ 520 m ) . Hereward served as the testbed for the twin 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun mount used for the Tribal and the J , K and N classes that temporarily replaced ' B ' gun . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun on platforms between the funnels . The G- and H @-@ class ships were fitted with two quadruple mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , although Glowworm trialled the new quintuple mount . The ships were also equipped with two throwers and one rack for 20 depth charges .
The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the manually @-@ operated director @-@ control tower and the separate rangefinder situated above the bridge . They had no capability for anti @-@ aircraft fire and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye . Hero and Hereward saw the introduction of a new style of bridge that would become standard on all Royal Navy fleet destroyers from the I class through to the Battle class of 1944 . This was necessary as Hereward was fitted with a prototype twin @-@ gun mounting that had a trunnion height 13 inches ( 33 @.@ 0 cm ) higher than the previous weapons , therefore it was necessary to raise the wheelhouse to allow the helmsman to see over the top . Raising the wheelhouse meant it had to be placed in front of , rather than underneath , the bridge , and it was given angled sides , resulting in a characteristic wedge shape with a sloping roof .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Beginning in May 1940 , the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12 @-@ pounder Mk V anti @-@ aircraft gun , the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun 's field of fire . Four to eight QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships , usually replacing the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels . One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted abreast the searchlight platform . Early in the war , depth charge stowage increased to 44 . By 1943 , only four ships were still afloat and all had the ' Y ' gun on the quarterdeck removed to allow for additional depth charge stowage and two additional depth charge throwers . The 12 @-@ pounder was removed to allow for the installation of a Huff @-@ Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast and for more depth charges . All of the survivors , except Garland , had ' A ' or ' B ' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , and their director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target @-@ indication radar . ' A ' gun was later replaced in Hotspur while Hero had exchanged ' B ' gun for a Hedgehog and a twin @-@ gun mount for QF six @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns for use against U @-@ boats at very close range . A Type 286 short @-@ range , surface @-@ search radar , adapted from the Royal Air Force 's ASV radar , was also added . The early models , however , could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship .
= = = Flotilla leaders = = =
As per the E and F class , the flotilla leaders were built to an enlarged design , incorporating a fifth 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun in ' Q ' position , between the funnels and were based on the F @-@ class leader , Faulknor . Grenville was shorter and heavier than Hardy as she used compact Yarrow @-@ type side fired boilers while Hardy was slightly beamier . They displaced 1 @,@ 445 – 1 @,@ 465 long tons ( 1 @,@ 468 – 1 @,@ 489 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 953 – 2 @,@ 033 long tons ( 1 @,@ 984 – 2 @,@ 066 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 330 – 337 feet ( 100 @.@ 6 – 102 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 33 @.@ 75 – 34 feet ( 10 @.@ 3 – 10 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ships carried a total of 175 personnel which included the staff of the Captain ( D ) , commanding officer of the flotilla . Their turbines were 2 @,@ 000 shp ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) more powerful than the private ships , which made them 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ; 0 @.@ 58 mph ) faster ; their propulsion machinery was otherwise identical . Both ships were early wartime losses and consequently received no modifications .
= = Havant class = =
The Havants were laid down in 1938 for Brazil and requisitioned on 5 September 1939 . They were optimized for anti @-@ submarine work and were completed without ' Y ' gun and were equipped with eight throwers and three racks for a total of 110 depth charges . Unlike their half @-@ sisters , they were fitted with a combined rangefinder @-@ director above the bridge . Wartime modifications were similar to the other G- and H @-@ class ships as a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun replaced the aft torpedo tubes , 20 mm Oerlikons were added on the bridge wings and a Type 286 radar was installed . Later modifications replaced the .50 @-@ calibre machine guns with a pair of Oerlikons , a Type 271 radar was added that replaced the rangefinder @-@ director , a Hedgehog was substituted for ' A ' gun , the 12 @-@ pounder removed for more depth charge stowage , and a HF / DF mast was installed aft .
= = Ships = =
= = = Royal Navy = = =
= = = = G class = = = =
= = = = H class = = = =
= = = = Havant class = = = =
These six ships were ordered by the Brazilian Navy , but on the outbreak of World War II , they were requisitioned by the Royal Navy . They are usually included with the H class .
= = = Argentine Navy = = =
Seven ships were built for the Argentine Navy as the Buenos Aires class , they were delivered in 1938 . They were built by Vickers Armstrongs ( Barrow ) , Cammell Laird and John Brown & Company ( Clydebank ) . One ship was lost after a collision in 1941 , but the remaining ships were in service until broken up in the early 1970s .
= = = Brazilian Navy = = =
Brazil ordered six Jurua @-@ class ships from Britain in 1938 . These ships were purchased by Britain on the outbreak of war in 1939 and are described above . The Brazilians decided to produce indigenous destroyers , the Acre class , at the Ilha das Cobras shipyard , Rio de Janeiro . The design was based on the H @-@ class plans supplied by Britain , but with guns and machinery supplied by the United States . Although laid down in 1940 , the ships were not completed until 1949 – 51 .
= = = Royal Hellenic Navy = = =
Two ships , modified versions of the G class , were built for the Greek Royal Hellenic Navy ( RHN ) by Yarrow in the late 1930s . The ships were fitted with German @-@ made 127 @-@ millimetre ( 5 in ) guns and 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) AA guns . The number of torpedo tubes was reduced by two on these ships to compensate for the additional topweight . The installation of the armament was carried out in Greece as the Germans refused to ship the weapons to Britain . Vasilefs Georgios , named after King George I , she served with the RHN during the Greco @-@ Italian War . Damaged by German aircraft , the ship managed to reach the Salamis Navy Yard and was put in dry dock for repairs , where after further damage during German air attacks , she was finally scuttled to prevent capture . The Germans raised and repaired her and she was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as Hermes ( ZG3 ) on 21 March 1942 . Hermes was heavily damaged off Cape Bon , Tunisia , on 30 April 1943 and scuttled on 7 May 1943 . Vasilissa Olga , named after Queen Olga , served with the RHN during the Greco @-@ Italian War . Along with other ships , she escaped to Alexandria in May 1941 and joined the Allied forces . She was lost to German aircraft while anchored in Lakki Bay , Leros on 26 September 1943 .
= = Service = =
Grenville and the G class spent the bulk of their time before the start of World War II assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) in the Mediterranean Fleet , where they made a number of neutrality patrols during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . With the exception of Garland which was under repair at Malta after a premature explosion of her depth charges , they returned home in October – November after it became clear that the Italians would not enter the war . Hardy and the H @-@ class ships were assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla and joined the Gs in the Mediterranean after commissioning for similar duties .
After a few weeks assigned to Western Approaches Command , the 1st DF was assigned to the Nore Command at Harwich , although some of the ships were transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla , where they were tasked for escort and patrol duty . Gipsy was sunk on 21 November after she struck a mine , as did Grenville on 19 January 1940 . Unlike the 1st DF , the Second was transferred to Force K in Freetown in West Africa , to help search for German commerce raiders . Some ships were later transferred to Bermuda and the West Indies for escort work and patrolling . They returned to the UK in January and spent several months refitting .
After commissioning , Handy and Hearty were renamed Harvester and Hesperus , respectively , to avoid confusion with Hardy . The Havant @-@ class destroyers initially formed the 9th Destroyer Flotilla assigned to Western Approaches Command for anti @-@ submarine patrols and escort duty . The German invasion of Norway caused Havant , Hesperus , and Havelock to be detached to reinforce the Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign .
Garland , Grafton , Gallant , Hasty and Hereward were either under repair or refitting during the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign and did not participate in the Battles of Narvik in April . The remaining ships were assigned to the Home Fleet by this time . Glowworm was separated from the battlecruiser Renown in a heavy storm on 8 April and encountered the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and several destroyers . The British destroyer could not disengage and was sunk after ramming Admiral Hipper . Hardy , Havock , Hostile , Hotspur and Hunter participated in the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April . They sank two German destroyers in exchange for the loss of Hardy and Hunter , while Hotspur was badly damaged . That same day , Hero sank the German submarine U @-@ 50 off the Norwegian coast and was the only G- or H @-@ class destroyer to participate in the Second Battle of Narvik three days later . Griffin and Hasty helped to cover the evacuation of Allied troops from Namsos and Åndalsnes at the end of the month . Havelock escorted the transports conducting the evacuation of Narvik in June . Garland was loaned to the Polish Navy in May after her repairs were finished and she remained in the Mediterranean , escorting convoys between Malta and Alexandria , Egypt , until she was transferred to the Western Approaches Command in September .
In mid @-@ May , the 2nd DF was transferred to the Mediterranean with Hostile , Hyperion , Hero , Hereward , Havock , and Hasty assigned . Later that month , many of the remaining G and Havant @-@ class ships participated in Operation Dynamo . Grafton was torpedoed by U @-@ 62 on 29 May whilst rescuing survivors from the torpedoed destroyer Wakeful and had to be scuttled by the destroyer Ivanhoe . Later that day , Grenade blew up after being set on fire by German bombs ; three days later , on 1 June , Havant was sunk by German bombers . Gallant and Greyhound were damaged while evacuating troops from Dunkirk . Harvester helped to evacuate more troops from Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux in Operation Cycle and , together with Griffin , Highlander , and Havelock , she participated in Operation Aerial , the evacuation of Allied troops from Saint @-@ Nazaire and St. Jean de Luz .
Most of the ships of the 2nd DF participated in the inconclusive Battle of Calabria on 7 – 8 July . Almost two weeks later , Hasty , Hero , Hyperion and Havock were escorting the Australian light cruiser Sydney when they encountered two Italian light cruisers , sinking one of them in the Battle of Cape Spada . The ships escorted convoys and the ships of the Mediterranean Fleet for the rest of the year , although Hostile was sunk when she struck an Italian mine on 23 August and Hyperion was sunk by the Italian submarine Serpente on 22 December . Hotspur was assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla , supporting Force H at Gibraltar in July ; she was joined by Gallant , Greyhound , and Griffin shortly afterwards . The latter two ships escorted Force H during the Battle of Dakar in September against the Vichy French forces there . Havock and Hasty sank the Italian submarine Berillo on 2 October off the coast of Cyrenica while Gallant , Griffin and Hotspur sank the Italian submarine Lafolè on 18 October . Gallant , Greyhound , Griffin , now assigned to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet , together with Hero and Hereward , participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November .
The 9th DF returned to the Western Approaches Command ( WAC ) from July to September , before they were briefly transferred to Portsmouth Command for several weeks , in response to the possible invasion ( Operation Sea Lion ) . They returned to the WAC before the end of the month and Harvester and Highlander sank U @-@ 32 on 30 October . In November 1940 , the 9th DF was re @-@ designated as the 9th Escort Group . The Havants remained on escort duty until they began lengthy refits during 1941 .
Gallant , Greyhound and Griffin were covering a convoy to Malta on 10 January when the former struck a mine that blew off her bow . Griffin rescued her crew and the ship was towed to Malta . Repairs were estimated to take until June 1942 , but she was declared a constructive total loss and stripped of equipment after she had to be beached during an aerial attack on 5 April 1942 . On 19 January , Greyhound sank the Italian submarine Neghelli after the latter torpedoed one of the ships in the convoy that Greyhound was escorting . Two months later , she sank the Italian submarine Anfitre on 6 March . Greyhound , Griffin , Hotspur , Hasty , Havock and Hereward participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan on 27 – 28 March . Greyhound was sunk by German dive bombers two months later , on 22 May , off Crete ; Hereward suffered a similar fate a week later . Hotspur , Havock , Hero , and Hasty also participated in the evacuations of Greece and Crete in May . The latter three ships then supported Allied forces during the Syria – Lebanon Campaign in June . All four of the H @-@ class ships , joined by Griffin , began escorting convoys from Alexandria to Tobruk in July , as well as occasional convoys to Malta , and continued to do so for most of the rest of the year . Hasty and Hotspur sank U @-@ 79 on 23 December while returning from Tobruk .
Garland and the five surviving Havants spent most of the year on convoy escort duties in the Atlantic aside from brief diversions such as Operation Tiger , a Mediterranean convoy in May that Harvester , Havelock , and Hesperus escorted , and Garland 's participation in the Spitzbergen Raid in July . Hurricane was badly damaged by a German bomb in May that took the rest of the year to repair .
Hesperus was transferred to Force H in December 1941 for anti @-@ submarine defence of the Strait of Gibraltar and sank U @-@ 93 by ramming on 15 January 1942 . In March 1942 , the Havant @-@ class destroyers were designated group leaders of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force through the winter of 1942 – 43 . Garland was assigned to the escort force for Convoy PQ 16 to Murmansk in May , during which she was damaged by a German bomber . After repairs , she rejoined her half @-@ sisters in the North Atlantic . On 26 December , Hesperus sank U @-@ 357 by ramming .
Griffin and Hotspur were transferred to the Eastern Fleet in February 1942 . Havock , Hasty , and Hero participated in the Second Battle of Sirte on 22 March during which the former was damaged . While under repair at Malta , she was further damaged and was then ordered to Gibraltar for repairs in a safer environment . Whilst in transit , she ran aground off the Tunisian coast during the night of 5 / 6 April due to a navigational error and had to be destroyed to prevent her capture . Together with the destroyers Eridge and Hurworth , Hero sank U @-@ 568 on 28 May . To reinforce the escorts for Operation Vigorous , a convoy from Alexandria to Malta in June , Griffin and Hotspur were temporarily recalled to join their sisters . During the mission , Hasty was torpedoed by a German E @-@ boat and had to be scuttled by Hotspur on 15 June . On 30 October , Hero shared the credit for sinking U @-@ 559 with five other destroyers and a Vickers Wellesley bomber of No. 42 Squadron RAF . Griffin arrived home that same month to begin her conversion into an escort destroyer . Garland remained in the North Atlantic until December 1943 when she began escorting convoys between Freetown and Gibraltar .
Hotspur and Hero were sent home and converted into escort destroyers in early 1943 . Griffin and Hero were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in March and November 1943 and renamed Ottawa and Chaudière , respectively . Hotspur began escort duties in the WAC after her conversion was completed that lasted until October 1944 . While escorting Convoy HX 228 , Harvester rammed U @-@ 444 on 10 March , but was disabled in the process , so the French corvette Aconit finished off the submarine . The following day , Harvester was sunk by U @-@ 432 which was in turn sunk by Aconit . Hesperus sank U @-@ 191 on 23 April and U @-@ 186 on 12 May . Hesperus continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until January 1945 when she was transferred to the UK . Highlander and Hurricane also remained on convoy duties , although the latter ship was torpedoed by U @-@ 415 on 24 December and had to be scuttled by Watchman the next day .
Garland was transferred to the Mediterranean in April 1944 and sank U @-@ 407 on 19 September . She began a lengthy refit in November and had barely finished working up when the war ended . Havelock , Ottawa and Chaudière were escorting convoys in the North Atlantic until they were transferred to the UK in preparation for Operation Overlord in May 1944 . Chaudière and the escorts of Convoy HX 280 sank U @-@ 744 on 6 March . Ottawa sank three German submarines in 1944 , U @-@ 678 with the corvette Statice on 6 July , U @-@ 621 with Chaudière on 16 August and U @-@ 984 , also with Chaudière , two days later .
Ottawa , Chaudière and Hotspur also had lengthy overhauls that began in late 1944 ; the latter 's was completed in March 1945 and she then patrolled the Irish Sea until the end of the war while Ottawa returned to the North Atlantic when her refit was finished in February . Chaudière 's , however , was still not completed by the end of the war . Highlander struck a small iceberg on 15 April that crushed the underwater portion of her bow and was under repair for the next three months . Havelock and Hesperus , assisted by aircraft from No. 201 Squadron RAF , sank U @-@ 242 in the Irish Channel on 30 April .
= = = Postwar = = =
The surviving ships were essentially obsolete and worn @-@ out when the war ended in May . Ottawa made several voyages ferrying Canadian troops back home before she was paid off in October . The ship was sold for scrap in 1946 , but was not actually broken up until 1950 . Chaudière was in the worst shape of any of the Canadian destroyers and was paid off in August , although she was not scrapped until 1950 like her sister . Garland transported food and other supplies to Dutch and Belgian towns immediately after the end of the war and was part of the Home Fleet until she was reduced to reserve in August 1946 . She was purchased by the Royal Netherlands Navy in November 1947 , renamed Marnix , and became a training ship until 1964 . Hotspur remained in service until 1948 when she was sold to the Dominican Republic and renamed Trujillo . Renamed Duarte in 1962 , the ship was sold for scrap in 1972 . Havelock and Hesperus escorted the Norwegian government @-@ in @-@ exile back to Norway in May and then served as a target ship before being broken up in late 1946 and 1947 , respectively . Like her sisters , Highlander served as a target ship after her repairs were completed and was scrapped beginning in May 1947 .
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