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= The X @-@ Files ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on September 10 , 1993 , and concluded on the same channel on May 13 , 1994 , after airing all 24 episodes .
The first season introduced main characters of the series , including Fox Mulder and Dana Scully who were portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively , and recurring characters Deep Throat , Walter Skinner and Cigarette Smoking Man . The season introduced the series ' main concept , revolving around the investigation of paranormal or supernatural cases , known as X @-@ Files , by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ; it also began to lay the groundwork for the series ' overarching mythology .
Initially influenced by Kolchak : The Night Stalker and The Twilight Zone , series creator Chris Carter pitched the idea for the series to Fox twice before it was accepted for production . The season saw the series quickly gaining popularity , with ratings rising steadily throughout its run ; and garnered generally positive reviews from critics and the media . It helped to make stars of its two lead roles , and several of its taglines and catchphrases have since become cultural staples .
= = Concept and themes = =
Although Carter initially conceived of the series based on the influence of Kolchak and The Twilight Zone , he has stated that the " leaping @-@ off point " for the series ' overall concept came from UFO lore . After being introduced to the works of John E. Mack — especially a study by Mack which had reported that three percent of Americans claimed to have been abducted by aliens — Carter believed he had found his central theme . It was decided that the series would focus on the FBI in order to avoid something Carter had seen as a failing in Kolchak , whereby mysterious events would continually occur in one locale and be accidentally uncovered by the same character — by creating a fictional FBI unit which actively uncovered these paranormal cases , it was felt that the series would be " sustainable week after week without stretching the parameters of credibility " . Early in the planning stages , Carter had envisioned that a significant proportion of the episodes would deal with investigations which uncovered hoaxes or cases which had been mistakenly viewed as paranormal . Although this decision never came to pass , the third season episode " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " can be seen as a holdover from the idea .
The series revolves around its two main characters , which had been defined early in conception as the " believer " and the " skeptic " . Of these , the " believer " , Fox Mulder , was created with a character @-@ defining personal motivation , involving the disappearance of his younger sister during his childhood , which he would believe to be a result of alien abduction . The creation of the " skeptic " , Dana Scully , was influenced by Jodie Foster 's portrayal of Clarice Starling in The Silence of the Lambs , leading the crew to decide that the character needed to seem " real " , as opposed to the " bombshell " type of character the studio was pressing for .
Thematically , although the series focused heavily on alien abduction lore , the decision was made early on to allow the plots of individual episodes to branch out into different territories in order to prevent the overarching plot from running out of momentum , which led to standalone episodes such as " Squeeze " being developed . The variety of storylines which the series has shown has led director Daniel Sackheim to note that " The X @-@ Files has sort of found its own style in that it doesn 't have a confined style to it " , adding that the series ' " fluid " approach has meant that " everybody who comes on the show attempt to make a little scary movie " . To this end , several episodes feature varying plots , with alien @-@ influenced storylines varying between " Ice " , a " briskly @-@ paced " episode set in a single location , and the character @-@ driven " Conduit " , which served to fill in background on the characters . Elsewhere , plots focused on soul transference or reincarnation , with the episodes " Shadows " , " Born Again " and " Lazarus " sharing similar storylines . The " tired " plot of " Ghost in the Machine " featured a malevolent artificial intelligence ; while " Shapes " introduced the first of what would become several Native American @-@ themed episodes .
The first season also introduced a number of minor characters who would go on to become central figures to the series — The Lone Gunmen , first seen in " E.B.E. " , would become regular characters beginning the second season , eventually starring in the spin @-@ off series The Lone Gunmen ; whilst the episode " Tooms " introduced Walter Skinner , portrayed by Mitch Pileggi , who would go on to be billed as a series star by the ninth season . The abduction of Mulder 's sister Samantha was explored in the episodes " Pilot " , " Conduit " and " Miracle Man " , and would go on to become one of the central themes of the series as a whole .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
California native Chris Carter was given the opportunity to produce new shows for the Fox network in the early 1990s . Tired of the comedies he had been working on for Walt Disney Pictures , inspired by a report that 3 @.@ 7 million Americans may have been abducted by aliens , and recalling memories of Watergate and the 1970s horror series Kolchak : The Night Stalker , Carter came up with the idea for The X @-@ Files and wrote the pilot episode himself in 1992 . He initially struggled over the untested concept — executives wanted a love interest for Scully — and casting . The network wanted either a more established or a " taller , leggier , blonder and breastier " actress for Scully than the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Gillian Anderson , a theater veteran with minor film experience , who Carter felt was the only choice after auditions .
Carter 's initial pitch for The X @-@ Files was rejected by Fox executives . He fleshed out the concept and returned a few weeks later , leading to the commission of the pilot . Carter worked with NYPD Blue producer Daniel Sackheim in further developing the pilot , drawing stylistic inspiration from the 1988 documentary The Thin Blue Line , and the English television series Prime Suspect . Inspiration was also taken from Carter 's memories of watching Kolchak : The Night Stalker and The Twilight Zone in his youth ; as well as from the then @-@ recently released film The Silence of the Lambs , which was the impetus for framing the series around agents from the FBI , in order to provide the characters with a more plausible reason for being involved in each case than Carter believed was present in Kolchak . Carter was also keen on keeping the relationship between the two lead roles strictly platonic , basing their interactions on the characters of Emma Peel ( Diana Rigg ) and John Steed ( Patrick Macnee ) in the series The Avengers .
During the early stages of production for the series , Carter founded Ten Thirteen Productions , and began to plan for filming the pilot in Los Angeles . However , unable to find suitable locations for many of the scenes , Ten Thirteen Productions made the decision to " go where the good forests are " , and moved production to Vancouver , where the series would remain for the next five seasons ; production would eventually shift to Los Angeles beginning with the sixth season . It was soon realized by the production crew that since so much of the first season would require filming on location , rather than on sound stages , two location managers would be needed , rather than the usual one .
= = = Casting = = =
David Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles three years prior to The X @-@ Files , and at first had wanted to base his acting career around films . But in 1993 his manager , Melanie Green , gave him a script for the pilot episode of series . Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script , so Duchovny auditioned for the lead . When Duchovny was auditioning for the part of Fox Mulder , he made a " terrific " audition , but spoke rather slowly . Chris Carter thought at the beginning of the auditioning for the character , he was a " good judge of character " , and thought that Duchovny wasn 't rather " bright " . So he went and talked to Duchovny and asked him if he could " please " imagine himself as an FBI agent for the " future " week . The casting director of the show was very positive towards him . According to Carter , Duchovny turned out to be one of the best @-@ read people he knew . Carter recalls being contractually obliged to provide Fox with a choice of two actors for the role ; however , he was confident Duchovny was the right choice from the outset . After getting the role , Duchovny thought the show wouldn 't last for long or that it wouldn 't make much impact .
Gillian Anderson was cast due to insistence from Carter that she would fit the role perfectly ; however , Fox executives had wanted a more glamorous " bombshell " for the part , hoping that this would lead to the series involving a romantic element . This led Carter to insist that he did not want the roles of Mulder and Scully to become romantically involved , citing the relationship between the lead roles in Moonlighting as an example to avoid . Anderson called her early work on the show " a complete learning experience for me – the pilot was only the second time I 'd been in front of a camera " .
The series also introduced the character of Walter Skinner , played by Mitch Pileggi , who would go on to become a recurring , and later , main character in the show . The character had been conceived as playing against the stereotypical bureaucratic " paper @-@ pusher " , being instead someone more " quietly dynamic " . Pileggi had auditioned unsuccessfully for several other parts on the series before being cast as Skinner . At first , the fact that he was asked back to audition for the role had puzzled him , until he discovered the reason he had not cast for the previous parts — Chris Carter had been unable to imagine Pileggi as any of those characters , due to the fact that the actor had been shaving his head . When Pileggi attended the audition for Walter Skinner , he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow back . Pileggi 's attitude fit well with the character of Skinner , causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy . After successfully auditioning for the role , Pileggi thought he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles , as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role of Walter Skinner .
Glen Morgan and James Wong 's early influence on The X @-@ Files mythology led to their introduction of popular secondary characters who would continue for years in episodes written by others , such as the Scully family — Dana 's father William ( Don S. Davis ) , mother Margaret ( Sheila Larken ) and sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) — as well as conspiracy @-@ buff trio The Lone Gunmen .
= = = Writing = = =
Initially , there was no certainty as to how long the series would go on for , and as a result there was no long @-@ term plan in the beginning to guide its writers . Although the initial impetus for the show was based on alien abduction lore , the crew believed that the series would not be able to maintain its momentum for long if it did not branch out into different plot ideas . The show 's first season thus featured numerous standalone stories involving monsters , and also diverse alien or governmental cover @-@ ups , often with no apparent connection to each other — such as the Arctic space worms in " Ice " , and the conspiracy of genetically engineered twins in " Eve . " Carter himself wrote " Space " , an intended bottle episode about the manifestation of an alien " ghost " in the NASA space shuttle program , which was subject to cost overruns and became the most expensive of the first season .
By the end of the first season , Carter and his staff had come up with many of the general concepts of the mythology that would last throughout all nine seasons . The first season introduced the series ' primary antagonist , Cigarette Smoking Man , and gave early insight into the disappearance of Mulder 's sister Samantha , whose abduction provided one of the main plot threads of the series as a whole . The emergent mythology was further solidified in the Carter @-@ penned , Edgar Award @-@ nominated season finale " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . The episode was written in early 1994 before it was known whether or not the series would be renewed for a second season , and featured the closure of the X @-@ Files unit and the reassignment of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully to new jobs within the FBI . The finale was the first episode directed by R. W. Goodwin , who had served as producer for the series .
= = Cast and crew = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 24 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 24 episodes )
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = Writers and producers = = =
Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote nine episodes . Co @-@ executive producers and writing team Glen Morgan and James Wong wrote six episodes . Supervising producers and writing team Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon wrote five episodes together , with Gordon co @-@ writing an additional script with Carter . Co @-@ producers and writing team Larry and Paul Barber wrote one episode . Kenneth Biller and Chris Brancato co @-@ wrote a freelance script . Other freelance writers included Scott Kaufer , Marilyn Osborn and Chris Ruppenthal , who each wrote one episode . Other producers included line producer Joseph Patrick Finn and co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin .
= = = Directors = = =
David Nutter directed the most episodes of the first season , directing six . " Pilot " supervising producer Daniel Sackheim directed two episodes . Other directors that directed two episodes included Jerrold Freedman , William Graham , Michael Lange , Joe Napolitano and Larry Shaw . One @-@ episode directors included Rob Bowman , Fred Gerber , co @-@ executive producer R. W. Goodwin , Michael Katleman , Harry Longstreet and Robert Mandel who directed the pilot episode .
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
From the outset , viewing figures for the series were good , with the initial broadcast of " Pilot " being watched by 7 @.@ 4 million households , which constituted 15 percent of the viewing audience at the time . The series was broadcast directly after episodes of The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , and saw a decline in viewing figures when that series began to falter . The season — and series as a whole — reached a low with " Fallen Angel " , which was viewed by only 5 @.@ 1 million households . However , after the episode aired , the numbers began to rise steadily once again , reaching a peak for the season with " The Erlenmeyer Flask " , which was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million households , 16 percent of the available audience . At the conclusion of the 1993 – 94 television season , The X @-@ Files ranked 105th out of 128 shows . The ratings were not spectacular , but the series had attracted enough fans to be classified as a " cult hit " , particularly by Fox standards , and was subsequently renewed for a second season .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews for the first season were mostly positive , with the series being described as " the most paranoid , subversive show on TV " , and the writing being called " fresh without being self @-@ conscious , and the characters are involving . Series kicks off with drive and imagination , both innovative in recent TV " . The season as a whole currently holds a 100 % rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on eleven reviews . On Metacritic , the season scored 70 out of 100 , based on 13 reviews , indicating " Generally favorable reviews " . Writing for IGN , Mike Miksch noted that " some of the episodes were at a level of excellence that still hasn 't been matched since " ; adding that the series has " become nearly as integral to pop culture today as any show in history " . Bill Hunt of The Digital Bits gave the season an " A " , stating " The X @-@ Files is a show that dared to be different , and different it was " . Hunt described the show 's cinematography as " striking and noir @-@ ish " . Anna Johns , writing for TV Squad , called the season " phenomenal " and added that it contains " many terrific episodes " .
Several episodes were widely praised , including " Squeeze " , which has been called " profoundly creepy " ; the " taut and briskly paced " Arctic @-@ set " Ice " ; and the " remarkably chilling " Scully @-@ centered episode " Beyond the Sea " . However , not all episodes of the season were as well received . Despite the costly production of " Space " , the episode was derided as " decidedly unscary " and " a little tasteless " in its treatment of the Challenger disaster . " The Jersey Devil " was described as " pretty silly " ; whilst the plots for " Shadows " , " Born Again " and " Roland " were panned for being much too similar to each other .
= = = Accolades = = =
The first season received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations , with one win . Composer Mark Snow was nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Main Title Theme Music , while title designers Bruce Bryant , James Castle and Carol Johnsen won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences .
= = DVD release = =
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= Beware of the Dog ( Millennium ) =
" ' Beware of the Dog " is the second episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on September 26 , 1997 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . " Beware of the Dog " featured guest appearances by Randy Stone and R. G. Armstrong .
Millennium centers on offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , who investigates unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . In this episode , when Black investigates several killings by a pack of savage dogs , he discovers a strange old man who teaches him more than he ever knew about the Group .
Guest star Armstrong would reprise his role later in the season , while Stone was the casting director for both Millennium and its sister show The X @-@ Files . " Beware of the Dog " received mixed reviews from television critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 37 million households during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
A couple in a camper van get lost along a country road . They stop near a small town to read their map , but a pack of dogs break into their van , mauling them to death .
Meanwhile , Millennium Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) tries to convince fellow Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) to investigate the case . Black is experiencing a separation from his wife and daughter after killing his wife 's kidnapper ; he initially refuses the case but Watts ' insistence sways him . Black arrives in the isolated town of Bucksnort , and visits a local diner . Standing out amongst the residents is Michael Beebe ( Randy Stone ) , who has moved there from Los Angeles . Beebe believes his elderly neighbour may be responsible for the attack and asks Black to investigate .
Black instead examines the crime scene . At sunset , he sees a group of five dogs beginning to follow him . He returns to his hotel , but when he discovers he is locked out the dogs attack him . He fights them off , killing one , and flees to a hospital where he is refused entrance . An elderly man ( R. G. Armstrong ) drives past , stopping to pick up the dead dog , and drives off again . The remaining dogs follow his pickup truck . Black passes out and is helped into the hospital . The locals believe he is unconscious and discuss the " situation " ; however Black is awake and overhears everything , realising there is a greater threat than savage dogs at hand .
The next day , Black finds a group of obelisks in the woods . He is about to examine one when Beebe appears , chased by dogs . The Old Man also arrives , and Black asks him to call off his dogs . The Old Man denies the dogs are his , but they retreat regardless . Black then sees that the obelisks all bear an ouroboros , the symbol of the Millennium Group . He visits the Old Man 's home , where the two speak about the Group and its symbolism , and the coming millennium . The Old Man then brings Black to a clearing full of the wild dogs , where the latter realizes they are embodiments of the evil in the world . He approaches them as stands his ground , being struck by several visions as he does so . The Old Man then explains that the world 's balance between good and evil is being lost as the millennium approaches , and that Beebe 's home , built on sacred ground , is one of the many small things upsetting this balance .
Black rushes to Beebe 's home , knowing the dogs will attack it . Beebe refuses to leave , but the house has been surrounded by five dogs ; as they are killed they are seemingly endlessly replaced by others . The Old Man arrives , and insists the only way to rid the town of the dogs is burn down Beebe 's house , which the trio do before fleeing . Back home in Seattle , Black refuses to sell his own home , telling his wife that they will move back into it together when their problems are resolved .
= = Production = =
" Beware of the Dog " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . The episode was Coulter 's first credit for the series , and he would return to helm " The Pest House " and " Siren " later in the second season . " Beware of the Dog " was the fifth episode to have been written by Morgan and Wong , after " Dead Letters " , " 522666 " and " The Thin White Line " in the first season ; and the second season première " The Beginning and the End " . The duo would go on to pen a further ten episodes over the course of the second season , having taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season .
Guest star Randy Stone was the casting director for Millennium and its sister show The X @-@ Files . Stone was responsible for the casting of Henriksen in the role of Frank Black , and of the two lead roles in The X @-@ Files . " Beware of the Dog " features the first appearance by R. G. Armstrong as The Old Man , a recurring character who would reappear in the two @-@ part episodes " Owls " and " Roosters " . Armstrong has been described as " a long @-@ time favorite " of Morgan 's .
The episode makes use of Bobby Darin 's song " As Long As I 'm Singing " in a diegetic manner . Darin 's music has been noted by Millennium 's resident composer Mark Snow as a hallmark of the works of Morgan and Wong . " Beware of the Dog " marked the pair 's first use of the singer in Millennium , but his music would later feature in the episodes " Sense and Antisense " , " Monster " and " Goodbye Charlie " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Beware of the Dog " originally aired on the Fox network on September 26 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 5 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 5 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 37 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ ninth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen gave the episode a B + , finding it " endearingly batshit " . Handlen felt that the episode was not entirely cohesive and that its ending was somewhat disappointing , but felt that overall the episode 's imagery made up for this — summing up this idea by saying " Millennium often seems to be at its best when sense is a secondary consideration " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting that its " atmospheric elements do not quite add up to a cohesive whole " . Gibron felt that this resulted in " an episode that feels like the first half of a bad b @-@ movie " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , awarded " Beware of the Dog " one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Shearman felt the episode was so similar to The X @-@ Files that it gave the impression that Millennium had " lost its own identity " . He found that the script contained " enough wit in the dialogue " but that its plot seemed too " vague and elliptical " . Writing for the Star Tribune , Bill Ward felt that the episode featured a " lighter " tone than usual , comparing it to The X @-@ Files . Ward described the episode as taking " some nice turns en route to an ambivalent semiresolution " .
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= Enter Sandman =
" Enter Sandman " is a song by American heavy metal band Metallica . It was released as the first single from their eponymous fifth album , Metallica in 1991 . The music was written by Kirk Hammett , James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich . Vocalist and rhythm guitarist Hetfield wrote the lyrics , which deal with the concept of a child 's nightmares .
The single achieved platinum certification for more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies shipped in the United States , spurring sales of over 30 million copies for Metallica and propelling Metallica to worldwide popularity . Acclaimed by critics , the song is featured in all of Metallica 's live albums and DVDs released after 1991 and has been played live at award ceremonies and benefit concerts .
It is among Metallica 's most @-@ played songs , having been performed live by the band 1 @,@ 133 times , behind only " For Whom the Bell Tolls " ( 1 @,@ 278 ) , " One " ( 1 @,@ 297 ) , " Seek & Destroy " ( 1 @,@ 369 ) , " Creeping Death " ( 1 @,@ 389 ) and " Master of Puppets " ( 1 @,@ 439 ) — all songs that were released before " Enter Sandman " .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Enter Sandman " was the first song Metallica had written for their 1991 eponymous album , Metallica . Metallica 's songwriting at that time was done mainly by rhythm guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich , after they gathered tapes of song ideas and concepts from the other members of the band , lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Jason Newsted . Ulrich 's house in Berkeley , California was used for this purpose . " Enter Sandman " evolved from a guitar riff that Hammett wrote . Originally , the riff was two bars in length , but Ulrich suggested the first bar be played three times . The instrumental parts of the song were quickly finished , but Hetfield did not come up with vocal melodies and lyrics for a long time . The song was among the album 's last to have lyrics , and the lyrics featured in the song are not the original ; Hetfield felt that " Enter Sandman " sounded " catchy and kind of commercial " and so to counterbalance the sound , he wrote lyrics about " destroy [ ing ] the perfect family ; a huge horrible secret in a family " that included references to crib death . For the first time in Metallica 's history , however , Ulrich and producer Bob Rock told Hetfield that they felt he could write better lyrics . Nevertheless , according to Ulrich , the song was the " foundation , the guide to the whole record " even before it had lyrics .
An instrumental demo was recorded on August 13 , 1990 . The album Metallica was mostly recorded in Los Angeles at One on One Studios , between October 6 , 1990 and June 16 , 1991 , although Ulrich , Hetfield , and Rock also recorded for a week in Vancouver , Canada between April and May 1991 . As the first to be produced by Bob Rock , it was recorded differently than previous Metallica albums ; Rock suggested that the band members record in the studio while playing together , rather than separately .
" Enter Sandman " had what Hetfield described as a " wall of guitars " — three rhythm guitar tracks of the same riff played by himself to create a " wall of sound " . According to engineer Randy Staub , close to 50 takes of the drums were recorded because Ulrich did not record the song in its entirety , but rather recorded each section of the song separately . Because it was difficult to get in one take the " intensity " that the band wanted , numerous takes were selected and edited together . Staub mentioned that the producing team spent much time in getting the best sound from each part of the room and used several combinations of 40 to 50 microphones in recording the drums and guitars to simulate the sound of a live concert . The bass guitar sound also gained importance with Rock ; as Newsted states , Metallica 's sound was previously " very guitar @-@ oriented " and that " when he [ Rock ] came into the picture , bass frequencies also came into the picture . " As the first single , " Enter Sandman " was also the first song to be mixed , a task that took roughly ten days because the band and Bob Rock had to create the sound for the entire album while mixing the song .
= = Composition = =
The simpler songs in the album Metallica , including " Enter Sandman " , are a departure from the band 's previous , more musically complex album ... And Justice for All . Ulrich described " Enter Sandman " as a " one @-@ riff song " , in which all of its sections derive from the main riff credited to Kirk Hammett .
" Enter Sandman " moves at a tempo of 123 beats per minute for 5 : 32 , running slightly above the average song length of the album . It begins with a clean guitar intro similar to the main riff ; an E minor chord on a guitar using the wah @-@ wah pedal is then introduced , followed by heavy use of tom @-@ tom drums . Distorted guitars then build up to the main riff , which starts 56 seconds into the song and utilizes variations of the E / B ♭ tritone . P. J. Howorth , in The Wah Wah Book , characterized the main riff as " sinister " . The song then follows a common structure , playing two iterations of a verse , a pre @-@ chorus , and a chorus . On the chorus and pre @-@ chorus , the song modulates one whole tone , up to F ♯ , and after the second chorus , Hammett plays a guitar solo with the main , pre @-@ chorus , and chorus riffs in the background . Hammett makes use of the wah @-@ wah pedal and a wide range of scales , including e minor pentatonic , B minor , F ♯ minor , E minor , and the E dorian mode . One of the final licks of the solo was inspired by the Heart song " Magic Man " as used in Ice @-@ T 's " Personal " . Just a few seconds before the solo ends , the breakdown starts , in which the clean drum intro starts , then the clean guitar intro when the last notes of Kirk 's solo echo over it into the background , are heard together with Hetfield teaching a child the " Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep " bedtime prayer and reciting a variation of the lullaby rhyme " Hush Little Baby " where he is heard saying " Hush little baby don 't say a word , and never mind that noise you heard . It 's just the beasts under your bed , in your closet , in your head " . After building again to a chorus , the song starts to fade out while the band plays the same riffs as the buildup intro in reverse order . Lyrically , the song is about " nightmares and all that come with them " , according to Chris True of Allmusic . The title is a reference to the sandman , a character from Western folklore who makes children sleep .
= = Release and reception = =
Initially , the song " Holier Than Thou " was slated to be the opening track and first single from Metallica ; according to the documentary A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica , producer Bob Rock told Ulrich and Hetfield that the album has " five or six songs that are going to be classics " , not only with fans but also on the radio , and that " the first song that should come out is ' Holier Than Thou ' " . According to Rock , Ulrich was the only band member who felt , even before recording , that " Enter Sandman " was the ideal song to be the first single . Ulrich has said that there was a " big argument " ; however , after explaining his point of view to the rest of the band , " Enter Sandman " eventually became the opening track and first single of the album .
The single was released on July 30 , 1991 , two weeks before the release of Metallica . The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 in the United States and nine other countries , and sold over 22 million copies worldwide , allowing " Enter Sandman " to become , as Chris True describes it , " one of the most recognizable songs of all time in rock " . The single peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and at No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart . On September 30 , 1991 , it became Metallica 's second single to achieve gold status in the United States , for shipping more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . In addition to the nominations received by the album as a whole , the song was nominated for Best Rock Song at the 34th Grammy Awards in 1992 , ultimately losing to " The Soul Cages " by Sting . It was also voted Song of the Year in Metal Edge 's 1991 Readers Choice Awards .
" Enter Sandman " was acclaimed by critics . Chris True of Allmusic declared it " one of Metallica ’ s best moments " and a " burst of stadium level metal that , once away from the buildup intro , never lets up " . According to him , the song 's breakdown " brilliantly utilizes that ' Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep ' bedtime prayer in such a way as to add to the scary movie aspect of the song " . Steve Huey , in Allmusic review of Metallica , described it as one of the album 's best songs , with " crushing , stripped @-@ down grooves " . Robert Palmer of Rolling Stone described " Enter Sandman " as " possibly the first metal lullaby " and wrote that the song " tell [ s ] the tale " of the album 's " detail and dynamic , [ ... ] song structures and impact of individual tracks " . Sid Smith from the BBC called the song " psycho @-@ dramatic " and noted that the " terse motifs served notice that things were changing " with Metallica 's new album . Blender magazine 's Tim Grierson says that the lyrics " juxtapose childhood bedtime rituals and nightmarish imagery " and praises the " thick bottom end and propulsive riff " .
" Enter Sandman " has received many accolades . Rolling Stone magazine listed it as the 408th song on their " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " list , and VH1 placed it 22nd in their list of the " 40 Greatest Metal Songs of All Time " , 18th in their list of the " 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s " and 88th in their 2003 list of " The 100 Greatest Songs from the Past 25 Years " . Blender magazine included the song in their " The Greatest Songs Ever ! " series of articles and placed it 65th on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . Q magazine listed it 81st in their list of " The 100 Songs That Changed The World " and 55th in their list of " The 1001 Best Songs Ever " . Total Guitar magazine readers chose the song 's riff as the fifth greatest ever , while Kerrang ! places it fourth on their list of the " 100 Greatest Singles of All Time " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame includes it in their list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock " . It was also featured in Triple J 's " Hottest 100 of All Time " . In 2009 , it was named the 5th greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1 . In 2010 , " Enter Sandman " was included in Kerrang 's Top 100 , as decided by fans .
Since the song 's release , there have been claims that the main riff was taken from the song " Tapping into the Emotional Void " by Excel . " Tapping into the Emotional Void " was released originally on their 1989 album The Joke 's on You . In 2003 , it was reported that Excel members were considering legal action against Metallica due to the similarities between the songs .
= = Music video = =
" Enter Sandman " was the second music video from Metallica . It was also the first of six Metallica music videos directed by Wayne Isham . Recorded on July 3 , 1991 in Los Angeles , it premiered on July 30 , 1991 , two weeks before the release of the album . The plot of the music video directly relates to the theme of the song , combining images of a child having nightmares and images of an old man ( R. G. Armstrong ) with shots of the band playing the song . The child dreams that he is drowning , falling from the top of a building , covered in snakes , being chased by a truck and finally falling from a mountain while escaping the truck . During the part of the song in which the child recites a prayer , he is being watched by the Sandman . Throughout the video , the picture flickers continuously . The music video won Best Hard Rock Video at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards and was nominated for Best Cinematography and Best Editing . Andrew Blackie of PopMatters has said the video 's " narrative suits the sludgy riffs and James Hetfield ’ s twisted lullaby lyric " .
British alternative rock band Skunk Anansie did a homage to the video for their video " Charlie Big Potato " .
= = Appearances and covers = =
" Enter Sandman " has been played in almost every Metallica live performance since its release . The band released live versions of the song in the videos Live Shit : Binge & Purge , Cunning Stunts , and S & M where the band played with the San Francisco Symphony led by maestro Michael Kamen . The song is discussed in the videos A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica and Classic Albums : Metallica - Metallica , and its video is available in The Videos 1989 @-@ 2004 . Metallica has played the song live at awards ceremonies and benefit concerts , such as the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , the 1992 Grammy Awards , the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert , and Live Earth . Explosives are occasionally set off at 0 : 49 of the song , when the main riffs start . Following its UK terrestrial broadcast of Live Earth , the BBC received 413 complaints and apologized to Metallica fans for cutting the band 's set before " Enter Sandman " .
On tours after the release of their album Load , Metallica staged accidents at indoor shows while playing the song . Among other stunts , a light tower would come crushing down with electrical wires sparking , and a crew member would run onto the stage on fire ; such scenes can be seen in the live video Cunning Stunts . On June 6 , 2004 , at Download Festival , in England the song was performed with Joey Jordison of Slipknot playing the drums replacing Ulrich after he suffered a medical emergency .
" Enter Sandman " has been covered by many artists , including acts as diverse as Injustice ( 2010 ) , Alter Bridge , Sum 41 , Lemmy of Motörhead with Zebrahead , Zac Brown Band , Apocalyptica , " Weird Al " Yankovic ( for his " Polka Your Eyes Out " medley ) , Richard Cheese , The Mighty Mighty Bosstones , Reel Big Fish , Tropikal Forever , Ween , Die Krupps , Björn Again , Youn Sun Nah and Pat Boone . Lemmy & Zebrahead 's cover of the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 42nd Grammy Awards in 2000 but lost to Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " . The song was also covered on the album Metallic Assault : A Tribute to Metallica , and is notable for featuring Robert Trujillo playing bass on the track several years before he became a member of Metallica . Country singer Luke Bryan routinely performs the song as part of a medley along with his own song " All My Friends Say " . Widespread Panic performed the song once as part of a live set on October 31 , 2007 at the Asheville Civic Center in Asheville , NC . Parody band Beatallica recorded a mashup of the song and the Beatles ' " Taxman " titled " Sandman " , on their 2007 album Sgt. Hetfield 's Motorbreath Pub Band . In October 2011 , a video of British children aged 8 – 10 covering the song at the Buckleberry Beer Festival as The Mini Band went viral , eventually gaining more than 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views on YouTube . Punk rock band L7 covered fragments of the song at their concerts .
The song 's driving , building intro has made it popular as entrance music in sports – first used by the Louisville Cardinals and later most notably for New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera ( and he also got his nickname " Sandman " due to the association between the song and him ) . Metallica performed " Enter Sandman " live at Yankee Stadium on September 22 , 2013 , in a pregame ceremony honoring Rivera 's career . It has also been used by Billy Wagner , the Virginia Tech Hokies football team , ECW pro wrestler The Sandman , and former UFC Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar in the UFC . It is also played for the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim home games , Bradford Bulls rugby team , the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team , the Iowa Hawkeyes football team , the Wisconsin Badgers men 's hockey team , New Zealand Breakers , and the Southern Illinois Salukis football team .
It is also popular in the entertainment field being used in the opening of the Tom Leykis radio show , and for the entrance music of Larry the Cable Guy during his Comedy Central Roast . In 2010 , the song was parodied by The Fringemunks to recap Fringe episode 2 @.@ 14 , " Jacksonville . " The song is also played during the first ascent on the X ² roller coaster at Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia , California . It is also featured in the video games Rock Band and Guitar Hero : Metallica .
The song was also used by NASA mission control CAPCOM B. Alvin Drew to wake up space shuttle astronauts aboard STS @-@ 123 . The song was selected for Mission Specialist Robert L. Behnken by his fiance .
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq , uncooperative prisoners were exposed to the song for extended periods by American interrogators . According to United States Psychological Operations , the intention was to " break a prisoner 's resistance [ ... by ] playing music that was culturally offensive to them " . Upon discovering that the song was used for these purposes , drummer Lars Ulrich commented saying " If there are people that are dumb enough to use Metallica to interrogate prisoners , you 're forgetting about all the music that 's to the left of us . I can name , you know , 30 Norwegian death metal bands that would make Metallica sound like Simon & Garfunkel " .
Canadian indie rock artist Mac DeMarco often performs the song as an encore performance .
= = Track listing = =
US single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
International CD single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 12 " vinyl single ( 4 tracks )
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Holier Than Thou " ( Work in Progress ... ) – 3 : 48
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 12 " vinyl single ( 3 tracks )
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 7 " vinyl single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
International 7 " vinyl picture disc single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
Australian 2 @-@ track CD single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
Japanese 2 @-@ track 3 " CD single
" Enter Sandman "
" Stone Cold Crazy "
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Certification = = =
= = Personnel = =
James Hetfield – rhythm guitar , lead vocals
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Jason Newsted – bass guitar , backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
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= Bill Mosienko =
William Mosienko ( November 2 , 1921 – July 9 , 1994 ) was a Ukrainian Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played 14 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Chicago Black Hawks . He is best noted for recording the fastest hat trick in NHL history . In a 1952 game against the New York Rangers , Mosienko scored three goals in 21 seconds .
In the NHL , Mosienko won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy in 1945 as the most gentlemanly player in the league , played in five All @-@ Star Games and was twice named to the second All @-@ Star Team . He left the league in 1955 to help bring professional hockey to his hometown of Winnipeg . He helped create the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League and was a three @-@ time All @-@ Star in his four years of play in the league . He won the league championship in 1956 .
Mosienko was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1965 and into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1980 .
= = Early life = =
Mosienko was born on November 2 , 1921 in Winnipeg , Manitoba . He was one of 14 children , having nine brothers and four sisters . His father was a Ukrainian immigrant and worked as a boilermaker with the Canadian Pacific Railway . Mosienko grew up in Winnipeg 's north end .
He developed a passion for hockey and began playing at the age of 10 with the Tobans and later Sherburn athletic clubs . At 17 , he sought to try out with the St. James Canadians junior team in 1939 and after being told he was too young , instead joined the Winnipeg Monarchs .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Chicago Blackhawks = = =
Chicago Black Hawks player Joe Cooper discovered Mosienko playing on outdoor rinks in Winnipeg and recommended that Hawks management sign him . Mosienko signed with Chicago at the age of 18 and was assigned to their minor league team , the Kansas City Americans . In his first two seasons , he split time between the Americans , the Providence Reds and the Black Hawks . The Black Hawks first recalled Mosienko in 1942 , replacing players who had left to fight World War II . He scored his first two NHL goals on February 9 , 1942 , 21 seconds apart .
Exempted from military service for medical reasons likely related to his small size , Mosienko was unable to cross into the United States as a result of travel restrictions and played the 1942 – 43 season primarily with the Quebec Aces of the Quebec Senior Hockey League . He appeared in two games when the Hawks traveled to Toronto . He finally established himself as an NHL regular in 1943 – 44 and scored a career high 70 points . Mosienko and his linemates Clint Smith and Doug Bentley combined to score 219 points , at that time an NHL record . His 70 points set a team rookie record that stood for 37 years until broken by Denis Savard in 1980 – 81 .
In 1944 – 45 , Mosienko finished sixth in league scoring with 54 points and did not record a single penalty minute throughout the course of the season . He was awarded the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most gentlemanly player and named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Star . He was also voted the most popular player on the team by its fans .
The following season , Chicago coach Johnny Gottselig paired Mosienko with the Bentley brothers : Max and Doug . The trio formed what came to be known as the " Pony Line " due to their speed and small size and emerged as one of the top scoring trios in the NHL . Max Bentley led the league in scoring in 1945 – 46 , and despite missing time with a knee injury , Mosienko finished sixth . He was again named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Star . He played in the first National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game prior to the start of the 1947 – 48 season , during which he suffered a broken leg and was initially feared lost for the year . He ultimately missed the first two months of play , while the Pony Line was broken up for good shortly after his injury when Max Bentley was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Mosienko remained a key contributor to the Black Hawks offence , appearing in five All @-@ Star Games during his career . His most famous moment came on March 23 , 1952 , in a game against the New York Rangers on the final night of the regular season . He scored three goals in a 21 @-@ second span of the third period against New York 's Lorne Anderson to set a new record for the fastest hat @-@ trick by one player . Linemate Gus Bodnar assisted on all three goals , and he nearly had a fourth goal 45 seconds later on a shot that deflected off the goalpost . Mosienko 's feat remains an NHL record .
Due to his small size , Mosienko was a frequent target of physical abuse from larger opponents , and suffered numerous injuries as a result . Despite this , he refrained from retaliation and was well regarded across the league for his gentlemanly conduct . In 14 NHL seasons , he totaled only 121 penalty minutes and had just one fight .
= = = Winnipeg Warriors = = =
Mosienko left the NHL in 1955 and joined fellow player Alf Pike in bringing professional hockey back to Winnipeg . They established the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League . He led the Warriors to the President 's Cup championship in the team 's first year of 1955 – 56 and helped the Warriors defeat the Quebec Hockey League 's Quebec Aces for the Edinburgh Cup , Canada 's minor professional championship . He scored two goals in the deciding sixth game of a 3 – 1 victory to capture the trophy . He was named to the WHL All @-@ Star Team three times : 1957 , 1958 and 1959 . Though he scored 88 points in the 1958 – 59 season , Mosienko announced his retirement after 18 seasons of professional hockey . He coached the team for one season in 1959 – 60 .
At the time of his retirement from the NHL , Mosienko was seventh all @-@ time in league scoring with 540 points . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1965 , and to the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1980 . Additionally , Mosienko is honoured by the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame and in 2000 was named to its provincial All @-@ Century First All @-@ Star Team .
= = Off the ice = =
Following his retirement , Mosienko and Joe Cooper operated a string of bowling alleys in Winnipeg , one of which continues to be operated by his family . He was a supporter of Winnipeg minor hockey and Manitoba oldtimers associations . There is an arena named in Mosienko 's honor in his hometown of Winnipeg .
Mosienko died of cancer in Winnipeg in 1994 at the age of 72 . He had a wife , Wanda , two sons and one daughter . His grandson , Tyler , is also a professional hockey player . The younger Mosienko remembers his grandfather as a humble man who would join him on the family 's backyard rink when he was learning to skate as a child .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Level @-@ 5 . It was released in Japan for the Nintendo DS on December 9 , 2010 . Players control Oliver , a young boy who sets out on a journey to save his mother . The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by boat . While players navigate Oliver throughout the game 's world , other characters can be controlled during battles against enemies ; during these battles , players use magic abilities and creatures known as " imajinn " , which can be captured and tamed .
Development of Dominion of the Dark Djinn began in 2008 . The game 's animated sequences were produced by Studio Ghibli , while the original score was co @-@ composed by Joe Hisaishi . The artwork was also inspired by Studio Ghibli 's other productions . The character development of Oliver was a large focus of the game , intending to make children empathize with the character and for adults to relive their adolescence . The developers chose to develop for the Nintendo DS due to its suitability for gameplay .
Following its announcement , Ni no Kuni was widely anticipated . It was acclaimed by reviewers , with praise particularly directed at its story , art style and music . An enhanced version of the game , titled Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch , was released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 , featuring similar gameplay and story elements .
= = Gameplay = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn is a role @-@ playing game that uses a fixed third @-@ person perspective . Players complete quests — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . Outside of quests , players can freely roam the open world . Players explore towns , villages , dungeons and dangerous places scattered throughout the world , and possess the ability to travel between the world and Oliver 's hometown of Hotroit . Upon leaving a location , players enter the World Map , which can be navigated , or used to select a destination . The world may be fully explored from the beginning of the game without restrictions , although story progress unlocks more gameplay content and forms of transport to navigate the world .
When players encounter enemies , they enter a battle mode . The battles employ a grid layout , whereby players can create formations to avoid attacks , or lessen damage . During battles , players command a single human ally , or one of the " imajinn " accompanying them ; changing primary command to a different human ally allows players to control their imajinn . To fight enemies , players use magical abilities and imajinn . Imajinn are creatures that can be tamed , in order to be suitable to send out in battle to fight for players . Familiars level up and evolve alongside the human characters ; each have unique statistics and capabilities , and can be guided through their upgrades with treats and equipped with items . When all enemies in a battle are defeated , players may receive experience points , currency and items . When a specific amount of experience is earned , characters ' levels will increase , and their abilities improve . Should a party member lose health or mana points , they can be restored by using provisions .
The errands that can be undertaken at the request of townspeople and the bounty hunts available from the Taskmaster are collectively known as " tasks " . When tasks are completed , players will earn a number of stamps for their current merit stamp card , which can be exchanged for upgrades . Players take part in battles using the Wizard Companion book , which contains various spells that are activated using drawings with the stylus . During battles , players can arrange their characters anywhere on the bottom screen to implement various tactics ; for example , a character that can block certain attacks can be placed in front of others to shield them .
= = Plot = =
Ni no Kuni follows the journey of Oliver , a resident of Hotroit . While trying out a new vehicle designed by his friend Mark , Oliver almost drowns , but is saved by his mother Allie ; however , she immediately dies from heart problems after saving him . As Oliver cries , his tears cause his doll , a gift from his mother , to come to life and reveal itself as a fairy named Shizuku , who tells Oliver that he is from another world where an evil wizard named Jabou took control . He also tells Oliver that each person from his world has a " soulmate " , a person that shares a link with someone in Oliver 's world , and that his mother looks very much like a great sage , Alicia , who was captured by Jabou . Realizing that Alicia must have been Allie 's soulmate , Oliver sets out with Shizuku to travel to the other world and rescue Alicia in the hope that doing so will bring Allie back in his world .
In the other world , Oliver finds a multitude of broken @-@ hearted people affected by Jabou , and uses his new @-@ found magic abilities to restore those pieces of heart which they lack , and travels the world to seek out the four great sages who may be able to help . Along the way , he meets Maru , daughter of one of the great sages , and Jairo , a thief who initially steals a crucial item from them , but who ultimately decides to help . As they enlist the sages ' help , they learn of a wand that could be used to defeat Jabou , but are at a loss as to how to retrieve it , as it was recently destroyed by Jabou . Soon after , they find themselves many years in the past by the actions of a stranger , and are able to retrieve the wand there .
After returning to the present and retrieving three magical stones to complete the wand , Oliver learns that his mother Allie was in fact the great sage , Alicia . Realizing she could not defeat Jabou , and that he had destroyed his soulmate in the other world to avoid the possibility of being defeated through them , she chose to travel into both the future and into Oliver 's world in the hopes of finding his next soulmate ; after settling in to this new world , she eventually gave birth to her son , Oliver , who unknowingly became Jabou 's soulmate . After he is defeated , Jabou 's past is shown . He was once a soldier who helped a young girl against orders , and whose hometown was destroyed to set an example . The spirit of Alicia talks to the dying Jabou , who realises that the girl he saved was the young Alicia herself . Jabou then uses his power to sever the link between himself and Oliver , in order to save Oliver from dying as well .
= = Development = =
Conceived as a project for Level @-@ 5 's tenth anniversary in 2008 , Ni no Kuni : The Another World was announced in the September 2008 issue of Famitsu , as a title for the Nintendo DS . In June 2010 , Level @-@ 5 announced that the game would also be released for the PlayStation 3 , with significant differences ; the DS version was renamed Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn , while the PlayStation 3 version was given the title Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch . Both versions were revealed to be in development separately , only retaining the same " story axle " , while features such as artwork , graphics and specifications all received significant changes . Journalists noted that the game 's announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry .
The development team found that the Nintendo DS was best suited to the game 's development . The team planned to bring the game to PlayStation 3 from the beginning of development , but opted to work on the DS version of the game beforehand due to the larger number of DS users in Japan at the time .
= = = Art design = = =
Level @-@ 5 collaborated with Studio Ghibli to produce the game 's animated sequences , and the game features graphics and visuals replicating the traditional animation style of Studio Ghibli films . The collaboration began when musician Naoya Fujimaki , who had previously worked with both companies , introduced Level @-@ 5 president Akihiro Hino to Studio Ghibli president Toshio Suzuki . At the time , Studio Ghibli had completed work on Ponyo ( 2008 ) , and the animation team had no ongoing projects , which influenced Suzuki 's decision to collaborate with Level @-@ 5 . Another influencing factor of the collaboration was witnessing Hino 's passion for the project . Studio Ghibli approached the production process in the same way that they would create an animated film . Work on the animation began in July 2008 , and took much longer than the predicted three months .
Studio Ghibli 's Yoshiyuki Momose served as the game 's director of animation , staging the scenes and directing actors during the motion capture sessions . He was also assigned to drawing character designs and storyboards , incorporating a " Ghibli @-@ like " style . Hino wished to incorporate the " heartwarming touch " of Studio Ghibli productions into the game ; the artwork and character movements was greatly inspired by Studio Ghibli 's work , particularly due to their attention to detail , as well as their talent in creating storyboards and utilizing camera control . The development team constantly watched Studio Ghibli 's films during development . Game director Ken Motomura regularly worked with Studio Ghibli , swapping and reviewing assets , while Hino worked with the studio in regards to the game 's dialogue and animated sequences . When designing the familiars , the team accounted for the characteristics of their surrounding area , which inspired the later design . Some of the initial familiar designs were deemed either creepy or " overly @-@ cute " , and adapted accordingly to match the style of Studio Ghibli 's artwork .
= = = Story and setting = = =
The team wanted the theme of the game to resonate with children ; they initially considered the idea of expressing adventure and dreams . They later explored the concept of a child 's greatest influence , their mother , and the possibility of losing them . Although the framework of the story was completed prior to Studio Ghibli 's involvement with the game , they still took part in many discussions regarding some ideas , including the game 's final scenes .
The majority of the game takes place in a magical world , referred to as the " other world " . To avoid making the world map feel outdated , the team modernized the design by arranging the terrain in " fun and fascinating ways " . The game 's open world was designed to remind players of a " miniature diorama " , intending to invoke reminiscence to an older time , as well as the feeling of freshness . Other segments of the game are set in Oliver 's fictional hometown of Hotroit . The town is modelled after an American town in the peak of the automotive industry during the 1950s and 1960s ; this decision was made due to Oliver 's interest in cars and machines .
= = = Character development = = =
The game 's characters were particularly inspired by Level @-@ 5 's previous work on the Professor Layton series ( 2007 – present ) . During development , Momose suggested that the team design the clothes in a modern fashion , in order for players to gain a " stronger sense that you have stepped out of the familiar and into a different world " . The game 's main playable character , Oliver , is a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy . The team decided to make him a child as they wished to showcase a coming of age story . They wanted children to empathize with Oliver 's development , and adults to relive the excitement of their adolescence . A major part of the story is Oliver 's personal development , which Hino describes as " the process of how a child grows into an adult " . In regards to Oliver 's physical appearance , Momose made his outfit represent a young boy in 1950s America , which was the inspiration for his hometown .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn received high acclaim upon release . Reviewers highly praised the art style , unique gameplay , story and characters , and the soundtrack . Michael Baker of RPGamer named it the " best overall game " at the time , and Janelle Hindman of RPGLand wrote that the game is " a reminder of why people used to flock to the JRPG genre in the first place " . Nintendo Gamer 's Matthew Castle called it " one of the best experiences on DS " . Editors of the magazine Famitsu felt that game 's animation , music and story are effectively utilized to maintain excitement .
The game 's artistic design received acclaim , being favorably compared to Studio Ghibli 's previous work ; Gigazine found the art style to be " Ghibl @-@ ish " . Famitsu praised the gimmicks in the design , similarly calling them " extremely Level @-@ 5 like " . RPGamer 's Baker felt that the graphics are the best in a Nintendo DS game , particularly praising the animated cutscenes . Nintendo Gamer 's Castle echoed these remarks , calling it " visual perfection " . RPGLand 's Hindman called the graphics " beautiful and lovingly rendered " , praising their effective use of building the world , and its lack of repetition . Chris Carter of Destructoid approved of the visuals , though found the graphics in Wrath of the White Witch to be far superior .
The gameplay was met with positive reactions . Hindman of RPGLand found the battle system " fun " , and admired the variety of styles present in battles . Baker of RPGamer praised the simplicity of the battles , but reprimanded the puzzles and level design for their lack of depth . Gigazine found the touchscreen controls " innovative " and unique , yet felt that the battle sequences were " not very thrilling " and lacking excitement . Warotan.com felt that game 's combat was frustrating for the game 's first half , until enough resources had been obtained . Edge found that the gameplay was too similar to other games , noting the collaboration with Studio Ghibli was the game 's only unique point . The inclusion of the Wizard 's Companion book with the game was also met with positive reactions ; Famitsu called it " innovative " , and RPGLand 's Hindman praised the presentation , although criticized the constant necessity of the book for gameplay . Castle of Nintendo Gamer called the book a " genuine work of art " , praising its relevance to the gameplay .
Reviewers commended the game 's story and characters . RPGLand 's Hindman appreciated the genuineness of the characters , and found that the script makes the game unique compared to other role @-@ playing games . Edge favorably compared the characters to previous works by Level @-@ 5 and Studio Ghibli , the former for their ability to present believable worlds , and the latter for their presentation of " complex , adult problems from a child 's perspective " . Baker of RPGamer felt that the story is " comfortably cliché @-@ ridden " , noting that the writing " really shines " due to the characters . Tomomi Yamamura of Game Watch praised the game 's voice acting , comparing it favorably to Studio Ghibli films . Conversely , Warotan.com found the story to be " flat " , criticising the repetitive tasks .
Baker of RPGamer found the game 's music to be " top @-@ notch " , noting its appropriation for gameplay . Patrick Gann of RPGFan called the soundtrack " beautiful " , comparing it favorably to Koichi Sugiyama 's work on the Dragon Quest series . RPGLand 's Hindman lauded the music as " gorgeously crafted " , appreciating the lack of electronic or synthesized songs , and Gigazine named it " magnificent " . Nintendo Gamer 's Castle lauded the music , favorably comparing it to film soundtracks .
= = = Sales = = =
Within three days of release , Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn sold over 170 @,@ 000 units , charting second for the week behind Monster Hunter Portable 3rd . Within one month , it had sold over 330 @,@ 000 units , making it the 33rd best @-@ selling game in Japan for 2010 . By March 2011 , over 500 @,@ 000 units had been sold . By the end of 2011 , sales figures had reached over 560 @,@ 000 units ; the additional 230 @,@ 000 sold units sold in 2011 made it the 45th best @-@ selling game of the year .
= = = Awards = = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn received nominations and awards from gaming publications . It won the award for Future Division from the Japan Game Awards in 2009 and 2010 , and the Excellence Award in 2011 . The game was also awarded the Rookie Award from Famitsu in 2011 .
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= Nancy Drew =
Nancy Drew is a fictional American character in a mystery fiction series created by publisher Edward Stratemeyer . The character first appeared in 1930 . The books are ghostwritten by a number of authors and published under the collective pseudonym Carolyn Keene . Over the decades , the character evolved in response to changes in US culture and tastes . The books were extensively revised and shortened , beginning in 1959 , in part to lower printing costs and to eliminate racist stereotypes , with arguable success . In the revision process , the heroine 's original character was changed to be less assertive and more feminine . In the 1980s , an older and more professional Nancy emerged in a new series , The Nancy Drew Files , that included romantic subplots for the sleuth . The original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series started in 1930 , and ended in 2004 . Launched that same year , the Girl Detective series features Nancy driving a hybrid electric vehicle and using a cell phone . In 2013 , the Girl Detective series ended , and a new current series called Nancy Drew Diaries was launched . Illustrations of the character evolved over time to reflect contemporary styles . The character proves continuously popular worldwide : at least 80 million copies of the books have been sold , and the books have been translated into over 45 languages . Nancy Drew is featured in five films , two television shows , and a number of popular computer games ; she also appears in a variety of merchandise sold around the world .
A cultural icon , Nancy Drew is cited as a formative influence by a number of women , from Supreme Court Justices Sandra Day O 'Connor and Sonia Sotomayor to Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and former First Lady Laura Bush . Feminist literary critics have analyzed the character 's enduring appeal , arguing variously that Nancy Drew is a mythic hero , an expression of wish fulfillment , or an embodiment of contradictory ideas about femininity .
= = Character = =
Nancy Drew is a fictional amateur sleuth . In the original versions of the series , she is a 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school graduate , and in later versions , is rewritten and aged to be an 18 @-@ year @-@ old high school graduate and detective . In the series , she lives in the fictional town of River Heights with her father , attorney Carson Drew , and their housekeeper , Hannah Gruen . As a child ( age ten in the original versions and age three in the later version ) , she loses her mother . Her loss is reflected in her early independence — running a household since the age of ten with a clear @-@ cut servant in early series and deferring to the servant as a surrogate parent in later ones . As a teenager , she spends her time solving mysteries , some of which she stumbles upon and some of which begin as cases of her father 's . Nancy is often assisted in solving mysteries by her two closest friends : cousins Bess Marvin and George Fayne . Bess is delicate and feminine , while George is a tomboy . Nancy is also occasionally joined by her boyfriend Ned Nickerson , a student at Emerson College .
Nancy is often described as a super girl . In the words of Bobbie Ann Mason , she is " as immaculate and self @-@ possessed as a Miss America on tour . She is as cool as Mata Hari and as sweet as Betty Crocker . " Nancy is well @-@ off , attractive , and amazingly talented :
At sixteen she ' had studied psychology in school , and was familiar with the power of suggestion and association . ' Nancy was a fine painter , spoke French , and had frequently run motor boats . She was a skilled driver who at sixteen ' flashed into the garage with a skill born of long practice . ' The prodigy was a sure shot , an excellent swimmer , skillful oarsman , expert seamstress , gourmet cook , and a fine bridge player . Nancy brilliantly played tennis and golf , and rode like a cowboy . Nancy danced like Ginger Rogers and could administer first aid like the Mayo brothers .
Nancy never lacks money , and in later volumes of the series often travels to faraway locations , such as France in The Mystery of the 99 Steps ( 1966 ) , Nairobi in The Spider Sapphire Mystery ( 1968 ) , Austria in Captive Witness ( 1981 ) , Japan in The Runaway Bride ( 1994 ) , Costa Rica in Scarlet Macaw Scandal ( 2004 ) , and Alaska in Curse of The Arctic Star ( 2013 ) . Nancy is also able to travel freely about the United States , thanks in part to her car , which is a blue roadster in the original series and a blue convertible in the later books . Despite the trouble and presumed expense to which she goes to solve mysteries , Nancy never accepts monetary compensation ; however , by implication , her expenses are often paid by a client of her father 's , as part of the costs of solving one of his cases .
= = Creation of character = =
The character was conceived by Edward Stratemeyer , founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate . Stratemeyer had created the Hardy Boys series in 1926 ( although the first volumes were not published until 1927 ) , which had been such a success that he decided on a similar series for girls , featuring an amateur girl detective as the heroine . While Stratemeyer believed that a woman 's place was in the home , he was aware that the Hardy Boys books were popular with girl readers and wished to capitalize on girls ' interest in mysteries by offering a strong female heroine .
Stratemeyer initially pitched the new series to Hardy Boys publishers Grosset & Dunlap as the " Stella Strong Stories " , adding that " they might also be called ' Diana Drew Stories ' , ' Diana Dare Stories ' , ' Nan Nelson Stories ' , ' Nan Drew Stories ' , or ' Helen Hale Stories ' . " Editors at Grosset & Dunlap preferred " Nan Drew " of these options , but decided to lengthen " Nan " to " Nancy " . Stratemeyer accordingly began writing plot outlines and hired Mildred Wirt , later Mildred Wirt Benson , to ghostwrite the first volumes in the series under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene . Subsequent titles have been written by a number of different ghostwriters , all under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene .
The first four titles were published in 1930 and were an immediate success . Exact sales figures are not available for the years prior to 1979 , but an indication of the books ' popularity can be seen in a letter that Laura Harris , a Grosset and Dunlap editor , wrote to the Syndicate in 1931 : " can you let us have the manuscript as soon as possible , and no later than July 10 ? There will only be three or four titles brought out then and the Nancy Drew is one of the most important . " The 6 @,@ 000 copies that Macy 's ordered for the 1933 Christmas season sold out within days . In 1934 Fortune magazine featured the Syndicate in a cover story and singled Nancy Drew out for particular attention : " Nancy is the greatest phenomenon among all the fifty @-@ centers . She is a best seller . How she crashed a Valhalla that had been rigidly restricted to the male of her species is a mystery even to her publishers . "
= = = Ghostwriters = = =
Consistent with other Stratemeyer Syndicate properties , the Nancy Drew novels were written by various writers , all under the pen name Carolyn Keene . In accordance with the customs of Stratemeyer Syndicate series production , ghostwriters for the Syndicate signed contracts that have sometimes been interpreted as requiring authors to sign away all rights to authorship or future royalties . Contracts stated that authors could not use their Stratemeyer Syndicate pseudonyms independently of the Syndicate . In the early days of the Syndicate , ghostwriters were paid a fee of $ 125 , " roughly equivalent to two month 's wages for a typical newspaper reporter , the primary day job of the syndicate ghosts . "
During the Great Depression this fee was lowered to $ 100 and eventually $ 75 . All royalties went to the Syndicate , and all correspondence with the publisher was handled through a Syndicate office . The Syndicate was able to enlist the cooperation of libraries in hiding the ghostwriters ' names ; when Walter Karig , who wrote volumes eight through ten of the original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories , tried to claim rights with the Library of Congress in 1933 , the Syndicate instructed the Library of Congress not to reveal the names of any Nancy Drew authors , a move with which the Library of Congress complied .
The Syndicate 's process for creating the Nancy Drew books consisted of creating a detailed plot outline , drafting a manuscript , and editing the manuscript . Edward Stratemeyer and his daughters Harriet Adams and Edna Stratemeyer Squier wrote most of the outlines for the original Nancy Drew series until 1979 . Volume 30 , The Clue of the Velvet Mask ( 1953 ) , was outlined by Andrew Svenson . Usually , other writers wrote the manuscripts . Most of the early volumes were written by Mildred Wirt Benson . Other volumes were written by Walter Karig , George Waller , Jr . , Margaret Scherf , Wilhelmina Rankin , Alma Sasse , Charles S. Strong , Iris Vinton , and Patricia Doll . Edward Stratemeyer edited the first three volumes , and Harriet Adams edited most subsequent volumes until her death in 1982 . In 1959 , the earlier titles were revised , largely by Adams . From the late 1950s until her death in 1982 , Harriet Adams herself wrote the manuscripts for most of the books .
After Adams 's death , series production was overseen by Nancy Axelrad ( who also wrote several volumes ) . The rights to the character were sold in 1984 , along with the Stratemeyer Syndicate itself , to Simon & Schuster . Book packager Mega @-@ Books subsequently hired authors to write the main Nancy Drew series and a new series , The Nancy Drew Files .
= = = Legal disputes = = =
In 1980 , Harriet Adams switched publishers to Simon & Schuster , dissatisfied with the lack of creative control at Grosset & Dunlap and the lack of publicity for the Hardy Boys ' 50th anniversary in 1977 . Grosset & Dunlap filed suit against the Syndicate and the new publishers , Simon & Schuster , citing " breach of contract , copyright infringement , and unfair competition . "
Adams filed a countersuit , claiming the case was in poor taste and frivolous , and that , as author of the Nancy Drew series , she retained the rights to her work . Although Adams had written many of the titles after 1953 , and edited others , she claimed to be the author of all of the early titles . In fact , she had rewritten the older titles and was not their original author . When Mildred Benson was called to testify about her work for the Syndicate , Benson 's role in writing the manuscripts of early titles was revealed in court with extensive documentation , contradicting Adams ' claims to authorship . The court ruled that Grosset had the rights to publish the original series as they were in print in 1980 , but did not own characters or trademarks . Furthermore , any new publishers chosen by Adams were completely within their rights to print new titles .
= = Evolution of character = =
The character of Nancy Drew has gone through many permutations over the years . The Nancy Drew Mystery series was revised beginning in 1959 ; with commentators agreeing that Nancy 's character changed significantly from the original Nancy of the books written in the 1930s and 1940s . Commentators also often see a difference between the Nancy Drew of the original series , the Nancy of The Nancy Drew Files , and the Nancy of Girl Detective series . Nevertheless , some commentators find no significant difference between the different permutations of Nancy Drew , finding Nancy to be simply a good role model for girls . Despite revisions , " [ w ] hat hasn 't changed , however , are [ Nancy 's ] basic values , her goals , her humility , and her magical gift for having at least nine lives . For more than six decades , her essence has remained intact . " Nancy is a " teen detective queen " who " offers girl readers something more than action @-@ packed adventure : she gives them something original . Convention has it that girls are passive , respectful , and emotional , but with the energy of a girl shot out of a cannon , Nancy bends conventions and acts out every girl 's fantasies of power .
Other commentators see Nancy as " a paradox — which may be why feminists can laud her as a formative ' girl power ' icon and conservatives can love her well @-@ scrubbed middle @-@ class values . "
= = = 1930 – 1959 = = =
The earliest Nancy Drew books were published as dark blue hardcovers with the titles stamped in orange lettering with dark blue outlines and no other images on the cover . They went through several changes in early years : leaving the orange lettering with no outline and adding an orange silhouette of Nancy peering through a magnifying glass ; then changing to a lighter blue board with dark blue lettering and silhouette ; then changing the position of the title and silhouette on the front with black lettering and a more " modern " silhouette . Nancy Drew is depicted as an independent @-@ minded 16 @-@ year @-@ old who has already completed her high school education ( 16 was the minimum age for graduation at the time ) ; the series also occurs over time , as she is 18 by the early 1940s . Apparently affluent ( her father is a successful lawyer ) , she maintains an active social , volunteer , and sleuthing schedule , as well as participating in athletics and the arts , but is never shown as working for a living or acquiring job skills . Nancy is affected neither by the Great Depression — although many of the characters in her early cases need assistance as they are poverty @-@ stricken — nor by World War II . Nancy lives with her lawyer father , Carson Drew , and their housekeeper , Mrs. Hannah Gruen . Some critics prefer the Nancy of these volumes , largely written by Mildred Benson . Benson is credited with " [ breathing ] ... a feisty spirit into Nancy 's character . " The original Nancy Drew is sometimes claimed " to be a lot like [ Benson ] herself – confident , competent , and totally independent , quite unlike the cardboard character that [ Edward ] Stratemeyer had outlined . "
This original Nancy is frequently outspoken and authoritative , so much so that Edward Stratemeyer told Benson that the character was " much too flip , and would never be well received . " The editors at Grosset & Dunlap disagreed , but Benson also faced criticism from her next Stratemeyer Syndicate editor , Harriet Adams , who felt that Benson should make Nancy 's character more " sympathetic , kind @-@ hearted and lovable . " Adams repeatedly asked Benson to , in Benson 's words , " make the sleuth less bold ... ' Nancy said ' became ' Nancy said sweetly , ' ' she said kindly , ' and the like , all designed to produce a less abrasive more caring type of character . " Many readers and commentators , however , admire this original Nancy 's outspoken character .
A prominent critic of the Nancy Drew character , at least the Nancy of these early Nancy Drew stories , is mystery writer Bobbie Ann Mason . Mason contends that Nancy owes her popularity largely to " the appeal of her high @-@ class advantages . " Mason also criticizes the series for its racism and classism , arguing that Nancy is the upper @-@ class WASP defender of a " fading aristocracy , threatened by the restless lower classes . " Mason further contends that the " most appealing elements of these daredevil girl sleuth adventure books are ( secretly ) of this kind : tea and fancy cakes , romantic settings , food eaten in quaint places ( never a Ho @-@ Jo 's ) , delicious pauses that refresh , old @-@ fashioned picnics in the woods , precious jewels and heirlooms .... The word dainty is a subversive affirmation of a feminized universe . "
At bottom , says Mason , the character of Nancy Drew is that of a girl who is able to be " perfect " because she is " free , white , and sixteen " and whose " stories seem to satisfy two standards – adventure and domesticity . But adventure is the superstructure , domesticity the bedrock . "
Others argue that " Nancy , despite her traditionally feminine attributes , such as good looks , a variety of clothes for all social occasions , and an awareness of good housekeeping , is often praised for her seemingly masculine traits ... she operates best independently , has the freedom and money to do as she pleases , and outside of a telephone call or two home , seems to live for solving mysteries rather than participating in family life . "
= = = 1959 – 1979 = = =
At the insistence of publishers Grosset & Dunlap , the Nancy Drew books were revised beginning in 1959 , both to make the books more modern and to eliminate racist stereotypes . Although Harriet Adams felt that these changes were unnecessary , she oversaw a complete overhaul of the series , as well as writing new volumes in keeping with the new guidelines laid down by Grosset & Dunlap . The series did not so much eliminate racial stereotypes , however , as eliminate non @-@ white characters altogether . For example , in the original version of The Hidden Window Mystery ( 1956 ) , Nancy visits friends in the south whose African @-@ American servant , " lovable old Beulah ... serves squabs , sweet potatoes , corn pudding , piping hot biscuits , and strawberry shortcake . " The mistress of the house waits until Beulah has left the room and then says to Nancy , " I try to make things easier for Beulah but she insists on cooking and serving everything the old @-@ fashioned way . I must confess , though , that I love it . " In the revised 1975 version , Beulah is changed to Anna , a " plump , smiling housekeeper " .
Many other changes were relatively minor . The new books were bound in yellow with color illustrations on the front covers . Nancy 's age was raised from 16 to 18 , her mother was said to have died when Nancy was three , rather than ten , and other small changes were made . Housekeeper Hannah Gruen , sent off to the kitchen in early stories , became less of a servant and more of a mother surrogate .
Critics saw this Nancy of the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s as an improvement in some ways , a step back in others : " In these new editions , an array of elements had been modified ... and most of the more overt elements of racism had been excised . In an often overlooked alteration , however , the tomboyishness of the text 's title character was also tamed . "
Nancy becomes much more respectful of male authority figures in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s , leading some to claim that the revised Nancy simply becomes too agreeable , and less distinctive , writing of her , " In the revised books , Nancy is relentlessly upbeat , puts up with her father 's increasingly protective tendencies , and , when asked if she goes to church in the 1969 The Clue of the Tapping Heels , replies , ' As often as I can ' ... Nancy learns to hold her tongue ; she doesn 't sass the dumb cops like she used to . "
= = = 1980 – 2003 = = =
After Harriet Adams died in 1982 , her protégé , Nancy Axelrad , oversaw production of the Nancy Drew books briefly before the Stratemeyer Syndicate was sold to Simon & Schuster . Simon & Schuster turned to book packager Mega @-@ Books for new writers . The books and Nancy 's character began to change as a result , although there is disagreement on the nature of this change . Some contend that Nancy 's character becomes " more like Mildred Wirt Benson 's original heroine than any [ version ] since 1956 . " Others criticize the series for its increasing incorporation of romance and " [ dilution ] of pre @-@ feminist moxie . " For example , volume 78 in the series Update on Crime ( 1992 ) opens with Nancy wondering in italics , " Am I or am I not in love with Ned Nickerson ? " Nancy begins dating other young men and acknowledges sexual desires : " ' I saw [ you kissing him ] ... You don 't have to apologize to me if some guy turns you on . ' ' Gianni doesn 't turn me on ! ... Won 't you please let me explain . ' "
In 1986 , the character of Nancy Drew was used in a new series , The Nancy Drew Files , which lasted until 1997 . The Nancy of the Files series is also interested in romance and boys , a fact which led to much criticism of the series : " Millie [ Mildred Wirt Benson ] purists tend to look askance upon the Files series , in which fleeting pecks bestowed on Nancy by her longtime steady , Ned Nickerson , give way to lingering embraces in a Jacuzzi . " Cover art for Files titles , such as Hit and Run Holiday ( 1986 ) , reflects these changes ; Nancy is often dressed provocatively , in short skirts , shirts that reveal her stomach or breasts , or a bathing suit . She is often pictured with an attentive , handsome male in the background , and frequently appears aware of and interested in that male . Nancy also becomes more vulnerable , being often chloroformed into unconsciousness , or defenseless against chokeholds . The books place more emphasis on violence and character relationships .
Nancy Drew finally goes to college in the Nancy Drew on Campus series , which ran from 1995 to 1998 . Again , the books focus on romance plots , and , by reader request , Nancy broke off her long @-@ term relationship with boyfriend Ned Nickerson in the second volume of the series , On Her Own ( 1995 ) .
In 1997 , Simon & Schuster announced a mass cancellation of Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys spin @-@ offs except ones for younger children .
= = = 2003 – 2012 = = =
In 2003 , publishers Simon & Schuster decided to end the original Nancy Drew series and feature Nancy 's character in a new mystery series , Girl Detective . The Nancy Drew of the Girl Detective series drives a hybrid car , uses a mobile phone , and recounts her mysteries in the first person . Many applaud these changes , arguing that Nancy has not really changed at all other than learning to use a cell phone . Others praise the series as more realistic ; Nancy , these commentators argue , is now a less @-@ perfect and therefore more likable being , one whom girls can more easily relate to – a better role model than the old Nancy because she can actually be emulated , rather than a " prissy automaton of perfection . "
Some , mostly fans , vociferously lament the changes , seeing Nancy as a silly , air @-@ headed girl whose trivial adventures ( discovering who squished the zucchini in Without a Trace ( 2003 ) ) " hold a shallow mirror to a pre @-@ teen 's world . " Leona Fisher argues that the new series portrays an increasingly white River Heights , partially because " the clumsy first @-@ person narrative voice makes it nearly impossible to interlace external authorial attitudes into the discourse " , while it continues and worsens " the implicitly xenophobic cultural representations of racial , ethnic , and linguistic others " by introducing gratuitous speculations on characters ' national and ethnic origins .
The character is also the heroine of a series of graphic novels , begun in 2005 and produced by Papercutz . The graphic novels are written by Stefan Petrucha and illustrated in manga @-@ style artwork by Sho Murase . The character 's graphic novel incarnation has been described as " a fun , sassy , modern @-@ day teen who is still hot on the heels of criminals . "
The 2007 film was also tied into the books . A novelization of the movie was written to look like the older books . Two books were also written for the Girl Detective and Clue Crew series that deal with a mystery on a movie set . In 2008 , the Girl Detective series was re @-@ branded into trilogies and to have a model on the cover . The mysteries became deeper , with Nancy often making mistakes . These trilogies were also met with negative fan reception due to Nancy 's constant mistakes , shortness of the books , and lack of action . With the new trilogy format , sales began slipping . Simon & Schuster then cut back from six to four books per year . In December 2011 , they finally announced that the series was cancelled along with the Hardy Boys Undercover Brothers series .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
With the sudden cancellation of the Girl Detective series , Simon & Schuster needed to find new Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys series . The Diaries series was brought to be the next series . Though Nancy 's age is not given , she has a boyfriend in college and drives with a nonrestrictive license .
= = Evolution of character 's appearance = =
Nancy Drew has been illustrated by many artists over the years , and her look constantly updated . Both the Stratemeyer Syndicate and the books ' publishers have exercised control over the way Nancy is depicted .
Jennifer Stowe contends that Nancy 's portrayal devolves significantly over the years :
The 1930s Nancy Drew is characterized as bold , capable and independent . She actively seeks out clues , and is shown in the center of the compositions . In subsequent characterizations Nancy Drew becomes progressively weaker , less in control . By the 1990s there is a complete reversal in the representation of her character . She is often shown being chased or threatened , the confidence of 1930s being replaced by fear .
Some aspects of Nancy 's portrayal have remained relatively constant through the decades . Arguably her most characteristic physical depiction is that she is shown holding a flashlight .
= = = Russell H. Tandy = = =
Commercial artist Russell H. Tandy was the first artist to illustrate Nancy Drew . Tandy was a fashion artist and infused Nancy with a contemporary fashion sensibility : her early style is that of a flatfoot flapper : heeled Mary Janes accompany her blue flapper skirt suit and cloche hat on three of the first four volume dust jackets . As styles changed over the next few years , Nancy began to appear in glamorous frocks , with immaculately set hair , pearls , matching hats , gloves , and handbags . By the 1940s , Nancy wore simpler , tailored suits and outfits ; her hair was often arranged in a pompadour . In the post @-@ war era , Tandy 's Nancy is shown hatless , wearing casual skirt and blouse ensembles , and carrying a purse , like most teens of the late 1940s .
Tandy drew the inside sketches for the first 26 volumes of the series as well as painting the covers of the first 26 volumes with the exception of volume 11 – the cover artist for volume 11 is unknown . Tandy read each text before he began sketching , so his early covers were closely connected to specific scenes in the plots . He also hand @-@ painted the cover lettering and designed the original Nancy Drew logo : a silhouette of Nancy bending slightly and looking at the ground through a quizzing glass .
Tandy often portrays Nancy Drew with confident , assertive body language . She never appears " shocked , trepidatious , or scared " . Nancy is shown either boldly in the center of the action or actively , but secretively , investigating a clue . She is often observed by a menacing figure and appears to be in imminent danger , but her confident expression suggests to viewers that she is in control of the situation .
Tandy 's home was struck by fire in 1962 , and most of his original paintings and sketches were destroyed . As a result , the Tandy dust @-@ jackets are considered very valuable by collectors .
= = = Bill Gillies and others = = =
Beginning with Tandy in 1948 and continuing into the early 1950s , Nancy 's appearance was updated to follow the current styles . In postwar opulence , a trend emerged for young adults to have their own casual style , instead of dressing in the same styles as more mature adults , and Nancy becomes less constrained . Sweater or blouse and skirt ensembles , as well as a pageboy hairstyle , were introduced in 1948 , and continued with new artist Bill Gillies , who updated 10 covers and illustrated three new jackets from 1950 to 1952 . Gillies used his wife for a model , and Nancy reflects the conservative 1950s , with immaculately waved hair and a limited wardrobe – she wears similar sweater , blouse , and skirt ensembles , in different combinations , on most of these covers . Gillies also designed the modern @-@ era trademark as a spine symbol which was used for decades : Nancy 's head in profile , looking through a quizzing glass .
In the later Tandy period ( 1946 – 1949 ) and continuing throughout the 1950s , Nancy is depicted less frequently in the center of the action . " The Ghost of Blackwood Hall " shows an assertive Nancy leading more timid friends up the front steps of the haunted house , and marks a transition to later illustrations . From 1949 forward , she is likely to be observing others , often hiding or concealing herself . Her mouth is often open in surprise , and she hides her body from view . However , although Nancy " expresses surprise , she is not afraid . She appears to be a bit taken aback by what she sees , but she looks as if she is still in control of the situation . " Many of these covers feature Nancy poised in the observation of a clue , spying on criminal activity , or displaying her discoveries to others involved in the mystery . Only occasionally is she shown in action , such as running from the scene of a fire , riding a horse , or actively sleuthing with a flashlight . At times she is only involved in action as her hiding place has been discovered by others . In most cases , more active scenes are used for the frontispiece , or in books after 1954 , illustrations throughout the text drawn by uncredited illustrators .
= = = Rudy Nappi and others = = =
Joseph Rudolf " Rudy " Nappi , the artist from 1953 to 1979 , illustrated a more average teenager . Nappi was asked by Grosset & Dunlap 's art director to update Nancy 's appearance , especially her wardrobe . Nappi gave Nancy Peter Pan collars , shirtwaist dresses , a pageboy ( later a flip ) haircut , and the occasional pair of jeans . Nancy 's hair color was changed from blonde to strawberry @-@ blonde , reddish @-@ blonde , or titian by the end of the decade . The change was long rumored to have been the result of a printing ink error , but was considered so favorable that it was adopted in the text for books published after 1959 , and by illustrator Polly Bolian for volumes she created for a special book club in 1959 – 60 .
In 1962 , all Grosset & Dunlap books become " picture covers " , books with artwork and advertising printed directly on their covers , as opposed to books with a dust jacket over a tweed volume . The change was to reduce production costs . Several of the 1930s and 1940s cover illustrations were updated by Nappi for this change , depicting a Nancy of the Kennedy era , though the stories themselves were not updated . Internal illustrations , which were dropped in 1937 , were returned to the books beginning in 1954 , as pen and ink line drawings , mostly by uncredited artists , but usually corresponding with Nappi 's style of drawing Nancy on the covers . Nappi followed trends initiated by Gillies and often illustrated Nancy wearing the same clothing more than once , including a mustard shirtwaist dress .
Unlike Tandy , Nappi did not read the books before illustrating them ; instead , his wife read them and provided him with a brief plot summary before Nappi began painting . Nappi 's first cover was for The Clue of the Velvet Mask , where he began a trend of portraying Nancy as " bobby @-@ soxer ... a contemporary sixteen @-@ year @-@ old . This Nancy was perky , clean @-@ cut , and extremely animated . In the majority of his covers Nancy looks startled – which , no doubt , she was . " Nancy 's style is considerably conservative , and remains so during the psychedelic period . Although she wears bold colors and prints , or the background colors are shades of electric yellow , shocking pink , turquoise , or apple green , her clothing is high @-@ necked and with long hemlines . Earlier Nappi covers show Nancy in poses similar to those in the covers by Tandy and Gillies ; for many updated covers he simply updated the color scheme , clothing style , and hairstyles of the characters but retains their original poses in similar settings . Later Nappi covers show only Nancy 's head or part of her body , surrounded by spooky or startling elements or clues from the story . These Nappi covers would later be used for the opening credits of the television production , with photos of Pamela Sue Martin inserted on the book covers .
Often , " Nancy 's face wears the blank expression of one lost in thought , " making her appear passive . On the cover of The Strange Message in the Parchment ( 1977 ) , for example , in contrast to earlier covers , Nancy " is not shown in the midst of danger or even watching a mystery unfold from a distance . Instead , Nancy is shown thinking about the clues " ; in general , Nancy becomes less confident and more puzzled .
= = = Nancy in the 1980s , 1990s , and 2000s = = =
Ruth Sanderson and Paul Frame provided cover art and interior illustrations for the first Nancy Drew paperbacks , published under the Wanderer imprint . Other artists , including Aleta Jenks and others whose names are unknown , provided cover art , but no interior illustrations , for later paperbacks . Nancy is portrayed as " a wealthy , privileged sleuth who looks pretty and alert .... The colors , and Nancy 's facial features , are often so vivid that some of the covers look more like glossy photographs than paintings . "
Nancy is frequently portrayed pursuing a suspect , examining a clue , or observing action . She is often also shown in peril : being chased , falling off a boat , or hanging by a rope from rafters . These covers are " characterized by frenetic energy on Nancy 's part ; whether she is falling , limbs flailing , an alarmed look on her face , or whether she is running , hair flying , body bent , face breathless . Nancy does not have any control over the events that are happening in these covers . She is shown to be a victim , being hunted and attacked by unseen foes . "
Nancy is also sometimes pursued by a visibly threatening foe , as on the cover of The Case of the Vanishing Veil ( 1988 ) .
The covers of the The Nancy Drew Files and Girl Detective series represent further departures from the bold , confident character portrayed by Tandy . The Nancy portrayed on the covers of The Nancy Drew Files is " a markedly sexy Nancy , with a handsome young man always lurking in the background . Her clothes often reveal an ample bustline and her expression is mischievous . " In the Girl Detective series , Nancy 's face is depicted on each cover in fragments . Her eyes , for example , are confined to a strip across the top of the cover while her mouth is located near the spine in a box independent of her eyes . The artwork for Nancy 's eyes and mouth is taken from Rudy Nappi 's cover art for the revised version of The Secret of the Old Clock .
= = Books = =
The longest @-@ running series of books to feature Nancy Drew is the original Nancy Drew series , whose 175 volumes were published from 1930 to 2003 . Nancy also appeared in 124 titles in The Nancy Drew Files and is currently the heroine of the Diaries series . Various other series feature the character , such as the Nancy Drew Notebooks and Nancy Drew on Campus . While Nancy Drew is the central character in each series , continuity is preserved only within one series , not between them all ; for example , in concurrently published titles in the Nancy Drew series and the Nancy Drew on Campus series , Nancy is respectively dating her boyfriend Ned Nickerson or broken up with Ned Nickerson .
= = = International publications = = =
The main Nancy Drew series , The Nancy Drew Files , and Girl Detective books have been translated into a number of languages besides English . Estimates vary from between 14 and 25 languages , but 25 seems the most accurate number . Nancy Drew books have been published in many European countries ( especially in Nordic countries and France ) as well as in Latin America and Asia . The character of Nancy Drew seems to be more popular in some countries than others . Nancy Drew books have been in print in Norway since 1941 ( the first country outside USA ) , in Denmark since 1958 , in France since 1955 and in Italy since 1970 by Arnoldo Mondadori Editore . Other countries , such as Estonia , have only recently begun printing Nancy Drew books .
Nancy 's name is often changed in translated editions : in France , she is known as Alice Roy ; in Sweden , as Kitty Drew ; in Finland , as Paula Drew ; and in Norway the book series has the name of Frøken Detektiv ( Miss Detective ) , though the heroine 's name is still Nancy Drew inside the books . In Germany , Nancy is a German law student named Susanne Langen . George Fayne 's name is even more frequently changed , to Georgia , Joyce , Kitty , or Marion . Cover art and series order is often changed as well , and in many countries only a limited number of Drew books are available in translation .
= = Film and television = =
Five feature films , two television shows , and four television pilots featuring Nancy Drew have been produced to date . No television show featuring Nancy Drew has lasted longer than two years , and film portrayals of the character have met with mixed reviews .
= = = Films = = =
Former child actress Bonita Granville portrayed Nancy Drew in four Warner Bros. films directed by William Clemens in the late 1930s : Nancy Drew ... Detective ( loosely based on The Password to Larkspur Lane ) ( December 1938 ) , Nancy Drew ... Reporter ( March 1939 ) , Nancy Drew … Trouble Shooter ( September 1939 ) , and Nancy Drew and the Hidden Staircase ( November 1939 ) . A fifth movie may have been planned or even produced , but it was never released ; actor Frankie Thomas believes that he and Granville made five films , not four , and in August 1939 Harriet Adams wrote to Mildred Benson , " three have been shown in this area , and I have just heard that a fifth is in production . " The films were in part based on the Torchy Blane film series with Glenda Farrell and Barton MacLane , also made by Warner Bros. Nancy & Torchy have very similar hair styles , almost always wear a hat , were told to stay off the case ( but were stubborn and continued to sleuth ) , were assisted by their boyfriends , and even had the same writers .
Nancy Drew and the Hidden Staircase was the only film to borrow its title from a book in the series , although the plot was altered substantially . One critic wrote that " the only similarity between the book and the film was the word staircase . " Nancy 's boyfriend Ned Nickerson became Ted Nickerson , as Ned was considered too old @-@ fashioned , and housekeeper Hannah Gruen was replaced by Effie Schneider , a minor character who had appeared in only a few books as the Drews ' part @-@ time maid ; in the films , Effie 's traits are combined with Hannah 's . Nancy 's friends George and Bess were eliminated completely , " mystery elements were downplayed , plots simplified , and the romance spiced up . " To promote the film , Warner Bros. created a Nancy Drew fan club that included a set of rules , such as : " Must have steady boy friend , in the sense of a ' pal ' " and must " Take part in choosing own clothes . " These rules were based on some research Warner Bros. had done on the habits and attitudes of " typical " teenage girls .
Critical reaction to these films is mixed . Some find that the movies did not " depict the true Nancy Drew " , in part because Granville 's Nancy " blatantly used her feminine wiles ( and enticing bribes ) " to accomplish her goals . The films also portray Nancy as childish and easily flustered , a significant change from her portrayal in the books . Nevertheless , Mildred Benson , the author of most Nancy Drew books at the time , liked the films .
A film adaptation of Nancy Drew was released on June 15 , 2007 by Warner Bros. Pictures , with Emma Roberts as Nancy Drew , Max Thieriot as Ned Nickerson and Tate Donovan as Carson Drew . As with the earlier Drew films , reactions were mixed . Some see the film as updated version of the basic character : " although it has been glammed up for the lucrative tween demographic , the movie retains the best parts of the books , including , of course , their intelligent main character . " Others find the movie " jolting " because Nancy 's " new classmates prefer shopping to sleuthing , and Nancy 's plaid skirt and magnifying glass make her something of a dork , not the town hero she was in the Midwest . "
= = = Television = = =
In 1957 , Desilu and CBS developed a show , Nancy Drew , Detective , based on the movies from the 1930s . Roberta Shore was in the title role as Nancy Drew , with Tim Considine as Ned Nickerson , and Frankie Thomas , Jr. as Carson Drew . Although a pilot was produced in April 1957 , the series could not find a sponsor , and , with the disappointment and later disapproval of Harriet Adams , the idea of a series was abandoned .
A television series called The Hardy Boys / Nancy Drew Mysteries ran from 1977 to 1979 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . It initially starred 24 @-@ year @-@ old Pamela Sue Martin as Nancy . For the first season , episodes featuring Nancy alternated with episodes featuring the Hardy Boys . The stories were new stories based on the original stories , with Nancy solving mysteries with her friends George and Ned . Beginning in the second season , the format of the series changed to focus more on the Hardy Boys , with Nancy Drew primarily appearing as a guest star in several crossover story lines ; Martin left the series midway through the second season and was replaced by 19 @-@ year @-@ old Janet Louise Johnson for the final few episodes . The series continued for a third season as The Hardy Boys Mysteries , dropping Nancy Drew completely , but the series was cancelled mid @-@ way through the season .
In October 1989 , Canadian production company Nelvana began filming for a 13 @-@ episode Nancy Drew television series called Nancy Drew and Daughter for USA Network . Margot Kidder was cast as an adult Nancy Drew and her daughter as Nancy 's daughter . Kidder was injured during filming of the first episode when the brakes failed on the car she was driving , and production was canceled the next month .
Nelvana began production of another Nancy Drew television show in 1995 . Tracy Ryan starred as Nancy Drew , with Jhene Erwin as Bess Marvin , Joy Tanner as George Fayne , and , in a recurring role , Scott Speedman as Ned Nickerson . The show was cancelled midway through its first season due to low ratings , possibly due to its being in syndication . The entire series has since been released on DVD .
On December 15 , 2002 , ABC aired Nancy Drew , with Maggie Lawson in the title role , as part of The Wonderful World of Disney series . The movie was intended to be a pilot for a possible weekly series . Additional scripts were ordered , but a series was not forthcoming .
On October 5 , 2015 , CBS announced that it would be developing a new series titled Drew . In January 2016 , they announced that the pilot would feature Nancy as a non @-@ Caucasian New York City police detective in her thirties . The pilot episode will revolve around Nancy investigating the death of Bess Marvin , who had died six months prior . As of March 2016 , Sarah Shahi is cast as Nancy , Anthony Edwards is set to play Carson Drew , Felix Solis as Lieutenant Ford , Vanessa Ferlito as George Fayne , Steve Kazee as Ned Nickerson , and Debra Monk as Hannah Gruen . The pilot was written by Joan Rater and Tony Phelan and was directed by James Strong . The pilot was shot in New York City . On May 14 , 2016 , it was announced that CBS passed on the Drew pilot , so CBS Studios is shopping it to other networks for series consideration . However , it was not picked up by any of the other networks .
= = Video games = =
Computer games publisher Her Interactive began publishing Nancy Drew computer games in 1998 . Some titles are taken from published Nancy Drew books , such as The Secret of the Old Clock ; others are not . The games are targeted at teens " ages 10 and up " and are rated " E " ( " Everyone " ) by the ESRB . They follow the popular adventure game style of play . Players must move Nancy around in a virtual environment to talk to suspects , pick up clues , solve puzzles , and eventually solve the crime .
Lani Minella has voiced the Nancy character since the first game in 1998 up to the most recent game , Sea of Darkness , the 32nd game . The 33rd game , Midnight in Salem , which will be coming out in 2016 , will be voiced by a new actress . Minella , who has voiced Nancy for 17 years , will be stepping down from the role . Her Interactive said that the community has been nothing but supportive of Minella , and that their overall goal is to keep creating noteworthy games .
In addition to the games created by Her Interactive , a game for the Nintendo DS was released in September 2007 by Majesco Entertainment . In the game , developed by Gorilla Systems Co and called Nancy Drew : Deadly Secret of Olde World Park , players help Nancy solve the mystery of a missing billionaire . Majesco has also released two other Nancy Drew games for the DS , entitled Nancy Drew : The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society ( released July 2008 ) and Nancy Drew : The Hidden Staircase , based on the second book in the original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series ( released September 2008 ) . Nancy Drew : The Hidden Staircase and Nancy Drew : The Model Mysteries , both by THQ , are also available on the Nintendo DS system .
Some games , like Secrets Can Kill , Shadow at the Water 's Edge , and The Captive Curse , are rated " E10 + " . The games have received recognition for promoting female interest in video games . Her Interactive has also released several versions of their Nancy Drew games in French , as part of a series called Les Enquêtes de Nancy Drew , and shorter games as part of a new series called the Nancy Drew Dossier . The first title , Lights , Camera , Curses , was released in 2008 and the second , Resorting to Danger , was released in 2009 . While most of the games are computer games , with most available only on PC and some newer titles also available on Mac , Her Interactive also have released some of the titles on other platforms , like DVD and Nintendo Wii system .
On May 13 , 2016 , Her Interactive introduced and released Nancy Drew : Codes & Clues , which was designed to help children develop skills in computer programming .
= = Merchandising = =
A number of Nancy Drew products have been licensed over the years , primarily in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s . Parker Brothers produced a " Nancy Drew Mystery Game " in 1957 with the approval of the Stratemeyer Syndicate . In 1967 Madame Alexander produced a Nancy Drew doll . The doll carried binoculars and camera and was available in two outfits : with a plaid coat or a dress and short jacket . Harriet Adams disapproved of the doll 's design , believing Nancy 's face to be too childish , but the doll was marketed nonetheless . Various Nancy Drew coloring , activity , and puzzle books have also been published , as has a Nancy Drew puzzle . A Nancy Drew Halloween costume and a Nancy Drew lunchbox were produced in the 1970s as television show tie @-@ ins .
= = Cultural impact = =
According to commentators , the cultural impact of Nancy Drew has been enormous . The immediate success of the series led directly to the creation of numerous other girls ' mysteries series , such as The Dana Girls mystery stories and the Kay Tracey mystery stories , and the phenomenal sales of the character Edward Stratemeyer feared was " too flip " encouraged publishers to market many other girls ' mystery series , such as the Judy Bolton Series , and to request authors of series such as the Cherry Ames Nurse Stories to incorporate mystery elements into their works .
Many prominent and successful women cite Nancy Drew as an early formative influence whose character encouraged them to take on unconventional roles , including Supreme Court Justices Sandra Day O 'Connor , Ruth Bader Ginsburg , and Sonia Sotomayor ; TV personalities Oprah Winfrey and Barbara Walters ; singers Barbra Streisand and Beverly Sills ; mystery authors Sara Paretsky and Nancy Pickard ; scholar Carolyn Heilbrun ; actresses Ellen Barkin and Emma Roberts ; former Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton ; former First Lady Laura Bush ; and former president of the National Organization for Women Karen DeCrow . Less prominent women also credit the character of Nancy Drew with helping them to become stronger women ; when the first Nancy Drew conference was held , at the University of Iowa , in 1993 , conference organizers received a flood of calls from women who " all had stories to tell about how instrumental Nancy had been in their lives , and about how she had inspired , comforted , entertained them through their childhoods , and , for a surprising number of women , well into adulthood . "
Nancy Drew 's popularity continues unabated : in 2002 , the first Nancy Drew book published , The Secret of the Old Clock , alone sold 150 @,@ 000 copies , good enough for top @-@ 50 ranking in children 's books , and other books in the series sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies each . Sales of the hardcover volumes of the original Nancy Drew series alone has surpassed sales of Agatha Christie titles , and newer titles in the Girl Detective series have reached The New York Times bestseller lists . Entertainment Weekly ranked her seventeenth on its list of " The Top 20 Heroes " ahead of Batman , explaining that Drew is the " first female hero embraced by most little girls ... [ Nancy lives ] in an endless summer of never @-@ ending adventures and unlimited potential . " The magazine goes on to cite Scooby @-@ Doo 's Velma Dinkley as well as Veronica Mars as Nancy Drew 's " copycat descendants " .
Many feminist critics have pondered the reason for the character 's iconic status . Nancy 's car , and her skill in driving and repairing it , are often cited . Melanie Rehak points to Nancy 's famous blue roadster ( now a blue hybrid ) as a symbol of " ultimate freedom and independence . " Not only does Nancy have the freedom to go where she pleases ( a freedom other , similar characters such as The Dana Girls do not have ) , but she is also able to change a tire and fix a flawed distributor , prompting Paretsky to argue that in " a nation where car mechanics still mock or brush off complaints by women Nancy remains a significant role model . "
Nancy is also treated with respect : her decisions are rarely questioned and she is trusted by those around her . Male authority figures believe her statements , and neither her father nor Hannah Gruen , the motherly housekeeper , " place ... restrictions on her comings and goings . " Nancy 's father not only imposes no restrictions on his daughter , but trusts her both with her own car and his gun ( in the original version of The Hidden Staircase [ 1930 ] ) , asks her advice on a frequent basis , and accedes to all her requests . Some critics , such as Betsy Caprio and Ilana Nash , argue that Nancy 's relationship with her continually approving father is satisfying to girl readers because it allows them to vicariously experience a fulfilled Electra complex .
Unlike other girl detectives , Nancy does not go to school ( for reasons that are never explained , but assuming because she has finished ) , and she thus has complete autonomy . Similar characters , such as Kay Tracey , do go to school , and not only lose a degree of independence but also of authority . The fact of a character 's being a school @-@ girl reminds " the reader , however fleetingly , of the prosaic realities of high @-@ school existence , which rarely includes high adventures or an authoritative voice in the world of adults . "
Some see in Nancy 's adventures a mythic quality . Nancy often explores secret passages , prompting Nancy Pickard to argue that Nancy Drew is a figure equivalent to the ancient Sumerian deity Inanna and that Nancy 's " journeys into the ' underground ' " are , in psychological terms , explorations of the unconscious . Nancy is a heroic figure , undertaking her adventures not for the sake of adventure alone , but in order to help others , particularly the disadvantaged . For this reason , Nancy Drew has been called the modern embodiment of the character of " Good Deeds " in Everyman .
In the end , many critics agree that at least part of Nancy Drew 's popularity depends on the way in which the books and the character combine sometimes contradictory values , with Kathleen Chamberlain writing in The Secrets of Nancy Drew : " For over 60 years , the Nancy Drew series has told readers that they can have the benefits of both dependence and independence without the drawbacks , that they can help the disadvantaged and remain successful capitalists , that they can be both elitist and democratic , that they can be both child and adult , and that they can be both ' liberated ' women and Daddy 's little girls . " As another critic puts it , " Nancy Drew ' solved ' the contradiction of competing discourses about American womanhood by entertaining them all . "
In 2010 , Nancy Drew ( and her novels ) were discussed in the Young Adult themed issue of the academic journal Studies in the Novel . See Jennifer M. Woolston 's essay entitled " Nancy Drew 's Body : The Case of the Autonomous Female Sleuth " for a detailed discussion of the heroine 's impact on popular culture . The essay also discusses links to Nancy Drew and feminist theory .
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= Chase XCG @-@ 20 =
The Chase XCG @-@ 20 , also known as the XG @-@ 20 and by the company designation MS @-@ 8 Avitruc , was a large assault glider developed immediately after World War II by the Chase Aircraft Company for the United States Air Force , and was the largest glider ever built in the United States . The XG @-@ 20 did not see production due to a change in USAF requirements , however , it was modified into the successful Fairchild C @-@ 123 Provider twin @-@ engined transport aircraft which saw extensive service in the Vietnam War .
= = Design and development = =
Following the end of World War II , the United States Army Air Forces , which became the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in 1947 , developed a requirement for a new , large assault glider type to replace smaller types that were then in service , all existing gliders having been declared obsolete . The new gliders were to be constructed entirely of metal , and were also required to be easily adaptable to a powered configuration . As part of a five @-@ year development program , a contract was awarded to the Chase Aircraft Company of Trenton , New Jersey , in August 1946 for the construction of two types of gliders . These included a smaller model being designated XCG @-@ 18A , and the larger , definitive model being designated XCG @-@ 20 .
The XCG @-@ 20 , redesignated XG @-@ 20 in 1948 with the establishment of the USAF , was the largest glider ever constructed in the United States , and the last combat glider to be built for the U.S. military . It featured a high @-@ mounted wing and retractable tricycle landing gear , with an auxiliary power unit supplied hydraulic power to the landing gear and flaps . The nose section was reinforced to provide optimal protection to the pilots in the event of a crash on landing , and to allow for the strongest possible towing connection . The cargo hold was 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide ; it featured an innovative configuration , the rear fuselage being upswept with an integrated loading ramp . This allowed vehicles to be driven directly on and off of the aircraft , speeding loading and unloading times .
= = Operational history = =
Although the first prototype XG @-@ 20 never flew as a glider , the second prototype conducted the aircraft 's first flight in April 1950 . Following being displayed to the public at Pope Air Force Base as part of Exercise Swarmer during that month , the XG @-@ 20 underwent thorough flight testing ; during the late summer , it was evaluated against a variety of other transport aircraft at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida . Although it possessed no obvious faults , the test program confirmed that the powered " assault transport " was the equal of the glider in landing performance ; having been rendered obsolete , the assault glider fell out of favor with the Air Force , and the XG @-@ 20 project was cancelled .
However , Chase had designed the aircraft to allow for the easy installation of engines ; the first XG @-@ 20 had already been modified with two radial piston engines , becoming the XC @-@ 123 , the prototype of the long @-@ serving C @-@ 123 Provider family of transports . Meanwhile , the second prototype XG @-@ 20 was returned to Chase Aircraft , to be fitted with two twin pods for General Electric J47 turbojets , becoming the XC @-@ 123A , the first jet @-@ powered transport aircraft built in the United States .
= = Specifications = =
Data from " C @-@ 123 Provider in action "
General characteristics
Crew : 3
Length : 77 ft 1 in ( 23 @.@ 50 m )
Wingspan : 110 ft 0 in ( 33 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 33 ft 10 in ( 10 @.@ 31 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 222 @.@ 78 sq ft ( 113 @.@ 600 m2 )
Airfoil : NACA 23017
Max takeoff weight : 70 @,@ 000 lb ( 31 @,@ 751 kg ) limited by tow aircraft to 40 @,@ 000 pounds ( 18 @,@ 000 kg )
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= Raja of Panagal =
Sir Panaganti Ramarayaningar KCIE , ( 9 July 1866 – 16 December 1928 ) , also known as the Raja of Panagal , was a zamindar of Kalahasti , a Justice Party leader and the Chief Minister or Premier of Madras Presidency from 11 July 1921 to 3 December 1926 .
Ramarayaningar was born in Kalahasti , Chittoor District , Madras Presidency on 9 July 1866 . He was educated in Madras and obtained degrees in Sanskrit , law , philosophy and Dravidian languages before entering politics . He was one of the founder @-@ members of the Justice Party and served as its President from 1925 to 1928 .
From 17 December 1920 to 11 July 1921 , Ramarayaningar served as the Minister of Local Self @-@ Government in the first Justice Party government led by A. Subbarayalu Reddiar . He served as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from 11 July 1921 to 3 December 1926 . He introduced a number of reforms during his tenure . The Theagaroya Nagar locality in Chennai was developed during his Chief @-@ Ministership . Ramarayaningar resigned as Chief Minister in 1926 when the Justice Party failed to obtain a majority in the 1926 elections to the Madras Legislative Council . He , however , continued to remain active in politics and served as the President of the Justice Party until his death on 16 December 1928 .
Ramarayaningar was regarded as an advocate of democracy and a staunch supporter of empowerment of the depressed classes . Historians generally attribute the decline of the Justice Party in the mid @-@ 1930s to the absence of charismatic leaders in the Justice Party following his death .
= = Early life = =
Ramarayaningar was born in a family of landlords . He belonged to the Telugu Velama community . Ramarayaningar 's family patronised Brahmins and the Raja had his early education in the household of Calamur Sundara Sastri , the father @-@ in @-@ law of C. P. Ramaswami Iyer . He completed his schooling from Triplicane High School in 1886 and graduated in Sanskrit from the Presidency College in 1893 with Advanced Chemistry as his optional subject . He graduated in BL and M.A. ( Philosophy and Dravidian Languages ) in 1899 . In 1919 , he was appointed a fellow of the Presidency College .
= = Early political career = =
Ramarayaningar got his first taste of politics when he was appointed to the district board of North Arcot . In 1912 , he was nominated to the Imperial Legislative Council of India and represented the landlords and zamindars of South India . He served as a legislator until 1915 . During this period , Ramarayaningar earned the praise of the Viceroy , Lord Hardinge . He actively supported reforms in the Hindu society . In 1914 , Ramarayaningar moved a legislation for the creation of separate Provincial departments for the welfare of depressed classes . In 1915 , he was elected President of the Third Andhra Congress .
In 1914 , the Madras Dravidian Association was established by C. Natesa Mudaliar . Ramarayaningar was elected as the first President of the Association . On 19 July 1917 , at a conference in Coimbatore presided over by the Ramarayaningar , the four different non @-@ Brahmin associations got together to form the South Indian Liberal Federation , unofficially known as the Justice Party . In 1921 , Ramarayaningar was sent along with Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu and Koka Appa Rao Naidu to lobby on behalf of the Justice Party before the authorities in England .
Ramarayaningar was also active in the All @-@ India Non @-@ Brahmin movement . He was a friend of Shahu Maharaj and was closely associated with the former 's Satya Shodhak Samaj . He attended the All India Non @-@ Brahmin Conference held at Belgaum on 26 December 1924 and presided over the Second All @-@ India Non @-@ Brahmin Conference held at Victoria Hall , Madras on 25 May 1925 .
When the Government of India Act was passed in 1919 , provisions were made to hold elections in the Madras Presidency for the first time in history . The Justice Party unanimously decided to contest the elections and was elected to power in the province . A. Subbarayalu Reddiar became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency . Ramarayaningar served as Minister of Local Self @-@ Government in the Subbarayalu Reddiar Government . When Subbarayalu Reddiar resigned , citing health reasons , Ramarayaningar was appointed Chief Minister .
= = Chief Minister of Madras = =
Ramarayaningar served as the Chief Minister of Madras from 11 July 1921 till 3 December 1926 . A. P. Patro of Berhampur was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by Subbarayalu Reddiar 's resignation , and he took the portfolio of education .
= = = B & C Mills strike of 1921 = = =
In 1921 , a labour strike erupted in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Madras . This strike was led by V. Kalyanasundara Mudaliar , a leader of the Indian National Congress . The strike lasted for over six months during which around 10 @,@ 000 workers struck work . A crackdown was ordered . Eventually , two factions emerged ; one group of workers desired to return to work while another wished to continue the strike . Violent riots broke out when striking workers prevented the others from returning to work . The riots began to assume communal colours as the workers who wished to continue the strike were mostly caste Hindus while those who desired to end it were largely untouchables or Dalits .
Ministers in the Madras government and ruling party members supported the strike . On 29 August 1921 , the police opened fire killing six of the workers on the spot . Top Justice Party leaders like O. Thanikachalam Chetti severely censured the police for the measures they adopted . The main reason was the fact that the police was under the control of the Governor and the government was looking for an opportunity to harass the executive . Another probable reason was that the striking workers had the caste sympathies of the Justice Party Government whose ministers and chief whips were caste Hindus like themselves .
The Justice Party leaders were extremely vociferous in their attacks on Dalits and the Labour Department . Their views were endorsed by the Raja of Panagal who joined Thanickachalam Chetti in admonishing the Dalits . The party 's organ Justice blamed the riots on the " pampering " of Dalits by the Labour Department . M. C. Rajah , the leader of the Dalits in the Justice Party , in turn , retorted by describing the criticism of Dalits by Justice Party members as " the high @-@ handed poisonous action of members of a party who after inflicting all known and unknown injury on our community shed crocodile tears and pose as friends of the Depressed classes " . Though the B & C mills strike was eventually settled through the mediation of C. Natesa Mudaliar , the communal riots which had accompanied it estranged Dalits from the Justice Party. and was one of the reasons for Rajah quitting the party at a later stage .
= = = Second general elections = = =
Polling for the second general elections in the Madras Presidency began on 11 September 1923 . However , owing to heavy rains , polling was not completed until 10 November . Though the Justice Party returned to power , its majority had been considerably reduced . Observers attribute this decline in performance to the rift between the Tamil and Telugu members of the Justice party . Ramarayaningar assumed office as Chief Minister on 19 November 1923 and retained the same Cabinet with one change – K. V. Reddi Naidu , the Minister of Development was replaced with T. N. Sivagnanam Pillai . In 1923 , the British government bestowed upon Ramarayaningar , the honorific title of " Raja of Panagal " .
= = = No @-@ confidence motion = = =
In 1923 , a few prominent members of the Justice Party broke off to form the United Nationalist Party and projected themselves as " Democrats " . The dissidents were led by C. R. Reddy , a leader of the Justice Party , who complained of the dictatorial rule of the Raja and his insensitive , unimaginative policies . On 27 November 1923 , a no @-@ confidence motion was introduced against the government of the Raja of Panagal . The no @-@ confidence motion was defeated by a margin of 65 votes to 44 .
= = = Reforms = = =
Ramarayaningar introduced a number of reforms during his tenure as Chief Minister .
Hindu Religious Endowments Bill
In 1921 , the Raja of Panagal introduced the Hindu Religious Endowments Bill . As per this bill , trusts were established to maintain temple funds and given complete power over the administration of temples . This act evoked severe protests from some sections of the assembly which felt that this was an intrusion in the religious affairs of the populace . However , the Shankaracharya of Kanchi gave his support to the bill even while expressing his concern over some of its provisions .
Madras State Aid to Industries Act
In 1922 , the Madras State Aid to Industries Act was passed . Through this act , the government made it a state policy to advance loans to developing industries . It received less opposition in the assembly . This eventually became Madras Act V of 1923 .
Educational reforms
The Madras University Act was passed in the year 1923 . The bill was introduced by Education Minister Sir A. P. Patro . As per the provisions of this bill , the governing body of the Madras University was completely reorganised on democratic lines . The bill asserted that the governing body would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro @-@ Chancellor who was usually the Minister of Education . Apart from the Chancellor and the pro @-@ Chancellor who were elected , there was to be a Vice @-@ Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor . In 1925 , the Andhra University Act was passed which included similar reforms in Andhra University .
However , the tenure of the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal is largely remembered for the introduction of caste @-@ based reservations in 1921 . In August 1921 , the First communal Government Order ( G.O. No.613 ) was passed . As per the order , 44 percent of jobs were reserved for non @-@ Brahmins , 16 percent for Brahmins , 16 percent for Muslims , 16 percent for Anglo @-@ Indians and Christians and eight percent for the Scheduled Castes .
In 1923 , M. C. Rajah , a Justice Party leader from the Dalit community protested against the government order arguing that the act did not guarantee adequate representation of Dalits who he felt deserved 30 % reservation in the administration and the services . When the Justice Party failed to respond , he resigned from the primary membership of the party .
Dr. Gour 's Bill
Dr. Gour 's Bill , introduced in 1921 , brought about an amendment in the Special Marriages Act , sanctioning the legal validity of inter @-@ caste marriages .
Municipal development
The rapid growth of the population of Madras necessitated the expansion of the city and the creation of more residential colonies . To fulfill this requirement , the Madras Town Planning Act of 1920 had been passed on 7 September 1920 before the dyarchy was established . As per the provisions of this Act , numerous town planning measures were taken during the tenure of the Raja of Panagal . The 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) long and 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) broad Long Tank , which extended from Nungambakkam to Saidapet , forming an arc along the city 's western frontier , was drained out in 1923 . The development of the tract to the west of the Long Tank had been initiated by the British Government in 1911 with the construction of a railway station at the village of Marmalan or Mambalam . Following the draining out of the Long Tank , the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal conceived the creation of a residential colony adjoining this little village .
The residential colony was named Theagaroya Nagar after Justice Party stalwart Sir Pitti Theagaroya Chetty , who had died shortly before the township was inaugurated , and was centred around a park named Panagal Park after the Raja of Panagal . The streets in this new locality were named after prominent members of the Justice Party or officials in the municipal administration .
Other reforms
The Raja of Panagal reorganised the Public Works Department in the Presidency , improved medical facilities , water supply and communications in rural areas and patronised Siddha medicine . Sir Muhammed Usman , later minister in the government of the Raja of Bobbili was appointed Secretary of the Committee on siddha medicine . He also sponsored endowments to the University of Madras to produce scientific literature in Telugu .
= = President of the Justice Party = =
Theagaroya Chetty , the founder @-@ President of the Justice Party died in 1925 and the Raja , then Chief Minister of Madras succeeded Chetty as the second President of the Justice Party . The Raja served as the President of the party until his death in 1928 .
= = Later years = =
Ramarayaningar was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire on 5 June 1926 . In the Assembly elections which took place on 8 November 1926 , no party was able to get a clean majority . The Swarajya Party won 41 of the 98 seats and emerged as the single largest party while the Justice party won 21 . The Raja resigned as the Chief Minister of the Presidency as the popular verdict appeared to be against the Justice Party . As no party had a clean majority and the Swarajya Party which was the single largest party in the assembly was reluctant to form the government , the Governor appointed P. Subbarayan as the independent Chief Minister and nominated 34 members to the Council to support him .
In 1927 , the Simon Commission which was appointed to report on the working of the progress of the Montagu @-@ Chelmsford reforms landed in India . The Swarajya Party moved a resolution to boycott the Commission and this was passed 61 to 50 with 12 remaining neutral . The Justice Party and the Swarajists supported the resolution while the Chief Minister P. Subbarayan opposed it and requested his ministers to resign . However , Lord Goschen , the Governor , was able to obtain the support of the Raja of Panagal by making a Justice Party member , M. Krishnan Nair , a Cabinet minister . Led by the Raja of Panagal , the Justice Party switched sides and lent its support to the Subbarayan government . Soon afterwards , the Justice Party passed a resolution welcoming the Simon Commission . The Simon Commission visited Madras on 28 February 1928 and 18 February 1929 and was boycotted by the Swarajya Party and the Indian National Congress . However , the Justicites and the Subbarayan Government accorded the Commission a warm reception .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ramarayaningar died on 16 December 1928 of influenza .
He was succeeded as the President of the Justice Party by B. Munuswamy Naidu . On his death , leading newspapers and magazines poured accolades on him . S. Srinivasa Iyengar , a political opponent of the Raja , said of him :
The Rajah Sahib had singular gifts to leadership , tact and of high diplomacy . He had not only led his party with remarkable success but he fought the bureaucracy with even greater skill and courage
The Hindu paid rich tributes to the Raja :
Essentially a conservative by instinct and training , he showed remarkable ability to perceive the trend of the popular upheaval in our province no less in social than in political matters and he showed consummate strategy and great ability in maintaining the influence and integrity of his party , when the mantle of leadership fell on him after the death of Sir P. Theagaraya Chetti a few years ago . In many respects he was a contrast to the other leader who was frank , outspoken and vehement in his lift and conduct . The Rajah Saheb was , on the other hand , reserved and restrained , tactful and polished to a degree and his courtesy and consideration to friends and opponents alike has always been marked
The Justice Party began to decline with the death of the Raja of Panagal . The lack of efficient leadership in the party is regarded as the main reason for its decline .
= = Ideology = =
Despite his aristocratic birth , Ramarayaningar was known for his egalitarian views . Despite the fact that he was regarded as a communalist and anti @-@ Brahmin , he nominated a Brahmin , T. Sadasiva Iyer as the Commissioner of the Hindu Religious Endowment Board .
Ramarayaningar , however , strongly opposed what he perceived as the monopolisation of education by Brahmins . On being interviewed by Katherine Mayo , he responded :
What did the Brahmans do for our education in the five thousand years before Britain came ? I remind you : They asserted their right to pour hot lead into the ears of the low @-@ caste man who should dare to study books . All learning belonged to them , they said . When the Muhammadans swarmed in and took us , even that was an improvement on the old Hindu régime . But only in Britain 's day did education become the right of all , with state schools , colleges , and universities accessible îo all castes , communities , and peoples
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= French submarine Mariotte =
The French submarine Mariotte ( Q74 ) was a submarine built for the French Navy prior to World War I. Intended to accompany the fleet , she was designed for high speed on the surface . Although the navy was unsatisfied with her performance on the surface , the boat had a higher underwater speed than any French submarine before or during the following 35 years . Mariotte was plagued with engine problems during her construction and the navy spent years fixing the various issues before finally commissioning her five years after beginning construction . During the war , she participated in the Dardanelles Campaign , but had to be scuttled after she became entangled in the cables of a minefield on her first attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles .
= = Design and description = =
Mariotte was the winning design in a competition conducted by the Ministère de la Marine ( Navy Ministry ) in 1906 for a submarine ( displacing 530 metric tons ( 520 long tons ) that could accompany a squadron of battleships on the surface and had a submerged range of 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) . The winning design , by Constructor , First Class ( Ingénieur de 1ère classe ) Charles Radiguer , was optimized for good sea @-@ keeping qualities and high speed with moderate buoyancy , a long , thin hull , and high freeboard . The most unusual feature of his design was the prominent forecastle that was built atop the forward part of the pressure hull , while the rear was virtually awash . This odd configuration gave the boat her nickname of toothbrush ( brosse à dents ) .
The submarine actually displaced slightly more than planned , 545 metric tons ( 536 long tons ) surfaced and 634 metric tons ( 624 long tons ) submerged . She measured 64 @.@ 75 meters ( 212 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 4 @.@ 3 meters ( 14 ft 1 in ) . Mariotte had a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 82 meters ( 12 ft 6 in ) and had a depth of 7 @.@ 25 meters ( 23 ft 9 in ) from the bottom of her keel to the top of the conning tower . This latter was faired into the rear of the forecastle . Two lead weights were located in the keel and could be dropped in an emergency .
Her hull was divided into nine compartments and she was fitted with five internal trim tanks , an internal central ballast tank and three external ballast tanks . She had a test depth of 35 meters ( 115 ft ) . Mariotte had two rudders , one above the waterline for submerged use and the other below the waterline for regular use . She had two sets of diving planes , fore and aft , to control her depth below the water . The boat was evaluated in 1914 and the commission felt that she was generally successful except for her surface speed and range . It noted that she had problems with a following sea as the superstructure rapidly filled with water , but drained slowly so that she was much heavier by the bow and would tend to wallow . It also felt that she was insufficiently buoyant and had mediocre stability on the surface .
For surface running , the boat was powered by two Sautter & Harlé six @-@ cylinder , 700 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 690 bhp ; 515 kW ) diesel engines , each driving a 1 @.@ 72 @-@ meter ( 5 ft 8 in ) propeller . When submerged each propeller was driven by a Breguet 500 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 493 shp ; 368 kW ) electric motor using electricity from two 124 @-@ cell batteries . Mariotte could reach 14 @.@ 2 knots ( 26 @.@ 3 km / h ; 16 @.@ 3 mph ) on the surface and 11 @.@ 7 knots ( 21 @.@ 7 km / h ; 13 @.@ 5 mph ) underwater . This latter speed was a record that would not be exceeded by a French submarine for 35 years . On the surface , the boat had a range of 1 @,@ 658 nmi ( 3 @,@ 071 km ; 1 @,@ 908 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , submerged , she had a range of 143 nmi ( 265 km ; 165 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) .
She was armed with four internal 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes in the bow and two Drzewiecki drop collars in the forecastle . Two reloads were stowed internally , which gave her a total of eight torpedoes . During World War I , the boat probably used Modèle 1911V torpedoes . These had a 110 @-@ kilogram ( 240 lb ) warhead and a range of 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) at a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) .
= = Construction and service = =
Mariotte , named after the physicist Edme Mariotte , was ordered from the Arsenal de Cherbourg on 31 December 1906 . The boat was laid down on 30 March 1908 and launched on 2 February 1911 with only the starboard electric motor in place . The port electric motor was under repair at the time and was installed from 3 May to 21 June and a brief series of trials were conducted . The boat was refitted and further repairs were made to the port @-@ side motor , although continuing problems with her propulsion system often immobilized Mariotte into 1912 . She was able , however , to conduct diving , torpedo and underwater speed trials in August and September 1911 . The boat was lightly damaged when the air heater of a Modèle 1909R torpedo exploded in its tube on 27 December . Her diesel engines , three years delayed by problems during factory testing , were installed from 1 March to 28 July 1912 . They were judged satisfactory after the oil sump and the compressors were changed . After repeated breakdowns , Mariotte conducted her testing of the diesels from 23 October to 11 December and she was finally commissioned ( armament définitif ) on 5 February 1913 after a complete overhaul of her propulsion system .
The boat was assigned to the 2nd Division ( escadrille ) of the Light Squadron of submarines on 16 January and she joined them at Calais on 11 February . Mariotte visited Brest on 20 February and was inspected by Rear Admiral Charles Eugène Favereau . During the inspection the oil @-@ fired galley stove in the forecastle exploded , lightly burning two sailors . The boat was in Calais for the visit of King Christian X of Denmark later in the year .
When World War I began in August 1914 , Mariotte was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron at Toulon where she patrolled off the coast of Provence . In July 1915 , she was transferred to Mudros to attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles . After making a reconnaissance flight over the straits and having studied the reports of the British submarines that had successfully entered the Dardanelles , Lieutenant de vaisseau Auguste Farbre ordered his crew to cast off on the evening of 25 July . Escorted by the French destroyer Poignard to the mouth of the Dardanelles , she rounded Cape Helles on the surface , but dived to avoid being spotted by a searchlight about an hour later and attempted to pass underneath a minefield near Çanakkale . The boat became entangled in the cables and when she surfaced in an unsuccessful attempt to free herself , she was immediately engaged by a Turkish gun battery at close range . Mariotte could not submerge because her conning tower had been penetrated by shells so Farbre decided to scuttle the boat and surrender . The Turks ceased fire when he signaled his surrender and so his crew was able to destroy documents and equipment before opening the seacocks to sink the submarine . The wreck lies off Cape Nara near a Turkish naval base at a depth of 5 meters ( 16 ft ) .
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= Sprain Brook Parkway =
The Sprain Brook Parkway ( also known as The Sprain ) is a 12 @.@ 65 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 36 km ) long north – south parkway in Westchester County , New York , United States . It begins at an interchange with the Bronx River Parkway in the city of Yonkers , and ends at the former site of the Hawthorne Circle , where it merges into the Taconic State Parkway . The parkway serves an alternate to the Bronx River Parkway , boasting an interchange connection through western Westchester with Interstate 287 . New York 's Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) refers to it internally as New York State Route 987F ( NY 987F ) , an unsigned reference route .
The Sprain Brook was first proposed in the early 1920s as a parkway between the Bronx River Parkway and the Hawthorne Circle . The parkway sold a majority of its right @-@ of @-@ way in the 1920s , but the proposed parkway met strong opposition from the village of Bronxville and Yonkers . The Sprain Brook proposal sat on the table until 1949 , when the State Council of Parks , run by Robert Moses , sought to ease congestion on the Bronx River Parkway . Moses proposed that a new state park would be constructed in Westchester , with the Sprain Brook Parkway serving as a traffic alternative to the Bronx River , and nearly a decade and a half after the parkway was deeded land . This time , Bronxville opposed the project rather than Yonkers , but an agreement was worked out in 1951 . This new alignment would bypass the parts of Bronxville and Yonkers to construct the freeway .
Construction of the alternative highway began in 1958 , with the stretch from the Bronx River Parkway to Tuckahoe Road in Greenburgh This section was completed in 1961 . The next piece , from Tuckahoe Road to Jackson Avenue , was constructed during 1962 and 1963 , with it opening in the latter . Construction continued to the Cross Westchester Expressway ( I @-@ 287 ) and was completed in 1969 . At this point , the last missing piece was between the Cross Westchester and the Hawthorne Circle . This piece was delayed until 1976 , when construction began on the last 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) of parkway . The last piece of the parkway was opened on October 28 , 1980 at the cost of $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) .
From its opening in 1961 until 1979 , the parkway was maintained by the East Hudson Parkway Authority , a commission created to maintain tolls on the Saw Mill River Parkway , the Bronx River Parkway and to provide general maintenance for the Taconic State Parkway . The authority was abolished in 1979 , at which time , all maintenance of the Sprain Brook Parkway was turned over to NYSDOT .
= = Route description = =
The Sprain Brook Parkway , designated by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 987F , a state reference route , begins at a fork from the Bronx River Parkway along the latter 's right @-@ of @-@ way along the Bronx River in the city of Yonkers . Crossing through the Northeast Yonkers neighborhood as a six @-@ lane freeway design , the Sprain Brook crosses an interchange with NY 100 ( Central Park Avenue ) south of Andrus Park . Bending to the north through Yonkers , the Sprain Brook reaches an interchange with Tuckahoe Road , with the northbound and southbound lanes splitting around the Grassy Sprain Reservoir . The two directions bend northeast along the reservoir . The southbound lanes cross Sprain Ridge Park , while the northbound lanes cross through a golf course . Leaving Yonkers for the town of Greenburgh , the lanes of the Sprain Brook come back together , reaching an interchange with Jackson Avenue . The six lane parkway continues northward and to the northeast through Greenburgh , crossing under Ardsley Road . After turning northward once again , the Sprain Brook crosses under a former alignment of NY 131 ( Underhill Road ) and passes by the Sunningdale Country Club .
Continuing its north / northeast winding , the Sprain Brook enters an interchange with NY 100B ( Dobbs Ferry Road ) , passing by East Rumbrook Park . Crossing over NY 119 in Elmsford , the parkway enters an interchange with Interstate 287 ( the Cross Westchester Expressway ) . After crossing through the interchange , the Spain continues northward as a six @-@ lane parkway back through the town of Greenburgh , entering an interchange with NY 100C ( Grasslands Road ) . Paralleling NY 100 to the west , the parkway , bending northward into Mount Pleasant and an interchange with County Route 301 ( Bradhurst Entrance North Road ) , which connects to NY 100 ( Bradhurst Avenue ) . North of that junction , the southbound lanes of the Sprain Brook interchange with a crossing NY 100 . After several bends to the north , the Sprain Brook enters the merging Taconic State Parkway and terminates as the right @-@ of @-@ way continues as the Taconic .
The Sprain Brook Parkway sees an average of 95 @,@ 442 vehicles per day throughout its entire length . The stretch between I @-@ 287 and NY 100C sees the highest amount , with 101 @,@ 460 cars in a 2011 report . The stretch between NY 100 in Yonkers and Jackson Avenue in Greenburgh sees the second @-@ highest , at 100 @,@ 900 , which is an upgrade of over 19 @,@ 000 vehicles since the same report in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Original proposal = = =
What ultimately became the Sprain Brook Parkway began taking form in the 1920s , when the Westchester County Road Commission acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for a planned 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) extension of the Taconic State Parkway . The land , bought from 1925 to 1927 for $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 20 @.@ 4 million in modern dollars ) , was , however , not used as a parkway , and in 1938 , was proposed to be used instead as an arterial state highway , rather than a parkway . The commission sent a request in April 1938 to the State Council of Parks to have the state take over the right @-@ of @-@ way after the state withdrew its support for the parkway extension . In April 1938 , the county was approached by the Westchester County Park Commission to transfer the new project to the state for construction by the State Council of Parks . The project , which at the time would have cost $ 7 million ( $ 118 million in modern dollars ) , was to connect to the Robert Moses @-@ proposed highway between New York City and Albany .
Opposition to this plan was immediate . Yonkers officials publicly disapproved , saying that the county would lose any hope for state aid . In January 1939 , the village of Bronxville joined the opposition , deeming the new parkway as a " needless expenditure of public money " that would adversely affect local property values and cause flooding . At the same time , proposals in the state legislature provided a sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 for the project . County executive William Bleakley said that a new parkway should be built , but not so close to the Saw Mill River and Bronx River parkways . He argued instead for the use of New York Central Railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way , or a parkway on the Hudson River . There were also fears a new parkway would siphon off toll @-@ paying drivers who previously used the Cross County Parkway and its new Fleetwood Viaduct . Nor would it help the county 's largest bottleneck , the Hawthorne Circle . The county 's Board of Supervisors , however , disagreed with the executive .
In April 1941 , county officials admitted that it was likely that the $ 7 million appropriated would not be enough , and instead it would be better spent on improving other nearby parkways . The proposed parkway would have needed $ 400 @,@ 000 more for additional right @-@ of @-@ way , and the construction costs would leave no money to repave the Bronx River Parkway , the link to the Cross County Parkway , and to extend the Saw Mill River Parkway . The county would have had to spend $ 8 million of its own money as well . The parkway was instead shortened from Bronxville to Elmsford .
= = = Revival = = =
In March 1949 , the State Council of Parks , led by Robert Moses , recommended the development of a new state park in the Sprain Valley . This new state park , which would also have a parkway built through it , would intend to take traffic off the congested Bronx River Parkway . This new parkway would be one of the construction projects involved , which included rebuilding the Bronx River and the development of Ridge Road Park . The Moses @-@ led committee also suggested that $ 25 @,@ 000 be appropriated for a study , survey and report on the new parkway and possible expansion of the Ridge Road Park . The city of Yonkers also became involved in the proposal because a 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) section of land needed between NY 100 ( Central Park Avenue ) and Palmer Road was deeded over to the state by Westchester County for the new $ 13 million ( 1949 USD ) parkway . Residents in Yonkers protested that this December 1949 transfer would require the demolition or defacing of $ 1 million worth of homes in the city .
In April 1950 , the State Council of Parks met in Ardsley . Bronxville opposed the construction , claiming that there would be property value depreciation . However , there was no cited opposition for the parkway from any communities further north of Bronxville , and that officials from Westchester County were looking into ideas for an alternate route around Bronxville . At the time , the county had most of the right @-@ of @-@ way in Bronxville claimed , short of one piece . The need for the parkway was helped by the fact that widening of the Bronx River Parkway was not applicable due to land limitations and the prohibitory cost of acquiring land for a widening . The parkway , while creating a needed connection between the Saw Mill River Parkway and the Bronx River Parkway , would not answer the need for diverting traffic off the Hawthorne Circle and the issue of what to do with truck traffic . The parkway , if started , would take about three years to complete and would be constructed by the Taconic State Park Commission .
= = = " Route A " = = =
In February 1951 , Westchester County started getting ready to approve the new parkway plans from the State of New York . The new $ 16 – 18 million ( 1950 USD ) parkway still had a short section still in question , with various groups preferring two different alignments . The State Council of Parks wanted to use the alignment used by the Odell Parkway , which still would require demolition of thirty homes in the Cedar Knolls section of Yonkers , while other groups wanted the parkway to be aligned through Crestwood , which would cost 100 homes . Five different sites were proposed at the meeting with the Westchester County Board of Supervisors on February 15 . However , an agreement could not be reached by the committee and it was delayed to the next week . On February 19 , the county board gave approval to the state plans , at a vote of 32 to 9 . The letters of discontent amounted to fifty @-@ nine letters or telegrams . Chairman Jefferson Armstrong spoke that the new parkway would lead to the " planning for the destruction of Westchester . " He stated that the county was giving away $ 8 million in taxpayer funds to the state with a debt of $ 2 @.@ 3 million after collecting tolls on the Saw Mill River and Hutchinson River parkways . Residents of the town of Greenburgh protested the county 's decision to give the undeveloped Rochambeau Park for development into a state park .
In July 1951 , the county of Westchester approved " Route A " , one of the proposed alignments for the Sprain Brook through the city of Yonkers . Costing $ 10 @.@ 512 million ( 1951 USD ) , the route was approved by the state and the fact that the county still owned the right @-@ of @-@ way would determine whether the county would give it to the state . This 4 @.@ 98 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 01 km ) section of parkway as part of Route A began at the Bronx River Parkway , extending to a point just north of Jackson Avenue . A hearing was held on June 18 that mentioned that only " Route F @-@ 1 " , which would cost $ 14 @.@ 579 million , and was longer would be the only other acceptable proposal . People living along the " Route A " track preferred " Route F @-@ 1 " , which would take fifty @-@ four homes , over the thirty from the accepted proposal .
During the meeting of the Westchester County Board of Supervisors on August 6 , two officials from Yonkers attempted to filibuster the meeting to avoid the transfer of the Sprain Brook right @-@ of @-@ way , along with the " Route A " proposal , to the state . This filibuster failed , as the board voted 39 to 2 to transfer the right @-@ of @-@ way . The Taconic State Parkway Commission , Westchester County Park Commission , and the Westchester County Planning Commission all endorsed " Route A " over " Route F @-@ 1 " . However , the Ridge Road picnic area in Greenburgh was not given to the state . Remaining opposition stated that the route would cut $ 517 @,@ 000 from tax revenue , and damage now $ 3 million worth of homes in the " Route A " section , which included the house of Jefferson Armstrong .
= = = Construction = = =
In December 1953 , the county executive for Westchester County , Herbert Gerlach , proposed that the now $ 22 million ( 1953 USD ) parkway should be constructed with tolls to help pay for the new roadway . At this time , the southern 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) of the Bronx River Parkway was being reconstructed for use in the new Sprain Brook Parkway , with funds received before the Korean War . Jefferson Armstrong declared the new plan as a scheme by Robert Moses to " spend beyond his pocketbook " and that Gerlach was " intolerant " for proposing this just before the start of the holiday season . At the same time , the proposal was made that the county could gain funds by re @-@ appropriating usage of Westchester County Airport , which would cost the county $ 11 million a year , but would only gain the county $ 26 @,@ 000 in revenue .
On September 30 , 1958 , the State Department of Public Works notified Westchester County that it would begin construction of the Sprain Brook Parkway . Bids on the new parkway through Yonkers , with 2 @.@ 27 miles ( 3 @.@ 65 km ) of six @-@ lane divided parkway plus 4 @.@ 69 miles ( 7 @.@ 55 km ) of access roads to the new roadway , would be opened on October 30 , estimating the cost at $ 11 @.@ 116 million . Slated to open in August 1961 , this first leg of the Sprain Brook Parkway would connect from the Bronx River Parkway near Bronxville to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) north of Tuckahoe Road in North Yonkers . At that point in North Yonkers , it would meet with a connector to the New York State Thruway , which could open doors to getting tolls on the new roadway . Overpasses would be constructed at Midland Avenue , DeWitt Avenue , Central Park Avenue , Tuckahoe Road , Palmer Road , Kimball Avenue and the Bronx River Parkway , along with overpasses over the Sprain Brook , Sunny Brook and Grassy Sprain Brook .
The section of the Sprain Brook Parkway between Tuckahoe Road and Jackson Avenue in the town of Greenburgh was slated to cost $ 4 @.@ 103 million ( 1961 USD ) , a stretch of 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) with 3 @.@ 45 miles ( 5 @.@ 55 km ) of access roads . This new portion would have six lanes , with three on each side of the Grassy Sprain Reservoir , which would split the parkway in each direction . Bids were expected to be opened on November 16 , 1961 for the extension of the new parkway , maintained by the East Hudson Parkway Authority . The new stretch of parkway was constructed throughout 1962 and 1963 , with the East Hudson Parkway Authority announcing the opening of the extension on December 23 , 1963 at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 6 million ( 1963 USD ) . The new interchange with Jackson Avenue would also serve Sprain Ridge Park , which was also being opened at the same time as the new parkway .
The 5 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long section of the Sprain Brook Parkway was opened on November 27 , 1969 from Jackson Avenue in Greenburgh to the Cross Westchester Expressway in Elmsford . This new section of Sprain Brook Parkway cost $ 15 @.@ 4 million , extending the parkway to a length of 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the Bronx to Elmsford . Then @-@ Governor of New York Nelson Rockefeller also noted that the extension of the parkway north from the Cross Westchester to the Hawthorne Traffic Circle was still in final design and would begin construction in 1971 with completion of a new interchange in Hawthorne .
= = = Completion = = =
The delay of the final 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long portion of the Sprain Brook from the Cross Westchester Expressway and the Taconic State Parkway near Hawthorne Circle spent multiple years without progress until demands were placed upon Governor Hugh Carey to get state funds attached to the project . The project had been delayed multiple times and local lobbying interests including Union Carbide threatened to back out of opening corporate locations in the area of the new extension , which in 1976 was slated to cost $ 20 million ( 1976 USD ) . The East Hudson Parkway Authority ( EHPA ) originally proposed raising the tolls on the Saw Mill River and Hutchinson River parkways and building new tolls on the Hutchinson , along with the Bronx River and Taconic parkways . However , NYSDOT reported during a meeting in Albany that contracts on the new extension would be given in 1978 . However , the EHPA also wanted more monetary funds for the maintenance of the parkway system in Westchester and wanted to raise the tolls to help pay for that cost .
Along the state funding from Albany , the rest of the money for the Sprain Brook extension was to be paid for through federal funds . The new parkway extension , which had a slated completion in December 1980 , was bid on in 1978 and won by Yonkers Contracting Company for a total of $ 22 @.@ 8 million ( 1978 USD ) . Various materials in the extension included 100 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of gravel , 37 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete , 24 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 650 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of asphalt and 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) of steel . While the project started under the eyes of NYSDOT and EPHA , when the new parkway was complete , the East Hudson Parkway Authority had been disestablished in 1979 and control of the Sprain Brook had been turned back to NYSDOT .
The new parkway would lower traffic on NY 9A through Elmsford while also connecting to the Westchester County Medical Center , a local jail , and Westchester Community College . Economic improvements of the parkway extension would include nearly 6 @,@ 000 new jobs and over $ 2 million ( 1978 USD ) in tax rebates . The fourth and final section of the Sprain Brook Parkway was opened on October 28 , 1980 at the cost of $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) . The last section , deemed a 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long missing link , finished the parkway to its full length between the Bronx River Parkway and the traffic circle in Hawthorne . This new piece of the parkway was built with 70 % of the required funds provided by the federal government , and was designed to redistribute traffic along different parkways , with NYSDOT estimating about 44 @,@ 000 cars daily using the completed roadway .
The effects of the completion of the parkway were nearly immediate . Traffic on the Saw Mill River Parkway lessened with the new parkway , along with a 20 % reduction on the Taconic State Parkway . However , while the route south of the Sprain Brook was seeing less traffic , the portion north of Hawthorne to Campfire Road , a 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) section , was seeing much more traffic with the new parkway . Proposals for solving this problem included a $ 50 million ( 1982 USD ) proposal to widen the Taconic State Parkway to six lanes . NY 9A south of Hawthorne also saw a considerable reduction in traffic and an improvement in the corridor north of NY 100C , becoming more of a commercial center . New industrial parks and office parks were being constructed within a couple years of completion of the new parkway along NY 9A .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Westchester County . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Ladislaus IV of Hungary =
Ladislaus the Cuman ( Hungarian : IV . ( Kun ) László , Croatian : Ladislav IV . Kumanac , Slovak : Ladislav IV . Kumánsky ; 5 August 1262 – 10 July 1290 ) , also known as Ladislas the Cuman , was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1272 to 1290 . His mother , Elizabeth , was the daughter of a chieftain from the pagan Cumans who had settled in Hungary . At the age of seven , he married Elisabeth ( or Isabella ) , a daughter of King Charles I of Sicily . Ladislaus was only ten when a rebellious lord , Joachim Gutkeled , kidnapped and imprisoned him .
Ladislaus was still a prisoner when his father , Stephen V , died on 6 August 1272 . During his minority , many groupings of barons — primarily the Abas , Kőszegis , and Gutkeleds — fought against each other for supreme power . Ladislaus was declared to be of age at an assembly of the prelates , barons , noblemen , and Cumans in 1277 . He allied himself with Rudolf I of Germany against Ottokar II of Bohemia . His forces had a preeminent role in Rudolf 's victory over Ottokar in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August 1278 .
However , Ladislaus could not restore royal power in Hungary . A papal legate , Philip , Bishop of Fermo , came to Hungary to help Ladislaus to consolidate his authority , but the prelate was shocked at the presence of thousands of pagan Cumans in Hungary . Ladislaus promised that he would force them to adopt a Christian lifestyle , but they refused to obey the legate 's demands . Ladislaus decided to support the Cumans , for which Philip of Fermo excommunicated him . The Cumans imprisoned the legate , and the legate 's partisans captured Ladislaus . In early 1280 , Ladislaus agreed to persuade the Cumans to submit to the legate , but many Cumans preferred to leave Hungary .
Ladislaus vanquished a Cuman army that invaded Hungary in 1282 . Hungary also survived a Mongol invasion in 1285 . Ladislaus had , by that time , become so unpopular that many of his subjects accused him of inciting the Mongols to invade Hungary . After he imprisoned his wife in 1286 , he lived with his Cuman mistresses . During the last years of his life , he wandered throughout the country with his Cuman allies , but he was unable to control the most powerful lords and bishops any more . Pope Nicholas IV planned to declare a crusade against him , but three Cuman assassins murdered Ladislaus .
= = Childhood ( 1262 – 1272 ) = =
Ladislaus was the elder son of Stephen V , son of Béla IV of Hungary , and Stephen 's wife , Elizabeth the Cuman . Elizabeth was the daughter of a chieftain of the Cumans who had settled in Hungary . She was born as a pagan and was only baptized before her marriage to Stephen . Ladislaus was born under the sign of Mars in 1262 , according to Simon of Kéza , who was his chaplain in the 1270s .
Conflicts between Ladislaus 's father and grandfather developed into a civil war in 1264 . Béla IV 's troops , which were under the command of Ladislaus 's aunt , Anna , captured the castle of Sárospatak , where Ladislaus and his mother were staying , and imprisoned them . Ladislaus was initially kept in the Turóc Castle , but two months later , he was sent to the court of Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow , who was Béla IV 's son @-@ in @-@ law . After his grandfather and father made peace in March 1265 , Ladislaus was set free and returned to his father .
Ladislaus 's father made an alliance with Charles I , King of Sicily , in September 1269 . According to the treaty , Charles I 's daughter , Elizabeth , who was about four years old at that time , was engaged to the seven @-@ year @-@ old Ladislaus . The children 's marriage took place in 1270 .
Béla IV died on 3 May 1270 and Ladislaus 's father was crowned king two weeks later ; the new monarch , however , could not stabilize his rule . Béla IV 's closest advisors — Duchess Anna , and Béla IV 's former palatine , Henry Kőszegi — left Hungary and sought assistance from Anna 's son @-@ in @-@ law , King Ottokar II of Bohemia . The newly appointed Ban of Slavonia , Joachim Gutkeled , also turned against Stephen V and kidnapped Ladislaus in the summer of 1272 . Gutkeled held Ladislaus in captivity in the fortress of Koprivnica in Slavonia . Historian Pál Engel suggests that Joachim Gutkeled planned to force Stephen V to divide Hungary with Ladislaus . Stephen V besieged Koprivnica , but could not take it . Stephen fell seriously ill and died on 6 August .
= = Reign = =
= = = Minority ( 1272 – 1277 ) = = =
Joachim Gutkeled departed for Székesfehérvár as soon as he was informed of Stephen V 's death , because he wanted to arrange the boy – king 's coronation . Ladislaus 's mother joined him , infuriating Stephen V 's partisans who accused her of having conspired against her husband . Stephen V 's master of the treasury , Egyed Monoszló , laid siege to her palace in Székesfehérvár , but Gutkeled 's supporters routed him . Monoszló fled to Pressburg ( now Bratislava , Slovakia ) ; he captured the town and ceded it to Ottokar II of Bohemia .
Archbishop Philip of Esztergom crowned Ladislaus king in Székesfehérvár on about 3 September . In theory , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Ladislaus ruled under his mother 's regency , but in fact , baronial parties administered the kingdom . In November of that year , Henry Kőszegi returned from Bohemia and assassinated Ladislaus 's cousin , Béla of Macsó . Duke Béla 's extensive domains , which were located along the southern borders , were divided among Henry Kőszegi and his supporters . In retaliation for Hungarian incursions into Austria and Moravia , Austrian and Moravian troops invaded the borderlands of Hungary in April 1273 . They captured Győr and Szombathely , plundering the western counties . Joachim Gutkeled recaptured the two forts two months later , but Ottokar II of Bohemia invaded Hungary and seized many fortresses , including Győr and Sopron in the autumn .
Peter Csák and his allies removed Joachim Gutkeled and Henry Kőszegi from power , but Gutkeled and Kőszegi seized Ladislaus and his mother in June 1274 . Although Peter Csák liberated the king and his mother , Gutkeled and Kőszegi captured Ladislaus 's younger brother , Andrew , and took him to Slavonia . They demanded Slavonia in Duke Andrew 's name , but Peter Csák defeated their united forces near Polgárdi at the end of September . Kőszegi was killed in the battle . Peter Csák then launched a campaign against Kőszegi 's son and Ladislaus accompanied him . At the end of 1274 , Rudolf I , the new King of Germany , and Ladislaus concluded an alliance against Ottokar II of Bohemia .
Ladislaus contracted an unidentified serious illness , but recovered from it . He attributed this recovery to a miracle by his deceased saintly aunt , Margaret , and approached the Holy See to promote her canonization in 1275 . In the same year , a new civil war broke out between Joachim Gutkeled and Peter Csák . Ladislaus took part in Csák 's military expedition against the Kőszegis , who were Gutkeled 's supporters . However , Gutkeled and his supporters removed their opponents from power at an assembly of the barons and noblemen at Buda around 21 June 1276 .
Taking advantage of the war between Rudolf I and Ottokar II , Ladislaus made an incursion into Austria in the autumn . Sopron soon accepted Ladislaus 's suzerainty and Ottokar II promised to renounce of all towns he occupied in western Hungary . However , new armed conflicts began in Hungary during 1277 : the Transylvanian Saxons captured and destroyed Gyulafehérvár ( now Alba Iulia in Romania ) , the see of the Bishop of Transylvania , and the Babonići rose up in rebellion in Slavonia .
= = = First years of majority ( 1277 – 1278 ) = = =
Joachim Gutkeled died while battling against the Babonići in April 1277 . A month later , an assembly of the prelates , barons , noblemen , and Cumans declared Ladislaus to be of age . The Estates of the realm also authorized the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old monarch to restore internal peace with all possible means . Ladislaus then invaded the Kőszegis 's domains in Transdanubia , but could not defeat them . He met Rudolf I of Germany in Hainburg an der Donau on 11 November to confirm their alliance against Ottokar II of Bohemia .
After the royal army captured the rebellious Nicholas Geregye 's fortress at Adorján ( now Adrian in Romania ) , Ladislaus held a " general assembly " for seven counties along the River Tisza in early summer of 1278 . The assembly condemned two rebellious local noblemen to death . In Transdanubia , Ivan Kőszegi attempted to play off Ladislaus 's father 's first cousin , Andrew the Venetian , against Ladislaus . Andrew demanded Slavonia for himself , but returned to Venice without success .
Ladislaus joined forces with Rudolf I of Germany to launch a campaign against Ottokar II . Ladislaus 's troops played a decisive role in Rudolf 's victory in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August . Ottokar was killed in the battlefield . After the battle , King Rudolf I gave Ladislaus " his thanks , declaring that through his help all Austria and Styria had been restored to him " , according to Ladislaus 's chronicler , Simon of Kéza .
= = = The Cuman question ( 1278 – 1285 ) = = =
Pope Nicholas III sent Philip , Bishop of Fermo , to Hungary to help Ladislaus restore royal power on 22 September 1278 . The papal legate arrived in Hungary in early 1279 . With the legate 's mediation , Ladislaus concluded a peace treaty with the Kőszegis . Bishop Philip soon realized , however , that most Cumans were still pagans in Hungary . He extracted a ceremonious promise from the Cuman chieftains of giving up their pagan customs , and persuaded the young King Ladislaus to swear an oath to enforce the keeping of the Cuman chieftans ' promise . An assembly held at Tétény passed laws which , in accordance with the legate 's demand , prescribed that the Cumans should leave their tents and live " in houses attached to the ground " . The Cumans did not obey the laws , however , and Ladislaus , himself a half @-@ Cuman , failed to force them . In retaliation , Bishop Philip excommunicated him and placed Hungary under interdict in October . Ladislaus joined the Cumans and appealed to the Holy See , but the Pope refused to absolve him .
On Ladislaus 's demand , the Cumans seized and imprisoned Philip of Fermo in early January 1280 . However , Finta Aba , Voivode of Transylvania captured Ladislaus and handed him over to Roland Borsa . In less than two months , both the legate and the king were set free and Ladislaus took a new oath to enforce the Cuman laws . However , many Cumans decided to leave Hungary instead of obeying the legate 's demands . Ladislaus followed the moving Cumans as far as Szalánkemén ( now Stari Slankamen in Serbia ) , but could not hinder them from crossing the frontier .
Ladislaus launched a campaign against Finta Aba and seized his castles in the summer of 1281 . According to the Austrian Rhymed Chronicle , Bishop Philip of Fermo left Hungary around the same time , stating that he would never come back , " not for the sake of the Holy Father " . A Cuman army invaded the southern parts of Hungary in 1282 . The Illuminated Chronicle writes that Ladislaus , " like the brave Joshua , went out against " the Cumans " to fight for his people and his realm . " He vanquished the invaders 's army at Lake Hód , near Hódmezővásárhely .
At the end of 1282 , Ladislaus laid siege to Borostyánkő ( now Bernstein im Burgenland in Austria ) , which was held by the Kőszegis . The Kőszegis resisted , forcing the king to lift the siege in early 1283 . Ladislaus even reconciled with Ivan Kőszegi and appointed him palatine before 6 July . Ladislaus abandoned his wife , Isabella , and settled among the Cumans by the end of the year .
= = = Last years ( 1285 – 1290 ) = = =
The Mongols of the Golden Horde invaded Hungary under the command of Khans Talabuga and Nogai in January 1285 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , they " spread a terrible devastation of fire throughout the whole country " to the east of the Danube . Local forces resisted the invaders at many places , including , for example , at Regéc . The invasion lasted for two months before the Mongols withdrew .
Ladislaus 's favoritism towards the Cumans made him so unpopular that many of his subjects accused him of inciting the Mongols to invade Hungary . In fact , Ladislaus employed Mongol prisoners of war , known as nyögérs , when he subjugated a rebellion in the Szepesség in September 1285 . The king preferred the Cumans ' way of life , including their costumes and hairstyle , and took Cuman girls as his mistresses . According to Lodomer , Archbishop of Esztergom , Ladislaus copulated with his favorite concubine , Aydua — whom the Archbishop described as a " poisonous viper " — in public .
In September 1286 , Ladislaus imprisoned his wife and granted all her revenues to his mistress . Archbishop Lodomer liberated Queen Isabella the following September . The Archbishop summoned the prelates , the barons , and the noblemen to an assembly in Buda and excommunicated Ladislaus . In response , the infuriated king stated that " beginning with the Archbishop of Esztergom and his suffragans , I shall exterminate the whole lot right up to Rome with the aid of Tartar swords " , according to Archbishop Lodomer .
The barons captured Ladislaus in the Szepesség in January 1288 . Although his partisans soon liberated him , he acquiesced in concluding an agreement with Archbishop Lodomer . The Archbishop absolved Ladislaus on condition that the king would live in accordance with Christian morals . However , Ladislaus broke his promise . He abducted his sister , Elizabeth , Prioress of the Dominican Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island and gave her in marriage to a Czech aristocrat , Zavis of Falkenstein . According to Archbishop Lodomer , Ladislaus even stated , " If I had fifteen or more sisters in as many cloistered communities as you like , I would snatch them from there to marry them off licitly or illicitly ; in order to procure through them a kin @-@ group who will support me by all their power in the fulfillment of my will " .
Ladislaus spent the last years of his life wandering from place to place . Hungary 's central government lost power , since the prelates and the barons ruled the kingdom independently of the monarch . For example , Ivan Kőszegi and his brothers waged wars against Albert I , Duke of Austria , but Ladislaus did not intervene , although the Austrians captured at least 30 fortresses along the western borders .
The Kőszegis offered the crown to Andrew the Venetian , who arrived in Hungary in early 1290 . One of their opponents captured the pretender , however , and surrendered him to Duke Albert . Ladislaus appointed Mizse , who had recently converted from Islam to Christianity , palatine . Pope Nicholas IV was even planning to proclaim a crusade against Ladislaus . However , Ladislaus , who had always been partial towards his Cuman subjects , was assassinated by three Cumans , named Árbóc , Törtel , and Kemence , at the castle of Körösszeg ( now Cheresig in Romania ) on 10 July 1290 . Mizse and the Cuman Nicholas , who was the brother of Ladislaus 's Cuman lover , took vengeance for Ladislaus 's death , slaughtering the murderers .
Upon Pope Nicholas IV 's orders , an enquiry was carried out to find out " whether the king died as a Catholic Christian " . The results of the investigation are unknown , but the Chronicon Budense writes that Ladislaus was buried in the cathedral of Csanád ( now Cenad in Romania ) . His successor , Andrew the Venetian , and Pope Benedict VIII recalled Ladislaus as " of renowned memory " .
= = Ancestors = =
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= Day of Defeat : Source =
Day of Defeat : Source is a team @-@ based online first @-@ person shooter multiplayer video game developed by Valve Corporation . Set in World War II , the game is a complete remake of Day of Defeat it was updated from the GoldSrc engine used by its predecessor to the Source engine , and a remake of the game models . The game was released for Microsoft Windows on September 26 , 2005 , distributed through Valve 's online content delivery service Steam . Retail distribution of the game was handled by Electronic Arts .
The game was officially announced in February 2005 . During the course of its development , Day of Defeat : Source progressed from being a straight conversion of Day of Defeat , to the alteration of certain aspects of the game 's design and introduction of several new features . In addition , Day of Defeat : Source has been used by Valve to present new design features on the Source engine , such as high dynamic range rendering and cinematic effects . The game itself revolves around two teams , the US Army and the German Wehrmacht , each with access to six player classes , fighting in a variety of scenarios inspired by World War II engagements in the European Theatre of 1944 .
Upon release , the game received a generally favorable reception , praised for its atmospheric and strategic gameplay and its graphics , audio work and overall presentation . However , the game was criticized for the lack of content in it at the time of release , although subsequent updates to the game have added new game modes and levels .
= = Gameplay = =
Day of Defeat : Source is set in World War II , specifically the European Theatre in the year 1944 . Players choose to join the forces of either the United States Army or the German Wehrmacht and compete against each other in a variety of game modes . Players select from one of six classes to play as , each with its own role within the team . Player characters cannot take much damage , and in some circumstances can be killed by a single bullet , forcing players to make use of cover to stay alive . When a player character dies , that player starts a short countdown for reinforcements . When the timer runs out , the player and any friendly players killed in that time respawn into the game at their insertion point as the next wave of troops . All weapons in the game have realistic limits to their use : machine guns must be deployed to maintain accurate fire or to be reloaded , rocket launchers must be shouldered to be aimed and fired , sniper rifles are most accurate when used with the scope and grenades not " cooked off " before release may be easily fled or even thrown back by the opposition .
The game was initially released with four maps , although later updates have introduced five new official levels and eight community produced maps supported by Valve . The game 's levels are based after real battles in the Allied campaigns in Italy , Sicily and France , such as the Falaise pocket or the beach landings of Operation Shingle at Anzio , as well as entirely fictional battles . Combat can take place in several environments , such as city streets , buildings and sewers . Each online game can sustain a maximum of 32 players .
Day of Defeat : Source , like other titles developed by Valve , tracks detailed statistics for individual players . They include the time spent playing as each class , accuracy and performance for each weapon used , flag captures , and various other details . Day of Defeat : Source also features numerous " achievements " for carrying out certain tasks , such as scoring a certain number of kills with a particular weapon or completing a round within a certain time . Many of the achievements are class @-@ specific , providing incentive for a player to improve his or her abilities with each class evenly . Achievements unlocked and statistics from previously played games are displayed on the player 's Steam profile page .
= = = Game modes = = =
There are two main game modes in Day of Defeat : Source : territorial control and detonation . In territorial control maps , players must fight for control of all strategic points on the map . The strategic points take various forms , such as a destroyed tank in a street or fields and buildings , and are designated by a flag in its vicinity , which displays the army colors of the team who controls the point . Points are captured by a certain number of team members surrounding the point , with it either capturing instantly or after a couple of seconds . Players on the other side can disrupt a capture by placing themselves within the capture area during the process or by killing the enemy players at the point . The first side to hold all the points simultaneously wins the round .
The objective in a detonation level is to plant and detonate explosive devices on a number of enemy positions , which can consist of AA guns , tanks and armored cars . Some positions must be hit twice for them to be completely destroyed . Players can protect their positions by defusing the explosives before they detonate . In one variation of this game mode , one side has to defend their positions for a set amount of time , with the destruction of each piece of equipment giving the enemy team more time . The defenders win if they can hold their positions long enough for the time to run out , while the attackers win when all objectives have been destroyed . In the alternate version , both teams must attack the other 's objectives while defending their own . The first team to destroy all of the enemy 's equipment wins .
= = = Classes = = =
Both factions in Day of Defeat : Source have access to six classes . Each class is designed with specific combat circumstances in mind , so that teams must use teamwork to succeed . The weapons and equipment carried by the classes are based on the weapons used by both the US Army and Wehrmacht during World War II . Some of classes are armed with pistols — the American M1911 or the German Walther P38 — while others are equipped with trench knives or entrenching tools for melee combat . Grenades are carried by a number of classes , depending on their role in the game — riflemen are equipped with rifle grenades , the assault classes are armed with a single fragmentation grenade and a smoke grenade for providing concealment , while support classes have access to two standard fragmentation grenades . Riflemen are armed with their respective army 's standard infantry rifle , and are designed for medium to long range combat , while the assault classes carry submachine guns which are only effective in close quarters . The support classes are designed for medium range combat , equipped with either the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle or the StG44 . Snipers are used for attacking enemy targets from long range , and are consequently armed with their army 's standard bolt @-@ action sniper rifle . Machine gunners carry machine guns to defend key locations on a level or to provide a base of fire for their team 's advance . Machine gunners are required to deploy their weapons on bipods before firing in order to compensate for the machine gun 's extreme recoil . The final class is armed with an anti @-@ armor weapon , used in the game to displace enemy machine gun or sniper positions . This class is armed with either an M1 carbine or Mauser M712 to defend themselves with when moving .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
Day of Defeat : Source was first announced for Microsoft Windows during the development of Half @-@ Life 2 , the flagship game of the Source engine , as one of several of the Valve Corporation 's GoldSrc powered games to be remade on the new game engine . In the aftermath of the release of Half @-@ Life 2 and Counter @-@ Strike : Source , very little information was released regarding the development of Day of Defeat : Source until 2005 . In February 2005 , Valve officially announced Day of Defeat : Source , stating that the game was nearing its beta development phase and would be available later in the first quarter of the year . The game was opened to an internal beta test soon after , which certain members of the Day of Defeat community were invited to join . The beta version of the game was shown as a straight conversion of the most recent version of Day of Defeat , at the time even including the same player and weapon models as the game 's GoldSrc counterpart . Due to the response of the beta testers , significant changes were made to the gameplay , taking it away from being a straight conversion : the behaviour of weapons was altered and several classes from Day of Defeat were dropped entirely . Later media releases showed the revamped version of the game , including its new player and weapon models , as well as new additions to the game , such as rifle grenades and smoke grenades . On September 2 , 2005 , Valve announced that they were " confident " that the game would be released that month , and seven days later announced an official release date of September 26 , 2005 . The game was made available for preload via Valve 's Steam content delivery system on September 14 , 2005 , and was officially released on time on September 26 .
Since its release , Day of Defeat : Source has undergone several updates . These updates have consisted of gameplay tweaks , new maps and graphical effects . The first new level was released on November 30 , 2005 , and was followed on January 25 , 2005 by another new map , used as a demonstration for the Source engine 's abilities in rendering snow and ice . A major update was announced on June 22 , 2006 , adding the detonation game mode , various gameplay tweaks and two further maps to accommodate the new game mode . The update was released on June 28 , 2006 . On April 26 , 2007 , a group of maps produced by the game 's community , entitled the Community Assembled Map Pack ( CAMP1 ) , was released . Consisting of three maps , the pack was created with the assistance and support of Valve . This was followed by CAMP2 on July 26 , 2007 , a pack which consisted of a further five maps . On May 23 , 2008 , Valve announced another major update to Day of Defeat : Source , this time giving the game support for the company 's new Steamworks programmer . The update is open to any owners of Day of Defeat : Source . Along with various gameplay tweaks , the update moves the game to the Source engine version used with The Orange Box , allowing the game to utilize particle effects , as well as adding a new official map based on a long @-@ standing custom map for Day of Defeat and 54 achievement awards for players completing certain tasks .
= = = Technology = = =
Day of Defeat : Source has been used by Valve as a platform for demonstrating several technologies in the Source engine . Day of Defeat : Source introduced a dynamic audio system that was limited to non @-@ player characters in Half @-@ Life 2 . The sound of each weapon firing in @-@ game is attributed with distance and occlusion variables , which are processed and then fed back to the player . Sounds far from the player lack higher frequencies and thus sound more like they naturally would , allowing for the actions of other players on a map to make up the ambient sounds for the level . The game was the first to incorporate Valve 's high dynamic range rendering , predating the official demonstration , Half @-@ Life 2 : Lost Coast . Other effects were added post @-@ release to make the game appear as if it were a World War II era film . The effects include motion blur , depth of field , film grain and color correction . Phong shading on the Source engine was added to Day of Defeat : Source with the major update in the second quarter of 2006 .
= = = Marketing = = =
To promote the game , Valve has produced three machinima trailers depicting the game in play . The trailers are themed around wartime propaganda news reports for both Germany and the United States . To convey this effect , the trailers make extensive usage of the Source engine 's capabilities for film grain , color correction , motion blur and depth of field , as well as sepia toning . The first trailer was released as part of the game 's post @-@ release marketing on December 20 , 2005 . Entitled Prelude to Victory , the trailer depicted a large firefight in the game as a report from the German perspective , complete with a commentator speaking in the German language . Two further trailers were released to promote the major update to Day of Defeat : Source in the second quarter of 2006 . The trailers , both from the American viewpoint , displayed how the new detonation gameplay worked , emphasising teamwork as the key to success , as well as introducing the viewer to the two new maps added by the update . To further create interest in the game , Valve has opened Day of Defeat : Source to three free weekends , the first taking place on February 10 , 2006 , the second on July 8 , 2006 and the third on July 4 , 2008 , where anyone with a Steam account could download and play the game for a maximum of 48 hours free of charge .
= = Reception = =
Day of Defeat : Source was given a positive reception upon release , receiving ratings of 80 / 100 and 81 @.@ 25 % from the review aggregation sites Metacritic and GameRankings . The game 's graphics received near universal praise , with GameSpot stating that " presentation is Day of Defeat : Source 's most obvious strength " , and PC Zone citing this for creating a " tense and atmospheric " game . The ragdoll physics in the game noted by reviewers as being " amusing " , and the game 's audio work was also praised . The core gameplay , described as " lightning war meets capture the flag " by 1UP.com , was equally praised by reviewers , many appreciating the interdependence of the classes and strategic gameplay . Several reviews closed remarking that the game 's content was of a very high quality .
Criticism of the game principally revolved around the lack of content . While praise was bestowed upon the quality of the content already available , a number of reviewers were concerned about the small number of maps included in the initial release , even though new content was promised by Valve for later . IGN commented that the existing content had a good chance of going " stale " , while GameSpy stated that the game 's " lack of breadth " was a " serious shortcoming " . In addition , PC Zone commented that " by still clinging to the small @-@ scale skirmish atmosphere of the original , Day of Defeat : Source doesn 't make much of departure from Counter @-@ Strike " , stating that this made the game seem like a " facelift " to a " much @-@ loved mod [ ... ] before making us pay for it again " . PC Zone summed its review up by commenting that " this is an old game — an excellent old game and a beautiful old game — but an old game nonetheless " .
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= Heterodontosauridae =
Heterodontosauridae is a family of early ornithischian dinosaurs that were likely among the most basal ( primitive ) members of the group . Although their fossils are relatively rare and their group small in numbers , they lived across all continents except Australia and Antarctica for approximately 100 million years , from the Late Triassic to the Early Cretaceous .
Heterodontosaurids were fox @-@ sized dinosaurs less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in length , including a long tail . They are known mainly for their characteristic teeth , including enlarged canine @-@ like tusks and cheek teeth adapted for chewing , analogous to those of Cretaceous hadrosaurids . Their diet was herbivorous or possibly omnivorous .
= = Description = =
Among heterodontosaurids , only Heterodontosaurus itself is known from a complete skeleton . Fragmentary skeletal remains of Abrictosaurus are known but have not been fully described , while most other heterodontosaurids are known only from jaw fragments and teeth . Consequently , most heterodontosaurid synapomorphies ( defining features ) have been described from the teeth and jaw bones . Heterodontosaurus measured just over 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length , while the fragmentary remains of Lycorhinus may indicate a larger individual .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
Both Abrictosaurus and Heterodontosaurus had very large eyes . Underneath the eyes , the jugal bone projected sideways , a feature also present in ceratopsians . As in the jaws of most ornithischians , the anterior edge of the premaxilla ( a bone at the tip of the upper jaw ) was toothless and probably supported a keratinous beak ( rhamphotheca ) , although heterodontosaurids did have teeth in the posterior section of the premaxilla . A large gap , called a diastema , separated these premaxillary teeth from the those of the maxilla ( the main upper jaw bone ) in many ornithischians , but this diastema was characteristically arched in heterodontosaurids . The mandible ( lower jaw ) was tipped by the predentary , a bone unique to ornithischians . This bone also supported a beak similar to the one found on the premaxilla . All the teeth in the lower jaw were found on the dentary bone .
Heterodontosaurids are named for their strongly heterodont dentition . There were three premaxillary teeth . In the Early Jurassic Abrictosaurus , Heterodontosaurus , and Lycorhinus , the first two premaxillary teeth were small and conical , while the much larger third tooth resembled the canines of carnivoran mammals and is often called the caniniform or ' tusk ' . A lower caniniform , larger than the upper , took the first position in the dentary and was accommodated by the arched diastema of the upper jaw when the mouth was closed . These caniniforms were serrated on both the anterior and posterior edges in Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus , while those of Abrictosaurus bore serrations only on the anterior edge . In the Early Cretaceous Echinodon , there may have been two upper caniniforms , which were on the maxilla rather than the premaxilla , and Fruitadens from the Late Jurassic may have had two lower caniniforms on each dentary .
Like the characteristic tusks , the cheek teeth of derived heterodontosaurids were also unique among early ornithischians . Small ridges , or denticles , lined the edges of ornithischian cheek teeth in order to crop vegetation . These denticles extend only a third of the way down the tooth crown from the tip in all heterodontosaurids ; in other ornithischians , the denticles extend further down towards the root . Basal forms like Abrictosaurus had cheek teeth in both maxilla and dentary that were generally similar to other ornithischians : widely spaced , each having a low crown and a strongly @-@ developed ridge ( cingulum ) separating the crown from the root . In more derived forms like Lycorhinus and Heterodontosaurus , the teeth were chisel @-@ shaped , with much higher crowns and no cingula , so that there was no difference in width between the crowns and the roots .
These derived cheek teeth were overlapping , so that their crowns formed a continuous surface on which food could be chewed . The tooth rows were slightly inset from the side of the mouth , leaving a space outside the teeth that may have been bounded by a muscular cheek , which would have been necessary for chewing . The hadrosaurs and ceratopsians of the Cretaceous Period , as well as many herbivorous mammals , would convergently evolve somewhat analogous dental batteries . As opposed to hadrosaurs , which had thousands of teeth constantly being replaced , tooth replacement in heterodontosaurids occurred far more slowly and several specimens have been found without a single replacement tooth in waiting . Characteristically , heterodontosaurids lacked the small openings ( foramina ) on the inside of the jaw bones which are thought to have aided in tooth development in most other ornithischians . Heterodontosaurids also boasted a unique spheroidal joint between the dentaries and the predentary , allowing the lower jaws to rotate outwards as the mouth was closed , grinding the cheek teeth against each other . Because of the slow replacement rate , this grinding produced extreme tooth wear that commonly obliterated most of the denticles in older teeth , although the increased height of the crowns gave each tooth a long life .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The postcranial anatomy of Heterodontosaurus tucki has been well @-@ described , although H. tucki is generally considered the most derived of the Early Jurassic heterodontosaurids , so it is impossible to know how many of its features were shared with other species . The forelimbs were long for a dinosaur , over 70 % of the length of the hindlimbs . The well @-@ developed deltopectoral crest ( a ridge for the attachment of chest and shoulder muscles ) of the humerus and prominent olecranon process ( where muscles that extend the forearm were attached ) of the ulna indicate that the forelimb was powerful as well . There were five digits on the manus ( ' hand ' ) . The first was large , tipped with a sharply curved claw , and would rotate inwards when flexed ; Robert Bakker called it the ' twist @-@ thumb ' . The second digit was the longest , slightly longer than the third . Both of these digits bore claws , while the clawless fourth and fifth digits were very small and simple in comparison . In the hindlimb , the tibia was 30 % longer than the femur , which is generally considered an adaptation for speed . The tibia and fibula of the lower leg were fused to the astragalus and calcaneum of the ankle , forming a ' tibiofibiotarsus ' convergently with modern birds . Also similarly to birds , the lower tarsal ( ankle ) bones and metatarsals were fused to form a ' tarsometatarsus . ' There are four digits in the pes ( hindfoot ) , with only the second , third , and fourth contacting the ground . The tail , unlike many other ornithischians , did not have ossified tendons to maintain a rigid posture and was probably flexible . The fragmentary skeleton known for Abrictosaurus has never been fully described , although the forelimb and manus were smaller than in Heterodontosaurus . Also , the fourth and fifth digits of the forelimb each bear one fewer phalanx bone .
= = = Proto @-@ feathers = = =
Tianyulong from China appears to preserve filamentous integument which has been interpreted to be a variant of the proto @-@ feathers found in some theropods . These filaments include a crest along its tail . The presence of this filamentous integument has been used to suggest that both ornithischians and saurischians were endothermic .
= = Classification = =
South African paleontologist Robert Broom created the name Geranosaurus in 1911 for dinosaur jaw bones missing all of the teeth . In 1924 , Lycorhinus was named , and classified as a cynodont , by Sidney Haughton . Heterodontosaurus was named in 1962 and it , Lycorhinus and Geranosaurus were recognized as closely related ornithischian dinosaurs . Alfred Romer named Heterodontosauridae in 1966 as a family of ornithischian dinosaurs including Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus . It was defined as a clade in 1998 by Paul Sereno and redefined by him in 2005 as the stem clade consisting of Heterodontosaurus tucki and all species more closely related to Heterodontosaurus than to Parasaurolophus walkeri , Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis , Triceratops horridus , or Ankylosaurus magniventris .
Heterodontosauridae includes the genera Abrictosaurus , Lycorhinus , and Heterodontosaurus , all from South Africa . While Richard Thulborn once reassigned all three to Lycorhinus , all other authors consider the three genera distinct . Within the family , Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus are considered sister taxa , with Abrictosaurus as a basal member . Geranosaurus is also a heterodontosaurid , but is usually considered a nomen dubium because the type specimen is missing all its teeth , making it indistinguishable from any other genus in the family . More recently , the genus Echinodon has been considered a heterodontosaurid in several studies . Lanasaurus was named for an upper jaw in 1975 , but more recent discoveries have shown that it belongs to Lycorhinus instead , making Lanasaurus a junior synonym of that genus . Dianchungosaurus was once considered a heterodontosaurid from Asia , but it has since been shown that the remains were a chimera of prosauropod and mesoeucrocodylian remains . José Bonaparte also classified the South American Pisanosaurus as a heterodontosaurid at one time , but this animal is now known to be a more basal ornithischian .
The membership of Heterodontosauridae is well @-@ established in comparison to its uncertain phylogenetic position . Several early studies suggested that heterodontosaurids were very primitive ornithischians . Due to supposed similarities in the morphology of the forelimbs , Robert Bakker proposed a relationship between heterodontosaurids and early sauropodomorphs like Anchisaurus , bridging the orders Saurischia and Ornithischia . The dominant hypothesis over the last several decades has placed heterodontosaurids as basal ornithopods . However , others have suggested that heterodontosaurids instead share a common ancestor with Marginocephalia ( ceratopsians and pachycephalosaurs ) , a hypothesis that has found support in some early 21st century studies . The clade containing heterodontosaurids and marginocephalians has been named Heterodontosauriformes . Heterodontosaurids have also been seen as basal to both ornithopods and marginocephalians . In 2007 , a cladistic analysis suggested that heterodontosaurids are basal to all known ornithischians except Pisanosaurus , a result that echoes some of the very earliest work on the family . Butler et al . ( 2010 ) found the Heterodontosauridae to be the most basal known significant ornithischian radiation .
The cladogram below shows the interrelationships within Heterodontosauridae , and follows the analysis by Sereno , 2012 :
= = Distribution = =
While originally known only from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa , heterodontosaurid remains are now known from four continents . Early in heterodontosaurid history , the supercontinent Pangaea was still largely intact , allowing the family to achieve a near @-@ worldwide distribution . The oldest known remains are a jaw fragment and isolated teeth from the Laguna Colorada Formation of Argentina , which dates back to the Late Triassic . These remains have a derived morphology similar to Heterodontosaurus , including a caniniform with serrations on both anterior and posterior edges , as well as high @-@ crowned maxillary teeth lacking a cingulum . The most diverse heterodontosaurid fauna comes from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa , where fossils of Heterodontosaurus , Abrictosaurus , Lycorhinus , and the dubious Geranosaurus are found .
Undescribed Early Jurassic heterodontosaurids are also known from the United States and Mexico , respectively . In addition , beginning in the 1970s , a great deal of fossil material was discovered from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation near Fruita , Colorado in the United States . Described in print in 2009 , this material was placed in the genus Fruitadens . Heterodontosaurid teeth lacking a cingulum have also been described from Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous formations in Spain and Portugal . The remains of Echinodon were redescribed in 2002 , showing that it may represent a late @-@ surviving heterodontosaurid from the Berriasian stage of the Early Cretaceous in southern England . Dianchungosaurus from the Early Jurassic of China is no longer considered a heterodontosaurid ; though one late surviving Asian form is known ( Tianyulong ) .
= = Paleobiology = =
Most heterodontosaurid fossils are found in geologic formations that represent arid to semi @-@ arid environments , including the Upper Elliot Formation of South Africa and the Purbeck Beds of southern England . It has been suggested that heterodontosaurids underwent seasonal aestivation or hibernation during the driest times of year . Due to the lack of replacement teeth in most heterodontosaurids , it was proposed that the entire set of teeth was replaced during this dormant period , as it seemed that continual and sporadic replacement of teeth would interrupt the function of the tooth row as a single chewing surface . However , this was based on a misunderstanding of heterodontosaurid jaw mechanics . It was thought that heterodontosaurids actually did replace their teeth continually , though more slowly than in other reptiles , but CT scanning of skulls from juvenile and mature Heterodontosaurus shows no replacement teeth . There is currently no evidence that supports the hypothesis of aestivation in heterodontosaurids , but it cannot be rejected , based on the skull scans .
While the cheek teeth of heterodontosaurids are clearly adapted for grinding tough plant material , their diet may have been omnivorous . The pointed premaxillary teeth and sharp , curved claws on the forelimbs suggest some degree of predatory behavior . It has been suggested that the long , powerful forelimbs of Heterodontosaurus may have been useful for tearing into insect nests , similarly to modern anteaters . These forelimbs may have also functioned as digging tools , perhaps for roots and tubers .
The length of the forelimb compared to the hindlimb suggests that Heterodontosaurus might have been partially quadrupedal , and the prominent olecranon process and hyperextendable digits of the forelimb are found in many quadrupeds . However , the manus is clearly designed for grasping , not weight support . Many features of the hindlimb , including the long tibia and foot , as well as the fusion of the tibiofibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus , indicate that heterodontosaurids were adapted to run quickly on the hindlegs , so it is unlikely that Heterodontosaurus moved on all four limbs except perhaps when feeding .
The short tusks found in all known heterodontosaurids strongly resemble tusks found in modern musk deer , peccaries and pigs . In many of these animals ( as well as the longer @-@ tusked walrus and Asian elephants ) , this is a sexually dimorphic trait , with tusks only found in males . The type specimen of Abrictosaurus lacks tusks and was originally described as a female . While this remains possible , the unfused sacral vertebrae and short face indicate that this specimen represents a juvenile animal , while a second , larger specimen of Abrictosaurus clearly possesses tusks . Therefore , it is possible that tusks are found only in adults , rather than being a secondary sexual characteristic of males . These tusks could have been used for combat or display with members of the same species or with other species . The absence of tusks in juvenile Abrictosaurus could also be another characteristic separating it from other heterodontosaurids as well , as tusks are known in juvenile Heterodontosaurus . Other proposed functions for the tusks include defense and use in an occasionally omnivorous diet .
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= 75 ( album ) =
75 is a live album by Austrian @-@ American jazz musician Joe Zawinul and his band the Zawinul Syndicate . It was recorded in 2007 at two performances in Switzerland and Hungary , among bandleader Joe Zawinul 's final performances . The album was produced by Joachim Becker and originally released in 2008 by JVC Compact Discs , with the Zawinul Estate and Becker serving as executive producers . It was later released by BHM Productions and Heads Up International , the BHM release with the alternate title 75th . It peaked at number eighteen on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart and won the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Jazz Album . The album received a generally positive critical reception .
= = Overview = =
With the exception of one track , 75 was recorded during the Zawinul Syndicate 's 7 July 2007 appearance at a festival in Lugano , Switzerland , which happened to be bandleader Joe Zawinul 's seventy @-@ fifth birthday . The concert was a part of the Zawinul Syndicate 's twentieth anniversary world tour . The remaining track , " In a Silent Way " , was recorded from their 2 August 2007 show in Veszprém , Hungary . Zawinul was joined on stage by Wayne Shorter on soprano saxophone for this track . This marked a reunion for Zawinul and Shorter , two original members of Weather Report , both of whom played on the original version of this song from Miles Davis 's 1969 album of the same name . Shortly after these performances , on 11 September 2007 , Zawinul died of Merkel cell carcinoma . The Veszprém concert was Zawinul 's penultimate performance .
= = Composition = =
75 opens with " Orient Express " from Zawinul 's 1992 solo album My People . Zawinul plays the vocoder on this track . The second track , " Madagascar " , also features Zawinul on vocoder and is one of two tracks that originally appeared on Weather Report 's album Night Passage . Another Weather Report piece , " Scarlet Woman " , follows and features a bass solo by Linley Marthe . " Zansa II " is a duet with Paco Sery on kalimba and Zawinul on synthesizer and vocoder . The first disc concludes with " Cafe Andalusia " . Sabine Kabongo provides scat vocals on this track .
A combination of two Weather Report pieces " Fast City " and " Two Lines " opens disc two and features more scat singing by Kabongo . Next , " Clario " features vocals by Alegre Corrêa . Another melding of Weather Report tunes , " Badia " and " Boogie Woogie Waltz " , follows and features Corrêa on Berimbau and Kabongo on vocals . The next track is a recording of Kabungo leading the audience in a chorus of " Happy Birthday " directed at Zawinul . " In a Silent Way " , a duet between Shorter and Zawinul originally from Miles Davis 's album of the same name , follows . The album closed with " Hymn " , which seemed to one reviewer " as though [ Zawinul ] knew the end was near " .
= = Critical reception = =
75 received a generally positive critical reception . Michael G. Nastos of Allmusic wrote that the album exemplified Zawinul 's " personalized direction " before he died and that it " exudes all of the energy the group produced in concert " . JazzTimes 's Bill Milkowski described Zawinul 's keyboard playing as creating " dazzling , free @-@ flowing lines with the right hand while deftly orchestrating dense chords and Ellingtonian shout choruses with the left hand " . All About Jazz 's Woodrow Wilkins called the album a " musical adventure " and Zawinul 's performance " a testament to his talent and dedication in sharing his gift " . John Kelman , managing editor for All About Jazz , wrote that based on his performance Zawinul gave " no indicators that he was ill , let alone approaching death " . He closed his review by calling 75 a " fitting finale to the career of an artist whose creativity , forward thinking and extensive discography mean that he may be gone , but he 'll never be forgotten . " In the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , Bob Karlovitis called the release " a great statement about [ Zawinul 's ] creativity " . He described the album 's opening piece , " Orient Express " as " almost tiring in its energy " .
The BBC 's Jon Lusk did not share the high opinions of other critics . He was " not mad about " vocalists Aziz Sahmaoui and Sabine Kabongo but found Alegre Corrêa " agreeable enough " . He liked " In a Silent Way " , calling it " beautifully serene " but wished there were other performances with similar " reflective moments " . The review in The Times by John Bungey was more positive . He noted that it was not a " generally sad affair , hard @-@ to @-@ take document " as are most final recordings of great artists , but instead " a compelling last testament of a mighty group and a fine human being " . Nick Coleman 's review in The Independent was mixed ; he wrote that the " tempos border on the frantic , phrases are spat , the will to trade licks is never less than testosteronal " but quipped that for " every sublime passage there 's a butch one " . John Fordham of The Guardian contrasted the release to Zawinul 's 2005 live album Vienna Nights . One difference he emphasized was " the typhoon drumming of Paco Sery and a battalion of percussionists [ that ] gives Zawinul the option of letting long stretches of the music simply groove " . He also noted that there was no comparable track with the duet with Shorter on Vienna Nights .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Performance
Joe Zawinul – keyboards , vocoder
Jorge Bezerra – percussion , vocals
Alegre Corrêa – berimbau , guitar , vocals
Sabine Kabongo – percussion , vocals
Linley Marthe – bass
Abdelaziz Sahmaoui – percussion , vocals
Paco Sery – drums , kalimba , vocals
Wayne Shorter – soprano sax on " In a Silent Way "
Production
Joachim Becker – executive producer , mixing , producer
Klaus Genuit – mixing
Holger Keifel – portraits
Knut Schotteldreier – cover design
Matjaz Vrecko – photos
Credits adapted from Allmusic and album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
75 reached a peak position of number eighteen on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Awards = =
The album won the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Jazz Album . The other nominees for the award were Urbanus by Stefon Harris , Sounding Point by Julian Lage , At World 's Edge by Philippe Saisse , and Big Neighborhood by Mike Stern .
= = Release history = =
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= Tropical Storm Faxai ( 2007 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Faxai , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Juaning , was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that had minor effects on land . The twentieth named storm of the 2007 Pacific typhoon season , Faxai originated from a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean in late October . The storm quickly strengthened , becoming a severe tropical storm on October 26 as it rapidly traveled towards the northeast . The storm became extratropical the following day as it brushed Japan . The remnants dissipated on October 28 .
Although Faxai never made landfall , outer bands associated with the storm produced torrential rains , amounting to 458 mm ( 18 in ) on Miyakejima . A Japan Airlines flight to Narita Airport encountered severe turbulence during the afternoon of October 27 . One person sustained serious injures , and five others received minor injuries ; the plane was damaged during the event . One person was killed near Tokyo as the storm passed by , and three others were injured . Damages from the storm amounted to ¥ 150 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Faxai began as an area of convection that persisted about 805 kilometers ( 500 mi ) west of Guam on October 24 . Satellite imagery indicated broad cyclonic turning in the lower levels of the atmosphere , and a trough was located near the surface . Convection consolidated around the center of the low @-@ level circulation , and the upper @-@ level environment — low wind shear and good divergence — favored development . The following day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression . Shortly after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as convection deepened around a partially exposed low . The storm traveled northwest under the influences of a subtropical ridge to the north . At 0000 UTC on October 26 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) designated the system as a tropical depression and gave it the local name Juaning . Around the same time , the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Faxai .
The JTWC issued advisories on Faxai , designating it as 20W ; however , they classified it as a tropical depression . Several hours later , the storm began to undergo an extratropical transition , with convection persisting mainly in the northwestern portion of the storm and cold , dry air entering into the southwestern portion . At 1200 UTC , PAGASA issued their final advisory on Tropical Storm Juaning as it moved out of their area of responsibility . The JTWC reported that Tropical Depression 20W ( Faxai ) had become extratropical around this time as it merged with a baroclinic zone . A cold front developed along the southern portion of Faxai , a feature of extratropical cyclones . Around that time , the JMA upgraded Faxai to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .
The JTWC subsequently upgraded the depression to a tropical storm based on the development of a well @-@ defined central dense overcast . A shortwave trough located over the Korean peninsula provided a favorable upper @-@ level environment for Faxai to intensify . Early the next day , Faxai began accelerating rapidly towards the northeast in the mid @-@ latitude westerlies . An anticyclone located over Japan created a strong pressure gradient between it and the tropical storm , causing the wind field of Faxai to expand significantly to the northeast . As the JTWC issued their final advisory , they assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity , with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph one @-@ minute sustained ) . The JMA also assessed Faxai to have reached its peak intensity at that time , with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a minimum pressure of 975 hPa ( mbar ) ; however , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) reported that Faxai had attained hurricane @-@ force winds by this time , peaking at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The storm continued towards the northeast at a rapid pace and became extratropical off the eastern coast of Honshu around 1200 UTC on October 27 . The extratropical remnants persisted for more than a day before dissipating over open waters late on October 28 . NOAA , on the other hand , continued to monitor the remnants of Faxai , with the system reaching the Aleutian Islands on October 29 . The following day , the storm rapidly intensified , with the central pressure dropping to 957 hPa ( mbar ) by 1800 UTC . On October 31 , the system tracked into Alaska and weakened .
The Japan Meteorological Agency uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . JMA 's peak intensity for Faxai was 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Faxai was 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Faxai approached Japan , All Nippon Airways canceled day flights between Tokyo and the Izu Islands . Tokai Kisen , which operates ferries between Tokyo , the Izu Islands , and Shizuoka Prefecture , canceled some services due to the storm . Areas around Tokyo were notified of the expected heavy rains , waves up to 6 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) , and high winds . Residents were advised to stay indoors during the storm , especially after sunset , and to avoid possible flying debris .
Although Faxai did not make landfall , the outer bands produced heavy rains , which caused minor damage along the eastern coast of Japan . The highest total rainfall was recorded on Miyakejima at 458 mm ( 18 in ) and in the Ōshima Subprefecture of Tokyo , 192 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) was recorded . The rainfall in Miyakejima nearly surpassed the record daily rainfall for October 27 . Rainfall rates peaked at 95 mm / h ( 3 @.@ 7 in / h ) on Miyaketsubota , which triggered seven mudslides throughout the country . One woman was killed near Tokyo , and three people were injured . One home , two hectares of farmland , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of roads , and one ship were damaged by the storm . At the height of the storm , 9 @,@ 605 residences were without power throughout Japan . Damages from cyclone totaled ¥ 150 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
At 5 : 31 pm Japan Standard Time ( 0831 UTC ) on October 27 , a Japan Airlines Boeing 767 @-@ 300 heading to Narita International Airport , encountered severe turbulence from Faxai about 74 km ( 46 mi ) southeast of Narita . The turbulence caused seven injuries on the flight , as well as some damage to the plane .
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= Voices of the Lifestream =
Voices of the Lifestream is an unofficial tribute album released by OverClocked ReMix in honor of Nobuo Uematsu 's score for the popular video game , Final Fantasy VII . The album was released on September 14 , 2007 , to coincide with the 10th anniversary of Final Fantasy VII . Since its release , the collection has received praise from numerous video game sites and professional composers .
= = Development = =
Production of Voices of the Lifestream began in January 2006 as a personal endeavor by OverClocked ReMix Judge and ReMixer Andrew " zircon " Aversa to recreate the soundtrack of Final Fantasy VII . In a director ’ s note , Aversa credits his nostalgic experiences with the game as his motivation towards the project . A private forum was created to house development on the project and many community members were contacted to aid in developing a track list . Development of the project lasted over 20 months encompassing over 40 remixers credited with creating 45 tracks . The compilation was released on September 14 , 2007 , in correlation with Final Fantasy VII 's 10th anniversary . Few physical copies of the compilation were made . The tracks were instead made available through digital distribution in lossless WAV and MP3 formats . Voices of the Lifestream is OC ReMix 's ninth project to be released .
= = Music video competition = =
On October 4 , 2007 , OverClocked ReMix announced a competition , in conjunction with Piano Squall and eStarland , regarding the creation of a music video set to a track from Voices of the Lifestream . There were three different categories to enter including Final Fantasy VII , anime , and original . The winners were awarded a signed limited edition of Voices of the Lifestream among other prizes , as well as having their video presented at anime and gaming conventions that OC ReMix attends . The contest ended on December 14 , 2007 . The winners were announced on the OverClocked ReMix forums two months later :
Final Fantasy VII Category
Winner : " Compiled Memories " by sayde ( David Lee )
Runner @-@ up : " Black @-@ Winged Angel " by slkdragon ( Chris Cook )
Honorable Mention : " Wheels of Lifestream " by Big Paul ( Paulo Augusto )
Anime Category
Winner : " Final Moments of Clarity " by Mindeffects ( Saša Tarbuk )
Runner @-@ up : " Sweetest Embrace " by Phantasmagoriat ( Chris Studer )
Original Category
Winner : " Stone Eyes " by Zethzen ( Ian Cofino )
Runner @-@ up : " Lunatic Hero " by backseatstuff ( Matt Furbush )
= = Reception = =
Public reception has been generally positive , with Voices of the Lifestream being the most downloaded project created by OverClocked ReMix to date according to a BitTorrent tracker on OC ReMix ’ s website .
Editors of video game music websites , and video game websites in general , have been typically positive in their reviews . Kotaku has referred to the project as being “ a massive labor of love … truly amazing . ” Game Tabs has called the compilation a “ masterpiece , ” expressing surprise at the quality of the compilation , but criticizing the vocals in some of the tracks . SquareSound gave the project a 90 % , praising the musicianship exhibited by the OC ReMix community and recommending immediate download . SquareSound also criticized some of the tracks , feeling that they got “ lost ” attempting to reinterpret the source material . In an advance review , Jayson Napolitano of Music4Games called Voices of the Lifestream “ one of the most impressive and encompassing listening experiences in the world of video game music . ”
News of the album is not limited to the U.S. Finnish video game magazine Pelit gave the album a score of 5 out of 5 stars , lauding its diverse content but also pointing out a few unnecessary tracks which should have been excluded from the album while it was still in development . Voices of the Lifestream was nonetheless described as “ the most interesting event on the Internet music scene in a long time . ”
Two professional video game composers have also given their approval of the compilation . Tommy Tallarico , video game composer and co @-@ creator of Video Games Live , praised the album , stating “ OC ReMix has done it again ! I 'm always impressed with the amazing talent that comes from the OCR community . ” Michael Gluck , better known as Piano Squall , has also voiced approval of the compilation , stating “ … this is without a doubt the most fantastic project to ever hit the videogame music scene . "
= = Track listing = =
The project is spread out over four discs although few physical copies of the album are available . Most of the content was distributed via download links and torrents . The names of the discs coincide with the titles of releases made for the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII : Crisis Core ; Dirge of Cerberus ; Advent Children ; and Last Order .
All music composed by Nobuo Uematsu .
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= Bobby Eaton =
Robert Lee " Bobby " Eaton ( born August 14 , 1958 ) is an American retired professional wrestler , who made his debut in 1976 . Eaton is most famous for his work in tag teams , especially his days as one @-@ half of the team the Midnight Express . Under the management of Jim Cornette , Eaton originally teamed with Dennis Condrey and , later on , with Stan Lane . He has also worked with a number of other tag team partners , including Koko B. Ware , Steve Keirn , and " Lord " Steven Regal .
In his career , Eaton wrestled for extended periods of time for various wrestling promotions : Mid @-@ America Wrestling , Continental Wrestling Association , Mid @-@ South Wrestling , World Class Championship Wrestling , Jim Crockett Promotions , World Championship Wrestling , and Smoky Mountain Wrestling . He has also made brief guest appearances for Extreme Championship Wrestling and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , in addition to appearances for a considerable number of independent wrestling promotions over the years . He retired in 2015 after nearly 40 years in the ring .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
Growing up in Huntsville , Alabama , Eaton was a fan of professional wrestling , especially the NWA Mid @-@ America professional wrestling promotion . This promotion was operated by Nick Gulas , who staged wrestling shows in the Alabama and Tennessee region . Eaton 's first involvement in the sport came at the age of 13 , while attending Chapman Middle School , when he helped set up wrestling rings in his hometown . He later trained under Tojo Yamamoto to become a professional wrestler .
= = = Early career = = =
In May 1976 , at the age of 17 , Eaton made his debut in NWA Mid @-@ America . He entered his first match , a loss to Bearcat Wright , as a last @-@ minute substitute for Wright 's absent opponent . He quickly became a regular in Mid @-@ America and continued to train with the more experienced wrestlers . Before long , fans , as well as promoter Nick Gulas , noticed Eaton 's athleticism and showmanship . Gulas decided to " promote " Eaton up the ranks of NWA Mid @-@ America , giving him matches later in the show , closer to the main event . The angle that really helped elevate Eaton 's name up the card in the promotion took place after the introduction of the tag team The Hollywood Blonds ( Jerry Brown and Buddy Roberts ) . Eaton fought the Blonds with a variety of partners , including his old trainer Yamamoto and " Pistol " Pez Whatley . When the Blonds decided to move to a different wrestling promotion , the storyline maintained that Eaton was responsible for driving them out of NWA Mid @-@ America .
In 1978 , Eaton teamed with Leapin ' Lanny Poffo ( brother of the more well @-@ known " Macho Man " Randy Savage ) , and together they won the NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship from Gypsy Joe and Leroy Rochester . It was Eaton 's first title win , and he and Poffo held it for a little over a month . Eaton went on to form a team , known as The Jet Set , with George Gulas , Nick Gulas 's son . Together , Eaton and Gulas held the tag team title three times . During their time as a team , the two were involved in a storyline feud with Terry Gordy and Michael Hayes before Gordy and Hayes became famous under the name The Fabulous Freebirds .
= = = Singles competition = = =
In the spring of 1979 , Eaton started a feud with Chris Colt , designed to establish Eaton as more than just a good tag team competitor . The feud between the two was so heated that it saw Colt suspended for piledriving Eaton on the concrete floor , making it appear Eaton had been seriously injured . Eaton suffered no injuries , however . At that time , the piledriver was banned in most federations and treated as a move that could potentially paralyze a wrestler . This was done to give the move more " shock value " . Eaton conclusively defeated Colt , earning a place as one of the top faces ( good guys ) in NWA Mid @-@ America . During 1979 and 1980 , Eaton worked a series of singles matches against Dennis Condrey , a man he would later team up with to gain worldwide fame .
At the end of 1979 , Eaton turned heel ( bad guy ) for the first time in his career by joining Tojo Yamamoto 's group of wrestlers , whom the fans hated . Although Eaton is now thought of mainly as a heel , his fans were surprised at the time . Eaton 's heel run did not last long before he rescued his former Jet Set partner , George Gulas , from a two @-@ on @-@ one attack by The Blond Bombers ( Larry Latham and Wayne Ferris ) to return to the fan @-@ favorite side once more . After reuniting the team , Eaton and Gulas had one final run with tag team champions and worked an intense feud with Latham and Ferris .
When Nick Gulas ' wrestling promotion closed due to dwindling ticket sales , Eaton briefly wrestled for a promotion in Georgia . Before long Eaton returned closer to home , working for promoter Jerry Jarrett 's Continental Wrestling Association ( CWA ) , which was centered in Memphis , Tennessee . During his early days in the promotion , Eaton faced Stan Lane several times in tag team competition . Eaton 's most successful partnership in the CWA , in terms of title wins , was with Sweet Brown Sugar ( later known as Koko B. Ware ) , nicknamed " the New Wave " . The two wrestlers blended their athleticism and high flying abilities to form a very successful team . The New Wave held the AWA Southern Tag Team Championship three times ( twice with manager Jimmy Hart in their corner ) . After achieving success as a tag team , it was decided that Eaton and Sugar should split up and feud with each other . This storyline resulted in Eaton " forcing " Sugar out of the promotion after he won a " Losers Leaves Town " match against Sugar .
Sugar 's disappearance was soon followed by the appearance of a masked man called Stagger Lee , who looked and wrestled like Sugar . The storyline of Sugar returning under the mask to fight the heels helped make the masked man instantly popular with the crowd . Eaton , along with the rest of Jimmy Hart 's stable " the First Family " , tried in vain to unmask Stagger Lee .
Eaton turned face and re @-@ teamed with Sugar , although they maintained the storyline that Eaton 's partner was actually " Stagger Lee " and not Sugar . The team regained the tag team title before losing it to The Fabulous Ones ( Stan Lane and Steve Keirn ) . Afterward , Eaton teamed up with The Moondogs ( Rex and Spot ) to face Jerry Lawler and the Fabulous Ones . During the match , one of the Moondogs accidentally hit Eaton with their trademark bone , costing their side the match . After the match ended , the Moondogs , as well as Jimmy Hart , turned on Eaton , beating him down until he was saved by Stagger Lee .
= = = The Midnight Express = = =
Soon after Eaton joined Mid @-@ South Wrestling under promoter Bill Watts , he became part of the Midnight Express . Eaton teamed with former rival Dennis Condrey under the management of Jim Cornette to form a new version of the tag team . The Express had previously been a group of wrestlers consisting of Condrey , Randy Rose and Norvell Austin , but with Eaton 's arrival , the Midnight Express worked exclusively as a two @-@ man team . To complement the nickname " Lover Boy " Dennis , Eaton was nicknamed " Beautiful " Bobby , a nickname he still uses when wrestling . At first , The Express was booked in an angle with the Mid @-@ South Tag Team Champions Magnum T.A. and Mr. Wrestling II . The highlight of the angle saw Eaton and Condrey tarring and feathering Magnum T.A. in the middle of the ring . The Express first won the tag team title when Mr. Wrestling II turned on Magnum T.A. , attacking him during the title match and allowing Eaton and Condrey to win the title without much opposition .
With Mr. Wrestling II and Magnum T.A. splitting up , the Midnight Express needed a new team to defend their newly won title against . They began a long series of matches against The Rock ' n ' Roll Express ( Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson ) which ran well into the 1990s and spanned several wrestling promotions . The two teams feuded throughout 1984 in Mid @-@ South Wrestling before the Midnight Express left the promotion . The Midnight Express versus Rock ' n ' Roll Express series of matches were so well received by the fans that independent promoters all over the United States still book those two teams against each other today , 20 years after the rivalry started .
The Midnight Express had a short stay in World Class Championship Wrestling in Texas , where they feuded mainly with The Fantastics ( Bobby Fulton and Tommy Rogers ) .
= = = National spotlight = = =
In 1985 Eaton , Condrey and Cornette signed with Jim Crockett Promotions ( JCP ) and were given national exposure on JCP 's televised programs on SuperStation TBS . Shortly after joining JCP , the Midnight Express reignited their feud with the Rock ' n ' Roll Express and won the NWA World Tag team title from them in February 1986 . During the course of their heated angle , Eaton and Condrey re @-@ lost the title to the Rock ' n ' Roll Express six months later . Eaton and Condrey also had long running feuds with The New Breed ( Chris Champion and Sean Royal ) as well as The Road Warriors ( Animal and Hawk ) . The feud with the Road Warriors included a high profile Scaffold match at Starrcade 1986 , which the Midnight Express lost .
In early 1987 , Condrey left JCP for undisclosed reasons , and " Sweet " Stan Lane took his place as part of the Midnight Express . In May 1987 , after teaming for only a few months , Eaton and Lane became champions when they won the NWA United States Tag team title for the first time , a title they would win three times during their time together . A year later the team was cheered on despite being heels , as the Midnight Express won the NWA World Tag Team Title from Arn Anderson and Tully Blanchard on September 10 , 1988 . This feud was cut short when Anderson & Blanchard signed with the WWF over money issues . The Midnight Express ' run with the title lasted a little over a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before the Road Warriors took the gold from them in a brutal match up , which saw the heel Road Warriors brutalize the now @-@ popular Midnight Express .
Now the fan favorites , the Midnight Express had to contend with a team thought to be disbanded forever : the Original Midnight Express , which consisted of Condrey and Randy Rose , who joined JCP after a brief run in the AWA . The duo was led by long @-@ time Jim Cornette nemesis Paul E. Dangerously , in a storyline that saw them trying to prove the originals were better than the new version . The surprise appearance of the Original Midnight Express gave Dangerously 's team the initial momentum in the feud , but soon after , Condrey left the promotion once more . This forced the bookers to bring in Jack Victory as a replacement as Condrey 's disappearance cut the promising feud short .
The Midnight Express then turned their attention to Paul E. ' s new team , The Samoan S.W.A.T. Team as well as a new version of The Fabulous Freebirds . Eaton and Lane were defeated by the Freebirds in the finals of a tournament for the vacated World Tag Team Titles . Following this loss , the Midnight Express teamed with their former enemies The Road Warriors and " Dr. Death " Steve Williams to defeat the SST and the Freebirds in a WarGames match at The Great American Bash . Following this feud , Lane and Eaton began having issues with a young new team in the NWA known as " the Dynamic Dudes " ( Shane Douglas and Johnny Ace ) . The Dudes admitted that the Midnight Express was one of their favorite teams and asked if Cornette would be their manager as well . Cornette agreed to manage the young team , to the displeasure of the Midnight Express . After arguing with the Express , Jim Cornette stopped accompanying Eaton and Lane to the ring , choosing to only actively manage the Dudes . At the Clash of Champions IX , the two teams met with Jim Cornette appearing in a neutral corner , forced to choose between the teams . The Express started out very aggressively , especially for a team that was supposed to be fan favorites , and when the night was over , the Midnight Express had once again established themselves as heels with Jim Cornette in their corner ; Cornette had never stopped siding with the Express .
After returning to their cheating ways , the Midnight Express started a storyline with the up @-@ and @-@ coming team of Flyin ' Brian and " Z @-@ Man " Tom Zenk over the United States Tag team title . The Express won the title from the young team in early 1990 , but lost the belts to The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) three months later . After a loss at the WCW pay @-@ per @-@ view Halloween Havoc 1990 , the Midnight Express split up , as Jim Cornette and Stan Lane left the federation , while Eaton chose to remain in WCW . For the first time in almost a decade , there was no Midnight Express .
= = = Dangerous Alliance = = =
For the first time since 1979 , Eaton was a singles competitor , and he faced an uphill struggle to establish himself . He wrestled his former opponents in tag team competition such as Brad Armstrong ( whom he defeated at Wrestle War ' 91 ) , Ricky Morton and " Z @-@ Man " Tom Zenk ( whom he defeated at Starrcade ' 90 , but lost to at the Clash of the Champions XIV ) , but it was not until he turned face during the early parts of 1991 that he started to move up the rankings . At SuperBrawl I , Eaton defeated Arn Anderson to win the WCW World Television Championship . Eaton 's highest profile match as a singles wrestler came when he faced off against WCW World Champion " Nature Boy " Ric Flair at Clash of the Champions XV in a two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls match . Eaton pinned Flair in the first fall , but ultimately lost to Flair two falls to one . His TV Title reign was short @-@ lived , as he came face to face with newcomer " Stunning " Steve Austin , who cheated his way to win the title from Eaton . After dropping out of the Television Title picture , Eaton went on to feud with The York Foundation until Paul E. Dangerously reappeared in WCW .
Late in 1991 , Paul E. Dangerously formed the faction The Dangerous Alliance . Eaton joined the group when he assisted Rick Rude , whom Dangerously had ( kayfabe ) brought into WCW , in defeating Sting for the United States Championship . In joining the group , Eaton became allies with Rude , Larry Zbyszko , and his two former rivals for the World Television Championship in Arn Anderson and Steve Austin . Shortly after the group was formed , Anderson and Eaton became its tag team specialists . This seemed to make sense , as both men had been successful tag team wrestlers in their careers ; Anderson himself had been a two @-@ time world champion teaming with Tully Blanchard in the Four Horsemen and had also won the belts with Zbyszko earlier in the year . Eaton and Anderson quickly won the WCW World Tag Team Championship by defeating Ricky Steamboat and Dustin Rhodes , the team to whom Anderson and Zbyszko lost the belts , for the championship and held on to the belts for five months before they lost them to the Steiner Brothers .
The Dangerous Alliance was a dominant force in WCW . At one point during 1992 , they held every title except the WCW World Title , which was held by their main opponent and arch enemy Sting . The war between the Dangerous Alliance and Sting and friends escalated until it was decided to settle it in a double ring War Games Match at WrestleWar 1992 . Sting 's team won when Sting forced Eaton to give up after Larry Zbyszko accidentally struck Eaton in the arm with a metal rod . This match would be given a 5 @-@ star rating from Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter .
In the aftermath of the War Games match , Zbyszko was kicked out of the Alliance for causing the Alliance loss . Soon after the Alliance disintegrated , Paul E. Dangerously left WCW . Eaton and Anderson continued to team after the Alliance fell apart , now managed by Michael Hayes . Eaton and Anderson worked in the tag team division until new WCW booker Bill Watts fired Eaton along with a number of other WCW regulars in a cost @-@ cutting measure .
= = = Departure and return = = =
When Eaton found himself without a job , he reached out to former manager Jim Cornette . Cornette had started his own wrestling federation , Smoky Mountain Wrestling ( SMW ) and welcomed Eaton with open arms . Eaton joined up with " The Heavenly Bodies " ( Stan Lane and Tom Prichard ) , and the three were booked as the top heels of the federation for a while . Eaton also won the federation 's version of the TV title , known as the SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship .
When Bill Watts was ousted from his position in WCW in favor of Eric Bischoff , Eaton was rehired . Once back on the roster , Eaton teamed up with a young Chris Benoit in Benoit 's first stint with WCW . Together they were mainly used to help establish rising teams or give established teams opposition . Benoit and Eaton , while gelling in the ring , never showed any signs of being presented as a permanent team ; they did not have matching ring outfits or a team name .
After Benoit left to return to Japan , in Eaton 's next venture in tag teaming , under the name " Bad Attitude " , he teamed up with Steve Keirn , formerly of the Fabulous Ones . Bad Attitude 's single noteworthy moment together came when they were present as Arn Anderson turned on tag team partner Dustin Rhodes . Otherwise , the team did not get much exposure .
During this time , Eaton also made a couple of appearances in ECW due to a talent trade arrangement between WCW and ECW . His most well known appearance was at the " When Worlds Collide " show on May 14 , 1994 , where he teamed with Sabu to beat Arn Anderson and Terry Funk .
= = = The Blue Bloods = = =
After Bad Attitude quietly ended , Eaton was placed with British snob " Lord " Steven Regal . A series of vignettes followed , in which Regal educated Eaton on how to be a man of class and sophistication . Eaton was then shown being knighted as " Earl Robert Eaton " by the ( supposed ) Queen of England on WCW Main Event , April 2 , 1995 . The team made their ring debut , dubbed The Blue Bloods , on WCW Saturday Night , April 8 , 1995 . The duo was later joined by " Squire " David Taylor , with all three alternating in the ring under the name of the Blue Bloods . Originally , The Blue Bloods was supposed to be a tag team consisting of Regal and Jean @-@ Paul Levesque , with Sherri Martel as their valet , but Martel had since been placed as the manager of Harlem Heat while Levesque had left for the WWF , where he would first gain fame as Hunter Hearst Helmsley .
The Blue Bloods initially feuded with the Nasty Boys ( Brian Knobs and Jerry Sags ) , their complete opposites in terms of " sophistication " and presentation . They also feuded with Harlem Heat ( Booker T and Stevie Ray ) over the WCW World Tag Team Championship , but never took the belts , and engaged in a short " Snobs versus Rednecks " program with the Stud Stable ( Bunkhouse Buck and Dick Slater ) . In all of 1996 the team members made only one pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) appearance , as individuals in the " Lethal Lottery " during May 's Slamboree . The next year , Regal became WCW World Television Champion , but the team only appeared on PPV once together , when Regal and Taylor lost to the Steiner Brothers at World War 3 in November . Not long after , Eaton was moved out of the group , turning on and feuding with his partners after finally rejecting the snob nature of the gimmick .
The Blue Bloods storyline represented the last serious push that Eaton was given by the WCW booking team . After the run with Regal and Taylor ended , Eaton wrestled mainly on WCW 's weekend show , WCW Saturday Night , occasionally winning against wrestlers low in the rankings and losing to wrestlers above him . He also became a trainer at the WCW Power Plant and worked backstage for WCW as a road agent until he was released in early 2000 , before the Eric Bischoff / Vince Russo reboot . In July 2000 , Eaton made a surprise appearance in ECW , some time before Heat Wave .
= = = Independent circuit = = =
In 2003 , Eaton worked for NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic , forming a new version of the Midnight Express with Ricky Nelson . This Midnight Express version was very short lived , and Eaton instead began touring with Dennis Condrey ( and sometimes Stan Lane ) as the Midnight Express . This version of the Midnight Express still performs together on select independent wrestling cards in the United States .
Eaton made a one night only appearance for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling on August 13 , 2003 , as a part of a Kid Kash storyline where Kash faced off against a series of 1980s wrestling stars such as Larry Zbyszko and Ricky Morton . Eaton lost to Kid Kash in his only TNA appearance to date . On October 23 , 2015 , Eaton wrestled his last match of his nearly 40 @-@ year career , losing to Ricky Morton , also ending the 30 @-@ plus year feud between The Rock ' n ' Roll Express and The Midnight Express .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Reputation = = =
Eaton is often regarded as one of the nicest guys in the wrestling business , even though he wrestled as a heel for a majority of his career . In his 1999 book Have a Nice Day , Mick Foley praised Eaton as being one of the most underrated superstars in the business , and its nicest , commenting that " it was damn near impossible to pay for anything with Bobby around , though I will confess to not trying that hard " . This opinion was supported in The Stone Cold Truth by Steve Austin .
In addition to his personality , he is also popular with other wrestlers due to his wrestling style . Wrestling Eaton is known as " a night off " , because Eaton is so skilled that the action looks very convincing but does not hurt the opponent .
= = = Family = = =
Eaton is married to Bill Dundee 's daughter , Donna . When they first started dating , they had to keep the relationship secret from her father , as her father had forbidden her from dating the wrestlers he was booking . When Dundee found out she was dating Eaton , he relented because Eaton was such a nice guy . Eaton and Donna have three children : Dustin , Dylan , and Taryn . Dylan is a professional wrestler .
= = = Health = = =
On September 6 , 2006 Dave Meltzer reported that Eaton was hospitalized after suffering a heart attack . Two days later , after being released from the hospital , Eaton released a statement through the Wrestling Observer website saying that he did not have a heart attack but was diagnosed with high blood pressure with a hint of diabetes . Since then , he has suffered with several health issues , especially cardiac problems which have seen him hospitalized on several occasions . In June 2013 , Eaton underwent successful surgery to have a pacemaker inserted .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Alabama Jam / Tower of London ( Diving leg drop )
Signature moves
Diving knee drop
Figure four leglock
Missile dropkick
Slingshot backbreaker
Swinging neckbreaker
Vertical suplex
Managers
Jim Cornette
Paul E. Dangerously
Jimmy Hart
Jeeves
Nicknames
" Beautiful "
" Earl "
" The Sultan of Swing "
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA Georgia Television Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling Cartel
IWC Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Jim Crockett Promotions / World Championship Wrestling
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Stan Lane
NWA ( Mid @-@ Atlantic version ) / WCW World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Dennis Condrey ( 1 ) , Stan Lane ( 1 ) and Arn Anderson ( 1 )
WCW World Television Championship ( 1 time )
Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship WrestlingNWA Mid @-@ Atlantic Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Rikki Nelson
NWA Mid @-@ America / Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Sweet Brown Sugar ( 2 ) and Duke Myers ( 2 )
CWA World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Mid @-@ America Heavyweight Championship ( 11 times )
NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Lanny Poffo ( 1 ) , George Gulas ( 3 ) , Mexican Angel ( 1 ) and Great Togo ( 1 )
NWA Mid @-@ America Television Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Six @-@ Man Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with George Gulas and Jerry Barber ( 1 ) , George Gulas and Arvil Hutto ( 1 ) , George Gulos and The Mexican Angel ( 1 ) , and Secret Weapon and Tojo Yamamoto ( 1 )
Mid @-@ South Wrestling Association
Mid @-@ South Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Dennis Condrey
NWA Bluegrass
NWA Bluegrass Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
NWA Rocky Top
NWA Rocky Top Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 27 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1992
PWI ranked him # 91 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 1987 ) with Stan Lane
Smoky Mountain Wrestling
SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship ( 1 time )
World Class Championship Wrestling
NWA American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Hall of Fame ( Class of 2009 ) with Dennis Condrey and Stan Lane as the Midnight Express
Most Underrated Wrestler ( 1985 , 1986 , 1990 , 1993 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 1986 ) with Dennis Condrey
Tag Team of the Year ( 1987 , 1988 ) with Stan Lane
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 1991 ) with P.N. News vs. Terrance Taylor and Steve Austin in a Scaffold match at The Great American Bash
5 Star Match ( 1992 ) War Games
|
= Dr. No ( film ) =
Dr. No is a 1962 British spy film , starring Sean Connery , with Ursula Andress and Joseph Wiseman , filmed in Jamaica and England : it is the first James Bond film . Based on the 1958 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming , it was adapted by Richard Maibaum , Johanna Harwood , and Berkely Mather and was directed by Terence Young . The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli , a partnership that would continue until 1975 .
In the film , James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent . The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. No , who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch with a radio beam weapon . Although the first of the Bond books to be made into a film , Dr. No was not the first of Fleming 's novels , Casino Royale being the debut for the character ; the film makes a few references to threads from earlier books . This film also introduced the criminal organisation SPECTRE , which would also appear in six subsequent films .
Dr. No was produced on a low budget and was a financial success . While critical reaction was mixed upon release , over time the film has gained a reputation as one of the series ' best instalments . The film was the first of a successful series of 24 Bond films . Dr. No also launched a genre of " secret agent " films that flourished in the 1960s . The film also spawned a spin @-@ off comic book and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing .
Many of the iconic aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No : the film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence , both created by Maurice Binder . Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series .
= = Plot = =
Strangways , the British Intelligence ( SIS ) Station Chief in Jamaica , is ambushed and killed , and his body is taken by a trio of assassins known as the " Three Blind Mice " . In response , MI6 agent James Bond is summoned to the office of his superior , M. Bond is briefed to investigate Strangways ' disappearance and to determine whether it is related to his co @-@ operation with the American Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) on a case involving the disruption of rocket launches from Cape Canaveral by radio jamming .
Upon his arrival at Kingston Airport , a female photographer tries to take Bond 's picture and he is shadowed from the airport by two men . He is picked up by a chauffeur , whom Bond determines to be an enemy agent . Bond instructs him to leave the main road and , after a brief fight , Bond starts to interrogate the driver , who then kills himself with a cyanide @-@ laced cigarette .
During his investigation in Strangways ' house , Bond sees a photograph of a boatman with Strangways . Bond locates the boatman , named Quarrel , but finds him to be uncooperative . Bond also recognises Quarrel to have been the driver of the car that followed him from the airport . Bond follows Quarrel and manages to overpower both him and a friend when the fight is interrupted by the second man who followed Bond from the airport : he reveals himself to be CIA agent Felix Leiter and explains that not only are the two agents on the same mission but also that Quarrel is helping Leiter . The CIA has traced the mysterious radio jamming of American rockets to the vicinity of Jamaica , but aerial photography cannot determine the exact location of its origin . Quarrel reveals that he has been guiding Strangways around the nearby islands to collect mineral samples . He also talks about the reclusive Dr. No , who owns the island of Crab Key , on which there is a bauxite mine : the island and mine are rigorously protected against trespassers by an armed security force and radar .
During a search of Strangways ' house , Bond finds a receipt , signed by Professor R.J. Dent , concerning rock samples . Bond meets with Dent who says he assayed the samples for Strangways and determined them to be ordinary rocks . This visit makes Dent wary and he takes a boat to Crab Key where Dr. No expresses displeasure at Dent 's visiting Crab Key in daylight and his failure to kill Bond , ordering him to try again , this time with a tarantula . Bond survives and after a final attempt on his life , sets a trap for Dent , whom he captures , interrogates and then kills .
Having detected radioactive traces in Quarrel 's boat , where Strangways ' mineral samples had been , Bond convinces a reluctant Quarrel to take him to Crab Key . There Bond meets the beautiful Honey Ryder , dressed only in a white bikini , who is collecting shells . At first she is suspicious of Bond but soon decides to help him , leading them all inland to an open swamp . After nightfall they are attacked by the legendary " dragon " of Crab Key , which turns out to be an armoured tractor equipped with a flamethrower . In the resulting gun battle , Quarrel is incinerated by the flame @-@ thrower whilst Bond and Ryder are taken prisoner . They are decontaminated , quartered in Dr. No 's lair , and given drugged food to render them unconscious .
Upon waking they are escorted to dine with Dr. No . He reveals that he is a member of SPECTRE ( SPecial Executive for Counter @-@ intelligence , Terrorism , Revenge , and Extortion ) and plans to disrupt the Project Mercury space launch from Cape Canaveral with his atomic @-@ powered radio beam . After dinner , Ryder is taken away and Bond is beaten by the guards .
Bond is imprisoned in a holding cell but escapes by crawling through an obstacle @-@ filled air vent . Disguising himself as a worker , he finds his way to Dr. No 's control centre , which contains a nuclear reactor submerged in a pool of water . As the American rocket lifts off , Bond overloads the reactor and fights Dr. No , knocking him into the pool so that he boils to death . Bond finds and frees Ryder , and the two escape the island in a boat as the entire lair explodes .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond : A British MI6 agent , codename 007 .
Ursula Andress as Honey Ryder ( spoken voice by Nikki van der Zyl and singing voice by Diana Coupland ) : A local shell diver , making a living by selling Jamaican seashells to dealers in Miami .
Joseph Wiseman as Dr. No : The antagonist , a reclusive member of SPECTRE
Jack Lord as Felix Leiter : A CIA operative sent to liaise with James Bond while he is in Kingston .
Bernard Lee as M : The head of the British Secret Service .
Anthony Dawson as Professor R.J. Dent : A geologist with a practice in Kingston , who also secretly works for Doctor No .
John Kitzmiller as Quarrel : A Cayman Islander who was employed by John Strangways to secretly go to Crab Key to collect rock samples ; he also worked with Felix Leiter before Bond 's arrival .
Zena Marshall as Miss Taro : The secretary to Mr. Pleydell @-@ Smith at Government House in Kingston . She is actually a double agent working for Dr. No .
Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench ( spoken voice by Nikki van der Zyl ) : Trench first meets Bond during a game of Baccarat at the London club Le Cercle .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : The secretary to M.
Peter Burton as Major Boothroyd : The head of Q @-@ Branch , Boothroyd is brought in by M to replace Bond 's Beretta M 1934 with a Walther PPK . This was Burton 's only appearance as Q.
Timothy Moxon as Strangways ( voiced by Robert Rietty ) : Strangways is the head of the Kingston station for the British Secret Service , murdered by Dr. No 's henchmen , the ' Three Blind Mice ' . ( uncredited )
Reginald Carter as Mr. Jones : A henchman of Dr. No who was sent to pick up 007 at the Palisadoes Airport .
Yvonne Shima as Sister Lily : A Prison Warden working at Dr. No 's lair .
Michel Mok as Sister Rose : Also working at Dr. No 's lair .
Marguerite LeWars as The Photographer : One of Dr. No 's operatives who trails Bond .
Dolores Keator as Mary : Strangways ' P.A. , also murdered by the ' Three Blind Mice ' .
Bettina Le Beau as Dent 's Secretary . ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
When Harry Saltzman gained the rights for the novel , he initially did not go through with the project . Instead , Albert R. " Cubby " Broccoli wanted the rights to the novels and attempted to buy them from Saltzman . Saltzman did not want to sell the rights to Broccoli and instead they formed a partnership to make the films . A number of Hollywood film studios did not want to fund the films , finding them " too British " or " too blatantly sexual " . Eventually the two received authorisation from United Artists to produce Dr. No , to be released in 1962 . Saltzman and Broccoli created two companies : Danjaq , which was to hold the rights to the films , and Eon Productions , which was to produce them . The partnership between Broccoli and Saltzman lasted until 1975 , when tensions during the filming of The Man with the Golden Gun led to an acrimonious split and Saltzman sold his shares of Danjaq to United Artists .
Initially Broccoli and Saltzman had wanted to produce the eighth Bond novel , 1961 's Thunderball , as the first film , but there was an ongoing legal dispute between the screenplay 's co @-@ author , Kevin McClory and Ian Fleming . As a result , Broccoli and Saltzman chose Dr. No : the timing was apposite , with claims that American rocket testing at Cape Canaveral had problems with rockets going astray .
The producers offered Dr. No to Guy Green , Guy Hamilton , Val Guest and Ken Hughes to direct , but all of them turned it down . They finally signed Terence Young who had a long background with Broccoli 's Warwick Films as the director . Broccoli and Saltzman felt that Young would be able to make a real impression of James Bond and transfer the essence of the character from book to film . Young imposed many stylistic choices for the character which continued throughout the film series . Young also decided to inject much humour , as he considered that " a lot of things in this film , the sex and violence and so on , if played straight , a ) would be objectionable , and b ) we 're never gonna go past the censors ; but the moment you take the mickey out , put the tongue out in the cheek , it seems to disarm . "
The producers asked United Artists for financing , but the studio would only put up $ 1 million . Later , the UK arm of United Artists provided an extra $ 100 @,@ 000 to create the climax where Dr. No 's base explodes . As a result of the low budget , only one sound editor was hired ( normally there are two , for sound effects and dialogue ) , and many pieces of scenery were made in cheaper ways , with M 's office featuring cardboard paintings and a door covered in a leather @-@ like plastic , the room where Dent meets Dr. No costing only £ 745 to build , and the aquarium in Dr. No 's base being magnified stock footage of goldfish . Furthermore , when art director Syd Cain found out his name was not in the credits , Broccoli gave him a golden pen to compensate , saying that he did not want to spend money making the credits again . Production designer Ken Adam later told UK daily newspaper The Guardian in 2005 :
" The budget for Dr No was under $ 1m for the whole picture . My budget was £ 14 @,@ 500 . I filled three stages at Pinewood full of sets while they were filming in Jamaica . It wasn 't a real aquarium in Dr No 's apartment . It was a disaster to tell you the truth because we had so little money . We decided to use a rear projection screen and get some stock footage of fish . What we didn 't realise was because we didn 't have much money the only stock footage they could buy was of goldfish @-@ sized fish , so we had to blow up the size and put a line in the dialogue with Bond talking about the magnification . I didn 't see any reason why Dr No shouldn 't have good taste so we mixed contemporary furniture and antiques . We thought it would be fun for him to have some stolen art so we used Goya 's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington , which was still missing at the time . I got hold of a slide from the National Gallery - this was on the Friday , shooting began on the Monday - and I painted a Goya over the weekend . It was pretty good so they used it for publicity purposes but , just like the real one , it got stolen while it was on display . "
= = = Writing = = =
Broccoli had originally hired Richard Maibaum and his friend Wolf Mankowitz to write Dr. No 's screenplay , partly because of Mankowitz 's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman . An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain , Dr. No , a monkey . Mankowitz left the movie , and Maibaum then undertook a second version , more closely in line with the novel . Mankowitz eventually had his name removed from the credits after viewing early rushes , as he feared it would be a disaster . Johanna Harwood and thriller writer Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum 's script , . Terence Young described Harwood as a script doctor who helped put elements more in tune with a British character . Harwood stated in an interview in a Cinema Retro special on the making of the film that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman 's projects ; and claimed both her screenplays for Dr. No and her screenplay for From Russia with Love had followed Fleming 's novels closely .
During the series ' fifty @-@ year history only a few of the films have remained substantially true to their source material ; Dr. No has many similarities to the novel and follows its basic plot , but there are a few notable omissions . Major elements from the novel that are missing from the film include Bond 's fight with a giant squid , and the escape from Dr. No 's complex using the dragon @-@ disguised swamp buggy . Elements of the novel that were significantly changed for the film include the use of a ( non @-@ venomous ) tarantula spider instead of a centipede ; Dr. No 's secret complex being disguised as a bauxite mine instead of a guano quarry ; Dr. No 's plot to disrupt NASA space launches from Cape Canaveral using a radio beam instead of disrupting US missile testing on Turks Island ; the method of Dr. No 's death by boiling in overheating reactor coolant rather than a burial under a chute of guano , and the introduction of SPECTRE , an organisation absent from the book . Components absent from the novel but added to the film include the introduction of the Bond character in a gambling casino , the introduction of Bond 's semi @-@ regular girlfriend Sylvia Trench , a fight scene with an enemy chauffeur , a fight scene to introduce Quarrel , the seduction of Miss Taro , Bond 's recurring CIA ally Felix Leiter , Dr. No 's partner in crime Professor Dent and Bond 's controversial cold @-@ blooded killing of this character .
Sometimes episodes in the novel retained in the film 's altered narrative introduce elements of absurdity into the plot . Bond 's " escape " from his cell via the air shaft , for instance , originally conceived as a ruse of Dr. No 's to test Bond 's skill and endurance , becomes an authentic break @-@ out in the film . Features carried over from the novel 's obstacle course , however , such as the torrent of water and scalding surface , have no logical justification in the script . Such incongruities would recur in subsequent Bond films .
= = = Casting = = =
= = = = James Bond = = = =
While producers Broccoli and Saltzman originally sought Cary Grant for the role , they discarded the idea as Grant would be committed to only one feature film , and the producers decided to go after someone who could be part of a series . Richard Johnson has claimed to have been the first choice of the director , but he turned it down because he already had a contract with MGM and was intending to leave . Another actor purported to have been considered for the role was Patrick McGoohan on the strength of his portrayal of spy John Drake in the television series Danger Man : McGoohan turned down the role . Another potential Bond included David Niven , who would later play the character in the 1967 parody Casino Royale .
There are several apocryphal stories as to whom Ian Fleming personally wanted . Reportedly , Fleming favoured actor Richard Todd . In his autobiography When the Snow Melts , Cubby Broccoli said Roger Moore had been considered , but had been thought " too young , perhaps a shade too pretty . " In his autobiography , My Word Is My Bond , Moore says he was never approached to play the role of Bond until 1973 , for Live and Let Die . Moore appeared as Simon Templar on the television series The Saint , airing in the United Kingdom for the first time on 4 October 1962 , only one day before the premiere of Dr. No .
Ultimately , the producers turned to 30 @-@ year @-@ old Sean Connery for five films . It is often reported that Connery won the role through a contest set up to " find James Bond " . While this is untrue , the contest itself did exist , and six finalists were chosen and screen tested by Broccoli , Saltzman , and Fleming . The winner of the contest was a 28 @-@ year @-@ old model named Peter Anthony , who , according to Broccoli , had a Gregory Peck quality , but proved unable to cope with the role . When Connery was invited to meet Broccoli and Saltzman he appeared scruffy and in unpressed clothes , but Connery " put on an act and it paid off " as he acted in the meeting with a macho , devil @-@ may @-@ care attitude . When he left both Saltzman and Broccoli watched him through the window as he went to his car , both agreeing that he was the right man for Bond . After Connery was chosen , Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser , and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor " in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool " .
= = = = Secondary cast = = = =
For the first Bond girl Honey Ryder , Julie Christie was considered , but discarded as the producers felt she was not voluptuous enough . Just two weeks before filming began , Ursula Andress was chosen to play Honey after the producers saw a picture of her taken by Andress ' then @-@ husband John Derek . To appear more convincing as a Jamaican , Andress had a tan painted on her and ultimately had her lines redubbed by voice actress Nikki van der Zyl due to Andress ' heavy Swiss German accent . For Bond 's antagonist Dr. No , Ian Fleming wanted his friend Noël Coward , and Coward answered the invitation with " No ! No ! No ! " Fleming considered that his step @-@ cousin , Christopher Lee , would be good for the role of Dr. No , although by the time Fleming told the producers , they had already chosen Joseph Wiseman for the part . Harry Saltzman picked Wiseman because of his performance in the 1951 film Detective Story , and the actor had special make @-@ up applied to evoke No 's Chinese heritage .
The role as the first Felix Leiter was given to Jack Lord . This is Bond and Leiter 's first time meeting each other on film and Leiter does not appear in the novel . Leiter returns for many of Bond 's future adventures and in the 2006 reboot of the film series , Casino Royale , Leiter and Bond are seen meeting one another again for the first time . This was Lord 's only appearance as Leiter , as he asked for more money and a better billing to return as Leiter in Goldfinger and was subsequently replaced .
The cast also included a number of actors who were to become stalwarts of the future films , including Bernard Lee , who played Bond 's superior M for another ten films , and Lois Maxwell , who played M 's secretary Moneypenny in fourteen instalments of the series . Lee was chosen because of being a " prototypical father figure " , and Maxwell after Fleming thought she was the perfect fit for his description of the character . Maxwell was initially offered a choice between the roles of Moneypenny or Sylvia Trench and opted for Moneypenny as she thought the Trench role , which included appearing in immodest dress , was too sexual . Eunice Gayson was cast as Sylvia Trench and it was planned that she would be a recurring girlfriend for Bond throughout six films , although she appeared only in Dr. No and From Russia with Love . She had been given the part by director Terence Young , who had worked with her in Zarak and invited Gayson saying " You always bring me luck in my films " , although she was also cast due to her voluptuous figure . One role which was not given to a future regular was that of Major Boothroyd , the head of Q @-@ Branch , which was given to Peter Burton . Burton was unavailable for the subsequent film , From Russia with Love , and the role was taken by Desmond Llewelyn .
Anthony Dawson , who played Professor Dent , met director Terence Young when he was working as a stage actor in London , but by the time of the film 's shooting Dawson was working as a pilot and crop duster in Jamaica . Dawson also portrayed Ernst Stavro Blofeld , head of SPECTRE , in From Russia with Love and Thunderball , although his face was never seen and his voice was redubbed by Austrian actor Eric Pohlmann . Zena Marshall , who played Miss Taro , was mostly attracted by the humorous elements of the script , and described her role as " this attractive little siren , and at the same time I was the spy , a bad woman " , who Young asked to play " not as Chinese , but a Mid @-@ Atlantic woman who men dream about but is not real " . The role of Taro was previously rejected by Marguerite LeWars , the Miss Jamaica 1961 who worked at the Kingston airport , as it required being " wrapped in a towel , lying in a bed , kissing a strange man " . LeWars appeared as a photographer hired by Dr. No instead .
= = = Filming = = =
Dr. No is set in London , England , Kingston , Jamaica and Crab Key , a fictional island off Jamaica . Filming began on location in Jamaica on 16 January 1962 . The primary scenes there were the exterior shots of Crab Key and Kingston , where an uncredited Syd Cain acted as art director and also designed the Dragon Tank . They shot a few yards from Fleming 's Goldeneye estate , and the author would regularly visit the filming with friends . Location filming was largely in Oracabessa , with additional scenes on the Palisadoes strip and Port Royal in St Andrew . On 21 February , production left Jamaica with footage still unfilmed due to a change of weather . Five days later , filming began at Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire , England with sets designed by Ken Adam , which included Dr. No 's base , the ventilation duct and the interior of the British Secret Service headquarters . The studio would later be used on the majority of later Bond films . Adam 's initial budget for the entire film was just £ 14 @,@ 500 ( £ 278 @,@ 974 in 2016 ) , but the producers were convinced to give him an extra £ 6 @,@ 000 out of their own finances . After 58 days of filming , principal photography wrapped on 30 March 1962 .
The scene where a tarantula walks over Bond was initially shot by pinning a bed to the wall and placing Sean Connery over it , with a protective glass between him and the spider . Director Young did not like the final results , so the scenes were interlaced with new footage featuring the tarantula over stuntman Bob Simmons . Simmons , who was uncredited for the film , described the scene as the most frightening stunt he had ever performed . The book features a scene where Honey is tortured by being tied to the ground along with crabs , but since the crabs were sent frozen from the Caribbean , they did not move much during filming , so the scene was altered to have Honey slowly drowning . Simmons also served as the film 's fight choreographer , employing a rough fighting style . The noted violence of Dr. No , which also included Bond shooting Dent in cold blood , caused producers to make adaptations to get an " A " rating – allowing minors to enter accompanied by an adult – from the British Board of Film Classification .
When he is about to have dinner with Dr. No , Bond is amazed to see Goya 's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington . The painting had been stolen from the National Gallery by a 60 @-@ year @-@ old amateur thief in London just before filming began . Ken Adam had contacted the National Gallery in London to obtain a slide of the picture , painting the copy over the course of the weekend , prior to filming commencing on the Monday .
Editor Peter R. Hunt used an innovative editing technique , with extensive use of quick cuts , and employing fast motion and exaggerated sound effects on the action scenes . Hunt said his intention was to " move fast and push it along the whole time , while giving it a certain style " , and added that the fast pacing would help audiences not notice any writing problems . As title artist Maurice Binder was creating the credits , he had an idea for the introduction that would appear in all subsequent Bond films , the James Bond gun barrel sequence . It was filmed in sepia by putting a pinhole camera inside an actual .38 calibre gun barrel , with Bob Simmons playing Bond . Binder also designed a highly stylised main title sequence , a theme that has been repeated in the subsequent Eon @-@ produced Bond films . Binder 's budget for the title sequence was £ 2 @,@ 000 ( £ 38 @,@ 479 in 2016 ) .
= = = The introduction of James Bond = = =
The character James Bond was introduced towards , but not at , the beginning of the film in a " now @-@ famous nightclub sequence featuring Sylvia Trench " , to whom he makes his " immortal introduction " . The introduction to the character in Le Cercle at Les Ambassadeurs , an upmarket gambling club , is derived from Bond 's introduction in the first novel , Casino Royale , which Fleming had used because " skill at gambling and knowledge of how to behave in a casino were seen ... as attributes of a gentleman " . After losing a hand of Chemin de Fer to Bond , Trench asks his name . There is the " most important gesture [ in ] ... the way he lights his cigarette before giving her the satisfaction of an answer . ' Bond , James Bond ' . " Once Connery says his line , Monty Norman 's Bond theme plays " and creates an indelible link between music and character . " In the short scene introducing Bond , there are portrayed " qualities of strength , action , reaction , violence – and this elegant , slightly brutal gambler with the quizzical sneer we see before us who answers a woman when he 's good and ready . " Raymond Benson , author of the continuation Bond novels , has stated that as the music fades up on the scene , " we have ourselves a piece of classic cinema " .
Following the release of Dr. No , the quote " Bond ... James Bond " , became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture : writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the " signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever " . In 2001 it was voted as the " best @-@ loved one @-@ liner in cinema " by British cinema goers . In 2005 , it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series .
= = Soundtrack = =
Monty Norman was invited to write the soundtrack because Broccoli liked his work on the 1961 theatre production Belle , a musical about murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen . Norman was busy with musicals , and only accepted to do the music for Dr. No after Saltzman allowed him to travel along with the crew to Jamaica . The most famous composition in the soundtrack is the " James Bond Theme " , which is heard in the gunbarrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits , and was written by Norman based on a previous composition of his . John Barry , who would later go on to compose the music for eleven Bond films , arranged the Bond theme , but was uncredited — except for the credit of his orchestra playing the final piece . It has occasionally been suggested that Barry , not Norman , composed the " James Bond Theme " . This argument has been the subject of two court cases , the most recent in 2001 , which found in favour of Norman . The theme , as written by Norman and arranged by Barry , was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as " bebop @-@ swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock ' n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes . "
The music for the opening scene is a calypso version of the nursery rhyme " Three Blind Mice , " with new lyrics to reflect the intentions of the three assassins hired by Dr. No . Other notable songs in the film are the song " Jump Up , " played in the background , and the traditional Jamaican calypso " Under the Mango Tree , " famously sung by Diana Coupland ( then Norman 's wife ) , the singing voice of Honey Ryder , as she walked out of the ocean on Crab Key . Byron Lee & the Dragonaires appeared in the film and performed some of the music on the later soundtrack album . Lee and other Jamaican musicians who appear in the soundtrack , including Ernest Ranglin and Carlos Malcolm , were introduced to Norman by Chris Blackwell , the owner of then @-@ small label Island Records who worked in the film as a location scout . The original soundtrack album was released by United Artists Records in 1963 as well as several cover versions of " The James Bond Theme " on Columbia Records . A single of the " James Bond Theme " entered the UK Singles Chart in 1962 , reaching a peak position of number thirteen during an eleven @-@ week spell in the charts . Ranglin , who had acted as arranger on several tracks , and Malcolm sued Eon for unpaid fees , both settling out of court ; Malcolm and his band performed a year later at the film 's premiere in Kingston .
= = Themes = =
Dr. No introduced the many recurring themes and features associated with the suave and sophisticated secret agent : the distinctive " James Bond Theme " , the gun barrel sequence , his initial mission briefing with M , " Bond girls " , the criminal organisation SPECTRE , narrow escapes , Bond 's luck and skill , his signature Walther PPK and the licence to kill , over @-@ ambitious villains , henchmen and allies . Many characteristics of the following Bond films were introduced in Dr. No , ranging from Bond 's introduction as " Bond , James Bond " ( although he seems to be mimicking Sylvia Trench who introduces herself first as " Trench . Sylvia Trench " ) , to his taste for vodka martinis " shaken , not stirred " , love interests , and weaponry .
Dr. No also establishes the oft @-@ repeated association ( in this case , Project Mercury ) between the Bond series and the US manned space programme — which would be repeated with Project Gemini in You Only Live Twice , Project Apollo in Diamonds Are Forever , and the space shuttle in Moonraker ( not to mention several outer space sequences involving fictional satellite programmes in GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , and Die Another Day ) .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Promotion = = =
As soon as late 1961 , United Artists started a marketing campaign to make James Bond a well @-@ known name in North America . Newspapers received a box set of Bond 's books , as well as a booklet detailing the Bond character and a picture of Ursula Andress . Eon and United Artists made licensing deals revolving around the character 's tastes , having merchandising tie @-@ ins with drink , tobacco , men 's clothing and car companies . The campaign also focused on Ian Fleming 's name due to the minor success of the books . After Dr. No had a successful run in Europe , Sean Connery and Terence Young did a cross @-@ country tour in March 1963 , which featured screening previews for the film and press conferences . It culminated in a well @-@ publicised premiere in Kingston , where most of the film is set . Some of the campaign emphasised the sex appeal of the film , with the poster artwork , by Mitchell Hooks , depicting Sean Connery and four scantily clad women . The campaign also included the 007 logo designed by Joseph Caroff with a pistol as part of the seven .
Dr. No had its worldwide premiere at the London Pavilion , on 5 October 1962 , expanding to the rest of the United Kingdom three days later . The North American premiere on 8 May 1963 was more low @-@ profile , with 450 cinemas in Midwest and Southwest regions . On 29 May it opened in both Los Angeles and New York City – in the former as a double @-@ bill with The Young and the Brave and the latter in United Artists ' " Premiere Showcase " treatment , screening in 84 screens across the city to avoid the costly Broadway cinemas .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon release , Dr. No received a mixed critical reception . Time called Bond a " blithering bounder " and " a great big hairy marshmallow " who " almost always manages to seem slightly silly " . Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic said that he felt the film " never decides whether it is suspense or suspense @-@ spoof . " He also did not like Connery , or the Fleming novels . The Vatican condemned Dr. No because of Bond 's cruelty and the sexual content , whilst the Kremlin said that Bond was the personification of capitalist evil – both controversies helped increase public awareness of the film and greater cinema attendance . However Leonard Mosely in The Daily Express said that " Dr No is fun all the way , and even the sex is harmless " , whilst Penelope Gilliatt in The Observer said it was " full of submerged self @-@ parody " . The Guardian 's critic called Dr. No " crisp and well @-@ tailored " and " a neat and gripping thriller . "
In the years that followed its release it became more popular . Writing in 1986 , Danny Peary described Dr. No as a " cleverly conceived adaption of Ian Fleming 's enjoyable spy thriller ... Picture has sex , violence , wit , terrific action sequences , and colorful atmosphere ... Connery , Andress and Wiseman all give memorable performances . There 's a slow stretch in the middle and Dr. No could use a decent henchman , but otherwise the film works marvelously . " Describing Dr. No as " a different type of film " , Peary notes that " Looking back , one can understand why it caused so much excitement . "
The 2005 American Film Institute 's ' 100 Years ' series also recognised the character of James Bond himself in the film as the third greatest film hero . He was also placed at number eleven on a similar list by Empire . Premiere also listed Bond as the fifth greatest movie character of all time .
= = = Popular reaction = = =
In the United Kingdom , playing in 168 cinemas , Dr. No grossed $ 840 @,@ 000 in just two weeks and wound up being the fifth most popular movie of the year there . The box office results in mainland Europe were also positive . The film ended up grossing $ 6 million , making it a financial success compared to its $ 1 million budget . The original North American gross rental was $ 2 million , increasing to $ 6 million after its first reissue in 1965 , as a double feature with From Russia with Love . The following reissue was in 1966 paired with Goldfinger , to compensate the fact that the next Bond movie would only come out in the following year . The total gross of Dr. No ended up being $ 59 @.@ 6 million worldwide , IGN listed it as sixth @-@ best Bond film ever , Entertainment Weekly put it at seventh among Bond films , and Norman Wilner of MSN as twelfth best . Dr. No currently has a 96 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes . President John F. Kennedy was a fan of Ian Fleming 's novels and requested a private showing of Dr. No in the White House .
In 2003 , the scene of Andress emerging from the water in a bikini topped Channel 4 's list of one hundred sexiest scenes of film history . The bikini was sold in 2001 at an auction for $ 61 @,@ 500 . Entertainment Weekly and IGN ranked her first in a top ten " Bond babes " list .
= = Comic book adaptation = =
Around the time of Dr. No 's release in October 1962 , a comic book adaptation of the screenplay , written by Norman J. Nodel , was published in the United Kingdom as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series . It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series , in January 1963 . This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high @-@ profile American comic . It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds ( some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market ) .
= = Legacy = =
Dr. No was the first of 24 James Bond films produced by Eon , which have grossed just over $ 5 billion in box office returns alone , making the series one of the highest @-@ grossing ever . It is estimated that since Dr. No , a quarter of the world 's population have seen at least one Bond film . Dr. No also launched a successful genre of " secret agent " films that flourished in the 1960s . The UK Film Distributors ' Association have stated that the importance of Dr. No to the British film industry cannot be overstated , as it , and the subsequent Bond series of films , " form the backbone of the industry " .
Dr. No – and the Bond films in general – also inspired television output , with the NBC series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. , which was described as the " first network television imitation " of Bond . The style of the Bond films , largely derived from production designer Ken Adam , is one of the hallmarks of the Bond film series , and the effect of his work on Dr. No 's lair can be seen in another film he worked on , Dr. Strangelove .
As the first film in the series , a number of the elements of Dr. No were contributors to subsequent films , including Monty Norman 's Bond theme and Maurice Binder 's gun barrel sequence , variants of which all appeared in subsequent films . These conventions were also lampooned in spoof films , such as the Austin Powers series . The first spoof films happened relatively soon after Dr. No , with the 1964 film Carry On Spying showing the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included Charlie Bind ( Charles Hawtrey ) and Daphne Honeybutt ( Barbara Windsor ) .
A further legacy saw the sales of Fleming 's novels rise sharply after the release of Dr. No and the subsequent films . In the seven months after Dr. No was released , 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the novel were sold . Worldwide sales of all the Bond books rose throughout the sixties as Dr. No and the subsequent films – From Russia with Love and Goldfinger – were released : in 1961 500 @,@ 000 books had been sold , which rose to six million in 1964 and seven million in 1965 . Between the years 1962 to 1967 , a total of nearly 22 @.@ 8 million Bond novels were sold .
The film had an impact on ladies ' fashion , with the bikini worn by Ursula Andress proving to be a huge hit : " not only sent sales of two @-@ piece swimwear skyrocketing , it also made Andress an international celebrity " . Andress herself acknowledged that the " bikini made me into a success . As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent " . It has been claimed that the use of the swimwear in Dr. No led to " the biggest impact on the history of the bikini " .
= = = Global James Bond Day = = =
On 5 October 2012 , fifty years after the release of the film , Eon Productions celebrated " Global James Bond Day " , a series of events around the world . Events included a film festival of showings of the James Bond films , a documentary of the series , an online auction for charity and further events at the Museum of Modern Art and the Toronto International Film Festival . A concert of various music was held in Los Angeles in conjunction with the New York event . The day also saw the release of " Skyfall " , the theme song of the 2012 James Bond film of the same name ; the song was released at 0 : 07 BST .
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= Reina Victoria Eugenia @-@ class battleship =
The Reina Victoria Eugenia class was a class of three battleships of the Spanish Navy authorized as the Plan de la Segunda Escuadra under the Navy Law of 1913 . The class , as well as the lead ship , were named for King Alfonso XIII 's English queen consort , Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg . The other two ships were classified as " B " and " C " . It was supposed to be designed by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , and built by John Brown . The ships were never built due to Britain 's involvement in World War I , which halted all foreign projects being constructed in British yards .
= = Background = =
Following disastrous losses in the Spanish – American War of 1898 , Spain lacked the money to rebuild its navy , so it was not until the Navy Law of 7 January 1908 that a new program authorizing three new battleships , the España class ( España , Alfonso XIII , and Jaime I ) , along with other ships , was passed . The delay enabled Spain to take advantage of experience gained by Britain with the world 's first commissioned dreadnought , HMS Dreadnought , and by the United States with its first dreadnought , USS South Carolina . As Spain was incapable of building the España class herself due to a lack of resources , Armstrongs were contracted for the design and John Brown for the construction of the shipyard and ships themselves .
A second Navy Law was passed in 1912 named the Plan de la Segunda Escuadra ( Second Squadron Plan ) . It called for , among several other ships , three dreadnoughts to supplement the España class . These dreadnoughts were named the Reina Victoria Eugenia class . They were to be in laid down in 1914 and 1915 and completed around 1920 .
= = Design history = =
The class consisted of three ships , Reina Victoria Eugenia , the lead ship , and two others named B and C. The lead ship was named after King Alfonso 's English wife . They were designed by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs and were planned to displace 21 @,@ 000 long tons ( 21 @,@ 000 t ) with a speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Early plans for the type called for an armament of four twin 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) guns ; however , financial difficulties resulted in the selection of an armament of four twin 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns instead , which still would have had a longer range than most contemporary ships . The secondary armament would have been 20 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns . Other specifications of the ships were never decided upon , although it is probable that they would have resembled contemporary British ships , with two closely spaced funnels along with super @-@ imposed turrets fore and aft .
As with the España @-@ class battleships , significant technical assistance from Britain would have been required . The outbreak of the First World War led to both the delay of the España class and the cancellation of the Reina Victoria Eugenia project . Since Spain did not sign the Washington Naval Treaty , whose signatories were forced to limit their ships to no more than 35 @,@ 000 tons , the class was available for future Spanish governments to construct , either as a main ship or as support to other planned designs , like a possible Littorio @-@ class battleship or a ship based on the Gneisenau . However , the class was never constructed .
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= 20th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 20th Engineer Brigade is a combat engineer brigade assigned to the XVIII Airborne Corps of the United States Army stationed at Fort Bragg , North Carolina . Although the brigade was identified as an airborne unit , not all of its subordinate units were airborne qualified — despite the airborne tab as part of the unit patch . Soldiers of the 20th Engineer Brigade provide various supportive duties to other Army units , including construction , engineering , and mechanical work on other Army projects .
Though its predecessor units have lineage that dates back before the American Civil War , the formation was not formally designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade until its activation on 16 August 1950 , at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri . Deploying overseas in November 1952 , it supported construction projects in southwestern France until its return to the US on 10 September 1954 . From then until its inactivation on 12 December 1958 , it provided support to XVIII Airborne Corps .
Reactivated on 1 May 1967 , at Fort Bragg , the brigade deployed to Vietnam where it supported American forces for several years and a dozen campaigns . The brigade was deactivated on 20 September 1971 , as American forces withdrew from the country .
Reactivated as an airborne brigade on 21 June 1974 at Fort Bragg , NC , the unit has since seen numerous overseas tours , including to Kuwait during the Gulf war , Kosovo , Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom , and Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn . It has also independently conducted various humanitarian missions in the United States and in other nations throughout the world .
= = Organization = =
The 20th Engineer Brigade currently consists of five engineer battalions headquartered throughout the eastern United States . The Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) as well as the 27th Engineer Battalion are headquartered at Fort Bragg , North Carolina while the 19th Engineer Battalion ( Construction Effects ) is located at Fort Knox , Kentucky . The 46th Engineer Battalion is located at Fort Polk , LA and the 92nd Engineer Battalion is located at Fort Stewart , Georgia .
The 307th Engineer Battalion , formerly assigned to the 82d Airborne Division , was reactivated effective 16 September 2010 by reflagging the existing 37th Engineer Battalion . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] In 2014 the 307th was transferred to the 3rd Infantry Combat Team of the 82nd Airborne Division .
The insignia was originally authorized on 30 June 1967 . It was amended on 14 January 1975 to add the blue and white " Airborne " tab . The tab is part of the unit insignia and does not indicate whether an individual soldier is Airborne @-@ qualified . Parachute wings on an individual soldier indicate Airborne @-@ qualification . While the brigade headquarters was on jump status , some subordinate elements were not .
On 16 September 2009 , the brigade 's Airborne status was terminated and the " Airborne " tab on the brigade 's shoulder sleeve insignia was removed .
= = History = =
= = = Lineage = = =
The lineage and honors of the 20th Engineer Brigade date back to the American Civil War . First designated as the Battalion of Engineers on 3 August 1861 , the battalion participated in 10 campaigns during the Civil War . Since that time , unit designations have changed many times as predecessors of the 20th Engineer Brigade have served in the Spanish – American War , the Philippine – American War , the Mexican Expedition , World War I and World War II . Though it was not officially designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade during all of these wars , the Brigade received campaign participation credit for all of these campaigns , and has numerous campaign streamers for what its previous incarnations did during these conflicts .
On 16 August 1950 the brigade was first designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade and activated at Camp Leonard Wood , Missouri . It deployed overseas to France in November 1952 and established headquarters in Croix Chapeau . Comprising two battalions and six separate companies , the brigade provided engineer construction support to the Base Section of the European COMMZ in southwestern France . In August 1954 , it redeployed back to the United States and was activated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , on 10 September 1954 . From that time until its inactivation on 12 December 1958 , the brigade provided engineer support to the XVIII Airborne Corps .
= = = Vietnam War and aftermath = = =
In response to the buildup of U.S. forces in the Republic of Vietnam , the brigade headquarters was reactivated 1 May 1967 , at Fort Bragg and deployed to Vietnam in August 1967 . During the Vietnam War , the brigade numbered over 13 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men organized into three engineer groups , with 14 battalions and 31 separate companies and detachments . One of these soldiers , Al Gore , would later become Vice President of the United States .
The brigade provided all non @-@ divisional engineer support in Military Regions III and IV during eleven campaigns . Units cleared more than one @-@ half million acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km ² ) of jungle , paved 500 kilometers of highway , and constructed bridges totaling more than six miles ( 10 km ) in length . As American forces were withdrawing from Vietnam , the brigade was inactivated 20 September 1971 .
As the organization of the Army changed following Vietnam , the 20th Engineer Brigade was again reactivated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina as an airborne brigade on 21 June 1974 . Assigned as a subordinate command of the XVIII Airborne Corps , which comprised one airborne combat engineer battalion , a heavy construction battalion and four separate companies . Additionally , the 283rd Engineer Detachment ( Terrain Analysis ) provided terrain intelligence needs of the brigade 's mission . Since that time the brigade and its subordinate units supported the XVIII Airborne Corps , fulfilling critical combat engineer , construction , topographic , and bridging missions .
The brigade participated in the recovery efforts following the Great Lakes Blizzard of 1977 . Over 300 members of the unit were dispatched to New York State to help with recovery efforts . As requirements and the engineer force structure changed , the brigade inactivated the combat heavy battalion in 1987 and activated another combat airborne battalion . In 1989 , the 30th Engineer Battalion ( Topographic ) was added to the brigade . Over the years , the brigade has provided engineer support to XVIII Airborne Corps and other Army commands . In addition to training , it has deployed in support of operations across the entire spectrum of conflict from disaster relief to combat operations .
= = = Gulf War = = =
The brigade was called to support the multinational response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 . The brigade grew to a 7 @,@ 700 soldier force composed of three groups , ten battalions , four separate companies , and eight detachments in support of XVIII Airborne Corps during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . The brigade completed 1 @,@ 500 combat heavy battalions equivalent days of work constructing roads , airfields , heliports , ammunition / fuel / water storage points , life support areas and forward landing strips , distributed over ten million maps , trained over 5 @,@ 000 coalition engineers , and supported the French attack on Assalman airfield . During follow @-@ on missions the brigade destroyed over 6000 enemy bunkers and one million tons of munitions .
After the Gulf War , elements of the brigade were dispatched to Haiti on a humanitarian mission . The 20th Engineer Brigade was assigned to construct base camps , improve the Haitian infrastructure , participate in humanitarian service projects , and assist with the reestablishment of public services , with a goal of improving overall quality of life within the country .
Since 11 September 2001 , it has participated in repeated operations in Kosovo , Afghanistan , and Iraq .
= = = First Iraq tour = = =
In November 2004 the brigade headquarters deployed to Camp Victory , Iraq in support of OIF 04 @-@ 06 . The brigade grew to a size of 6 @,@ 100 personnel in of three brigade headquarters companies , seven battalions , six separate companies and nine detachments . The brigade served as the Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq corps @-@ level engineer headquarters for all echelon @-@ above @-@ division engineers in Iraq , providing command and control for general support combat and construction engineer missions across the country . During its deployment , the 20th Engineer Brigade patrolled 57 @,@ 950 kilometers of roads for Improvised Explosive Devices , expanded 14 bases in support of the MNC @-@ I basing plan ; emplaced or maintained 16 bridges ; expanded detention capacity for 6 @,@ 000 detainees ; trained over 53 @,@ 000 coalition soldiers on explosives hazards awareness ; reduced over 11 @,@ 000 caches and over 80 @,@ 000 tons of explosive munitions . Other missions included repair of an airfield known as " Key West " by light equipment elements , support of the Long Range Surveillance Detachment , 313th Military Intelligence Battalion , 82nd Airborne Division based in Zakhu , located in Iraqi Kurdistan . Another task for the Brigade was to assist British engineers in a systematic mapping of the entire nation and creating an Iraqi Geospatial Reference System , in order to make national reconstruction easier and more organized . The 20th Brigade suffered at least one casualty during its tour in Iraq , with a soldier killed by an enemy Improvised Explosive Device on 22 August 2005 in Ad Dwar when an explosive device destroyed his vehicle . During its deployment to Iraq , the Unit assumed command of several additional battalions from the Army National Guard , forcing existing formations of the unit to cope with additional responsibilities . Seemingly elements of the 107th and 507th Engineer Battalions of the Michigan Army National Guard and the 194th Engineer Brigade of the Tennessee National Guard were part of the brigade .
= = = Second Iraq tour = = =
The brigade again deployed to Iraq for the OIF 07 @-@ 09 rotation . This time , the brigade was headquartered in Balad , Iraq . The brigade was given Husky Mine Detection vehicles and Buffalo mine protected carrier vehicles for the deployment . The brigade was responsible for providing combat , geospatial and general engineering and reconstruction operations in partnership with Provincial Reconstruction Teams , Civil Service Corps , Sons of Iraq and Iraqi Army engineers , as well as training and assisting the Iraqi Army and provincial engineers in the rebuilding of the infrastructure of Iraq . As of May 2008 , the brigade had constructed 10 major bridges and destroyed or captured IED cells in nine of the country 's provinces . During the deployment it was visited by Lieutenant General Lloyd J. Austin III , the commanding general of Multi @-@ National Corps Iraq . The brigade was scheduled to return to Fort Bragg in the fall of 2008 , to be replaced by the 555th Engineer Brigade . This was completed during a transfer of authority ceremony on 29 September 2008 . The brigade then began redeploying to Fort Bragg , completing its return by November 2008 . A year later , in August 2009 , the brigade held a ceremony promoting dozens of its soldiers to the rank of Sergeant .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= = Notable soldiers = =
Numerous soldiers who have served in the 20th Engineer Brigade have later achieved fame for various reasons , most of them having served the 20th in Vietnam . Former 20th Engineer Brigade soldiers and engineers include Chief of Engineers Robert B. Flowers , Governor of the Panama Canal Zone Harold Parfitt , Vice President of the United States and Nobel Peace Prize winner Al Gore , and Sergeant Major of the Army Leon L. Van Autreve .
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= John Conroy =
Sir John Ponsonby Conroy , 1st Baronet KCH ( Irish : Seán Ó Maolchonaire ; 21 October 1786 – 2 March 1854 ) was a British army officer who served as comptroller to the Duchess of Kent and her young daughter , Princess Victoria , the future Queen of the United Kingdom .
Conroy was born in Wales to Irish parents and , after holding several ranks in the military , became the equerry of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn in 1817 . Kent died two years later , leaving a widow and infant daughter . Becoming comptroller of the Duchess of Kent 's household for the next nineteen years , Conroy also acted as her confidant and political agent , among other roles . Together , they designed the Kensington System , an elaborate and strict system of rules for the upbringing of young Victoria , designed to render her weak @-@ willed and utterly dependent upon them in the hopes of allowing them to wield power through her .
Princess Victoria grew to hate Conroy over the oppressive system and he was unpopular among the British Royal Family . His efforts to place the Duchess in the role of regent were ultimately unsuccessful , as Victoria ascended the throne after reaching her majority in 1837 . Conroy was immediately expelled from Victoria 's household , though he remained in the Duchess of Kent 's service for several more years . Given a pension and baronetcy , Conroy retired to his estate near Reading , Berkshire in 1842 and died in substantial debt twelve years later .
Historians have often referred to Conroy as someone with strong ambition , with varying degrees of positive or negative opinion . Rumours circulated during and after his lifetime that he was perhaps the Duchess of Kent 's lover . Queen Victoria was shocked to learn this , stating that her mother 's piety would have prevented it .
= = Early life = =
Conroy was born on 21 October 1786 in Maes @-@ y @-@ castell , Caerhun , Caernarvonshire , Wales . He was one of six children born to John Ponsonby Conroy , Esq. and Margaret Wilson , both native to Ireland . His father was a barrister and the younger Conroy was privately educated in Dublin . On 8 September 1803 , he was commissioned in the Royal Artillery as a Second Lieutenant and was promoted to First Lieutenant on 12 September . In 1805 , Conroy enrolled in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich . He made his career during the Napoleonic Wars , though his ability to avoid battle attracted disdain from other officers . Conroy did not participate in the Peninsular War or the Waterloo Campaign .
Further advancement of rank was facilitated with Conroy 's marriage to Elizabeth Fisher on 26 December 1808 in Dublin , though not as far as Conroy felt he deserved . Elizabeth was the daughter of Colonel ( later Major @-@ General ) Benjamin Fisher and Conroy served under him in Ireland and England while performing various administrative duties . Conroy was promoted to Second Captain on 13 March 1811 and appointed adjutant in the Corps of Artillery Drivers on 11 March 1817 .
Conroy and Elizabeth had six children together :
Sir Edward Conroy , 2nd Baronet ( 6 December 1809 – 3 November 1869 ) , married Lady Alice Parsons , daughter of Laurence Parsons , 2nd Earl of Rosse . They were the parents of the analytical chemist Sir John Conroy , 3rd Baronet .
Elizabeth Jane Conroy ( 1811 – 1855 ) .
Arthur Benjamin Conroy ( 1813 – 1817 ) .
Stephen Rowley Conroy ( 15 August 1815 – 1841 ) , served with the Coldstream Guards .
Henry George Conroy ( 4 June 1817 – 5 October 1890 ) , served with the Grenadier Guards , aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the commander of the forces in Ireland .
Victoria Maria Louisa Conroy ( 1819 – 9 February 1866 ) , married Sir Wyndham Edward Hanmer , 4th Baronet .
= = Employment with the Kents = =
Through the connection of his wife 's uncle , Conroy came to the attention of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the fourth son of King George III . Conroy was appointed as an equerry in 1817 , shortly before the Duke 's marriage to Princess Victoria of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . An efficient organiser , Conroy 's planning ensured the Duke and Duchess ' speedy return to England in time for the birth of their first child . The child was Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent , later Queen Victoria .
While Kent had promised Conroy military advancement , he was still a captain by the time of the Duke 's death in 1820 . Conroy was however named an executor of the Duke 's will , though he was unsuccessful in persuading the dying man to name him Victoria 's guardian . Aware that he needed to find another source of revenue quickly , Conroy offered his services as comptroller to the now @-@ widowed Duchess of Kent and her infant daughter . Conroy 's native language was of particular value to the Duchess because she had not yet acquired fluency in English . Conroy retired from military service on half @-@ pay in 1822 .
= = = Kensington system = = =
Together in a hostile environment , Conroy 's relationship to the Duchess was very close , with him serving as her comptroller and private secretary for the next nineteen years , as well as holding the unofficial roles of public relations officer , counsellor , confidant and political agent . While it is not clear which of the two was more responsible for devising the Kensington System , it was created to govern young Victoria 's upbringing . An elaborate and oppressive system of rules regulating every facet of Victoria 's life , it kept her in reclusive isolation most of the time , with the goal of making her weak , compliant and utterly dependent upon her mother and Conroy . The intention was for the Duchess to be appointed regent upon Victoria 's ( assumed youthful ) ascension and for Conroy to be created Victoria 's private secretary and given a peerage . Aware of the reasons behind King George IV 's unpopularity , Conroy promoted a public image of the Duchess that was pure , modest and decorous , while at the same time increasing her paranoia against the British Royal Family , particularly the Duke of Cumberland .
Princess Victoria soon came to hate Conroy who bullied and insulted her , mocking her economical habits . Some historians have conjectured that Conroy 's arrogant behaviour towards Victoria may have stemmed from a personal belief that his wife Elizabeth was secretly the illegitimate child of the Duke of Kent . While the rumour was later proven false , Conroy 's strong ambition may have stemmed from this self @-@ perceived connection to the aristocracy . Ambition may also have been influenced by Conroy 's claim of descent from the ancient kings of Ireland . Regardless of his claims of grandeur , Conroy belonged to the middle class and recognised the growing power of this group within British society .
Conroy effectively barred Victoria from anyone other than the Duchess or his relatives and the princess was prevented from becoming close to her extended family . The enforced isolation meant the only companions of her own age whom she frequently came into contact with were Conroy 's daughters , who included Victoire , a girl a few months older than Victoria . Victoria does not appear to have been fond of either Conroy sister as there is little positive comment in her personal journals . The young princess depended on her devoted governess Louise Lehzen , who defended her against Conroy 's machinations . As Victoria grew older , attempts were made by Conroy and the Duchess for Lehzen 's removal , or at least the lessening of her influence . Such tactics proved unsuccessful , as the princess became more devoted to Lehzen than before , as evident in her journals .
Early in his stay at Kensington Palace , Conroy made an effort to become close to Princess Sophia , an elderly sister of George IV who also resided at the Palace . Described by Christopher Hibbert as an " impressionable and mentally unstable woman " , Conroy had little difficulty in persuading Sophia to let him take control of her finances . In return for making Sophia a member of the Duchess ' social circle , the princess reported back to Conroy on activities at St. James 's Palace and Kensington when he was absent .
= = = Victoria as heir presumptive = = =
In 1827 , the Duke of York died , making the Duke of Clarence heir presumptive and Victoria second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne . Conroy complained that the princess should not be surrounded by commoners , leading King George IV to appoint Conroy a Knight Commander of the Hanoverian Order and a Knight Bachelor that year . The Duchess and Conroy continued to be unpopular with the Royal Family and , in 1829 , the Duke of Cumberland spread rumours that they were lovers in an attempt to discredit them . The Duke of Clarence referred to Conroy as " King John " , while the Duchess of Clarence wrote to the Duchess of Kent to advise that she was increasingly isolating herself from the Royal Family and that she must not grant Conroy too much power .
The Duke of Clarence became King William IV in 1830 , by which point Conroy felt very confident of his position ; his control of the household was secure . The Duchess prevented her daughter from attending William 's coronation out of a disagreement of precedence , a decision attributed by the Duke of Wellington to Conroy . By then , it had become clear to Victoria that she would succeed to the throne . The new king and queen attempted to gain custody of their niece , but Conroy quickly replied that Victoria could not be " tainted " by the moral atmosphere at court . Conroy solidified the stance that mother and daughter could not be separated , and continued to promote the Duchess ' virtue as a fit regent .
As King William intensely disliked the Duchess and Conroy , he vowed to wait until Victoria came of age to die simply to keep them from a regency . In 1831 , the year of William 's coronation , Conroy and the Duchess embarked on a series of royal tours with Victoria to expose her to the people and solidify their status as potential regents . On one trip Conroy was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford . Their efforts were ultimately successful and , in November 1831 , it was declared that the Duchess would be sole regent in the event of Victoria 's young queenship , while Conroy could claim to be the closest adviser to the Duchess and her daughter .
Aware that a regency was becoming increasingly unlikely , Conroy and the Duchess began promoting the view of Victoria as a " weak @-@ minded , frivolous and foolish " girl in need of guidance . While increasing their bullying of the princess , they implied that Victoria desired a regency even if she succeeded later than her majority at eighteen . Victoria was forbidden to be alone with her beloved Lehzen ; either the Duchess ' ally Lady Flora Hastings or a Conroy sister ( now appointed as companions ) were required to accompany her .
In 1835 , Victoria became seriously ill of typhoid fever on the last of the royal tours . Exploiting her weakened state , the Duchess and Conroy unsuccessfully tried to force her into signing a document ; this document would have appointed Conroy her personal secretary upon her ascension . Victoria emerged from the incident more determined than ever to become self @-@ reliant . Her increased intransigence alarmed the Duchess . At her behest , family adviser Baron Stockmar investigated , recommending to the Duchess that she dismiss Conroy and make peace with her daughter . But Conroy easily convinced the Duchess to ignore Stockmar 's advice . Even after Victoria 's eighteenth birthday on 24 May 1837 , Conroy continued to pressure her to appoint him as her private secretary or acknowledge her need for a regent until she turned twenty @-@ one .
= = = Victoria in power = = =
The king died just weeks after Victoria 's eighteenth birthday and she succeeded him as queen . Conroy was the subject of numerous discussions Victoria had with Stockmar on the first day of her reign . At the same time , Conroy created a list of demands to give to Stockmar with the intent that he pass them on to Prime Minister , Lord Melbourne . Conroy demanded " a pension of 3 @,@ 000 pounds a year , the Grand Cross of the Bath , a peerage and a seat on the Privy Council . " Victoria left the negotiating to Melbourne , who agreed to most of Conroy 's demands , most likely to avoid a scandal . On the advice of Melbourne , Conroy was granted a baronetcy and a pension of £ 3 @,@ 000 per annum . This did not satisfy Conroy , who continued in the following years to petition Victoria for an Irish peerage . Each request was refused , as the peerage would have enabled him to attend court .
One of Victoria 's first acts as queen was to dismiss Conroy from her own household , though she could not dismiss him from her mother 's . Queen Victoria , as an unmarried young woman , was still expected to live with her mother , but she relegated the Duchess and Conroy to remote apartments at Buckingham Palace , cutting off personal contact with them . The Duchess unsuccessfully insisted that Conroy and his family be allowed at court ; Victoria disagreed , saying : " I thought you would not expect me to invite Sir John Conroy after his conduct towards me for some years past . " In 1839 , the Duke of Wellington convinced Conroy to leave the Duchess 's household and take his family to the Continent in effective exile . The Times reported that he no longer had official duties , though they were unsure if he had resigned or been dismissed . That year rumours abounded that Lady Flora Hastings , whose abdomen had grown large , was pregnant by Conroy . A subsequent medical investigation concluded that Lady Flora was a virgin and she died from liver cancer several months later . This scandal , in tandem with the Bedchamber Crisis , damaged Victoria 's reputation .
In 1842 , Conroy settled at his family home in Arborfield Hall near Reading , Berkshire and became a gentleman farmer , winning prizes for his pig breeding . He founded the Montgomery Regiment of Militia in 1849 . Despite his pensions and ownership of properties and lead mines in Wales , Conroy was in substantial debt when he died on 2 March 1854 at Arborfield . His eldest son Edward succeeded him to the baronetcy . After his death , the Duchess of Kent finally agreed to open her financial accounts and acknowledged that significant funds were missing . She was moved to admit that Conroy had swindled her while at the same time hurting her relationship with Victoria for his own benefit . A rapprochement followed between mother and daughter .
= = = = Finances of Princess Sophia = = = =
Princess Sophia 's substantial income , provided from the civil list , had allowed Conroy to enjoy a wealthy lifestyle . The princess died in 1848 , leaving only £ 1 @,@ 607 19s 7d in her bank accounts despite a lifestyle of savings and low expenses . The Duke of Cambridge and the Duchess of Gloucester had a lawyer write to Conroy demanding that he account for the rest of their sister Sophia 's funds , but Conroy simply ignored it . According to Flora Fraser , the most recent biographer of George III 's daughters , Princess Sophia had in fact personally spent huge sums on Conroy , including heavy contributions to the purchase prices of his residences and supporting his family in a style he judged appropriate to their position . Conroy ultimately received £ 148 @,@ 000 in gifts and money from Sophia .
In 1850 , the Duchess of Kent 's new comptroller , Sir George Couper , studied the old accounts . He found huge discrepancies . No records for her household or personal expenses had been kept after 1829 . There was also no record of nearly £ 50 @,@ 000 the Duchess had received from her brother , Leopold , nor of an additional £ 10 @,@ 000 from William IV .
= = Historiography = =
After Conroy 's departure from Victoria 's service in 1837 , a popular song read :
Conroy goes not to Court , the reason 's plainKing John has played his part and ceased to reign .
Following his death in 1854 , The Times published a positive obituary that declared " the name , person and character of Sir John Conroy are so well and , in many respects , so favourably known in English society that we have no doubt the announcement of his death will be received with feelings of general regret " . The article briefly summarised his lifetime and praised Conroy for " considerable shrewdness , no small knowledge of human nature and a very winning address " as well as " devoting himself with great zeal and assiduity " to members of the Royal Family .
Described in his own lifetime as a " ridiculous fellow " , Conroy has not been the recipient of much recent positive historical opinion . Twentieth @-@ century historian Christopher Hibbert writes that Conroy was a " good @-@ looking man of insinuating charm , tall , imposing , vain , clever , unscrupulous , plausible and of limitless ambition . " For her part , twenty @-@ first century historian Gillian Gill describes Conroy as " a career adventurer , expert manipulator and domestic martinet " who came to England with " small means , some ability and mighty ambition . " In 2004 , Elizabeth Longford wrote that Conroy " was not the arch @-@ villain Victoria painted , but the victim of his own inordinate ambition . "
= = = Suspected lover of the Duchess = = =
Conroy 's relationship with the Duchess was the subject of much speculation both before and after his death in 1854 . When the Duke of Wellington was asked if the Duchess and Conroy were lovers , he replied that he " supposed so " . In August 1829 , Wellington reported to court diarist Charles Greville that Victoria , then ten years old , had caught Conroy and her mother engaged in " some familiarities " . Victoria told her governess , Baroness Lehzen , who in turn told Madame de Spaeth , one of the Duchess 's ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . De Spaeth confronted the Duchess about the relationship and was immediately dismissed . All of this was recorded by Greville ; his subsequent diary entry has led to the persistent belief that the Duchess and Conroy were lovers . Later , as an aged Queen , Victoria was aghast to discover that many people did indeed believe that her mother and Conroy were intimate and stated that the Duchess ' piety would have prevented this .
= = = Rumour that Conroy was Queen Victoria 's father = = =
During Victoria 's lifetime and after her death in 1901 , there have been rumours that Conroy or someone else , and not the Duke of Kent , was her biological father . Historians have continued to debate the accuracy and validity of these claims . In his 2003 work The Victorians , biographer A. N. Wilson suggests that Victoria was not actually descended from George III because several of her descendants had haemophilia , which was unknown among her recognised ancestors . Haemophilia is a genetic disease that impairs the body 's ability to control blood clotting , which is used to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is broken ; it is carried in the female line but the symptoms manifest mostly in males . Wilson proposes that the Duchess of Kent took a lover ( not necessarily Conroy ) to ensure that a Coburg would sit on the British throne .
Likewise , medical historian W. T. W. Potts considers it a possibility that the Duchess took a lover under pressure from her brother Leopold . He cites the rarity of genetic mutations as evidence , as well as the " remarkable " circumstances surrounding Victoria 's conception . Potts makes no mention of Conroy specifically , only that the father would have been a haemophiliac himself or would have had a mutated gene .
Haemophilia B has been known to arise spontaneously in the children of older fathers , and Victoria 's father was fifty @-@ one when she was born . Nicholas Wright Gillham proposes that the haemophilia mutation could have first occurred with either Victoria or the Duke of Kent . Gillian Gill and her son Christopher , an infectious disease specialist , also view a genetic mutation as the most likely possibility ; Gillian Gill writes that " a few historians in recent years have found it seductive " to doubt Victoria 's stated paternity because a random mutation is " an unexciting solution " . Helen Rappaport concurs , remarking that " the best and most logical " explanation is that haemophilia first appeared in Victoria as a mutation .
Alan Rushton adds that no one in the household of the newly married Duchess of Kent , including Conroy , is known to have had haemophilia , and that her probable awareness of the scandals surrounding the behaviour of Caroline of Brunswick and Caroline Matilda of Great Britain would have deterred her from seeking an affair elsewhere . Furthermore , Princess Victoria was said to have borne a strong family resemblance to her father and grandfather George III .
There is evidence that some of Victoria 's descendants did have mild porphyria , most notably Princess Feodora of Saxe @-@ Meiningen . This disease may have affected her grandfather , George III and this could give credence to Victoria 's legitimate birth . There is more reliable documentation that one of her great @-@ great @-@ grandsons , Prince William of Gloucester , was diagnosed with the disease shortly before his death when his aircraft crashed during an air race . Concrete evidence on the origins of the disease and paternity of Victoria could be achieved with a DNA test of her or her parents ' remains , but no such study has been sanctioned by the Royal Family .
= = In popular culture = =
Conroy has been portrayed numerous times in film and television . Herbert Wilcox 's Victoria the Great ( 1937 ) depicted Conroy as a " smarmy character " who is not well developed in the film . The baronet was played by Stefan Skodler in 1954 's The Story of Vickie , and Herbert Hübner in Mädchenjahre einer Königin ( 1936 ) . Patrick Malahide played Conroy in Victoria & Albert , a 2001 TV miniseries that depicted Victoria 's early influences . English actor Mark Strong played him in the 2009 film The Young Victoria . The film depicts Conroy as a maniacal controlling pseudo @-@ father to the young Victoria during the year preceding her ascension even going so far as depicting him assaulting the princess twice . The film goes on to depict Conroy 's expulsion from Queen Victoria 's household .
Conroy also appears in numerous historical fiction novels about Queen Victoria . Writing under the pen names Jean Plaidy and Eleanor Burford , author Eleanor Hibbert published a series of novels in the 1970s and 1980s , which included The Captive of Kensington Palace ( 1972 ) , The Queen and Lord M ( 1973 ) and Victoria Victorious : The Story of Queen Victoria ( 1985 ) . A. E. Moorat released the parody novel Queen Victoria : Demon Hunter in 2009 .
= = Patrilineal Descent = =
Conroy was descended from the Ó Maolconaire family of Elphin , Co.Roscommon. The family had been the hereditary Ollamhs to the O 'Connor Kings of Connacht . He was descended from Maoilin Ó Maolchonaire who was the last recognised Chief of the Sept .
Torna Mór Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept , d . 1435
Seán Rua Ó Maolchonaire
Domhnall Rua Ó Maolchonaire , d . 1504
Conchobhar Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept , d . 1533
Maolmhuire Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept
Maoilin Ó Maolchonaire , Last Chief of the Sept , d . 1637
Torna Ó Maolchonaire
Seán Ó Maolchonaire , d . 1672 fighting for the French during the Franco @-@ Dutch War
Ferfeasa Conry , d . 1746
John Conry of Elphin , d . 1769
John Conry , d . 1795
Sir John Ponsonby Conroy , 1st Baronet ( 1786 -1854 )
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= Hurricane Diane =
Hurricane Diane was the costliest Atlantic hurricane of its time . One of three hurricanes to hit North Carolina during the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed on August 7 from a tropical wave between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . Diane initially moved west @-@ northwestward with little change in its intensity , but began to strengthen rapidly after turning to the north @-@ northeast . On August 12 , the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . Gradually weakening after veering back west , Diane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina , as a strong tropical storm on August 17 , just five days after Hurricane Connie struck near the same area . Diane weakened further after moving inland , at which point the United States Weather Bureau noted a decreased threat of further destruction . The storm turned to the northeast , and warm waters from the Atlantic Ocean helped produce record rainfall across the northeastern United States . On August 19 , Diane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City , becoming extratropical two days later and completely dissipating by August 23 .
The first area affected by Diane was North Carolina , which suffered coastal flooding but little wind and rain damage . After the storm weakened in Virginia , it maintained an area of moisture that resulted in heavy rainfall after interacting with the Blue Ridge Mountains , a process known as orographic lift . Flooding affected roads and low @-@ lying areas along the Potomac River . The northernmost portion of Delaware also saw freshwater flooding , although to a much lesser extent than adjacent states . Diane produced heavy rainfall in eastern Pennsylvania , causing the worst floods on record there , largely in the Poconos and along the Delaware River . Rushing waters demolished about 150 road and rail bridges and breached or destroyed 30 dams . The swollen Brodhead Creek virtually submerged a summer camp , killing 37 people . Throughout Pennsylvania , the disaster killed 101 people and caused an estimated $ 70 million in damage ( 1955 USD ) . Additional flooding spread through the northwest portion of neighboring New Jersey , forcing hundreds of people to evacuate and destroying several bridges , including one built in 1831 . Storm damage was evident but less significant in southeastern New York .
Damage from Diane was heaviest in Connecticut , where rainfall peaked at 16 @.@ 86 in ( 428 mm ) near Torrington . The storm produced the state 's largest flood on record , which effectively split the state into two by destroying bridges and cutting communications . All major streams and valleys were flooded , and 30 stream gauges reported their highest levels on record . The Connecticut River at Hartford reached a water level of 30 @.@ 6 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , the third highest on record there . The flooding destroyed a large section of downtown Winsted , much of which was never rebuilt . Record @-@ high tides and flooded rivers heavily damaged Woonsocket , Rhode Island . In Massachusetts , flood water levels surpassed those during the 1938 Long Island hurricane , breaching multiple dams and inundating adjacent towns and roads . Throughout New England , 206 dams were damaged or destroyed , and about 7 @,@ 000 people were injured . Nationwide , Diane killed at least 184 people and destroyed 813 houses , with another 14 @,@ 000 homes heavily damaged . Monetary losses totaled $ 754 @.@ 7 million , although the inclusion of loss of business and personal revenue increased the total to over $ 1 billion . In the hurricane 's wake , eight states were declared federal disaster areas , and the name Diane was retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Diane originated in a tropical wave first observed as a tropical depression on August 7 between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The system moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 9 . By the time the Weather Bureau first classified the storm on August 10 , Diane was south of the Bermuda high , a semi @-@ permanent ridge in the jet stream just east of Nova Scotia . Ships in the region of the storm reported winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . During the next day , the Hurricane Hunters reported no increase in strength , and Diane initially remained disorganized . The storm interacted with Hurricane Connie to its northwest in a process known as the Fujiwhara effect , in which Diane turned toward the north . Quick intensification ensued , potentially due to interaction with a cold @-@ core low that increased atmospheric instability . On August 12 , the storm rapidly intensified into a hurricane . The intensification was so quick that a ship southeast of the center believed Diane was undergoing a loop due to a steady drop in barometric pressure , despite moving away from the hurricane .
At its peak , Diane developed a well @-@ defined eye about 30 mi ( 48 km ) in diameter , described by reconnaissance aircraft as taking the shape of an " inverted teacup " . The strongest winds were located in the northeast quadrant , where there was a secondary pressure minimum located 62 mi ( 100 km ) northeast of the eye . After moving to the north for about a day , Diane resumed its westward motion on August 13 , after Hurricane Connie to the northwest had weakened . That day , Diane reached its lowest pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and peak winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) ; originally the hurricane was analyzed to reach peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , although the large size and slow forward speed suggested the lower winds . It maintained its peak winds for about 12 hours , after which it weakened due to cooler air in the region . By August 15 , the eye had become poorly defined , and winds steadily weakened . As it approached land , its center deteriorated , with minimal precipitation near the center ; the eye was observed on a radar installed in July 1955 . On August 17 , Diane made landfall on the coast of North Carolina near Wilmington . Pressure at landfall was estimated at 986 millibars ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , accompanied by winds just under hurricane intensity . Diane struck the state only five days after Hurricane Connie struck the same general area .
Diane quickly weakened as a tropical storm over the mountainous terrain of central North Carolina . The associated area of precipitation expanded and spread away from the center to the north and northeast . The weakening system turned to the north and recurved toward the northeast through Virginia after a ridge built in from the west . It did not interact much with the non @-@ tropical westerlies , and as a result it remained a distinct tropical cyclone over land . Convection redeveloped as the storm approached the Atlantic coast once again . Diane passed through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , exiting New Jersey on August 19 into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City . Paralleling the southern coast of New England , the storm later accelerated east @-@ northeastward , becoming extratropical on August 21 . Passing south and east of Newfoundland , the remnants of Diane accelerated and restrengthened slightly while moving to the northeast . Late on August 23 , the storm dissipated between Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations and background = =
Late on August 14 , more than two days before Diane made landfall , the United States Weather Bureau issued a hurricane alert from Georgia through North Carolina . On August 15 , the agency issued a hurricane warning from Brunswick , Georgia to Wilmington , North Carolina , although the warning was later extended to the south and north to Fernandina , Florida and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , respectively . The agency also issued storm warnings southward to Saint Augustine , Florida and northward to Atlantic City , New Jersey , including the Chesapeake and Delaware bays . Throughout the warned region , small ships were advised to remain at port . Before Diane made landfall , the North Carolina National Guard assisted in evacuating people near the Pamlico River , and 700 residents left their homes near New Bern ; thousands of tourists also evacuated . The threat of the hurricane forced the planned retirement ceremony for Admiral Robert Carney to be transferred from an aircraft carrier in Norfolk , Virginia to an academy dormitory . All aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point were flown to safer locations further inland .
All hurricane warnings were dropped after Diane moved inland . Forecasters downplayed the threat of Diane after it weakened over Virginia ; the Weather Bureau agreed they did not foresee the extent of the rain that would occur , instead calling for just " some local flooding " . The agency later admitted they " goofed " in downplaying the storm 's destructive potential after weakening , noting their lack of experience with extreme rainfall events . Once the storm moved ashore , the Weather Bureau transferred official forecasting duties to regional offices , and local newspapers also issued their own forecasts . The Springfield Daily News in Massachusetts noted that " moderate rains [ were ] possible " in its daily weather forecast ahead of the storm . Still , flood warnings were issued , with stream flooding forecasts of over 12 hours in advance . Along smaller rivers , including the Lehigh , Schuylkill , and Farmington , forecasts were issued every few hours .
In the summer of 1955 , the eastern United States experienced generally hot and dry weather , leading to drought conditions and decreased water levels . When Hurricane Connie struck , its rainfall moistened the soil and heightened creeks throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . Hurricane Diane struck North Carolina just five days later and affected the same general area . After floods in 1936 , the United States federal government enacted plans to prevent future devastating floods , although they made no progress by the time Connie and Diane struck in 1955 . Along the Delaware River in the 1930s , state legislatures in New Jersey and Pennsylvania had established a commission that worked to clean up polluted water , but the legislators and commission blocked federal help , comparing it to European socialism ; this was in contrast to the federally funded Tennessee Valley Authority , which mitigated flooding along the Tennessee River .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Diane 's path over the eastern United States brought heavy rainfall , fueled by unusually moist air resulting from abnormally high sea surface temperatures . The worst flooding was in eastern Pennsylvania , northern New Jersey , southeastern New York , and southern New England . Of the 287 stream gauges in the region , 129 reported record levels during the course of the event . Many streams reported discharge rates of more than double the previous records . Most of the flooding occurred along small rivers that rose to flood stage within hours , largely impacting populated areas ; there were around 30 million people in the region affected by the floods . Overall , 813 houses were destroyed , with 14 @,@ 000 heavily damaged . The floods severed infrastructure and affected several summer camps . Damage to public utilities was estimated at $ 79 million . Flooding in rural areas resulted in landslides in the mountains , while destroyed crops cost an estimated $ 7 million . Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed , accounting for $ 82 million in damage . Damage from Diane 's winds were generally minor . The hurricane caused $ 754 @,@ 706 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1955 USD ) , of which $ 600 million was in New England , making it the costliest hurricane in American history at the time . Taking into account indirect losses , such as loss of wages and business earnings , Diane was described as " the first billion dollar hurricane . " This contributed to 1955 being the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record at the time . Overall , there were at least 184 deaths , potentially as many as 200 .
= = = Carolinas = = =
The strongest sustained winds associated with Diane 's landfall in North Carolina reached 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in Hatteras , with gusts to 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) in Wilmington . Any hurricane @-@ force gusts were likely very sporadic and isolated in nature . Tides ran 6 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal near Wilmington , and waves 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height struck the coast . The resultant storm surge damaged beach houses , flooded coastal roads , and destroyed seawalls damaged by Hurricane Connie a few days prior . The center of the hurricane passed over Wilmington without much of a decrease in winds , suggesting the eye was disorganized or even nonexistent . Little precipitation fell in and around the city , though precipitation was more substantial elsewhere in the state , peaking at 7 @.@ 04 in ( 179 mm ) in New Bern . At Oakway in neighboring South Carolina , rainfall amounted to 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
After Diane crossed into Virginia , it dropped heavy rainfall of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) in 24 hours in the Blue Ridge Mountains , peaking at 11 @.@ 72 in ( 298 mm ) in Big Meadows . There , the rains were enhanced by moist air rising over the mountain peaks and condensing , a process known as orographic lift . Rainfall of over 3 in ( 76 mm ) occurred throughout Virginia , as well as into the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia , where 5 @.@ 71 in ( 145 mm ) was reported at Stony River Reservoir . Similar precipitation amounts fell through Delaware , including 3 @.@ 27 in ( 83 mm ) at the National Arboretum in Washington , D.C. Rivers across the region rose above flood stage , including the James River which crested at 30 @.@ 4 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) in Columbia , Virginia , which was 14 @.@ 6 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage . High amounts of rainfall accrued in eastern Pennsylvania , peaking at 11 @.@ 11 in ( 282 mm ) in Pecks Pond in the northeast portion of the state . As with Virginia , the heaviest rainfall occurred due to orographic lift near a mountain . In neighboring New Jersey , the highest precipitation was 8 @.@ 10 in ( 206 mm ) near Sussex . Rainfall in New York peaked at 9 @.@ 05 in ( 230 mm ) in Lake Mohonk .
In Virginia , severe flooding occurred near Richmond and along the Blue Ridge Mountains . Near the coast , Diane damaged large areas of farmlands due to slow @-@ moving floods . In the state , 21 gauges reported their highest levels on record . High levels along the Potomac River flooded low @-@ lying portions of Virginia and Washington , D.C. Wind gusts reached 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Roanoke . In the state , flooding covered several roads , prompting closures . Due to the flat terrain , flooding in Delaware was described by the United States Geological Survey as " comparably mild " . Flooding along the Brandywine Creek was at least the fifth highest in 45 years . Flooding was worst in the northernmost portion of the state .
Flooding began in many streams in eastern Pennsylvania on August 18 . The Delaware River crested at over 40 ft ( 12 m ) in Easton , which was 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the previous record set in 1903 . In Allentown , the Lehigh River crested at 23 @.@ 4 ft ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) , surpassing the previous record of 21 @.@ 7 ft ( 6 @.@ 6 m ) set in 1942 . The floods were the worst in record across eastern portions of the state , notably in the Poconos and along all tributaries of the Delaware River from Honesdale to Philadelphia . Lake Wallenpaupack and other reservoirs mitigated flooding . Floods destroyed 17 bridges and 55 mi ( 89 km ) of track along the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad , which is the primary rail line in northeastern Pennsylvania . Damage to the line totaled several million dollars , and overall railroad damage in the state totaled $ 16 million . Hundreds of cars were damaged in the region . Damage extended into Philadelphia due to flooding along the Schuylkill River , but the damage was minor . In the small village of Upper Black Eddy , hundreds of people became homeless , and the post office was washed away . Statewide , the floods destroyed or breached 30 dams , and destroyed about 150 road of rail bridges . Flooding left home and factory damage in the Allentown area . In the Poconos in Pennsylvania , the Brodhead Creek nearly destroyed a camp , killing 37 people , mostly children . Many people at the camp fled to a lodge that was ultimately destroyed . The Brodhead Creek also washed out a bridge along U.S. Route 209 between Stroudsburg and East Stroudsburg , flooding both cities . There were about 75 deaths in the area , and another 10 deaths occurred in Greentown due to flooding along the Lackawaxen River . Overall , there were 101 deaths in the state , and damage totaled at least $ 70 million .
In New Jersey , flooding largely occurred north of Trenton and west of Perth Amboy ; rainfall in the southern two – thirds of the state was less than 3 in ( 76 mm ) . The three major rivers in the area - the Delaware , Passaic , and Raritan - had severe flooding , and damage was widespread . When the Millstone River flooded , two teenagers drowned while canoeing , and a police officer drowned while attempting to rescue them . About 200 families were evacuated in Oakland along the Ramapo River . Damage in the state was heaviest along the Delaware from Port Jervis , New York to Trenton , where flooding inundated adjacent towns . Between the two towns , all but two bridges were damaged , including four that were destroyed . About 500 children had to be rescued from camps on three islands in the Delaware River ; they were airlifted to a high school in Frenchtown . In that city , about 200 people were forced to evacuate their houses along the water . In Trenton , workers used sandbags to prevent flooding from affecting government buildings . Flooding destroyed the Portland – Columbia Pedestrian Bridge , first constructed in 1831 , after most of it was submerged . The center of the Northampton Street Bridge between Easton , Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg , New Jersey collapsed . A dam near Branchville collapsed , flooding the town and causing heavy damage . About 200 homes were damaged or destroyed in Lambertville . Statewide , 93 homes were destroyed . Damage was estimated at $ 27 @.@ 5 million .
Flash floods occurred in mountainous regions of southeastern New York , including Port Jervis along the Delaware River . Wappinger Creek flooded to cause heavy damage . Most streams in the Rondout Creek basin left damage due to fast @-@ moving waters , including heavy damage near Ellenville . Damage in New York was largely limited to an area between Port Jervis and Poughkeepsie . Several bridges were destroyed along the Bash Bish Brook , and portions of U.S. Route 209 were flooded . Damage totaled $ 16 @.@ 2 million , and there was one death in the state .
= = = New England = = =
Diane produced heavy rainfall after recurving inland , setting rainfall records in several areas . Windsor Locks , Connecticut reported 12 @.@ 05 in ( 306 mm ) in a 23 ‑ hour period ; the station 's total , located near Hartford , was 5 @.@ 32 in ( 135 mm ) higher than the 24 ‑ hour rainfall record in Hartford . Some locations along the Housatonic River experienced 0 @.@ 75 in ( 19 mm ) per hour over 24 hours . The highest total in the state was 16 @.@ 86 in ( 428 mm ) at a station near Torrington . This is the highest rainfall on record in the state . The highest rainfall in the United States related to the storm was 19 @.@ 75 in ( 502 mm ) in Westfield , Massachusetts , which was also the wettest known storm in the state 's history as well as throughout New England . Other statewide rainfall maxima in New England included 8 @.@ 45 in ( 215 mm ) in Greenville , Rhode Island , 4 @.@ 34 in ( 110 mm ) in Essex Junction , Vermont , 3 @.@ 31 in ( 84 mm ) in Fitzwilliam , New Hampshire , and 0 @.@ 62 in ( 16 mm ) at Long Falls Dam in Maine . Throughout New England , 206 dams were damaged or destroyed , mostly in the region south of Worcester , Massachusetts . About 7 @,@ 000 people were injured throughout New England , most of whom in Connecticut .
Damage was greatest in Connecticut , where floods affected about two @-@ thirds of the state . It was the largest flood on record in the state 's history . All major streams and valleys were flooded during the storm , including hundreds of tributaries , and 30 gauges in the state reported the highest level on record . The Connecticut River at Hartford reached the third @-@ highest level on record at the time , cresting at 30 @.@ 6 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , or 14 @.@ 6 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage . Although there was rural damage , the city of Hartford was spared from flooding due to previously constructed dykes . The Naugatuck River had significant flooding that damaged or destroyed every bridge across it and did extensive damage in Ansonia . In Waterbury , the river washed buildings and railroad girders into a bridge . In the city , 30 people were killed , including 26 in 13 houses that were washed away in one block . The Quinebaug River flooded the city of Putnam at the same time that a major fire originated at a magnesium plant . Much of the commercial district of Winsted was destroyed by the Mad River , which reached 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep ; the floods destroyed most buildings on the south side of the town 's Main Street , and carried away several cars from a car dealership . The local newspaper reported that 95 % of businesses were destroyed or severely damaged in Winsted . High rivers destroyed historical sites and buildings , and statewide Diane destroyed 563 houses . There were 77 deaths in the state and $ 350 million in damage . Most of the damage in the state was industrial or commercial damage .
In Rhode Island , flooding was worst in the northern portion of the state , mostly along the Blackstone River , which expanded to a width of about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The Horseshoe Dam was washed out , causing heavy damage in Woonsocket . There , about 6 @,@ 000 of its 50 @,@ 000 residents were left unemployed . Record high tides were also reported . In Rhode Island , damage was estimated at $ 21 million , mostly in Woonsocket , and there were three deaths .
Much of southern Massachusetts , from its border with New York toward Worcester and to the ocean , experienced flooding . Most streams in western Massachusetts overflowed their banks , and in southeastern Massachusetts , which is largely flat terrain , streams flooded large areas along their channels ; these streams moved slowly , while other areas in New England sustained damage due to the fast @-@ moving nature of the floods . Record flooding was reported along 24 stream gauges in the state , including ones that surpassed the peak set by the 1938 New England hurricane . Both the Charles and Neponset rivers were among those that flooded . About 40 % of the city of Worcester was flooded during Diane , and in Russell , the state police forced many residents to evacuate . In Weymouth , the floods were considered at least a 1 in 50 year event . The Little River in Buffumville , Massachusetts had a peak discharge of 8 @,@ 340 ft ³ / s ( 236 m ³ / s ) , which was 6 @.@ 2 times greater than the previous peak and 28 @.@ 5 times the average annual flooding . Flooded rivers breached run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams and covered nearby roadways , although dams with reservoirs resulted in less flooding . Nearly all dams along the French River were severely damaged or destroyed . One failed dam in West Auburn washed out a portion of U.S. Route 20 , and the same route was washed out near Charlton . An overflown brook also damaged the Massachusetts Turnpike . A train on the Boston and Albany Railroad line plunged into a washed out portion along the Westfield River . Along the same river , floods destroyed roads and tobacco farms . In the state , 97 houses were destroyed . Damage in Massachusetts was second worst of the affected states , totaling $ 110 million ; the damage was largely due to flooded basements . There were 12 deaths in the state .
= = Aftermath = =
In Diane 's immediate aftermath , one of the first priorities in response was to distribute adequate inoculations for typhoid amongst the widespread areas left without clean drinking water . The United States Army assisted in search and rescue operations using helicopters . After the floods of Hurricane Diane , more than 100 @,@ 000 people fled to shelter or away from their houses . The American Red Cross quickly provided aid to the affected residents , using churches and public buildings to house homeless people . In the two weeks after the storm , Americans donated about $ 10 million to the Red Cross . The countries of Great Britain , Netherlands , Australia , Canada , France , Austria , and Venezuela offered aid to help the flood victims , sending emergency supplies . Additional flooding affected New England in September and October 1955 , although neither was as major as those caused by Hurricane Diane . Following Diane , hundreds of companies affected by the flooding installed waterproof doors and windows to preempt similar disasters in the future .
President Dwight Eisenhower declared eight states as disaster areas , making them eligible for federal aid . The Small Business Administration opened 18 temporary offices in the eastern United States for people to take out disaster loan applications . In the months after the storm , both the United States federal government and the American Red Cross had difficulty raising enough funds for the storm victims ; collectively , the Red Cross , the Small Business Administration , and Farmers Home Administration raised $ 37 million , which was less than 8 % of Diane 's damage total . Throughout 1955 , the Red Cross assisted about 10 @,@ 000 families in New England and the Mid @-@ Atlantic states ; some of the families received aid to move to a new house not in a flood zone . The Small Business Administration provided about 1 @,@ 600 loans , totaling $ 25 million , for small businesses . Senator Herbert H. Lehman proposed a $ 12 billion federal flood insurance program . In 1956 , the United States Congress passed the Federal Flood Insurance Act , but the program was not enacted due to lack of funding . A nationwide flood program was not enacted until the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 . After the floods from Diane , the American federal government provided funding for the Army Corps of Engineers to construct dams and reservoirs throughout New England to mitigate future flooding . In about 14 years , the Corps built 29 dams in Connecticut alone at the cost of $ 70 million , including three along the Connecticut River . The federal government restored plans from the 1930s to build dams along the Delaware River , one of which along Tocks Island . A controversy arose there due to the 40 mi ( 64 km ) long reservoir the dam would have created , causing 600 families to be displaced . The project was canceled in 1975 , and the acquired lands became the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area .
In Pennsylvania , washed @-@ out rail lines prevented operation along the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad for several weeks , and lines reopened after about two months . The expense of reopening , and the loss of being closed , led to the railroad merging with the Erie Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna Railway in 1960 . One stranded train along the line prompted a helicopter to rescue 235 people . Flooding along the Lehigh River destroyed 15 industrial plants , which left more than 15 @,@ 000 people near Allentown , Pennsylvania without work temporarily . The mayor of Scranton declared a state of emergency due to the floods , ordering all businesses to close . United States Army soldiers provided water to residents after the town lost its water supply . Elsewhere , the Pennsylvania National Guard was on duty on streets in damaged towns , including 50 to prevent looting in Upper Black Eddy , which was one of the hardest hit towns . Helicopters assisted in discovering bodies at Camp David , where many deaths occurred during the storm . Statewide , thousands of people were left homeless . In Stroudsburg , there was a food shortage , and officials enacted a curfew , after reports of looting . In the same city , water was shipped in milk cartons to the flood victims , which later inspired a Federal Civil Defense Administration proposal to use water packaged in milk containers in the event of a nuclear attack . The state government implemented a tax on cigarettes to help pay for storm damage , which lasted for about two years ; this was partially due to a lack of significant funding from the federal government . Pennsylvania also enacted an increase in the gasoline tax that was later made permanent to pay for the Interstate Highway System . The two taxes , each an increase of 1 penny , totaled $ 71 million , a part of which was set aside for future disasters . The experience of the storm 's aftermath provided the basis for the aftermath for Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . In New Jersey , Governor Robert B. Meyner declared the floods as the state 's worst natural disaster .
After the Naugatuck River flood in Connecticut cut off communications and bridges , the state was effectively cut in two . The state 's National Guard used helicopters to rescue people . Governor Abraham A. Ribicoff visited areas affected by the flooding , due to the damage , Connecticut was declared a federal disaster area on August 20 . The declaration allocated $ 25 million in assistance to the state . Governor Ribicoff requested $ 34 million in funds to rebuild and produce future flood mitigation projects ; the state 's funding was paid by a combination of bonds and tax increases . Including subsequent storms , the 1955 floods cumulatively killed 91 people and left 1 @,@ 100 families homeless . Flooding occurred in 67 towns , resulting in damage to 20 @,@ 000 families . About 86 @,@ 000 people were left unemployed after the floods . In Winsted , the buildings that were washed away along the south side of Main Street were never rebuilt .
Massachusetts Governor Christian Herter also issued a state of emergency , due to the widespread flooding damage . As a result , the state 's National Guard and the Army Corps assisted in cleanup , and most roads took three weeks to clear . Residents in areas affected by Diane 's flooding were advised to boil water and not to use gas cooking equipment . Diane 's historic rainfall resulted in the wettest month on record in Boston with a total of 17 in ( 430 mm ) , a record that stands as of 2010 ; Boston 's 24 ‑ hour total of 8 @.@ 4 in ( 210 mm ) remained the highest daily total as of 1996 . Following Diane 's floods , cities in Massachusetts enlarged culverts and improved draining systems , as well as constructing weirs ; these systems helped mitigate against future flooding .
The name Diane was retired from the Atlantic hurricane naming list . Due to the damage from hurricanes in 1954 and 1955 , including Diane , public outcry over storm damage led to the creation of the National Hurricane Center in 1956 . Using a monetary deflator in 2010 United States dollars , the damage from Diane would be about $ 7 @.@ 4 billion , which would have been the 17th highest in the United States . Accounting for inflation , changes in personal wealth , and population changes , it is estimated Diane would have caused $ 18 billion in damage in 2010 , or the 15th highest for a United States hurricane .
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= David Carradine =
David Carradine ( born John Arthur Carradine ; December 8 , 1936 – June 3 , 2009 ) was an American actor and martial artist , best known for his leading role as a peace @-@ loving Shaolin monk , Kwai Chang Caine , in the 1970s television series Kung Fu . He was a member of a productive acting family that began with his father , John Carradine . Carradine 's acting career , which included major and minor roles on stage and television , and in cinema , spanned over four decades . A prolific " B " movie actor , he appeared in more than 100 feature films and was nominated four times for a Golden Globe Award . The last nomination was for his title role in Quentin Tarantino 's Kill Bill : Volume 2 ( 2004 ) .
Films that featured Carradine continued to be released after his death . These posthumous credits were from a variety of genres including action , documentaries , drama , horror , martial arts , science fiction , and westerns . In addition to his acting career , Carradine was a director and musician . Moreover , influenced by his most popular acting role , he studied martial arts .
He had been frequently arrested and prosecuted for a variety of offenses , which often involved substance abuse . He died on June 3 , 2009 , from asphyxiation , in a hotel room in Bangkok , Thailand ; the main report states it was an auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation ; though some have said he may have been murdered .
= = Early life = =
Carradine was born on December 8 , 1936 as John Arthur Carradine , in Hollywood , California , the oldest child of actor John Carradine and his wife Ardanelle ( McCool ) . He was a half @-@ brother of Bruce , Keith , Christopher , and Robert Carradine , and an uncle of Ever Carradine and Martha Plimpton . Primarily of Irish descent , he was a great @-@ grandson of Methodist evangelical author Beverly Carradine and a grandnephew of artist Will Foster .
Called Jack by his family , Carradine 's childhood was turbulent . For example , his parents divorced and repeatedly remarried ; he was born to his mother 's second marriage of three , and his father 's first of four . At the time of Carradine 's parents ' marriage , his mother already had a son by her first husband , whom John adopted . John Carradine planned a large family , but after his wife had a series of miscarriages , he discovered she had had numerous illegal abortions without his knowledge . This rendered her unable to carry a baby to full term . Against this backdrop of marital discord , Jack almost succeeded in committing suicide by hanging at the age of five . He said the incident followed his discovery that he and his older half @-@ brother Bruce , who had been adopted by John , had different biological fathers . Carradine added , " My father saved me , and then confiscated my comic book collection and burned it – which was scarcely the point " .
After three years of marriage , Ardenelle filed for divorce from John , but the couple remained married for another five years . Divorce finally came in 1944 , when Jack was seven years old . His father left California to avoid court action in the alimony settlement . After the couple engaged in a series of court battles over child custody and alimony , which at one point landed John in jail , Jack joined his father in New York City . By this time , his father had remarried . For the next few years Jack was shuffled between boarding schools , foster homes , and reform school . He also would often accompany his father while the elder Carradine performed summer theater throughout the Northeast . The boy spent time in Massachusetts and even one miserable winter milking cows on a farm in Vermont .
Eventually , Jack Carradine returned to California , where he graduated from Oakland High School . He attended Oakland Junior College ( currently Laney College ) for a year before transferring to San Francisco State College , where he studied drama and music theory , and wrote music for the drama department 's annual revues while juggling work at menial jobs , a fledgling stage acting career , and his studies . After he dropped out of college , Carradine spent some time with the " beatniks " of San Francisco 's North Beach and southern California 's Venice . During this time he collected unemployment insurance and sold baby pictures . He was also prosecuted for disturbing the peace .
Despite an attempt to dodge the draft , in 1960 Carradine was inducted into the United States Army , where he drew pictures for training aids . That Christmas he married his high school sweetheart , Donna Lee Becht . While stationed at Fort Eustis , Virginia he helped to establish a theater company which became known as the " entertainment unit " . He met fellow inductee , Larry Cohen , who later cast him in Q , The Winged Serpent . He also faced court @-@ martial for shoplifting . In 1962 , Donna gave birth to their daughter , Calista . Carradine was honorably discharged after a two @-@ year tour .
= = Film and television career = =
= = = Early successes = = =
Upon leaving the Army , Carradine became serious about his acting pursuits . It was at that time that he was advised to change his name to avoid confusion with his famous father . In 1963 , he made his television debut on an episode of Armstrong Circle Theatre . Several other television roles were to follow including appearances on Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre , and The Alfred Hitchcock Hour . He made his feature film debut in 1964 in Taggart , a western based on a novel by Louis L 'Amour .
His first " big break " , however , came with his second Broadway part in The Royal Hunt of the Sun , a play by Peter Shaffer about the destruction of the Inca empire by conquistador Francisco Pizarro . He said of this performance , " Many of the important roles that I got later on were because the guy who was going to hire me was in that audience and had his mind blown . " For that part , Carradine won a Theatre World Award for Best Debut Performance in 1965 .
With the closing of The Royal Hunt of the Sun , and the failing of his marriage , Carradine left New York and headed back to California . He returned to TV to star in the short @-@ lived series Shane , a 1966 western based upon a 1949 novel of the same name and previously filmed in 1953 .
Carradine guest @-@ starred opposite David McCallum in a 1971 episode of Night Gallery entitled " The Phantom Farmhouse . "
In 1972 , he co @-@ starred as ' Big ' Bill Shelly in one of Martin Scorsese 's earliest films , Boxcar Bertha , which starred Barbara Hershey , his domestic partner at the time ( see Personal life ) . This was one of several Roger Corman productions in which he was to appear . It was also one of a handful of acting collaborations he made with his father , John .
= = = Kung Fu = = =
For three seasons , David Carradine starred as a half @-@ Chinese , half @-@ white Shaolin monk , Kwai Chang Caine , on the ABC hit TV series Kung Fu ( 1972 – 1975 ) and was nominated for an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award for the role . The show , which took place in the Old West , helped to popularize the martial arts and Eastern philosophy in the west , and immortalized the character of Kwai Chang Caine , also referred to as " Grasshopper " , in popular culture .
Although the choice of a white man to play the role of Kwai Chang Caine stirred controversy , the show served as steady employment for several Asian @-@ American actors in the U.S. In addition to Keye Luke and Philip Ahn , who held leading roles in the cast as Caine 's Shaolin masters , Robert Ito , James Hong , Benson Fong , Richard Loo , and Victor Sen Yung frequently appeared in the series . Kung Fu ended when Carradine quit to pursue a movie career , but he reprised the role of Kwai Chang Caine in 1986 in Kung Fu : The Movie . Brandon Lee , son of Bruce Lee , in his acting debut , portrayed his son .
In 1991 , he reprised the role of Caine in a cameo appearance in the TV movie The Gambler Returns : The Luck of the Draw , in which Caine uses his Chinese friends to help the title character in 1903 San Francisco .
Early in the 1990s , Carradine once again reprised the role of Kwai Chang Caine in Kung Fu : The Legend Continues ( 1993 – 97 ) playing the grandson of the original character of the same name . Carradine starred in the program and served as executive producer and director . The program offered him the opportunity to recreate the character for which he was most widely recognized . The show was canceled in 1997 , after four seasons and 88 episodes .
= = = Movie career = = =
Immediately following the Kung Fu series , Carradine accepted the role as the race car driver Frankenstein in Death Race 2000 ( 1975 ) , he said , to " kill the image of Caine and launch a movie career " . The Roger Corman exploitation film became a cult classic . It was based on Ib Melchior 's first science fiction work , a short story called The Racer .
In 1976 , Carradine earned critical praise for his portrayal of folksinger Woody Guthrie in Hal Ashby 's Bound for Glory ( 1976 ) for which he won a National Board of Review Award for Best Actor . He was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award and New York Film Critics Circle Award for his role as Guthrie . Carradine worked very closely with his friend , singer @-@ songwriter @-@ guitarist Guthrie Thomas , on the Bound for Glory film . Thomas assisted Carradine in the guitar style of the period and the songs that had been chosen to be in the film itself .
Next came the role of the alcoholic , unemployed trapeze artist , Abel Rosenberg in The Serpent 's Egg ( 1977 ) . Set in post @-@ World War I Berlin , The Serpent 's Egg , which also starred Liv Ullmann , is together with The Touch one of the two only English @-@ language films made by legendary Swedish director Ingmar Bergman . Bergman said of his leading man , " I don 't believe in God , but Heaven must have sent him . " Carradine said that he and Bergman had plans for further collaboration , but the director 's affection for the actor waned when the latter passionately protested a scene which included the butchering of a horse . The altercation caused Carradine to question the fate of Bergman 's soul while the director declared , " Little Brother , I am an old whore . I have shot two other horses , burned one and strangled a dog . "
In 2000 he had a small part in the movie " By Dawn 's Early Light " .
When Bruce Lee died in 1973 , he left an unreleased movie script that he had developed with James Coburn and Stirling Silliphant called The Silent Flute . The script became Circle of Iron ( 1978 ) , and in the film , Carradine played the four roles that were originally intended for Lee . Carradine considered this to be among his best work .
In 1980 Carradine appeared in The Long Riders ( 1980 ) , with his half @-@ brothers Keith and Robert Carradine . The ensemble cast included three other brother / actor groupings : Stacy and James Keach ; Dennis and Randy Quaid , and Christopher and Nicholas Guest . The movie , which was about the Jesse James gang , gave Carradine , who played Cole Younger , one of his most memorable roles .
Throughout most of the 1980s and 1990s , David Carradine 's acting career suffered a decline . Although he continued to amass movie and television credits , few of his roles garnered much attention . Most of his work was released straight to video . However , a few of his movies , such as The Warrior and the Sorceress ( 1984 ) , Sundown : The Vampire in Retreat ( 1990 ) and Sonny Boy ( 1989 ) , developed cult followings . In 1989 , he starred in the low budget direct @-@ to @-@ video Swedish action movie The Mad Bunch directed by Mats Helge Olsson , making him one of three actors ( including Heinz Hopf and Tor Isedal ) who have starred in both an Ingmar Bergman movie and an Olsson movie . In 1997 , Carradine was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . The presenters played an " April Fool 's Day " prank on him by first unveiling a star bearing the name of his brother , Robert .
Carradine enjoyed a revival of his fame when he was cast in Quentin Tarantino 's sequential Kill Bill movies , in 2003 and 2004 . Among those who thought his portrayal of Bill , the assassin extraordinaire , would earn him an Academy Award nomination was Scott Mantz , of The Mediadrome , who said , " Carradine practically steals every scene he 's in with confident gusto , and he gives a soulful performance that should all but ensure a spot on next year 's Oscar ballot . " Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper each had Kill Bill Vol . 2 on their top ten list for of Academy Awards predictions . Although the films received no notice from the Academy , Carradine did receive a Golden Globe nomination and a Saturn Award , for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Bill .
Carradine also appeared as a mysterious martial artist , The Master , in the 2009 DVD premier Big Stan .
= = = Television appearances = = =
Carradine attracted notice in 1985 when he appeared in a major supporting role in North and South , a miniseries about the American Civil War , as the evil and abusive Justin LaMotte . He was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for his performance . He also appeared in North and South , Book II , telecast in May 1986 .
In addition , he was featured in a Lipton Tea commercial , which first aired during the broadcast of Super Bowl XXVIII . The advertisement paid tribute to The Three Stooges while satirizing his role in Kung Fu . In 2001 , he appeared in the episode The Serpent of the syndicated TV series Queen of Swords as the sword @-@ wielding bandit El Serpiente filmed at Texas Hollywood studios in Almeria , Spain , home of many spaghetti westerns . David also did a guest appearance in episode 11 of Lizzie McGuire as himself . David Carradine took over hosting duties from his brother Keith on Wild West Tech on the History Channel , in 2005 . The same year he also played both himself and the ghost of a dead man for an episode of the NBC TV show Medium . By 2006 , he had become the spokesperson for Yellowbook , a publisher of independent telephone directories in the United States . He also appeared as the ghost of time , Clockwork , in two episodes of the animated series , Danny Phantom . He also starred in the 2008 TV movie , Kung Fu Killer , in which he played a Chinese martial arts master very similar to his Kung Fu series " Caine " persona — his character in this movie named " White Crane " , and mostly referred to or addressed as " Crane " , frequently spoken with a sort of accent that minimized the R sound .
= = = Posthumous releases = = =
The actor , who once received an award for being the hardest working member of his profession in Hollywood , still had approximately a dozen films in " post @-@ production " at the time of his death in 2009 . Most of these roles were cameos or small parts in independent , direct to DVD productions . Among them , a horror film , Dark Fields ( 2009 ) ; an action film , Bad Cop ( 2009 ) ; and a western , All Hell Broke Loose ( 2009 ) .
Carradine also appeared in a minor role in Yuen Woo @-@ ping 's Chinese kung fu epic True Legend . Carradine and Yuen first met while filming Kill Bill . Yuen eulogized Carradine on the True Legend website , describing him as a " good friend " . Yuen said of Carradine , " ' He is among the first Hollywood actors to perform Chinese martial arts on the big screen . In real life he is also a genuine kung fu fan , and knows tai chi , qi gong and Chinese medicine . Same as I , people shall always remember his role as Caine , the grasshopper , in Kung Fu , in the ' 70s , which was a really unforgettable performance . I feel both great honour and regret that True Legend is one of David Carradine 's last works . ' "
One of Carradine 's last leading roles was in the period drama Golden Boys , set in 1905 . It had only a limited theater run , and received little critical attention . It was released on DVD shortly after his death .
His final released movie was the Cult Indy Film , Night of the Templar , directed by his friend Paul Sampson , in which David wielded a sword ( katana ) for the final time on screen . Almost like a foreshadowing , there are several peculiar and eerie references in the film that are coincidental to Mr. Carradine 's untimely passing which include cross dressing and auto erotic asphyxiation . His last scene on screen ended in the following dialog : " Well , old friend , see you in the next life time ... " Yeah , Old Friends , Old Soul Mates " ... " Yes , we are .
Carradine co @-@ produced a full @-@ length documentary about luthier Stuart Mossman , which has been identified as the actor 's last film appearance . The Legend of Stuart Mossman : A Modern Stradivari , directed by Barry Brown , premiered at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival , in February 2010 . It featured David , Keith and Robert Carradine performing their music on Mossman guitars . Mossman had appeared with Carradine in Cloud Dancer ( 1980 ) , which Brown also directed , and in The Long Riders .
On the small screen , Carradine appeared in a guest spot on the television series Mental that was broadcast just days after his death . On October 3 , 2009 , Celebrity Ghost Stories premiered on the Biography Channel with an interview of David Carradine discussing his belief that his closet was haunted by his wife 's deceased previous husband . The segment , which was described as " eerie " , was filmed four months before his own death . In his last of many collaborations with producer Roger Corman , Carradine appeared in the Syfy Channel 's science fiction monster movie Dinocroc Vs . Supergator , over a year after he died . Ken Tucker , writing for Entertainment Weekly , said the film was " impeccable " and " goofy fun all the way " . At the time of this release , there were still four more unreleased films that credited David Carradine , including Stretch , which he was filming at the time of his death .
= = Directing career = =
Carradine made his directorial debut on three episodes of Kung Fu . While still performing on Kung Fu , he tried his hand at directing some independent films of his own . Americana ( 1983 ) , took ten years to complete due to difficulty in financing . It featured Carradine in the starring role and several of his friends and family members in supporting roles . The film won the People 's Choice Award at the Director 's Fortnight at Cannes , but failed to achieve critical support or adequate distribution . Other directorial attempts included You and Me ( 1975 ) , and two unreleased productions : Mata Hari , an epic that starred his daughter , Calista ; and a short musical called A Country Mile .
= = Martial artist = =
Carradine knew nothing of the practice of kung fu at the time he was cast in the role of Kwai Chang Caine , instead he relied on his experience as a dancer for the part . He also had experience in sword fighting , boxing , and street fighting on which to draw . For the first half of the original series , David Chow provided technical assistance with kung fu . He never considered himself a master of the art , but rather an " evangelist " of kung fu . By 2003 he had acquired enough expertise in martial arts to produce and star in several instructional videos on T 'ai chi and Qigong . In 2005 , Carradine visited the Shaolin Monastery in Henan , China as part of the extra features for the third season of the Kung Fu DVDs . During his visit , the abbot , Shi Yǒngxìn , said that he recognized Carradine 's important contribution to the promotion of the Shaolin Monastery and kung fu culture , to which Carradine replied , " I am happy to serve . "
= = Music career = =
In addition to his acting career , David Carradine was a musician . He sang and played the piano , the guitar and the flute among other instruments . In 1970 , Carradine played one half of a flower power beatnik duo in the season 4 Ironside episode ' The Quincunx ' , performing the songs ' I Stepped on a Flower ' , ' Lonesome Stranger ' and ' Sorrow of the Singing Tree ' . He recorded an album titled Grasshopper , which was released on Jet Records in 1975 . His musical talents were often integrated into his screen performances . He performed several of Woody Guthrie 's songs for the movie Bound for Glory . For the Kung Fu series he made flutes out of bamboo that he had planted on the Warner Brothers lot which he played on the program . He later made several flutes for the movie Circle of Iron , one of which he later played in Kill Bill . Carradine wrote and performed the theme songs for at least two movies that he starred in , Americana and Sonny Boy . The first line from the Sonny Boy theme , " Paint " , which he wrote while filming Americana in Drury , Kansas , in 1973 , is engraved on his headstone . He wrote and performed several songs for American Reel ( 2003 ) and wrote the score for You and Me . He and his brother , Robert , also performed with a band , the Cosmic Rescue Team ( also known as Soul Dogs ) . The band performed primarily in small venues and benefits .
= = Reports of arrests and prosecutions = =
By his own account , in the late 1950s , while living in San Francisco , young John A. Carradine was arrested for assaulting a police officer ; he pleaded to a lesser charge of disturbing the peace . While in the Army ( 1960 – 62 ) he faced court @-@ martial , on more than one occasion , for shoplifting . After he became an established actor and had changed his name to David , he was arrested , in 1967 , for possession of marijuana .
At the height of his popularity in Kung Fu , in 1974 , Carradine was arrested again , this time for attempted burglary and malicious mischief . While under the influence of peyote , Carradine , nude , began wandering around his Laurel Canyon neighborhood . He broke into a neighbor 's home , breaking a window and cutting his arm . He then bled all over the homeowner 's piano . At some time during this episode he accosted two young women , allegedly assaulting one while asking , or demanding of her , if she was a witch . The police literally followed a trail of blood to his home . The burglary charges were dropped , as nothing was found to be missing , while Carradine pleaded " no contest " to the mischief charge and was given probation . He was never charged with assault , but the young woman sued him for $ 1 @.@ 1 million and was awarded $ 20 @,@ 000 .
In 1980 , while in South Africa filming Safari 3000 ( also known as Rally ) , which co @-@ starred Stockard Channing , Carradine was arrested for possession of marijuana . He was convicted and given a suspended sentence . He claimed that he was framed , in this case , by the apartheid government as he had been seen dancing with Tina Turner .
During the 1980s , Carradine was arrested at least twice for driving under the influence of alcohol , once in 1984 and again in 1989 . In the second case , Carradine pleaded " no contest " . Of this incident , the Los Angeles Times reported : " legal experts say Carradine was handed a harsher @-@ than @-@ average sentence , even for a second @-@ time offender : three years ' summary probation , 48 hours in jail , 100 hours of community service , 30 days ' work picking up trash for the California Department of Transportation , attendance at a drunk driving awareness meeting and completion of an alcohol rehabilitation program . "
In 1994 , while in Toronto filming Kung Fu : The Legend Continues , Carradine was arrested for kicking in a door at SkyDome while attending a Rolling Stones concert . When asked his reasoning , Carradine claimed he was " worried about getting swarmed by people who recognized him so he wanted to get into the building . "
= = Personal life = =
Shortly after being drafted into the Army in 1960 , Carradine proposed marriage to Donna Lee Becht ( born September 26 , 1937 ) , whom he had met while they were students at Oakland High School . They were married on Christmas Day that year . She lived with him off @-@ base in Virginia while he was stationed at Fort Eustis . In April 1962 , she gave birth to their daughter Calista . After Carradine 's discharge , the family lived in New York while Carradine established his acting career , appearing on Broadway in The Deputy and Royal Hunt of the Sun . The marriage dissolved in 1968 , whereupon Carradine left New York and headed back to California to continue his television and film careers .
In 1969 , Carradine met actress Barbara Hershey while the two of them were working on Heaven with a Gun . The pair lived together until 1975 . They appeared in other films together , including Martin Scorsese 's Boxcar Bertha . In 1972 , they appeared together in a nude Playboy spread , recreating some sex scenes from Boxcar Bertha . That year , Hershey gave birth to their son , Free ( who at age nine changed his name to Tom , much to his father 's chagrin ) . The couple 's relationship fell apart around the time of Carradine 's 1974 burglary arrest , when Carradine began an affair with Season Hubley , who had guest @-@ starred on Kung Fu . Carradine was engaged to Hubley for a time , but they never married .
In February 1977 , Carradine married , in a civil ceremony in Munich , Germany , his second wife , Linda ( née Linda Anne Gilbert , born March 16 , 1950 ) , immediately following the filming of The Serpent 's Egg . Linda is the former wife of The Byrds lead guitarist , Roger McGuinn , Her and Carradine 's daughter Kansas was born April 19 , 1978 .
Carradine 's second marriage ended in divorce , as did the two that followed . He was married to Gail Jensen , from 1986 – 1997 . She died in April 2010 , at the age of 60 , of an alcohol @-@ related illness . He was married to Marina Anderson from 1998 to 2001 . By this time , Carradine had proclaimed himself to be a " serial monogamist . "
On December 26 , 2004 , Carradine married the widowed Annie Bierman ( née Anne Kirstie Fraser , born December 21 , 1960 ) at the seaside Malibu home of his friend , Michael Madsen . Vicki Roberts , his attorney and a longtime friend of his wife 's , performed the ceremony . With this marriage he acquired three stepdaughters , Amanda Eckelberry ( born 1989 ) , Madeleine Rose ( born 1995 ) , and Olivia Juliette ( born 1998 ) as well as a stepson , actor Max Richard Carradine ( born 1998 ) .
In one of his final interviews , Carradine stated that at 71 , he was still " in excellent shape , " attributing it to a good diet and having a youthful circle of friends . " Everybody that I know is at least 10 or 20 years younger than I am . My wife Annie is 24 years younger than I am . My daughter asks why I don 't hang with women my age and I say ' Most of the women my age are a lot older than me ! ' "
= = Death = =
On June 3 , 2009 , at the age of 72 , David Carradine was found dead in his room at the Swissôtel Nai Lert Park Hotel on Wireless Road , near Sukhumvit Road , in central Bangkok , Thailand . He was in Bangkok to shoot his latest film , titled Stretch . A police official said that Carradine was found naked , hanging by a rope in the room 's closet , causing immediate speculation that his death was suicide . However , reported evidence suggested that his death was accidental , the result of autoerotic asphyxiation . Two autopsies were conducted , one involving the celebrity pathologist Pornthip Rojanasunan , and both concluded that the death was not a suicide . The cause of death became widely accepted as " accidental asphyxiation " .
Immediately following his death , two of Carradine 's former wives , Gail Jensen and Marina Anderson , stated publicly that his sexual interests included the practice of self @-@ bondage . Anderson , who had plans to publish a tell @-@ all book about her marriage to Carradine , said in an interview with Access Hollywood , " There was a dark side to David , there was a very intense side to David . People around him know that . " Previously , in her divorce filing , she had claimed that " it was the continuation of abhorrent and deviant sexual behavior which was potentially deadly . "
Photographs of Carradine at the death scene , as well as photographs of his autopsied body , were circulated in newspapers and on the Internet . His family , represented by his brothers , Keith and Robert , pleaded with the public and the press to let them mourn their loved one in peace .
Carradine 's funeral was held on June 13 , 2009 , in Los Angeles . His bamboo casket was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park . Among the many stars and family members who attended his private memorial were Tom Selleck , Lucy Liu , Frances Fisher , James Cromwell , Steve Railsback , and Chris Potter . His grave was marked on December 3 , 2009 . The monument proclaimed him to be " The Barefoot Legend " and included a quote from " Paint " , a song he wrote and performed as the theme to Sonny Boy , as an epitaph .
= = = Wrongful death suit and murder accusations = = =
On the first anniversary of his death , Carradine 's widow , Annie , announced that she had filed a lawsuit for wrongful death against the company that produced the film Carradine was working on at the time of his death . The lawsuit claimed that the company failed to provide assistance to the actor that had been agreed upon in his contract . " The suit alleges , the assistant left him behind for dinner on the night before the actor was found dead . The assistant and other film staffers apparently could not reach Carradine and decided to leave without him . Carradine called the assistant an hour later but was told the group was across town , and he would have to make his own arrangements that evening . " Annie Carradine reached a settlement with MK2 Productions in August 2011 . She was reported to be receiving about US $ 400 @,@ 000 from the company for Carradine 's death .
Also , in June 2010 , Marina Anderson , Carradine 's fourth ex @-@ wife , published David Carradine : The Eye of My Tornado , a memoir that discusses intimate details of their marriage . She also claimed publicly that she had conducted her own investigation of his death and concluded that he was murdered . Close friend Guthrie Thomas stated , upon hearing that suicide was the cause of Carradine 's death , " No one ties both of their hands behind their back previous to taking one 's own life . There had to be a second individual on the scene . " Thomas also is convinced that this tragedy appeared to be murder .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Video games = = =
Saints Row ( 2006 ) - William Sharp ( voice )
= = Awards and honors = =
1966 Theatre World Award , Royal Hunt of the Sun
1974 TP de Oro , Spain . Best Foreign Actor , Kung Fu
1997 Gold Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , Television
1998 : Honoree — The 16th Annual Golden Boot Awards ( along with brothers Keith and Robert )
2005 : Action on Film International Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award — First annual recipient
2005 : Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films , Saturn Award , Best Supporting Actor , Kill Bill : Volume 2
2008 Honoree — Walk of Western Stars
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= Lathrop House ( Vassar College ) =
Lathrop House ( known officially as Edward Lathrop House ) was the third quadrangle dormitory built on Vassar College 's campus in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Constructed in 1901 and designed by Boston @-@ based Allen & Vance , the brick dorm stands five stories tall . Lathrop houses 180 students who may be any grade or gender .
= = History = =
Lathrop House was the third residential quadrangle ( quad ) dormitory built on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . The college built Lathrop during a period of rapid dorm construction spanning 1893 – 1902 during which the older seminary @-@ style model of housing — a single large hall in which all a college 's residents lived , in Vassar 's case Main Building — was quickly waning in popularity in favor of smaller individual houses . The project began with the opening of Strong House in 1893 and continued with Raymond House in 1897 ; Lathrop followed in 1901 , and Davison House 's erection completed the quad in 1902 . Construction of the dorm was paid for with Vassar 's funds , unlike Strong House which had been paid for by a gift from John D. Rockefeller .
The dormitory is named after Dr. Edward Lathrop , one of Vassar 's charter trustees , and carries the full name Edward Lathrop House . Lathrop 's daughter , Julia , was a graduate of the Vassar class of 1880 .
In 1979 , the Intercultural Center , a multicultural student space , moved into Lathrop in spite of initial disagreement by members of the house two years earlier when the idea was first proposed . The Intercultural Center later moved out of Lathrop 's basement and into its own dedicated space in the early 1990s , at which point it was replaced by a Jewish co @-@ op and kitchen . In 1995 , the Kosher Co @-@ Op moved out of Lathrop and into a newly acquired Jewish house across the street from the college .
= = Architecture and features = =
Lathrop was designed by the Boston architectural firm of Francis Richmond Allen and J. McArthur Vance who were also responsible for the design of its neighbor , Davison House , in 1902 . Formulating a design for these two buildings was not difficult as a template had already been set by way of the preexisting Strong and Raymond Houses . Frederick Law Olmsted , a consultant of design for the college , recommended that any new dorms in the area be built in an " echelon formation " in order to provide for a greater sense of openness . Allen disregarded this advice , instead opting to place the dorm , along with Davison , in " two long unbroken rows of buildings on the bias " . Lathrop was ultimately placed north of Strong , across the quad to the east of Davison , and diagonally across from Raymond .
Lathrop stands five stories tall with an additional basement level . The dormitory , Elizabethan in style , is a brick building with elements of brownstone trim . The roof is a Vermont slate and from it rise five chimneys , each built with two wythes of brick and capped with bluestone . There are also multiple cupolas that are framed with wood , include painted louvered slats , and have topped with a coat of terne . The building also has parapets , unlike neighboring Strong .
The house is co @-@ ed and currently has a capacity of 180 students . Students in Lathrop , which houses students of all grades , may live in either single rooms , one @-@ room doubles , or three @-@ room triples . Bathrooms are shared by all members of a hall .
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= Leeds Country Way =
The Leeds Country Way is a circular long @-@ distance footpath of 62 miles ( 99 km ) around Leeds , West Yorkshire , England . It is never more than 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Leeds City Square , but is mainly rural with extensive views in the outlying areas of the Leeds metropolitan district . It follows public Rights of Way including footpaths , bridleways and minor lanes , with a few short sections along roads .
= = History = =
A route was first devised by Fred Andrews of the Ramblers Association , and then developed by West Yorkshire County Council in the early 1980s . This council was abolished in 1986 , and the path is now under the care of the Countryside section of Leeds City Council . The Leeds Country Way was realigned in 2006 , using a route devised by Bob Brewster , to bring it entirely within the boundary of the Leeds metropolitan district ( previously it crossed the boundary into Wakefield ) , and the path was officially relaunched on 26 September 2006 with a revised set of map leaflets ( see external links ) and improved waymarking .
= = Route = =
The path is waymarked in both directions and can be started at any point , but is described here clockwise from the A660 road at Golden Acre Park ( grid reference SE267417 ) , divided into parts and sections which correspond with the official map leaflets .
= = = Part 1 : Golden Acre to Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet = = =
Section 1 : The path crosses Golden Acre Park and passes the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust 's Adel Dam Nature Reserve , following the route of the Meanwood Valley Trail . It coincides briefly with the Leeds link to the Dales Way north of Eccup Reservoir , before crossing the Ebor Way and entering the Harewood Estate . Here there is a glimpse of what looks like a small village , not marked on any map , but which is actually the set for the TV series Emmerdale . Walkers may also see red kites which have been successfully reintroduced in this area .
Section 2 : After crossing the A61 , the way passes north of Wike and reaches the village of Bardsey with its Anglo @-@ Saxon church tower and the Bingley Arms public house , which claims to be the oldest in England . The way turns south , crossing the A58 , to Scarcroft .
Section 3 : The path continues through Thorner , crossing the A64 before entering Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet ( SE398376 ) with England 's tallest maypole , a Norman motte and an Iron Age fort .
= = = Part 2 : Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet to Carlton = = =
Section 1 : From Barwick the way passes the southern corner of Scholes , then crosses the M1 motorway and enters Garforth .
Section 2 : It leaves Garforth along the disused Garforth @-@ Kippax railway line ( part of the North Eastern Railway and earlier the Leeds , Castleford and Pontefract Junction Railway ) , then approaches Swillington and passes Little Preston Old Hall . It skirts St Aidan 's Country Park , and crosses the River Aire at Swillington Bridge . The path follows the river downstream , past the marina at Fleet Bridge .
Section 3 : The path continues along the river , here forming the Aire and Calder Navigation , to Mickletown , and then turns south to Methley . It swings eastward , crosses the A642 and continues to Carlton ( SE337272 ) , heart of the West Yorkshire Rhubarb Triangle .
= = = Part 3 : Carlton to Cockersdale = = =
Section 1 : From Carlton the path crosses fields before briefly joining the A61 and recrossing the M1 south of Robin Hood . It turns south across the M62 , follows the valley of Dolphin Beck , and reaches East Ardsley on the A650 .
Section 2 : From here the path skirts south of West Ardsley , and reaches Woodkirk with its historic church , on the A653 . It passes the ruins of Howley Hall ( built 1590 for Sir John Savile ) before dropping down to reach Scotchman Lane .
Section 3 : A track through Birkby Brow Wood , just inside the Leeds @-@ Kirklees boundary , leads to the A643 , which is followed to recross the M62 . The path 's longest section of road walking follows the A650 through Gildersome , then a series of field paths leads to Cockersdale ( SE233297 ) , on the A58 near Tong .
= = = Part 4 : Cockersdale to Golden Acre = = =
Section 1 : The path follows the valley of Cockersdale , and then goes along Tong Beck , below Fulneck Moravian Settlement , skirting the south of Pudsey . At this point Tong Beck forms the Leeds @-@ Bradford boundary . The path crosses the Leeds to Bradford railway and meets the busy A647 at Thornbury .
Section 2 : Passing playing fields and old quarries , the path crosses the Woodhall Hills and follows Fagley Beck to cross the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the River Aire at Apperley Bridge , then follows the river past Woodhouse Grove School before climbing up to meet the A65 south of Rawdon .
Section 3 : From here the path skirts Horsforth , follows for a time the southern boundary of Leeds Bradford International Airport , and goes round the northern edge of Cookridge , before crossing Breary Marsh Local Nature Reserve to return to Golden Acre Park ( SE267417 ) .
= = Practical aspects = =
As the route is circular it can be started at any point , but the description in the official leaflets starts and finishes at Golden Acre Park , going clockwise . These divide it into four parts each split into three sections , but walkers can choose to divide it in various ways as there are many bus routes and several railway stations ( Woodlesford , Garforth , New Pudsey and Horsforth ) on or near the path . West Yorkshire Metro provides information about bus routes serving the path and train services in the area .
The Ordnance Survey maps covering the route are :
Landranger 1 : 50 @,@ 000 sheet 104 ( Leeds : covers almost the whole route ) and 105 ( York : needed for a short distance near Garforth )
Explorer 1 : 25 @,@ 000 sheets 289 ( Leeds : Golden Acre Park clockwise to Scotchman Lane ) and 288 ( Bradford : Scotchman Lane clockwise to Golden Acre Park ) .
The route is waymarked with an owl symbol , taken from the Leeds coat of arms .
The original route of the path is used for an annual trail running relay race organised by Kippax Harriers . Teams of twelve , with two runners taking each of six sections , complete the route in about seven hours .
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= Tropical Storm Danielle ( 1980 ) =
Tropical Storm Danielle caused considerable flooding in the state of Texas during September 1980 . The eighth tropical cyclone and fourth named storm of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , Danielle developed from a tropical wave that emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 22 . Three days later , the tropical wave developed into a tropical depression . Four days later , the depression degenerated into a tropical wave . After tracking westward and entering the Gulf of Mexico , the system gradually developed , and became a tropical depression on September 4 . The depression gradually strengthened and became Tropical Storm Danielle only hours before landfall in eastern Texas on September 5 . Danielle steadily weakened inland and dissipated two days later .
Danielle produced widespread rainfall in Louisiana , though few areas reported more than 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation . Rainfall was heavier in Texas , peaking at 18 @.@ 29 inches ( 465 mm ) in Nederland . Much of the damage caused by the storm was as a resulting of flooding . In Port Arthur , twelve homes were damaged , while Interstate 10 was inundated by flood waters . Danielle also spawned several tornadoes in Texas , though none effects from them are unknown . Outside of Texas and Louisiana , the storm also dropped light rainfall in Oklahoma and Mississippi . Overall , Danielle caused three fatalities and at least $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on August 22 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean . On August 25 , the system developed into Tropical Depression Six . After four days , the depression degenerated back into a tropical wave , which continued westward across the Atlantic . By September 2 , the remnants of the depression then interacted with a mid @-@ level low pressure system over southern Florida . As a result , a low @-@ level circulation developed in the Gulf of Mexico as the system as a whole moved off Florida later that day . Organization continued and it is estimated that Tropical Depression Eight at 1800 UTC on September 4 , while located about 120 miles ( 190 km ) south of New Orleans , Louisiana . The National Hurricane Center began issuing advisories a few hours later . Furthermore , the National Hurricane Center later noted that strengthening was more likely if the depression remained offshore for a longer period of time .
Between 0600 and 1100 UTC , a barge known as the Glomar Tender II recorded sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , this measurement was deemed to be " small scale [ d ] " and not representative of the storm 's actual intensity . At 1700 UTC on September 5 , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Danielle , based on observations from reconnaissance aircraft and an oil rig . The oil rig , which was location near the coast of Louisiana , reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; this would later be considered the peak intensity of Danielle . A few hours later , Danielle made landfall near Galveston , Texas at the same intensity . The storm steadily weakened after moving inland and was downgraded to tropical depression by 1200 UTC on September 6 . About four hours later , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Danielle . However , the storm did not dissipate until 1200 UTC on September 7 , while located near Del Rio , Texas . The remnants of the storm continued westward for the next two days .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
As the storm was approaching , the National Weather Service issued flash flood watches from Freeport to Sabine Pass , Texas . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 18 @.@ 29 inches ( 465 mm ) in the town of Nederland . A 24 @-@ hour precipitation record of 17 @.@ 16 inches ( 436 mm ) was reported at the Southeast Texas Regional Airport in Beaumont . Due to heavy rainfall , an automobile accident in Beaumont resulted in one fatality . A police officer in Beaumont noted that almost every street in the city was flooded . The heavy rainfall resulted in considerable flash flooding in eastern Texas , causing residents to evacuate their homes . Flood waters also forced the shutdown of Interstate 10 . According to a police spokesman , at least 60 % of streets in Port Arthur were inundated by water . In Orange County , two people were injured in automobile accidents . Along Highway 124 , a bayou overflowed its bank . Because there were numerous inundated streets , police barricaded roads in Beaumont , Bridge City , Orange , Vidor , and Port Arthur . A sewer system in Roscoe was also damaged by flood waters , leaving 1 @,@ 500 residents without running water . In Port Arthur , twelve homes were reported flooded ; one house in the Lakeview neighborhood had 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water inside . Flood waters entered an oil pit at Port Neches , which sent at least 200 barrels of oil into the Neches River .
Danielle also produced tides 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , causing minor beach erosion along the Texas coast . Several boats and docks on Lake Buchanan were damaged . A third fatality from the storm occurred when a fisherman 's boat on Sabine Lake capsized , causing the man to die of a heart attack during rescue . Danielle spawned several tornadoes in the state of Texas , one of which caused an estimated $ 1 @,@ 500 ( 1980 USD ) in damage to a storage barn in Galveston County on the Bolivar Peninsula . Another touched down twice in Beaumont and overturned a mobile home at a mobile home park . After the storm , the American Red Cross opened storm shelters for residents forced out of their homes because of the flooding . Due to adverse conditions , " hundreds " were left without electricity in Beaumont , Silsbee , Kountze , Hamshire , and Fannett . In addition , then President of the United States Jimmy Carter declared Jefferson and Nolan counties as disaster area , allowing those areas to receive federal aid . Damage in Jefferson County alone totaled to $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( 1980 USD ) . Overall , Danielle caused two fatalities and between $ 25 million and $ 50 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage within the state of Texas .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In the Gulf of Mexico , rough seas from Danielle caused a maintenance barge to capsize , washing all 11 crewmen overboard . A fatality occurred when one of the crewmen drowned , though the other ten were rescued by the United States Coast Guard . Additionally , the storm also caused a United States Coast Guard helicopter to crash into the sea due to high winds and lack of fuel , though all twelve crewmen survived . Offshore , a barge encountered winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) with gusts up to 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) and light rainfall .
Danielle ’ s effects on southern and eastern Louisiana was minimal . The state received moderate to heavy rainfall ; there , the highest rainfall total there was 2 @.@ 23 inches ( 57 mm ) in Houma . Light rainfall was also reported in Oklahoma and Mississippi , with no areas reporting at least 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of precipitation .
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= Tom Derrick =
Thomas Currie " Diver " Derrick , VC , DCM ( 20 March 1914 – 24 May 1945 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . In November 1943 , during the Second World War , Derrick was awarded the Victoria Cross for his assault on a heavily defended Japanese position at Sattelberg , New Guinea . During the engagement , he scaled a cliff face while under heavy fire and silenced seven machine gun posts , before leading his platoon in a charge that destroyed a further three .
Born in the Adelaide suburb of Medindie , South Australia , Derrick left school at the age of fourteen and found work in a bakery . As the Great Depression grew worse he lost his job and moved to Berri , working on a fruit farm before marrying in 1939 . In July 1941 , Derrick enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force , joining the 2 / 48th Battalion . He was posted to the Middle East , where he took part in the Siege of Tobruk , was recommended for the Military Medal and promoted to corporal . Later , at El Alamein , Derrick was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for knocking out three German machine gun posts , destroying two tanks , and capturing one hundred prisoners .
Derrick returned to Australia with his battalion in February 1943 , before transferring to the South West Pacific Theatre where he fought in the battle to capture Lae . Back in Australia the following February he was posted to an officer cadet training unit , being commissioned lieutenant in November 1944 . In April 1945 his battalion was sent to the Pacific island of Morotai , an assembly point for the Allied invasion of the Philippines . Engaged in action the following month on the heavily defended hill Freda on Tarakan Island , Derrick was hit by five bullets from a Japanese machine gun . He died from his wounds on 24 May 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Derrick was born in the Adelaide suburb of Medindie , South Australia , on 20 March 1914 to David Derrick , a labourer from Ireland , and his Australian wife , Ada ( née Whitcombe ) . The Derricks were poor , and Tom often walked barefoot to attend Sturt Street Public School and later Le Fevre Peninsula School . In 1928 , aged fourteen , Derrick left school and found work in a bakery . By this time , he had developed a keen interest in sports , particularly cricket , Australian Rules Football , boxing and swimming ; his diving in the Port River earned him the nickname of " Diver " .
With the advent of the Great Depression , Derrick scraped a living from odd jobs — such as fixing bicycles and selling newspapers — to supplement his job as a baker . When in 1931 , the Depression worsened , Derrick lost his bakery job and , with friends , headed by bicycle for the regional town of Berri , approximately 225 kilometres ( 140 mi ) away , in search of work . Jobs in Berri were hard to come by and Derrick and two friends spent the next few months living in a tent on the banks of the Murray River . When the annual Royal Adelaide Show opened that year , Derrick went to the boxing pavilion to accept a challenge of staying upright for three rounds with the ex @-@ lightweight champion of Australia . Although he was knocked down in the second round , he immediately got back to his feet and won the bet ; albeit at the cost of a black eye , and a few bruised ribs .
Eventually , towards the end of 1931 , Derrick found work picking fruit at a vineyard in Winkie , a short distance outside Berri . He later moved on to a full @-@ time job at a nearby fruit farm , remaining there for the next nine years . On 24 June 1939 , Derrick married Clarance Violet " Beryl " Leslie — his " one true love " whom he had met at a dance in Adelaide seven years earlier — at St Laurence 's Catholic Church , North Adelaide .
= = Second World War = =
Derrick did not join up when war broke out in September 1939 but , like many Australians , enlisted after the fall of France in June 1940 . He joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 5 July 1940 , and was posted to the 2 / 48th Battalion , 26th Brigade , as a private . Derrick first joined his unit at the Wayville Showgrounds , before basic training at Woodside . Derrick thrived on military life , but found discipline difficult to accept .
In October , the 2 / 48th Battalion paraded through the streets of Adelaide to Mitcham railway station prior to its embarkation for the Middle East . The battalion 's voyage overseas was postponed until 17 November , when the unit boarded the SS Stratheden . The ship made a stop at Perth , where Derrick was confined on board for going absent without leave to sightsee . He was soon in more trouble , and was charged and fined for punching another soldier who taunted him over this incident .
= = = North Africa = = =
On arrival in Palestine , the 2 / 48th Battalion encamped at El Kantara and began training in desert warfare . For relaxation , the battalion set up athletic events , and Derrick became well known for often winning cross @-@ country races — and for organising a book on the outcomes . In March 1941 , the unit went by train and truck to Alexandria , Egypt , then along the North African coast to Cyrenaica , in Libya , to join the 9th Australian Division .
After the 2 / 48th Battalion completed its training with the 9th Division at Cyrenaica , they were moved further along the coast to Gazala . Then , just as they began to dig in , the battalion was abruptly withdrawn to Tobruk in response to the German Afrika Korps ' advance . They entered Tobruk on 9 April 1941 , and spent the following eight months besieged by Axis forces . While there , Derrick acquired an Italian Breda machine gun and regularly led fighting patrols against both German and Italian troops . Although Derrick 's bravery was noted during the siege , he wrote in his diary about his constant fear of dying .
On the night of 30 April , the Axis forces assaulted Tobruk 's outer defences and managed to capture substantial ground . In response , the 2 / 48th Battalion was ordered to counter @-@ attack the following evening . During the ensuing engagement , Derrick fought as a section member in the far left flank of the attack . After suffering heavy casualties in what Derrick described as " a bobby dazzler of a fire fight " , the battalion was forced to withdraw . Praised for his leadership and bravery during the assault , Derrick was immediately promoted to corporal , and recommended for the Military Medal . The award , however , was never made .
In late May , Derrick discovered a German posing as a British tank officer and reported him to company headquarters ; the man was immediately arrested as a spy . Following a period of heavy fighting in June , the 2 / 48th Battalion was placed in reserve for a few days the following month . Promoted to platoon sergeant in September , Derrick — along with the rest of his battalion — was withdrawn from Tobruk and returned to Palestine aboard HMS Kingston on 22 October . Disembarking at Tel Aviv , they were given three days ' leave in the city , before returning for training .
Following a period of rest and light garrison duties in Syria , the 2 / 48th Battalion was rushed to El Alamein , Egypt , to reinforce the British Eighth Army . During the First Battle of El Alamein on 10 July 1942 , Derrick took part in the 26th Australian Brigade 's attack on Tel el Eisa . In the initial assault , Derrick , against a barrage of German grenades , led an attack against three machine gun posts and succeeded in destroying the positions before capturing over one hundred prisoners . During the Axis counter @-@ attack that evening , the Australian line was overrun by tanks . As the German infantry following the tanks advanced , Derrick 's company led a charge against the men . During the engagement , Derrick managed to destroy two German tanks using sticky bombs . Commended for his " outstanding leadership and courage " , Derrick was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his part in the fighting at Tel el Eisa . The award was announced in a supplement to the London Gazette on 18 February 1943 .
Promoted to sergeant on 28 July , Derrick led a six @-@ man reconnaissance on 3 October , successfully pinpointing several German machine gun positions and strongholds ; this information was to be vital for the upcoming Second Battle of El Alamein . The El Alamein offensive was launched on 23 October , with the 9th Australian Division taking part . At one point during the engagement , Derrick jumped up onto an Allied gun carrier heading towards the Germans . Armed with a Thompson submachine gun and under intense heavy fire , Derrick attacked and knocked out three machine gun posts while standing in the carrier . He then had the driver reverse up to each post so he could ensure each position was silenced . By the following morning , Derrick 's platoon occupied all three posts . The members of the 2 / 48th Battalion who witnessed Derrick 's action were sure he would be awarded the Victoria Cross , though no recommendation was made .
For part of 31 October , Derrick assumed command of his company after all of the unit 's officers had been killed or wounded in fierce fighting . On 21 November 1942 , Derrick was briefly admitted to the 2 / 3rd Australian Field Ambulance with slight shrapnel wounds to his right hand and buttock . Twelve days later , the 2 / 48th Battalion left El Alamein and returned to Gaza in Palestine , where , later that month , Derrick attended a corps patrolling course . In January 1943 , the 2 / 48th Battalion sailed home to Australia , aboard the S.S. Nieuw Amsterdam , along with the rest of the 9th Division .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Disembarking at Port Melbourne in late February 1943 , Derrick was granted a period of leave and travelled by train to Adelaide where he spent time with Beryl . He rejoined his battalion — now encamped in the outskirts of Adelaide — before they went by train to the Atherton Tableland for training in jungle warfare . Brought up to full strength by the end of April , the 2 / 48th Battalion completed its training following landing @-@ craft exercises near Cairns . On 23 July , Derrick was attached to the 21st Brigade Headquarters but admitted to hospital for old injuries to his right eye later the same day . After hospital , Derrick returned briefly to Brigade before rejoining the 2 / 48th Battalion on 27 August .
For much of August , the 2 / 48th Battalion had been in training for the Allied attack on Lae , in Papua New Guinea . The unit 's objective was to land on a strip of land designated as " Red Beach " , and then fight their way approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west towards Lae . Following a bombardment by American destroyers , Derrick 's wave landed on the beach with minimal casualties on 4 September . Ten days later , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's C Company — led by Derrick 's platoon — captured Malahang airstrip , before Lae fell to the Allies on 16 September . Derrick was scornful of the Japanese defence of Lae , and wrote in his diary that " our greatest problem was trying to catch up " with the retreating Japanese force .
= = = = Victoria Cross = = = =
Following Lae , the 9th Division was tasked to seize Finschhafen , clear the Huon Peninsula and gain control of the Vitiaz Strait . By 2 October , one of the division 's brigades had gained a foothold on Finschhafen , but soon encountered fierce Japanese resistance . In response to a Japanese counter @-@ attack , the 26th Brigade was transferred to reinforce the Australian position on 20 October and , when the division switched to the offensive in November , the brigade was ordered to capture Sattelberg . Sattelberg was a densely wooded hill rising 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) and dominating the Finschhafen region ; it was in an assault on this position that Derrick was to earn the Victoria Cross .
The Australian attack on Sattelberg began in mid @-@ November , with the Japanese slowly giving ground and withdrawing back up the precipitous slopes . Each side suffered heavy casualties , and on 20 November , Derrick — who had been acting as company sergeant major for the previous month — was given command of B Company 's 11 platoon after the unit had " lost all but one of their leaders " . By 22 November , the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 48th Battalions had reached the southern slopes of Sattelberg , holding a position approximately 600 metres ( 660 yd ) from the summit . A landslide had blocked the only road , so the final assault was made by infantry alone , without supporting tanks .
On 24 November , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's B Company was ordered to outflank a strong Japanese position sited on a cliff face , prior to attacking a feature 140 metres ( 150 yd ) from the Sattelberg township . The nature of the terrain meant that the only possible route was up a slope covered with kunai grass directly beneath the cliffs . Over a period of two hours , the Australians made several attempts to clamber up the slopes to reach their objective , but each time they were repulsed by intense machine gun fire and grenade attacks . As dusk fell , it appeared impossible to reach the objective or even hold the ground already gained , and the company was ordered to withdraw . In response , Derrick replied to his company commander : " Bugger the CO . Just give me twenty more minutes and we 'll have this place . Tell him I 'm pinned down and can 't get out . "
Moving forward with his platoon , Derrick attacked a Japanese post that had been holding up the advance . He destroyed the position with grenades and ordered his second section around to the right flank . The section soon came under heavy machine gun and grenade fire from six Japanese posts . Clambering up the cliff face under heavy fire , Derrick held on with one hand while lobbing grenades into the weapon pits with the other , like " a man ... shooting for [ a ] goal at basketball " . Climbing further up the cliff and in full view of the Japanese , Derrick continued to attack the posts with grenades before following up with accurate rifle fire . Within twenty minutes , he had reached the peak and cleared seven posts , while the demoralised Japanese defenders fled from their positions to the buildings of Sattelberg .
Derrick then returned to his platoon , where he gathered his first and third sections in preparation for an assault on the three remaining machine gun posts in the area . Attacking the posts , Derrick personally rushed forward on four separate occasions and threw his grenades at a range of about 7 metres ( 7 @.@ 7 yd ) , before all three were silenced . Derrick 's platoon held their position that night , before the 2 / 48th Battalion moved in to take Sattelberg unopposed the following morning . The battalion commander insisted that Derrick personally hoist the Australian flag over the town ; it was raised at 10 : 00 on 25 November 1943 .
The final assault on Sattelberg became known within the 2 / 48th Battalion as ' Derrick 's Show ' . Although he was already a celebrity within the 9th Division , the action brought him to wide public attention . On 23 March 1944 , the announcement and accompanying citation for Derrick 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette . It read :
Government House , Canberra . 23rd March 1944 .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the award of the VICTORIA CROSS to : -
Sergeant Thomas Currie Derrick , D.C.M. , Australian Military Forces .
For most conspicuous courage , outstanding leadership and devotion to duty during the final assault on Sattelberg in November , 1943 .
On 24th November , 1943 , a company of an Australian Infantry Battalion was ordered to outflank a strong enemy position sited on a precipitous cliff @-@ face and then to attack a feature 150 yards from the township of Sattelberg . Sergeant Derrick was in command of his platoon of the company . Due to the nature of the country , the only possible approach to the town lay through an open kunai patch situated directly beneath the top of the cliffs . Over a period of two hours many attempts were made by our troops to clamber up the slopes to their objective , but on each occasion the enemy prevented success with intense machine @-@ gun fire and grenades .
Shortly before last light it appeared that it would be impossible to reach the objective or even to hold the ground already occupied and the company was ordered to retire . On receipt of this order , Sergeant Derrick , displaying dogged tenacity , requested one last attempt to reach the objective . His request was granted .
Moving ahead of his forward section he personally destroyed , with grenades , an enemy post which had been holding up this section . He then ordered his second section around on the right flank . This section came under heavy fire from light machine @-@ guns and grenades from , six enemy posts . Without regard for personal safety he clambered forward well ahead of the leading men of the section and hurled grenade after grenade , so completely demoralising the enemy that they fled leaving weapons and grenades . By this action alone the company was able to gain its first foothold on the precipitous ground .
Not content with the work already done , he returned to the first section , and together with the third section of his platoon advanced to deal with the three remaining posts in the area . On four separate occasions he dashed forward and threw grenades at a range of six to eight yards until these positions were finally silenced .
In all , Sergeant Derrick had reduced ten enemy posts . From the vital ground he had captured the remainder of the Battalion moved on to capture Sattelberg the following morning .
Undoubtedly Sergeant Derrick 's fine leadership and refusal to admit defeat , in the face of a seemingly impossible situation , resulted in the capture of Sattelberg . His outstanding gallantry , thoroughness and devotion to duty were an inspiration not only to his platoon and company but to the whole Battalion .
= = = = Later war service = = = =
The 2 / 48th Battalion remained at Sattelberg until late December 1943 , when it returned to the coast in order to regroup . On Christmas Eve , Derrick noted in his diary that the next day would be his " 4th Xmas overseas " and " I don 't care where I spend the next one I only hope I 'm still on deck [ alive ] " . On 7 February 1944 , the battalion sailed from Finschhafen for Australia , disembarking at Brisbane . Granted home leave , Derrick made his way to South Australia for a short period with Beryl . In April , he was admitted to hospital suffering from malaria before returning to his battalion the following month . During this time , he was charged with being absent without leave and subsequently forfeited a day 's pay .
On 20 August 1944 , Derrick was posted to an officer cadet training unit in Victoria . He requested that he be allowed to rejoin the 2 / 48th Battalion at the end of the course ; contrary to normal Army policy that prevented officers commissioned from the ranks from returning to their previous units . An exemption was granted to Derrick only after much lobbying . While at this unit , Derrick shared a tent with Reg Saunders , who later became the Army 's first Indigenous Australian officer .
Commissioned as a lieutenant on 26 November 1944 , Derrick was granted twenty @-@ four days leave . Returning to the 2 / 48th Battalion as a reinforcement officer , his appointment as a platoon commander in his old company was met by " great jubilation " . During this period , the battalion had been posted to Ravenshoe on the Atherton Tablelands for " an extensive training period " , before being transported from Cairns to Morotai during April 1945 . It was around this time that Derrick converted from his Church of England religious denomination and Salvationist beliefs to Catholicism — his wife 's religion — though he was not overtly religious .
On 1 May 1945 , Derrick took part in the landing at Tarakan ; an island off the coast of Borneo . Under the cover of a naval and aerial bombardment , he led his men ashore in the initial waves of the landing , where they were initially posted at the boundary of the 2 / 48th Battalion and 2 / 24th Battalion 's area of responsibility . The Japanese force on the island mounted a determined resistance , and Derrick was later quoted in the Sunday Sun as saying he had " never struck anything so tough as the Japanese on Tarakan " .
Slowly pushing inland , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's main task from 19 May was to capture a heavily defended hill code @-@ named Freda . Derrick 's platoon unsuccessfully probed Japanese positions on that day and the next , at a loss of two men killed with others wounded . He later recorded in his diary that these setbacks were a " bad show " . On 21 May , Derrick and Lieutenant Colonel Bob Ainslie , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's commander , debated the optimum size of the unit which should be used to capture the Freda position . Derrick successfully argued that a company was best , given the restrictions posed by the terrain . He was in high spirits that night , possibly in an attempt to lift his platoon 's morale . On 22 May , Derrick 's was one of two platoons that attacked a well @-@ defended knoll and captured the position . Derrick played a key role in this action , and coordinated both platoons during the final assault that afternoon .
After capturing the knoll , the two platoons — reinforced by two sections of the 2 / 4th Commando Squadron — dug in to await an expected Japanese counter @-@ attack . At about 03 : 30 on 23 May , a Japanese light machine gun fired into the Australian position . Derrick sat upright to see if his men were all right , and was hit by five bullets from the gun 's second burst ; striking him from his left hip to the right of his chest . His runner , " Curly " Colby , dragged him behind cover , but Derrick could not be immediately evacuated as Japanese troops attacked at about 04 : 00 . Derrick was in great pain , and told Colby that he had " had it " . Despite his wounds , he continued to issue orders for several hours . When day broke , it was discovered that Derrick 's platoon were directly overlooked by a Japanese bunker — though this would not have been visible during the assault late the previous evening .
When stretcher bearers reached the position at dawn , Derrick insisted that the other wounded be attended to first . Derrick was carried off Freda later that morning , where he was met by the 26th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier David Whitehead . The two men briefly conversed before Derrick excused himself , fearing that he had not much time left and wishing to see the padre . Stepping back , Whitehead saluted and sent for Father Arch Bryson . At the hospital , surgeons found that bullets had torn away much of Derrick 's liver ; he died on 24 May 1945 during a second operation on his wounds . He was buried in the 2 / 48th Battalion 's cemetery on Tarakan that afternoon , and later re @-@ interred at the Labuan War Cemetery , plot 24 , row A , grave 9 .
= = Legacy = =
Tom Derrick was widely mourned . His widow , Beryl , became prostrate with grief on hearing of his death ; many members of the Army were affected , with one soldier lamenting it felt as if " the whole war stopped " . By the time Derrick 's death was officially announced on 30 May , most Australians on Tarakan had heard the news and rumours had spread claiming that he had been speared or shot at short range by a sub @-@ machine gun .
The Japanese force on Tarakan learned of Derrick 's death and tried to exploit it for propaganda purposes . They printed a leaflet which began " We lament over the death of Lieutenant General Terick CinC of Allied Force in Tarakan " and later included the question " what do you think of the death in action of your Commander in Chief ... ? " This leaflet reached few Australian soldiers , and had little impact on them . " Tokyo Rose " also broadcast taunts over " Terick 's " death .
Derrick 's reputation continued to grow after his death , and many Australian soldiers recalled any association , however slight , they had with him . To many Australians , he embodied the ' ANZAC spirit ' , and he remains perhaps the best @-@ known Australian soldier of the Second World War . Historian Michael McKernan later remarked that , for his war service , Derrick had arguably deserved " a VC and two bars ... at El Alamein , at Sattelberg and now at Tarakan " . In a 2004 television interview , then Chief of the Australian Defence Force , General Peter Cosgrove , was asked " Who was the best soldier of all time ? " After a short pause , he replied : " Diver Derrick " . This sentiment was endorsed by General Sir Francis Hassett . Hassett — who , as a lieutenant colonel , had served at Finschhafen with II Corps headquarters — stated :
From what I learnt ; not only was Derrick a magnificent soldier , but also a splendid leader who , immediately he saw a tactical problem , fixed it with either personal bravery or leadership imbued with determination and common sense .
Derrick is also remembered for his personal qualities . He was sensitive and reflective . Despite a limited education , he was a " forceful and logical debater , with a thirst for knowledge " . Derrick kept a diary , composed poetry , collected butterflies and frequently wrote to his wife , while on active service . Historian Peter Stanley has compared Derrick 's leadership abilities with those of Edward ' Weary ' Dunlop , Ralph Honner and Roden Cutler .
On 7 May 1947 , Beryl Derrick attended an investiture ceremony at the Government House , Adelaide , where she was presented with her late husband 's Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal by the Governor of South Australia , Lieutenant General Sir Charles Norrie . Derrick 's Victoria Cross and other medals are now displayed at the Australian War Memorial , Canberra , along with a portrait by Sir Ivor Hele . A street in the neighbouring suburb of Campbell and a rest stop in the Remembrance Driveway between Sydney and Canberra were also named in his honour . In 1995 , a public park was named the Derrick Memorial Reserve on Carlisle St , Glanville in his honour , and his VC citation is displayed on a plaque there . In June 2008 , a newly built bridge over the Port River on the Port River Expressway was named the Tom ' Diver ' Derrick Bridge following a public campaign .
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= Köllnischer Park =
Köllnischer Park is a public park located near the River Spree in Mitte , Berlin . It is named after Cölln , one of the two cities which came together to form Berlin ; the park location was originally just outside it . Approximately 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) in area , the park came into existence in the 18th and 19th centuries on the site of fortifications . It was redesigned as a public park in 1869 – 73 and was further modified in the 20th century with the addition of first a bear enclosure , the Bärenzwinger , and later a permanent exhibition of sculpture , the Lapidary . The park is a registered Berlin landmark .
The park contains five buildings , the first of them being the Märkisches Museum , a complex of buildings . The complex was built between 1907 and 1907 , and was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann . The second was the Bärenzwinger , next to the south entrance to the park . This was built between 1938 and 1939 on the site of a former sanitation depot , and was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann . The Bärenzwinger has contained up to five bears at once , and currently contains three bears . At the east end of the park there is the Landesversicherungsanstalt building , a large office building designed by Alfred Messel , to be the headquarters of the Landesversicherungsanstalt , an insurance company . The fourth building is the AOK building , a six @-@ storey steel @-@ framed office building built from purplish brick , on the south side of the park , opposite the Bärenzwinger . The final building is the Volksbadeanstalt , on the western side of the park . It was built in 1888 as a public bath .
= = Location and name = =
The park lies between Wallstraße on the north side , the Straße am Köllnischen Park on the east side , Rungestraße on the south side and Inselstraße on the west side . Its boundaries are not clearly delimited ; on the west side there are some buildings between the park and the street , including the former building of the Köllnisches Gymnasium , built in 1865 – 68 and now used as a music school , and on the north side , facing the river , is the Märkisches Museum . The western edge is dominated by a large office building built in 1903 / 04 as the headquarters of the Landsversicherungsanstalt , which has been used for the past few years by the Department of Urban Development of the Senate of Berlin , and the southern by the 1931 / 32 building of the German health insurance group Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse , which under the German Democratic Republic was the Parteihochschule Karl Marx .
The park is accessible via the Märkisches Museum U @-@ Bahn station on line U2 and bus number 147 . It is also close to the promenade which has been created along the bank of the Spree south of the Jannowitzbrücke .
= = History = =
The site of Köllnischer Park was just outside Cölln in the Middle Ages . Until the mid @-@ 17th century , it was undeveloped low @-@ lying , swampy land prone to flooding by the Spree . Following the decision by Frederick William , the ' Great Elector ' to encircle Berlin with fortifications , this became the location of Bastion VII , which was known at the time as " the bulwerk in the morass ' . The work required the creation of large embankments and lasted until 1683 ; the swampland around the bastion was not fully drained until 1687 . After such lengthy construction , the works were already out of date militarily , and after 1700 served only to control the comings and goings of visitors and residents , prevent desertion , and enable the collection of tolls on those entering the city . By 1700 , Mulberry trees had been planted on the walls , but only ' persons of rank ' were permitted to promenade along them . After Berlin had grown considerably and the Customs Wall had been built around it , King Frederick William I ( 1688 – 1740 ) ordered the defensive walls to be demolished . Civilian buildings had already grown up on the bastions ; a windmill and a house for the miller were built on Bastion VII , and these caused the eastern portion to be left standing longer than other parts of the fortifications . Some of the rubble from the demolished fortifications was used to build up Wilhelmstraße ; the rest was thrown into the defensive ditch outside the walls .
In 1736 , Frederick William I gave the site of the park and the Märkisches Museum to one of his generals , Friedrich Sebastian Winnibald Truchseß , Count of Waldburg , who built a house there and laid out an extensive garden . After his death in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg , David Splitgerber , a merchant and banker , bought the land and was also given the remaining eastern bastion section ; from 1750 onwards , he operated Berlin 's first sugar processing plant on the site , and also enlarged and improved the garden . In 1779 , the baroque garden was mentioned by the bookseller and author Friedrich Nicolai : " It has very charming areas , in particular it includes an open pavilion on a rise , which is small , but has tall trees growing upon it " . The sugar plant was forced to close in 1788 . The buildings on the site were then used in succession as tobacco storage , a hospital , a workhouse , and a men 's lunatic asylum . The Märkisches Museum was later built there . Splitgerber 's heirs sold the garden and in 1799 it was acquired by a Freemason lodge , the Große National @-@ Mutterloge zu den drei Weltkugeln ( Grand National Mother Lodge of the Three Globes ) . The Freemasons built a lodge building which opened in December 1800 , and developed the remainder into a landscape garden , one of the most attractive gardens in Berlin .
In 1858 / 59 Inselstraße was extended through the garden to connect Köpenicker Straße to the city centre , and the Lodge was forced to sell the larger , eastern portion of the site to the city . The Köllnisches Gymnasium was then built there . How to use the remainder of the site was discussed for years ; a desire to preserve the trees led to the rejection of several commercial proposals . On 15 April 1869 , the Assembly of City Deputies ( Stadtverordnetenversammlung ) decided to establish a public playground ( probably one of the first in the city ) and ' promenade location ' there on plans drawn up by the first city director of gardens , Gustav Meyer , dedicated the necessary funds , and urged rapid execution of the plan . The plan involved some new plantings , fencing , and benches . This renovation was completed in 1873 . The park reached its current dimensions in 1883 after the ditch was filled in . Ludwig Hoffmann , the architect of the Märkisches Museum ( completed in 1907 ) , then made some changes including creating views across the park to the new museum . The last major modification of the park took place in 1969 – 71 to designs by Eberhard Jaenisch , Stefan Rauner and Roswitha Schulz : a mound which remained on the site of the bastion was levelled , a children 's playground was added , a terrace was built behind the museum , and the Lapidary was created .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Lapidary = = =
The Lapidary is an open @-@ air museum of primarily stone artworks , both originals and copies , which formerly decorated buildings that no longer exist . Some are set into the walls around a 1969 terrace , while others are freestanding at various locations in the park . For example , in the walls of the terrace there are fragments of five carved heads from the keystones over windows , supposed to be from the Old City Hall of Berlin in Spandauer Straße and attributed to Georg Gottfried Weiyhenmeyer ; two allegorical reliefs ; 17th- and 18th @-@ century building signs ; a late Gothic vault keystone ; and a 16th @-@ century sandstone relief from the Stadtschloß .
The freestanding sculptures include amongst others :
a larger @-@ than @-@ life sandstone sculpture of Hercules fighting the Nemean Lion , at the eastern entrance to the park , was modelled in 1787 by Gottfried Schadow and executed in 1791 by Conrad Nicolas Boy . The work originally decorated a bridge over the Königsgraben , was moved in 1891 to the Herkulesbrücke ( Hercules Bridge ) over the Landwehr Canal , was placed in storage in 1934 and was installed in the park in 1971 .
two groups of putti , also in sandstone , from the balustrade of the New Palace in Potsdam .
a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century terracotta fountain in Italian Renaissance style from the garden of a villa in the Hirschgarten section of Friedrichshagen
an oversize sandstone vase with bulls ' head handles created after a classical model by an artist in the school of Friedrich Christian Glume ( 1714 – 1752 ) for the attic course of the colonnades at Sanssouci .
= = = Zille Memorial and Neo @-@ Renaissance Fountain = = =
Modern and thus atypical of the sculptures in the park is the bronze statue of the artist Heinrich Zille , which was created in 1964 – 65 by Heinrich Drake for an exhibition in the Treptower Park and afterwards moved to Köllnischer Park . It is listed as a landmark by the City of Berlin .
At the Rungestraße corner of the park there is a historic fountain from a private garden in Hirschgarten . Moved to the park in 1971 , it was made in about 1860 and is known as the Neo @-@ Renaissance Fountain . It is currently enclosed for repairs .
= = = Wusterhausener Bär = = =
The Wusterhausener Bär ( or Wusterhausischer Bär ) is a small round tower , with tiled walls and a helmet @-@ shaped sandstone cupola topped with a carved trophy display of weaponry , which was formerly part of a weir regulating the water level in the ditch that formed part of the wall defences . Bär in this case derives from the Latin berum , meaning " weir " , and it was apparently named for Wusterhausen because the road to that town passed by its original location at Bastion VII . It was moved to the park in 1893 and is now incorporated into the Lapidary . It is listed as a Berlin landmark .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Märkisches Museum = = =
The Märkisches Museum was built between 1901 and 1907 . It was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann as a complex of buildings representing architecture of the Mark Brandenburg and North Germany in general in the Romanesque , Gothic , and Renaissance periods .
= = = Bärenzwinger = = =
Next to the south entrance to the park is the Bärenzwinger ( bear pit ) . This was built in 1938 – 39 on the site of a former sanitation depot , also designed by Ludwig Hoffmann and already decorated with more than 50 plaques by Otto Lessing depicting bears , and a public lavatory , and opened on 17 August 1939 . It consists of indoor sleeping quarters and outdoor exercise areas which have held as many as five bears ( the armorial animal of Berlin ) who are the official bears or mascots of the city . The impetus for building the Bärenzwinger was a letter to the newspaper Berliner Zeitung am Mittag ( now B.Z. ) from Wilfried Bade which appeared the day after the end of the celebration of the city 's 700 @-@ year anniversary , and the Lord Mayor , Julius Lippert , had it completed despite objections from some Nazi functionaries that there were more important things to be done in what proved to be the run @-@ up to World War II . Two of the original bears were gifts from Bern , which also has a bear on its arms . It remains largely unchanged , although it had to be reconstructed after the war ; it reopened in 1949 with two new bears , again from Bern ; one of these , Jente , produced 33 cubs ( including 4 sets of triplets and 9 pairs of twins ) before being retired to the zoo . There is currently only one bear , Schnute , who is also the official city bear ; until her death in August 2013 , her daughter Maxi also lived there . The Bärenzwinger is a listed Berlin landmark . It was threatened with closure in 1990 due to lack of funds for needed modernisation , but after public protest , the Berlin Senate undertook to pay for the project . Underfloor heating in the cages and a skylight dome were added , and the electricity supply was overhauled . The facility reopened in 1993 and celebrated its 70th anniversary in 2009 . Some animal protection advocates , including the city 's own animal protection officer , have called for it to be closed as oldfashioned and inhumane .
= = = Landesversicherungsanstalt building = = =
East of the park at Am Köllnischen Park 3 is a large office building which was designed by Alfred Messel as the headquarters of the Landesversicherungsanstalt Berlin , the social insurance for Berlin within Bismarck 's old age and disability insurance system . Built in 1903 / 04 , the building echoes the Märkisches Museum , which was built at the same time , in the use of red brick on its façade and is in Expressionist @-@ Baroque style , with giant pilasters which rise uninterrupted from the street to the roofline , between which are limestone decorative elements in the form of similated balustrades , allegorical figures , and cartouches with craft symbols , such as an iron between pairs of scissors . Over the southern entrance is a sculpture of a group of men in classical style with the motto " Einer für alle — alle für einen " ( One for all — all for one ) . The building originally had a tower , which was destroyed in World War II . After the war it was the headquarters of the East German Social Security Administration . It now houses offices of the Berlin Senate Department of Urban Development , and one of the courtyards has been roofed over and houses a permanent exhibition of plans for the redevelopment of the city . It forms part of an ensemble of buildings to either side of the Märkisches Museum which are registered as a city landmark .
= = = AOK building = = =
The 6 @-@ storey steel @-@ framed office building in purplish brick on the south side of the park at Rungestraße 3 – 6 and 7 , opposite the Bärenzwinger , was designed by Albert Gottheiner ( his last work before he was forced to leave Berlin ) and built in 1931 – 32 as the headquarters of the Berlin affiliate of the Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse ( AOK ) insurance group . The façade is " an outstanding example of late Expressionist architecture " , featuring decorative brickwork and pillars , of which the six on the flanking staircase sections are emphasised by terracotta statues . Under the German Democratic Republic , the building housed the Party Academy of the governing Socialist Unity Party from 1955 onwards ; a modern extension was built in the mid @-@ 1970s , designed by an architectural team led by Friedrich Kalusche . During this period the building was renamed the Haus am Köllnischen Park . In summer 1990 , after German reunification , the institution closed and the building reverted to the possession of the AOK . As of 2007 , it houses their legal division . It is a registered city landmark .
= = = Volksbadeanstalt = = =
On the western side of the park is the Volksbadeanstalt , which was designed by Ende und Böckmann and built in 1888 as a public bath . The Berliner Verein für Volksbäder erected it and another in the Gartenstraße with assistance from the city , for the purpose of " enabling the less prosperous inhabitants of Berlin to receive the benefit of a warm bath in every season of the year , at the most economical price conceivable " . The buildings had an " English @-@ industrial " appearance and were horizontally organised with a taller central section giving an impression of " importance , balance and pragmatism " and ornamented with round arches over doors and windows and an acorn motif .
= = Historical views in and around the park = =
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= Plas Mawr =
Plas Mawr ( English : Great Hall ) is an Elizabethan townhouse in Conwy , North Wales , dating from the 16th century . The property was built by Robert Wynn , a member of the local gentry , following his marriage to his first wife , Dorothy Griffith . Plas Mawr occupied a plot of land off Conwy 's High Street and was constructed in three phases between 1576 and 1585 at a total cost of around £ 800 . Wynn was known for his hospitality , and the household was supported by Wynn 's local dairy herds , orchards and gardens . On his death he laid out complex instructions for dividing his estate ; the resulting law @-@ case took years to resolve , effectively preventing the redevelopment of the house and preserving it in its original condition .
After 1683 Plas Mawr passed into the hands of the Mostyn family and ceased to be used as a family home . It was rented out for various purposes during the 18th and 19th centuries , including for use as a school , cheap lodgings and finally as the headquarters of the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art . In the 20th century the house became increasingly well known for its preserved Elizabethan architecture , but the costs of maintenance grew considerably and its condition deteriorated . The Welsh heritage agency Cadw took over the management of the property in 1993 and carried out an extensive , 42 @-@ month @-@ long restoration project at a total cost of £ 3 @.@ 3 million . With many of its rooms redecorated to resemble their condition in 1665 , and replanted Renaissance gardens , it is now run as a tourist attraction .
Architecturally , Plas Mawr is almost unchanged from the 16th century , and the historian Rick Turner considers the house to be " the finest surviving town house of the Elizabethan era " . Plas Mawr shows a blend of continental Renaissance and local North Wales influences , with an innovative floor @-@ plan and architectural detailing . The house still retains much of its original plasterwork , which incorporates symbols , badges and heraldry , which the historian Peter Smith has described as " the most perfect and the most complete memorial to Elizabethan Wales . " The architecture of the house influenced other contemporary projects in North Wales , and was later copied during the 19th and 20th centuries in buildings around the town of Conwy , including the local police station and nearby hotel .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Plas Mawr was built in the town of Conwy between 1576 and 1585 by Robert Wynn . Robert came from a prosperous local family and entered the service of first Sir Walter Stonor and then Sir Philip Hoby , both administrators and senior officials to King Henry VIII . Robert fought and was injured at the Siege of Boulogne in 1544 , took part in military campaigns in Scotland and traveled extensively across Europe . He invested in land across North Wales and married his first wife , Dorothy Griffith , a member of the local gentry , in 1570 . Once married , Robert needed a suitable house and chose to settle in Conwy , a prosperous town that was known in the 16th century for its genteel society .
In 1570 , Robert paid Hugh Mershe £ 200 for an existing " mansion house " in Conwy , positioned in the middle of a burgage plot on what is now Crown Lane . More land to the north of this was purchased from a Richard Peake in 1576 for £ 40 , and work then began on the north wing of Plas Mawr , which was completed by the following year . Mershe 's former house was pulled down to allow the preparation of the foundations of the rest of the building , including the digging of fresh drains . Robert lived in the completed north wing until 1580 , when the central and south ranges were built , finishing the main part of Plas Mawr .
Robert went on to rent further land around the north of Plas Mawr . The land at the south end of the burgage , however , facing onto the High Street , belonged to a Robert Laythwood , who had a house there . Wynne purchased this in 1585 , probably for the relatively high price of £ 40 , and demolished it to enable the final phase of development , using the space to build a gatehouse that formed the new entrance to Plas Mawr . Further small pieces of land were bought on the north @-@ west side of the house and converted into an ornamental garden , bringing the total cost of the land to around £ 300 . The result was the grandest Elizabethan town house in Wales at the time .
These three phases of house construction – 1576 – 77 , 1580 and 1585 – were probably overseen by several different senior craftsmen , possibly working to an original plan determined by a surveyor or mason working at the English royal court . Judging by the details of the roof design , a single master carpenter may have been used for all three parts of the build ; he probably worked elsewhere across the region during these years , including on 15 other houses and two churches . Both of the first two phases of work were probably conducted by the same team of plasterers , possibly from London , and they used as much as 100 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) of lime plaster on the rendering . Timber and slates were brought down the Conwy valley for the house , with grey Silurian grit rubble quarried from the hills near the town , and finer sandstone brought from nearby Deganwy . The total of the building work was probably around £ 500 .
Entertainment and hospitality were important to a gentleman 's 16th @-@ century social status and , according to his nephew , the antiquarian John Wynn , Robert Wynn kept a " worthy plentiful house " . The household was supported by milk from Wynn 's own dairy herds , and by food from the orchards , gardens and a fish trap that he owned around the town . The house had its own brewing , baking and dairy facilities , and further supplies were bought in from regional merchants .
Dorothy died in 1586 and Robert married Dorothy Dymock , with whom he had seven children at Plas Mawr . When Robert died in 1598 he left a complex will that led to legal disputes between the family and the executor , Sir Roger Mostyn . The legal case effectively halted any further development of the house , by now the most prominent in Conwy , until its resolution in 1630 . The property passed to Robert 's grandson , another Robert Wynn , in 1637 , and onto his daughter , Elin in 1683 . By 1665 , the house was equipped to a quality and style that would have put it only just behind the houses of the major gentry families in Caernarfonshire . Elin then married into the Wynne family , and made little use of the house , and it ultimately passed by marriage into the Mostyn family .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
The Mostyns ' principal residence was Mostyn Hall in Flintshire and so the family rented out Plas Mawr to various tenants during the 18th and 19th centuries . In the 18th century the gatehouse was used as a courthouse and the main house as cheap housing . In the 19th century , parts of the house were converted into a school and space for other small businesses , as well as still being used for domestic accommodation : in 1881 , the house had 25 residents . Minor changes were made to Plas Mawr in the process , such as the installation of partition walls to subdivide the larger rooms , but it remained largely intact . The Mostyns offered the house for sale in 1870 , as part of a package of land including Bodysgallen Hall , but there were no offers .
By the 1880s , the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art became concerned about the condition of Plas Mawr , and in 1887 Lord Mostyn agreed to lease the building to the Academy for use as their headquarters . The architects Arthur and Herbert Baker were commissioned to survey the building , conduct repairs and remove some of the post @-@ 17th century alterations , and J. R. Furness then carried out conservation work on much of the plasterwork . The Victoria Gallery was built onto the north @-@ west side of the house to hold artistic exhibitions , and a weather vane was added to the top of the building to celebrate Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
By the early 20th century , Plas Mawr 's historical significance was increasingly well understood , but the costs of maintaining the house grew considerably . By the middle of the century , the finer sandstone had corroded and the timber beams were deteriorating ; a 1956 survey described them as " much decayed " . The plaster ceilings were bowing and coming away from their timbers . The Academy of Art sought government and private assistance to undertake temporary and partial repairs , but these were insufficient and in 1993 it moved into new accommodation and the property was passed into the control of the state , under the management of the Welsh heritage agency Cadw .
Cadw carried out a major restoration project on the house over the next 42 months , combining large scale conservation with detailed surveying and archaeological analysis . The 19th @-@ century Victoria Galley was demolished in 1995 , and the bare , external stonework was re @-@ rendered and lime washed . Large parts of the property were restored as they might have appeared in 1665 , assisted by the record of Robert Wynn the younger 's will , with the exception of the attic , which was restored to its probable 19th @-@ century appearance . The intention of this was to emphasize the colour and comfort of the original building , to prevent it appearing inauthentically bleak and austere . Other sections of the house were redeveloped to hold exhibition displays and other visitor facilities .
The restoration included installing original and replica interior furnishings , using wall hangings woven from Kidderminster stuff and Dornix . In what historical consultant Charles Kightly has praised as a " brave and successful " decision , much of the plasterwork was repainted , using reversible techniques , to resemble its 17th @-@ century condition . In total the project cost £ 3 @.@ 3 million , and won the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Building Conservation Award . Further work followed in 2006 to restore the gardens , again attempting to replicate the style prevalent in 1665 .
In the 21st century the house is operated as a tourist attraction by Cadw . The historian Rick Turner considers Plas Mawr to be " the finest surviving town house of the Elizabethan era " and it is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Influences = = =
Architecturally , Plas Mawr is almost unchanged from the 16th century , making it a very rare survival from this period . The architectural style is a product of the broader Renaissance influences prevalent across Europe at the time . Robert Wynn spent time in Germany , and the style of Plas Mawr makes use of North German Gothic themes , particularly in its use of symmetry , the pedimented windows at the front of the house , faceted finials and crow @-@ stepped gables . These features were already popular in England when the house was built , and indeed Plas Mawr is very similar in design to Eastbury Manor House , the two possibly being based off the same architectural plan . Some of these features had already begun to spread into Wales – crow @-@ stepped gables , for example , were already being used in Flintshire by the 1580s – but others were ground breaking in Wales , such as the use of ovolo @-@ moulded and dormer windows . Nonetheless , Robert Wynn was only an emerging member of the gentry , and his house was not as large or as sophisticated as contemporary grander Renaissance properties built in larger rural settings .
Some of the house 's architecture also reflects the influences from contemporary buildings across North Wales , in particular Gwydir Castle , built by Robert Wynn 's father John . Plas Mawr lacks a fashionable long gallery , for example , which was popular in England at the time , and was already beginning to appear in Welsh houses . Instead , it has a rear turret , or belvedere , which is raised prominently above the height of the rest of the house , overlooking the town : this was a slightly antiquated feature , but was widely used in other Wynn family properties , including Bodysgallen Hall . The design of Plas Mawr influenced other buildings in North Wales at the time , including the redecoration of Gwydir Castle , Maenan Hall further up the Conwy valley , Plas Mawr in Caernarfon and Hen Blas in Beaumaris . It also later shaped the architecture of 19th- and 20th @-@ century buildings in Conwy itself , surviving examples of which include the town 's police station and the Castlebank Hotel .
= = = Layout = = =
Modern visitors typically enter the house from the High Street to the south , passing through the gatehouse , across the lower courtyard into the hall of the main building . Plas Mawr 's gatehouse was only the third such entrance building to be built in North Wales , despite gatehouses being an important part of English Elizabethan architecture , designed to show off the house and provide a suitably dignified entry for visitors . Few houses in towns had the physical space for a gatehouse like Plas Mawr 's . Originally , the gatehouse would have contained a suite of rooms for the steward of the house , Richard Wynn .
The main house forms an " H " -shape , with a north and a south wing joined in the middle , all facing onto an upper courtyard . The upper courtyard was key to the way that the main house functioned : it linked almost all the ground floor rooms in the house , as well as providing access to the cellars , and gave an impressive view of the turret towers . In the south wing was the hall and the buttery , with the red and white chambers above them . Probably when Plas Mawr was first built , and certainly by 1665 , the hall would have been used to meet ordinary visitors and for servants ' meals , rather than forming the main room of the house ; the wooden benches and table on display are original to the property . Traditionally , the service rooms in houses had been placed at the far end of the main hall , but Plas Mawr departed from this design . The service area , including the kitchen and pantry , was instead placed in the centre of the building , between the parlour and the hall ; this radical redesign was copied at nearby Hafod Lwyfog . The restored kitchen is equipped with a batterie de cuisine , with a combination of original and replica equipment .
Above these rooms was the great chamber , the main room which formed the ceremonial centre of the house . In the north wing was the brewhouse and the parlour , with two chambers above them , the latter possibly used by Dorothy Wynn as her bedroom . The private bedrooms for the family and guests were each equipped with a fireplace , an important status symbol in the period . The roof attics of the house contained a great deal of space for accommodating the household servants . The attic above the great chamber has a grand timber roof with arch @-@ braced collar trusses , joined using an unusual system called " double pegging " , which is only used in the Conwy valley during the late 16th century . It appears that the great chamber 's ceiling was originally supposed to be open , looking up to the timbers with the trusses visible , but a mistake in the construction of the walls meant that one side of the chamber no longer fitted smoothly with the timbers , creating an ugly appearance ; a plaster ceiling was then added to hide the error .
The gardens behind the house may originally have resembled the gardens at Bodysgallen Hall , which were laid out in the Renaissance style popular across Europe . The slope of the land results in Plas Mawr 's gardens forming the upper and lower terraces , and these have been replanted and restored in an attempt to show them as they might have appeared in 1665 . The summerhouse is based on a version shown in a contemporary painting of Llanerch 's gardens , and the flowerpots are modeled on those found in excavations at Tredegar House .
= = = Plasterwork = = =
Seven rooms still possess elements of their original plasterwork , which the historian Peter Smith has described as " the most perfect and the most complete memorial to Elizabethan Wales " , and their original wooden carved panels that line the walls . The plasterwork includes extensive heraldry , badges and symbols : in the upper north range alone , 22 different heraldic emblems are molded into the ceilings and walls . The gatehouse shows the royal arms , as do the great chamber and the parlour , probably because they were intended to host senior guests . The badges of numerous monarchs are included throughout the house , including those of Richard II , Richard III , Henry IV and Henry VII . The badges of other prominent nobles , such as Robert Dudley , are also featured in the house .
The plasterwork in the parlour displays the arms of Robert Wynn himself , and Robert Wynn 's bedchamber above the brewhouse shows the combined arms of the Wynn and Griffith families , which are generally given equal prominence throughout the house . Robert Wynn 's arms are most prominent in the hall and the bedchambers , where the royal arms are smaller and less prominent . In the 16th century , Wynn 's heraldry would probably have been echoed in the furnishings of the house , including the fabrics , cups and silverware . The plasterwork also incorporates a number of classical themes , but these are not as well executed as the badges and other emblems : the historian Rick Turner describes them as " rather token additions " , and Smith considers this part of the decoration to be " naive " .
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= 1898 Georgia hurricane =
The 1898 Georgia hurricane was the most recent major hurricane to hit the U.S. state of Georgia , as well as the strongest on record in the state . It was first known to exist on September 29 , although modern researchers estimated that it developed four days earlier to the east of the Lesser Antilles . The hurricane maintained a general northwest track throughout its duration , and it reached peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on October 2 . That day , it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County , Georgia , causing record storm surge flooding . The hurricane caused heavy damage throughout the region , and killed at least 179 people . Impact was most severe in Brunswick , where a 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) storm surge was recorded . Overall damage was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1898 USD ) , most of which occurred in Georgia . In extreme northeastern Florida , strong winds nearly destroyed the city of Fernandina , while light crop damage was reported in southern South Carolina . After moving ashore , the hurricane quickly weakened and traversed much of North America ; it continued northwestward until reaching the Ohio Valley and turning northeastward , and it was last observed on October 6 near Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 28 , 1898 , island stations in the Lesser Antilles indicated the presence of a tropical cyclone , which was confirmed by the next day . Modern researchers determined that the system developed on September 25 about 220 miles ( 350 km ) east of Guadeloupe . For most of its duration , the system maintained a northwest track , reaching hurricane status on September 27 . Later that day , a barometric pressure of 977 mbar , suggesting winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Its intensification rate slowed on September 28 , before strengthening continued on October 1 . The winds reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , which is the equivalent of a major hurricane , or Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Around that time , the hurricane turned toward more to the west @-@ northwest , due to a large ridge across the western Atlantic .
On October 2 , the hurricane continued toward the west @-@ northwest , approaching the southeastern United States . That day , it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County , Georgia , and initially was thought to have done so as a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . A storm surge of 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) was observed in Brunswick , Georgia , suggesting a central pressure of 938 mbar based on the SLOSH model . Such intensity ranked the hurricane tied for the 16th strongest United States landfall , as well as the strongest in the state of Georgia . It is also the most recent major hurricane to hit the state as of 2011 . Additionally , its radius of maximum wind was estimated at 20 miles ( 33 km ) . Almost a century after the hurricane , researchers estimated the hurricane made landfall with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . After making landfall , the hurricane quickly weakened , deteriorating to tropical storm status within 12 hours . After moving across Georgia , the storm weakened further to tropical depression status over northeastern Alabama on October 3 . It continued northwestward through the Ohio Valley before recurving northeastward , accelerating through southeastern Canada and later dissipating over Newfoundland on October 6 .
= = Impact = =
On October 1 , a day before the hurricane moved ashore , the U.S. Weather Bureau issued northeast storm signals from Key West , Florida to Norfolk , Virginia . Similar warnings were issued in the hours preceding the hurricane moving ashore . The advisories were credited with saving dozens of lives and millions of dollars in shipping cargo , due to advance warning for boats to remain ashore .
Before the hurricane made landfall in Georgia , it produced strong winds in northeastern Florida , reaching Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The worst effects from the storm were confined to a very small portion of extreme northeastern Florida . At Fernandina Beach , the storm surge was estimated at 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , causing extensive flooding in the city . The October 1898 Monthly Weather Review described Fernandina as " nearly destroyed " , and most anchored boats were sunk or washed inland into the marshes . Damage along the coastline reached as far south as Mayport . The hurricane was small , and despite passing 50 miles ( 80 km ) northeast of Jacksonville , produced only 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds in the city . However , for the first time in the history of the city , all communications were cut between Jacksonville and cities further north , such as New York . Damage throughout the state was estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1898 USD ) .
The hurricane made landfall on Cumberland Island with winds estimated at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . It produced record storm surges across the coastline , including a 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) report in Brunswick . There , damage was heaviest , and most buildings were flooded . Similar impact was reported in Darien , where 32 people were killed . One coastal location reported the hurricane as causing the worst flooding since 1812 . Further north , all of Hutchinson Island in the Savannah River was covered with up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of water . The storm surge flooding entered warehouses and storage areas all along the coast , leaving many small ships wrecked or sunk . Heavy damage also occurred to coastal wharves and houses . According to the Savannah Weather Bureau office , about 5 @,@ 000 barrels of rosin were dispersed , and 60 @,@ 000 bushels of rice were wrecked . Winds in the city reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , and the flooding severely damaged the railway to nearby Tybee Island . Along the Blackbeard Island National Wildlife Refuge , the hurricane destroyed a hospital that helped people afflicted with yellow fever . A total of 179 people were killed along the Georgia coast , and damage totaled around $ 1 million ( 1898 USD ) . In South Carolina , the hurricane produced gusty winds and storm surge flooding . Some slight damage occurred at Port Royal , and in the southern portion of the state , the high tides left damage to rice and cotton crops . The Charleston Weather Bureau reported that " a number of persons were drowned along the South Carolina coast " . Heavy rainfall was reported across northeast Florida , Georgia , and the western Carolinas . The highest amount recorded was 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) at Highlands , North Carolina .
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= Effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas =
The effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas included 23 deaths caused by extreme flooding . The first storm of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season , Tropical Storm Allison lasted unusually long for a June storm , remaining tropical or subtropical for 15 days . The storm developed from a tropical wave in the northern Gulf of Mexico on June 4 , 2001 , and struck the northern Texas coast shortly thereafter . It drifted northward through the state , turned back to the south , and re @-@ entered the Gulf of Mexico . The storm continued to the east @-@ northeast , made landfall on Louisiana , then moved across the southeast United States and Mid @-@ Atlantic . Allison was the first storm since Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 to strike the northern Texas coastline .
Tropical Storm Allison was a major flood disaster throughout its path from Texas to the Mid @-@ Atlantic . The worst of the flooding occurred in Houston , Texas , where over 35 inches ( 890 mm ) of rain fell . Allison killed 41 people , of whom 27 drowned . The storm also caused over $ 5 billion in damage ( 2001 USD , $ 6 @.@ 4 billion 2007 USD ) , making Allison the costliest and second @-@ deadliest tropical storm on record in the United States .
= = Preparations = =
After the storm made landfall , flash flood watches and warnings were issued for numerous areas in eastern Texas . Travel was discouraged due to the threat of flash flood . During the flood event , the National Weather Service in Houston issued 99 flash flood warnings with an average lead time of 40 minutes ; only nine warnings were false alarms .
Shortly after the storm formed , officials in Galveston County , Texas issued a voluntary evacuation for the western end of Galveston Island , as the area was not protected by the Galveston Seawall . The ferry from the island to the Bolivar Peninsula was closed , while voluntary evacuations were issued in Surfside in Brazoria County . Voluntary evacuations were also suggested near Sabine Pass in Jefferson County , Texas , though few left . Also , when the National Hurricane Center issued the first advisory on Allison , officials issued Tropical Storm Warnings from Sargent , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana , just three hours before tropical storm winds were observed .
= = Impact = =
Allison made landfall with a storm surge of two to three feet . Combined with waves on top , areas of Galveston Island experienced a wall of water 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in height , creating overwash along the coastline . The storm caused winds of up to 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) at the Galveston Pier . While Allison was stalling over Texas , it dropped heavy rainfall across the state , including 9 @.@ 77 inches ( 248 mm ) in Galveston , 12 @.@ 13 inches ( 308 mm ) in Jamaica Beach , Texas , and other similar totals along the coast . Minimal beach erosion was reported , and impact was minimal near the coast . While moving northward through Texas as a minimal tropical depression , Allison produced minor wind gusts . Shortly after making landfall , the storm spawned a tornado in Manvel of Brazoria County , causing damage to one home . Within hours of making landfall , rainfall totals of 8 to 12 inches ( 200 to 300 mm ) were common in Galveston and Harris County . Flash flooding continued for days , with rainfall amounts across the state peaking at just over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 033 mm ) in northwestern Jefferson County . In the Port of Houston , a total of 36 @.@ 99 inches ( 940 mm ) was reported .
Houston experienced torrential rainfall in a short amount of time . At one site , 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) fell in just one hour , while 28 @.@ 5 inches ( 724 mm ) fell in only 12 hours . The six @-@ day rainfall in Houston amounted to 38 @.@ 6 inches ( 980 mm ) . Two @-@ thirds of the bayous and creeks in Harris County experienced 500 @-@ year flood events . Houston Intercontinental Airport , which typically receives 46 @.@ 07 inches ( 1170 mm ) of rain in a year , experienced 35 @.@ 7 % of its expected total in the first nine days of June .
The deluge flooded 95 @,@ 000 automobiles and 73 @,@ 000 houses throughout Harris County . Tropical Storm Allison destroyed 2 @,@ 744 homes , leaving 30 @,@ 000 homeless with residential damages totaling to $ 1 @.@ 76 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 2 @.@ 05 billion 2007 USD ) . Residential neighborhoods inside and to the north of Interstate 610 were hardest hit . Additionally , five of the six bayou systems in downtown Houston were severely flooded . Four of them broke 100 @-@ year high @-@ water records , causing excessive surface run @-@ off .
Several hospitals in the Texas Medical Center , the largest medical complex in the world , experienced severe damage from the storm , which hit quickly and with unexpected fury on a Friday evening . Hospital personnel were forced to evacuate thousands of patients in a major effort that included Coast Guard and Army helicopters . Many of the hospitals had lost all power , including back @-@ up generators , meaning that patients had to be carried down dark stairwells by the staff in temperatures over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Patients who could not breathe on their own had to be continuously manually ventilated during the evacuation , which lasted hours . Most hospitals lost power and backup power when basements , the area where power and research data were kept , flooded . The Baylor College of Medicine experienced major damage , totaling $ 495 million ( 2001 USD , $ 577 million 2007 USD ) . The medical school lost 90 @,@ 000 research animals , 60 @,@ 000 tumor samples , and 25 years of research data . The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston , across the street , lost thousands of laboratory animals , including expensive genetic @-@ specific mice . Decades of research was lost , including , for many scientists , their life 's work . The UT @-@ Houston gross anatomy lab , cyclotron , and other important facilities were completely destroyed . Throughout the Medical Center , damage totaled to over $ 2 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 2 @.@ 3 billion 2007 USD ) . Most were reopened after a month , though it took much longer to become fully operational .
The storm flooded the lower level of the massive law library at the University of Houston Law Center with eight feet of water . An estimated 174 @,@ 000 books and the microfiche collection were destroyed . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) gave $ 21 @.@ 4 million to rebuild the law library collection .
The underground tunnel system , which connects most large office buildings in downtown Houston , was submerged , as were many streets and parking garages adjacent to Buffalo Bayou . In the Houston Theater District , also near Buffalo Bayou in the northern part of downtown , the Houston Ballet , Houston Symphony , Houston Grand Opera , and Alley Theater lost millions of dollars ' worth of costumes , musical instruments , sheet music , archives , props , and other artifacts .
Local television stations ran all @-@ night coverage of the deluge from June 8 through the next day , including KHOU @-@ TV 11 , which was forced to transmit its broadcast to a satellite truck when floodwaters entered its production studio on the Allen Parkway near Studemont / Montrose , near downtown along the banks of Buffalo Bayou . By midnight on June 9 nearly every freeway and major road in the city was under several feet of water , forcing hundreds of motorists to abandon their vehicles for higher ground . Eighteen @-@ wheeled trucks were filmed floating down major freeways and highways , swept along by floodwaters .
Despite massive flooding and damage to entire neighborhoods , there were no drowning deaths in flooded homes . In the area , there were 12 deaths from driving , 6 from walking , 3 from electrocution , and 1 in an elevator . Elsewhere in Texas , a man drowned when swimming in a ditch in Mauriceville . Damage totaled to $ 5 @.@ 2 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 6 billion 2007 USD ) throughout Texas .
Though Allison 's flooding was extreme , it was not unprecedented . Tropical Storm Amelia in 1978 dropped over 46 inches ( 1170 mm ) of rainfall in Bluff , Texas , which remains the record highest rainfall for a single storm in the state of Texas . In addition , Tropical Storm Claudette in 1979 and a hurricane in 1921 produced rainfall totals of over 40 inches ( 1015 mm ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Within weeks of the disaster , President George W. Bush declared 28 counties in Texas as disaster areas . The declarations allowed affected citizens to receive aid for temporary housing , emergency home repairs , and other serious disaster @-@ related expenses . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) also provided 75 % for the cost of debris removal , emergency services related to the disaster , and repairing or replacing damaged public facilities , such as roads , bridges and utilities .
A few weeks after Allison , FEMA opened six disaster recovery centers across southeast Texas , which provided recovery information to those who applied for disaster assistance . The American Red Cross and the Salvation Army opened 48 shelters at the peak of need for people driven from their homes , which served nearly 300 @,@ 000 meals . After the extensive damage to Houston hospitals , the U. S. Public Health Service team set up a temporary hospital at the Houston Police Academy . The team of 87 medical personnel served over 1 @,@ 000 patients within two weeks of Allison 's passage . Similarly , the National Disaster Medical System deployed a temporary hospital to Houston with 88 professionals , aiding nearly 500 people . Debris removal , which was initially slow , was aided by FEMA to expedite the removal process . FEMA provided 75 % of the federal cost of the removal . Thirty @-@ five volunteer services provided aid for the flood victims in Texas , including food , clothing , and volunteers to help repair the houses .
After nearly 50 @,@ 000 cars were flooded and ruined , many people attempted to sell the cars across the country without telling of the car 's history . Following the extreme flooding , a mosquito outbreak occurred , though FEMA provided aid to control the problem . Health officials also recommended disinfecting private wells with bleach , due to possible contamination from the severe flooding . Many people took advantage of the flood victims , including fraudulent contractors and suppliers raising the price of goods more than is actually justified .
By six months after the storm , around 120 @,@ 000 Texas citizens applied for federal disaster aid , totaling to $ 1 @.@ 05 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 1 @.@ 22 billion 2007 USD ) . Of that amount , 17 % of that was spent for temporary housing . In addition , Disaster Unemployment Assistance totaled to just under $ 1 million , while business loans totaled to $ 389 million ( 2001 USD , $ 454 million 2007 USD ) .
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= Trade dollar ( United States coin ) =
The United States trade dollar was a dollar coin minted by the United States Mint to compete with other large silver trade coins that were already popular in East Asia . The idea first came about in the 1860s , when the price of silver began to decline due to increased mining efforts in the western United States . A bill providing in part for the issuance of the trade dollar was eventually put before Congress , where it was approved and later signed into law as the Coinage Act of 1873 . The act made trade dollars legal tender up to five dollars . A number of designs were considered for the trade dollar , and an obverse and reverse created by William Barber were selected .
The coins were first struck in 1873 , and most of the production was sent to China . Eventually , bullion producers began converting large amounts of silver into trade dollars , causing the coins to make their way into American commercial channels . This caused frustration among those to whom they were given in payment , as the coins were largely maligned and traded for less than one dollar each . In response to their wide distribution in American commerce , the coins were officially demonetized in 1876 , but continued to circulate . Production of business strikes ended in 1878 , though the mintage of proof coins officially continued until 1883 . The trade dollar was re @-@ monetized when the Coinage Act of 1965 was signed into law .
= = Background = =
Following the California gold rush that began in 1849 and the Australian gold rush that began in 1851 , a larger amount of gold was put into commerce than could be easily absorbed by the normal channels . This resulted in a decrease in the value of gold and an increase in the relative value of silver . As a result , silver coins rapidly disappeared from circulation due either to hoarding or melting . In response , Congress authorized the Mint to reduce the quantity of silver in all denominations except the three @-@ cent piece and silver dollar . Beginning in the 1860s , silver production rose and the price decreased . During this time , silver coins largely disappeared from circulation and were replaced by paper and copper currency .
In China , the Mexican peso ( successor to the Spanish dollar ) was greatly valued in commerce . However , the Chinese were sensitive to any changes in the coin 's design , and were reluctant to accept newer coins due to a minor design change . The American silver dollar , 7 @.@ 5 grains ( 0 @.@ 49 g ) lighter than its Spanish counterpart , was unpopular in the Orient due to its light weight , forcing American merchants to purchase the Spanish or Mexican pieces to use in trade . Beginning in 1866 , during the reign of Emperor Maximilian , the design was changed to show the Emperor 's portrait ; this caused widespread nonacceptance of the coins in China .
While conducting an investigation of the Mint at San Francisco , deputy comptroller of the currency John Jay Knox began discussing the monetary situation with Louis A. Garnett , a man who had worked as both the treasurer and assayer of the San Francisco Mint . Garnett recommended that the United States mint a commercial dollar that would be exported to the Orient to compete with other large silver trade coins that were already popular in that region . Garnett 's rationale was that the coins would be hoarded or melted in Asia and would never be presented for redemption , allowing the government to make a profit from the seigniorage . During his time in San Francisco , Knox also discussed the proposed commercial dollar with Henry Linderman , who was working as a special agent for the Treasury Department at that time . In 1870 , Knox wrote a report to the Treasury and wrote the draft for a bill on coinage . Knox 's bill was approved by George Boutwell , Secretary of the Treasury . After modification and review from current and former government officials , the bill was put before Congress .
On November 19 , 1872 , while the coinage bill was still before Congress , Linderman made a report to the Secretary of the Treasury . In the report , Linderman argued that the coin need not hold legal tender status , and that it could simply be a piece of silver imprinted with its weight and fineness . Linderman also notes that such a product could supersede the Mexican dollar and eventually command a six to eight percent premium ; at that time , American silver exported to the Orient was being sold at a two percent discount . Linderman proposed that the coin be named the " silver union " in order to distinguish it from the standard coins then in production .
In February 1872 , the bill was amended by a House of Representatives committee to include authorization for a commercial dollar weighing 420 grains ( 27 g ) ; but this proposal was replaced three months later when the House voted to include provisions for the production of a standard silver dollar weighing 384 grains ( 24 @.@ 9 g ) . While in the Senate , a provision was added to the bill requiring the Treasury to coin a trade dollar of 420 grains ( 27 g ) , as had been done earlier in the House . The revised bill , which came to be known as the Coinage Act of 1873 , was approved in the House and Senate and was signed by President Ulysses S. Grant on February 12 , 1873 .
The bill provided , in part , for the striking of trade dollars which held legal tender status up to five dollars . The legal tender provision was added by a last @-@ minute rider at the behest of silver interests . At the insistence of Ohio Senator John Sherman , the weight and fineness of the piece was indicated on the reverse , an attribution which numismatic historian Don Taxay found incomprehensible as " Chinese merchants would never understand them " .
Prior to the passage of the Coinage Act , the director of the Philadelphia Mint oversaw all branch mints . After the Act , the office of director was transferred to Washington , D.C. , and responsibility for each mint was handed over to a superintendent .
= = = Design selection = = =
Throughout the year of 1872 , the Mint struck a series of commercial dollar patterns in anticipation of the passage of the coinage bill . Production of patterns continued into 1873 , but the denomination of the pattern coins was changed from " commercial dollar " to " trade dollar " before the bill was signed into law . After passage of the Coinage Act , Linderman met with Director of the Mint James Pollock to discuss the design of the newly authorized trade dollar . The two men agreed to request a jewelry and engraving firm , Bailey Banks & Biddle of Philadelphia , to create designs that would be compared to those already created by Chief Engraver William Barber .
After examining the designs of both parties , Linderman ordered that the design would depict a seated figure representing Liberty facing to the viewer 's left , representing the direction of the Orient . Linderman apparently selected the designs from two different patterns . In June 1873 , Linderman reviewed the various patterns created by Barber ; he chose an obverse which one contemporary reporter described as " a female figure seated on bales of merchandise , holding in her left hand a scroll bearing the word ' Liberty ' . At her back is a sheaf of wheat , expressing , with the bales of goods , the commercial character of the coin : the right hand extended holds the olive branch . " The selected reverse depicts the bald eagle as required by law . The eagle has three arrows in the right claw and an olive branch in the left , a reversal to most other U.S. silver coins of the era . A set of six patterns , four with variations on the adopted obverse , and two showing portraits of Liberty , was sold by the Mint to the public in limited quantities .
= = Production = =
Linderman assumed the position of Director of the Mint and Pollock became Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint . In July 1873 , production began on the dies needed to strike the coins . During this time , in a telegram to Pollock , Linderman asked that production of trade dollars be hastened because Mexico was preparing to issue another series of dollars with the older design popular in Asia , a design that was discontinued in 1866 . The first trade dollars were struck during a ceremony held on July 11 , 1873 . Forty thousand pieces were issued in the first release , on July 14 . The Carson City Mint received its first dies for the new coins on July 22 , and those intended for the San Francisco Mint arrived shortly after . In total , 396 @,@ 635 business strikes and 865 proof coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint during the first year of production . The Carson City and San Francisco mints struck 124 @,@ 500 and 703 @,@ 000 coins respectively .
There were complaints that year from officials at all three of the mints concerning the quality of the coins produced . In the summer of 1874 , coiner A. Loudon Snowden issued a formal complaint to Pollock about the quality of the strikings , most notably on the high points of the design ; Barber began modifying the design later that year , reducing the relief . The modified dies began service in 1875 . In the fall of that year , Linderman suggested that the reverse of the trade dollar should be altered in 1876 to commemorate the centennial of American independence ; Pollock opposed the idea , noting that such a change would be difficult to carry out because Congressional approval would be necessary and that it might cause the coin to lose favor in the Orient . In May 1876 , former assistant engraver Anthony C. Paquet created a reverse die after being hired by Linderman to improve the striking quality of the coins . Linderman approved of the new design , but it was ultimately rejected by Mint officials due to fears of Chinese disapproval .
Though production of business strikes ended in 1878 , the striking of proof coins continued in limited numbers until 1883 , when the final mintage of 979 coins was struck at the Philadelphia Mint . In 1908 , it was discovered that ten proofs dated 1884 and five dated 1885 were produced , but these pieces are not listed in official records and it is unknown when they were created .
= = Reception = =
Most of the 1873 production was exported to China , and in October of that year , the Tongzhi Emperor had an assay test conducted on the coins . In a proclamation translated by Chinese consul and interpreter Walter Hillier , the Emperor stated :
This Proclamation , therefore , is for the information of you merchants , traders , soldiers and people of every district . You must know that the ' Eagle Trade Dollar ' that has lately come to Hong Kong has been jointly assayed by officers specially appointed for the purpose , and it can be taken in payment of duties , and come into general circulation . You must not look upon it with suspicion . At the same time rogues , sharpers , and the like , are hereby strictly forbidden to fabricate spurious imitations of this new Eagle Dollar , with a view to their own profit .
And should they dare to set this prohibition at defiance , and fabricate false coin , they shall , upon discovery , most assuredly be arrested and punished . Let every one obey with trembling ! Let there be no disobedience !
In 1874 , trade dollars began appearing in American commerce . In early 1875 , Congress passed the Specie Redemption Act , allowing the Treasury to pay out silver coins in exchange for paper currency . That act , combined with a drop in the price of silver , caused hoarded or exported silver coins to reappear in commerce within the United States . Many trade dollars were reimported , especially to California . After the value of silver began to decline and the intrinsic value of the coins fell below one dollar , bullion depositors began having their silver struck as trade dollars and selling them wholesale to be distributed throughout the country . Bullion producers opted to coin their silver into trade dollars because the Coinage Act of 1873 specified that silver brought to the Mint could only be struck as such or cast into bars .
Congress considered raising the five @-@ dollar legal tender limit on trade dollars , but instead passed a bill that officially demonetized the trade dollar on July 22 , 1876 ; the Secretary of the Treasury was directed by the act to strike no more of the coins than necessary for use in trade . Despite the demonetization of the trade dollar , bullion producers continued to place the coins into the American market , resulting in an estimated seven million coins circulating within the United States , of which more than four million were placed in circulation in 1877 . Despite the 1876 act , it was not until October 15 , 1877 that Sherman ( now Secretary of the Treasury ) finally ordered that the mints not accept orders for trade dollars . On November 5 , apparently believing a false report that additional supplies were needed for the Chinese New Year , he rescinded his order , finally ending orders for trade dollars on February 22 , 1878 .
Linderman ordered a review of the success of the trade dollar in China . It was discovered that the coins circulated reasonably well in southern China , but usage in the north was limited . As the price of silver decreased , employers in the United States began paying workers in trade dollars purchased at a discount . The situation frustrated the public , as the coins were widely disliked and many banks and businesses refused to accept the coins . In response , many towns set a fixed value on trade dollars . Businesses which did accept trade dollars to avoid offending customers could not deposit them in banks or use them to pay taxes , and sold them to brokers . The brokers in turn recirculated the coins by selling them at a discount from face value to employers who included them in workers ' pay packets . In 1883 , members of the New York Mercantile Exchange petitioned Congress to allow redemption of the coins by the government .
Bullion prices continued to drop through the 1880s , increasing the loss by anyone forced to sell at melt value after accepting a trade dollar at face value . Despite the support of Secretary of the Treasury Charles J. Folger , the question of the redemption of the trade dollar became caught up in controversy over the heavy coinage of the new Morgan dollar under the inflationary Bland – Allison Act . Silver interests objected to the silver from redeemed trade dollars being counted towards the Mint 's monthly quota under the act , preferring to sell newly mined silver instead , and opposed acts which so provided . It was not until 1887 that Congress , ostensibly to relieve the poor ( though most trade dollars were by then in the hands of speculators ) , provided for the redemption of unmutilated trade dollars . The act , which did not count the redeemed silver towards the Bland – Allison Act quota , passed into law on February 14 , 1887 , when the ten @-@ day period which President Grover Cleveland had to either sign or veto it expired with no action by the President . Many coins were not redeemable due to chop marks applied by Chinese businessmen , which was done to affirm the coin 's silver content . The dollars were only redeemable for six months , and the recovered silver was struck into dimes , quarters , and half dollars .
Numismatic historian Walter Breen criticized both the legal tender provision and the coin in general , stating that the coin 's issuance was " an expensive mistake – its motivation mere greed , its design a triumph of dullness , its domestic circulation and legal tender status a disastrous provision of law leading only to ghastly abuses . " During the 1870s an attempt by Japan to introduce its own trade dollar to China fared no better .
Trade dollars were again made legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965 , which stated in part " All coins and currencies of the United States ( including Federal Reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal Reserve banks and national banking associations ) , regardless of when coined or issued , shall be legal tender for all debts , public and private , public charges , taxes , duties and dues . " However , the numismatic and bullion value of any trade dollar far exceeds its face value of one dollar . Because of its demand by collectors a large number of counterfeits exist made with base metal , and buyers should exercise caution when purchasing specimens .
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= New Brunswick Theological Seminary =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary , which has its main campus in New Brunswick , New Jersey , was founded in 1784 , and is the oldest independent Protestant seminary extant in the United States . It is one of two operated by the Reformed Church in America ( RCA ) , a mainline Reformed Protestant denomination in Canada and the United States that follows the theological tradition and Christian practice of John Calvin . First established in New York City under the leadership of the Rev. John Henry Livingston , who instructed aspiring ministers in his home , the seminary established its presence in New Brunswick in 1810 . Although a separate institution , the seminary 's early development in New Brunswick was closely connected with that of Rutgers University ( formerly Queen 's College and Rutgers College ) before establishing its own campus in the city in 1856 . Since 1986 , the seminary has offered classes at a satellite campus on the grounds of St. John 's University in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens , New York .
New Brunswick Theological Seminary offers professional and graduate degree programs for candidates for ministry , and to those pursuing careers in academia or non @-@ theological fields . It also offers certificates and training programs to lay church leaders seeking advanced courses in Theology , Bible studies , Church History , and Servant Leadership . While rooted in the Reformed faith , New Brunswick Theological Seminary is dedicated to providing a comprehensive Christian education as " an inter @-@ cultural , ecumenical school of Christian faith , learning , and scholarship committed to its metro @-@ urban and global contexts . " As of the fall semester of 2012 , the seminary enrolled 197 students .
= = Administration and organization = =
The Reformed Church in America ( RCA ) operates two seminaries in the United States — New Brunswick Theological Seminary and the Western Theological Seminary founded in 1866 in Holland , Michigan . New Brunswick Theological Seminary , was established in 1784 , and offers classes on two campuses . The seminary 's campus in New Brunswick , built in 1856 , is at the corner of College Avenue and Seminary Place . Since 1986 , courses have been offered on the campus of St. John 's University in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens , New York .
According to the seminary 's by @-@ laws , the RCA 's General Synod entrusts the management of the seminary to a Board of Trustees empowered to exercise control of institution 's finances , securities , and property for the purpose of participating " in God ’ s own laboring to fulfill God ’ s reign on earth . " The board consists of twelve to twenty @-@ four trustees , serving for three @-@ year terms , who are required to be " confessing Christians who acknowledge a commitment to the authority of the Bible over all matters of faith and practice , the sovereignty of God , and the Lordship of Jesus Christ over all of life . " A majority of the board 's members must be RCA members , and each of the church 's regional synods are represented by one member . The president and the General Secretary of the RCA 's General Synod serve as ex officio members of the board without a vote . The by @-@ laws further empower the seminary 's trustees to provide it " with such property and buildings ; faculty , administration , and staff ; library and information resources ; equipment and supplies as are necessary for the effective accomplishment of the Seminary 's purpose . " The board of trustees selects the seminary 's president , who is elected for a five @-@ year term and can be reelected to successive terms by the board . The president can be removed by a two @-@ thirds vote of the trustees .
The current president of the New Brunswick Theological Seminary is the Rev. Gregg A. Mast , a clergyman who has served congregations in New Jersey , New York , and Johannesburg , South Africa , and held leadership positions within the Reformed Church of America . Mast is an alumnus of the seminary , having received a Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) degree in 1976 . He was appointed by the trustees as the seminary 's 14th president in 2006 as a replacement for Norman J. Kansfield , who was suspended from the ministry and dismissed as the seminary president in 2005 after officiating at his daughter Ann 's same @-@ sex marriage .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment and early history ( 1784 – 1810 ) = = =
The Dutch Reformed Synod of New York recognized that there was a shortage of adequately trained ministers to supply the church ’ s congregations in the British American colonies . Young men had to journey to the Netherlands to pursue several years of theological studies at a Dutch university . Church leaders sought to obtain the right to examine and ordain ministers in the colonies ( later in the United States ) , and to operate a school to train them . In 1766 , several clergymen secured a charter from New Jersey 's Royal Governor William Franklin for the creation of Queen 's College , now Rutgers University , in New Brunswick , New Jersey " for the education of youth in the learned languages , liberal and useful arts and sciences , and especially in divinity ; preparing them for the ministry and other good offices . "
However , in these early years , the trustees of Queen 's College and the Synod of New York disagreed on the purpose of the new institution . With uncertainty about the college 's financial stability , the Synod desired to directly oversee the theological training of their ministerial candidates . However , the question of whether to open a seminary was delayed because of the ongoing hostilities of the American Revolution . After the war concluded , the Synod decided in 1784 that it was necessary to support the study of theology and recommenced the effort to establish a seminary . The Rev. John Henry Livingston , a graduate of both Yale College ( 1762 ) in Connecticut and the University of Utrecht ( 1770 ) in the Netherlands , was appointed to be the Synod ’ s Professor of Sacred Theology and to organize theological education at Queen 's College . However , Queen 's College did not provide Livingston a salary , compelling him to lecture on fees paid by the students directly . Livingston remained in New York overseeing a parish and instructing theology students through lectures given in his home .
In 1792 , the Synod became aware that many students were prevented from pursuing their studies in the " commercial emporium of New York " because of the high cost of living and a lack of sufficient funds . To address this difficulty , the Synod decided to locate the seminary outside of the city . However , as Queen 's College had severe financial difficulties and was forced to close by 1795 , New Brunswick was not considered a viable option . In 1796 , Livingston was directed by the Synod to relocate his theological classes to a small school in Flatbush ( now in Queens , New York ) where it remained for the next 14 years .
= = = A seminary in New Brunswick ( 1810 – 1856 ) = = =
After being closed for twelve years , the Rev. Ira Condict ( 1764 – 1811 ) and other church leaders began an effort in 1807 to revive Queen 's College . Condict , the college 's third president , and the college 's trustees agreed to coordinate with the Synod on theological education , to hire professors , and establish a library . In 1810 , Condict declined the post of president of Queen 's College in a full capacity ( he had been serving in a pro tempore capacity since 1795 ) , and the trustees of the college offered the post to Livingston who accepted . The seminary was relocated to New Brunswick . The college closed again in 1816 , but the trustees permitted the theological seminary to remain on the Queen 's College campus and expressed hope that the college would be revived . At this time , the Rev. Elias van Bunschooten , a Princeton @-@ trained minister residing in Sussex County , New Jersey , established funded a trust for assisting indigent young men in pursuing their studies preparing for ministry .
In 1823 , the Synod paid a significant portion of Queen 's College 's debts in order to place the institution on a secure financial footing and enable it to reopen . With the second reopening , the Synod provided clergymen to serve at the college as theology professors . Livingston had dedicated several years to raising money for the effort but died shortly before Queen 's College reopened in 1825 . The Rev. Philip Milledoler , a Reformed clergyman from New York City , was appointed to fill the vacancy created by Livingston 's death . Milledoler persuaded one of his parishioners , Colonel Henry Rutgers ( 1745 – 1830 ) , to support the college . The trustees subsequently renamed it Rutgers College in his honour . At first , the Synod exercised oversight over the operations of the college , but by 1840 directed its attentions solely to the operation of the seminary . During this period Rutgers College , the college 's grammar school ( now Rutgers Preparatory School ) , and the seminary shared one building , known as Old Queens ( built 1809 @-@ 1823 ) until the two schools separated operations entirely in 1856 .
According to Bruggink and Baker , in 1792 ( seven years after Livingston began to teach in his home ) , there were 116 Reformed churches served by 40 ministers . In 1830 , twenty years after starting instruction in New Brunswick and organizing the seminary , there were 159 ministers serving 194 churches .
= = = Campus on " Holy Hill " ( 1856 – 2012 ) = = =
In the 1850s , the student bodies of Rutgers College and the Seminary began to expand , overcrowding the space provided at the Queens Campus . The seminary professors realized that students renting rooms at boarding houses in the city were paying more for their housing than students at other seminaries — over double the costs of housing at New York City 's Union Theological Seminary or at nearby Princeton Theological Seminary . The professors surmised that it would be cheaper to build a seminary building that provided both student housing and instruction space .
When the seminary 's leaders proposed the idea , the Synod of New York removed financial support from both Rutgers and the seminary . Colonel James Nielson , David Bishop , and Charles Dayton — prominent citizens in New Brunswick — donated plots of land totaling almost 8 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 m ² ) consisting of part of a hill extending from George Street to College Avenue . At the same time , Ann Hertzog of Philadelphia donated $ 30 @,@ 000 for the construction of a building to be named " Peter Hertzog Theological Hall " in memory of her husband . Hertzog Hall ( built 1855 – 1856 ) became a dominant feature on the hill , which became known locally as " Holy Hill " . In November 1776 , during the American Revolution , the hill was the site of a British artillery redoubt during the occupation of New Brunswick .
Throughout the nineteenth century , the institution became known because of the efforts of missionaries serving throughout the world . In the 1870s , the campus was expanded with the construction of two buildings — one housing a gymnasium and additional lecture space ; the second , a library . The seminary desired to build a library first , citing the need to house its expanding collection of books . However , local businessman and seminary benefactor James Suydam donated funds to build the gynasium , to be named Suydam Hall , because he was extremely concerned with student health . Suydam Hall was built in 1873 and was designed by architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh . Hardenbergh had finished completing the design for Kirkpatrick Chapel and Geology Hall on the Rutgers campus and later would become known for buildings in New York City , including the Plaza Hotel and Dakota Apartments . After receiving a donation from Gardner A. Sage earmarked for the construction of a library , the trustees commissioned Hardenbergh 's former teacher , German @-@ American architect Detlef Lienau , to design it . The Sage Library was completed in 1875 . Lienau designed the library to complement Hardenbergh 's ( style ) design for Suydam Hall . In the 1960s , Suydam Hall and Hertzog Hall were deemed to be inadequate for the administrative and instructional needs of the seminary . The trustees voted in 1966 to demolish both buildings and replace it with a modern one @-@ story all @-@ purpose building , Zwemer Hall , containing the seminary 's chapel , faculty offices , and classroom facilities .
In the late 1970s , during the tenure of seminary president Howard Hageman , the seminary revised its academic programs to focus on serving the needs of second career and bi @-@ vocational students . This was intended to make theological education more accessible as the seminary transitioned from the 1980s to 2010s from " a predominantly residential school to one that is more than 90 percent commuter based . " This transition meant that the seminary would serve an increasing number of second @-@ career pastors who would study part @-@ time . Another result of this transition was that the seminary 's student body became the " most richly diverse " seminary in North America . Today , the New Brunswick Theological Seminary offers classes through two campuses , the first in New Brunswick , New Jersey and since 1986 on the campus of St. John 's University in Jamaica , New York .
Today , the seminary focuses on providing a comprehensive Christian education as " an inter @-@ cultural , ecumenical school of Christian faith , learning , and scholarship committed to its metro @-@ urban and global contexts " and preparing its graduates to " inspire missions in a post @-@ colonial world where the gospel is taking deep root , especially in urban areas of Africa , Asia , and Central and South America . " The seminary seeks to achieve this mission by expanding through distance @-@ learning technology and online classes to reach new constituencies . As of the fall semester of 2012 , the seminary enrolled 197 students .
= = = College Avenue redevelopment ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary has partnered with Rutgers University , and the New Brunswick Development Corporation ( DEVCO ) on a $ 300 million project to redevelop the seminary 's campus and a portion of the Rutgers campus in New Brunswick . Citing declining enrollment and financial constraints , and recognizing the maintenance needs of an aging campus including empty and unused on @-@ campus student housing ( as their student body transitioned to commuter students ) , the seminary sold a five @-@ acre ( 20 @,@ 000 m ² ) portion of their eight @-@ acre ( 32 @,@ 000 m ² ) campus to Rutgers . On 20 June 2012 , the outgoing president of Rutgers University , Richard L. McCormick announced that Rutgers will " integrate five acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m ² ) along George Street between Seminary Place and Bishop Place into the College Avenue Campus " to build a 500 @-@ student Honors College , a dining facility , and a major academic building featuring lecture halls and departmental offices . The seminary 's Board of Trustees approved this plan and the sale on 20 May 2013 .
The seminary reconstructed its New Brunswick campus on three acres ( 12 @,@ 000 m ² ) at the corner of Seminary Place and College Avenue , with a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m ² ) central building featuring " a chapel , classrooms , offices , conference facilities and space for commuting students as well as a 100 @-@ car parking lot " while preserving the Gardner A. Sage Library . The seminary 's planned new campus is described as being " technologically smart and environmentally green . " The seminary relocated to its new faciities in July 2014 .
= = Degrees and programs = =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary is accredited by the Commission on Accrediting of the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada . The seminary offers admission to students after the review of a submitted application accompanied by college transcripts and letters of recommendation . It offers courses and programs leading to three degrees : the Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) , Master of Arts ( M.A. ) and Doctor of Ministry ( D.Min. ) degree ; as well as certificates and training programs to lay church leaders seeking advanced courses in Theology , Bible studies , Church History , and Servant Leadership . Students are able to take advantage of opportunities to register in classes or complete joint degree programs with Rutgers University , St. John 's University , Princeton Theological Seminary ( Presbyterian ) , Western Theological Seminary ( Reformed ) , and the Wesley Theological Seminary ( Methodist ) .
The Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) is a degree required by many Christian denominations for ordination , and spans a three @-@ year full @-@ time program . The core of the academic studies falls into three fields : Biblical Studies ; Historical , Theological and Ethical Studies ; and Ministry Studies . This is combined with obtaining practical experience in the field learning the practice of " varieties of ministry . " A student 's studies toward the Master of Divinity degree can be directed toward a concentration in Urban Ministry with coursework that is focused specifically on preparing candidates " for the opportunities and challenges of urban ministry . "
The Master of Arts ( M.A. ) program requires eighteen months to two years of full @-@ time coursework and offers degree concentrations in Biblical Studies , Pastoral Care , Historical and Constructive Theology , Church and Society . The program is intended for ministry candidates who do not require an M.Div. , those who desire to enrich their studies , and for those looking to supplement a professional degree or prepare for a theological Ph.D. program .
The Doctor of Ministry ( D.Min. ) is a three @-@ year program with a specialized focus toward Metro @-@ Urban Ministry . It is a research degree that combines academic research and a focus on ministry or mission work through " a theological understanding of the life and work of the church in urban communities . " A D.Min. degree candidate has the option of two courses of study : one concerning the challenges of ministry in an ethnically @-@ diverse urban environment ; or the challenges of a " Prisons , Public Policy , and Transformative Justice " ministry . Students in both programs engage in coursework and research augmented by a collaboration between the seminary and Rutgers University ’ s Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy .
= = Gardner A. Sage Library = =
The Gardner A. Sage Library was built in 1873 – 75 and was designed by nineteenth @-@ century German @-@ American architect Detlef Lienau . Lienau combined the elements of a Romanesque fourth @-@ century basilica and a " Victorian bookhall " to create a space conducive to " the contemplation of God . " According to the seminary , the Sage Library 's collection contains more than 150 @,@ 000 books and 10 @,@ 000 bound periodicals , spanning the topics of biblical studies , theology , Reformed Church studies , general church history and denominational history . The collection includes many rare manuscripts and printed books dating as early as the fifteenth century . The library maintains subscriptions for more than 300 periodicals . It is expanding its collection with the acquisition of books and materials on urban ministry and the religious experience of African @-@ American and Asian immigrant communities . The library presently houses the official archives of the Reformed Church in America and contains comprehensive resources regarding Dutch history , culture , and Dutch Colonial Studies . The seminary 's collection is augmented by reciprocal borrowing rights with the Rutgers University library system ( over 10 @.@ 5 million holdings ) , the libraries at St. John 's University , access to libraries nationwide , and direct affiliations with the libraries at thirty other theological schools .
= = Notable people = =
The New Brunswick Theological Seminary 's bylaws establish its mission " to educate persons and strengthen communities for transformational , public ministries in church and society . " In its 230 @-@ year history , the seminary 's faculty and alumni have taken leading roles in the ministry and missions of the Reformed Church and other Christian denominations , in academia , and in the professional world .
Because of the work and reputation of alumni who became prominent missionaries , the seminary became well known in the nineteenth century . David Abeel ( B.D. 1826 ) , served as a missionary throughout the world , including in Indonesia , Southeast Asia and China . Several members of the Scudder family , including Jared Waterbury Scudder ( B.D. 1855 ) , received their theological training at the seminary before serving as missionaries in India . Alumnus John Van Nest Talmage ( B.D. 1845 ) served for over forty years in China for the American Reformed Mission . His younger brother , the Rev. Dr. Thomas DeWitt Talmage ( B.D. 1856 ) became known for his pulpit oratory , drawing large crowds to hear his sermons . Talmage 's sermons were later published in 3 @,@ 000 journals and said to reach 25 million readers worldwide . One of the main buildings on the seminary 's campus , Zwemer Hall ( built 1966 , razed 2013 ) was named for Samuel Marinus Zwemer ( M.A. 1890 ) , a missionary in the Middle East who was nicknamed the " Apostle to Islam . " Zwemer served in Basra , Bahrain , the Arabian peninsula , later in Egypt from 1891 to 1929 , and believed that distributing literature was effective in spreading God 's word . Horace Grant Underwood ( B.D. 1884 ) , served as a missionary in Korea , and was influential in establishing several educational institutions with the financial support of his brother , John T. Underwood , a typewriter entrepreneur and manufacturer . A financial gift in Spring 2011 to the seminary from the Luce Foundation and Korean Christians established an endowed professorship , the Underwood Chair for Global Christianity .
Many of the seminary 's graduates have served as faculty and administrators at Rutgers , Western Theological Seminary , Hope College and several other institutions . Hope , an RCA @-@ affiliated liberal arts college in Michigan founded in 1851 , was founded upon a vision of becoming " a point of life for the whole Western Church , a Western New Brunswick . " Two seminary graduates served as president of Rutgers — the Rev. William Henry Steel Demarest , a clergyman and ecclesiastical history scholar , and Philip Milledoler Brett , a prominent New York City attorney ( both also alumni of Rutgers College ) . Demarest served as the seminary 's president for ten years from 1925 to 1935 . Several other seminary alumni have served on the seminary 's faculty and as its leaders — including its first dean and faculty president , Samuel Merrill Woodbridge ( A.M. 1841 ) , and its current president , Gregg A. Mast ( M.Div. 1976 ) .
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= Hilary Putnam =
Hilary Whitehall Putnam ( July 31 , 1926 – March 13 , 2016 ) was an American philosopher , mathematician , and computer scientist who was a central figure in analytic philosophy from the 1960s , especially in philosophy of mind , philosophy of language , philosophy of mathematics , and philosophy of science . He was known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others , subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposed its flaws . As a result , he acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position . At the time of his death , Putnam was Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University .
In philosophy of mind , Putnam is known for his argument against the type @-@ identity of mental and physical states based on his hypothesis of the multiple realizability of the mental , and for the concept of functionalism , an influential theory regarding the mind – body problem . In philosophy of language , along with Saul Kripke and others , he developed the causal theory of reference , and formulated an original theory of meaning , introducing the notion of semantic externalism based on a famous thought experiment called Twin Earth .
In philosophy of mathematics , he and his mentor W. V. Quine developed the " Quine – Putnam indispensability thesis " , an argument for the reality of mathematical entities , later espousing the view that mathematics is not purely logical , but " quasi @-@ empirical " . In the field of epistemology , he is known for his critique of the well known " brain in a vat " thought experiment . This thought experiment appears to provide a powerful argument for epistemological skepticism , but Putnam challenges its coherence .
In metaphysics , he originally espoused a position called metaphysical realism , but eventually became one of its most outspoken critics , first adopting a view he called " internal realism " , which he later abandoned . Despite these changes of view , throughout his career he remained committed to scientific realism , roughly the view that mature scientific theories are approximately true descriptions of ways things are .
In the philosophy of perception Putnam came to endorse direct realism , according to which perceptual experiences directly present one with the external world . In the past , he further held that there are no mental representations , sense data , or other intermediaries that stand between the mind and the world . By 2012 , however , he rejected this further commitment , in favor of " transactionalism " , a view that accepts both that perceptual experiences are world @-@ involving transactions , and that these transactions are functionally describable ( provided that worldly items and intentional states may be referred to in the specification of the function ) . Such transactions can further involve qualia .
In his later work , Putnam became increasingly interested in American pragmatism , Jewish philosophy , and ethics , thus engaging with a wider array of philosophical traditions . He also displayed an interest in metaphilosophy , seeking to " renew philosophy " from what he identifies as narrow and inflated concerns .
Outside philosophy , Putnam contributed to mathematics and computer science . Together with Martin Davis he developed the Davis – Putnam algorithm for the Boolean satisfiability problem and he helped demonstrate the unsolvability of Hilbert 's tenth problem . He was at times a politically controversial figure , especially for his involvement with the Progressive Labor Party in the late 1960s and early 1970s .
= = Life = =
Putnam was born in Chicago , Illinois , in 1926 . His father , Samuel Putnam , was a scholar of Romance languages , columnist , and translator who wrote for the Daily Worker , a publication of the American Communist Party , from 1936 to 1946 ( when he became disillusioned with communism ) . As a result of his father 's commitment to communism , Putnam had a secular upbringing , although his mother , Riva , was Jewish . The family lived in France until 1934 , when they returned to the United States , settling in Philadelphia . Putnam attended Central High School ; there he met Noam Chomsky , who was a year behind him . The two had been friends — and often intellectual opponents — ever since . Putnam studied mathematics and philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania , receiving his BA ( undergraduate degree ) and becoming a member of the Philomathean Society , one of the oldest collegiate literary societies in the U.S. He went on to do graduate work in philosophy at Harvard University , and later at UCLA 's Philosophy Department , where he received his Ph.D. in 1951 for a dissertation entitled " The Meaning of the Concept of Probability in Application to Finite Sequences " . Putnam 's teacher Hans Reichenbach ( his dissertation supervisor ) was a leading figure in logical positivism , the dominant school of philosophy of the day ; one of Putnam 's most consistent positions has been his rejection of logical positivism as self @-@ defeating .
After teaching at Northwestern ( 1951 – 52 ) , Princeton ( 1953 – 61 ) , and MIT ( 1961 – 65 ) , he moved to Harvard in 1965 . His wife , Ruth Anna Jacobs took a teaching position in philosophy at Wellesley College . Hilary and Ruth Anna were married in 1962 . Ruth Anna Jacobs , descendant of a family with a long scholarly tradition in Gotha ( her ancestor was the German classical scholar Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Jacobs ) , was born in Berlin , Germany , in 1927 to anti @-@ Nazi political @-@ activist parents and , like Putnam himself , she was raised an atheist ( her mother was Jewish and her father had been from a Christian background ) . Putnam was also an atheist . The Putnams , rebelling against the antisemitism that they had experienced during their youth , decided to establish a traditional Jewish home for their children . Since they had no experience with the rituals of Judaism , they sought out invitations to other Jews ' homes for Seder . They had " no idea how to do it [ themselves ] " , in the words of Ruth Anna . They therefore began to study Jewish ritual and Hebrew , and became more Jewishly interested , identified , and active . In 1994 , Hilary Putnam celebrated a belated Bar Mitzvah service . His wife had a Bat Mitzvah service four years later .
Hilary was a popular teacher at Harvard . In keeping with the family tradition , he was politically active . In the 1960s and early 1970s , he was an active supporter of the American Civil Rights Movement and an opponent of American military intervention in Vietnam . In 1963 , he organized one of the first faculty and student committees at MIT against the war . Putnam was disturbed when he learned from reading the reports of David Halberstam that the U.S. was " defending " South Vietnamese peasants from the Vietcong by poisoning their rice crops . After moving to Harvard in 1965 , he organized campus protests and began teaching courses on Marxism . Hilary became an official faculty advisor to the Students for a Democratic Society and , in 1968 , became a member of the Progressive Labor Party ( PLP ) .
He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 . After 1968 , his political activities were centered on the PLP . The Harvard administration considered these activities disruptive and attempted to censure Putnam , but two other faculty members criticized the procedures . Putnam permanently severed his ties with the PLP in 1972 . In 1997 , at a meeting of former draft resistance activists at Arlington Street Church in Boston , Putnam described his involvement with the PLP as a mistake . He said that he had been impressed at first with the PLP 's commitment to alliance @-@ building and its willingness to attempt to organize from within the armed forces .
In 1976 , he was elected President of the American Philosophical Association . The following year , he was selected as Walter Beverly Pearson Professor of Mathematical Logic , in recognition of his contributions to the philosophy of logic and mathematics . While breaking with his radical past , Putnam never abandoned his belief that academics have a particular social and ethical responsibility toward society . He continued to be forthright and progressive in his political views , as expressed in the articles " How Not to Solve Ethical Problems " ( 1983 ) and " Education for Democracy " ( 1993 ) .
Putnam was a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy . He retired from teaching in June 2000 , but , as of 2009 , he continued to give a seminar almost yearly at Tel Aviv University . He also held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam in 2001 . He was the Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University and a founding patron of the small liberal arts college Ralston College . His corpus includes five volumes of collected works , seven books , and more than 200 articles . Putnam 's renewed interest in Judaism inspired him to publish several books and essays on the topic . With his wife , he has co @-@ authored several books and essays on the late @-@ 19th @-@ century American pragmatist movement . He began a blog in May 2014 .
For his contributions in philosophy and logic , he was awarded the Rolf Schock prize in 2011 and the Nicholas Rescher Prize for Systematic Philosophy in 2015 .
He delivered his last Skype talk , entitled " Thought and Language " , at an international conference on " The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam " held at the Indian Institute of Technology , Bombay , on October 3 , 2015 and organized by his student Sanjit Chakraborty .
= = Philosophy of mind = =
= = = Multiple realizability = = =
Putnam 's best @-@ known work concerns philosophy of mind . His most noted original contributions to that field came in several key papers published in the late 1960s that set out the hypothesis of multiple realizability . In these papers , Putnam argues that , contrary to the famous claim of the type @-@ identity theory , it is not necessarily true that " Pain is identical to C @-@ fibre firing . " Pain , according to Putnam 's papers , may correspond to utterly different physical states of the nervous system in different organisms , and yet they all experience the same mental state of " being in pain " .
Putnam cited examples from the animal kingdom to illustrate his thesis . He asked whether it was likely that the brain structures of diverse types of animals realize pain , or other mental states , the same way . If they do not share the same brain structures , they cannot share the same mental states and properties . The answer to this puzzle had to be that mental states were realized by different physical states in different species . Putnam then took his argument a step further , asking about such things as the nervous systems of alien beings , artificially intelligent robots and other silicon @-@ based life forms . These hypothetical entities , he contended , should not be considered incapable of experiencing pain just because they lack the same neurochemistry as humans . Putnam concluded that type @-@ identity theorists had been making an " ambitious " and " highly implausible " conjecture which could be disproven with one example of multiple realizability . This argument is sometimes referred to as the " likelihood argument " .
Putnam formulated a complementary argument based on what he called " functional isomorphism " . He defined the concept in these terms : " Two systems are functionally isomorphic if ' there is a correspondence between the states of one and the states of the other that preserves functional relations ' . " In the case of computers , two machines are functionally isomorphic if and only if the sequential relations among states in the first are exactly mirrored by the sequential relations among states in the other . Therefore , a computer made out of silicon chips and a computer made out of cogs and wheels can be functionally isomorphic but constitutionally diverse . Functional isomorphism implies multiple realizability . This argument is sometimes referred to as an " a priori argument " .
Jerry Fodor , Putnam , and others noted that , along with being an effective argument against type @-@ identity theories , multiple realizability implies that any low @-@ level explanation of higher @-@ level mental phenomena is insufficiently abstract and general . Functionalism , which identifies mental kinds with functional kinds that are characterized exclusively in terms of causes and effects , abstracts from the level of microphysics , and therefore seemed to be a better explanation of the relation between mind and body . In fact , there are many functional kinds , such as mousetraps , software and bookshelves , which are multiply realized at the physical level .
= = = Machine state functionalism = = =
The first formulation of such a functionalist theory was put forth by Putnam himself . This formulation , which is now called " machine @-@ state functionalism " , was inspired by analogies noted by Putnam and others between the mind and Turing machines . The point , for functionalism is the nature of the states of the Turing machine . Each state can be defined in terms of its relations to the other states and to the inputs and outputs , and the details of how it accomplishes what it accomplishes and of its material constitution are completely irrelevant . According to machine @-@ state functionalism , the nature of a mental state is just like the nature of a Turing machine state . Just as " state one " simply is the state in which , given a particular input , such @-@ and @-@ such happens , so being in pain is the state which disposes one to cry " ouch " , become distracted , wonder what the cause is , and so forth .
= = = Rejection of functionalism = = =
In the late 1980s , Putnam abandoned his adherence to functionalism and other computational theories of mind . His change of mind was primarily due to the difficulties that computational theories have in explaining certain intuitions with respect to the externalism of mental content . This is illustrated by Putnam 's own Twin Earth thought experiment ( see Philosophy of language ) . He also developed a separate argument against functionalism in 1988 , based on Fodor 's generalized version of multiple realizability . Asserting that functionalism is really a watered @-@ down identity theory in which mental kinds are identified with functional kinds , Putnam argued that mental kinds may be multiply realizable over functional kinds . The argument for functionalism is that the same mental state could be implemented by the different states of a universal Turing machine .
Despite Putnam 's rejection of functionalism , it has continued to flourish and has been developed into numerous versions by thinkers as diverse as David Marr , Daniel Dennett , Jerry Fodor , and David Lewis . Functionalism helped lay the foundations for modern cognitive science and is the dominant theory of mind in philosophy today .
By 2012 Putnam accepted a modification of functionalism called " liberal functionalism " . The view holds that " what matters for consciousness and for mental properties generally is the right sort of functional capacities and not the particular matter that subserves those capacities " . The specification of these capacities ( 1 ) may refer to what goes on outside the organism 's " brain " , ( 2 ) may include intentional idioms , and ( 3 ) need not describe a capacity to compute something or other .
= = Philosophy of language = =
= = = Semantic externalism = = =
One of Putnam 's contributions to philosophy of language is his claim that " meaning just ain 't in the head " . He illustrated this using his " Twin Earth " thought experiment to argue that environmental factors play a substantial role in determining meaning . Twin Earth shows this , according to Putnam , since on Twin Earth everything is identical to Earth , except that its lakes , rivers and oceans are filled with XYZ whereas those of earth are filled with H2O . Consequently , when an earthling , Fredrick , uses the Earth @-@ English word " water " , it has a different meaning from the Twin Earth @-@ English word " water " when used by his physically identical twin , Frodrick , on Twin Earth . Since Fredrick and Frodrick are physically indistinguishable when they utter their respective words , and since their words have different meanings , meaning cannot be determined solely by what is in their heads . This led Putnam to adopt a version of semantic externalism with regard to meaning and mental content . The late philosopher of mind and language Donald Davidson , despite his many differences of opinion with Putnam , wrote that semantic externalism constituted an " anti @-@ subjectivist revolution " in philosophers ' way of seeing the world . Since the time of Descartes , philosophers had been concerned with proving knowledge from the basis of subjective experience . Thanks to Putnam , Tyler Burge and others , Davidson said , philosophy could now take the objective realm for granted and start questioning the alleged " truths " of subjective experience .
= = = Theory of meaning = = =
Putnam , along with Saul Kripke , Keith Donnellan , and others , contributed to what is known as the causal theory of reference . In particular , Putnam maintained in The Meaning of " Meaning " that the objects referred to by natural kind terms — such as tiger , water , and tree — are the principal elements of the meaning of such terms . There is a linguistic division of labor , analogous to Adam Smith 's economic division of labor , according to which such terms have their references fixed by the " experts " in the particular field of science to which the terms belong . So , for example , the reference of the term " lion " is fixed by the community of zoologists , the reference of the term " elm tree " is fixed by the community of botanists , and the reference of the term " table salt " is fixed as " NaCl " by chemists . These referents are considered rigid designators in the Kripkean sense and are disseminated outward to the linguistic community .
Putnam specifies a finite sequence of elements ( a vector ) for the description of the meaning of every term in the language . Such a vector consists of four components :
the object to which the term refers , e.g. , the object individuated by the chemical formula H2O ;
a set of typical descriptions of the term , referred to as " the stereotype " , e.g. , " transparent " , " colorless " , and " hydrating " ;
the semantic indicators that place the object into a general category , e.g. , " natural kind " and " liquid " ;
the syntactic indicators , e.g. , " concrete noun " and " mass noun " .
Such a " meaning @-@ vector " provides a description of the reference and use of an expression within a particular linguistic community . It provides the conditions for its correct usage and makes it possible to judge whether a single speaker attributes the appropriate meaning to that expression or whether its use has changed enough to cause a difference in its meaning . According to Putnam , it is legitimate to speak of a change in the meaning of an expression only if the reference of the term , and not its stereotype , has changed . However , since there is no possible algorithm that can determine which aspect — the stereotype or the reference — has changed in a particular case , it is necessary to consider the usage of other expressions of the language . Since there is no limit to the number of such expressions which must be considered , Putnam embraced a form of semantic holism .
= = Philosophy of mathematics = =
Putnam made a significant contribution to philosophy of mathematics in the Quine – Putnam " indispensability argument " for mathematical realism . This argument is considered by Stephen Yablo to be one of the most challenging arguments in favor of the acceptance of the existence of abstract mathematical entities , such as numbers and sets . The form of the argument is as follows .
One must have ontological commitments to all entities that are indispensable to the best scientific theories , and to those entities only ( commonly referred to as " all and only " ) .
Mathematical entities are indispensable to the best scientific theories . Therefore ,
One must have ontological commitments to mathematical entities .
The justification for the first premise is the most controversial . Both Putnam and Quine invoke naturalism to justify the exclusion of all non @-@ scientific entities , and hence to defend the " only " part of " all and only " . The assertion that " all " entities postulated in scientific theories , including numbers , should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism . Since theories are not confirmed in a piecemeal fashion , but as a whole , there is no justification for excluding any of the entities referred to in well @-@ confirmed theories . This puts the nominalist who wishes to exclude the existence of sets and non @-@ Euclidean geometry , but to include the existence of quarks and other undetectable entities of physics , for example , in a difficult position .
Putnam holds the view that mathematics , like physics and other empirical sciences , uses both strict logical proofs and " quasi @-@ empirical " methods . For example , Fermat 's last theorem states that for no integer <formula> are there positive integer values of x , y , and z such that <formula> . Before this was proven for all <formula> in 1995 by Andrew Wiles , it had been proven for many values of n . These proofs inspired further research in the area , and formed a quasi @-@ empirical consensus for the theorem . Even though such knowledge is more conjectural than a strictly proven theorem , it was still used in developing other mathematical ideas .
= = Mathematics and computer science = =
Putnam has contributed to scientific fields not directly related to his work in philosophy . As a mathematician , Putnam contributed to the resolution of Hilbert 's tenth problem in mathematics . This problem was settled by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970 , with a proof that relied heavily on previous research by Putnam , Julia Robinson and Martin Davis .
In computability theory , Putnam investigated the structure of the ramified analytical hierarchy , its connection with the constructible hierarchy and its Turing degrees . He showed that there exist many levels of the constructible hierarchy which do not add any subsets of the integers and later , with his student George Boolos , that the first such " non @-@ index " is the ordinal <formula> of ramified analysis ( this is the smallest <formula> such that <formula> is a model of full second @-@ order comprehension ) , and also , together with a separate paper with Richard Boyd ( another of Putnam 's students ) and Gustav Hensel , how the Davis – Mostowski – Kleene hyperarithmetical hierarchy of arithmetical degrees can be naturally extended up to <formula> .
In computer science , Putnam is known for the Davis – Putnam algorithm for the Boolean satisfiability problem ( SAT ) , developed with Martin Davis in 1960 . The algorithm finds if there is a set of true or false values that satisfies a given Boolean expression so that the entire expression becomes true . In 1962 , they further refined the algorithm with the help of George Logemann and Donald W. Loveland . It became known as the DPLL algorithm . This algorithm is efficient and still forms the basis of most complete SAT solvers .
= = Epistemology = =
In the field of epistemology , Putnam is known for his " brain in a vat " thought experiment ( a modernized version of Descartes ' evil demon hypothesis ) . The argument is that one cannot coherently state that one is a disembodied " brain in a vat " placed there by some " mad scientist " .
This follows from the causal theory of reference . Words always refer to the kinds of things they were coined to refer to , thus the kinds of things their user , or the user 's ancestors , experienced . So , if some person , Mary , were a " brain in a vat " , whose every experience is received through wiring and other gadgetry created by the " mad scientist " , then Mary 's idea of a " brain " would not refer to a " real " brain , since she and her linguistic community have never seen such a thing . Rather , she saw something that looked like a brain , but was actually an image fed to her through the wiring . Similarly , her idea of a " vat " would not refer to a " real " vat . So , if , as a brain in a vat , she were to say " I 'm a brain in a vat " , she would actually be saying " I 'm a brain @-@ image in a vat @-@ image " , which is incoherent . On the other hand , if she is not a brain in a vat , then saying that she is a brain in a vat is still incoherent , but now because she actually means the opposite . This is a form of epistemological externalism : knowledge or justification depends on factors outside the mind and is not solely determined internally .
Putnam has clarified that his real target in this argument was never skepticism , but metaphysical realism . Since realism of this kind assumes the existence of a gap between how man conceives the world and the way the world really is , skeptical scenarios such as this one ( or Descartes ' Evil demon ) present a formidable challenge . Putnam , by arguing that such a scenario is impossible , attempts to show that this notion of a gap between man 's concept of the world and the way it is , is in itself absurd . Man cannot have a " God 's eye " view of reality . He is limited to his conceptual schemes . Metaphysical realism is therefore false , according to Putnam .
= = Metaphilosophy and ontology = =
In the late 1970s and the 1980s , stimulated by results from mathematical logic and by some ideas of Quine , Putnam abandoned his long @-@ standing defence of metaphysical realism — the view that the categories and structures of the external world are both causally and ontologically independent of the conceptualizations of the human mind . He adopted a rather different view , which he called " internal realism " .
Internal realism was the view that , although the world may be causally independent of the human mind , the structure of the world — its division into kinds , individuals and categories — is a function of the human mind , and hence the world is not ontologically independent . The general idea is influenced by Kant 's idea of the dependence of our knowledge of the world on the categories of thought .
The problem with metaphysical realism , according to Putnam , was that it fails to explain the possibility of reference and truth . According to the metaphysical realist , our concepts and categories refer because they match up in some mysterious manner with the pre @-@ structured categories , kinds and individuals that are inherent in the external world . But how is it possible that the world " carves up " into certain structures and categories , the mind carves up the world into its own categories and structures , and the two " carvings " perfectly coincide ? The answer must be that the world does not come pre @-@ structured but that structure must be imposed on it by the human mind and its conceptual schemes . In Reason , Truth , and History , Putnam identified truth with what he termed " idealized rational acceptability . " The theory , which owes something to C. S. Peirce , is that a belief is true if it would be accepted by anyone under ideal epistemic conditions .
Nelson Goodman had formulated a similar notion in Fact , Fiction and Forecast in 1956 . In that work , Goodman went as far as to suggest that there is " no one world , but many worlds , each created by the human mind . " Putnam rejected this form of social constructivism , but retained the idea that there can be many correct descriptions of reality . No one of these descriptions can be scientifically proven to be the " one , true " description of the world . This does not imply relativism , for Putnam , because not all descriptions are equally correct and the ones that are correct are not determined subjectively .
Putnam renounced internal realism in his reply to Simon Blackburn in the volume Reading Putnam . The reasons he gave up his " antirealism " are stated in the first three of his replies in " The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam " , an issue of the journal Philosophical Topics , where he gives a history of his use ( s ) of the term " internal realism " , and , at more length , in his The Threefold Cord : Mind , Body and World ( 1999 ) .
Although he abandoned internal realism , Putnam still resists the idea that any given thing or system of things can only be described in exactly one complete and correct way . He thus accepts " conceptual relativity " – the view that it may be a matter of choice or convention , e.g. , whether mereological sums exist , or whether space @-@ time points are individuals or mere limits . In other words , having abandoned internal realism Putnam came to accept metaphysical realism in simply the broad sense of rejecting all forms of verificationism and all talk of our ' making ' the world .
Under the influence of C. S. Peirce and William James , Putnam also became convinced that there is no fact – value dichotomy ; that is , normative ( e.g. , ethical and aesthetic ) judgments often have a factual basis , while scientific judgments have a normative element .
= = Neopragmatism and Wittgenstein = =
At the end of the 1980s , Putnam became increasingly disillusioned with what he perceived as the " scientism " and the rejection of history that characterize modern analytic philosophy . He rejected internal realism because it assumed a " cognitive interface " model of the relation between the mind and the world . Putnam claimed that the very notion of truth would have to be abandoned by a consistent eliminative materialist . Under the increasing influence of James and the pragmatists , he adopted a direct realist view of this relation . For a time , under the influence of Ludwig Wittgenstein , he adopted a pluralist view of philosophy itself and came to view most philosophical problems as nothing more than conceptual or linguistic confusions created by philosophers by using ordinary language out of its original context .
Many of Putnam 's most recent works have addressed the concerns of ordinary people , particularly their concerns about social problems . For example , he has written about the nature of democracy , social justice and religion . He has discussed the ideas of the continental philosopher , Jürgen Habermas , and has written articles influenced by " continental " ideas .
= = Death = =
Putnam died of mesothelioma , a rare form of lung cancer , at his home in Arlington , Massachusetts during the early hours of March 13 , 2016 .
= = Criticism = =
Putnam himself may be his own most formidable philosophical adversary . His frequent changes of mind have led him to attack his previous positions . However , many significant criticisms of his views have come from other philosophers and scientists . For example , multiple realizability has been criticized on the grounds that , if it were true , research and experimentation in the neurosciences would be impossible . According to Bechtel and Mundale , to be able to conduct such research in the neurosciences , universal consistencies must either exist or be assumed to exist in brain structures . It is the similarity ( or homology ) of brain structures that allows us to generalize across species . If multiple realizability were an empirical fact , results from experiments conducted on one species of animal ( or one organism ) would not be meaningful when generalized to explain the behavior of another species ( or organism of the same species ) . Other criticisms of metaphysical realism have been proposed by Jaegwon Kim , David Lewis , Robert Richardson and Patricia Churchland .
One of the main arguments against functionalism was formulated by Putnam himself : the Twin Earth thought experiment . However , there have been other criticisms . The Chinese room argument by John Searle ( 1980 ) is a direct attack on the claim that thought can be represented as a set of functions . The thought experiment is designed to show that it is possible to mimic intelligent action , without any interpretation or understanding , through the use of a purely functional system . In short , Searle describes a situation in which a person who speaks only English is locked in a room with Chinese symbols in baskets and a rule book in English for moving the symbols around . The person is instructed , by people outside the room , to follow the rule book for sending certain symbols out of the room when given certain symbols . Further , suppose that the people outside the room are Chinese speakers and are communicating with the person inside via the Chinese symbols . According to Searle , it would be absurd to claim that the English speaker inside " knows " Chinese based on these syntactic processes alone . This thought experiment attempts to show that systems that operate merely on syntactic processes cannot realize any semantics ( meaning ) or intentionality ( aboutness ) . Thus , Searle attacks the idea that thought can be equated with the following of a set of syntactic rules . Thus , functionalism is an inadequate theory of the mind . Several other arguments against functionalism have been advanced by Ned Block .
Putnam has consistently adhered to the idea of semantic holism , in spite of the many changes in his other positions . The problems with this position have been described by Michael Dummett , Jerry Fodor , Ernest Lepore , and others . In the first place , they suggest that , if semantic holism is true , it is impossible to understand how a speaker of a language can learn the meaning of an expression , for any expression of the language . Given the limits of our cognitive abilities , we will never be able to master the whole of the English ( or any other ) language , even based on the ( false ) assumption that languages are static and immutable entities . Thus , if one must understand all of a natural language to understand a single word or expression , language learning is simply impossible . Semantic holism also fails to explain how two speakers can mean the same thing when using the same linguistic expression , and therefore how any communication at all is possible between them . Given a sentence P , since Fred and Mary have each mastered different parts of the English language and P is related in different ways to the sentences in each part , the result is that P means one thing for Fred and something else for Mary . Moreover , if a sentence P derives its meaning from its relations with all of the sentences of a language , as soon as the vocabulary of an individual changes by the addition or elimination of a sentence , the totality of relations changes , and therefore also the meaning of P. As this is a common phenomenon , the result is that P has two different meanings in two different moments in the life of the same person . Consequently , if I accept the truth of a sentence and then reject it later on , the meaning of that which I rejected and that which I accepted are completely different and therefore I cannot change my opinions with regard to the same sentences .
The brain in a vat argument has also been subject to criticism . Crispin Wright argues that Putnam 's formulation of the brain @-@ in @-@ a @-@ vat scenario is too narrow to refute global skepticism . The possibility that one is a recently disembodied brain in a vat is not undermined by semantic externalism . If a person has lived her entire life outside the vat — speaking the English language and interacting normally with the outside world — prior to her " envatment " by a mad scientist , when she wakes up inside the vat , her words and thoughts ( e.g. , " tree " and " grass " ) will still refer to the objects or events in the external world that they referred to before her envatment . In another scenario , a brain in a vat may be hooked up to a supercomputer that randomly generates perceptual experiences . In this case , one 's words and thoughts would not refer to anything , and would therefore be devoid of content . Semantics would no longer exist and the argument would be meaningless .
In philosophy of mathematics , Stephen Yablo has argued that the Quine – Putnam indispensability thesis does not demonstrate that mathematical entities are truly indispensable . The argumentation is sophisticated , but the upshot is that one can achieve the same logical results by simply adding to any statement about an abstract object the assumption " so @-@ and @-@ so is assumed ( or hypothesized ) to exist " . For example , one can take the argument for indispensability described above and adjust it as follows :
1 * . One must have ontological commitments to all and only the [ abstract ] entities for which , under the assumption that they exist , their existence is indispensable to the best scientific theories .
2 * . Under the assumption that they exist , the existence of mathematical entities is indispensable to the best scientific theories . Therefore ,
3 * . Under the assumption that mathematical entities exist , one must have ontological commitments to the existence of mathematical entities .
Finally , Putnam 's internal realism has been accused by Curtis Brown of being a disguised form of subjective idealism . If this is the case , it is subject to the traditional arguments against that position . In particular , it falls into the trap of solipsism . That is , if existence depends on experience , as subjective idealism maintains , and if one 's consciousness were to stop existing , then the rest of the universe would stop existing as well .
= = Major works and bibliography = =
There is a detailed bibliography of Hilary Putnam 's writings ( with 16 books and 198 articles ) compiled by Vincent C. Müller and published in 1993 . Online in PhilPapers . A later version of this is on Harvard 's Servers .
The " Innateness Hypothesis " and Explanatory Models in Linguistics , Synthese , Vol . 17 , No. 1 , March 1967 , pp. 12 – 22 .
Philosophy of Mathematics : Selected Readings . Edited with Paul Benacerraf . Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice @-@ Hall , 1964 . 2nd ed . , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1983 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29648 @-@ X
Philosophy of Logic . New York : Harper and Row , 1971 . London : George Allen and Unwin , 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 04 @-@ 160009 @-@ 6
Mathematics , Matter and Method . Philosophical Papers , vol . 1 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1975 . 2nd. ed . , 1985 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29550 @-@ 5
Mind , Language and Reality . Philosophical Papers , vol . 2 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1975 . 2003 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29551 @-@ 3
Meaning and the Moral Sciences . London : Routledge and Kegan Paul , 1978 .
Reason , Truth , and History . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1981 . 2004 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29776 @-@ 1
Realism and Reason . Philosophical Papers , vol . 3 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1983 . 2002 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 31394 @-@ 5
Methodology , Epistemology , and Philosophy of Science : Essays in Honour of Wolfgang Stegmüller. edited with Wilhelm K. Essler and Carl G. Hempel . Dordrecht : D. Reidel , 1983 .
Epistemology , Methodology , and Philosophy of Science : Essays in Honour of Carl G. Hempel. edited with Wilhelm K. Essler and Wolfgang Stegmüller . Dordrecht : D. Reidel , 1985 .
The Many Faces of Realism . La Salle , Ill . : Open Court , 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8126 @-@ 9043 @-@ 5
Representation and Reality . Cambridge , Mass . : MIT Press , 1988 . ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 66074 @-@ 1
Realism with a Human Face. edited by James F. Conant . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1990 . 9780674749450 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 74945 @-@ 6
Renewing Philosophy . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1992 . 9780674760943 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 76094 @-@ 8
Pursuits of Reason : Essays in Honor of Stanley Cavell. edited with Ted Cohen and Paul Guyer . Lubbock : Texas Tech University Press , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89672 @-@ 266 @-@ X
Words and Life. edited by James F. Conant . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1994 . 9780674956070 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 95607 @-@ 9
Pragmatism : An Open Question . Oxford : Blackwell , 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 631 @-@ 19343 @-@ X
The Threefold Cord : Mind , Body , and World . New York : Columbia University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 @-@ 231 @-@ 10287 @-@ 9
Enlightenment and Pragmatism . Assen : Koninklijke Van Gorcum , 2001 . 48pp .
The Collapse of the Fact / Value Dichotomy and Other Essays . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2002 . Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 01380 @-@ 8
Ethics Without Ontology . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2002 . 9780674018518 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 01851 @-@ 6
Jewish Philosophy as a Guide to Life : Rosenzweig , Buber , Levinas , Wittgenstein . Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 2008 .
Philosophy in an Age of Science , edited by Mario De Caro and David Macarthur . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2012 . 9780674050136 Description .
Naturalism , Realism , and Normativity , edited by Mario De Caro , Cam , Mass : Harvard University Press , 2016 , ISBN 9780674659698 .
= = Works about Putnam = =
Y. Ben @-@ Menahem ( ed . ) , Hilary Putnam , Contemporary Philosophy in Focus , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2005 .
P. Clark @-@ B. Hale ( eds . ) , Reading Putnam , Blackwell , Cambridge ( Massachusetts ) -Oxford 1995 .
C. S. Hill ( ed . ) , The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam , Fayetteville , Arkansas 1992 .
M. Rüdel , Erkenntnistheorie und Pragmatik : Untersuchungen zu Richard Rorty und Hilary Putnam , ( Dissertation ) Hamburg 1987 .
Maximilian de Gaynesford , Hilary Putnam , McGill @-@ Queens University Press / Acumen , 2006 .
Randall E. Auxier , Anderson , & Hahn ( eds . ) , The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam , The Library of Living Philosophers , Open Court , Chicago , Illinois , 2015 .
Sanjit Chakraborty , Understanding Meaning and World : A Relook on Semantic Externalism , Cambridge Scholars Publishing , London , 2016 .
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= Desert =
A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life . The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation . About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi @-@ arid . This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or " cold deserts " . Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls , by the temperature that prevails , by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location .
Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces . Although rain seldom occurs in deserts , there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods . Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor is further eroded by the wind . This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms . Wind @-@ blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface . Rocks are smoothed down , and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits . The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat , stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones . These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place . Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water . Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate . There may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found , oases can occur .
Plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment . Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves , water @-@ resistant cuticles and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long @-@ lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture . Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive . Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day . They tend to be efficient at conserving water , extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods , ready to become active again when the rare rains fall . They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy .
People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding semi @-@ arid lands for millennia . Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life . The cultivation of semi @-@ arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification . Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by the import of water from an outside source . Many trade routes have been forged across deserts , especially across the Sahara Desert , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt , gold , ivory and other goods . Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara . Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for the capture of large quantities of solar energy .
= = Etymology = =
English desert and its Romance cognates ( including Italian and Portuguese deserto , French désert and Spanish desierto ) all come from the ecclesiastical Latin dēsertum ( originally " an abandoned place " ) , a participle of dēserere , " to abandon " . The correlation between aridity and sparse population is complex and dynamic , varying by culture , era , and technologies ; thus the use of the word desert can cause confusion . In English before the 20th century , desert was often used in the sense of " unpopulated area " , without specific reference to aridity ; but today the word is most often used in its climate @-@ science sense ( an area of low precipitation ) . Phrases such as " desert island " and " Great American Desert " in previous centuries did not necessarily imply sand or aridity ; their focus was the sparse population .
= = Physical geography = =
A desert is a region of land that is very dry because it receives low amounts of precipitation ( usually in the form of rain but may be snow , mist or fog ) , often has little coverage by plants , and in which streams dry up unless they are supplied by water from outside the area . Deserts can also be described as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation . Deserts generally receive less than 250 mm ( 10 in ) of precipitation each year . Semideserts are regions which receive between 250 and 500 mm ( 10 and 20 in ) and when clad in grass , these are known as steppes .
= = = Classification = = =
Deserts have been defined and classified in a number of ways , generally combining total precipitation , number of days on which this falls , temperature , and humidity , and sometimes additional factors . For example , Phoenix , Arizona , receives less than 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of precipitation per year , and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert because of its aridity @-@ adapted plants . The North Slope of Alaska 's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert . Other regions of the world have cold deserts , including areas of the Himalayas and other high @-@ altitude areas in other parts of the world . Polar deserts cover much of the ice @-@ free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic . A non @-@ technical definition is that deserts are those parts of the Earth 's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population .
Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of precipitation in providing a scientific measurement @-@ based definition of a desert . The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P − PE ± S , wherein P is precipitation , PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water . Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric evaporation and through the life processes of plants . Potential evapotranspiration , then , is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region . As an example , Tucson , Arizona receives about 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rain per year , however about 2 @,@ 500 mm ( 98 in ) of water could evaporate over the course of a year . In other words , about eight times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls as rain . Rates of evapotranspiration in cold regions such as Alaska are much lower because of the lack of heat to aid in the evaporation process .
Deserts are sometimes classified as " hot " or " cold " , " semiarid " or " coastal " . The characteristics of hot deserts include high temperatures in summer ; greater evaporation than precipitation usually exacerbated by high temperatures , strong winds and lack of cloud cover ; considerable variation in the occurrence of precipitation , its intensity and distribution ; and low humidity . Winter temperatures vary considerably between different deserts and are often related to the location of the desert on the continental landmass and the latitude . Daily variations in temperature can be as great as 22 ° C ( 40 ° F ) or more , with heat loss by radiation at night being increased by the clear skies .
Cold deserts , sometimes known as temperate deserts , occur at higher latitudes than hot deserts , and the aridity is caused by the dryness of the air . Some cold deserts are far from the ocean and others are separated by mountain ranges from the sea and in both cases there is insufficient moisture in the air to cause much precipitation . The largest of these deserts are found in Central Asia . Others occur on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains , the eastern side of the southern Andes and in southern Australia . Polar deserts are a particular class of cold desert . The air is very cold and carries little moisture so little precipitation occurs and what does fall , usually as snow , is carried along in the often strong wind and may form blizzards , drifts and dunes similar to those caused by dust and sand in other desert regions . In Antarctica , for example , the annual precipitation is about 50 mm ( 2 in ) on the central plateau and some ten times that amount on some major peninsulas .
Based on precipitation alone , hyperarid deserts receive less than 25 mm ( 1 in ) of rainfall a year ; they have no annual seasonal cycle of precipitation and experience twelve @-@ month periods with no rainfall at all . Arid deserts receive between 25 and 200 mm ( 1 and 8 in ) in a year and semiarid deserts between 200 and 500 mm ( 8 and 20 in ) . However , such factors as the temperature , humidity , rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration , and the moisture storage capacity of the ground have a marked effect on the degree of aridity and the plant and animal life that can be sustained . Rain falling in the cold season may be more effective at promoting plant growth , and defining the boundaries of deserts and the semiarid regions that surround them on the grounds of precipitation alone is problematic .
Coastal deserts are mostly found on the western edges of continental land masses in regions where cold currents approach the land or cold water upwellings rise from the ocean depths . The cool winds crossing this water pick up little moisture and the coastal regions have low temperatures and very low rainfall , the main precipitation being in the form of fog and dew . The range of temperatures on a daily and annual scale is relatively low , being 11 ° C ( 20 ° F ) and 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) respectively in the Atacama Desert . Deserts of this type are often long and narrow and bounded to the east by mountain ranges . They occur in south @-@ west Africa , Chile , southern California and Baja California . Other coastal deserts influenced by cold currents are found in Western Australia , the Arabian Peninsula and Horn of Africa , and the western fringes of the Sahara .
In 1961 , Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the amount of precipitation they received . In this now widely accepted system , extremely arid lands have at least twelve consecutive months without precipitation , arid lands have less than 250 mm ( 10 in ) of annual precipitation , and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm ( 10 – 20 in ) . Both extremely arid and arid lands are considered to be deserts while semiarid lands are generally referred to as steppes when they are grasslands .
Deserts are also classified , according to their geographical location and dominant weather pattern , as trade wind , mid @-@ latitude , rain shadow , coastal , monsoon , or polar deserts . Trade wind deserts occur either side of the horse latitudes at 30 ° to 35 ° North and South . These belts are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large @-@ scale descent of dry air moving from high @-@ altitudes toward the poles . The Sahara Desert is of this type . Mid @-@ latitude deserts occur between 30 ° and 50 ° North and South . They are mostly in areas remote from the sea where most of the moisture has already precipitated from the prevailing winds . They include the Tengger and Sonoran Deserts . Monsoon deserts are similar . They occur in regions where large temperature differences occur between sea and land . Moist warm air rises over the land , deposits its water content and circulates back to sea . Further inland , areas receive very little precipitation . The Thar Desert near the India / Pakistan border is of this type .
In some parts of the world , deserts are created by a rain shadow effect . Orographic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground . In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on the windward slope of the mountain range . When they descend on the leeward side , they warm and their capacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little precipitation occurs . The Taklamakan Desert is an example , lying in the rain shadow of the Himalayas and receiving less than 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) precipitation annually . Other areas are arid by virtue of being a very long way from the nearest available sources of moisture .
Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude ; the most prominent example is found north of the Himalayas , in the Kunlun Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau . Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal . These places owe their profound aridity ( the average annual precipitation is often less than 40 mm or 1 @.@ 5 in ) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture and are often in the lee of mountain ranges . Montane deserts are normally cold , or may be scorchingly hot by day and very cold by night as is true of the northeastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro .
Polar deserts such as McMurdo Dry Valleys remain ice @-@ free because of the dry katabatic winds that flow downhill from the surrounding mountains . Former desert areas presently in non @-@ arid environments , such as the Sandhills in Nebraska , are known as paleodeserts . In the Köppen climate classification system , deserts are classed as BWh ( hot desert ) or BWk ( temperate desert ) . In the Thornthwaite climate classification system , deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates .
= = = Weathering processes = = =
Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range , with high daytime temperatures falling sharply at night . The diurnal range may be as much as 20 to 30 ° C ( 36 to 54 ° F ) and the rock surface experiences even greater temperature differentials . During the day the sky is usually clear and most of the sun 's radiation reaches the ground , but as soon as the sun sets , the desert cools quickly by radiating heat into space . In hot deserts , the temperature during daytime can exceed 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) in summer and plunge below freezing point at night during winter .
Such large temperature variations have a destructive effect on the exposed rocky surfaces . The repeated fluctuations put a strain on exposed rock and the flanks of mountains crack and shatter . Fragmented strata slide down into the valleys where they continue to break into pieces due to the relentless sun by day and chill by night . Successive strata are exposed to further weathering . The relief of the internal pressure that has built up in rocks that have been underground for aeons can cause them to shatter . Exfoliation also occurs when the outer surfaces of rocks split off in flat flakes . This is believed to be caused by the stresses put on the rock by repeated expansions and contractions which induces fracturing parallel to the original surface . Chemical weathering processes probably play a more important role in deserts than was previously thought . The necessary moisture may be present in the form of dew or mist . Ground water may be drawn to the surface by evaporation and the formation of salt crystals may dislodge rock particles as sand or disintegrate rocks by exfoliation . Shallow caves are sometimes formed at the base of cliffs by this means .
As the desert mountains decay , large areas of shattered rock and rubble occur . The process continues and the end products are either dust or sand . Dust is formed from solidified clay or volcanic deposits whereas sand results from the fragmentation of harder granites , limestone and sandstone . There is a certain critical size ( about 0 @.@ 5 mm ) below which further temperature @-@ induced weathering of rocks does not occur and this provides a minimum size for sand grains .
As the mountains are eroded , more and more sand is created . At high wind speeds , sand grains are picked up off the surface and blown along , a process known as saltation . The whirling airborne grains act as a sand blasting mechanism which grinds away solid objects in its path as the kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to the ground . The sand eventually ends up deposited in level areas known as sand @-@ fields or sand @-@ seas , or piled up in dunes .
= = = Dust storms and sandstorms = = =
Sand and dust storms are natural events that occur in arid regions where the land is not protected by a covering of vegetation . Dust storms usually start in desert margins rather than the deserts themselves where the finer materials have already been blown away . As a steady wind begins to blow , fine particles lying on the exposed ground begin to vibrate . At greater wind speeds , some particles are lifted into the air stream . When they land , they strike other particles which may be jerked into the air in their turn , starting a chain reaction . Once ejected , these particles move in one of three possible ways , depending on their size , shape and density ; suspension , saltation or creep . Suspension is only possible for particles less than 0 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 004 in ) in diameter . In a dust storm , these fine particles are lifted up and wafted aloft to heights of up to 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) . They reduce visibility and can remain in the atmosphere for days on end , conveyed by the trade winds for distances of up to 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) . Denser clouds of dust can be formed in stronger winds , moving across the land with a billowing leading edge . The sunlight can be obliterated and it may become as dark as night at ground level . In a study of a dust storm in China in 2001 , it was estimated that 6 @.@ 5 million tons of dust were involved , covering an area of 134 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 52 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The mean particle size was 1 @.@ 44 μm . A much smaller scale , short @-@ lived phenomenon can occur in calm conditions when hot air near the ground rises quickly through a small pocket of cooler , low @-@ pressure air above forming a whirling column of particles , a dust devil .
Sandstorms occur with much less frequency than dust storms . They are often preceded by severe dust storms and occur when the wind velocity increases to a point where it can lift heavier particles . These grains of sand , up to about 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) in diameter are jerked into the air but soon fall back to earth , ejecting other particles in the process . Their weight prevents them from being airborne for long and most only travel a distance of a few meters ( yards ) . The sand streams along above the surface of the ground like a fluid , often rising to heights of about 30 cm ( 12 in ) . In a really severe steady blow , 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) is about as high as the sand stream can rise as the largest sand grains do not become airborne at all . They are transported by creep , being rolled along the desert floor or performing short jumps .
During a sandstorm , the wind @-@ blown sand particles become electrically charged . Such electric fields , which range in size up to 80 kV / m , can produce sparks and cause interference with telecommunications equipment . They are also unpleasant for humans and can cause headaches and nausea . The electric fields are caused by collision between airborne particles and by the impacts of saltating sand grains landing on the ground . The mechanism is little understood but the particles usually have a negative charge when their diameter is under 250 μm and a positive one when they are over 500 μm .
= = = Major deserts = = =
Deserts take up about one third of the Earth 's land surface . Bottomlands may be salt @-@ covered flats . Eolian processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes . Polar deserts ( also seen as " cold deserts " ) have similar features , except the main form of precipitation is snow rather than rain . Antarctica is the world 's largest cold desert ( composed of about 98 % thick continental ice sheet and 2 % barren rock ) . Some of the barren rock is to be found in the so @-@ called Dry Valleys of Antarctica that almost never get snow , which can have ice @-@ encrusted saline lakes that suggest evaporation far greater than the rare snowfall due to the strong katabatic winds that even evaporate ice .
Deserts , both hot and cold , play a part in moderating the Earth 's temperature . This is because they reflect more of the incoming light and their albedo is higher than that of forests or the sea .
= = = Features = = =
Many people think of deserts as consisting of extensive areas of billowing sand dunes because that is the way they are often depicted on TV and in films , but deserts do not always look like this . Across the world , around 20 % of desert is sand , varying from only 2 % in North America to 30 % in Australia and over 45 % in Central Asia . Where sand does occur , it is usually in large quantities in the form of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes .
A sand sheet is a near @-@ level , firm expanse of partially consolidated particles in a layer that varies from a few centimeters to a few meters thick . The structure of the sheet consists of thin horizontal layers of coarse silt and very fine to medium grain sand , separated by layers of coarse sand and pea @-@ gravel which are a single grain thick . These larger particles anchor the other particles in place and may also be packed together on the surface so as to form a miniature desert pavement . Small ripples form on the sand sheet when the wind exceeds 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) . They form perpendicular to the wind direction and gradually move across the surface as the wind continues to blow . The distance between their crests corresponds to the average length of jumps made by particles during saltation . The ripples are ephemeral and a change in wind direction causes them to reorganise .
Sand dunes are accumulations of windblown sand piled up in mounds or ridges . They form downwind of copious sources of dry , loose sand and occur when topographic and climatic conditions cause airborne particles to settle . As the wind blows , saltation and creep take place on the windward side of the dune and individual grains of sand move uphill . When they reach the crest , they cascade down the far side . The upwind slope typically has a gradient of 10 ° to 20 ° while the lee slope is around 32 ° , the angle at which loose dry sand will slip . As this wind @-@ induced movement of sand grains takes place , the dune moves slowly across the surface of the ground . Dunes are sometimes solitary , but they are more often grouped together in dune fields . When these are extensive , they are known as sand seas or ergs .
The shape of the dune depends on the characteristics of the prevailing wind . Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface , and are crescent @-@ shaped with the concave side away from the wind . When there are two directions from which winds regularly blow , a series of long , linear dunes known as seif dunes may form . These also occur parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction . Transverse dunes run at a right angle to the prevailing wind direction . Star dunes are formed by variable winds , and have several ridges and slip faces radiating from a central point . They tend to grow vertically ; they can reach a height of 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) , making them the tallest type of dune . Rounded mounds of sand without a slip face are the rare dome dunes , found on the upwind edges of sand seas .
A large part of the surface area of the world 's deserts consists of flat , stone @-@ covered plains dominated by wind erosion . In " eolian deflation " , the wind continually removes fine @-@ grained material , which becomes wind @-@ blown sand . This exposes coarser @-@ grained material , mainly pebbles with some larger stones or cobbles , leaving a desert pavement , an area of land overlaid by closely packed smooth stones forming a tessellated mosaic . Different theories exist as to how exactly the pavement is formed . It may be that after the sand and dust is blown away by the wind the stones jiggle themselves into place ; alternatively , stones previously below ground may in some way work themselves to the surface . Very little further erosion takes place after the formation of a pavement , and the ground becomes stable . Evaporation brings moisture to the surface by capillary action and calcium salts may be precipitated , binding particles together to form a desert conglomerate . In time , bacteria that live on the surface of the stones accumulate a film of minerals and clay particles , forming a shiny brown coating known as desert varnish .
Other non @-@ sandy deserts consist of exposed outcrops of bedrock , dry soils or aridisols , and a variety of landforms affected by flowing water , such as alluvial fans , sinks or playas , temporary or permanent lakes , and oases . A hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of a high rocky plateau where the sand has been removed by aeolian processes . Other landforms include plains largely covered by gravels and angular boulders , from which the finer particles have been stripped by the wind . These are called " reg " in the western Sahara , " serir " in the eastern Sahara , " gibber plains " in Australia and " saï " in central Asia . The Tassili Plateau in Algeria is an impressive jumble of eroded sandstone outcrops , canyons , blocks , pinnacles , fissures , slabs and ravines . In some places the wind has carved holes or arches and in others it has created mushroom @-@ like pillars narrower at the base than the top . In the Colorado Plateau it is water that has been the eroding force . Here the Colorado River has cut its way over the millennia through the high desert floor creating a canyon that is over a mile ( 6 @,@ 000 feet or 1 @,@ 800 meters ) deep in places , exposing strata that are over two billion year old .
= = = Water = = =
One of the driest places on Earth is the Atacama Desert . It is virtually devoid of life because it is blocked from receiving precipitation by the Andes mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range to the west . The cold Humboldt Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific are essential to keep the dry climate of the Atacama . The average precipitation in the Chilean region of Antofagasta is just 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) per year . Some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain . Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971 . It is so arid that mountains that reach as high as 6 @,@ 885 m ( 22 @,@ 589 ft ) are completely free of glaciers and , in the southern part from 25 ° S to 27 ° S , may have been glacier @-@ free throughout the Quaternary , though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4 @,@ 400 m ( 14 @,@ 400 ft ) and is continuous above 5 @,@ 600 m ( 18 @,@ 400 ft ) . Nevertheless , there is some plant life in the Atacama , in the form of specialist plants that obtain moisture from dew and the fogs that blow in from the Pacific .
When rain falls in deserts , as it occasionally does , it is often with great violence . The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as arroyos or wadis meandering across its surface . These can experience flash floods , becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after a storm that may be many kilometers away . Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but some are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfall areas beyond their borders . The River Nile , the Colorado River and the Yellow River do this , losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass through the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby . There may also be underground sources of water in deserts in the form of springs , aquifers , underground rivers or lakes . Where these lie close to the surface , wells can be dug and oases may form where plant and animal life can flourish . The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System under the Sahara Desert is the largest known accumulation of fossil water . The Great Man @-@ Made River is a scheme launched by Libya 's Colonel Gadaffi to tap this aquifer and supply water to coastal cities . Kharga Oasis in Egypt is 150 km ( 93 mi ) long and is the largest oasis in the Libyan Desert . A lake occupied this depression in ancient times and thick deposits of sandy @-@ clay resulted . Wells are dug to extract water from the porous sandstone that lies underneath . Seepages may occur in the walls of canyons and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below .
Lakes may form in basins where there is sufficient precipitation or meltwater from glaciers above . They are usually shallow and saline , and wind blowing over their surface can cause stress , moving the water over nearby low @-@ lying areas . When the lakes dry up , they leave a crust or hardpan behind . This area of deposited clay , silt or sand is known as a playa . The deserts of North America have more than one hundred playas , many of them relics of Lake Bonneville which covered parts of Utah , Nevada and Idaho during the last ice age when the climate was colder and wetter . These include the Great Salt Lake , Utah Lake , Sevier Lake and many dry lake beds . The smooth flat surfaces of playas have been used for attempted vehicle speed records at Black Rock Desert and Bonneville Speedway and the United States Air Force uses Rogers Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert as runways for aircraft and the space shuttle .
= = Biogeography = =
= = = Flora = = =
Plants face severe challenges in arid environments . Problems they need to solve include how to obtain enough water , how to avoid being eaten and how to reproduce . Photosynthesis is the key to plant growth . It can only take place during the day as energy from the sun is required , but during the day , many deserts become very hot . Opening stomata to allow in the carbon dioxide necessary for the process causes evapotranspiration , and conservation of water is a top priority for desert vegetation . Some plants have resolved this problem by adopting crassulacean acid metabolism , allowing them to open their stomata during the night to allow CO2 to enter , and close them during the day , or by using C4 carbon fixation .
Many desert plants have reduced the size of their leaves or abandoned them altogether . Cacti are desert specialists and in most species the leaves have been dispensed with and the chlorophyll displaced into the trunks , the cellular structure of which has been modified to allow them to store water . When rain falls , the water is rapidly absorbed by the shallow roots and retained to allow them to survive until the next downpour , which may be months or years away . The giant saguaro cacti of the Sonoran Desert form " forests " , providing shade for other plants and nesting places for desert birds . Saguaro grow slowly but may live for up to two hundred years . The surface of the trunk is folded like a concertina , allowing it to expand , and a large specimen can hold eight tons of water after a good downpour .
Cacti are restricted to North America but other xerophytic plants have developed similar strategies by a process known as convergent evolution . They limit water loss by reducing the size and number of stomata , by having waxy coatings and hairy or tiny leaves . Some are deciduous , shedding their leaves in the driest season , and others curl their leaves up to reduce transpiration . Others store water in succulent leaves or stems or in fleshy tubers . Desert plants maximize water uptake by having shallow roots that spread widely , or by developing long taproots that reach down to deep rock strata for ground water . The saltbush in Australia has succulent leaves and secretes salt crystals , enabling it to live in saline areas . In common with cacti , many have developed spines to ward off browsing animals .
Some desert plants produce seed which lies dormant in the soil until sparked into growth by rainfall . When annuals , such plants grow with great rapidity and may flower and set seed within weeks , aiming to complete their development before the last vestige of water dries up . For perennial plants , reproduction is more likely to be successful if the seed germinates in a shaded position , but not so close to the parent plant as to be in competition with it . Some seed will not germinate until it has been blown about on the desert floor to scarify the seed coat . The seed of the mesquite tree , which grows in deserts in the Americas , is hard and fails to sprout even when planted carefully . When it has passed through the gut of a pronghorn it germinates readily , and the little pile of moist dung provides an excellent start to life well away from the parent tree . The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand @-@ carrying winds and protect the ground from erosion . Even small fungi and microscopic plant organisms found on the soil surface ( so @-@ called cryptobiotic soil ) can be a vital link in preventing erosion and providing support for other living organisms . Some plants , including the Plantago Lanceolata , have to reproduce via wind pollination due to living in the environment . Cold deserts often have high concentrations of salt in the soil . Grasses and low shrubs are the dominant vegetation here and the ground may be covered with lichens . Most shrubs have spiny leaves and shed them in the coldest part of the year .
= = = Fauna = = =
Animals adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles . There is no evidence that body temperature of mammals and birds is adaptive to the different climates , either of great heat or cold . In fact , with a very few exceptions , their basal metabolic rate is determined by body size , irrespective of the climate in which they live . Many desert animals ( and plants ) show especially clear evolutionary adaptations for water conservation or heat tolerance and so are often studied in comparative physiology , ecophysiology , and evolutionary physiology . One well @-@ studied example is the specializations of mammalian kidneys shown by desert @-@ inhabiting species . Many examples of convergent evolution have been identified in desert organisms , including between cacti and Euphorbia , kangaroo rats and jerboas , Phrynosoma and Moloch lizards .
Deserts present a very challenging environment for animals . Not only do they require food and water but they also need to keep their body temperature at a tolerable level . In many ways birds are the most able to do this of the higher animals . They can move to areas of greater food availability as the desert blooms after local rainfall and can fly to faraway waterholes . In hot deserts , gliding birds can remove themselves from the over @-@ heated desert floor by using thermals to soar in the cooler air at great heights . In order to conserve energy , other desert birds run rather than fly . The cream @-@ colored courser flits gracefully across the ground on its long legs , stopping periodically to snatch up insects . Like other desert birds it is well @-@ camouflaged by its coloring and can merge into the landscape when stationary . The sandgrouse is an expert at this and nests on the open desert floor dozens of kilometers ( miles ) away from the waterhole it needs to visit daily . Some small diurnal birds are found in very restricted localities where their plumage matches the color of the underlying surface . The desert lark takes frequent dust baths which ensures that it matches its environment .
Water and carbon dioxide are metabolic end products of oxidation of fats , proteins , and carbohydrates . Oxidising a gram of carbohydrate produces 0 @.@ 60 grams of water ; a gram of protein produces 0 @.@ 41 grams of water ; and a gram of fat produces 1 @.@ 07 grams of water , making it possible for xerocoles to live with little or no access to drinking water . The kangaroo rat for example makes use of this water of metabolism and conserves water both by having a low basal metabolic rate and by remaining underground during the heat of the day , reducing loss of water through its skin and respiratory system when at rest . Herbivorous mammals obtain moisture from the plants they eat . Species such as the addax antelope , dik @-@ dik , Grant 's gazelle and oryx are so efficient at doing this that they apparently never need to drink . The camel is a superb example of a mammal adapted to desert life . It minimizes its water loss by producing concentrated urine and dry dung , and is able to lose 40 % of its body weight through water loss without dying of dehydration . Carnivores can obtain much of their water needs from the body fluids of their prey . Many other hot desert animals are nocturnal , seeking out shade during the day or dwelling underground in burrows . At depths of more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) , these remain at between 30 to 32 ° C ( 86 to 90 ° F ) regardless of the external temperature . Jerboas , desert rats , kangaroo rats and other small rodents emerge from their burrows at night and so do the foxes , coyotes , jackals and snakes that prey on them . Kangaroos keep cool by increasing their respiration rate , panting , sweating and moistening the skin of their forelegs with saliva . Mammals living in cold deserts have developed greater insulation through warmer body fur and insulating layers of fat beneath the skin . The arctic weasel has a metabolic rate that is two or three times as high as would be expected for an animal of its size . Birds have avoided the problem of losing heat through their feet by not attempting to maintain them at the same temperature as the rest of their bodies , a form of adaptive insulation . The emperor penguin has dense plumage , a downy under layer , an air insulation layer next the skin and various thermoregulatory strategies to maintain its body temperature in one of the harshest environments on Earth .
Being ectotherms , reptiles are unable to live in cold deserts but are well @-@ suited to hot ones . In the heat of the day in the Sahara , the temperature can rise to 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) . Reptiles cannot survive at this temperature and lizards will be prostrated by heat at 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . They have few adaptations to desert life and are unable to cool themselves by sweating so they shelter during the heat of the day . In the first part of the night , as the ground radiates the heat absorbed during the day , they emerge and search for prey . Lizards and snakes are the most numerous in arid regions and certain snakes have developed a novel method of locomotion that enables them to move sidewards and navigate high sand @-@ dunes . These include the horned viper of Africa and the sidewinder of North America , evolutionarily distinct but with similar behavioural patterns because of convergent evolution . Many desert reptiles are ambush predators and often bury themselves in the sand , waiting for prey to come within range .
Amphibians might seem unlikely desert @-@ dwellers , because of their need to keep their skins moist and their dependence on water for reproductive purposes . In fact , the few species that are found in this habitat have made some remarkable adaptations . Most of them are fossorial , spending the hot dry months aestivating in deep burrows . While there they shed their skins a number of times and retain the remnants around them as a waterproof cocoon to retain moisture . In the Sonoran Desert , Couch 's spadefoot toad spends most of the year dormant in its burrow . Heavy rain is the trigger for emergence and the first male to find a suitable pool calls to attract others . Eggs are laid and the tadpoles grow rapidly as they must reach metamorphosis before the water evaporates . As the desert dries out , the adult toads rebury themselves . The juveniles stay on the surface for a while , feeding and growing , but soon dig themselves burrows . Few make it to adulthood . The water holding frog in Australia has a similar life cycle and may aestivate for as long as five years if no rain falls . The Desert rain frog of Namibia is nocturnal and survives because of the damp sea fogs that roll in from the Atlantic .
Invertebrates , particularly arthropods , have successfully made their homes in the desert . Flies , beetles , ants , termites , locusts , millipedes , scorpions and spiders have hard cuticles which are impervious to water and many of them lay their eggs underground and their young develop away from the temperature extremes at the surface . The Saharan silver ant ( Cataglyphis bombycina ) uses a heat shock protein in a novel way and forages in the open during brief forays in the heat of the day . The long @-@ legged darkling beetle in Namibia stands on its front legs and raises its carapace to catch the morning mist as condensate , funnelling the water into its mouth . Some arthropods make use of the ephemeral pools that form after rain and complete their life cycle in a matter of days . The desert shrimp does this , appearing " miraculously " in new @-@ formed puddles as the dormant eggs hatch . Others , such as brine shrimps , fairy shrimps and tadpole shrimps , are cryptobiotic and can lose up to 92 % of their bodyweight , rehydrating as soon as it rains and their temporary pools reappear .
= = Human relations = =
Humans have long made use of deserts as places to live , and more recently have started to exploit them for minerals and energy capture . Deserts play a significant role in human culture with an extensive literature .
= = = History = = =
People have been living in deserts for millennia . Many , such as the Bushmen in the Kalahari , the Aborigines in Australia and various tribes of North American Indians , were originally hunter @-@ gatherers . They developed skills in the manufacture and use of weapons , animal tracking , finding water , foraging for edible plants and using the things they found in their natural environment to supply their everyday needs . Their self @-@ sufficient skills and knowledge were passed down through the generations by word of mouth . Other cultures developed a nomadic way of life as herders of sheep , goats , cattle , camels , yaks , llamas or reindeer . They travelled over large areas with their herds , moving to new pastures as seasonal and erratic rainfall encouraged new plant growth . They took with them their tents made of cloth or skins draped over poles and their diet included milk , blood and sometimes meat .
The desert nomads were also traders . The Sahara is a very large expanse of land stretching from the Atlantic rim to Egypt . Trade routes were developed linking the Sahel in the south with the fertile Mediterranean region to the north and large numbers of camels were used to carry valuable goods across the desert interior . The Tuareg were traders and the goods transported traditionally included slaves , ivory and gold going northwards and salt going southwards . Berbers with knowledge of the region were employed to guide the caravans between the various oases and wells . Several million slaves may have been taken northwards across the Sahara between the 8th and 18th centuries . Traditional means of overland transport declined with the advent of motor vehicles , shipping and air freight , but caravans still travel along routes between Agadez and Bilma and between Timbuktu and Taoudenni carrying salt from the interior to desert @-@ edge communities .
Round the rims of deserts , where more precipitation occurred and conditions were more suitable , some groups took to cultivating crops . This may have happened when drought caused the death of herd animals , forcing herdsmen to turn to cultivation . With few inputs , they were at the mercy of the weather and may have lived at bare subsistence level . The land they cultivated reduced the area available to nomadic herders , causing disputes over land . The semi @-@ arid fringes of the desert have fragile soils which are at risk of erosion when exposed , as happened in the American Dust Bowl in the 1930s . The grasses that held the soil in place were ploughed under , and a series of dry years caused crop failures , while enormous dust storms blew the topsoil away . Half a million Americans were forced to leave their land in this catastrophe .
Similar damage is being done today to the semi @-@ arid areas that rim deserts and about twelve million hectares of land are being turned to desert each year . Desertification is caused by such factors as drought , climatic shifts , tillage for agriculture , overgrazing and deforestation . Vegetation plays a major role in determining the composition of the soil . In many environments , the rate of erosion and run off increases dramatically with reduced vegetation cover . Unprotected dry surfaces tend to be blown away by the wind or be washed away by flash floods , leaving infertile soil layers that bake in the sun and become unproductive hardpan . Although overgrazing has historically been considered to be a cause of desertification , there is some evidence that wild and domesticated animals actually improve fertility and vegetation cover , and that their removal encourages erosive processes .
= = = Natural resource extraction = = =
Deserts contain substantial mineral resources , sometimes over their entire surface , giving them their characteristic colors . For example , the red of many sand deserts comes from laterite minerals . Geological processes in a desert climate can concentrate minerals into valuable deposits . Leaching by ground water can extract ore minerals and redeposit them , according to the water table , in concentrated form . Similarly , evaporation tends to concentrate minerals in desert lakes , creating dry lake beds or playas rich in minerals . Evaporation can concentrate minerals as a variety of evaporite deposits , including gypsum , sodium nitrate , sodium chloride and borates . Evaporites are found in the USA 's Great Basin Desert , historically exploited by the " 20 @-@ mule teams " pulling carts of borax from Death Valley to the nearest railway . A desert especially rich in mineral salts is the Atacama Desert , Chile , where sodium nitrate has been mined for explosives and fertilizer since around 1850 . Other desert minerals are copper from Chile , Peru , and Iran , and iron and uranium in Australia . Many other metals , salts and commercially valuable types of rock such as pumice are extracted from deserts around the world .
Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro @-@ organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment . Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates . Some major oilfields such as Ghawar are found under the sands of Saudi Arabia . Geologists believe that other oil deposits were formed by aeolian processes in ancient deserts as may be the case with some of the major American oil fields .
= = = Farming = = =
Traditional desert farming systems have long been established in North Africa , irrigation being the key to success in an area where water stress is a limiting factor to growth . Techniques that can be used include drip irrigation , the use of organic residues or animal manures as fertilisers and other traditional agricultural management practises . Once fertility has been built up , further crop production preserves the soil from destruction by wind and other forms of erosion . It has been found that plant growth @-@ promoting bacteria play a role in increasing the resistance of plants to stress conditions and these rhizobacterial suspensions could be inoculated into the soil in the vicinity of the plants . A study of these microbes found that desert farming hampers desertification by establishing islands of fertility allowing farmers to achieve increased yields despite the adverse environmental conditions . A field trial in the Sonoran Desert which exposed the roots of different species of tree to rhizobacteria and the nitrogen fixing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense with the aim of restoring degraded lands was only partially successful .
The Judean Desert was farmed in the 7th century BC during the Iron Age to supply food for desert forts . Native Americans in the south western United States became agriculturalists around 600 AD when seeds and technologies became available from Mexico . They used terracing techniques and grew gardens beside seeps , in moist areas at the foot of dunes , near streams providing flood irrigation and in areas irrigated by extensive specially built canals . The Hohokam tribe constructed over 500 miles ( 800 km ) of large canals and maintained them for centuries , an impressive feat of engineering . They grew maize , beans , squash and peppers .
A modern example of desert farming is the Imperial Valley in California , which has high temperatures and average rainfall of just 3 in ( 76 mm ) per year . The economy is heavily based on agriculture and the land is irrigated through a network of canals and pipelines sourced entirely from the Colorado River via the All @-@ American Canal . The soil is deep and fertile , being part of the river 's flood plains , and what would otherwise have been desert has been transformed into one of the most productive farming regions in California . Other water from the river is piped to urban communities but all this has been at the expense of the river , which below the extraction sites no longer has any above @-@ ground flow during most of the year . Another problem of growing crops in this way is the build @-@ up of salinity in the soil caused by evaporation of river water . The greening of the desert remains an aspiration and was at one time viewed as a future means for increasing food production for the world 's growing population . This prospect has proved false as it disregarded the environmental damage caused elsewhere by the diversion of water for desert project irrigation .
= = = Solar energy capture = = =
Deserts are increasingly seen as sources for solar energy , partly due to low amounts of cloud cover . Many successful solar power plants have been built in the Mojave Desert . These plants have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts ( MW ) making them the largest solar power installation in the world . Large swaths of this desert are covered in mirrors , including nine fields of solar collectors . The Mojave Solar Park is currently under construction and will produce 280MW when completed .
The potential for generating solar energy from the Sahara Desert is huge , the highest found on the globe . Professor David Faiman of Ben @-@ Gurion University has stated that the technology now exists to supply all of the world 's electricity needs from 10 % of the Sahara Desert . Desertec Industrial Initiative is a consortium seeking $ 560 billion to invest in North African solar and wind installations over the next forty years to supply electricity to Europe via cable lines running under the Mediterranean Sea . European interest in the Sahara Desert stems from its two aspects : the almost continual daytime sunshine and plenty of unused land . The Sahara receives more sunshine per acre than any part of Europe . The Sahara Desert also has the empty space totalling hundreds of square miles required to house fields of mirrors for solar plants .
The Negev Desert , Israel , and the surrounding area , including the Arava Valley , receive plenty of sunshine and are generally not arable . This has resulted in the construction of many solar plants . David Faiman has proposed that " giant " solar plants in the Negev could supply all of Israel 's needs for electricity .
= = = Warfare = = =
The Arabs were probably the first organized force to conduct successful battles in the desert . By knowing back routes and the locations of oases and by utilizing camels , Muslim Arab forces were able to successfully overcome both Roman and Persian forces in the period 600 to 700 AD during the expansion of the Islamic caliphate .
Many centuries later , both world wars saw fighting in the desert . In the First World War , the Ottoman Turks were engaged with the British regular army in a campaign that spanned the Arabian peninsula . The Turks were defeated by the British , who had the backing of irregular Arab forces that were seeking to revolt against the Turks in the Hejaz , made famous in T. E. Lawrence 's book Seven Pillars of Wisdom .
In the Second World War , the Western Desert Campaign began in Italian Libya . Warfare in the desert offered great scope for tacticians to use the large open spaces without the distractions of casualties among civilian populations . Tanks and armoured vehicles were able to travel large distances unimpeded and land mines were laid in large numbers . However the size and harshness of the terrain meant that all supplies needed to be brought in from great distances . The victors in a battle would advance and their supply chain would necessarily become longer , while the defeated army could retreat , regroup and resupply . For these reasons , the front line moved back and forth through hundreds of kilometers as each side lost and regained momentum . Its most easterly point was at El Alamein in Egypt , where the Allies decisively defeated the Axis forces in 1942 .
= = = In culture = = =
The desert is generally thought of as a barren and empty landscape . It has been portrayed by writers , film @-@ makers , philosophers , artists and critics as a place of extremes , a metaphor for anything from death , war or religion to the primitive past or the desolate future .
There is an extensive literature on the subject of deserts . An early historical account is that of Marco Polo ( c . 1254 – 1324 ) , who travelled through Central Asia to China , crossing a number of deserts in his twenty four year trek . Some accounts give vivid descriptions of desert conditions , though often accounts of journeys across deserts are interwoven with reflection , as is the case in Charles Montagu Doughty 's major work , Travels in Arabia Deserta ( 1888 ) . Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry described both his flying and the desert in Wind , Sand and Stars and Gertrude Bell travelled extensively in the Arabian desert in the early part of the 20th century , becoming an expert on the subject , writing books and advising the British government on dealing with the Arabs . Another woman explorer was Freya Stark who travelled alone in the Middle East , visiting Turkey , Arabia , Yemen , Syria , Persia and Afghanistan , writing over twenty books on her experiences . The German naturalist Uwe George spent several years living in deserts , recording his experiences and research in his book , In the Deserts of this Earth .
The American poet Robert Frost expressed his bleak thoughts in his poem , Desert Places , which ends with the stanza " They cannot scare me with their empty spaces / Between stars - on stars where no human race is . / I have it in me so much nearer home / To scare myself with my own desert places . "
= = Deserts on other planets = =
Mars is the only planet in the Solar System on which deserts have been identified . Despite its low surface atmospheric pressure ( only 1 / 100 of that of the Earth ) , the patterns of atmospheric circulation on Mars have formed a sea of circumpolar sand more than 5 million km ² ( 1 @.@ 9 million sq mi ) in area , much larger than deserts on Earth . The Martian deserts principally consist of dunes in the form of half @-@ moons in flat areas near the permanent polar ice caps in the north of the planet . The smaller dune fields occupy the bottom of many of the craters situated in the Martian polar regions . Examination of the surface of rocks by laser beamed from the Mars Exploration Rover have shown a surface film that resembles the desert varnish found on Earth although it might just be surface dust . The surface of Titan , a moon of Saturn , also has a desert @-@ like surface with dune seas .
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= Portage Glacier Highway =
The Portage Glacier Highway , or Portage Glacier Road , is a highway located in the U.S. state of Alaska . The highway is made up of a series of roads , bridges , and tunnels that connect the Portage Glacier area of the Chugach National Forest and the city of Whittier to the Seward Highway . Most of the highway travels through mainly rural areas just north of the Kenai Peninsula , with the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel passing under Maynard Mountain , part of the Chugach Mountain Range . Parts of the route were first constructed in the early 1900s , and the entire highway was completed on June 7 , 2000 , as part of the Whittier Access Project . As of 2012 , the highway has not been extended or rerouted . The main portion of the highway traveling from the western terminus to the Begich , Boggs visitors center is designated as National Forest Highway 35 by the U.S. Forest Service .
= = Route description = =
The portion of the Portage Glacier Highway traveling from the Seward Highway to the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center is designated as part of Forest Highway 35 , a Federal Forest Highway ( FFH ) . Forest Highways are funded and administered by the US Forest Service and the Federal Highway Administration ; the system was created by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 . FFH @-@ 35 is one of the 33 Forest Highways that are currently designated in Alaska .
= = = Chugach National Forest = = =
The Portage Glacier Highway begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with the Seward Highway , in the former town of Portage . At this point , the highway is a two @-@ lane , asphalt road . Almost immediately after the Seward Highway intersection , the road crosses over the Coastal Classic line of the Alaska Railroad . The highway continues in a southeasterly direction along the Portage Valley , with Portage Creek to the north and pine forests to the south . After about 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) , the roadway intersects a small gravel road that leads to the Moose Flats Day Use area , which has access to several scenic hiking trails . Peaks of the Chugach Mountains , along with several hanging glaciers can be seen from the road ; Portage Glacier itself is out of view . The highway passes through a low @-@ lying wetland before reentering forest and providing access to the Alder Pond Day Use area and the Portage Valley RV park .
Portage Glacier Highway continues southeastward , providing access to the Black Bear Campgrounds , maintained by the USFS . The roadway bends eastward , passing the USFS Williwaw Campgrounds , as well as several small gravel roads . The road continues for a short distance before passing the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center and associated buildings , comprising the headquarters of Portage Glacier unit of the Chugach National Forest . The highway continues onto the Portage Creek Bridge , which is 114 feet ( 35 m ) long . It allows the highway to cross over the small Portage Creek , which is fed by the Portage Glacier and Portage Lake . The bridge ends at the start of the Portage Lake Tunnel . The tunnel is 445 feet ( 136 m ) long and constructed of concrete . The route proceeds on to a 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) portion of road known as the " Rock Cut at Portage Lake " by the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities ( DOT & PF ) . This road passes along the coast of Portage Lake , and borders a large , man @-@ made cliff to the north ( hence the name " Rock Cut " ) . This portion of the route terminates at the Placer Creek Bridge . The bridge , which is just 83 feet ( 25 m ) long , spans over Placer Creek , the smaller of the two creeks fed by Portage Lake . The highway continues to the six @-@ lane Bear Valley Staging area , and the toll booth for the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel . The road continues into the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel .
= = = Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel = = =
The Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel ( often referred to simply as the Whittier Tunnel ) is a multi @-@ use highway and railroad tunnel that passes under Maynard Mountain . At 13 @,@ 300 ft ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) , it is the second @-@ longest highway tunnel and longest combined rail and highway tunnel in North America . The tunnel was upgraded to mixed use by the Kiewit Construction Company .
The tunnel is designed with a single highway lane . The floor of the tunnel is constructed of 1 @,@ 800 texturized concrete panels ( each 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ) with the railroad tracks sunken slightly below the road surface . The interior is exposed rock , and contains several " safe @-@ houses " , which are small buildings that are used in case of severe earthquakes , vehicle fires , or other emergencies . The tunnel also contains several pull @-@ outs , which are reserved for disabled vehicles . The tunnel uses a combination of portal fans and reversible jet engines to ensure proper air flow and air quality throughout the tunnel . There are two backup generators to ensure that the computerized traffic controls and safe @-@ house ventilation systems in the tunnel continue to function in the event of a power failure . Because eastbound traffic , westbound traffic , and the Alaska Railroad must share the tunnel , rail and road traffic are coordinated by two sophisticated computer @-@ based systems : the Tunnel Control System and the Train Signal System . These systems control the timing of vehicles entering the tunnel , spacing them for safety , and lower railroad gates when a train is approaching . The tunnel 's entrance portals are designed in an A @-@ shape , with a large , train @-@ sized " garage door " , which allows traffic in and out of the tunnel . The entrance portals are designed to withstand the force of an avalanche . The tunnel 's eastern terminus is in Whittier . The staging areas on either side of the tunnel can accommodate as many as 450 vehicles waiting to pass through .
Track circuits in the tunnel had problems because of wetness ; in 2015 these were replaced with axle counters .
= = = Whittier = = =
After exiting the tunnel , the highway enters the nine @-@ lane Whittier staging area , where it passes several of the tunnel 's automated control systems . Before traveling past the single @-@ runway Whittier Airport , the route intersects two small roads , one of which is the Portage Pass Trail access route . Running parallel to the Alaska Railroad line , the route continues between the Passage Canal and several mountains for approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . Passing by the Cliffside Marina , the route crosses over Whittier Creek before immediately turning off of Camp Road and onto Whittier Street . The road crosses over the Alaska Railroad , before bending southeastward and traveling past a large parking lot , the Whittier Parking and Camping headquarters . Traveling past several businesses making up central Whittier , the highway turns east and intersects Glacier Avenue , as well as a short pedestrian pathway . The roadway continues through central Whittier before reaching a four @-@ way intersection with Blackstone Road , Eastern Avenue , and Depot Road , after which the route transfers to the latter . The road continues along Passage Canal for a short distance , while traveling towards the Alaska Marine Highway ( AMHS ) pier . Depot Road splits away from the highway , which continues for a short distance along Dock Access Road before reaching its eastern terminus , the AMHS pier .
= = = Traffic = = =
The highway is maintained by the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities ( AkDOT & PF ) . Part of the job of the AkDOT & PF is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . The estimated AADT for the Portage Glacier Highway is 1 @,@ 030 vehicles . In addition to taking AADT , the AkDOT & PF also takes monthly and yearly counts for the highway . The road 's yearly traffic count for 2010 was 234 @,@ 738 vehicles . The roadway 's highest monthly traffic is in mid @-@ summer , when an average of nearly 50 @,@ 000 vehicles use the tunnel each month . The highway 's lowest monthly traffic is in late winter , when the average monthly traffic is only about 6 @,@ 000 . The monthly and yearly counts are taken at the entrance to the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel . The entire length of the highway is designated as an Intermodal Connector Route , part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = Scenic and recreational opportunities = =
The Portage Glacier Highway offers numerous scenic and recreational opportunities , mostly located along the section designated as FFH @-@ 35 . A short , 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long boardwalk trail and the 4 @.@ 6 miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) long Trail of Blue Ice are accessible through the Moose Flats Day @-@ Use area . A viewing area for the Explorer Glacier is located near milepost 2 , and a turnout for the Portage River is located near milepost 3 . Near milepost 4 is the Williwaw fish viewing observation deck , which allows travelers to view spanning salmon in July through September . The 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long loop Williwaw Nature Trail is accessible through the Williwaw Campground . The trail provides views of the Middle Glacier . At the turnout for the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center is the Byron Glacier Trail as well as several others . The Portage Glacier can be seen on a short cruise on the M / V Ptarmigan ; The glacier is no longer visible from the road . Past milepost 6 is a turnout for the Byron Glacier and Portage Lake .
Many large hoofed animals such as moose , and caribou can be seen along the highway , as well as black and brown bear species . Bald Eagles can occasionally be seen from the highway . If using binoculars , mountain goats can be seen on the sides of the mountains . During spring and autumn , migrating species of ducks , geese , swans , and cranes can be seen throughout the region . Spawning salmon species of sockeye , chum , and coho can be seen in Portage Creek . Several unique species of wildflowers are found along several of the trails in the area . Whittier annually holds the Walk to Whittier , which is an event where pedestrians walk through the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel to Whittier , the only time pedestrians may use the tunnel . The event has been held since 2002 , except it was not held in 2010 . The walk traditionally takes place in June .
= = Tolls = =
A toll is charged for access through the Anton Anderson Tunnel . The fees are collected from vehicles traveling eastbound . The fee for a regular vehicle is $ 13 , as is the price for motorcycles . Vehicles pulling trailers must pay a higher toll , set at $ 20 . Small buses and regular RVs are charged $ 35 , while large buses must pay $ 125 . Oversize and unusually sized vehicles , those 10 to 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 14 to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) high must pay $ 300 per use . Vehicles that are exempt from paying tolls are those owned by the Alaska Railroad , the DOT & PF , or any emergency or law enforcement vehicle . Any vehicles owned or operated by any state government agency or school district must pay just $ 10 .
Seasonal passes are also available for normal @-@ sized cars , trucks and motorcycles , and are priced at over $ 500 . The average passenger vehicle toll cost per mile is $ 39 @.@ 42 , while the average per @-@ mile vehicle price for trucks is $ 39 @.@ 52 . The tunnel is operated on a strict time schedule , with vehicles being allowed in for 15 minutes from each a single direction before alternating to the other . The tunnel is open from 5 : 30 A.M. to 11 : 15 P.M. during summer months , and from 7 : 00 A.M. to 10 : 45 P.M. during winter months .
= = History = =
= = = Native trail = = =
The earliest evidence of the Portage Valley being used for transportation dates back to early A.D , when the Inuit people used the flat , low @-@ lying valley as a pass through the Chugach Mountains . The Dena 'ina people continued use of the valley as a passage between Cochrane Bay and the Turnagain Arm . They used Portage Creek for fishing purposes , and established a series of trails along the creek . Russian fur traders and early settlers continued to use the valley , establishing a trail along the creek and the Portage and Burns glaciers . It was possible for boats to travel through the valley by using the Passage Canal and the creek up until 1913 . The trail was usable until 1939 , due to the continuous recession of the Portage Glacier . The final party to attempt to use the trail that year was forced to climb 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) up the Portage Shoulder to avoid the drop @-@ offs and crevasses that had formed along the trail .
= = = Railroad development = = =
In 1940 , the U.S. Government realized that it needed to reevaluate its territories , including Alaska . Alaska was declared a vulnerable attack target , as was the existing railroad connecting Anchorage and Seward . The U.S. Armed Forces began planning for new roads and railroads , and on October 15 , 1940 , General Simon Bolivar Buckner , Jr. announced those plans . The plan called for the existing railroad to be transferred to Whittier , and for the construction of a road to Seward ( the Seward Highway ) , a road to the Richardson Highway ( the Glenn Highway and the Tok Cut @-@ Off ) , and a road to the Portage Valley ( the Portage Glacier Highway ) . Less than a week after the announcement of the plan , surveying of the area around Whittier was taking place in order to make sure of the safety of building the railroad terminal . The project was strongly opposed by the city of Seward , but after the survey was complete , the project was definite .
In early 1941 , large groups of people from the Kenai Peninsula traveled to Washington , D.C. to protest the moving of the railroad . The protests were useless , and on April 3 , 1941 , U.S. Congress passed a bill providing the project with $ 5 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 85 @,@ 267 @,@ 600 respectively in 2016 ) . In late April , the U.S. Army 's 177th Engineering group began work on clearing and grading the former native trail . The U.S. Army hired the West Construction Company of Boston , MA. to assist in the construction of the future railroad 's two tunnels . West Construction and the Army began working on the tunnel under Mount Maynard in late August 1941 . The first boring of the tunnel began on the east side of the mountain , and shortly afterwards , construction on the west side began . Winter hindered the construction of the tunnel until mid November , when a small " snowshed " building was constructed . The U.S. entered World War II on December 8 , 1941 , after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor . This sparked the need for the completion of the tunnel earlier than expected . By the end of 1941 , workers had tunneled more than 170 feet ( 52 m ) into Maynard Mountain .
Work on the tunnel rapidly increased into the summer of 1942 . Large areas of the rock were blasted away with controlled explosions , using dynamite . The material removed from the tunnel was used as grading material for other parts of the railway . Supplies were received behind schedule , mainly due to the war . This hindered progress on the tunnel . In June 1942 , Japanese forces attacked and invaded the Alaskan islands of Attu and Kiska , again provoking the need to complete the tunnels sooner . The winter conditions of 1942 and 1943 slowed the progress of the tunnels . Work on the railroad continued until April 23 , 1943 , when the project was completed . Anton Anderson , the lead engineer for the tunnels and namesake for the tunnel to Whittier , was not present when the railroad was used for the first time , fearing the Whittier Tunnel was not ready .
= = = Early roads = = =
The U.S. army established a series of simple earthen roads while constructing the railroad spur . This was the first road to exist in the Portage Valley . Whittier began to grow after the completion of the railroad spur . The port boomed in the mid @-@ 1940s , with the population reaching over 1 @,@ 000 . The city , including roads , began to form . By 1953 , the earthen road in Portage Valley had generally been relocated near the location of the present highway . Also around that time , a road in Whittier in the location of the present highway existed as a graded , dirt road . The highway was probably paved sometime between 1965 and 1967 , and three small bridges along the route were constructed , all of which are still used today .
= = = Highway studies and proposals = = =
Between the late 1950s and the early 1960s , the U.S. Military pulled out of Whittier , allowing the town to grow as a commercial port . Whittier 's location made it a large tourist location , and after the military pullout , travel to Whittier grew massively . In addition to the state 's paving of the highway , the Alaska Railroad began offering shuttle services between Portage and Whittier in the mid @-@ 1960s . The Alaska Railroad would allow vehicles to drive onto flatcars , which would then be transported by train through the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel to Whittier . The number of people visiting Whittier grew progressively , bringing with it a larger number of requests for a more convenient and affordable way of transportation to Whittier . During the late 1970s , a proposal was put forward for a road to Whittier . In preparation for the highway , Anchorage businessman Pete Zamarello purchased the Buckner Building , and planned to convert it into a resort . However , the highway proposal fell through . In 1981 , the AkDOT & PF began to study possible alternatives to the railroad , which would have cost anywhere between $ 10 million and $ 68 million .
In 1993 , the AkDOT & PF finally initiated the study for the alternative transportation system to Whittier . The project would be named the " Whittier Access Project " . The AkDOT & PF authorized HDR Alaska to conduct the study . The study presented five solutions : increasing the existing flatcar service , installing a high @-@ speed electric rail service , constructing a series of highways over the mountain range , building a highway and tunnels through the mountain range , and constructing a highway to the existing railroad tunnel and expanding the tunnel to withstand motor vehicles . After consulting with members of the Alaska Railroad , the general public , and highway and tunnel engineers , the AkDOT & PF decided to move forward with the last option , involving the expansion of the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel and the construction of a highway . In November 1995 , an environmental impact statement , created by HDR Alaska , was approved by the FHWA , allowing the project to move forward .
= = = Whittier Access Project = = =
In March 1996 , the state of Alaska announced its final plans for the construction of the Whittier Access Project . The project was predicted to cost around $ 50 million , and the project was planned to begin later that year . However , the project was met with much controversy , and by December 1996 , the project still had not begun . The cost of construction was reevaluated to be around $ 60 million , and the project was planned to begin in March 1997 . Construction of the Whittier Access Project finally began on May 6 , 1997 . Then @-@ governor of Alaska Tony Knowles began the construction when he detonated six pounds of explosives located on Begich Peak , although this was unrelated to the project itself . On May 22 , 1997 , construction of the project was halted . Carl S. Armbrister , the Director of the Office of Planning and Program Development for the FHWA 's 10th Region and head of the project was sued by several environmental agencies and tourism groups , headed by the Alaska Center for the Environment ( ACE ) . The ACE brought the suit against Armbrister on the grounds that the project violated section 4 ( f ) of the Department of Transportation Act of 1966 , which requires that all environmental impacts of a project be assessed and that a project " [ has ] no feasible and prudent alternative " . The ACE held that a new highway was not needed and improving the existing rail service was a prudent and feasible option . However , one day after construction was stopped , a judicial ruling was issued permitting work to continue . Construction continued for a week , until May 31 , but was then halted again due to the lawsuit . Work on the project was ruled off until at least mid @-@ July of that year .
James Keith Singleton , Jr . , the district judge overseeing the case , ruled in favor of Armbrister and the FHWA and stated that the agency was correct in its decision against improved rail service . The suit was compared to the landmark 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park , Inc. v. Volpe , where the supreme court ruled in favor of Memphis , Tennessee citizens attempting to protect Overton Park from a plan to route Interstate 40 through 26 acres ( 11 ha ) of its forest . However , unlike in that case , the Whittier Access project was found to be the only feasible solution for a link to Whittier . The ACE appealed the decision and the case went to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . The court upheld Singleton 's decision , finding that the project only affected a very small amount of parkland and that the road was necessary to meet the requirements for a link to the city . These rulings were legally significant as they appeared to overturn the precedent established in the Overton Park case , which was interpreted as saying that " it must be shown that the implications of not building [ a ] highway pose an `unusual situation ' " .
Work on the project was finally approved following the Ninth Circuit 's decision . The lawsuit had put the project , which had been planned to be completed by the end of 1998 , far behind schedule . The first phase of construction consisted of building the Portage Creek Bridge and the construction of a new tunnel through Begich Peak . The contract for the phase had been awarded prior to the lawsuit , but work on the components was not completed until very late in 1998 . A temporary bridge was built over Portage Creek so that the tunnel could be constructed . The final part of the phase was replacing the temporary bridge over Portage Creek . The structure was designed so that it would appear to fit with the environment but could also withstand the regular seismic activity of the region and have a minimal impact on the surrounding fish and plant populations . CH2M Hill was selected to design the approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of highway that would connect the existing road to the Anton Anderson Tunnel . Construction of the highway , done by Herndon and Thompson Inc . , was finished before tunnel work began .
The Kiewit Construction Company , based in Omaha , Nebraska , was awarded the contract for phase two , redesigning the Anton Anderson Tunnel . Kiewit began planning the tunnel design in June 1998 , and began work on the project sometime around September . The first part of the tunnel construction involved vertically and horizontally expanding the existing rock walls . Beginning from the western entrance , Kiewit drilled away several feet of the rock face from the top of the tunnel and installed a net to prevent any potential rockfalls . They then drilled sideways , clearing space for the nine vehicle turnaround areas . However , work on the tunnel was hindered by several different events . While crews were working on the tunnel , a drunken Whittier resident drove his or her truck into the tunnel and got it stuck on the rails . On October 23 , a thirteen @-@ car train derailed at the western entrance . Although no workers were injured , a substantial amount of the equipment was destroyed . In addition to the accidents , crews had to work in extreme weather . Kiewit claims that workers had to deal with " winds of more than 120 mph , minus 40 degree temperatures and snow up to 43 feet deep " and wind chills that would drop to around − 80 ° F ( − 62 ° C ) . An avalanche also at one point halted construction for four days .
Despite the conditions , the crews were forced to do much of the work during the winter , since the project had to adjust to the train schedule . Trains ran daily during the summer , so work was restricted to about nine @-@ hour shifts during the night . During winter months , trains were only operating during four days each week . When a train was scheduled to come through the tunnel , crews reported they had to " spent up to two hours breaking down equipment , getting it all outside and waiting for the train to pass before heading back into the mountain " . Following the expanding of the tunnel , one of the first steps the crews took was to demolish the existing entrance portals . Once they were destroyed , the existing rail was removed in sections . Pre @-@ cast panels were laid where the tracks had been , before the old rail was put back and welded to the panels . While that was being completed , some crews installed a series of anti @-@ icing insulation panels and drainage pipes to keep the tunnel clear during winter months .
Construction work was completed on schedule , in early 2000 . The town of Whittier began a number of improvements to help adjust for the road 's opening . Among these were more parking facilities and increasing public restrooms . The town government also approved of several long @-@ term changes to the city that would begin after the road was opened , including a second harbor , a bike trail , a new sidewalk system , and shopping center . The official opening ceremony was held on June 7 and was marked by protests from environmentalists . A group of three of them chained themselves together in the middle of the road in an attempt to block traffic , while another group of about twenty hung banners and waved signs . The ceremony itself was attended by around 300 people . Then @-@ governor Knowles performed a ribbon @-@ cutting and rode through the tunnel in a 1954 @-@ model Cadillac .
= = Major junctions = =
= = Related route = =
Forest Highway 35 ( FFH @-@ 35 ) is a Federal Forest Highway located entirely within Chugach National Forest . The highway is approximately 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) long , and is mostly designated along the Portage Glacier Highway . The road serves the Portage Glacier branch of the park . FFH @-@ 35 begins at an intersection with the Seward Highway ( AK @-@ 1 ) in Portage . The route follows the Portage Glacier Highway for approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , passing several park campgrounds and scenic turnouts . FFH 35 turns off the Portage Glacier Highway onto Portage Lake Loop Road , passing west of the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center Complex . The designation then shifts from Portage Lake Loop Road to Byron Glacier Road , which proceeds southward past low @-@ lying marshland along Portage Lake . It continues past a small turnout area and travels over a small creek before proceeding eastward to its eastern terminus , a building and parking lot that make up part of the visitor center .
Major intersections
The entire highway is located within the Municipality of Anchorage , Alaska .
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= Fez ( video game ) =
Fez ( stylized as FEZ ) is a 2012 indie puzzle platform game developed by Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios . The player @-@ character Gomez receives a fez that reveals his two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) world to be one of four sides of a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) world . The player rotates between these four 2D views to realign platforms and solve the game 's puzzles . The object of the game is to collect cubes and cube fragments to restore order to the universe .
The game was called an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " during its high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development cycle . Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish gained celebrity status for his outspoken public persona and his prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which detailed Fez 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues . Fez met critical acclaim upon its April 2012 release for Xbox Live Arcade . The game was ported to other platforms following the expiration of a yearlong exclusivity agreement .
Reviewers commended the game 's emphasis on discovery and freedom , but criticized its technical issues , in @-@ game navigation , and endgame backtracking . They likened the game 's rotation mechanic to the 2D – 3D shifts of Echochrome , Super Paper Mario , and Crush . Fez won awards including the Seumas McNally Grand Prize and Eurogamer 's 2012 Game of the Year . It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 , and it influenced games such as Monument Valley , Crossy Road , and Secrets of Rætikon . A planned sequel was canceled when Fish abruptly left the industry .
= = Gameplay = =
Fez is a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) puzzle platform game set in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) world . The player @-@ character Gomez lives peacefully on a 2D plane until he receives a red fez and witnesses the breakup of a giant , golden hexahedron that tears the fabric of spacetime and reveals a third dimension . After the game appears to glitch , reset , and reboot , the player can rotate between four 2D views of the 3D world , as four sides around a cube @-@ like space . This rotation mechanic reveals new paths through the levels by connecting otherwise inaccessible platforms , and is the basis of Fez 's puzzles . For example , floating platforms become a solid road , discontinuous ladders become whole , and platforms that move along a track stay on course . The object of the game is to collect cubes and cube fragments , which accrete to restore order to the universe . In search of these cubes , Gomez traverses the game environment by jumping between ledges . Other platforming elements change with the level themes , including crates that activate switches , bombs that reveal passages , and pistons that launch Gomez airborne .
The exploratory parts of the game feature a series of arcane codes and glyphs , treasure maps and chests , and secret rooms . Players are left without guidance to determine whether game elements are decipherable subpuzzles or simply false signals . These sorts of puzzles include hidden warp gates , enigmatic obelisks , invisible platforms , sequences of tetrominos , a ciphered alphabet , and QR codes . One of the game 's recurring themes is an ancient civilization that attempted to make sense of their dimensionality , as told through artifacts .
Fez has no enemies , bosses , or punishments for failure — the player @-@ character quickly respawns upon falling to his death . The game 's designer described Fez as a " ' stop and smell the flowers ' kind of game " . It prioritizes puzzle @-@ solving and patience over the platforming genre 's traditional interest in dexterity . Fez features a pixelated art style and a limited color palette reminiscent of the 8 @-@ bit era . Its homage includes Tetris tetrominos inscribed on the walls and in the sky , The Legend of Zelda treasure chest animations , Super Mario Bros. mushroom levels , travel by pipe , and floating platforms . The game 's settings include forests , factories , a coastal lighthouse , an urban city , and a library . Fez 's New Game Plus mode adds a first @-@ person perspective feature and lets the player revisit areas to collect " anti @-@ cubes " from harder puzzles . This second half of the game is more challenging and focuses on code cracking .
= = Development = =
Fez 's five @-@ year development cycle is known for its protracted length and amount of public exposure . Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened its rocky history to " an indie Duke Nukem Forever " , and Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies noted its standing reputation as an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " . Its designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in the 2012 Indie Game : The Movie . Apart from Fez , which was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona .
Fez began as a collaboration between Canadian indie developers Fish and Shawn McGrath . They worked on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game in which a 3D space was viewed from four 2D angles . Though their partnership broke down due to creative differences , the entirety of Fez 's design , story , and art descends from this game mechanic . Fish continued to work on the project in his spare time and solicited for a programmer on DeviantArt , where he found Renaud Bédard . Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source . It was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival ( GDC IGF ) . When Fish 's employer did not permit him time off to attend the awards , he quit . He later recalled this moment as " when [ he ] became indie " . The game won " Excellence in Visual Art " , and its presence created a surge of public interest in Fez that rode a concurrent swell of interest in indie game development as a whole . Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez . In July 2009 , Polytron announced that Fez would launch in early 2010 as an Xbox Live Arcade exclusive . Development continued with an experimental spirit until the company ran out of money . Fish borrowed from friends and family to keep the company open and considered canceling the project before the nearby Québécois developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help . Fish felt that the Trapdoor partnership rescued the game .
Fez won multiple awards in 2011 and was a " PAX 10 " selection at the 2011 Penny Arcade Expo . Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's booth at PAX East 2011 , an earlier show , in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie . The film chronicles the game development stories of several indie developers . As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes Fez 's future . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as theatrical in a way that exacerbates his already outspoken reputation . Eurogamer said that the part when Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " . Near the end of Fez 's development , Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from IGF Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow , but that he felt " burnt out " . The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development . After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .
Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 , and it sold 200 @,@ 000 copies during its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . Fish rebuked Polytron 's co @-@ publisher , Microsoft Studios , for botching the game 's release by way of lackluster publicity . Several months later , Polytron entered a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching Fez . Nearly a year after Fez 's launch , Fish announced a Windows PC port for release on May 1 , 2013 . OS X and Linux ports debuted on September 11 , 2013 , and PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita ports by BlitWorks debuted on March 25 , 2014 . Ouya and iOS ports were also announced . Bédard stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's Capybara Games . He credited Polytron 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's perfectionism . Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after its release . Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final " monolith " puzzle by using a cryptanalytic attack known as brute force . Ars Technica described the apparent end to Fez 's harder puzzles as " anticlimactic " , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .
More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 . The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay .
= = = Design = = =
Bédard wrote Fez in Microsoft Visual C # Express and XNA Game Studio Express . He coded the level editor and the game engine , Trixel , which converts 2D tiles ( " triles " ) into four @-@ sided 3D voxels ( " trixels " ) . Fish made 2D pixel art in Photoshop for each side of the trixel , which Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets . Fish would then design levels in the level editor by extruding surfaces , a process he found " overwhelming " but akin to playing with Lego blocks . In their workflow , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement . The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .
The game came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics , with " secret passages , warp gates , and cheat codes " . Fish cited Myst as an inspiration and compared its open world , nonlinear narrative , and " obtuse metapuzzles " to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an " almost unfairly hard to get ... second set of collectibles " . He was also inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games of his youth ( particularly those of the Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda series ) , Hayao Miyazaki 's signature " open blue sky " , " feel @-@ good " atmosphere , and Fumito Ueda 's Ico . Fish sought to emulate Ico 's feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness , and Ueda 's development philosophy wherein all nonessential game elements are removed ( " design by subtraction " ) . Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on " established mechanics " . As such , Fez was always a peaceful game that never contained an antagonist .
= = Music = =
Rich Vreeland , also known as Disasterpeace , composed the game 's chiptune @-@ esque electronic soundtrack . Despite his background in chiptune , Vreeland limited his use of that genre 's mannerisms in the score . He worked with soft synth pads and reverb to push the score closer to an 1980s synthesizer sound . He also reduced reliance on percussion and incorporated distortion techniques like bitcrushing and wow . Vreeland opted for slower passages with varying tempos that could " ebb , flow , and breathe with the player " . He left some portions of Fez without music . Vreeland worked on its soundtrack at night for about 14 months while scoring Shoot Many Robots , and Brandon McCartin of Aquaria contributed the game 's sound effects .
Vreeland 's first composition for the game ( " Adventure " ) became the soundtrack 's first track . He wrote it after meeting Bédard but before discussing the soundtrack with Fish , and based the composition on Fez audio created prior to his arrival . Vreeland wanted to use tape recorders for their distinctive sound , but potential audio synching issues with this method led him to employ digital recording . Portions of the soundtrack dynamically change between several dozen constituent elements and react to the game environment . For example , the " Puzzle " track 's elements change musical key based on the in @-@ game time of day . Certain tracks were intended to imitate real @-@ world sounds , such as those of bats , thunderstorms , taiko , and water falling from stalactites . Other tracks expanded from improvisations . Vreeland was also inspired by the Lord of the Rings Shire theme , 1980s horror media , the soundtrack of demoscene game Jasper 's Journeys , the Legend of Zelda dungeon music , the Mass Effect soundtrack , Tangerine Dream , and Steve Reich . " Continuum " is a synthesized rendition of Frédéric Chopin 's Prelude , Op. 28 , No. 4 . Instruments used in recording include the Sonic Charge Synplant , minimoog , " synthetic flute " , and Boomwhacker .
The soundtrack was released in a digital format on April 20 , 2012 . Pre @-@ orders for the soundtrack topped the Bandcamp charts . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku wrote that Fez 's sound effects evoked Jim Guthrie 's Superbrothers : Sword & Sworcery EP audio . Joshua Kopstein of The Verge called the work " fantastic " and described it as a cross between a " 1980s Vangelis synth odyssey " and a submerged vinyl record from an arcade . Game Informer 's Matt Miller wrote that the soundtrack contributed to Fez 's " 80s nostalgia vibe " . Eurogamer described the music as " lush , spooky , and electrifying " , and Edge compared it to " Holst put through a Mega Drive " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer wrote that the music matched the game 's themes of " hidden depth " . Welsh heard influences of 1960s English psychedelia ( Pink Floyd , Soft Machine ) , 1970s Krautrock ( Tangerine Dream and Kraftwerk ) , 1980s synth ( Jean Michel Jarre , Vangelis ) , and Erik Satie . He added that the soundtrack 's contribution to Fez was " incalculable " . Damian Kastbauer of Game Developer used Vreeland 's soundtrack to show that a retrogaming aesthetic in sound and visuals could be both " futuristic and nostalgic " and provide the " right ' voice ' to support the game 's design intentions " .
Game Developer listed Vreeland in their 2012 Power 50 for his work on the soundtrack , which they described as " atmospheric , pensive , and maybe even a little bit melancholy " . In keeping with Fez 's theme of secrets , images visible only through spectrogram were embedded into the soundtrack audio . Vreeland released a remix album , FZ : Side F , a year later on April 20 , 2013 . It features tracks from other artists , including Jim Guthrie . Vreeland later released another remix album , FZ : Side Z , and all three albums were included in the August 2013 Game Music Bundle 5 .
= = Reception = =
Reviews upon Fez 's original release were " generally favorable " , according to review aggregator Metacritic . Later releases received " universal acclaim " . Each release was consistently among the top @-@ rated releases for each platform 's year . GameRankings ranks Fez within its top 100 highest @-@ rated Xbox 360 games , top 20 PC games , and top 20 PlayStation 4 games . While in development , Fez had won the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Seumas McNally Grand Prize , the 2011 Indiecade Best in Show and Best Story / World Design , the 2011 Fantastic Arcade Audience Choice Award , and the 2008 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Visual Art . Eurogamer gave Fez their highest rating and named the " perfect , wordless sci @-@ fi parable " their 2012 Game of the Year . Digital Spy listed Fez eighth in its Best Games of 2012 , ahead of high @-@ budget games like Call of Duty : Black Ops 2 and Halo 4 . Fez was chosen as the 2012 game of the year by Diamond Trust of London developer Jason Rohrer and Halo 4 lead game designer Scott Warner . The Windows PC port was Metacritic 's tenth best @-@ reviewed video game of 2013 .
The New York Times called Fez Fish 's " tribute to 1980s gaming ... lovingly , almost excessively , devoted to the golden age of Nintendo " . Arthur Gies of Polygon described its aesthetics as " so retro it hurts " , citing its pixelated look , chiptune soundtrack , and ways of clueing the player without explicit guidance . Gies felt that though " 8 @-@ bit nostalgia " was outmoded , Fez showed an understanding of its influences and was the " most authentic " of the style . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com called the game 's minimalism " admirable " and likened its art style to that of Cave Story . Kotaku described Fez 's nostalgic manner as " the video game aesthetic " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer lamented how " retro pixel art " became an indie game cliché during the game 's development , but felt that Fez transcended such stereotypes through its dedication to the wonderment of early Nintendo titles . " Fish clearly worships the Nintendo of his boyhood " , he wrote . Welsh likened Fez to a 1970s , peace @-@ loving , surrealist version of 2001 : A Space Odyssey as imagined by Shigeru Miyamoto , and foresaw its social status as " the darling of a certain indie clique " with " studied hipster cool " . Edge described the game as " a place built from gaming 's history " , whose playfulness makes it " an unexpected heir to Super Mario Bros. " with levels like well @-@ crafted toys , and IGN 's video review said the game " drags the 8 @-@ bit era into the future " .
Journalists likened Fez 's rotation mechanic to the 2D – 3D shifts of games like Echochrome , Super Paper Mario , and Crush . Early in development , Fish himself said that the idea is " nothing mind @-@ blowing " and that the game could have been made " at any point in the last 15 years " . Polygon 's Gies preferred how Echochrome used the perspective mechanic , and Tom McShea of GameSpot considered Fez 's mechanic a gimmick . Matt Miller of Game Informer thought that Fez realized the mechanic 's potential better than other perspective @-@ shifting games , and further commended Fez 's puzzle design and pacing up until the endgame . Miller also compared its story to that of the novella Flatland , whose protagonist similarly discovers the complexities of another dimension . 1UP.com 's Parish said that Fez 's rotation mechanic was deeper than that of Super Paper Mario and not as dependent on M. C. Escher themes as Echochrome . Edge felt that the mechanic was " far less self @-@ conscious " and " more harmonious " than in Endochrome and Crush . The magazine wrote that Fez 's indoor puzzles were its best . Eurogamer 's Welsh compared the game 's " wraparound platforming " to the 1980s game Nebulus and described the rotation mechanic as among the console generation 's " most unusual technical challenges " .
Reviewers commended the game 's emphasis on discovery and freedom , but found its reliance on backtracking , particularly in the endgame , tedious . Parish of 1UP.com wrote that open @-@ world action games like Metroid Prime all have these issues . Edge compared Fez 's esoteric tricks to an older age of game development that packed games with Easter eggs , secrets , and codes , citing titles such as Exile and Jet Set Willy . The magazine also came to appreciate the 3D map . IGN 's Mitch Dyer contrasted the game 's riddles to the Metal Gear Solid codec frequency puzzle . Jeffrey Matulef of Eurogamer related his experience to the feeling of first playing the 1994 Myst , and The New York Times called Fez " a Finnegans Wake of video games " for its codebreaking that " makes the player feel like John Nash as portrayed by Russell Crowe in A Beautiful Mind " . Game Informer recommended Fez for completionists who seek challenges . Polygon 's Gies was uncertain as to whether the game 's technical frame rate issues were intentional , and described this dilemma as having a " certain genius " . Other reviewers noted its technical faults : Game Informer as minor , and 1UP.com as " easily the glitchiest game I 've played on my 360 " .
Fez sold 20 @,@ 000 copies in its first day , 100 @,@ 000 in less than two months , 200 @,@ 000 within a year , and , after the Humble Bundle , one million by the end of 2013 . It was Xbox Live 's 13th best @-@ selling Arcade title of 2012 . Fez was cited as an inspiration for 2014 indie games Monument Valley , Crossy Road , and Secrets of Rætikon .
= = Sequel = =
Fez 2 was announced as " one more thing " at end of the Horizon indie game press conference during the June 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo . The project was cancelled a month later following a Twitter argument between Fish and a video game journalist . In an episode of Marcus Beer 's GameTrailers show Invisible Walls , the journalist criticized Fish 's response to questions about Microsoft 's Xbox One self @-@ publishing policy change . Fish replied on Twitter with condemnation for the industry 's negativity , and announced Fez 2 's cancellation and his exit from the industry in a final tweet . The news came as a surprise to the rest of his company , which has not commented on upcoming projects other than ports since the sequel 's cancellation . Polygon listed Fish in their top 50 newsmakers of 2013 for the social power of his " caustic use of Twitter " .
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= Motte v Faulkner =
Motte v Faulkner ( decided 28 November 1735 ) was a copyright lawsuit between Benjamin Motte and George Faulkner over who had the legal rights to publish the works of Jonathan Swift in London . This trial was one of the first to test the Statute of Anne copyright law in regards to Irish publishing independence . Although neither held the copyright to all of Swift 's works , the suit became a legal struggle over Irish rights , which were eventually denied by the English courts . Faulkner , in 1735 , published the Works of Jonathan Swift in Dublin . However , a few of the works were under Motte 's copyright within the Kingdom of Great Britain , and when Faulkner sought to sell his book in London , Motte issued a formal complaint to Jonathan Swift and then proceeded to sue Faulkner . An injunction was issued in Motte 's favor , and the book was prohibited from being sold on British soil . The basis of the law protected the rights of the author , and not the publisher , of the works , and Swift was unwilling to support a lawsuit against Faulkner . With Swift 's reaction used as a basis , the lawsuit was later seen as a struggle between the rights of Irishmen to print material that were denied under English law .
= = Background = =
= = = Benjamin Motte = = =
Motte was a London publisher who took over Benjamin Tooke 's publishing business , which printed many of Swift 's earlier works . In 1726 , Swift sent Motte a copy of Gulliver 's Travels to be printed anonymously . Motte took great care to protect the identity of the author , and employed five publishing houses to speed production of the book and avoid unlicensed copying . In 1727 , Motte formed his first direct contract with Swift in order to publish Swift 's Miscellanies . As part of the contract , Motte paid Tooke for the original copyright to the work .
= = = George Faulkner = = =
Faulkner 's Dublin Journal , a newspaper established in 1725 , featured many articles written by Swift or inspired by writings of Swift . Between 1727 and 1730 , Faulkner published many works attributed to Swift , but many were actually written by others . After 1730 , only one of those works printed by Faulkner under Swift 's name turned out to be written by someone besides Swift , which suggests to some critics that Swift was working with Faulkner to ensure that only authentic works were printed under Swift 's name . He was the first to publish The Answer to the Craftsman , Swift 's final defense of the Irish economy from England 's policies . Faulkner was also the first to publish the collected Drapier 's Letters as Fraud Detected on 2 October 1725 . Faulkner also helped edit An Epistle upon an Epistle around December 1729 .
= = The case = =
On 14 August 1725 , Swift wrote to Charles Ford that his work , Gulliver 's Travels , was finished , however , he soon added a scene referring to the Drapier 's Letters . Swift wrote , in a letter to Pope , " a printer shall be found brave enough to venture his ears " . The printer Swift found was Benjamin Motte , and Swift did not control the publication in order to , as some critics say , preserve his anonymity .
Although Swift found Motte willing to print the work , he was not willing to print Swift 's additional scene . Swift 's lack of control over the publication lead to Swift complaining of " mangled and murdered Pages " . This was one of many reasons that Swift turned from Motte as his printer and sought a printer willing to produce his complete works without content removal . On 9 October 1733 , Swift wrote : " Now , you may please to remember how much I complained of Motts suffering some friend of his ( I suppose it was Mr Took a Clergy @-@ man now dead ) not onely to blot out some things that he thought might give offence , but to insert a good deal of trash contrary to the Author 's manner and Style , and Intention . "
Three editions of Gulliver 's Travels were produced in London during 1726 and a " corrected " edition of Motte 's works were printed by John Hyde in Dublin . Although Herbert Davis thought that the Hyde edition would not please Swift , some critics argue that Swift involved himself in helping Hyde make some corrections to the edition that was based on Motte 's London edition . The next year , Risk , Ewing , and Smith printed in Dublin a simple reprint of Motte 's original print with minor corrections . Motte then produced his " second edition " ( his fourth version ) of Gulliver 's Travels in 1727 with many corrections . Many of the corrections of Motte 's later editions were based on Swift 's corrections sent to the printer via letters .
The edition published by Faulkner includes over 500 corrections to the original text , surpassing any other editions . Faulkner 's version also contains over 50 passages that either not present in the original or expanded on from the original text . This has suggested to some critics that the Faulkner edition was a later rework of Gulliver 's Travels and not just a correction to printing related mistakes . The inclusion of these many additions was later seen by critics as part of Swift 's disapproval of Motte 's versions , but others see Motte 's version as being more true to the anti @-@ government spirit of Swift 's work , which confuses Swift 's motivation in allowing Faulkner to reprint the work .
Swift 's other works were previous collected in a four @-@ volume set edited by Alexander Pope called Miscellanies , but Swift wanted to have a " proper " edition of his works . Some critics speculate that Swift turned to having his work printed without public sponsorship because he was afraid of breaking his commitments to Pope and his publisher Motte . Regardless of what Swift may or may not be planning , he wrote to Motte in December 1732 and said : " I have cause to believe that some of our printers will collected all they think to be mine , and print them by subscription , which I will never encourage nor oppose . "
On 9 February 1733 , Faulkner advertised his future publication of Swift 's collected works in four volumes in the Dublin Journal . However , this edition led to controversy , since the London bookseller Benjamin Motte had publication rights , under English copyright law , to many of the works included in Faulkner 's edition . The English , in 1735 , attempted to pass a law that would allow a copyright holder to prohibit works that may violate their copyright , but this law failed to pass through Parliament .
= = The decision = =
Motte , without power to halt the introduction of Faulkner 's work on his own , asked Swift to intervene , but Swift passively refused . Even without the backing of Swift , Motte turned to the English legal system to halt the introduction of Faulkner 's edition . Motte issued a Bill of Complaint and sued under the Statute of Anne , claiming that Faulkner 's publishing of the 1735 Works infringed on his right to publish works like Gulliver 's Travels . The case was heard by the Court of Chancery , and they agreed with Motte in a ruling by Lord Talbot , the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain . In the 28 November 1735 , it was determined Motte could put forth an injunction to the whole of Swift 's works . Although works like the Drapier 's Letters were not under Motte 's copyright and some works were printed before 1709 , Faulkner 's complete work was legally brought to a halt from being published in England .
= = Critical response = =
It is uncertain if Swift allowed Faulkner to publish the works in order to allow an Irish publisher to compete against an English publisher or if Swift had no say in the matter and Faulkner published the works against Swift 's will . In a letter to Motte in May 1736 , Swift did not defend Faulkner 's legal right to publish the works but made sure to admonish the attitude and action of Motte as a publisher for prosecuting Faulkner instead of coming to an agreement that Faulkner would be allowed to reprint the copyrighted material .
However , some critics believe that Swift used the incident to " enlarge the affair into another example of English oppression of the Irish . " Swift wrote in a letter to Motte on 25 May 1736 :
the cruel oppressions of this kingdom by England are not to be borne . You send what books you please hither , and the booksellers here can send nothing to you that is written here . As this is absolute oppression , if I were a bookseller in this town , I would use all the safe means to reprint London books , and run them to any town in England , that I could , because whoever offends not the laws of God , or the country he lives in , commits no sin .... But I am so incensed against the oppresions from England , and have so little regard to the laws they make , that I do , as a clergyman , encourage the merchants both to export wool and woollen manufactures to any country in Europe , or anywhere else , and conceal it from the Custom @-@ house officers , as I would hide my purse from a highwayman , if he came to rob me on the road , although England hath made a law to the contrary ; and so I would encourage our booksellers here to sell your author 's books printed here , and send them to all the towns in England , if I could do it with safety and profit ; because I repeat , it is no offence against God , or the laws of the country I live in .
There is much debate in the academic community on which printer produced the " authoritative " edition of Swift 's works , especially Gulliver 's Travels . Harold Williams was one of the major proponents of the Faulkner edition being " correct " . However , some critics argue that the Faulkner edition was instead a " corrected " edition that added new revisions , and that neither text can truly be called authoritative .
= = Influence = =
In legal terms , the report of Motte v Faulkner of 28 November 1735 is no longer in existence , but was cited in a later legal decisions on copyright issues , such as Miller v Taylor of 1769 which read : " In the case of Motte vs Falkner , 28 November , 1735 an injunction was granted for printing Pope 's and Swift 's Miscellanies . Many of these pieces were published in 1701 , 1702 , 1708 ; and the counsel strongly pressed the objection , as to these pieces . Lord Talbot continued the injunction , as to the whole : and it was acquiesced under . Yet Falknor , the Irish bookseller , was a man of substance ; and the general point was of consequence to him : but he was not advised to litigate further . "
The case Pope v Curll [ 1741 ] refers to the Irish / English aspects of publishing that came up in Motte v Faulkner . Curll claimed his reprinting of a work from a Dublin edition originally made by George Faulkner would , under the Statute of Anne , be lawfully reprinted in England . Lord Hardwicke ruled on the matter , 17 June 1741 , that works first published in Ireland do not allow the publication of works in London if they invalidate the copyright .
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= Battle of Onjong =
The Battle of Onjong ( Korean : 온정리 전투 ) , also known as the Battle of Wenjing ( Chinese : 温井战斗 ; pinyin : Wēn Jǐng Zhàn Dòu ) , was one of the first engagements between Chinese and United Nations forces during the Korean War . It took place around Onjong in present @-@ day North Korea from October 25 to October 29 , 1950 . As the main focus of the Chinese First Phase Campaign , the Chinese 40th Corps conducted a series of ambushes against the Republic of Korea II Corps , effectively destroying the right flank of the United States Eighth Army while stopping the UN advances north toward the Yalu River .
= = Background = =
The Korean War began in June 1950 with the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) of the north attacking the Republic of Korea in the south . The invasion was almost successful in conquering all of the Republic of Korea until the United Nations ( UN ) intervened , sending ground forces into the country under the command of the United States . The UN forces initially experienced early defeats until the Battle of the Pusan Perimeter , where the UN forces reversed North Korea 's momentum . By October 1950 , the KPA was effectively destroyed by the UN forces after the landing at Inchon . Despite the strong objections from the People 's Republic of China on North Korea 's northern border , the US Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel and advanced towards the Sino @-@ Korean border at the Yalu River . As part of the Thanksgiving Offensive to end the war , the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) II Corps , which was composed of the ROK 6th , 7th and 8th Infantry Division , was ordered to attack north towards the Yalu River through the village of Onjong on October 23 , 1950 .
In response to the UN advances , China 's Chairman , Mao Zedong , ordered the People 's Liberation Army 's North East Frontier Force to enter North Korea and engage UN forces under the name People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) . In order to stabilize the rapidly collapsing Korean front and to push back the advancing UN forces , Mao authorized the First Phase Campaign , a bridgehead @-@ building operation with the aim of destroying the ROK II Corps , the vanguard and the right flank of the US Eighth Army , advancing up the along the Taebaek Mountains in the middle of the peninsula . After the Chinese leadership finally settled the issue of armed intervention on October 18 , Mao ordered the PVA to enter Korea on October 19 under strict secrecy .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Locations and terrain = = =
Onjong is a crossroad village located at the lower Ch 'ongch 'on River Valley , 10 mi ( 16 km ) northeast of Unsan . At the east of Onjong stands the town of Huich 'on , the staging area of the ROK II Corps for the Thanksgiving Offensive . To the north , Onjong is linked to the town of Kojang , which is located at 50 mi ( 80 km ) away from the Yalu River . Because of the hilly terrain at the Sino @-@ Korean Border , Onjong is one of the few access points into the Yalu River area . The terrain also limits troop movements while providing ideal grounds for ambushes .
= = = Forces and strategy = = =
On October 24 , the ROK 6th Infantry Division of the ROK II Corps advanced westward from Huich 'on , and Onjong was captured on the same day . From Onjong , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division turned north and advanced towards Kojang , while the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division planned to advance northwest from Onjong towards Pukchin . Because the UN Command expected no opposition from the destroyed KPA , the advances were not coordinated between the UN units . As a result , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment managed to wander into Chinese territory without much opposition , completely oblivious to the new threats surrounding them .
While the Koreans were advancing towards the Yalu River , the Chinese were also trying to deploy their units for the upcoming First Phase Campaign . As the PVA Commander Peng Dehuai scrambled to set up his new command post at Taeyudong , the planned advance by the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment threatened to overrun his position . Without any KPA units nearby to hide the presence of the Chinese , Peng was forced to start the First Phase Campaign early by moving the PVA 40th Corps to intercept the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment near Onjong . On the night of October 24 , the 118th Division of the 40th Corps arrived at its designated blocking position . Meanwhile , the Chinese had set up numerous ambush positions on the ridges overlooking the Onjong @-@ Pukchin road .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial contacts = = =
On the morning of October 25 and with its 3rd Battalion on point , the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment started to advance northwest towards Pukchin . The Koreans soon came under fire 8 mi ( 13 km ) to the west of Onjong . The 3rd Battalion dismounted from their vehicles to disperse what they thought would be a small force of KPA , but the two Chinese regiments on the high ground immediately began pouring heavy fire onto the Korean left , front and right flanks . The 3rd Battalion broke instantly , abandoning most of its vehicles and artillery along the way . About 400 survivors managed to escape the trap and fall back into Onjong .
When the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment learned that the 3rd Battalion was under heavy attack , its 2nd Battalion was moved forward to support the 3rd Battalion while its 1st Battalion was sent back to Onjong . Although the 2nd Battalion was turned back after encountering strong resistances , the South Koreans managed to capture several Chinese prisoners who revealed that there were nearly 10 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers waiting down the road . At the same time , the PVA High Command ordered the PVA 120th Division of the 40th Corps to join the battle while the rest of the 40th Corps was busy setting up roadblocks around Onjong . With all the roadblocks in place by midnight , the PVA 118th Division and one regiment from the PVA 120th Division attacked Onjong on October 26 at 0330 , and the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment was dispersed within 30 minutes . Although Colonel Ham Byung Sun , commander of the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment , managed to rally his troops 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Onjong , the Chinese were still able to penetrate the new position within an hour . At this point not a single company of the regiment was left intact , and the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment ceased to be an organized unit . Approximately 2 @,@ 700 men of the 3 @,@ 100 in the regiment eventually escaped to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . The 3rd Battalion 's Korean Military Advisory Group ( KMAG ) adviser , Lieutenant Glen C. Jones , was among those captured , and he eventually died in a North Korean prison camp . Captain Paul V. S. Liles of the KMAG also fell captive to the Chinese .
= = = Second ambush = = =
The loss of surprise due to the early start of the First Phase Campaign greatly disappointed Mao . Nevertheless , Mao still urged Peng to destroy the South Koreans by baiting them with trapped ROK units . At the same time , Major General Yu Jai Hung , commander of the ROK II Corps , sent the ROK 19th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division ( under Colonel Park Kwang Hyuk ) and the ROK 10th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 8th Infantry Division ( under Colonel Go Geun Hong ) to recapture Onjong and to salvage the lost equipment from the battle . The ROK 7th Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Im Pu Taek , was also ordered to retreat south with the ROK 6th Infantry Division . Hoping to draw the rest of the ROK II Corps into the open , Peng ordered the PVA 118th Division to swing north and to trap the retreating ROK 7th Infantry Regiment , while the PVA 119th and the 120th Division of the 40th Corps would wait to ambush any rescue forces passing through Onjong . On October 27 , the PVA 118th Division isolated the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment by cutting the road between Kojang and Onjong , but the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment did not reach the roadblock due to the lack of fuel . Upon realizing that the ROK II Corps had not fallen for the deception , Peng ordered the 119th and the 120th Divisions to destroy the ROK 10th and 19th Infantry Regiment . On the night of October 28 , the ambush by the two Chinese divisions quickly decimated the advancing ROK regiments at the east of Onjong , and the Chinese roadblocks in the rear areas forced the South Korean soldiers to abandon all vehicles and artillery in order to escape .
The ROK 7th Infantry Regiment had now become the only surviving formation of the ROK 6th Infantry Division , but it too was ambushed by the PVA 118th Division on October 29 20 mi ( 32 km ) south of Kojang . The PVA 118th Division was ordered to wait for reinforcements from the 50th Corps , but the 118th Division attacked alone on the night of October 29 to prevent the Koreans from escaping . After a two @-@ hour battle , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment was forced to disperse with its survivors scattered into the hills . About 875 officers and 3 @,@ 552 other soldiers managed to escape , while Major Harry Fleming of the KMAG was wounded in 15 places and was later captured by the Chinese .
= = Aftermath = =
With the loss of the ROK 6th Infantry Division and the ROK 10th Infantry Regiment from the ROK 8th Infantry Division , the ROK II Corps was decimated , and effectively ceased to be an organized fighting force . This meant the right flank of the US Eighth Army was completely open to the Chinese forces , which were now advancing south to overwhelm the UN forces . Exploiting the situation , the Chinese launched another attack on the now exposed Eighth Army center , resulting in the loss of the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment and the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of Unsan . With the Chinese forces pouring into the rear of the UN lines , the Eighth Army was forced to retreat to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . Only the stubborn defense of Kunu @-@ ri by the US 5th Regimental Combat Team and the ROK 7th Infantry Division on November 4 managed to stop the Chinese advance and prevented a disastrous defeat for the Eighth Army . By November 5 , logistics difficulties forced the Chinese to end the First Phase Campaign .
Although the Chinese were unable to exploit the breakthrough in the UN lines , the weakness of the ROK II Corps on the Eighth Army 's right flank was exposed to the Chinese commanders . During the planning of the Chinese Second Phase Campaign , Peng would again focus his attention towards the ROK II Corps at the Eighth Army 's right flank , resulting in a disastrous defeat for the UN forces at the Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River . To commemorate this battle as China 's official entry into the Korean War , October 25 is currently the War to Resist America and Aid Korea Memorial Day in China .
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= S / O Satyamurthy =
S / O Satyamurthy ( read as Son of Satyamurthy ) is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film directed by Trivikram Srinivas and produced by S. Radha Krishna for Haarika & Haasine Creations . It features an ensemble cast of Allu Arjun , Upendra , Samantha Ruth Prabhu , Sneha , Adah Sharma , Nithya Menen , Rajendra Prasad , Brahmanandam and Ali . Prakash Raj makes a cameo appearance as Satyamurthy .
The film revolves around three characters ; the first follows his heart , the second uses his brain and the third uses his brawn . The first is Viraj Anand , the son of a billionaire named Satyamurthy , who gives his money to creditors after his father 's death . A creditor still owed money is Paida Sambasiva Rao ( the second of the three ) , whose daughter Sameera falls in love with Anand . Sambasiva Rao informs Anand that he has to produce documentation of land sold by Satyamurthy to a landlord , Devaraj Naidu ( the third of the three ) to marry Sameera . The rest of the film focuses on the consequences faced by Anand and Sambasiva Rao 's change in viewpoint toward Satyamurthy .
In addition to directing the film , Srinivas wrote its screenplay . Initially planned as a multilingual film shot in Tamil , Malayalam and Telugu , the producers filmed in Telugu and dubbed it into Malayalam with the same title . Devi Sri Prasad composed the score and Prasad Murella was its cinematographer . Production began on 10 April 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad . Principal photography began on 22 September 2014 in Hyderabad , lasting until mid @-@ March 2015 . Except for three songs filmed in Europe , the rest of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad .
The Telugu version was released worldwide on 1375 screens on 9 April 2015 to a lukewarm response , and the Malayalam version was released on 24 April 2015 . On a ₹ 400 – 500 @-@ million budget , S / O Satyamurthy earned a distributor share of ₹ 519 million and grossed ₹ 905 million . The film was an above average grosser based on the return on the distributors ' investment of ₹ 540 million . It is in seventh place on the all @-@ time list of highest @-@ grossing Telugu films at the global box office . With this film , Allu Arjun became the first Telugu actor with two consecutive films earning more than ₹ 500 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Narrator Viraj Anand is the younger son of Satyamurthy , a billionaire businessman who dies in an accident . Although Anand has ₹ 3 billion worth of property and stock which is worthless , he owes an equal amount . Paida Sambasiva Rao , one of Satyamurthy 's creditors , suggests that Anand file for bankruptcy to protect his wealth but Anand wants to preserve his father ’ s image . Anand 's older brother becomes mentally unstable and , at Sambasiva Rao 's advice , the father of Anand 's fiancée Pallavi cancels their upcoming wedding . Anand and his family move to a simpler home in Hyderabad , and he becomes the family 's sole breadwinner . He joins his friend 's event @-@ management company as a wedding planner , and his assistant Parandhamaiah goes with him .
Anand is assigned to plan a destination wedding at Ooty , which turns out to be Pallavi 's . There he meets Sameera ( also known as Subbalakshmi ) , a diabetic , with whom he eventually falls in love . While planning Pallavi 's marriage Anand faces many difficulties , including an attempt by Pallavi 's uncle and his son to stop the marriage because of her father 's mistreatment . Pallavi 's father and uncle reconcile , and Anand is paid more than the agreed amount in gratitude . Sameera turns out to be Sambasiva Rao 's daughter and objects to their marriage , saying that Satyamurthy cheated him when he sold an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 740 m2 ) property illegally acquired by landlord Devaraj Naidu . The current market value of the land is half billion rupees . Sambasiva Rao tells Anand that he will agree to the marriage if Anand can deliver the land documents from Devaraj in four weeks .
Anand and Parandhamaiah set out for house number 6 in Reddiarpatti to exchange the original documents for fake ones . Instead they end up in house number 9 and reveal their intentions to Devaraj , who traps them without harm ; Devaraj cannot hurt anyone in front of his wife , Lakshmi , from whom he has hidden his true self for twenty years . Sambasiva Rao 's family is kidnapped and brought to Devaraj 's house ; the next day Anand saves Devaraj from the brother ( Kumarasamy Naidu , Devaraj 's henchman since five years ) of his rival , Veerasamy Naidu . Impressed , Devaraj agrees to return the land documents if Anand becomes engaged to his sister Valli . However , Valli wants to marry Lakshmi 's brother and threatens to kill Anand if he does not break their engagement .
Valli teases Sameera , acting as if she is in love with Anand ( which makes Devaraj happy ) . Devaraj 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Koda Rambabu goes to Reddiarpatti , mistakenly believing that Parandhamaiah is Sameera 's lover and Valli 's potential lover . He wants to stop the marriage , and at Anand 's suggestion Rambabu and Sambasiva Rao ask Veerasamy to have his henchmen kill the bridegroom ; this would stop the marriage on the last day of the four @-@ week deadline imposed by Sambasiva Rao . Although Anand plans to help Valli elope with her cousin , Veerasamy 's henchmen mistake him for Anand and try to kill him . Devaraj and Anand save her cousin ; when Devaraj tries to kill Rambabu , Anand says that he was the mastermind behind the plan and wants the real land documents .
Nine minutes are left before Sambasiva Rao 's deadline ; as Anand and Devaraj duel , Anand 's mother enters . Devaraj and his family are shocked , remembering that Satyamurthy was fatally injured when he saved Valli from an accident planned by Veerasamy . Before he died , Satyamurthy told Valli that he made a mistake selling illegally @-@ acquired land to his friend and wants to rectify it with the landlord . Devaraj and Sambasiva Rao are full of remorse , and Devaraj returns the land documents to Anand in accordance with Satyamurthy 's last wish . Anand gives the papers to Sambasiva Rao , who apologises for his behaviour . Veerasamy dies in an accident , and Koda Rambabu is spared .
Anand and Sambasiva Rao are on their way home with their families when Pallavi 's father meets them with news that the market value of Anand 's stock is now worth hundred million rupees . An emotional Anand thanks his father at the spot where Satyamurthy saved Valli 's life .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Trivikram Srinivas planned to direct Allu Arjun in a film produced by S. Radha Krishna for Haarika & Haasine Creations ( who produced their 2012 collaboration Julai ) , since Srinivas had committed to another film with them . Allu Aravind was later rumoured to co @-@ produce of the film as Geetha Arts . The film 's pooja ceremony was held at Radha Krishna 's office in early December 2013 , and filming was expected to begin in February 2014 . Rumors that the film was shelved were denied by a film @-@ unit source , who said that Srinivas ' screenplay was nearly complete . Devi Sri Prasad was chosen to compose the score and Prawin Pudi was signed as the film editor , marking Pudi 's fifth collaboration with Srinivas .
The film was officially launched at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad on 10 April 2014 . In June , the film 's title was rumoured to be Kavacham . After considerable discussion , the producers reportedly tentatively planned to name the film Trisulam ( also the title of a 1982 Telugu film starring Krishnam Raju and Sridevi ) . Agreements between the principals of both films were reportedly signed in early November 2014 . Radhakrishna denied the reports , saying that the film 's title would be announced in early December 2014 with its preview . Trivikram reportedly considered the title Hushaaru in mid @-@ January 2015 . Another title under consideration was Jaadugar , earlier used for a 1989 Hindi film starring Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Prada .
The producers reportedly dropped the first two titles after poor feedback , and Jaadugar was expected to be chosen ; S / O Krishnamurthy was also considered . S / O Satyamurthy ( read as Son of Satyamurthy ) was confirmed as the film 's title on 6 March 2015 in a press release from the producers . The film was initially planned for simultaneous release in Telugu , Tamil and Malayalam . A dubbed Kannada version , along with Tamil and Malayalam , later was planned because of Upendra and Allu Arjun 's popularity in Karnataka .
Although the dubbed Malayalam version was also entitled S / O Satyamurthy , the dubbed Tamil and Kannada versions were scrapped for fiscal reasons and it was released in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka with English subtitles . Arjun began dubbing his role in early January , and post @-@ production was scheduled to resume in late February . The actor resumed dubbing on 7 March , after returning from Spain .
= = = Casting = = =
Allu Arjun was part of the project since its initial stages in early November 2013 . Samantha Ruth Prabhu was cast as one of the film 's heroines , her first collaboration with Arjun . S / O Satyamurthy has three female leads ; although Arjun initially denied this , Srinivas confirmed that the film has three heroines . Kriti Sanon was rumoured to be one of the three female leads , although she later denied it . Adah Sharma and Pranitha Subhash were cast as the other two female leads , after Regina Cassandra , Nayantara and Rashi Khanna were considered for Subhash 's role . Subhash was later replaced by Nithya Menen because of conceptual differences with Srinivas , although she later said that she never signed for the film and reports that she had walked out were rumours .
Rao Ramesh was cast in a crucial role . Although Arjun Sarja was reported to be the film 's antagonist in mid @-@ August 2014 , Sarja later confirmed that he was not part of the project due to other commitments . Sneha confirmed in mid @-@ September 2014 that she had an important role in the film . Upendra and Rajendra Prasad were said to play important roles in the film , and Upendra later confirmed his inclusion . Vennela Kishore and Surekha Vani were selected to play supporting roles . Kota Srinivasa Rao was cast at the end of November 2014 , and Mamilla Shailaja Priya was cast in a supporting role .
Supporting character actor M. S. Narayana died after most of his portions in the film was completed . Although Srinivas decided not to delete any of his scenes , he faced a dilemma : whether to use a double or make do with what they had . After evaluating many mimics , Srinivas and Arjun reportedly decided to use Siva Reddy to flesh out Narayana 's role . Sampath Raj was cast in early February 2015 .
= = = Characters = = =
S / O Satyamurthy was considered an image makeover for Arjun . Although his character 's name ( Viraj Anand ) was intended for another role in the film , he requested Srinivas to use the name for the titular character 's son . Arjun learned flips , somersaults and other gymnastic skills to perform his stunts . He , his brother Allu Sirish and stylist Ashwin bought his costumes in Dubai , and he lost 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) with a special diet and gym workouts . Sneha was rumoured to play Arjun 's sister @-@ in @-@ law .
Upendra was confirmed in a role paralleling Arjun 's in the film , and Sharma reportedly wore a traditional attire to suit her role . Sharma 's character was revealed to be unstable , while Arjun 's character was nuanced ; he was confirmed as an event manager in late October 2014 . Nithya Menen would reportedly play a negative role as Upendra 's sister in the film . About Arjun 's look , stylist Ashwin said it would reflect the current fashion trends in Milan , Paris and London ( incorporating pieces from the autumn @-@ winter 2014 and spring @-@ summer 2015 collections ) .
Ashwin said that they shopped in Dubai because Arjun wanted to select his costumes , and the European capitals at that time had only winter collections . Arjun would have several hairstyles in the film . Upendra 's role was reported to be a Tamil living in Madurai , and he was confirmed as the landlord at the end of January 2015 . He was not included in the film 's promotional activities since Srinivas did not want to reveal what he considered a crucial character . The way Kamal Haasan and Wasim Akram handled diabetes in real life inspired Srinivas to make Samantha 's character diabetic in the film . Samantha was comfortable in the role , since she too had been diagnosed with the disease two years earlier .
Prakash Raj had a limited role , since Srinivas wanted to tell the story of a father by not showing him but instead showing his son 's love and his influence on his life . The death of Sampath Raj was an accident because Srinivas did not believe in killing his antagonists directly , but to have them die as a result of their mistakes . Srinivas added that his death was planned so the film would have a good ending .
= = = Filming = = =
In early December 2013 it was announced that filming would begin the following February , after Arjun finished Race Gurram . At the end of March 2014 , shooting was postponed to the following month and it was later announced that filming would start during the third week of April . In June , filming was again postponed to the following month , when Arjun was scheduled to finish Rudramadevi ; he completed the film on 30 July .
Principal photography began on 22 September at a Hyderabad @-@ based shopping mall . Samantha arrived at the set on 1 October 2014 , after completing Kaththi , and Sharma joined the production unit five days later . A week @-@ long shooting schedule planned at Ooty for scenes with Arjun , Upendra , Samantha and Sneha was disrupted because of unrest in Tamil Nadu due to Jayalalithaa 's conviction , and the scenes were filmed near Shamshabad in Hyderabad . Art director Ravinder built a large outdoor set for the destination @-@ wedding scene , with flowers flown in from Bangkok .
A fight scene with Arjun was shot at Ramoji Film City under the supervision of Peter Hein . A residential set was built at a cost of ₹ 30 million by Ravinder in Kokapet , where scenes with Brahmanandam and Srinivasa Rao were filmed in late November 2014 . The Kokapet set , of a Tamil house in Madurai , required three truckloads of trees from a farmhouse in Kadiam ( near Rajahmundry ) and materials from Delhi and Chennai . For the set , Srinivas and Ravinder travelled to a small city near Madurai and researched houses . By then , filming was nearly complete and the producers confirmed that the dialogue would be finished by the end of November and the songs shot the following month .
Filming was suspended because of a strike by Film Federation employees and the Memu Saitham Cyclone Hudhud relief fundraiser at Visakhapatnam . The strike was called off , and shooting resumed on 6 December . When Upendra finished his first shooting schedule for the film , he returned to the set of Uppi 2 on 10 December . In addition to Arjun 's action sequences , Some more scenes were filmed at Ramoji Film City . Comedy sequences featuring Arjun and Samantha were shot at Hyderabad in late December .
Arjun spent the New Year with his wife and son in South Africa , and was scheduled to return to the set during the second week of January 2015 . The final shooting schedule began on 6 January in Hyderabad . Additional filming of action and romantic scenes began on 20 January . S / O Satyamurthy 's climactic scenes were filmed on the Kokapet house set in late January .
Shooting was scheduled to continue there until the first week of February , when the dialogue would be completed . A fight scene with Arjun and hundreds of other fighters was filmed in early February , and Upendra returned to the Hyderabad set for his scenes . A song , choreographed by Shekhar and featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen , was filmed on the Kokapet house set in late February . The film unit then went to Spain to film three songs also featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen , returning on 6 March . S / O Satyamurthy 's principal photography completed when the last song ( choreographed by Jani and featuring Arjun , Samantha and Sharma ) was filmed on 11 March 2015 in a specially erected set at Annapurna Studios .
= = Themes and influences = =
Although S / O Satyamurthy was reportedly about a conflict between two families , according to Upendra it revolves around three characters : one who follows his heart , a second who uses his brain and a third who uses his brawn . The characters are a wedding planner ( Arjun ) , a wealthy businessman ( Prasad ) and a boss ( Upendra ) . Srinivas told the Indo @-@ Asian News Service that his film would highlight a father 's role in a person 's life , because more films dramatise relationships with mothers . S / O Satyamurthy has urban and rural settings similar to the director 's previous film , Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) .
The film refers to situations in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in the lives of Rama , Sita , Ravana , Yudhishthira and Karna and to the dowry system . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote in her review that the film " attempts to break away from staid portrayal of women and notions of machismo in Telugu cinema " . Upendra 's character wants his wife to be happy , and hides his dark side from her ; Samantha 's character is diabetic , and the wall full of post @-@ it notes in Rajendra Prasad 's house illustrate marriages where communication has broken down . Dundoo notes lines of dialogue which " scoff " at people who call a girl unlucky if her engagement is broken .
For the scenes between M. S. Narayana and Rao Ramesh , Srinivas was inspired by his mother 's maternal uncles in the village of Vegeswarapuram in West Godavari district . In an interview , the director said that the screenplay was based on situations faced by people close to him and how they handled them .
= = Soundtrack = =
Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack album and background score for S / O Satyamurthy . Folk singer Raghu Dixit made his Telugu cinema debut as a playback singer , saying on 4 February 2015 that he had recorded a song for the film . The soundtrack was scheduled to be released on 14 March , with Pawan Kalyan and Mahesh Babu the expected guests of honour at the release party . In late February 2015 , Prasad wrote and recorded a song . Aditya Music acquired the soundtrack 's marketing rights , and the seven @-@ track list was released on 14 March 2015 . The soundtrack was released the following day at the Hotel Novotel in Hyderabad . The soundtrack 's success was celebrated on 6 April 2015 at at Haailand , Vijayawada .
= = Release = =
S / O Satyamurthy 's release date was originally scheduled for 5 February 2015 in late November 2014 , and was later postponed to 2 April ( after the 2015 Cricket World Cup ) due to post @-@ production delays . After the film 's review by the censors on 30 March 2015 , its release date was rescheduled for 9 April .
S / O Satyamurthy was one of the rare Telugu films to be released in Tamil Nadu with English subtitles . The film was confirmed for release on 100 screens across Karnataka , at the same time as Dheera Rana Vikrama . Its global screen count was 1375 , the largest Telugu film release of the year ; however , it did not break the record 1450 screens set by 2014 's Aagadu . S / O Satyamurthy 's dubbed Malayalam version was released on 24 April .
= = = Distribution = = =
S / O Satyamurthy 's overseas theatrical rights were sold to Classics Entertainment for an undisclosed sum in late October 2014 , and days later its Karnataka rights were also sold for an undisclosed price . Dil Raju acquired the Nizam regional rights for ₹ 140 million , one of the highest prices paid for Nizam rights to a film . Bhopal Reddy acquired the Karnataka regional distribution rights for ₹ 60 million . The film 's theatrical rights were sold for a total of ₹ 540 million .
= = = Promotion = = =
Sai Gopal , who had assisted Srinivas since Swayamvaram ( 1999 ) , orchestrated S / O Satyamurthy 's promotion . Although the film was expected to preview in December 2014 , its preliminary preview was released on 6 March 2015 ( the night before Holi ) . The preview featured sixteen actors , including the leads ( whose faces were blurred ) , and the film 's logo was muted . In a press release , the producers announced that the film 's promotion would be in full swing at the soundtrack release party , with party passes awarded to those predicting the sixteen actors on the preview poster .
Its 45 @-@ second advance @-@ preview video was released on 7 March , receiving a good response on YouTube ( where it was viewed by more than 300 @,@ 000 people within 12 hours of its release ) . The film 's logo was disclosed the following day . Thirty @-@ one @-@ second 2D and 3D motion posters featuring Arjun , created by Prawin Pudi and designed by Siva Kiran of Working Title , were released on 9 March and two preview posters of Arjun were distributed the following day .
S / O Satyamurthy 's 27 @-@ second trailer was released on 11 March ; two posters featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen in Spain were distributed the following day , and a poster of Arjun was released on 14 March . The theatrical trailer had more than one million views on one YouTube channel in three and a half days , a record . The trailer for a promotional song with Arjun and Prasad was released on 28 March , and the song itself was released on 1 April at 11 : 00 pm IST . Arjun promoted the film 's dubbed Malayalam version at the Lulu Mall in Cochin on 21 April .
= = = Home media = = =
MAA TV acquired the film 's broadcast @-@ television rights for ₹ 95 million . S / O Satyamurthy had its global television premiere on 15 July 2015 at 6 p.m. IST .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
S / O Satyamurthy had a lukewarm reception from critics , with the International Business Times calling the film a " mass entertainer " and criticising its predictability and length . According to Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu , " We ’ ve seen enough films with characters placed in the villain ’ s den . Thankfully , the drama is lively and fun moments come through Ali and Brahmanandam . Allu Arjun shoulders the film with his remarkable performance and seems to be getting better with each film . The film ’ s biggest undoing is its length . A trimmer version would be far more engaging " . Pranitha Jonnalagedda of The Hans India wrote , " No denying that there are moments of crazy laughter , witty remarks and some thought provoking words , but Trivikram ’ s benchmark is set so high that the writing of this film doesn ’ t excite us enough . All said and done , if you are a lover of a Telugu cinema who enjoys watching the hero being the Good Samaritan and fancy a few tear @-@ jerking moments , this film is definitely for you ! " IndiaGlitz gave S / O Satyamurthy 3 @.@ 25 out of five stars , calling the film a " family entertainer sans memorable heroism " and adding that its second half " will work with a good many number of audience " . Madhavi Tata of Outlook India gave the film three out of five stars , writing that Trivikram 's screenplay " has too many sub @-@ plots , but the dialogues sparkle , especially when mouthed by veteran actors " . Tata called the film 's humour a " big draw " , with the best saved for Brahmanandam . Hemanth Kumar of The Times of India gave S / O Satyamurthy three out of five stars , writing that the film " works well as an idea , and leaves you with enough questions and thoughts to reflect upon your own life , but as a cinematic experience , it leaves a lot to be desired " . Pravallika Anjuri of Oneindia also gave the film three out of five stars , calling it a " perfect entertainer " despite being the " weakest work of Trivikram till date " : " Nevertheless it is shall be a great fun to watch Son Of Satyamurthy along with your family . Cut down the expectations and you will definitely love the movie " . Behindwoods gave it 2 @.@ 75 out of five stars : " Without a concrete villain , [ the film ] still manages to tell us the painful journey of the hero . Thanks to the powerful and meaningful dialogues in the voice @-@ over , [ the film ] becomes a charming drama " , calling it a " family drama that also entertains " and " another winner for the Trivikram @-@ Allu Arjun combo " .
Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave S / O Satyamurthy 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " Trivikram has continued the Attarintiki Daredi trend of rich @-@ kid @-@ giving @-@ up @-@ luxuries in this film too . But , the hallmark of the director is missing from this movie . The punch dialogues associated with his films are missing and the screenplay is so @-@ so " . Karthik Keramalu of CNN @-@ IBN also gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it an " inconsistent drama with over @-@ the @-@ top action and a grand message " and adding : " If only the screenplay had matched the quality of Allu Arjun 's style , which is impeccably taken care of , Trivikram would have won the S / O Satyamurthy lottery " . IANS gave S / O Satyamurthy two out of five stars : " While all the quintessential Trivikram trademark moments can be found in S / O Satyamurthy , what you miss is the magic he created in his career 's best film Athadu " , adding that the film is a " predictable and sloppy family drama with a few high and mostly low moments " .
= = = Box office = = =
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 205 million on its first day at the global box office , the third @-@ highest opening @-@ day gross in the history of Telugu cinema . The film also had the best opening @-@ day gross of Arjun 's film career , breaking records set by 2014 's Race Gurram ( his previous film ) , Temper and Gopala Gopala . Trade analyst Trinath told IANS that the film grossed ₹ 335 million in two days at the global box office , the biggest opening of the year to date . S / O Satyamurthy earned ₹ 269 @.@ 2 million in three days at the global box office . By the end of its first weekend , the film earned ₹ 303 @.@ 1 million and was the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year to date .
Gross earnings for the film 's first weekend were ₹ 483 million . S / O Satyamurthy netted about ₹ 35 million and grossed ₹ 50 million on its fifth day at the global box office , bringing its five @-@ day global gross and net to ₹ 492 @.@ 4 million and ₹ 357 @.@ 4 million . By then , the film had recovered 60 percent of its cost and was third on the list of Telugu films with all @-@ time top first @-@ week worldwide openings , behind Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) and Yevadu ( 2014 ) . S / O Satyamurthy 's earnings dropped sharply on its seventh day , and its seven @-@ day global earnings stood at ₹ 579 million gross and ₹ 369 @.@ 4 million net .
The film crossed the ₹ 40 @-@ crore ( 400 @-@ million ) mark on its eighth day , netting ₹ 432 @.@ 4 million and grossing more than ₹ 600 million in eight days ( recouping over 80 percent of its cost ) . In eleven days , it netted a total of ₹ 425 @.@ 5 million and grossed ₹ 668 @.@ 5 million at the global box office . With consistent weekday performance , the film 's fifteen @-@ day global total gross and net figures were ₹ 713 @.@ 5 million and ₹ 450 @.@ 5 million .
During its third week , S / O Satyamurthy lost a large number of screens to new releases Dohchay , Kai Raja Kai , Aloukika and Avengers : Age of Ultron . The film still performed decently , grossing ₹ 50 @.@ 5 million and netting ₹ 21 @.@ 7 million in three days for an eighteen @-@ day global total gross and net of ₹ 775 million and ₹ 469 @.@ 2 million ( surpassing the lifetime records of Naayak ( 2013 ) , Racha ( 2012 ) , Temper , Eega ( 2012 ) , Govindudu Andarivadele and Gopala Gopala ) . It was the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the global box office . At the end of three weeks , S / O Satyamurthy grossed over ₹ 800 million . Trade analyst Trinath told IANS that the film 's three @-@ week global net was over ₹ 500 million , the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the global box office .
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 905 million and netted a total of ₹ 519 million at the global box office during its full run ; of this , ₹ 507 @.@ 5 million was earned by the Telugu version . Arjun was the first Telugu actor with two consecutive films crossing the ₹ 500 @-@ million mark at the global box office . Bangalore Mirror called S / O Satyamurthy a blockbuster , grossing ₹ 920 million and netting over ₹ 600 million at the global box office during its run .
= = = = India = = = =
The film grossed ₹ 118 @.@ 9 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Telangana box office , ₹ 43 @.@ 5 million in Karnataka and ₹ 6 million in the rest of India on its first day . Early trends suggested that S / O Satyamurthy would net ₹ 85 million in Andhra Pradesh , and the official tally was ₹ 93 @.@ 7 million ; it was the fourth @-@ highest opening @-@ day grossing Telugu film in the state , behind Attarintiki Daredi , Aagadu and Temper . The film earned more than ₹ 29 million at the Bangalore box office , with an 80 @-@ percent occupancy for two days ( the highest of Arjun 's films to date ) . S / O Satyamurthy earned ₹ 72 million in two days at the Karnataka box office .
It earned ₹ 51 @.@ 5 million and ₹ 40 million on its second and third days in Andhra Pradesh / Telangana , bringing its three @-@ day total to ₹ 184 @.@ 2 million . It earned approximately ₹ 25 million in Karnataka , Tamil Nadu , Maharashtra and elsewhere in North India in three days . By the end of its first weekend , S / O Satyamurthy netted ₹ 207 @.@ 1 million , ₹ 35 million and ₹ 10 million in Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and the rest of India respectively . Its first @-@ weekend gross in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana was ₹ 315 million and ₹ 66 million , ₹ 12 million and ₹ 6 million in Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively .
S / O Satyamurthy performed well on its fifth day , earning ₹ 21 @.@ 6 million in Andhra Pradesh for a five @-@ day total of ₹ 228 @.@ 7 million . The film 's sixth @-@ day Andhra Pradesh earnings were ₹ 23 @.@ 8 million , bringing its six @-@ day total in the state to ₹ 252 @.@ 5 million . S / O Satyamurthy was the sixth @-@ highest first @-@ week earning Telugu film in Andhra Pradesh , at ₹ 262 @.@ 4 million . The film earned ₹ 39 million and ₹ 12 million in Karnataka and the rest of India in its first week . Its Karnataka gross was ₹ 47 @.@ 5 million , the highest ever for a Telugu film in the state .
It was the fourth Arjun film to net ₹ 10 million in the Nizam region , after Julai , Iddarammayilatho ( 2013 ) and Race Gurram . In eighteen days , the film netted ₹ 337 @.@ 2 million , ₹ 54 @.@ 5 million , ₹ 6 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 7 @.@ 2 million in AP / Nizam , Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively . During its run S / O Satyamurthy netted ₹ 376 @.@ 5 million , ₹ 58 million , ₹ 6 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 7 @.@ 2 million in AP / Nizam , Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively , ₹ 140 @.@ 5 million in the Nizam region alone .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 37 @.@ 5 million on its first day at the overseas box office . According to Taran Adarsh , the film earned $ 347 @,@ 267 on its Wednesday premiere in the United States and was the second @-@ highest US premiere grosser ( behind Aagadu ) . It earned $ 136 @,@ 168 on Thursday , bringing its two @-@ day US box @-@ office total to $ 483 @,@ 435 ( about ₹ 30 @.@ 1 million ) . S / O Satyamurthy earned $ 233 @,@ 870 on Friday , bringing its three @-@ day US box @-@ office total to $ 720 @,@ 984 ( about ₹ 44 @.@ 9 million ) .
The film passed the million @-@ dollar mark on Sunday , the second Telugu film of 2015 to do so ( after Temper ) . Gross overseas receipts for the first weekend were ₹ 84 @.@ 6 million , with net earnings of ₹ 51 million . The film continued a good run on the international market despite a drop in collections in India , earning ₹ 56 million in eight days .
S / O Satyamurthy lost 60 percent of its screens after the release of OK Bangaram , but ( according to Taran Adarsh ) earned $ 1 @,@ 235 @,@ 073 by 19 April 2015 . It broke the lifetime records of Temper , Gopala Gopala and Govindudu Andarivadele in 11 days , and was the ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the US box office . The film earned ₹ 52 million in the US and ₹ 7 million at the remaining overseas box offices during its run .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Legacy = =
A dialogue from the film , Maa Nanna drushtilo , Bharyante nacchi techukune badhyata , Pillalu moyyalanipinche baruvu . Kani naa drushtilo Nannante marchipoleni gnapakam ( " According to my father , a wife is a voluntary duty and kids are the burden we love to bear . But for me , my father is an unforgettable memory " ) was spoofed by the producers of the film Kobbari Matta in its promotion . Sakshi published a spoof of the film on 19 May 2015 in which Prakash Raj was replaced by Brahmanandam as the protagonist 's father , who tells his son not to follow ethics and values but to give importance only to money .
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= Nicholas Mayall =
Nicholas Ulrich Mayall ( May 9 , 1906 – January 5 , 1993 ) was an American observational astronomer . After obtaining his doctorate from the University of California , Berkeley , Mayall worked at the Lick Observatory , where he remained from 1934 – 1960 , except for a brief period at MIT 's Radiation Laboratory during World War II .
During his time at Lick , Mayall contributed to astronomical knowledge of nebulae , supernovae , spiral galaxy internal motions , the redshifts of galaxies , and the origin , age , and size of the Universe . He played a significant role in the planning and construction of Lick 's 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) reflector , which represented a major improvement over its earlier 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) telescope .
From 1960 , Mayall spent 11 years as director of the Kitt Peak National Observatory until his retirement in 1971 . Under his leadership KPNO , and the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory , developed into two of the world 's top research observatories , equipped with premier telescopes . Mayall was responsible for the construction of the 4 @-@ meter ( 160 in ) Kitt Peak reflector , which was named after him . When Mayall died in 1993 , his ashes were spread high on an empty ridge of Kitt Peak .
= = Early life = =
Mayall 's father , Edwin L. Mayall , Sr. , was an engineer for a manufacturing company in Illinois . His mother , Olive Ulrich Mayall , despite never attending college herself , set high educational standards for Mayall and his younger brother ( Edwin , Jr . , born 1907 ) . Sometime between his brother 's birth and 1913 , the family moved to California 's Modesto area , where Mayall entered first grade . Some time before 1917 , they moved again , to Stockton where they remained until 1924 and Mayall 's graduation from Stockton High School ( except for a brief return to Peoria , Illinois during 1918 – 1919 ) . During this period , presumably during his high school years , Mayall 's parents divorced .
During his senior year , in the fall of 1923 , Mayall was secretary of the school science club and set up a club visit to the Lick Observatory . His father permitted him to use his car , a Moline Knight , to transport the club members up the dirt and gravel winding mountain road leading to the observatory . This was Mayall 's first visit to the observatory where he would spend much of his career . After visiting , he read all the astronomy books available in the local libraries , although he did not at that time imagine making astronomy his profession .
= = Education = =
Mayall began college in the fall of 1924 at the University of California , Berkeley , studying for a degree in mining . He took up residence with his mother in an apartment on Durant Avenue , and worked at the UC Berkeley library to help support them both . Mayall generally did well at university , and was eventually elected to the Sigma Xi and Phi Beta Kappa honor societies . However , at mid @-@ term examinations of his second year , he achieved poor grades in mineralogy and chemistry laboratory . At a meeting with the dean to discuss his grades the latter became aware that Mayall was color blind , which prevented him from observing small color changes in bead and flame tests , and also kept him from seeing small color changes in precipitations and titrations . Mayall 's adviser recommended that he change his major , as he would not be able to graduate as a mining engineer with such a handicap .
Mayall 's mother encouraged him to study whatever interested him the most , and to do it well , so he considered astronomy as an alternative to mining . After asking many professors in the astronomy department whether they enjoyed their work and whether they made a satisfactory wage , and being content with their answers , he transferred to the College of Letters and Science to major in astronomy . This did not set him back in his degree requirements because almost all of his first year studies had been in basic physical sciences and mathematics . Eventually Mayall discovered that he greatly enjoyed astronomy , and decided upon a course of graduate level study followed by a career as a research scientist .
After graduating in 1928 , Mayall decided to remain at Berkeley , as it had the best astronomy graduate program of the day . However , he took a hiatus from pursuing his advanced degree and went to work as a human computer at the Mount Wilson Observatory from 1929 – 1931 , where he assisted luminaries such as Edwin Hubble , Paul W. Merrill , and Milton L. Humason . This activity resulted in him co @-@ authoring papers on Pluto 's mass and orbit with Seth Barnes Nicholson and others , shortly after Pluto 's discovery
Mayall returned to Berkeley in 1931 to pursue graduate studies . His thesis topic , suggested by Hubble , was to count the number of galaxies per unit area on the sky as a function of position on direct plates taken with the Crossley reflector at Lick . This should have supplemented the counts Hubble himself was making using the 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) telescopes at Mt . Wilson . Mayall successfully completed his thesis and was awarded his PhD degree in 1934 . Hubble complimented Mayall for his work , although significant results were never achieved ( nor by Hubble either ) due to the lack of accurate magnitude standards for the faint galaxies that were measured and by the ( then unrealized ) very strong tendency of galaxies to cluster .
While working on his thesis , Mayall had an idea of designing a small , fast slitless spectrograph , optimized for nebulae and galaxies . He believed that if it were used in conjunction with the Crossley reflector it would make that facility competitive for at least some of the work that Humason and Hubble were doing with the larger Mt . Wilson telescopes . It was never expected to compete with the Mt . Wilson 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) instrument for stars or elliptical galaxies , which have condensed and relatively bright nuclei . The spectrograph was to be used instead to study extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness gaseous nebulae or irregular galaxies . Mayall 's thesis advisor , William Hammond Wright , and the then head of the Lick stellar spectroscopy program , Joseph Haines Moore , encouraged him to develop his spectrograph . The device was constructed by the Lick Observatory 's own workshop , and proved to be more efficient for extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness objects , particularly in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum , thus confirming the expectations of Mayall . With Wright 's strong encouragement , Mayall had used fused quartz to make ultraviolet transmitting optics , whereas the Mt . Wilson spectrographs used heavy glass lenses and prisms , which absorb ultraviolet radiation .
= = Lick Observatory = =
While Mayall hoped to join the Mount Wilson team upon earning his doctorate , there were no openings during the Great Depression . Instead , he began his career at Lick , which was afforded by the number two janitor resigning and Mayall being given a one @-@ year position as observing assistant with janitorial duties limited to maintaining the darkrooms and keeping instrument rooms clean . The following year , one of the senior astronomers joined the Berkeley department and his salary was split between Mayall and another young astronomer , Arthur Bambridge Wyse .
On June 30 , 1934 , Mayall married Kathleen ( Kay ) Boxall from Los Angeles , who he had met during his two years in Pasadena . They lived in a small apartment that was part of the little astronomy village on the Mount Hamilton summit , where all Lick astronomers resided at that time .
Using his newly built spectrograph , Mayall was the first to determine the radial velocities of many knots of gas in the Crab Nebula . Using these data and the previously published angular rate of expansion of the nebula , he was able to estimate its distance . Consequently , he became the first person to recognize and demonstrate that the Crab Nebula was the remnant of a supernova observed and recorded in 1054 ( SN 1054 ) , rather than a classical nova . Walter Baade was instrumental in stimulating and counseling Mayall after around 1939 , taking on the role previously filled by Hubble .
In 1941 , together with Arthur Wyse and Lawrence Aller , Mayall studied the rotation of nearby galaxies and found that there was much matter that was too faint to be observed , but which could be detected by way of its gravitational effect . He spent about three years until 1942 researching 50 Milky Way globular clusters , and found the Milky Way had about one half of the mass previously supposed .
While at the Lick Observatory , Mayall collaborated on a 20 @-@ year project with astronomers at Mount Palomar and Mount Wilson on the Big Bang theory of the beginning of the Universe . Together with Milton L. Humason and Allan R. Sandage , he wrote a 1956 paper concluding that the age of the Universe was six billion years ( three times the prior estimate , and about half the modern value ) , and its size three times larger than thought .
= = World War II = =
After the United States entered World War II , Mayall accepted a position at the MIT 's Radiation Laboratory in Cambridge , Massachusetts to work on radar development . He began his work early in 1942 in Cambridge , which was the only time during his adult life that he resided outside California or Arizona . However , the climate of Massachusetts was unlike that of California , which he and his family were accustomed to , and in the middle of 1943 he arranged a transfer to the Pasadena Mt . Wilson Observatory offices . Many wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) projects related to optics , aerial gunnery , aerial photography , and bombing tactics were already in progress there . Unhappy with the management of his project and feeling his talents were not being well used , he transferred again in February 1944 to Caltech to work on the development of large rockets . There he became an expert on high @-@ speed photography , which was used to analyze rocket trajectories . In the spring of 1945 , he was transferred to a secret atomic bomb project that also required high @-@ speed photography . He visited Los Alamos twice , including once around the time of the Trinity test . By October 1 , 1945 , the war had ended and Mayall had returned to astronomical research at Lick .
= = 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope = =
During World War II Mayall became an important influence on Lick Observatory 's future . Ever since 1931 , when he had returned to Lick and Berkley after serving two years as an assistant at Mount Wilson , he had felt strongly that Mount Hamilton required a larger telescope . The astronomers at Lick were proud of their ability to achieve important results with Lick 's small 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley reflector . Its diminutive size first became apparent in 1908 , when Mount Wilson 's 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) telescope saw first light . This was accentuated by the opening of the 72 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in 1917 , and Mount Wilson 's even larger 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) Hooker telescope in 1919 . Mayall was adept at working with the small Crossley , but understood that it could never really stand up to a competing telescope that collected nine times the amount of light . This was only going to get worse when the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) Hale Telescope was completed at Palomar Observatory . Mayall and other young faculty at Lick thought that the older faculty such as Moore and Wright were too committed to the small telescopes and should have tried harder to obtain a larger reflector .
Unknown to Mayall , Lick observatory director William H. Wright and his predecessor , Robert G. Aitken , had both tried in secret to raise money for a larger reflector to replace the 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley Reflector . They tried both private sources as well as trying to get Robert Gordon Sproul , the University of California President , to provide for one in the budget . Despite multiple attempts , they continued to fail , primarily due to the Great Depression . However , in 1942 , Sproul asked Paul W. Merrill from Mt . Wilson to succeed Wright , but was turned down . Agitated by the refusal , Sproul changed his stance and told the regents that they had to find a way to raise money for a new telescope once the war ended . At about this time , Sproul promised or secretly appointed C. Donald Shane as director of Lick , to take over when the war ended .
The plan for a large telescope was leaked around September 1944 in the form of the University 's budget proposals . Wright and Joseph H. Moore , interim wartime Lick director , imagined an 85 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) or 90 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) reflector based upon the funds proposed in the budget by Sproul . Mayall and Gerald E. Kron sent a letter to Sproul representing the younger Lick staff members , in which they requested a meeting to discuss the kind of telescope to be built . They met with Sproul in December 1944 in Sproul 's Los Angeles office . Mayall spoke of the key need for a telescope exceeding 90 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . At the Caltech optical shop in Pasadena he had seen the nearly completed 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) Pyrex glass disc that was initially planned to be used as a flat in the auto @-@ collimation test of the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) Palomar mirror and urged Sproul to have the Lick telescope use a mirror of that size . Much to their surprise , Sproul agreed .
Shane was appointed chairman of a committee formed by Sproul in the beginning of 1945 , to plan the new reflector . Other committee members included Mayall , Moore , Walter S. Adams and Ira S. Bowen . The committee functioned primarily through correspondence . Mayall 's first letter helped to convince Shane that 120 inches ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) was feasible instead of just 90 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . Mayall helped to bridge the gap between the experienced team of telescope designers in Pasadena and Shane , who was more experienced as a university administrator and professor . Adams and the executive officer of the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) project , John August Anderson , shared their experience , drawings and plans with the Lick design committee . On March 6 , 1945 , with both Mayall and Shane present , the committee decided upon the basic parameters of what would become the 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) C. Donald Shane telescope . On March 7 , Mayall joined Shane , Wright and Moore ( not present at the March 6 meeting ) , at Mt . Hamilton to choose the location upon which to build the reflector .
= = Postwar Lick research = =
During the long period of building the 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope , Mayall continued to use Lick 's 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley Reflector and focused his efforts on utilizing his slitless spectrograph , which was optimized for extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness clusters , galaxies , and nebulae . In 1946 , he completed his pre @-@ war effort to get integrated spectra of globular clusters and published the work . His paper was key in demonstrating that the system of Milky Way globular clusters shares only slightly the galactic rotation found in the flattened disc of interstellar matter and young stars in our galaxy . In 1948 , Mayall serendipitously discovered a type II supernova while conducting other research .
Other research Mayall performed included the 20 year collaboration ( formulated in 1935 by Hubble ) with Milton Humason , to gather redshift values for all northern galaxies brighter than + 13 visual magnitude . Mayall handled the brighter galaxies on the Crossley , while Humason tackled the fainter ones using the Mount Wilson 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) . This work resulted in the 1956 paper he co @-@ authored with Humason and Allan Sandage , on the rate of expansion of the Universe . The paper listed over 800 redshift values ( 300 determined by Mayall ) for galaxies measured from 1935 to 1955 at Lick , Wilson and Palomar .
At Lick , he also studied galactic dynamics , such as the rotational motion of the Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies . He presented this work at a symposium on the structure of the Milky Way on June 23 , 1950 , at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor . This work demonstrated the inner solid @-@ body rotation and the outer Keplerian motion . In 1953 , together with O.J. Eggen , Mayall identified six likely globular clusters ( including Mayall II ) around the Andromeda galaxy in a Palomar 48 @-@ inch schmidt plate exposed in 1948 that was provided to them by Hubble .
Gerry Kron marveled at the sensitivity of Mayall 's eyes that could reach down to + 17 visual magnitude using the 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) telescope . Mayall 's eyesight later deteriorated to the point that he could no longer read .
The new 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope became operational at the beginning of 1960 . Mayall immediately began using it , although he left Lick in September of that year .
= = Kitt Peak National Observatory = =
Mayall moved on from the University of California ( after more than 25 years progressing from student to astronomer ) , to become the second director of Kitt Peak National Observatory ( KPNO ) . With financial support from the National Science Foundation , several universities had formed a consortium — the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy ( AURA ) . Its purpose was to create and run a research observatory for American astronomers . The first director was Aden B. Meinel , who chose the site near Tucson at the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) Kitt Peak , and oversaw the building of its first telescope , the 84 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) reflector which was completed in the spring of 1960 .
However , the AURA board decided that Meinel was not well suited for the job and chose Mayall to replace him on October 1 , 1960 , even though he had no previous administrative experience . Mayall had previously been appointed ( in 1958 ) as a consultant to AURA , due to his experience in planning the Lick 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope . The board 's president was Shane , who was representing the University of California , and he helped convince Mayall to accept the offer .
As director , Mayall oversaw the building of the 4 @-@ meter ( 160 in ) Kitt peak reflector . It was still being built when he retired in 1971 , and was completed in 1973 , at which point it was named the Nicholas U. Mayall Telescope in his honor . Mayall was intimately involved in the expansion of the national observatory to the Southern hemisphere in what eventually became the Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory ( CTIO ) . The 4 @-@ metre ( 160 in ) Victor M. Blanco Telescope at CTIO ( identical to the Mayall Telescope at Kitt Peak ) saw first light in 1974 and was completed in 1976 .
= = Retirement = =
Mayall retired in 1971 , at the age of 65 , an event that was honored by a symposium held on his birthday , May 8 . During his retirement , he continued to play an active role in many organizations , including the overview committee for Fermilab . He died on January 5 , 1993 , of complications caused by diabetes ; his ashes were spread high on an empty ridge of Kitt Peak . Mayall was survived by his wife of 58 years , Kathleen Boxall , and their two children : Bruce Ian Mayall ( 1939 ) and Pamela Ann Mayall , their two grandchildren : Shane Nicholas Oakes ( 1977 ) and Bryce Oakes Mayall ( 1979 ) .
= = Honors = =
= = Publications = =
= = Cited sources = =
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= Norman conquest of England =
The Norman conquest of England was the 11th @-@ century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman , Breton , and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy , later styled as William the Conqueror .
William 's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo @-@ Saxon King Edward the Confessor , who may have encouraged William 's hopes for the throne . Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Harold Godwinson . The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford , but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066 . Within days , William landed in southern England . Harold marched south to confront him , leaving a significant portion of his army in the north . Harold 's army confronted William 's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings ; William 's force defeated Harold , who was killed in the engagement .
Although William 's main rivals were gone , he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072 . The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated ; some of the elite fled into exile . To control his new kingdom , William gave lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land . Other effects of the conquest included the court and government , the introduction of Norman French as the language of the elites , and changes in the composition of the upper classes , as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king . More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life : the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery , which may or may not have been linked to the invasion . There was little alteration in the structure of government , as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo @-@ Saxon government .
= = Origins = =
In 911 the French Carolingian ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Clair @-@ sur @-@ Epte . In exchange for the land , the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders . Their settlement proved successful , and the Vikings in the region became known as the " Northmen " from which " Normandy " and " Normans " are derived . The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture , renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity . They adopted the langue d 'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language , transforming it into the Norman language . They intermarried with the local population and used the territory granted them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward , annexing territory including the Bessin , the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches .
In 1002 King Æthelred II of England married Emma , the sister of Richard II , Duke of Normandy . Their son Edward the Confessor , who spent many years in exile in Normandy , succeeded to the English throne in 1042 . This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics , as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support , bringing in Norman courtiers , soldiers , and clerics and appointing them to positions of power , particularly in the Church . Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin , Earl of Wessex , and his sons , Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy 's ambitions for the English throne .
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066 , the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England . Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex , Harold Godwinson , the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats . Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York , Ealdred , although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand , the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury . Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers . Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this ; King Harald III of Norway , commonly known as Harald Hardrada , also contested the succession . His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor Magnus I of Norway and the earlier English king , Harthacnut , whereby if either died without heir , the other would inherit both England and Norway . William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England .
= = Tostig 's raids and the Norwegian invasion = =
In early 1066 , Harold 's exiled brother Tostig Godwinson raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders , later joined by other ships from Orkney . Threatened by Harold 's fleet , Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire , but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin , Earl of Mercia , and Morcar , Earl of Northumbria . Deserted by most of his followers , he withdrew to Scotland , where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces . King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade , but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops , so on 8 September Harold dismissed them .
King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September , leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15 @,@ 000 men . Harald 's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig , who threw his support behind the Norwegian king 's bid for the throne . Advancing on York , the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford . The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before King Harold could arrive from the south . Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar 's sister Ealdgyth , the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig . The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066 , although the two earls survived the battle .
Hardrada moved on to York , which surrendered to him . After taking hostages from the leading men of the city , on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge . King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid @-@ September and rushed north , gathering forces as he went . The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York , averaging almost 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) per day . At dawn on 25 September Harold 's forces reached York , where he learned the location of the Norwegians . The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise , defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge . Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed , and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors . The English victory was costly , as Harold 's army was left in a battered and weakened state .
= = Norman invasion = =
= = = Norman preparations and forces = = =
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France , including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders . He mustered his forces at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August . The exact numbers and composition of William 's force are unknown . A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships , but this may be an inflated figure . Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated , varying from 14 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 men . Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William 's forces : 7000 – 8000 men , 1000 – 2000 of them cavalry ; 10 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 men ; 10 @,@ 000 men , 3000 of them cavalry ; or 7500 men . The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry , infantry , and archers or crossbowmen , with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined . Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant , most are padded with extra names ; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings .
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II 's consent for the invasion , signified by a papal banner , along with diplomatic support from other European rulers . Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded , no other source claims papal support before the invasion . William 's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed . Although the army and fleet were ready by early August , adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September . There were probably other reasons for William 's delay , including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast . William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing .
= = = Landing and Harold 's march south = = =
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold 's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September , following the dispersal of Harold 's naval force . They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings , from which they raided the surrounding area . This ensured supplies for the army , and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area , it weakened William 's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding .
Harold , after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north , left much of his force there , including Morcar and Edwin , and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion . It is unclear when Harold learned of William 's landing , but it was probably while he was travelling south . Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings , so it is likely that he took a second week to march south , averaging about 27 miles ( 43 kilometres ) per day , for the nearly 200 miles ( 320 kilometres ) to London . Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans , William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke . The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure , with contradictory accounts in the sources , but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy . Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill ( present @-@ day Battle , East Sussex ) , about 6 miles ( 10 kilometres ) from William 's castle at Hastings .
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold 's army , although two Norman sources give figures of 1 @.@ 2 million or 400 @,@ 000 men . Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13 @,@ 000 for Harold 's army at Hastings , but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops . These men would have comprised a mix of the fyrd ( militia mainly composed of foot soldiers ) and the housecarls , or nobleman 's personal troops , who usually also fought on foot . The main difference between the two types was in their armour ; the housecarls used better protecting armour than that of the fyrd . The English army does not appear to have had many archers , although some were present . Few individual Englishmen are known to have been at Hastings ; the most important were Harold 's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine . About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings , including two of his other relatives .
= = = Hastings = = =
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day , but while a broad outline is known , the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources . Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal , William had both cavalry and infantry , including many archers , while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers . The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge , and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties . Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled , and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons . Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops . While the Bretons were fleeing , rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed , but William rallied his troops . Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals , tempting the English into pursuit , and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly . The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon , but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold , about which differing stories are told . William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke . The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye , but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th @-@ century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head . Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow . William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold 's death .
= = = Aftermath of Hastings = = =
The day after the battle , Harold 's body was identified , either by his armour or marks on his body . The bodies of the English dead , who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls , were left on the battlefield , although some were removed by relatives later . Gytha , Harold 's mother , offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody , but her offer was refused . William ordered that Harold 's body was to be thrown into the sea , but whether that took place is unclear . Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff . Waltham Abbey , which had been founded by Harold , later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly . Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings , but escaped and became a hermit at Chester .
After his victory at Hastings , William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders , but instead Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot , with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar , Stigand , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Ealdred , the Archbishop of York . William therefore advanced , marching around the coast of Kent to London . He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark , but being unable to storm London Bridge he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route .
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford , Berkshire ; while there he received the submission of Stigand . He then travelled north @-@ east along the Chilterns , before advancing towards London from the north @-@ west , fighting further engagements against forces from the city . Having failed to muster an effective military response , Edgar 's leading supporters lost their nerve , and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted , Hertfordshire . William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066 , in Westminster Abbey . The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar , Edwin and Waltheof , the Earl of Northumbria , in their lands as well as giving some land to Edgar the Ætheling . William remained in England until March 1067 , when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners , including Stigand , Morcar , Edwin , Edgar the Ætheling , and Waltheof .
= = English resistance = =
= = = First rebellions = = =
Despite the submission of the English nobles , resistance continued for several years . William left control of England in the hands of his half @-@ brother Odo and one of his closest supporters , William fitzOsbern . In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne . The Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild , in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys , raised a revolt in western Mercia , fighting Norman forces based in Hereford . These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067 . In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter , including Harold 's mother Gytha , and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town 's surrender . In May , William 's wife Matilda was crowned queen at Westminster , an important symbol of William 's growing international stature . Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance , while Gospatric , the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria , led a rising in Northumbria , which had not yet been occupied by the Normans . These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them , building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south . Edwin and Morcar again submitted , while Gospatric fled to Scotland , as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family , who may have been involved in these revolts . Meanwhile , Harold 's sons , who had taken refuge in Ireland , raided Somerset , Devon and Cornwall from the sea .
= = = Revolts of 1069 = = =
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria , Robert de Comines , and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham ; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar , Gospatric , Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland . The castellan of York , Robert fitzRichard , was defeated and killed , and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York . William hurried north with an army , defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city , massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end . He built a second castle at York , strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south . A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York . Harold 's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian , a son of Eudes , Count of Penthièvre . In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England , sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country . After abortive raids in the south , the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising , which was also joined by Edgar , Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof . The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York , seized the castles and took control of Northumbria , although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln .
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia , where the forces of Eadric the Wild , together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire , attacked the castle at Shrewsbury . In the south @-@ west , rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter , but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian . Other rebels from Dorset , Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London , Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances . Meanwhile , William attacked the Danes , who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire , and drove them back to the north bank . Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire , he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford . When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire , the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber . William advanced into Northumbria , defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract . The Danes fled at his approach , and he occupied York . He bought off the Danes , who agreed to leave England in the spring , and during the winter of 1069 – 70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North , subduing all resistance . As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north , William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069 .
In early 1070 , having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric , and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland , William returned to Mercia , where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south . Papal legates arrived and at Easter re @-@ crowned William , which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom . William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church , most notably Stigand , who was deposed from Canterbury . The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns . As well as Canterbury , the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069 . Both sees were filled by men loyal to William : Lanfranc , abbot of William 's foundation at Caen received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux , one of William 's chaplains , was installed at York . Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries , which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles .
= = = Danish troubles = = =
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw , sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake , based on the Isle of Ely . Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William , and returned home . After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large , protected by the marshes , and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area . Edwin and Morcar again turned against William , and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed , Morcar reached Ely , where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland . William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance . After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely , defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island , marking the effective end of English resistance . Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life ; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him .
= = = Last resistance = = =
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071 , but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland . This campaign , which included a land army supported by a fleet , resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William . The exact status of this subordination was unclear – the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William 's man . Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous .
In 1075 , during William 's absence , Ralph de Gael , the Earl of Norfolk , and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford , conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls . The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear , but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger 's , held at Exning . Another earl , Waltheof , despite being one of William 's favourites , was also involved , and some Breton lords were ready to offer support . Ralph also requested Danish aid . William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt . Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan , the Bishop of Worcester , and Æthelwig , the Abbot of Evesham . Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux , Geoffrey of Coutances , Richard fitzGilbert , and William de Warenne . Norwich was besieged and surrendered , and Ralph went into exile . Meanwhile , the Danish king 's brother , Cnut , had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships , but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered . The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home . William did not return to England until later in 1075 , to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion , celebrating Christmas at Winchester . Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison , where Waltheof was executed in May 1076 . By that time William had returned to the continent , where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany .
= = Control of England = =
Once England had been conquered , the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control . They were few in number compared to the native English population ; including those from other parts of France , historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000 . William 's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion , but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control , and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit . Henceforth , all land was " held " directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service . A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy , and not in a single geographic block .
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers , William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands . These confiscations led to revolts , which resulted in more confiscations , a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings . To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers , initially mostly on the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey pattern . Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that " to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich , Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion " . William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters , often forcing marriages to Normans .
A measure of William 's success in taking control is that , from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204 , William and his successors were largely absentee rulers . For example , after 1072 , William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England . While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts , he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance .
= = Consequences = =
= = = Elite replacement = = =
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England . William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers . The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation , revealing that by 1086 only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands . Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed , the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country .
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office . After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans , and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs . Likewise in the Church , senior English office @-@ holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died . By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman , and English abbots became uncommon , especially in the larger monasteries .
= = = English emigration = = =
Following the conquest , many Anglo @-@ Saxons , including groups of nobles , fled the country for Scotland , Ireland , or Scandinavia . Members of King Harold Godwinson 's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England . The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s , when a group of Anglo @-@ Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire . The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers , as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries . The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard , until then a largely Scandinavian unit , from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn . Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast , and established towns with names such as New London and New York .
= = = Governmental systems = = =
Before the Normans arrived , Anglo @-@ Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy . All of England was divided into administrative units called shires , with subdivisions ; the royal court was the centre of government , and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men . Shires were run by officials known as shire reeves or sheriffs . Most medieval governments were always on the move , holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment ; England had a permanent treasury at Winchester before William 's conquest . One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom , built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax , or the geld . English coinage was also superior to most of the other currency in use in northwestern Europe , and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly . The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials , in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters . Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials , or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort .
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments . They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel , although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office . By the end of William 's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans . The language of official documents also changed , from Old English to Latin . The forest laws were introduced , leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest . The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom , and was unique to medieval Europe . It was divided into sections based on the shires , and listed all the landholdings of each tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest .
= = = Language = = =
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo @-@ Norman , a northern dialect of Old French , as the language of the ruling classes in England , displacing Old English . French words entered the English language , and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Anglo @-@ Saxon names . Male names such as William , Robert and Richard soon became common ; female names changed more slowly . The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames , which had changed significantly after earlier Scandinavian invasions . It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned , nor how much the knowledge of French spread among the lower classes , but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual . Nevertheless , William the Conqueror never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility .
= = = Immigration and intermarriage = = =
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest , although exact figures cannot be established . Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English , but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear . Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100 , but such marriages were uncommon . Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English . Within a century of the invasion , intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common . By the early 1160s , Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society .
= = = Society = = =
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess . The major change was the elimination of slavery in England , which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century . There were about 28 @,@ 000 slaves listed in Domesday Book in 1086 , fewer than had been enumerated for 1066 . In some places , such as Essex , the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years . The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves , who unlike serfs , had to be maintained entirely by their owners . The practice of slavery was not outlawed , and the Leges Henrici Primi from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal .
Many of the free peasants of Anglo @-@ Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non @-@ free serfs . Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear , but the invasion and its after @-@ effects probably accelerated a process already under way . The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside , rather than scattered farms , was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England . The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066 . Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest , current scholarship has mostly rejected this view . Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class , so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women 's status after 1066 . Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships . Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land , and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished .
= = Historiography = =
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , when discussing the death of William the Conqueror , denounced him and the conquest in verse , but the king 's obituary notice from William of Poitiers , a Frenchman , was laudatory and full of praise . Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them , with little agreement . The theory or myth of the " Norman Yoke " arose in the 17th century , the idea that Anglo @-@ Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest . This theory owes more to the period it was developed in than to historical facts , but it continues to be used in both political and popular thought to the present day .
In the 20th and 21st centuries historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself , instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion . Some , such as Richard Southern , have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history . Southern stated that " no country in Europe , between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century , has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066 . " Other historians , such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , believe that the transformation was less radical . In more general terms , one writer has called the conquest " the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages " . The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured . If Anglo @-@ Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion , with the introduction of feudalism , castles or other changes in society , then the conquest , while important , did not represent radical reform . But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language . Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate , with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo @-@ Saxon nobility .
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= Ngoia Pollard Napaltjarri =
Ngoia Pollard Napaltjarri ( born c . 1948 ; also known as Ngnoia ) is a Walpiri @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . Ngoia Pollard married Jack Tjampitjinpa , who became an artist working with the Papunya Tula company , and they had five children .
Having commenced painting in 1997 , Ngoia Pollard won a major regional art prize in 2004 . She went on to win the painting prize in the 2006 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards . Her works are held in major private and public collections , including the National Gallery of Australia .
= = Life = =
Daughter of Angoona Nangala and Jim Tjungurrayi , Ngoia Pollard was born circa 1948 in Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory , west of Alice Springs . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous Australians operate using a different conception of time , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events .
'Napaljarri ' ( in Warlpiri ) or ' Napaltjarri ' ( in Western Desert dialects ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Ngoia Pollard ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
Ngoia Pollard attended school at Papunya , and worked at the mission kitchen there . She married Jack Tjampitjinpa and they moved to Kintore , and then on to Mount Liebig ( now Amundurrngu Outstation ) which at that time was unoccupied , about fifty kilometres west of Haasts Bluff . It was one of many outstations established by people from Papunya in the 1970s . Ngoia Pollard and Jack had five children . Jack died in 1988 ; as of 2008 Ngoia was still living at Mount Liebig .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . Their work , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting .
However , there was a desire among many women to participate , and in the 1990s large numbers of them began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
= = = Career = = =
Ngoia Pollard began her contemporary artistic career by assisting her husband , who painted with Papunya Tula artists for several years prior to his death . In 1997 , Ngoia Pollard began painting independently , and in 2004 won the first prize in a central Australian painting competition supported by the region 's major newspaper , the Centralian Advocate . In 2006 , Ngoia Pollard won the painting prize in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards , with her work Swamps west of Nyirripi . Another of her works painted in the same year , and carrying the same title , was acquired by the Art Gallery of South Australia . 2006 was also marked by an artist 's residency in Copenhagen , shared with fellow Indigenous artist Lilly Kelly Napangardi , whom she had known since they attended school together in the 1960s .
Collections holding her works include the National Gallery of Australia . She has had solo exhibitions with private galleries in Sydney and Perth .
Western Desert artists such as Ngoia Pollard frequently paint particular ' dreamings ' , or stories , for which they have personal responsibility or rights . Many of Ngoia 's works relate to the region of Yamunturrngu , or Mount Liebig , in the country to the west of Haasts Bluff ; this is her father 's country :
... infused with the spiritual power of the narrative of the watersnake . This snake lives in the swamps and lakes near Nyrippi ( Talarada ) , unoccupied ' dangerous territory ' north west of Mt . Liebig . The transcendental calm of her paintings , with their drifts of monochrome clouds of dots , belie the danger of the land and its creatures that they depict .
Her works are often characterised by the use of oval shapes representing swamps and lakes . Her palette is usually black and white , though red may be used to highlight oval forms . The dotted forms represent the ground cracking as water dries up . Other themes in her work include the sand hills of the desert country .
= = Collections = =
National Gallery of Australia
Corrigan Collection
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= William of Wrotham =
William of Wrotham or William de Wrotham ( died c . 1217 ) was a medieval English royal administrator and clergyman . Although a late 13th @-@ century source says that William held a royal office under King Henry II of England ( reigned 1154 – 1189 ) , the first contemporary reference to William is in 1197 , when he became responsible among other things for the royal tin mines . He also held ecclesiastical office , eventually becoming Archdeacon of Taunton , and served King John of England as an administrator of ecclesiastical lands and a collector of taxes .
William 's main administrative work was naval . He was in charge of the royal fleet in the south of England in 1205 , and was one of those responsible for the development of Portsmouth as a naval dockyard . He continued to be involved in naval matters until 1214 or later , but by 1215 he had joined the First Barons ' War against John . After John 's death in 1216 , William returned to the royalist cause . He probably died in late 1217 . Known to a contemporary chronicler as one of John 's " evil advisers " , William is said by modern historians to have had a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " , and was " keeper of ports " , a forerunner of the office of First Lord of the Admiralty .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of William 's background or family , except that his father Godwin held land in Shipbourne , near Wrotham in Kent , perhaps as a vassal of the Archbishops of Canterbury . William 's brother Richard was named as William 's deputy in 1207 .
According to late 13th @-@ century documents , the Hundred Rolls , King Henry II gave William the office of steward of Exmoor , and lands at North Petherton , Somerset . William was the prebend of St Decumans in the cathedral chapter of Bath Cathedral by 9 May 1204 . He claimed to have held the office since 1194 during a later dispute with Savaric fitzGeldewin , the Bishop of Bath and another canon of the cathedral , Roger Porretanus , who claimed the prebend . By 23 December 1205 , William had secured a papal judgement against Roger .
William may have owed his advancement in royal service to Geoffrey fitzPeter , a royal judge . In 1197 he granted William a manor at Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone , Kent , which later was supposed to become a hospital , but instead eventually became a preceptory for the Knights Hospitaller . From 1197 William was responsible for the collection of revenues from Geoffrey 's lands at Lydford , Devon , and held the office of chief forester of Somerset ; it is unclear to whom he owed that position .
= = Royal service = =
In 1197 , Hubert Walter , who was Archbishop of Canterbury and Justiciar , appointed William to the administration of the royal stannaries , or tin mines , and in 1198 William was placed in charge of tin production , an office later known as the Lord Warden of the Stannaries . Under his control the mines became much more lucrative for the king , and accounted for a total of £ 1100 in William 's first year of administration . As part of his administrative work he became the first warden of Lydford Castle after it was constructed in the 1190s . In 1199 he was involved in a dispute over the stannaries with another official , Hugh Bardulf , temporarily losing control of them – along with his office as sheriff – in 1200 . The reason for the loss of these offices is uncertain . After restoration to office , he remained as Lord Warden of the Stannaries until 1215 .
In 1198 and 1199 , William was Sheriff of Devon and Sheriff of Cornwall , along with another royal servant , and served as a royal justice . In 1200 he was recorded as a receiver of the carucage , a tax on land , in the Pipe roll ; whether this meant that he was a local or a national collector of the tax is unclear . By 12 September 1204 , William was Archdeacon of Taunton in the Diocese of Bath , and he witnessed the election of Jocelin of Wells as the new bishop of the diocese . He was jointly placed in charge of the mints of London and Canterbury in 1205 , along with Reginald de Cornhill , with whom he also shared the collection of the tax of a fifteenth on merchants , a post the two had held since 1202 . In May 1205 William , along with de Cornhill , was given custody of one of three dies for the mint at Chichester ; in July the king gave William 's custody to Simon of Wells , the Bishop of Chichester . William was one of the officials in charge of the collection of a tax of a thirteenth in 1207 .
William was also placed in charge of vacant ecclesiastical offices , collecting their revenues for the king . He performed this office for the Diocese of Worcester around 1200 , the Diocese of Winchester in 1204 , for Glastonbury Abbey in 1205 , and for Whitby Abbey in 1206 and 1209 . From his actions it can be assumed that Wrotham was a member of the royal household , probably working in the wardrobe .
= = Naval administration = =
William 's main administrative work concerned the navy . In 1204 he , de Cornhill , and William of Furnell were placed in charge of granting wool export licences . William of Wrotham was also one of the officials charged with supervising the ships dispatched to the coasts in 1204 , after the loss of Normandy exposed England to invasion by the French . In 1205 he was again one of the keepers of the royal fleet along the south coast . William was in charge of the 17 ships based in Romney , Rye , Shoreham , Southampton , Winchelsea , and Exeter , while the rest of the fleet came under Cornhill 's control . In the same year , he was also in charge of naval spending for the attempted invasion of France , which in June alone totalled over 470 pounds . William surrendered custody of Taunton Castle to Peter de Taraton in July and was in charge of purchasing the royal wine in August . No further naval duties are recorded until November , when along with Cornhill he was responsible for assessing the ports .
In 1206 William was in charge of the naval forces in the Cinque Ports and commanded the fleet that invaded Poitou . Whether he accompanied the fleet or stayed in England after it sailed is unclear ; according to two historians – F. W. Brooks and R. W. Powell – it is more likely he stayed . From 1206 until 1215 he was effectively commander of King John 's navy , and helped to develop Portsmouth as a royal dockyard . In 1208 William was put in charge of ensuring that no ships sailed without royal permission . That year he also oversaw the naval preparations made by the Cinque Ports . The purpose of these preparations is unknown ; the Annals of Dunstable ascribe to John a desire to oppress the Cinque Ports . During May 1208 a royal order was issued that William 's deputies in all the seaports should seize any ships in the ports that were from foreign countries , excluding Denmark , Norway and other countries that did not oppose John 's diplomatic efforts . A gap in the governmental records does not allow a detailed view of William 's activities for the next years , until 1212 , when William is shown performing many of the same duties as earlier . He was in charge of repair of some ships and the construction of a large new ship , named the Deulabenit , owned by the king . William was also responsible for impressing privately owned merchant ships into royal service . These ships were used in the naval action of the Battle of Damme at Zwyn in 1213 , when a fleet under William Longespee , the Earl of Salisbury , destroyed a substantial French naval force and sacked the town of Damme .
In late 1213 William was directing the efforts of the seaports of south @-@ western England and the Cinque Ports in naval affairs . He was also responsible for the setting up of a supply depot for the navy in June 1213 , for which he received supplies from the diocese of Chichester . In 1214 William had custody of some royal prisoners . The same year , the king ordered him to return a merchant ship if he had indeed seized it from its owner , Joscelin de Hampton . Also in 1214 , William co @-@ founded the hospital of Domus Dei in Portsmouth with Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester . The foundation was confirmed by the king in October 1214 .
John rewarded William for his service with churches in Sheppey and East Malling , which were granted in 1207 , and the right to oversee the royal forests in Cornwall and Devon . Other grants included lands in Dartford and Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone that had escheated to the crown , lands in Westminster and a prebend in the royal ecclesiastical foundation at Hastings .
= = Later years and legacy = =
During John 's reign , Pope Innocent III placed an interdict on England , forbidding public celebration of sacred rites in English churches . William supported John , and remained in England . The medieval chronicler Roger of Wendover named William as one of John 's " evil advisers " , or " most wicked counsellors " . Modern historians argue that Roger 's account of John 's reign , while containing some truth , was written to defame men who were prominent in the early years of King Henry III , John 's son who had succeeded his father in October 1216 . According to Nicholas Vincent , while Roger 's account of the exactions and crimes of the members of his list of evil advisers certainly had a strong basis of truth , it was also greatly exaggerated . W. L. Warren agrees and points out that many of the details of Roger 's accounts that can be checked with other records are wrong , making the other parts of his stories suspect .
In 1215 William joined the baronial rebellion against John , and lost his naval offices , the royal forester 's office for Somerset , and custody of Lydford Castle . In May 1216 the king offered William a safe conduct , which noted that William had fled overseas . The letters were witnessed by Peter des Roches . In mid @-@ 1217 , he rejoined the royalist cause , returning to the side of Henry III . This action regained him some of his lost lands .
William last appeared in documents on 25 July 1217 and was dead by 16 February 1218 , probably before 2 December 1217 , when someone else is mentioned as archdeacon . On 16 February 1218 , John Marshall became the guardian of Richard , William 's nephew and heir , who was the son of William 's brother Richard .
William has been described as having a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " by the historian Robert Bartlett . He is usually given the title of " keeper of ports " or " keeper of galleys " , which Ralph Turner equates with being First Lord of the Admiralty in later history . Sometimes this would be given as " custos portum maris " in Latin , or " keeper of the seaports " . At other times he was titled " keeper of the king 's ships " . Bartlett also called William " one of the king 's most important administrators " . Charles Young said that William 's service to King John was a " distinguished administrative career " , and J. E. A. Joliffe called William one of the " greatest of the king 's clerks " .
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= Beaver Brook State Park =
Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped state park located in the Windham and Chaplin , Connecticut , United States . The park encompasses Bibbins Pond , also known as Beaver Brook Pond , and the acreage to its north , and the Beaver Brook runs through the park and exits in the south . The park is listed as an undeveloped walk @-@ in park with hunting as an activity , but it is better known for its trout fishing . Beaver Brook has abundant stocks of wild trout , but is restricted to catch and release only . The Air Line State Park Trail runs along the park 's northern boundary .
= = History = =
The state park was acquired using funds bequeathed by George Dudley Seymour to be used for the express purpose of purchasing public recreation areas for the people of the State of Connecticut . The donation of the park lands was announced in 1955 . Prior to the creation of the park , it was reported that the trout pools were developed for fishing before 1955 by H. Keeney Lathrop . According to Joseph Leary , " [ t ] he central feature of the park is Bibbins Pond , sometimes called Beaver Brook Pond . " The park encompasses Bibbins Pond , and the acreage to its north , but the park 's name may derive from a beaver pond that was once present . The Connecticut State Register and Manual notes a boundary increase from 165 acres in 1955 to 391 acres in the 1957 . The park achieved its present size of 401 acres by 1960 . In 2013 , the State of Connecticut opened a contract to improve and repair the Bibbins Pond Dam . Beaver Brook that runs both north and south of the pond and continues beyond the park limits .
= = Activities = =
The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection notes that the Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped walk @-@ in park with hunting as an activity . The Flyfisher 's Guide to Connecticut states that the Beaver Brook is a class 1 Wild Trout Management Area and is described as having abundant wild trout with no seasonal restrictions , but is catch and release only . The book further notes that only an artificial fly or lure with a single , barb @-@ less free @-@ swinging hook can be used in this area . Only small , motor @-@ less vessels are permitted on the ponds from May 16 to October 31 . Beaver Brook State Park is connected to the Air Line State Park Trail , which runs through the park . The site also includes a geocache which can be accessed via three different routes . In 1994 , a Connecticut state record for Brook Trout was caught in Beaver Brook by Sean Wozniak . As of 2014 , the Brook Trout record was last surpassed in 1998 by David Andes in Blackwells Brook in Brooklyn , Connecticut .
The park is accessible from the junction of Connecticut Route 203 and Connecticut Route 14 in Windham Center and by following Route 14 east for 0 @.@ 7 miles and turning left onto Back Road . Proceeding down Back Road for 2 @.@ 5 miles leads to the pond on the left , and there is no parking fee at the park .
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= Tropical Storm Erin ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Erin was the second largest tropical cyclone to make landfall in the United States in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . The fifth named storm of the season , it formed in the Gulf of Mexico on August 14 from a persistent area of convection . It attained tropical storm status the next day , and on August 16 Erin made landfall near Lamar , Texas , and persisted over land across Texas before moving northward into Oklahoma . Due to the brown ocean effect Erin intensified after landfall . The storm resulted in at least 16 fatalities and worsened an already @-@ severe flooding issue in Texas .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 1 , an area of convection developed just south of Jamaica in association with a trough of low pressure . The system tracked west @-@ northwestward , and by August 10 consisted of a broad surface trough with minimal shower activity . Convection increased on August 11 , and by August 12 the interaction between a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level low in the area resulted in a large area of disorganized thunderstorms extending from the western Caribbean Sea into the central Bahamas . Upper @-@ level winds gradually became more beneficial for development , and on August 13 a broad low pressure area formed about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north @-@ northeast of Cancún , Quintana Roo . Late on August 14 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system reported a small circulation center , but at the time was not well @-@ defined enough to result in the initiation of tropical cyclone advisories . However , deep convection was maintained near the increasingly organizing center , and at 0300 UTC on August 15 the National Hurricane Center classified it as Tropical Depression Five about 425 miles ( 685 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
In the overnight hours after formation , the storm was disorganized with a ragged and ill @-@ defined center of circulation . Located to the south of a mid to upper @-@ level ridge over the southern United States , the system tracked to the west @-@ northwest through an environment conducive for further strengthening ; an upper @-@ level anticyclone developed over the central Gulf of Mexico , and sea surface temperatures along its track were warm . The cloud pattern became better organized , maintaining a large area of convection with curved rainbands and well @-@ established outflow . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Erin at 1530 UTC on August 15 about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . As it continued northwestward , Erin remained disorganized and failed to strengthen beyond minimal tropical storm status . At 1200 UTC on August 16 the cyclone made landfall near Lamar , Texas as it weakened to tropical depression status . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center ceased issuing advisories on Erin as warning responsibility was transferred to the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center .
Drifting northwestward through Texas , Tropical Depression Erin maintained an area of convection near the center , with its widespread but scattered rainbands dropping moderate to heavy precipitation . By August 17 , the winds decreased to 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) , with higher gusts . The system turned to the north @-@ northeast on August 18 , while heavy bands of thunderstorms continued to rotate around the center of Erin . Early on August 19 after entering Oklahoma , the remnants of Erin suddenly re @-@ intensified to maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) a short distance west of Oklahoma City . The Norman , Oklahoma National Weather Service remarked the intensification " [ resulted ] in what amounts to an inland tropical storm ; " at 0930 UTC the system presented an eye @-@ like feature and a spiral rainband , and produced wind gusts of over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . However , a few hours later , the depression began weakening again , and late on August 19 Erin weakened significantly as the circulation dissipated over northeastern Oklahoma . Despite displaying tropical characteristics , the National Hurricane Center determined the system was not a tropical cyclone over Oklahoma , and classified it as a " low " . The low continued into southeastern Kansas before dissipating , feeding moisture northward toward a frontal system extending from the Midwestern United States through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . Its remnant mid @-@ level circulation then moved eastward across Missouri , Kentucky , and Virginia before losing identity as it moved out into the Atlantic Ocean .
= = Preparations = =
Immediately upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from Freeport , Texas to the United States / Mexico border ; at the same time , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch southward to Rio San Fernando . Shortly before attaining tropical storm status , the watch in Texas was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . Late on August 15 , the warning was extended to San Luis Pass , while the watch in Mexico was discontinued . As Erin made landfall , the warning was canceled , and several flood watches and warnings were issued for counties across southeastern Texas . Upon moving into Oklahoma , flood and flash flood warnings were issued for several counties .
Governor Rick Perry activated the National Guard and mobilized emergency personnel to the region expected to be affected by the storm . Erin was expected to bring flooding to the region , which had already been declared a disaster area on August 7 , 2007 due to widespread flooding on the Nueces River basin ; this area remained flooded as of August 15 , 2007 . On August 15 , oil futures rose to $ 74 @.@ 01 ( USD ) , due to fears of Erin disrupting oil supplies produced on Texan coasts , combined with low oil inventories . As a result of the threat from the storm , Shell Oil Company evacuated 188 workers on oil platforms in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico .
= = Impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
By midday on August 15 , rainbands with gusty winds began affecting the Texas coastline . As it moved ashore , the storm produced heavy rainfall near and to the or northeast of its path , reaching 11 @.@ 02 inches ( 280 mm ) at a station in Lockwood . The storm caused several bayous in the Houston area to reach or exceed flood levels . Across southeastern Texas , the cyclone spawned several funnel clouds , and near IAH an EF0 tornado was reported . Wind gusts from Erin were minor across the state , peaking at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) at Palacios with an unofficial report of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) at Jamaica Beach . Upon moving ashore , the storm produced a minor storm surge peaking at 3 @.@ 22 feet ( 0 @.@ 98 m ) at Pleasure Pier , which caused minor beach erosion .
In Clear Lake City , heavy rainfall collapsed a portion of a grocery store roof , killing two workers . The precipitation caused moderate flooding across eastern portions of Harris County ; over 400 homes and 40 businesses were flooded . Flooding across the Greater Houston area briefly halted the METRORail and closed several state roads . One person drowned after driving into a retention pond . Several people required rescue assistance , and in Comal County a car accident caused three fatalities . The passage of the storm temporarily left about 20 @,@ 000 electrical customers without power , though most outages were quickly restored . In San Antonio , one body was recovered from a creek and another died after driving into a flooded road and was swept into a drainage ditch in which four others survived . In Sisterdale , two people were killed when they were swept away stalled over Sister Creek . In Taylor County , near Abilene , flooding killed one person and forced the evacuation of about 2 @,@ 000 people . Damage in Texas totaled over $ 45 million ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
After its unexpected redevelopment over Oklahoma , widespread damage was also reported there . Several communities in central Oklahoma were flooded due to the heavy rainfall . Watonga , Kingfisher and Geary were the hardest @-@ hit communities , where many houses and buildings were inundated . The weather forced the cancellation of the Hydro Fair as the carnival rides were not safe in heavy rain and high wind . Winds in Watonga gusted as high as 82 mph ( 131 km / h ) , which damaged numerous trees and power lines and heavily damaged mobile homes . The entire community lost power , as did about 15 @,@ 000 customers in total in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area . A section of Interstate 40 was also closed for a while .
One person drowned in a cellar in Fort Cobb , and another drowned in Kingfisher . Another storm @-@ related death took place in Seminole . Three others were found dead after a weather @-@ related automobile accident also near Carnegie . Another automobile accident fatality took place in Okmulgee County but it is unclear if the event was storm @-@ related . Damage amounted to over $ 2 million ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = Missouri = = =
Although its surface circulation had dissipated , its circulation aloft remained intact and led to a burst of rainfall early on August 20 . The 11 @.@ 94 inches / 303 @.@ 3 mm that fell at Miller became the wettest Missouri rainfall total associated with a tropical cyclone , or its remains , since at least 1972 . One person died in Sleeper when he drove into flood waters which had swept away a bridge he was attempting to navigate onto . Nine water rescues occurred along the I @-@ 44 corridor , mostly caused by Erin 's rainfall . Damage totaled about $ 19 @.@ 8 million ( 2007 USD ) in the state , primarily in Polk County .
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= Beauty Revealed =
Beauty Revealed is an 1828 self @-@ portrait by Sarah Goodridge , painted in miniature with watercolors on a piece of ivory . Depicting the artist 's bared breasts surrounded by pale cloth , the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 by 3 @.@ 1 in ) painting – originally on a paper backing – is set in a modern case . Goodridge , aged forty when she completed the miniature , depicts breasts which appear imbued with a " balance , paleness , and buoyancy " by the harmony of light , color , and balance . The surrounding cloth draws the viewer to focus on them , leading to the body being " erased " .
Goodridge gifted the portrait to statesman Daniel Webster , who was a frequent subject and possibly a lover , following the death of his wife ; she may have intended to provoke him into marrying her . Although Webster married someone else , his family held onto the portrait until the 1980s , when it was auctioned at Christie 's and acquired by Gloria and Richard Manney in 1981 . The couple gifted / sold their collection of miniatures , including Beauty Revealed , to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2006 .
= = Description and context = =
Beauty Revealed is a self @-@ portrait by Sarah Goodridge , depicting her bared breasts , pink nipples , and a beauty mark . These are presented in a gradation of color , giving a three @-@ dimensional effect . Although Goodridge was aged forty when she painted this miniature , according to art critic Chris Packard her breasts seem younger , with a " balance , paleness , and buoyancy " which is imbued in part by the harmony of light , color , and balance . The breasts are framed by a swirl of pale cloth , which in parts reflects the light .
The 6 @.@ 7 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 by 3 @.@ 1 in ) painting is set in a case ; it had originally been installed on a paper backing which had the date " 1828 " on the reverse . The work is a watercolor painting on ivory , thin enough for light to shine through and thus allow the depicted breasts to " glow " . This medium was common for American miniatures , but in this case also served as a simile for the flesh presented upon it .
Beauty Revealed was completed during a period of popularity of portrait miniatures , a medium which had been introduced in the United States in the late 18th century . By the time Goodridge completed her self @-@ portrait , miniatures were increasing in complexity and vibrance . The Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History describes Beauty Revealed as a play on the eye miniatures which were then popular as tokens of affection in England and France , but not common in the US . Such miniatures allowed portraits of loved ones to be carried by their suitors without revealing the sitters ' identities .
= = History = =
Goodridge was a prolific Boston @-@ based portrait miniature painter who had studied under Gilbert Stuart and Elkanah Tisdale . She had a long @-@ term association with Daniel Webster , a politician who began services as Senator from Massachusetts in 1827 . Webster sent her more than forty letters between 1827 and 1851 , and in time , his greetings to her became increasingly familiar ; his last letters were addressed to " My dear , good friend " , which was out of character . She , meanwhile , painted him more than a dozen times , and left her hometown of Boston to visit him in Washington , D.C. at least twice , once in 1828 after his first wife 's death and again in 1841 – 42 , when Webster was separated from his second wife .
Goodridge completed Beauty Revealed in 1828 , likely from looking at herself in a mirror . Several works have been cited as possible inspirations , including John Vanderlyn 's Ariadne Asleep on the Island of Naxos and Horatio Greenough 's sculpture Venus Victrix . Goodridge sent her portrait to Webster when he was a new widower , and , based on its miniature format , it was likely intended for his eyes alone . The American art critic John Updike suggests that the artist intended it to offer herself to Webster ; he writes that the bared breasts appear to say " We are yours for the taking , in all our ivory loveliness , with our tenderly stippled nipples " . Ultimately , however , Webster married another , wealthier woman .
After Webster 's death , Beauty Revealed continued to be handed down by his family , together with another self @-@ portrait Goodridge had sent him . The politician 's descendants held that Goodridge and Webster had been engaged . The painting was eventually auctioned through Christie 's , with a list price of $ 15 @,@ 000 , and passed through Alexander Gallery of New York later that year before being purchased by New York @-@ based collectors Gloria Manney and her husband Richard . The couple included Beauty Revealed in the exhibition " Tokens of Affection : The Portrait Miniature in America " in 1991 , which toured to the Metropolitan Museum of Art ( Met ) in New York , the National Museum of American Art in Washington , D.C. , and the Art Institute of Chicago .
Beauty Revealed was one of more than three hundred portrait miniatures compiled by the couple , who gave it to the Met in 2006 , as part of a gift / purchase arrangement of their collection . Carrie Rebora Barratt and Lori Zabar of the Met describe Goodridge 's self @-@ portrait as the most compelling of the " strange and wonderful " miniatures by minor artists in the collection . Two years later , Beauty Revealed was included in a retrospective , " The Philippe de Montebello Years : Curators Celebrate Three Decades of Acquisitions " , which showcased works acquired under the tenure of retiring Met director Philippe de Montebello . Holland Cotter of The New York Times highlighted Goodridge 's self @-@ portrait , describing it as " remarkable " . In 2009 , authors Jane Kamensky and Jill Lepore drew inspiration from Beauty Revealed ( as well as other paintings , such as John Singleton Copley 's Boy with a Squirrel ) for their novel Blindspot . As of 2014 , the Met 's website lists Beauty Revealed as not on display .
= = Analysis = =
Art historian Dale Johnson described Beauty Revealed as " strikingly realistic " , demonstrative of Goodridge 's ability to portray nuanced lights and shadows . She found the stippling and hatching used in creating the painting to be delicate . Writing in Antiques in 2012 , Randall L. Holton and Charles A. Gilday said that the painting continued to present a self which evokes a " frisson of erotic possibility " .
Packard wrote that Beauty Revealed served as a sort of visual synecdoche , representing the entirety of Goodridge through her breasts . As opposed to the " burdened " 1845 self @-@ portrait and the non @-@ eroticized one of 1830 , he found Beauty Revealed to forefront Goodridge and her demand for attention . Arguing that the clothing surrounding her breasts served to indicate a performance ( similar to the curtains of vaudeville ) , Packard described the viewer 's eyes being focused on the breasts , while the rest of Goodridge 's body was erased and abstracted . This , he stated , challenged the assumptions and stereotypes regarding the demure , homebound 19th @-@ century woman .
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= Hogettes =
The Hogettes were a group of 12 male Washington Redskins fans who wore women 's dresses , garden party hats , and pig snouts for two purposes : to cheer on their favorite NFL team and to raise money for charity . The group was founded in 1983 by Michael Torbert and became a regular fixture at Redskins games for nearly 30 years . When the group announced its retirement , effective with the end of the 2012 season , it had 12 active and 15 former members , including three who have been featured in an exhibit at the Pro Football Hall of Fame as part of the VISA Hall of Fans .
The group retains a high profile largely because of their outrageous costumes , but also because of their frequent work for charitable organizations . The Hogettes have appeared in a national advertising campaign for VISA , and they provide support for many charities , including Children 's Miracle Network , Ronald McDonald House , and March of Dimes . They have raised over US $ 100 million for these and other charitable causes . Despite their philanthropic work , the Hogettes are disliked by some and have even been attacked by fans of opposing teams .
= = History = =
The origin of the Hogettes can be traced to October 1983 when Michael Torbert ( Mikey T. ) , founder of the group , went to a Halloween party at his grandmother 's retirement home wearing one of her old dresses as a costume . The costume was such a hit that he gathered a group of men who he " thought were tough enough to go out in public in a dress . " The group would go to children 's hospitals to cheer up sick children . On November 27 , 1983 , the group attended their first Washington Redskins football game in full drag , but with the addition of pig snout masks , in reference to The Hogs , the nickname of the Redskins offensive line players .
Led by Mikey T. , now known as " Boss Hogette " , the group became regular fixtures at Redskins home games , both at their old home of RFK Stadium and their new home of FedExField . The group made more than 100 appearances each year for charitable events , and Mikey T. and two other Hogettes were inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as " ultimate " Redskins fans . There were a total of 27 members of the group from 1983 to 2012 , with twelve active members at conclusion . Though they have considerable notoriety , they receive no special treatment or official recognition from the Redskins . After the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season , the Hogettes announced they would be retiring their iconic outfits after 30 years of appearances .
= = = Origin of the name = = =
In the 1980s , the Washington Redskins ' Offensive Line coach , Joe Bugel , began to refer to his linemen as " Hogs " . The Hogs were credited for much of the Redskins success in the 1980s and early 1990s , including four Super Bowl appearances and three Super Bowl wins in a 10 @-@ season period from 1982 to 1991 . The group began wearing pig noses and named themselves " The Hogettes " in reference to the Hogs and to the Washington Redskins ' official cheerleaders , originally known as the " Redskinettes . "
= = Philanthropy = =
The Hogettes organized and attended charitable events in the Washington , D.C. , area for over twenty years . In that time , they helped raise more than US $ 100 million for various charities , including Children 's Miracle Network , Ronald McDonald House , and March of Dimes . Upon reaching this landmark value , Howard " Howiette " Churchill remarked , " That 's a lot of money for a bunch of fat old grandpas in pig noses and dresses . " Among these events were golf tournaments , including the Hogettes ' annual charity golf tournament , walk @-@ a @-@ thons , truck rallies , galas , and other charity benefits .
While some of their charitable efforts went toward helping their local community , most of the money they raise goes toward helping children . " Hogette for a Game " was an annual fund raiser . In 1995 , Nick " Nickette " Nerangis ' wife bought him this package . He subsequently became a substitute Hogette for several years before becoming an official member in 2002 . One female fan has , for several years , served as " Hogette for a Game " through winning annual auctions . In 2000 , she raised more than $ 11 @,@ 000 for children 's charities in order to attend one game with the Hogettes that season .
In an online interview with fans , Torbert stated " You ... have to have a sense of humor for many things from day to day . It is tough to be humorous when the [ Redskins ] lose , but it 's even tougher to face a sick child in a hospital room , and cheer them up with our humorous looks . That 's tough . "
= = National exposure = =
In addition to gaining national exposure through their outrageous costumes and continuous work with charitable organizations , the Hogettes were guests on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , and were featured in a VISA television commercial . Despite their generous philanthropy and positive attitude in the stands , not everyone appreciated the Hogettes . Longtime Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke and Daniel Snyder — the current owner — both failed to embrace the Hogettes . The group was called " incredibly obnoxious " and " annoying " , and were attacked in the infamous 700 Level at Veterans Stadium in Philadelphia by angry Philadelphia Eagles fans .
= = Members = =
In addition to the 12 final season members , there were 15 retired " official " Hogettes , as well as numerous temporary and substitute members , including winners of the " Hogette for a Game " auction .
= = Retirement = =
On January 11 , 2013 , founder Michael Tolbert announced that the Hogettes were retiring after 30 years , telling the Washington Post , " 30 seasons is enough of guys in pig snouts and dresses . " Tolbert further states , “ It ’ s a new era . It was great seeing RGIII and Alfred Morris break onto the scene , and it ’ s a perfect time to retire the old era and start the new . ” The Hogettes insist that they will continue to be fans of the Redskins and do charity work in the Washington area .
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= Smile ( Lily Allen song ) =
" Smile " is the debut single by British recording artist Lily Allen from her debut studio album Alright , Still ( 2006 ) . It was written by Allen , Iyiola Babalola and Darren Lewis , while sampling The Soul Brothers ' " Free Soul " . The song was released as the lead mainstream single of the album in July 2006 . After signing a contract deal with Regal Recordings and gaining popularity on the social network website Myspace with demo songs , Allen released a limited edition of " LDN " to promote her work and afterwards announced the release of " Smile " .
The song incorporates rocksteady music , as the lyrics tackle her dealing with the betrayal of her boyfriend , while enjoying his misery . Most contemporary critics complimented the song , noticing the confidence it hides and the carnival @-@ esque , yet melancholy , theme . On the other hand , some considered it was not one of the album 's best tracks and it makes the singer a " theoretical pop princess " . The single peaked inside the top 40 of the charts of some European countries and Australia , while staying on the summit of the UK Singles Chart for two consecutive weeks and ended the year as the country 's 11th most successful song . It is also charted on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , where it was certified gold .
For promotion , " Smile " was re @-@ recorded in Simlish and played on shows ; it also received its own answer song . The accompanying music video portrayed a revenge theme , with Allen hiring a posse to beat her ex @-@ boyfriend . It was directed by Sophie Muller and , afterwards , banned on MTV due to obscene language . The song was performed live many times , including on talk shows , her 2007 concert tour and also during her 2009 concert tour , though Allen claimed to be " sick " of it . In 2008 , it won a Pop Award at the London Broadcast Music Incorporated Awards .
= = Background = =
After meeting George Lamb on a holiday in Ibiza , Allen made him her manager . Lamb later introduced the singer to production duo Future Cut , with whom she had written and produced demos , which were sent to various labels . In 2005 , Allen was signed to Regal Records , who gave her £ 25 @,@ 000 to produce an album . The singer considered it to be a " small development idea " , as they were also unable to provide much support for it due to their preoccupation with other releases . Taking advice from Lady Sovereign , the singer created an account on MySpace and began posting demo songs in November 2005 . By March 2006 , they attracted thousands of listeners , and 500 limited edition 7 " vinyl singles of one of the demos , a song titled " LDN " , were rush @-@ released and sold for as much as £ 40 . Allen also produced two mixtapes to promote her work . As she accumulated tens of thousands of MySpace friends , The Observer Music Monthly took interest . Few people outside of her label 's A & R department had heard of Allen , so the label was slow in responding to publications who wanted to report about her . Her label wasn 't pleased with the sound of the demos , so they assigned the singer to " more mainstream producers and top @-@ line writers " . After that , they finally approved some of her songs , being confident of their inclusion on the album . " Smile " was among the chosen ones , that Allen claimed she was happy with . It was the first song she had ever written , claiming :
When I set out to do this I knew I wanted to make songs that sounded a ) up to date and now and b ) really organic . Because you can 't get really good players without spending loads of money these days , the only other option is to sample . The first song I ever wrote was ' Smile ' . We just went through about seven or eight sample lyrics , found a beat , put it all in ... Then when it comes to writing lyrics I write ... like a rapper would , I suppose , with absolutely no melody involved whatsoever , I 'm just getting my flow sorted . Then I write the whole text of the song and then ad lib the melody into the microphone . It 's not terribly clever !
" Smile " was released as a single , and the maxi single format for it contains two B @-@ Sides , " Absolutely Nothing " and " Cheryl Tweedy " , which Allen struggled to get on the album , but lost them in favour of " Take What You Take " . The latter is a satirical song about celebrity , finding the commercial promotion side of the celebrity machine uncomfortable , while mentioning Girls Aloud member Cheryl Tweedy , but argued she doesn 't " have anything against her " .
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , " Smile " is a bubbly , mid @-@ tempo tune with " a barroom piano lick " , subdued horns and a reggae beat , singing in a light falsetto , while the organ riff contains a sample of Jackie Mittoo playing keyboards on the 1960s rocksteady song " Free Soul " by The Soul Brothers , also written by Mittoo . He and Clement Dodd received credit on the song as co @-@ writers . It was described to have a " cod @-@ reggae groove that smoulders like a barbecue " , as a guitar and piano were used for the background music , following the notes Gm — F as its basic chord progression . It is set in the time signature of common time , having a metronome of 96 beats per minute , and is played in the key of F major . Lyrically , the song describes Allen 's satisfaction in her former lover 's suffering , being in a vengeful mood : " At worst / I feel bad for a while , / But then I just smile / I go ahead and smile , " thus creating a contrast between " the peppy melody and brassy lyrics " . The inspiration for the song came from a real life experience , when Allen broke up with her then boyfriend , Lester Lloyd , resulting in a drug overdose and hospitalization for her depression . The singer claimed " I started to get depressed and anyone who suffers from depression knows that it can soon get so bad that you can 't get out of bed . It was then that I checked into the Priory . That was really tough as I was an emotional mess . [ ... ] The lyrics are definitely bitter @-@ sweet " . Allen said she later regretted the direct approach of her lyrics :
I 'm now less inclined to do that , because everything that I do say gets repeated in a way that I haven 't said it , or taken out of context and spun in some negative way — and it makes me really sad . I 'm not , like , a negative person . I 'm actually quite positive , but this industry has really made me feel angry and negative recently . I 'm not enjoying it at the moment .
= = Critical reception = =
" Smile " was met with mixed to positive reviews from music critics . According to Heather Phares of Allmusic , the song " has a silky verse melody that just barely conceals [ the singer 's ] spite " , while she keeps " her revenge sweet , the extra sting being given to it by the way she sounds like she 's singing about how ice cream or puppies or being in love makes her smile " . Blender reporter Jon Dolan claims that Allen " deploys a sugary melody as a Trojan horse for a smackdown on a douche @-@ bag ex @-@ boyfriend " , as Rob Webb from Drowned in Sound called " Smile " an " infectious slice of bouncing , carnival reggae that punches hard with its opening line : ' When you first left me / I was wanting more / But you were fucking that girl next door / What you do that for ? , ' " and went on to say that the theme of the song is melancholy , " set against breezy beats " , and while not being " an obvious TOTP contender on the surface , [ it ] is good but far from one of the LP 's choice cuts " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone gave a rather negative review , claiming the singer " doesn 't sound as if she 's trying too hard " , singing the song with a " breezy sha @-@ la @-@ la lilt that just made the song seem even nastier " . Later , he called Allen a " theoretical pop princess , who just entered the breakup @-@ song hall of fame " . Dom Passantino of Stylus suggested that " ' Smile ' gets burned off the lights by both Sean Paul and Abs when it comes to facsimiles of ' Uptown Top Ranking , ' but neither of them could bring the quality of lyricism the singer does , " while Slant Magazine reporter Sal Cinquemani was baffled as to why the song , which she " sings without a smirk of irony " , is a UK chart @-@ topper .
The reviewer from NME considered that the song sashays along with sass , while still remaining charming , and said that though it doesn 't mark Allen out as excellent dating material , as a soundtrack to the summer , " it ’ s a dead fackin ’ cert " . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters called " Smile " just as good as " LDN " , " its loose reggae arrangement augmented by the clever sample of Jackie Mittoo ’ s piano from the Soul Brothers ’ 60s rocksteady tune " Free Soul " , as Allen sings bitterly about her ex , with just a hint of vulnerability at first , before going to her friends for reassurance , and confronting the guy during the chorus with a mean @-@ spirited confidence that has us cheering inside " . While John Murphy of MusicOMH praised the song and its " gently lilting reggae rhythm " , Priya Elan from NME considered that the Althea & Donna groove of " Smile " is what made fans " fall for her in the first place " . The former argued that " even people who profess to hate pop music will secretly be tapping a foot to it and claiming it is just downright perfect pop for lolling around during the lazy warm , guaranteed to cheer the listeners up , no matter how down they 're feeling " . Other reviews came from The Guardian reporter Sophie Heawood , who didn 't consider the song as Allen 's greatest effort , but still thought she was far better than being called " the female Mike Skinner " .
In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 104 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Smile " was released to the iTunes Store in the United Kingdom in the spring of 2006 and spent its first week at number 1 on the iTunes chart , before entering the main UK Singles Chart at number thirteen , based on download sales alone . The next week , on the issue of 15 July 2006 , it rose to the summit of the chart , selling 39 @,@ 501 copies , knocking Shakira 's Hips Don 't Lie off the top spot and spending two consecutive weeks there . It later descended to number four , being replaced by McFly 's Please , Please . It was her very first single in her home country 's main charts , following a top 40 entry with the limited release of " LDN " the same year . It ended 2006 as UK 's 11th best selling single of the year . Allen was surprised at the success of it , stating : " Of course , I never thought the record would chart - I didn 't even think I 'd get a record contract " . She was named " one of the brightest hopes for domestic crossover rap " because of this single . The song shared similar success in Ireland , where it debuted on the issue of 6 July 2006 and peaked inside the top ten at six , holding on the chart for nine weeks . In mainland Europe , it broke the top 40 of most countries , but wasn 't as successful as in the singer 's home country . Notable successes were ten on the Dutch Top 40 , sixteen on the French Singles Chart and 21 on the Swiss Singles Chart . Across the ocean , " Smile " reached 14 on the ARIA Charts and in New Zealand peaked inside the top ten at six .
In North America , the song only managed to peak at 49 on the main Billboard chart in the U.S. on the issue of 24 February 2007 and spent 12 weeks on the chart . On the same week , it climbed to 29 on the Hot Digital Songs and , later in May , reached 35 on the Pop Songs and 20 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks . Despite its low position , " Smile " managed to slowly sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paid digital download and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 9 February 2009 ; it remained Allen 's highest @-@ charting single in the country until " 5 O 'Clock " which featured Allen , peaked at number 10 in 2011 . Nonetheless , " Smile " remains Allen 's highest @-@ charting song as a solo artist in the United States , as well as one of three entries ( after " Fuck You " and " The Fear " ) . It also peaked at 86 on the Canadian Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was released on 3 July 2006 . Having been directed by Sophie Muller , it contained a vengeance theme , similar to that of the song . It starts off with Allen sitting on the bed in her apartment , eating chocolate and cheeseballs . Interleaved , there are shots of her and her ex @-@ boyfriend spending time together appear as a memory . He is played by Elliott Jordan . As the bridge comes up , the scene changes to the singer standing on the corner of a street , talking to a man and paying him money . The man leaves and goes to some gangsters , giving them instructions and each a share of money . As Allen 's former lover walks down the street talking on his mobile phone , one of the gangsters pushes him into an abandoned playground ; where they are joined by a second gangster , and the pair give Allen 's ex a beating . In this time , Allen , witnessing the scene , smiles . She then meets with her bruised ex @-@ boyfriend , and takes him to a coffee shop . There , he tried to explain to her how he was beaten by the muggers , not knowing that , meanwhile , they were breaking down his apartment door and destroying his furniture and possessions , including scratching his gramophone records . The ex @-@ boyfriend leaves the table for a while , enough time for Allen to put laxative pills in his coffee ; upon returning , he drinks it and leaves the shop . After , he goes to his apartment , only to find it trashed and destroyed . Scavenging through what 's left , he happily finds the record box , thinking they are intact , but he suddenly gets diarrhoea as a result of the laxatives , but is unable to use his toilet , as it is clogged with his clothes . He goes to Allen 's apartment with his records , seeking consolation , unaware that she is laughing behind his back . As the video finishes , the scene changes to Allen walking down the street , at night , smiling , singing the last chorus , while her ex @-@ boyfriend , actually a disc jockey , is in a nightclub , getting ready to put his music , but finds out that all his records have been scratched .
After the video was banned on MTV in the United Kingdom , Allen commented regarding this in an inverview :
I got really offended when my single ' Smile ' got banned [ during after @-@ school hours ] from MTV in the U.K. because it had the word fuck in it . They said , ' We don 't want kids to grow up too quickly . ' But then you have Paris Hilton and the Pussycat Dolls taking their clothes off and gyrating up against womanizing , asshole men , and that 's acceptable . You 're thinking your kids are gonna grow up quicker because they heard the word fuck than from thinking they should be shoving their tits in people 's faces ?
DJ Ron Slomowicz of About.com criticised the music video , saying it was " mean @-@ spirited " , it would " alienate any sort of club fan base she might discover " , and that if a male " had his friends beating up his ex @-@ girlfriend , trashing her living space , drugging her and destroying her possessions , he would be branded as violent " and would be shunned , thus questioning the singer 's taste level .
= = Live performances and promotion = =
On the day the single was released , Allen appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge with DJ Jo Whiley , performing an acoustic version of " Smile " , and a cover of The Kooks ' song , " Naïve " . At the Secret Garden Party , in September 2006 , Allen made a rendition of the song and afterwards stated : " The festival was well good , particularly as Lester , my ex , who I wrote ' Smile ' about , and subsequently sold his story to the papers , had a tent called ' the shit tent ' positioned directly opposite the main stage . So he and his new girlfriend had no option but to watch me perform to a couple of thousand people singing ' Smile ' back to me . Oh , it 's the little things eh ! " " Smile " was performed live as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour . During the 2007 South By Southwest music festival , Allen said " I 'm so sick of this song , but I 'll play it for you , Austin " before singing it . On 3 February 2007 , the singer was invited as a musical guest on Saturday Night Live and played this single and " LDN " . In 2009 , it was on the setlist of Allen 's 2009 concert tour , as part of the encore .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Covers = = =
" Smile " received its own answer song when rapper Example recorded a track called " Vile " in 2006 , from We Didn 't Invent the Remix , with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics written from the boyfriend 's perspective . While it also features elements from Keith Allen 's single " Vindaloo " , Example added " I think Lily has heard the track . I gave it to her producer to play to her . We just did it for a laugh . Hip @-@ hop artists take life too seriously . " Upon hearing the reply single , Chris Moyles , from BBC Radio 1 , recorded his own parody version of the song for The Chris Moyles Show . Allen herself re @-@ recorded the single in Simlish , the fictional language used in The Sims games , to help promotion . The Simlish version was used in the Sims expansion pack The Sims 2 : Seasons soundtrack , and Allen also had her own character in the game . She declared : " Recording ' Smile ' was a great experience for me . Sometimes revenge can be fun . But getting to sing it again [ in Simlish ] came very naturally and it was hilarious to practice ! The silly language and whimsy of The Sims games are a perfect fit for the song . I was laughing the entire time ! " Also , an animated music video was made for the Simlish version .
= = = Media = = =
" Smile " appears on another video game soundtrack , that of Thrillville : Off the Rails , which is a theme park simulation . Among other citations , the song is present in the film He 's Just Not That Into You and featured on the 2007 Judd Apatow 's film Knocked Up and on the soundtrack . In 2009 , the season one episode " Mattress " of the Fox musical comedy / drama Glee , " Smile " was covered by the character Rachel , voiced by Lea Michele ; the version was made available as an iTunes single download and was later included on the second volume of the season one soundtracks .
In the first scene of the first episode of Big Bang Theory Penny is listening to Smile in her apartment when Leonard and Sheldon first meet her .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = = 2009 versions = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= New York State Route 33 =
New York State Route 33 ( NY 33 ) is an east – west state highway in western New York in the United States . The route extends for just under 70 miles ( 113 km ) from NY 5 in Buffalo in the west to NY 31 in Rochester in the east . It is , in fact , the only state highway that directly connects both cities , although it is rarely used today for that purpose . The westernmost 10 miles ( 16 km ) of NY 33 in Buffalo and the neighboring town of Cheektowaga have been upgraded into the Kensington Expressway . This section of NY 33 is one of several expressways leading out of downtown and serves as a main route to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport .
On the Rochester end , NY 33 primarily serves as a paralleling local route to Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) , of less importance to the area 's traffic patterns . Between the two cities , it is mostly a rural two @-@ lane highway . The largest location on this stretch is the Genesee County city of Batavia , where NY 33 reconnects to NY 5 and crosses NY 63 and NY 98 , two regionally important north – south highways . NY 33 overlaps with all three routes at one point or another as it traverses Batavia . A southerly alternate route , designated NY 33A , leaves NY 33 northeast of Batavia in Bergen and rejoins its parent in Rochester .
NY 33 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s , but only to the portion of its modern routing between Batavia and Rochester . It was extended on both ends — to Buffalo in the west and Marion in the east — as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , the eastern extension was eliminated in 1949 . In Buffalo , NY 33 was moved onto the Kensington Expressway in the mid @-@ 1960s , and its former surface routing along Genesee Street subsequently became the short @-@ lived New York State Route 33B . Smaller realignments in the years since have moved NY 33 's western terminus from the heart of downtown Buffalo to the northern fringe of the city 's center .
= = Route description = =
Most of NY 33 , including the entirety of the highway in Erie County , is state @-@ maintained ; however , two sections — from NY 5 to the eastern Batavia city line and all of NY 33 within the city of Rochester — are maintained by the cities of Batavia and Rochester , respectively .
= = = Kensington Expressway = = =
The Kensington Expressway was started in 1958 , and its construction radically changed the nature of the neighborhoods on the east @-@ side . The below grade construction was an attempt to minimize noise .
The highway begins as two one @-@ way streets , Goodell Street ( traveling west ) and East Tupper Street ( traveling east ) . Both intersect with NY 5 ( Ellicott Street ) in Buffalo , from where they serve as a one @-@ way couplet for three blocks before they merge to become the Kensington Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway . It initially travels through dense urban areas by way of a cut , in which both roadways are separated only by a Jersey barrier . The expressway runs past the Buffalo Museum of Science , located at Martin Luther King , Jr . Park , and through the middle of Humboldt Parkway in Buffalo , where the Scajaquada Expressway ( NY 198 ) leaves at the former exit for Main Street . The section of the expressway between the Scajaquada and Harlem Road ( NY 240 ) just outside the city limit is the busiest on all of NY 33 , handling in excess of 100 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in areas .
East of NY 198 , the road becomes more open as it passes through neighborhoods with a more suburban residential feel to them . Along this stretch , NY 33 connects to several streets , including Bailey Avenue ( U.S. Route 62 or US 62 ) and Harlem Road ( NY 240 ) . Past Harlem Road , the expressway makes a slight curve to the south as it prepares to meet a toll @-@ free section of the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) at a cloverleaf interchange . Beyond I @-@ 90 , the expressway veers to the south again , traversing an S @-@ curve before connecting to Union Road ( NY 277 ) by way of a partial interchange . After another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , NY 33 curves south under Genesee Street before joining it at a traffic light in front of the Buffalo Niagara International Airport .
= = = Buffalo Airport to Batavia = = =
Now returning to its pre @-@ Kensington route , NY 33 follows a six @-@ lane , divided Genesee Street past the airport on one side and numerous associated businesses such as hotels and fast food restaurants on the other . The large aerospace contractor Calspan has its headquarters here , and Westinghouse once operated a large industrial lathe plant on the airport side of the road ( it was torn down when the airport was rebuilt in the late 1990s ) . Beyond the airport , the divider ends , the travel lanes are reduced to four and , after a short curve and minimal descent , NY 33 intersects Transit Road ( NY 78 ) and enters the town of Lancaster . After this junction , the highway becomes a two @-@ lane route once again through the small hamlet of Bowmansville , where it crosses Ellicott Creek near some rapids .
For the next several miles , NY 33 runs parallel to the Thruway and very close to it , with both roads visible from the other . Much of this section of Lancaster has remained rural in character ; however , that began to change in the mid @-@ 1990s when Tops Friendly Markets , the regional supermarket chain headquartered in nearby Williamsville , chose a site near the Gunnville Road intersection for a major distribution center . It necessitated the widening of the highway and construction of a traffic light and turn lanes at its entrance .
NY 33 becomes a two @-@ lane route once again as it heads out into Alden and eventually joins another state @-@ maintained street radiating out from the city , Walden Avenue , unsigned NY 952Q . NY 33 and the Genesee Street name take over Walden 's straight , slightly north @-@ trending course as it leaves Erie County for Genesee County . In the latter , it intersects with NY 77 in the center of the first community it encounters , the small village of Corfu . At the Batavia town line , it becomes Pearl Street , a name it keeps until it reaches NY 98 within the city of Batavia .
= = = Batavia to Bergen = = =
In the knot of highways that is the Genesee County seat , NY 33 crosses and briefly overlaps with not only NY 5 , the other east – west route in town , but both north – south routes , NY 63 and NY 98 . While concurrent with NY 98 on Oak Street Extension , NY 33 passes over Tonawanda Creek , which travels through Batavia on a roughly northwest – southeast alignment . The brief overlap with NY 98 ends at Main Street , which carries NY 5 and NY 63 through the western portion of the city . NY 33 turns east here , overlapping with NY 5 and NY 63 for five blocks along the four @-@ lane , mostly commercial Main Street . NY 63 leaves in downtown Batavia at Ellicott Street ; however , NY 5 and NY 33 continue to follow Main Street through much of the city 's eastern half .
At the eastern fringe of Batavia , NY 33 splits in a northeast direction from NY 5 , becoming Clinton Street , and , once outside the city limits , Clinton Street Road . In the town of Batavia , the highway passes through a residential area on its way to a junction with Batavia – Stafford Town Line Road , a county road providing access to Genesee Community College , located about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north of NY 33 . The route continues on a northeastward course into the town of Stafford , where it crosses over the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision railroad line and the Thruway by way of overpasses less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . Unlike in Buffalo , there is no connection between NY 33 and the Thruway at this point .
It remains close to the Interstate Highway for about 4 miles ( 6 km ) , intersecting NY 237 less than a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the overpass taking that highway over the Thruway , but leaves it behind for good shortly thereafter as it turns even more to the north , taking it into the town of Bergen and the small village of the same name in the county 's northeast corner . Here , NY 33 crosses NY 19 , a long north – south route . Shortly afterward , NY 33A begins to the east while the main route turns to the north yet again and becomes Buffalo Road . Just east of this point , NY 33A connects to I @-@ 490 , which briefly runs along the Monroe County line through this area . From the west end of NY 33A to the county line , NY 33 and I @-@ 490 follow virtually identical northeasterly alignments .
= = = Monroe County = = =
Once across the county line , NY 33 crosses over the Rochester Subdivision rail line for a second time before returning to a more easterly orientation . It parallels the CSX main line and I @-@ 490 — both located a short distance to the south of NY 33 — into the village of Churchville , where the route has a brief concurrency with NY 36 . Farther east , NY 33 intersects NY 259 at North Chili and picks up another short concurrency with NY 386 as the suburbs begin at Gates . Here , NY 33 finally has a direct exit with I @-@ 490 . Also directly accessible from this junction is NY 531 , which begins about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to the north . At this point , I @-@ 490 trades positions with NY 33 as it continues to parallel the latter , but now to the north instead .
The route continues another 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to Gates Center , meeting Howard Road ( formerly part of NY 47 and still state @-@ maintained as unsigned NY 940L ) and crossing over , but not connecting to I @-@ 390 . A crossing of the Erie Canal soon follows , bringing the route into the city of Rochester . Across the city line , NY 33 runs along the Rochester Subdivision rail line for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , serving an industrial area built up along the north side of the railroad . It connects to Mount Read Boulevard by way of a signalized traffic circle before abruptly turning southward to pass under the tracks and meet up with West Avenue .
At West Avenue , NY 33 turns east into the densely populated western portion of the city , taking on the West Avenue name for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to a junction with Chili Avenue , which carries NY 33A into the city . Here , NY 33A completes its southern loop and NY 33 picks up its final designation as West Main Street . NY 33 travels east – northeast along Main Street to the junction of West Main and West Broad Streets adjacent to where I @-@ 490 passes over the former . NY 33 ends here , giving way to NY 31 , which enters from the north on Broad Street and continues to the east on Main Street . Nick Tahou Hots , a local restaurant , is located on the northwest corner of the junction .
= = History = =
= = = Designation = = =
NY 33 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s to the portion of its modern alignment east of NY 5 in Batavia . West of Batavia , what is now NY 33 was unnumbered and only partially state @-@ maintained . At the time , state maintenance of this segment began at the Buffalo city line and ended at current NY 77 in Corfu . The Corfu – Batavia segment was taken over by the state of New York in the late 1920s , and NY 33 was extended west over the now entirely state @-@ maintained Genesee Street to Main Street ( NY 5 ) in downtown Buffalo as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
At the same time , the route was extended east through Rochester to the Wayne County town of Marion 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the east . It was routed along West Main Street and East Avenue from NY 31 in Rochester to Penfield Road in Brighton , overlapping NY 15 ( now NY 96 ) from downtown Rochester to Brighton . NY 33 broke from NY 15 at Penfield Road and continued generally eastward on Penfield , Walworth – Penfield , and Walworth – Marion Roads through Brighton , Penfield and Walworth to Marion , where it ended at an intersection with NY 21 . The route was cut back to its current eastern terminus at the end of a brief over lap of NY 31 in downtown Rochester on January 1 , 1949 , at which time the portion of NY 33 's former routing east of NY 96 in Brighton was redesignated as NY 441 .
= = = Buffalo area = = =
Construction began c . 1961 on the Kensington Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway connecting downtown Buffalo to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport . The first section of the expressway was completed between 1962 and 1964 and extended from Michigan Avenue ( Harriet Tubman Way ) to Best Street . The remainder of the highway was completed c . 1965 , at which time NY 33 was realigned to follow the new expressway from Michigan Avenue to the airport . Its former routing on Genesee Street became NY 33B . There were once plans to extend the Kensington Expressway west to I @-@ 190 at exit 8 ; however , this extension was never built .
The western end of NY 33 has been located in downtown Buffalo since 1930 ; however , the exact location of its terminus has varied over time . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the northbound and southbound directions of NY 5 were split and rerouted to follow a series of streets through downtown Buffalo . Northbound NY 5 left the southbound direction at the north end of the Skyway and followed Church , South Division , Ellicott , and Chippewa Streets around downtown to Main Street , where both directions converged and continued north on Main Street . As a result , NY 33 was truncated eastward to the junction of Genesee and Ellicott Streets . At some point between 1979 and 1985 , a pair of ramps were constructed between the west end of the Kensington Expressway and Oak and Elm Streets , a pre @-@ existing one @-@ way couplet one block to the west of Michigan Avenue . NY 33 initially followed the new ramps to Genesee Street ; however , the route was altered in the latter half of the 1980s to connect to Ellicott Street ( by this point part of NY 5 north ) by way of Goodell and East Tupper Streets , another pre @-@ existing one @-@ way couplet .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 33 has one current alternate route and one former spur designation that has been reused multiple times .
NY 33A ( 17 @.@ 15 miles or 27 @.@ 60 kilometres ) is an alternate route in the Rochester area that was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
NY 33B is a designation that has been used for three different routes since the 1930s .
The original NY 33B was an alternate route of NY 33 through eastern Monroe and western Wayne counties . It was assigned c . 1931 and mostly renumbered to NY 31F when NY 33 was truncated to Rochester in 1949 .
The second NY 33B was assigned to Brooks Avenue and Genesee Park Boulevard between NY 33A and NY 383 in Gates and Rochester . It was assigned c . 1962 and removed c . 1965 . The Gates portion of its former routing is now part of NY 204 .
The third alignment was a spur in the Buffalo area that followed NY 33 's pre @-@ Kensington Expressway routing on Genesee Street . It was assigned c . 1965 and removed in the mid @-@ 1970s . The section of former NY 33B between current NY 33 and the Buffalo city line is now NY 952A , an unsigned reference route .
= = Major intersections = =
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= There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ sixth episode overall . Directed by Tricia Brock , with a story by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and a teleplay by Moskin , Phil Klemmer , and John Enbom , the episode premiered on The CW on February 6 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica aids a conservative Christian student named Bonnie Capistrano ( Carlee Avers ) in finding out who slipped her mifepristone , which caused a miscarriage . Meanwhile , Veronica becomes obsessed with Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) after becoming enraged that Madison and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) had sex while they were broken up . In addition , Veronica and Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) discover new information about Dean O 'Dell 's death .
Series creator Rob Thomas had planned this case of the week for " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " since the beginning of the season as one of what he considered " college @-@ age crimes " . In addition , the subplot involving Logan and Veronica 's breakup triggered a discussion in the writers ' room about Veronica 's character traits . The episode received 2 @.@ 40 million viewers in its original broadcast and mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN thought it was indicative of a general upward trend in the show 's quality , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club thought it was uneven .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica has a dream that she woke up in the middle of the winter with Logan , but she is plagued with visions of Madison . When she wakes up , she goes to the Hearst library , where Tim Foyle ’ s ( James Jordan ) girlfriend , Bonnie , asks her to investigate who slipped her RU @-@ 486 , which caused a miscarriage . When Veronica presses Bonnie further , she reveals that Tim or Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) could be the father , although Tim has been very supportive . Veronica asks Logan point @-@ blank whether Logan had sex with Madison over the winter , and he says yes , leading to a major fight , with Veronica saying she ’ ll never forgive him . Veronica speaks to Bonnie ’ s roommate , Phyllis ( Toni Trucks ) , who reiterates that Tim is being very supportive . Veronica successfully breaks into Tim ’ s office to investigate before realizing she doesn ’ t have the password . After Keith comforts Veronica due to her breakup , she bugs Tim ’ s office .
In her spare time , Veronica trails Madison out of envy . After ascertaining Tim ’ s password , Veronica finds out that Tim is also investigating the Dean ’ s suicide and that he was browsing a site named “ Neptune Women ’ s Clinic ” . Veronica visits the ministry of Bonnie ’ s father , Ted ( Chris Ellis ) as well as the clinic , although neither really help in the case . She also questions Anthony , one of the witnesses of the Dean ’ s death ( he heard the gunshot ) . Returning home , Veronica is greeted by Keith , who has received a letter with images of Veronica exiting the clinic . For revenge , they visit the publisher of the photos , but it doesn ’ t go well . Nevertheless , she does see a picture of one of Dick ’ s paramours , although she was not as intimate with him as Veronica thought . In the middle of the night , Mindy O ’ Dell ( Jaime Ray Newman ) contact Keith , telling him to hurry . It turns out that Steve Botando ( Richard Grieco ) was trying to break in , and while he is there , Keith finds out that Cyrus was planning on sending the O ’ Dell son to a disciplinary school and that Mindy was at the scene of Dean O ’ Dell ’ s death .
Veronica starts to suspect one of the church officials , and a bookmark shows her that Bonnie ’ s roommate was behind the RU @-@ 486 . Bonnie begins to lash out at Phyllis , but her father holds her back and says that she should not be quick to anger . Veronica had previously hired Weevil to destroy Madison ’ s car , but right before it is about to be crushed , she calls it off .
= = Production = =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " features a story by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and a teleplay by Moskin , Phil Klemmer , and John Enbom , marking Moskin and Mulei 's second writing credits for the series , Klemmer 's thirteenth writing credit for the show , and Enbom 's fourteenth credit . It was directed by Tricia Brock , her only episode of Veronica Mars . The actor who played the witness to Dean O 'Dell 's death had previously appeared as an extra in " Spit & Eggs " during a party scene , nonverbally interacting with Piz ( Chris Lowell ) . Series creator Rob Thomas enjoyed the cameo so much that he cast the actor as the witness character in this episode .
The scene in which Veronica rebuffs Logan for sleeping with Madison over winter break was the subject of a continuing debate in the writers ' room about Veronica 's character . Specifically , Enbom and Klemmer , two writers for the episode thought that Veronica should be less mistrustful , paranoid and jealous , while executive producers Thomas and Diane Ruggiero advocated for these traits in Veronica . Thomas illustrated their creative differences by stating that he enjoyed the film Chasing Amy , while Enbom did not .
Thomas drew inspiration for his point of view about Veronica 's character from his own life , stating , " I 've sort of gotten past this , but I certainly lived in that space for a long time . " Thomas had had the idea for this mystery of the week since the beginning of the season ; in an interview , he stated that he would like to include several " college @-@ age crimes " such as " this idea of a college girl getting pregnant , and someone getting the idea they 're doing her a favor by slipping her RU @-@ 486 . " The promos for the episode made it seem as though Veronica was pregnant .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " received 2 @.@ 40 million viewers , ranking 99th of 100 in the weekly rankings . This was a slight decrease from the previous episode , " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , which garnered 2 @.@ 69 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great . " He thought that it was indicative of an overall upward trend in the quality of Veronica Mars and praised the episode 's balance between the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and the Dean O 'Dell story arc . " Like last week 's episode , ' There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill ' benefited from integrating already established characters into a mystery of the week . " He was positive towards the mystery of the week in general , stating that it made him realize that it was possible to make good episodes with only a stand @-@ alone mystery . However , he was critical of the development of Veronica and Logan 's relationship , particularly Logan 's new character traits . " Let 's just hope they don 't get back together again next week , or anytime soon , because this horse has been beaten to death as it is . " Kelly West of Cinema Blend was positive towards the episode , calling it " jam @-@ packed with drama " . However , she stated that she would have enjoyed the episode more if Mac , Piz , Wallace , or Parker had made an appearance . Reviewer Alan Sepinwall enjoyed the pairing of Bonnie and her father , played by Chris Ellis .
Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club gave a mixed review , criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and finding it indicative of a " wobbly " season . He thought that the case of the week was predictable , stating that it was clear that Bonnie 's best friend was the culprit when the character was introduced . He also called the mystery " one of the weakest that the show has ever done . " However , he thought that there were some interesting character development possibilities stemming from the episode . Television Without Pity gave the episode a " C + " .
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= Hurricane Odile ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Odile was the second of three tropical storms to make landfall in Mexico during the 1984 Pacific hurricane season . The fifteenth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the active season , it developed from a tropical disturbance about 185 miles ( 300 km ) south of Acapulco on September 17 . Curving towards the northwest , Odile became a Category 1 hurricane on September 19 . The tropical cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) two days later ; however , Hurricane Odile began to weaken as moved erratically it encountered less favorable conditions and was downgraded to a tropical storm shortly before making landfall northwest of Zihuatanejo . Over land , the storm rapidly weakened , and dissipated on September 23 . The storm caused significant rainfall accumulations of 24 @.@ 73 inches ( 628 @.@ 1 mm ) in Southern Mexico , resulting in severe damage to tourism resorts . Flooding from Odile resulted in the evacuation of 7 @,@ 000 people , 21 deaths , and the damage of about 900 homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance was first noted about 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Acapulco on September 16 . After tracking over 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) waters , the disturbance began to strengthen , and became a depression at 1800 UTC on September 17 . The depression began to curve more towards the northwest beneath a narrow ridge located over southern Mexico and south of an upper @-@ level low over northern Mexico . About 24 hours after developing into a tropical cyclone , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Odile . By 0000 UTC September 20 , the EPHC reported that Odile had attained hurricane status while turning towards the east between the ridge and an upper @-@ level low .
Late on September 21 , Hurricane Odile reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) ( a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) as it approached Acapulco . Due to a combination of an upper level trough that moved southward over the Baja California Peninsula and the weakening of the ridge , the hurricane began to turn more northwestward . After maintaining peak intensity for 12 hours , Odile started to weaken , as the storm began to encounter cooler sea surface temperatures . The hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while approaching the coast of Mexico ; within a six @-@ hour period , the winds diminished from 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . By late on September 22 , Odile made landfall about 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwest of Zihuatanejo , with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Less than six hours later , at 0000 UTC on September 23 , Odile ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone . While its surface circulation rapidly weakened over the mountains of western Mexico , the remnants of Odile moved northwest , passing east of Manzanillo before weakening as it re @-@ curved towards Texas .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Heavy rainfall was recorded across Southern Mexico , with the maximum rainfall totals in Costa Azul and Acapulco , where it caused 24 @.@ 73 in ( 628 mm ) of rainfall . In all , Odile and a few other systems brought the heaviest rains to the region since 1978 . Acapulco Mayor Alfonso Arugdin Alcaraz reported that flooding damaged roughly 900 homes , inundated 30 miles ( 50 km ) of highways , triggered an evacuation of 7 @,@ 000 people , and left 20 @,@ 000 families without water service . However , these reports were not confirmed because telephone circuits between Acapulco and Mexico City were down .
Commercial flights in Acapulco were suspended on September 21 , only to be resumed on September 23 , though the airline terminal remained flooded by more than 3 ft ( 910 mm ) of water . Cites such as Zihuatanejo along the coast were left without electricity since the hurricane had knocked down two high @-@ tension towers . A total of 44 riverbanks and 30 @,@ 000 residents were isolated due to flooding . Eighteen passengers and three crewman drowned on the Atoyac River . In addition , tourism resorts in Acapulco and Ixtapa @-@ Zihuatenejo suffered severe damage . Officials estimated that hotels were only 5 % full .
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= Hubert Brooks =
Hubert Brooks MC ( December 29 , 1921 – February 1 , 1984 ) was a Canadian RCAF officer and ice hockey player who won a gold medal at the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz . He joined the RCAF in 1940 and served during World War II , being shot down during his second mission over Germany in 1942 . He was taken as a prisoner of war to Stalag VIII @-@ B , from where he tried several unsuccessful escape attempts prior to making it to occupied Poland and joining the Polish Underground State as a guerrilla . He rose through the ranks of the rebel force , undertaking raids and assassinations against the Nazi occupation until the end of the conflict . He was one of only five RCAF members to receive the Military Cross for his actions and his award carried the longest citation of them all .
Brooks returned to Canada by way of Russia in 1945 , and worked for the Missing Research and Enquiry Service for two years . He was then selected to join the Ottawa RCAF Flyers , who represented Canada at the 1948 Winter Olympics and captured the gold medal in the ice hockey tournament . After a series of exhibition games in Europe , he returned to Canada and entered military intelligence , serving at various posts until 1971 , at which point he retired to take up an administrative position at the University of Ottawa . He died in 1984 and one of the student dorms , the Brooks Residence , is named in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Brooks was born on December 29 , 1921 in Bluesky , Alberta . During the Great Depression his family moved out of the prairie provinces to Ottawa and Montreal , where he received an education in French and first learned to play ice hockey . In July 1940 , he applied to join the Royal Canadian Air Force and was accepted that August into the special reserve at the rank of Air Craftsman 2 . The " special reserve " was created at the onset of World War II as a section whose members could be terminated at any time , so that the force could easily return to its pre @-@ conflict size at the end of hostilities .
Brooks trained in Brandon , Manitoba through October prior to being sent to a Winnipeg equipment depot to serve as a guard . He then undertook several training phases across the country in Regina , Saskatchewan , London , Toronto , Malton , and Fingal , Ontario , and finally Rivers , Manitoba , prior to graduating in August 1941 as a Navigator - Bomb Aimer . Arriving in Britain at the end of September , he was sent to RAF Kinloss the following month and trained there until February 1942 , when he joined the 419 Tactical Fighter Training Squadron . On April 8 – 9 , during only his second mission , he was shot down during a bombing raid and landed near Oldenburg , Germany , where he was quickly taken as a prisoner of war and sent to Dulag Luft .
= = Activities in Germany and Poland = =
Brooks arrived in Stalag VIII @-@ B in April 1942 , and switched identities with a New Zealand army private , Frederick Cole , so that he would be available to be placed on work detail ( members of the air force were not permitted to be part of working parties ) . In June he was able to escape from a coal @-@ mining work camp with an Irish soldier , and fled to occupied Poland , but was soon captured in Kraków and returned to Stalag VIII @-@ B by the end of the month . He was sentenced to two weeks of solitary confinement , but retained his secret identity .
By September Brooks was back at a work camp , this time in Svitavy in the Sudetenland . He escaped that month with five other men , this time making it to Lüneburg inside a coal train prior to his recapture . Sent to a prisoner of war camp near Wiener Neustadt , he once more tried to escape but failed , suffered a severe beating at the hands of the Germans , and was again sent back to Stalag VIII @-@ B for two weeks of solitary confinement . Working as a truck helper from a saw mill in Toszek , he slowly acquired maps of Europe and the surrounding region as well as contact information for the Polish Underground State . Having escaped twice already , he risked transfer to a special punishment camp if caught again but , nevertheless , he fled his detention once more , this time with a Scottish soldier by the name of John Duncan , in May 1943 .
The duo was eventually smuggled into occupied Poland where they contacted the Polish Underground in Częstochowa and joined the guerrilla movement Armia Krajowa . Posing as a Polish laborer working in a jam factory , he served on patrols , raided food convoys , and assassinated members of the Gestapo during a probationary period . After the camp was attacked in December , which not only killed several resistance members but also caused a split in the group , the reduced force continued its operations until February 1944 , when retaliation for a raid on a police garrison lowered their membership to a critical point .
By March , however , Brooks ' unit had grown to 110 men and he was promoted to Second Lieutenant and put in charge of a band of 40 soldiers , including Duncan . His guerrilla activities expanded to include larger raids , reprisal attacks , and the assassination of more important members of the Nazi regime . He would later earn the Polish Cross of Valor for helping lead over 100 of his men out of a German encirclement to safety without a single casualty . He made his way to the Russian front line in January 1945 , and was eventually transferred from Lviv to Odessa , Port Said , Cairo , and finally London , where he arrived in March 1945 .
Promoted to the rank of Warrant Officer during his tenure as a prisoner of war , Brooks was informed upon his arrival that his father had died in May of the previous year . He returned to Canada in June . He was awarded the Military Cross for his actions during the conflict , as well several other campaign and achievement medals such as the 1967 Canadian Centennial Medal and the silver Polish Cross of Merit with Swords . He was one of only five RCAF members to receive the Military Cross during World War II ( as it is primarily granted to soldiers serving in Army units ) and his citation was the longest .
= = MRES and 1948 Winter Olympics = =
Eventually promoted to Temporary Flying Officer , Brooks began working for the Missing Research and Enquiry Service ( MRES ) , which was an initiative to locate individuals from the Commonwealth of Nations who were missing or killed in action during World War II over hostile territory . He worked with the service for nearly two years , from November 1945 through July 1947 , as a Search Officer in Denmark , Norway , and as a Section Leader in the American Zone of Germany . Brooks and a colleague sailed a fishing smack around Cape Nordkinn in the Arctic Circle , the most northerly coastal point of the mainland of Europe , in the search for missing airmen . It was during his tenure with MRES that he met his wife Birthe . He also played ice hockey during his downtime in Scandinavia with the U.S. Army Allstars , and was selected to be a member of Canada 's national delegation to the 1948 Winter Olympics . This squad , known as the Ottawa RCAF Flyers , consisted entirely of members of the Royal Canadian Air Force .
The team 's first exhibition game , a 7 @-@ 0 defeat for the Flyers against the McGill Redmen , led to calls for the squad being scrapped and replaced with collegiate players . After a subsequent 6 @-@ 2 loss against the Army , several players from the Ottawa New Edinburghs were added to the lineup and , by the time that the team was set to depart for St. Moritz , ten of the original eighteen members had been replaced , although Brooks remained .
In the end the Canadians captured the gold medal at the Olympic tournament . Although Brooks remained a reserve player and did not see any time on the ice , he did receive a gold medal and was selected to be his nation 's flag bearer during the opening ceremonies . On February 9 , the day after the final , he was finally afforded the opportunity to marry his fiancee Birthe in a ceremony that included Barbara Ann Scott , a Canadian Olympic gold medalist in figure skating , as a bridesmaid . He then joined the rest of the squad on an exhibition series across Europe , winning thirty @-@ four and drawing five of forty @-@ four games prior to returning to Canada in April . Brooks , along with the rest of the Flyers , was inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame in 2008 .
= = Later life = =
Following the Olympics , Brooks returned to the RCAF to work in the field of military intelligence . He was first posted in the Maritimes in 1954 , and stayed there for several years until heading to Paris , France to be a staff officer at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) . He then returned to Canada to work at an RCAF station in Moisie , Quebec from 1965 through 1967 , as the first fully bilingual RCAF officer . From there he served at the Canadian Armed Forces Headquarters in Ottawa from 1967 through 1971 , during which time he was sent to assess the severity of Quebec 's 1970 October Crisis . Following his 1971 retirement from the Armed Forces , he took up a position as an administrator at the University of Ottawa , eventually rising to the position of Housing Director . Brooks died on February 1 , 1984 of a heart attack while sitting at his desk . Four years later , the university named one of the student residences in his honour .
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= Aaliyah ( album ) =
Aaliyah is the third and final studio album by American R & B singer Aaliyah . It was released on July 7 , 2001 , by Blackground Records and Virgin Records America . After raising her profile with hit soundtrack singles during the late 1990s , Aaliyah started to work on the album in 1998 , but rescheduled its recording around her developing film career . She resumed recording the record in 2000 at Sing Sing Studios in Australia , where she shot her role for the 2002 film Queen of the Damned during the day and recorded songs at night . Aaliyah worked primarily with Blackground 's in @-@ house crew of writers and producers , including Bud 'da , J. Dub , Rapture , and Eric Seats , as well as longtime collaborator Timbaland .
Aaliyah is an R & B and neo soul record with music drawing from funk , hip hop , alternative rock , and electronica , among other styles . The producers incorporated synthesizer melodies , fragmented beats , distorted guitar , and eccentrically manipulated vocals and song structures . Much of Aaliyah dealt with the complexities of romantic love and different stages in a relationship . Most of the songs were written by lyricist Static Major , who shared a close friendship and strong rapport with Aaliyah . She viewed the album as a reflection of herself as both a young adult and a matured vocalist .
Aaliyah received highly positive reviews from critics and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , but sold diminishingly afterwards . When Blackground and Virgin wanted a high charting single to increase the album 's sales , Aaliyah shot a music video for the song " Rock the Boat " in the Bahamas , but died in a plane crash on a return flight to the United States on August 25 , 2001 . After her death , sales of the album skyrocketed and propelled it to number one on the Billboard 200 . Aaliyah was released during a period of peak activity in contemporary R & B and , since its initial reception , has been cited by critics as one of the best R & B records of its time .
= = Background = =
Aaliyah released her second album One in a Million in 1996 , and graduated from high school the following year . She gained further exposure with radio hits from film soundtracks , including her 1998 single " Are You That Somebody ? " . After it became the biggest hit of her career at that point , Aaliyah wanted to keep a lower profile and avoid overexposure . A follow @-@ up record was planned for February 1999 , but she postponed its recording to develop an acting career , which led to a starring role in the 2000 film Romeo Must Die . The film heightened her profile significantly , while the soundtrack 's single " Try Again " became her first number @-@ one pop hit . Her label Blackground Records used the film and its soundtrack to set up a distribution deal with Virgin Records America , which would distribute Blackground 's subsequent releases globally , including her self @-@ titled third album .
= = Recording and production = =
Aaliyah began recording the album in 1998 . She recorded a few songs , including two with longtime collaborator Timbaland , before working on Romeo Must Die . In 1999 , while working on the record in New York City , Aaliyah called and asked Trent Reznor , one of her musical idols , to produce a song , but they could not coordinate their schedules . She intended to finish the album by the end of 2000 and resumed its recording while filming in Australia for Queen of the Damned ( 2002 ) , as she shot her part for the film during the day and recorded songs at night . She said in an interview for Billboard , " there were nights when I didn 't go into the studio — I was too tired . On the weekends , I always made it . " Jomo Hankerson , Blackground president and Aaliyah 's cousin , said that he had to " bribe the producers " , who did not want to " go halfway around the world ! " , but ultimately had " a beautiful time ... making hot music " .
Most of the album 's songs were recorded at either Sony Studios in New York City or Sing Sing Studios in Melbourne , including " Loose Rap " , which was done at both studios . Aaliyah recorded " More Than a Woman " at Manhattan Center Studios , " U Got Nerve " at Soundtracks Studios in New York City , " We Need a Resolution " at Westlake Studios , and " I Care 4 U " at Magic Mix Studios and Music Grinder Studios in Los Angeles . She had first recorded " I Care 4 U " , written by past collaborator Missy Elliott , in 1996 for One in a Million , but scrapped it after that album 's completion . Aaliyah worked with Blackground Records ' in @-@ house crew of musicians , songwriters , and producers , including novice producers Bud 'da , J. Dub , Rapture , and Eric Seats . Music manager Jimmy Henchman , a friend of Aaliyah 's manager Barry Hankerson , helped coordinate the record 's production and arranged for the producers and writers to work with Aaliyah .
Static from the R & B band Playa wrote most of the album 's lyrics . While his band was growing apart , he was invited by Blackground to be a lead writer for the album after writing " Are You That Somebody ? " and " Try Again " . Static was a part of Aaliyah 's close group of friends , which included Missy Elliott and Timbaland , and shared an infatuation with her . He found Aaliyah to be ideal for his songwriting style , while she believed that he could accurately portray her feelings . A subtly sexual lyricist , he wrote " Rock the Boat " for her in 1999 , but Blackground felt she was not ready for the song . Barry Hankerson said of his songwriting , " We always were protective over every lyric ... But he did things where you never felt offended . You just felt like you overheard someone thinking ... he was clever ... Aaliyah depended on him [ and ] he depended on her . " Elliott said that he was " a part of that bridge of Aaliyah growing up lyrically " . While she discussed the lyrics with Static , Aaliyah consulted Bud 'da about the sound and musical direction of the album . She was interested in learning about the UK garage scene at the time .
In March 2001 , Aaliyah finished recording the album after having filmed her part in Queen of the Damned for four months , which ultimately delayed the album 's release . In Australia , she also did a photo shoot for Aaliyah with photographers Jeff Dunas , Jonathan Mannion , David LaChapelle , and Albert Watson . Aaliyah handled five pythons at the shoot and developed an affinity for snakes , finding them " dangerous , but quite beautiful " and representative of her on the album . She revisited the snake theme in her music video for " We Need a Resolution " in April and told MTV , " They live in solitude , [ and ] there are times in my life [ when ] I just want to be by myself . There are times I can 't even figure myself out . I feel they are very complex creatures , [ but ] at the same time , they 're sexy , too . That 's why they represent Aaliyah pretty well . " She described the record as " a good reflection of [ myself ] and the person [ I am ] today " , saying in an interview for Jet magazine , " I am a young adult now , and I think this album shows my growth vocally . " Aaliyah was mastered by Bernie Grundman at his studio in Los Angeles .
= = Music and lyrics = =
An R & B and neo soul album , Aaliyah featured midtempo funk songs , hip hop @-@ textured uptempo tracks , and slow jams that draw on older soul influences . Along with contemporary urban sounds , its music incorporated Middle @-@ Eastern influences , muted alternative rock , and , particularly on Timbaland 's songs for the album , Latin timbres . " Never No More " mixed both older soul and modern hip hop sounds with string arrangements by producer Bud 'da , while " Read Between the Lines " was a rhythmic digital samba with Latin percussion . Aaliyah 's production featured synthesizer melodies , vintage syndrums , distorted guitar , staccato arrangements , and layered , eccentrically manipulated vocals . John Mulvey of NME found its sound subtle and lacking " bombast and histrionics " , while the magazine 's Alex Needham likened its " otherworldly " , high frequency production to dub reggae and the dark , spacious dance music of Dr. Dre and Massive Attack . In Stephen Thomas Erlewine 's opinion , the album was distinct from the older soul leanings of Macy Gray and Jill Scott , as its music was unconventional yet modern , " turning out a pan @-@ cultural array of sounds , styles , and emotions " .
Aaliyah 's beats were produced to sound fragmented , exhibiting techno and electro textures . Tracks such as " Loose Rap " , " Extra Smooth " , and " What If " featured unconventional song structures experimenting with resolution . " I Can Be " and " What If " incorporated 2 @-@ step and rock elements , although the latter song drew particularly from Detroit techno and industrial rock . On the club @-@ influenced " More Than a Woman " , Aaliyah sang over harsh @-@ sounding synthesizer and guitar sounds , while " Loose Rap " featured underwater noises , low @-@ key electronica in the style of the Neptunes , and harmonically soft vocals declaring " it ain 't just rhythm and blues " . Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone compared the album 's experimentation to the sounds on OutKast 's Stankonia ( 2000 ) , Sade 's Lovers Rock ( 2000 ) , and Missy Elliott 's Miss E ... So Addictive ( 2001 ) . According to Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani , " like Elliott 's genre @-@ bending So Addictive , Aaliyah provides a missing link between hip @-@ hop and electronica . "
The lyrics on Aaliyah explored the intricacies of romantic love and phases in a relationship such as heartache , frivolous infatuation , and issues near the end of a relationship . Subtle , lighthearted humor and witty sound effects such as comical vocal manipulation interspersed the themes of heartbreak and eroticism . According to Citysearch 's Justin Hartung , the record " transforms the confusion of young adulthood into exhilarating freedom " . Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In observed female empowerment @-@ themed songs that showed a " healthy self @-@ respect " by Aaliyah , who " doesn 't put up with unfaithful cads ( ' You Got Nerve ' ) , mind games ( ' I Refuse ' ) , self @-@ impressed hunks ( ' Extra Smooth ' ) , gossip and envy ( ' Loose Rap ' ) , or physical abuse ( ' Never No More ' ) " . The key @-@ shifting , drum and bass @-@ influenced " Extra Smooth " addressed an enthusiastic courtship and was inspired by a conversation between Aaliyah and Static about how men try to act suave , while " Loose Rap " was titled after the slang phrase of the same name and dismissed romantic admirers who use trite pick @-@ up lines . " Those Were the Days " dispassionately dismissed a male lover , while " What If " angrily threatened an unfaithful lover and by extension similar men . On " I Care 4 U " , the narrator tried to console a friend who is heartbroken , but found herself distressed by unrequited feelings she has for him .
Aaliyah sang with restrained soprano vocals throughout the album . Vibe magazine 's Hyun Kim argued that its songs drew focus to her singing more than her previous records , " bringing it to the forefront as opposed to hiding it behind the layered production " . " Rock the Boat " was sung with breathless vocals by Aaliyah , who instructed her lover on how to please her sexually and equated her erotic high to a drug high . Ballads such as " I Care 4 U " , " Never No More " , and " I Refuse " were sung more emotively , expressing melancholy qualities and hurt . On " I Can Be " , Aaliyah sang from the perspective of an adulterous man 's mistress who wanted to be his foremost girlfriend . Alex Macpherson from The Guardian wrote that " Aaliyah 's blank , numbed delivery " on the song " makes being the other woman seem like an emotionally masochistic form of self @-@ medication " . Biographer Christopher John Farley said she " emotionally detailed a song " unlike on her previous albums and that " her gentle voice now seemed like something elemental , a kindly wind blowing through the branches of a big tree . " According to Joshua Clover , Aaliyah pushed musical notes " into strange corners of syncopation 's shifty architecture " on the more " shape @-@ defying " tracks . He wrote that " she makes the sonics tell the story , creating meaning outside the lyrics , pleasure beyond the hooks . "
= = Release and reception = =
After Aaliyah was released in July 2001 , it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 albums chart , selling 187 @,@ 000 copies in the week of August 4 . Although it was the highest sales week of Aaliyah 's career , the album initially sold slower than her previous record , One in a Million . Blackground and Virgin , which had invested heavily in Aaliyah 's commercial performance , wanted a single with a high chart placement to help increase sales . " We Need a Resolution " had been released as the lead single on April 13 , but underperformed on radio and only reached number fifty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . In August , Aaliyah shot a music video for " More Than a Woman " in Los Angeles and then travelled to the Bahamas to shoot a video for " Rock the Boat " . But after its completion , she and several crew members who were returning to the United States died in a plane crash on August 25 . Blackground executives were uncertain when they would release the album 's next single and video .
The album 's sales skyrocketed after Aaliyah 's death . Before her death , its sales had been diminishing since the album 's release in July and stood at more than 447 @,@ 000 copies sold . News of her death was reported on the last day of Nielsen SoundScan 's sales tracking week , during which Aaliyah sold 62 @,@ 000 copies , a 41 @.@ 5 % increase from its past week 's sales . The following week , it sold 305 @,@ 500 copies and ascended from number 19 to number one on the Billboard 200 . It was the record 's highest sales week and marked the first time a recording artist climbed to number one posthumously since John Lennon in 1980 with his album Double Fantasy . It was also Aaliyah 's only album to top any of Billboard 's charts . The record sold more than one million copies by September 19 and 2 @.@ 06 million copies by February 25 , 2002 . In the US , Aaliyah spent 68 weeks on the Billboard 200 and , by December 2009 , had sold 2 @.@ 6 million copies .
Blackground , which had ended its joint deal with Virgin in November , wanted to send the video for " More Than a Woman " to domestic outlets , but it required both labels to work together . Blackground subsequently moved to Universal Records , and the video was first aired in Europe . In the United Kingdom , " More Than a Woman " was released as a single on January 7 , 2002 , and entered the singles chart at number one , while Aaliyah re @-@ entered the albums chart at number 65 ; it had originally entered the chart at number 25 on July 28 , 2001 . Two weeks after " More Than a Woman " reached number one , the album jumped 17 spots to number five on January 27 , 2002 . Aaliyah went on to spend 31 weeks on the British charts . It also reached number nine on the record charts in France , Germany , and the Netherlands , where it charted for 33 , 41 , and 46 weeks , respectively .
Aaliyah received highly positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 76 , based on 14 reviews . Michael Odell of The Guardian called it a flawless blend of pop and R & B that was " as much a brochure for the current state of R & B production facilities " as it was a showcase for Aaliyah 's singing . He found the music 's textures " scintillating " and believed its distinguishing characteristic to be " a playful and confident reworking of the [ R & B ] canon " . In the Chicago Tribune , Brad Cawn wrote that Aaliyah demonstrated Sade 's grace and Missy Elliott 's daring with fashionable neo soul that was " equal parts attitude and harmony , and all urban music perfection " , while Russell Baillie from The New Zealand Herald deemed the music innovative dance @-@ pop on what he called " a cohesive , detailed and disarmingly enticing album " . Simon Price , writing for The Independent , cited the record as " further evidence that black pop is the avant garde " . In a review for The A.V. Club , Nathan Rabin argued that the album established Aaliyah as a significant artist unobscured by her collaborators , while Hardy from Rolling Stone called it " a near @-@ flawless declaration of strength and independence " in which Aaliyah explored her " fantasies and strengths " . Writing for Spin , Clover viewed the record as her most profound work and said she had made " art " out of Timbaland and Static 's " formal finesse " by " investing sound schemes with urgency and emotional intricacy " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Connie Johnson from the Los Angeles Times found the production unadventurous and felt the lyrics lacked the depth and " personal revelation that gives music some immediacy " . Mulvey deemed Aaliyah " graceful " and " satisfying rather than extraordinary " in his review for NME , saying although it was redeemed by Static 's consistent songwriting , Timbaland should have contributed more songs . Like Mulvey , Q remarked that its music was decent rather than innovative , with some filler . In Entertainment Weekly , Craig Seymour wrote that there were a few songs that strayed from her musical strengths , but elsewhere she " skillfully portrays love as part woozy thrill , part pulse @-@ racing terror " . Robert Christgau gave the record a three @-@ star honorable mention , indicating " an enjoyable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure " . In his column for The Village Voice , he named " We Need a Resolution " and " U Got Nerve " as highlights and called Aaliyah " a slave to her beats , but a proud slave " .
Aaliyah was named the best album of 2001 by Slant Magazine and one of the ten best records of the year by The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution and Time magazine . NME ranked it at number 39 on their year @-@ end list . The album finished 73rd in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice . Christgau , who created and supervised the poll , said Aaliyah finally " developed material nobody can deny " on " a good album " . The record also finished 37th in the annual poll run by German music magazine Spex . For the album , Aaliyah was posthumously awarded an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Female Artist . At the 2002 American Music Awards , it won in the category of Favorite R & B / Soul Album . In 2002 , Aaliyah received a Grammy Award nomination for Best R & B Album . " Rock the Boat " was nominated for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance . " More Than a Woman " was nominated in the same category in 2003 . In 2005 , Aaliyah was ranked number 66 on GQ 's 2005 list of the " 100 Coolest Albums in the World " . Stylus Magazine ranked it 47 on their list of the " Top 50 Albums of 2000 – 2005 " ; the publication 's David Drake ranked it eighth on his own list . Vibe included it as one of their " 150 Essential Albums of the Vibe Era " in 2007 . A few years later , Aaliyah was named by Slant Magazine as the 72nd best record of the 2000s decade .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Along with Aaliyah 's burgeoning film career , the album was a part of her rising mainstream success in 2001 . In a retrospective review , Steve Huey from AllMusic called it her most consummate record and said it " completed the singer 's image overhaul into a sensual yet sensitive adult " . Erlewine , the website 's senior editor , called the album " a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward " , while BBC Music 's Daryl Easlea felt it made Aaliyah 's two previous accomplished albums " look like exercises in juvenilia " . According to PopMatters critic Quentin B. Huff , she had never used her singing to complement her music 's innovative production before with as much variety , conviction , and success as on Aaliyah , which he said was also known as " The Red Album " because of its red artwork . Huff believed the record showcased the growing rapport between Aaliyah and her collaborators , and disproved questions about how she would continue recording music while broadening her profile . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Keith Harris wrote " Aaliyah had grown from studio puppet to a powerful R & B archetype — a more self @-@ aware Ronnie Spector for a time that requires more self @-@ awareness of its young adults . "
Before her death , Aaliyah had planned to embark on the largest concert tour of her career to support the album . Her recording sessions for Aaliyah produced many leftover tracks that were posthumously archived by Blackground and mostly left unreleased because of internal conflicts and legal complications between the label , Aaliyah 's family , and the producers . The compilation album I Care 4 U was released in 2002 and featured six previously unreleased songs from the sessions for Aaliyah .
Aaliyah 's re @-@ emergence with the album in mid @-@ 2001 had coincided with a period of peak activity in contemporary R & B , as well as the popularity of neo soul . According to Erlewine , Aaliyah was " one of the strongest urban soul records of its time " , while The Guardian cited it as the peak of R & B 's golden age at the " turn of the century " . Alexis Petridis , the newspaper 's lead critic , believed Aaliyah had recorded her most engaging music in a year when R & B and hip hop demonstrated the most creativity in popular music . The Guardian 's Rebecca Nicholson attributed Timbaland 's subsequent commercial success with singers such as Justin Timberlake and Nelly Furtado to his experience producing Aaliyah , writing that he " hasn 't come close to creating anything as sonically stunning since " . Although Jon Caramanica from Vibe believed it " redefines the category " , he said Aaliyah " may be the best soul album of the young millenium " , calling its music " daring in construction , gorgeous from conception ... damn near post @-@ R & B " . Q journalist Eve Barlow credited the album for " creating a blueprint that can be heard across pop music today " with acts such as R & B singers Beyoncé and The Weeknd , and indie pop band The xx .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Anna of East Anglia =
Anna ( or Onna ; killed 653 or 654 ) was king of East Anglia from the early 640s until his death . He was a member of the Wuffingas family , the ruling dynasty of the East Angles . He was one of the three sons of Eni who ruled the kingdom of East Anglia , succeeding some time after Ecgric was killed in battle by Penda of Mercia . Anna was praised by Bede for his devotion to Christianity and was renowned for the saintliness of his family : his son Jurmin and all his daughters – Seaxburh , Æthelthryth , Æthelburh and possibly a fourth , Wihtburh – were canonised .
Little is known of Anna 's life or his reign , as few records have survived from this period . In 631 he may have been at Exning , close to the Devil 's Dyke . In 645 Cenwalh of Wessex was driven from his kingdom by Penda and , due to Anna 's influence , he was converted to Christianity while living as an exile at the East Anglian court . Upon his return from exile , Cenwalh re @-@ established Christianity in his own kingdom and the people of Wessex then remained firmly Christian .
Around 651 the land around Ely was absorbed into East Anglia , following the marriage of Anna 's daughter Æthelthryth . Anna richly endowed the monastery at Cnobheresburg . In 651 , in the aftermath of an attack by Penda on Cnobheresburg , Anna was forced to flee into exile , perhaps to the western kingdom of the Magonsæte . He returned to East Anglia in about 653 , but soon afterwards the kingdom was attacked again by Penda and at the Battle of Bulcamp the East Anglian army , led by Anna , was defeated by the Mercians , and Anna and his son Jurmin were both killed . Anna was succeeded by his brother , Æthelhere . Botolph 's monastery at Iken may have been built in commemoration of the king . After Anna 's reign , East Anglia seems to have been eclipsed by its more powerful neighbour , Mercia .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Anna was the son of Eni , a member of the ruling Wuffingas family , and nephew of Rædwald , king of the East Angles from 600 to 625 . East Anglia was an early and long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom in which a duality of a northern and a southern part existed , corresponding with the modern English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk .
Anna was married , according to Bede , who refers to the saint Sæthryth as " daughter of the wife of Anna , king of the East Angles " . In Abbott Folcard 's Life of St Botolph , written in the 11th century , Botolph is described as having been at one time the chaplain to the sisters of a king , Æthelmund , whose mother was named Sæwara . Folcard names two of Sæwara 's kinsmen as Æthelhere and Æthelwold . Since these are the names of two of Anna 's brothers , Steven Plunkett suggests that it is " tempting " to consider that Sæwara was married to Anna , and that Æthelmund might either be Anna 's full name , or the name of an otherwise unknown East Anglian sub @-@ king . The Liber Eliensis names Hereswith , the sister of Hild , abbess of Whitby , as Anna 's wife and the mother of Sæthryth , Seaxburh of Ely and Æthelthryth . However , the Liber Eliensis is regarded with caution by historians : Rosalind Love says that the mediaeval writers who interpreted Bede 's information about Hereswith made an " erroneous assumption " regarding her connection with Anna and his family . Historians now believe that Hereswith was Anna 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and that around the time that she married into the East Anglian royal family , Anna had already been king for a decade .
In 631 Anna was probably at the Suffolk village of Exning , an important settlement with royal connections , and , according to the Liber Eliensis , the birthplace of his daughter Æthelthryth . By tradition , Æthelthryth is said to have been baptised at Exning in a pool known as St Mindred 's Well . Exning was an important place strategically , as it stood just on the East Anglian side of the Devil 's Dyke , a major earthwork stretching between the Fen edge and the headwaters of the River Stour , built at an earlier date to defend the East Anglian region from attack . An early Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery discovered there suggests the existence of an important site nearby , possibly a royal estate or regio .
= = King of the East Angles = =
= = = Accession and rule = = =
During 632 or 633 Edwin of Northumbria , with his centre of Christian power north of the River Humber , was overthrown . Edwin was slain and Northumbria was ravaged by Cadwallon ap Cadfan , supported by the Mercian king , Penda . The Mercians then turned on the kingdom of the East Angles and their king , Ecgric . At an unknown date ( possibly in the early 640s ) , they routed the East Anglian army and Ecgric and his predecessor Sigeberht were both slain . D. P. Kirby has suggested that as Sigeberht was alive when the Irish monk Fursey left for Gaul and found Erchinoald , ( which happened after Erchinoald became Mayor of the Neustrian palace in 641 ) , Sigeberht was probably killed around 640 or 641 . Penda 's victory marked the end of the line of kings of the East Angles who were directly descended from Rædwald . Some time after Penda 's victory , Anna became king of the East Angles , though the date of his accession is quite uncertain . The Liber Eliensis says that Anna died in the nineteenth year of his reign , and since he died in the mid @-@ 650s this would indicate a date around 635 . However , the Liber Eliensis is regarded by some historians as unreliable on this point , and Barbara Yorke suggests a possible date in the early 640s for Anna 's accession , noting that it could not have been after 645 as Anna is recorded as giving refuge to Cenwalh of Wessex in that year . It is probable that Anna became king with the assistance of the northern Angles . Throughout his reign he was the victim of Mercian aggression under Penda , but he also seems to have challenged the rise of Penda 's power . The British medievalist David Dumville has written that due to their rivalry for control over the Middle Anglian people , Mercia and East Anglia probably became hereditary enemies and Penda repeatedly attacked the East Angles from the mid @-@ 630s to 654 .
Anna arranged an important diplomatic marriage between his daughter Seaxburh and Eorcenberht of Kent , cementing an alliance between the two kingdoms . It was by means of marriages such as this that the kings of Kent could become well @-@ connected to other royal dynasties . Not all of Anna 's daughters were married into other royal families . During the 640s Anna 's daughter Æthelburg and his stepdaughter Sæthryth entered Faremoutiers Abbey in Gaul to live religious lives under abbess Fara . The first royal Anglo @-@ Saxons to become nuns , they made religious seclusion " an acceptable and desirable vocation for ex @-@ queens and royal princesses " , according to Barbara Yorke .
D. P. Kirby uses the presence of East Anglian princesses living under the veil in Gaul as evidence of the Frankish orientation of Anna 's kingdom at this time , continued since the reign of his predecessor Rædwald . The Wuffingas dynasty may have been connected with monastic foundations in the area around Faramoutiers through Anna 's predecessor Sigeberht , who had spent several years as an exile in Gaul and had become a devout and learned Christian due to his experiences of monastic life .
In 641 Oswald of Northumbria was slain in battle by Penda ( probably at Oswestry in Shropshire ) . Due to his death , Northumbria was split into two . The northern part , Bernicia , accepted Oswald 's brother Oswiu as their new king , but the southern Deirans refused to accept him and were ruled instead by a king of the original Deiran house , Oswine . Soon afterwards Cenwalh of Wessex , the brother of Oswald 's widow and himself married to Penda 's sister , renounced his wife . In 645 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Penda drove Cenwalh from his kingdom and into exile . During the following year , while a refugee at Anna 's court , he was converted to Christianity , returning in 648 to rule Wessex as a Christian king . Anna probably provided military support for Cenwalh 's return to his throne .
Anna 's hold on the western limits of his kingdom , which bordered on the Fen lands that surrounded the Isle of Ely , was strengthened by the marriage in 651 ( or slightly later ) of his daughter Æthelthryth to Tondberht , a prince of the South Gyrwe , a people living in the fens who may have been settled in the area around Ely . Æthelthryth , accompanied by her minister Owine , travelled from Ely to Northumbria when she married for the second time , to Ecgfrith .
= = = Exile = = =
During his reign Anna endowed the monastery at Cnobheresburg with rich buildings and objects . The monastery was built in about 633 by Fursey after he arrived in East Anglia . In time , weary of attacks on the kingdom , Fursey left East Anglia for good , leaving the monastery to his brother Foillan . When in 651 Penda attacked the monastery , Anna and his men arrived and held the Mercians back . This gave Foillan and his monks enough time to escape with their books and valuables , but Penda defeated Anna and drove him into exile , possibly to the kingdom of Merewalh of the Magonsætan , in western Shropshire . He returned to East Anglia in about 654 .
= = = Death , burial place and successors = = =
Soon after 653 , when Penda made his son Peada the ruler of the Middle Angles ( but still continued to rule his own country ) , the Mercian assault on East Anglia was repeated . The opposing armies of Penda and Anna met at Bulcamp , near Blythburgh in Suffolk . The East Anglians were defeated and many were slain , including King Anna and his son Jurmin . Anna 's death is mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle in the entry for 653 or 654 , " Her Anna cining werð ofslagen ... " – ' Here Anna was killed ' – but no other details of the battle in which he died are given .
Blythburgh , a mile from Bulcamp and situated near the fordable headwaters of the Blyth estuary , was afterwards believed to be the location of the tombs of Anna and Jurmin . It is a candidate for a monastic site or a royal regio ( estate ) . According to Peter Warner , the Latin derivation of part of the nearby place @-@ name ' Bulcamp ' indicates its ancient origins , and mediaeval sources which claim continuous Christian worship at Blythburgh throughout the Anglo @-@ Saxon period provide circumstantial evidence of its connections with East Anglian royalty and Christianity . Part of an 8th @-@ century whalebone diptych or writing @-@ tablet , used for liturgical purposes , has been found near the site .
Saint Botolph began to build his monastery at Icanho , now conclusively identified as Iken , Suffolk , in the year that Anna was killed , possibly to commemorate the king . Anna was succeeded in turn by his two brothers Æthelhere and Æthelwold , who may have ruled jointly . It is possible that Æthelhere was set up as a puppet ruler by Penda or was his ally , as he was one of the 30 duces that accompanied Penda when he attacked Oswiu of Northumbria at an unidentified location called the Winwæd in 655 or 656 . Penda himself was killed at the Winwæd , after having steadily increased his power over a period of 13 years . Æthelhere ( who was also slain at the Battle of the Winwæd ) and Æthelwold were succeeded by the descendants of Anna 's youngest brother , Æthelric .
Bede praised Anna 's piety in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and modern historians have since regarded Anna as a devout king , but his reputation as a devoted Christian is mainly because he produced a son and four daughters who were all made into Anglo @-@ Saxon saints . Five hundred years after his death , his tomb at Blythburgh was ( according to the Liber Eliensis ) still " venerated by the pious devotion of faithful people " .
= = Descendants = =
Anna 's children were all canonised . The eldest , Seaxburh , was the wife of Eorcenberht of Kent . She ruled Kent from 664 until her son Ecgberht came of age . Æthelthryth , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , founded the monastery at Ely in 673 . Another daughter , Æthelburh , spent her life at the nunnery of Faremoutiers . Anna 's son , Jurmin , was of warrior age in 653 when he was killed in battle .
By tradition , Anna is said to have had a fourth daughter , Wihtburh , an abbess at Dereham ( or possibly West Dereham ) , where there was a royal double monastery . She may never have existed : Bede fails to mention her and she first appears in a calendar in the late 10th century Bosworth Psalter . She may have been a character specifically created by the religious community at Ely , where her remains were supposed to have been taken after being stolen from Dereham and subsequently used as visual proof of the incorruptibility of a saint 's body , a substitute for her sister Æthelthryth , whose body had to remain unexamined in her tomb . Manuscript F of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which dates from about 1100 , mentions Wihtburh 's death when it records that her body was found uncorrupted in 798 , 55 years after she died . The resulting date for her death of 743 is too far too late for her to have been a sister of Æthelthryth , who was born in 636 .
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= Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes ( Japanese : マーヴル VS . カプコン クラッシュ オブ スーパー ヒーローズ , Hepburn : Māvuru bāsasu Kapukon : Kurasshu obu Sūpā Hīrōzu ) is a crossover fighting game developed and published by Capcom . It is the third installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series , which features characters from Capcom 's video game franchises and comic book series published by Marvel Comics . The game debuted in Japanese arcades in January 1998 . It was ported to the Dreamcast and PlayStation , which were released from 1999 through 2000 . The game was re @-@ released in 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 as part of the Marvel vs. Capcom Origins collection .
Players select a team of characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents . In contrast to the series ' previous entry , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , the game features characters from numerous Capcom video game franchises , rather than strictly Street Fighter characters . While the gameplay is largely identical to its predecessor , Clash of Super Heroes features two distinct changes : the removal of the traditional character assist system and the introduction of the " Variable Cross " attack .
The Dreamcast version of the game was praised for its visuals , gameplay , and translation of the original arcade experience . Due to the PlayStation 's limited RAM capacity , Capcom removed tag team battles in an attempt to preserve the game 's speed and graphical integrity . Consequently , the PlayStation port received mixed reviews . A sequel to Clash of Super Heroes , Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , was released in 2000 .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes is the third entry in the Marvel vs. Capcom series of 2D fighting games . The game utilizes similar tag team @-@ based game mechanics to its predecessor , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter . Before starting each match , the player selects a team of two fighters to compete in one @-@ on @-@ one combat . The player is free to swap between their characters at any point during battle . While one character fights , their teammate resting off @-@ screen slowly regenerates their life gauge . The first team to exhaust their opponent 's vitality wins the match ; however , if the timer runs out before either team is knocked out , the player with the most remaining health is declared the winner .
Clash of Super Heroes features two significant gameplay changes from Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter . The game removes the " Variable Assist " feature used in the previous installment , which allows the player to summon their offscreen teammate to perform a special attack , in favor of the " Guest Character / Special Partner " system . While similar in function , guest characters are randomly allocated to each player at the beginning of a match . They are also limited to a few uses per round . Clash of Super Heroes introduces a new technique called the " Variable Cross " , also known as a " Duo Team Attack " . When executing a Variable Cross , the player can attack their opponent with both characters simultaneously for a limited time . In addition , the player is given unlimited use of the " Hyper Combo Gauge " , a colored meter towards the bottom of the screen which allows the player to perform several special techniques , allowing them to pull off multiple Hyper Combos , moves which deliver heavy damage to the opponent , in quick succession .
= = = Modes = = =
The Dreamcast version of Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes includes five game modes : Arcade , Versus , Training , Survival , and Cross Fever . In Arcade Mode , the player must defeat several artificial intelligence @-@ controlled teams to reach the final boss character , Onslaught , a character from the X @-@ Men comic book series . Upon completion , the player views a cinematic ending unique to each playable fighter . In Versus Mode , two players can choose their characters , handicap level , and stages before competing against each other in battle locally . The player can practice moves and combos in Training Mode , where they can also adjust certain settings , such as AI difficulty , and the number of bars available in the Hyper Combo Gauge . In Survival Mode , the player fights through waves of enemies with a time limit ; in addition , the player 's life gauge is carried over through each round . Cross Fever Mode allows four players to simultaneously compete in a two @-@ on @-@ two match . In place of Cross Fever , the PlayStation version features an exclusive mode called Cross Over . Cross Over is the only mode in the PlayStation port that permits tag team gameplay , which was removed due to the console 's limited RAM capacity .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes features a roster of 15 playable fighters . Unlike Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , which limited itself to characters from the Street Fighter series , Clash of Super Heroes uses characters from other Capcom video game franchises , such as Darkstalkers , Mega Man , and Strider . The game features 20 unplayable guest characters , drawn from the Marvel and Capcom universes , which are used for support during battle . Guest characters from Marvel Comics include Cyclops , Jubilee , and Thor , while the Capcom side includes Arthur from Ghosts ' n Goblins , the Unknown Soldier from Forgotten Worlds , and Saki Omokane from Quiz Nanairo Dreams . The roster also contains six secret characters , which are accessed by inputting codes on the character select screen . Most of the secret characters are palette swaps of existing fighters with different moveset properties , such as Shadow Lady , a modified version of Chun @-@ Li ; the sole exception to this trend is Roll from the Mega Man series .
= = Development and release = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was originally developed for the CP System II arcade system board . A direct Dreamcast port was revealed by the Computer Entertainment Software Association at the 1998 Tokyo Game Show . The Dreamcast version added the new game mode , Cross Fever , which permitted four @-@ player gameplay . The game later received a PlayStation port . However , the console 's RAM limitations required the developer to remove certain features , most notably the game 's tag team element ; thus , most game modes were restricted to two @-@ character battles , instead of four . This reduced the player 's secondary character to an assist role , similar to guest characters . To overcome the limitations , the PlayStation version had to implement a new gameplay mode called Cross Over . Cross Over Mode allows tag team play by forcing the players to fight with identical teams . For example , if Player 1 chooses Spider @-@ Man and Player 2 chooses Ryu , then Ryu and Spider @-@ Man would automatically be selected as Player 1 and Player 2 's secondary characters , respectively . The game also added an art gallery , where players could view game art and ending animations . Many frames of animation were also omitted as a result of insufficient RAM , particularly in larger character sprites .
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes debuted in Japanese arcades on January 23 , 1998 . The game was released on the Dreamcast on March 25 , 1999 in Japan , and October 7 , 1999 in North America . A European version for the Dreamcast , published by Virgin Interactive , was released on June 23 , 2000 . The game was ported to the PlayStation on November 11 , 1999 in Japan , where it was renamed Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes EX Edition . North America received the PlayStation version later on January 27 , 2000 .
A high @-@ definition version of the game was released , alongside Marvel Super Heroes , as part of the Marvel vs. Capcom Origins collection . Built using the arcade ROM , the compilation sought to maintain the original 's gameplay experience , while adding new features such as online multiplayer , challenges , and replay saving . It was released through the PlayStation Network on September 25 , 2012 in North America and October 10 , 2012 in Europe . The Xbox Live Arcade version was released in both North America and Europe on September 26 , 2012 . Following the apparent expiration of Capcom 's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics in 2013 , Marvel vs. Capcom Origins was removed from online stores in December 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was released to generally favorable reviews . Aggregating review site GameRankings gave the Dreamcast and PlayStation versions scores of 80 % and 75 % , respectively .
Upon its release on the Dreamcast , Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes received positive reviews for its animation quality and fast gameplay . Game Informer lauded the game for its " seamless animation , in @-@ your @-@ face effects , and lightning @-@ quick gameplay " . In addition , the magazine praised the Dreamcast version for being a " flawless " translation of the original arcade version . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot also praised the visuals and combat , stating that it was " everything you 'd expect from an over @-@ the @-@ top , ultra @-@ flashy fighter " . Game Revolution , on the other hand , felt that Clash of Super Heroes lacked depth . The site criticized the Dreamcast port for not adding any significantly new features from the arcade version .
The PlayStation port received more mixed reviews than its Dreamcast counterpart . Gerstmann heavily faulted the game for its removal of tag team battles . He claimed that while it had " the same moves as the original game ... the shell surrounding those moves [ was ] completely different " . Doug Perry of IGN labeled the PlayStation version as " an average game " , praising its gameplay and lasting appeal , while criticizing its selection of fighting styles and soundtrack . GamePro praised the developer for making the decision to remove features in order to keep the speed and graphical integrity of the game without overloading the system ; however , they still recommended the Dreamcast version over it .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel to Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was announced by Capcom on December 1 , 1999 . The game , titled Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , was initially developed for the Sega NAOMI arcade board , marking Capcom 's first attempt at a fighting game outside of the CP System II and III hardware systems . It features several significant gameplay changes from Clash of Super Heroes , such as three @-@ on @-@ three tag team battles , a new character assist system , and a more simplified control scheme . Marvel vs. Capcom 2 also includes a roster of 56 playable fighters , drawing numerous character sprites from Capcom 's previous Marvel @-@ licensed fighting games . Following its release in Japanese arcades in 2000 , the game received ports to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox , Xbox 360 , and iOS devices over the course of twelve years .
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= Galaxy Supernova =
" Galaxy Supernova " is the eighth Japanese single by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation . It was included on the group 's third Japanese studio album Love & Peace and was released as the second single from the album on September 18 , 2013 . The song was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan , Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan , Kamikaoru , and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard , whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya . Musically , " Galaxy Supernova " is an electropop song .
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who praised its music styles and compared the song to the group 's previous Japanese singles " Mr. Taxi " and " Paparazzi " . The song peaked at number three on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and number four on the Japan Hot 100 . A music video for the track was released on September 5 , 2013 . To promote the song , Girls ' Generation performed live on music shows Secret Live and Live Monster in Japan .
= = Background and release = =
" Galaxy Supernova " was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan , Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan , Kamikaoru , and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard , whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya . It is an electropop song that features " pulsing " synthesizers in its composition . It was released as the second single from Girls ' Generation 's third Japanese album Love & Peace on September 18 , 2013 . The album was subsequently released in December 2013 .
It was released as a CD single in Japan by Nayutawave Records , and includes the B @-@ side track " Do the Catwalk " . Meanwhile , the digital single was released in several Asian countries including Japan , Hong Kong , Singapore and Taiwan by Universal Music Group . A limited CD + DVD edition of the single , which included a bonus music video for " Galaxy Supernova " , was released in Japan by Nayutawave Records . " Galaxy Supernova " was used in an advertisement campaign for Samantha Thavasa Jeans , the first jeans line from Japanese fashion company Samantha Thavasa , in conjunction with the group 's endorsement deal with the brand .
= = Reception = =
" Galaxy Supernova " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard praised the song 's catchy " earworm hooks " and compared it to the group 's previous Japanese singles " Mr. Taxi " and " Paparazzi " for the same electropop production . Patrick St. Michael , writing for The Japan Times , picked " Galaxy Supernova " as one of the outstanding songs that " play to [ the group ] ' s strengths " on its parent album Love & Peace and labelled it a successor to " Mr. Taxi " .
" Galaxy Supernova " was a commercial success in Japan . The single took the number four spot on its first day of release on Oricon Daily Singles Chart . The following day , it rose to the number one spot on the Daily Chart , selling 14 @,@ 565 physical copies . It peaked at number three on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart , and became the eighth best @-@ selling physical single of September in Japan , selling 62 @,@ 371 copies .
" Galaxy Supernova " debuted at number 39 on the Japan Hot 100 — a chart operated by Billboard magazine — on September 23 , 2013 . The following week , it rose to number four on the chart , which later became its peak . It dropped to number nine on the chart the following week . On the Japan Adult Contemporary Airplay chart , the single debuted at number 75 on September 23 , 2013 , and later peaked at number six on September 30 , 2013 . " Galaxy Supernova " also peaked at number 22 on the Hot Top Airplay , and number two on the Hot Singles Sales . The song 's music video was the sixth most @-@ viewed K @-@ pop music video on YouTube in 2013 .
= = Music video and promotion = =
The accompanying music video for " Galaxy Supernova " , directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki , was released on September 5 , 2013 . The video features the members wearing multicolored jeans and outfits , dancing in a " flashy virtual reality world " , as described by Benjamin . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video was released on September 20 , 2013 , featuring scenes from the photo shoot for the Samantha Thavasa Jeans collection as well as the group practicing their choreography .
To promote the song in Japan , the group gave a Secret Live performance of " Galaxy Supernova " and " Gee " to 200 fans in Tokyo on the release day of the single and held a " Premium Talk " event on September 19 in Osaka . On November 4 , 2013 , the group held a live event in Tokyo for 500 people who bought the single . The group performed the song and the Japanese version of " Genie " on the Japanese television music show Live Monster on January 12 , 2014 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the single 's liner notes .
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= Richard Riot =
The Richard Riot was a riot on March 17 , 1955 ( Saint Patrick 's Day ) in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The riot was named after Maurice Richard , the star ice hockey player for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Following a violent altercation on March 13 in which Richard hit a linesman , NHL president Clarence Campbell suspended him for the remainder of the 1954 – 55 NHL season , including the playoffs . Montreal fans protested that the suspension was too severe ; the team 's largely Francophone fan base claimed the length of the suspension was motivated by Richard 's French Canadian ethnicity . Outside of Montreal , however , the suspension was seen as justified and , if anything , too short .
On March 17 , Campbell appeared at the Montreal Forum for the Canadiens ' first game after Richard 's suspension . His presence provoked a riot at the Forum that spilled into the streets . The riot caused an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 in property damage , thirty @-@ seven injuries , and 100 arrests . Tensions eased after Richard made a personal plea accepting his punishment and promising to return the following year to help the team win the Stanley Cup . The incident likely cost Richard the 1954 – 55 scoring title ( an honour Richard never achieved in his NHL career ) and played a role in the off @-@ season departure of longtime Canadiens head coach Dick Irvin .
= = Background = =
Maurice Richard was the star player for the Montreal Canadiens , and it was common for opponents to provoke him during games . Teams reportedly sent players onto the ice to purposefully annoy him by yelling ethnic slurs , hooking , slashing , and holding him as much as possible . Throughout his career , Richard was fined and suspended several times for retaliatory assaults on players and officials , including a $ 250 fine for slapping a linesman in the face less than three months before the March 13 , 1955 incident . Richard was considered the embodiment of French @-@ Canadians and was a hero during a time when they were seen as second @-@ class citizens . He was revered when he fought the " damn English " during games . In his book , The Rocket : A Cultural History of Maurice Richard , Benoît Melançon compares Richard to Major League Baseball 's Jackie Robinson by stating that both players represented the possibility for their minority groups to succeed in North America .
During the 1950s , Quebec 's industries and natural resources were controlled primarily by English Canadians or Americans . French @-@ speaking Quebecers were the lowest @-@ paid ethnic group in Quebec , which resulted in a sense that control rested with the Anglophone minority . Because of this and other factors , there had been growing discontent in the years before the riot . In early 1954 , Richard 's teammate , Bernie Geoffrion , was suspended in a move seen as anti @-@ Francophone . Following the suspension , Richard , who had a weekly column in the Samedi @-@ Dimanche newspaper , called President Campbell a " dictator " in print . The League in turn forced Richard to retract his statement and discontinue his column . In his 1976 biography of Richard , Jean @-@ Marie Pellerin wrote that his humiliation was shared by all Francophone Quebecers , who were sent running once more by the " English boot " . This was reflected in a Montreal newspaper 's editorial cartoon ( pictured ) , which portrayed Richard as an unruly schoolboy made to write lines by Campbell , shown as the teacher ; the cartoon had a deeper meaning as an example of the societal hierarchy that existed between English and French Canadians .
= = Incident = =
On March 13 , 1955 , an on @-@ ice episode sparked one of the worst incidents of hockey @-@ related violence in history . On that date in Boston , Richard was part of a violent confrontation in a game in between the Canadiens and their rival Boston Bruins . The Bruins ' Hal Laycoe , who had previously played defence for the Canadiens , high @-@ sticked Richard in the head during a Montreal power play . Richard required five stitches to close a cut that resulted from the high @-@ stick . Referee Frank Udvari signaled a delayed penalty , but allowed play to continue because the Canadiens had possession of the puck . When the play ended , Richard skated up to Laycoe , who had dropped his stick and gloves in anticipation of a fight , and struck him in the face and shoulders with his stick . The linesmen attempted to restrain Richard , who repeatedly broke away from them to continue his attack on Laycoe , eventually breaking a stick over his opponent 's body before linesman Cliff Thompson corralled him . Richard broke loose again and punched Thompson twice in the face , knocking him unconscious . Richard then left the ice with the Canadiens ' trainer . According to Montreal Herald writer Vince Lunny , Richard 's face resembled a " smashed tomato . " Richard was given a match penalty and an automatic $ 100 fine , and Laycoe a five @-@ minute major penalty plus a ten @-@ minute misconduct for the high stick .
Boston police attempted to arrest Richard in the dressing room after the game ended , but were turned back by Canadiens players who barred the door , preventing any arrest . Bruins management finally persuaded the officers to leave with a promise that the NHL would handle the issue . Richard was never arrested for the incident . He was instead sent to the hospital by team doctors after complaining of headaches and stomach pains .
The Laycoe incident was Richard 's second altercation with an official that season , after having slapped a linesman in the face in Toronto the previous December , for which he was fined $ 250 . Upon hearing the referee 's report , league president Clarence Campbell ordered all parties to appear at a March 16 hearing at his office in Montreal .
= = Hearing = =
The game 's on @-@ ice officials , Richard , Laycoe , Montreal assistant general manager Ken Reardon , Boston general manager Lynn Patrick , Montreal coach Dick Irvin , and NHL referee @-@ in @-@ chief Carl Voss attended the March 16 hearing . In his defence , Richard contended that he was dazed and thought Thompson was one of Boston 's players . He did not deny punching or attacking Laycoe .
After the hearing , Campbell issued a 1200 @-@ word statement to the press :
… I have no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that the attack on Laycoe was not only deliberate but persisted in the face of all authority and that the referee acted with proper judgment in awarding a match penalty . I am also satisfied that Richard did not strike linesman Thompson as a result of a mistake or accident as suggested … Assistance can also be obtained from an incident that occurred less than three months ago in which the pattern of conduct of Richard was almost identical , including his constant resort to the recovery of his stick to pursue his opponent , as well as flouting the authority of and striking officials . On the previous occasion he was fortunate that teammates and officials were more effective in preventing him from doing injury to anyone and the penalty was more lenient in consequence . At the time he was warned there must be no further incident … The time for probation or leniency is past . Whether this type of conduct is the product of temperamental instability or willful defiance of the authority in the games does not matter . It is a type of conduct which cannot be tolerated by any player — star or otherwise . Richard will be suspended from all games both league and playoff for the balance of the current season .
The suspension — the longest that Campbell ever issued during his thirty @-@ one @-@ year tenure as league President — was considered by many in Montreal to be unjust and unduly severe . Within minutes of the judgment 's dispensation , the NHL head office ( then in Montreal ) was deluged with hundreds of calls from enraged fans , many of whom made death threats against Campbell .
The general feeling around the league was that the punishment could have been more severe . Detroit Red Wings general manager Jack Adams said that Campbell " could do no less " and " I thought he would be suspended until January 1 of next season . " Red Wings forward Ted Lindsay , whom the league had disciplined earlier the same season for an incident in Toronto in which he attacked a Maple Leafs fan who had been threatening teammate Gordie Howe , expressed the stronger opinion that Richard was lucky not to get a life suspension : " In baseball , football or almost anything else that much would be almost automatic . I say they should have suspended him for life . " Bruins president Walter A. Brown agreed with Adams , saying " That 's the least they could do " ; Bruins player Fleming Mackell said , " If they had thrown the book at Richard in 1947 when he cut Bill Ezinicki and Vic Lynn , it might have stopped him and made him an even greater hockey player because of it . " Interest was high in the hockey world ; the Detroit Free Press reported its switchboard was swamped with calls .
= = Riot = =
Public outrage from Montreal poured in about what residents felt was excessive punishment . Many Québécois regarded the suspension as the English minority further attempting to subjugate the French majority and an attempt to humiliate French Canadians by " excessively punishing their favorite player " . Campbell , who received death threats , stated that he would not back down and announced his intention to attend the Canadiens ' next home game against the Red Wings on March 17 , despite advice that he not do so . Hundreds of demonstrators gathered in the Montreal Forum lobby two hours before the game . Attempts to " crash the gate " by these fans without tickets were denied by police . They then began to gather at Cabot Square across from the Forum . The crowd of demonstrators grew to 6 @,@ 000 . Some carried signs that denounced Campbell , and others had signs reading , among other things , " Vive Richard " ( Long live Richard ) , " No Richard , no Cup " , and " Our national sport destroyed " . The crowd , originally described as " jovial " , turned " surly " after police intervened at the ticket gate . After the mood turned foul , some members of the crowd began smashing windows and throwing ice chunks at passing streetcars .
The game against Detroit was a battle for first place , but the suspension unsettled the Canadiens . Goaltender Jacques Plante later recalled that the game seemed secondary , and players and officials were " casting worried glances at the sullen crowd " . Likewise , Dick Irvin said later , " The people didn 't care if we got licked 100 – 1 that night . "
Midway through the first period , with Montreal already down 2 – 0 , Campbell arrived with three secretaries from his office ( one of whom he would later marry ) . The 15 @,@ 000 spectators immediately started booing Campbell . Some fans began pelting him and his group with eggs , vegetables , and various debris for six straight minutes . At the end of the first period , Detroit had taken a 4 – 1 lead , and the barrage began again . Despite police and ushers ' attempts to keep fans away from Campbell , one fan , pretending to be a friend of Campbell 's , managed to elude security . As he approached , the fan extended his hand as if to shake Campbell 's . When Campbell reached out to shake his hand , the fan slapped him . As Campbell reeled from the attack , the fan reached back and delivered a punch . Police dragged the attacker away while he attempted to kick the NHL president . Shortly after the fan attack , a tear gas bomb was set off inside the Forum , not far from Campbell 's seat . Montreal Fire Chief Armand Pare mandated that the game be suspended for " the protection of the fans " , and the Forum was evacuated . Following the evacuation , Campbell took refuge in the Forum clinic , where he met with Canadiens general manager Frank Selke . The two wrote a note to Adams declaring the Red Wings the winner of the game due to the Forum 's ordered closure .
The departing crowd joined the demonstrators , and a riot ensued outside the Forum . Rioters were heard chanting " À bas Campbell " ( Down with Campbell ) and " Vive Richard " while they smashed windows , attacked bystanders , ignited newsstands , and overturned cars . More than fifty stores within a fifteen @-@ block radius of the Forum were looted and vandalized . Twelve police officers and twenty @-@ five civilians were injured . The riot continued well into the night , eventually ending at three A.M. , and it left Montreal 's Saint Catherine Street in shambles . Police estimated between forty @-@ one and 100 individuals were arrested . Damage was estimated to be $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 899 @,@ 291 in 2016 dollars ) to the neighborhood and the Forum itself . One jewelry store alone estimated its losses at $ 7 @,@ 000 ( $ 62 @,@ 950 in 2016 dollars ) .
Adams blamed Montreal officials after the game : " If they hadn 't pampered Maurice Richard , built him up as a hero until he felt he was bigger than hockey itself , this wouldn 't have happened . "
The incident was national news in Canada . Reporters lined up to see both Campbell and Richard on March 18 . Richard was reluctant to make a statement , fearing it could start another riot , but he eventually gave the following statement , both in French and English , over television to a national audience :
Because I always try so hard to win and had my troubles in Boston , I was suspended . At playoff time it hurts not be in the game with the boys . However , I want to do what is good for the people of Montreal and the team . So that no further harm will be done , I would like to ask everyone to get behind the team and to help the boys win from the New York Rangers and Detroit . I will take my punishment and come back next year to help the club and the younger players to win the Cup .
Campbell was unapologetic . He said that he considered it his duty as president to attend the game . Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau was livid at Campbell for attending , and he laid the blame for the riot on Campbell . A Montreal city councilor wanted Campbell arrested for inciting the riot . Years later , Canadiens player Jean Béliveau stated that , although he disagreed with Campbell 's decision to attend the game , as well as feeling Campbell might have been using his appearance to make a statement , he concluded that Campbell may have felt that if he did not attend he could appear to be hiding . He also noted that Campbell 's absence might not have made much of a difference .
= = Aftermath = =
The suspension came when Richard was leading the NHL in scoring and the Canadiens were battling Detroit for first place . Richard 's suspension also cost him the 1954 – 55 scoring title , the closest he ever came to winning it . When Richard 's teammate Bernie Geoffrion surpassed Richard in scoring by one point on the last day of the regular season , the Canadiens ' fans booed him .
The points from the forfeiture provided Detroit with the margin it needed to win first place overall and be guaranteed home @-@ ice advantage throughout the Stanley Cup playoffs . That season , the Canadiens lost the Cup Finals to Detroit in seven games , with the home team winning all seven games of a final for the first time . Richard retired in 1960 after the Canadiens ' fifth consecutive Stanley Cup , a record that still stands .
The episode was a prelude to the off @-@ season departure of coach Dick Irvin . Selke felt Irvin had riled Richard , thereby contributing to his " periodic eruptions " . Selke offered Irvin a job for life with the Canadiens , as long as it was in a non @-@ coaching capacity . Irvin turned him down and moved on to coach the Chicago Black Hawks , where he had begun his coaching career in 1930 – 31 . He was replaced by former Canadiens player Toe Blake . Irvin coached only one more season before succumbing to bone cancer .
= = Historical interpretation = =
The Richard Riot has taken on a significance greater than a mere sports riot in the fifty years since it happened . The sight of French Quebecers rioting over the perceived slight to a Quebec cultural icon like Richard led many commentators to believe it was a significant factor in Quebec 's Quiet Revolution of the 1960s . Furthermore , the cause of the riot has been suggested not to be as a result of the severity of the suspension ; what mattered was that the anglophone president of an anglophone league had suspended a Quebec player . French Canadians saw themselves as inherently disadvantaged within Canada and North America as a whole . Richard was seen as a hero by French Canadians , and almost a sort of a " revenge " against the anglophone establishment . The riot was a clear sign of rising ethnic tensions in Quebec . In an article published four days after the riot , journalist André Laurendeau was the first to suggest the riot was a sign of growing nationalism in Quebec . Entitled " On a tué mon frère Richard " ( My brother Richard has been killed ) , Laurendeau suggested the riot " betrayed what lay behind the apparent indifference and long @-@ held passiveness of French Canadians " .
On the other hand , Benoît Melançon argues that the riot has become part of the " Rocket Richard myth " and has taken on an importance that , in retrospect , is far greater than it actually had when it happened . He asserts , " Had there been no Riot , it is doubtful there would ever have been a Maurice Richard myth . " The riot ended up taking on greater significance as time passed , but not for the reasons many nonacademic commentators believe . Richard was in danger of being forgotten in the years immediately after his retirement , so he promoted himself , and his nascent myth , excessively :
There were Maurice Richard skates and jackets , but there were also Rocket ashtrays , Rocket transistor radios , and Rocket Richard Condensed Tomato Soup . Moreover , these products changed throughout history . " The principal impact of the trade in Richard … has been the transformation of Maurice Richard into a product , then into a label , and ultimately into a myth . "
He concludes by suggesting that the riot is now something it was not : " The riot has become the key event in turning Richard from a mere hockey player to a symbol of political resistance ( even if Richard himself was publicly apolitical and , according to this book , definitely not for an independent Quebec ) … According to this popular narrative , for the first time the people of Quebec stood up for themselves ; especially English Canada delights in anachronistically announcing that this was the beginning of the 1960s Quiet Revolution . " Perhaps the best way to explain how the interpretation of the riot changed is by looking at the change in the public perceptions of its antagonist : " It was necessary to overlook some of [ Richard 's ] character traits and to rewrite several episodes of his career " in order to elevate him into a mythical figure .
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= Ontario Highway 525 =
Secondary Highway 525 , commonly referred to as Highway 525 , is a provincially maintained secondary highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It is a short , remote secondary highway that links Highway 596 to the Wabaseemoong First Nations reserve . It is the second @-@ westernmost secondary highway in the province , Highway 673 being the first . The route was commissioned by 1982 along what was formerly Highway 596 ; a former use of the route number existed between 1956 and 1973 in Gravenhurst .
= = Route description = =
Highway 525 is a very remote highway in northwestern Ontario . There are no settlements along its 35 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 22 @.@ 1 mi ) length , and the closest human habitation is Minaki near its southern terminus and Whitedog near its northern terminus . The route begins west of Minaki , branching off from Highway 596 , which travels south to Kenora . It travels north along a wide strip of land bounded by Sand Lake to the east , and by Swan Lake and Tetu Lake to the west , all part of the Winnipeg River watershed . Zig @-@ zagging in a generally northward direction , the highway passes through thick boreal forest . At approximately its midpoint , the route meets the Cygnet Lake road , which provides access to a remote camp . The highway continues north , curving west immediately before ending at the entrance to the Wabaseemoong ( Islington ) reserve . The road continues into the reserve to provide access to Caribou Falls and Whitedog .
= = History = =
The current Highway 525 is not the original usage of the number . In 1956 , the number was one of several dozen Secondary Highways designated by the Department of Highways to improve connections between King 's Highways . The highway followed the route of present @-@ day Muskoka District Road 18 north from Highway 11 to the Muskoka Centre . It was decommissioned between early 1972 and late 1973 , shortly after the establishment of the District Municipality of Muskoka .
The current Highway 525 was designated by 1982 . Prior to that , the road it followed was an extension of Highway 596 that was designated in the mid @-@ 1970s . The route was gravel surfaced when it was assumed , but has since been paved .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 525 . The entirety of the route is located within Kenora District .
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= Minuscule 543 =
Minuscule 543 in the Gregory @-@ Aland numbering ( ε 257 in Soden 's numbering and labelled 556 by Scrivener ) is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament , on parchment . Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 12th century .
The manuscript contains text of the four Gospels with unusual grammar forms and numerous errors . Textually it does not belong to any of the main text @-@ types , and is a member of the textual family Family 13 , known also as Ferrar Group . The lacunose manuscript is housed at the University of Michigan .
= = Description = =
= = = Contents = = =
The codex contains the text of the four Gospels , on 184 thick parchment leaves ( size 28 cm by 23 cm ) , with several lacunae ( Matthew 12 : 11 @-@ 13 : 10 ; Mark 8 : 4 @-@ 28 ; Luke 15 : 20 @-@ 16 : 9 ; John 2 : 22 @-@ 4 : 6 ; 4 : 52 @-@ 5 : 43 ; 11 : 21 @-@ 47 ) . One leaf was misplaced in binding . The parchment is coarse and yellowed by age .
The text of the codex was written two columns per page , 27 @-@ 30 lines per page , 17 letters per line , in minute hand , in brown ink . The same scribe wrote all four Gospels . There are breathings and accents used in regular form , but in some sort of system . There is not found iota subscript , iota adscriptum occurs very often ( especially in Mark ) .
The titles to the Gospels of Matthew and Mark run : Ευαγγέλιον εκ του κατά Ματθαίου ( Μάρκου ) . The titles to the Luke and John are usual : Ευαγγέλιον κατά Λουκάν ( Ιωάννην ) .
The lists of the κεφαλαια ( chapters ) are placed before every Gospel , numbers of the κεφαλαια are given at the left margin , with their τιτλοι ( titles ) in red at the top of pages . There is a division according to the Ammonian Sections , with a references to the Eusebian Canons . It contains lectionary markings , Synaxarion , Menologion , subscriptions , ρηματα , and στιχοι . The list of κεφαλαια to Matthew is missing and Gospel of Matthew begins on the first of the codex . It has an additional non @-@ biblical material : The Limits of the Five Patriarchates ( as in codices 69 and 211 ) — one page of it lost .
= = = Nomina sacra and OT quotations = = =
The nomina sacra are contracted in the usual way , but there are a number of words which the scribe failed to abbreviate . In some of the cases where nomina sacra are uncontracted , they have the heavy bar signifying contraction. υιος is contracted only once ( John 4 : 47 ) . On the other hand , it gives unusual abbreviations : for σταυρωσον ( crucify ) the manuscript has στωσον , for σταυρωθη — στρωθη , παρθηνος ( virgin ) is contracted to παρνος .
Quotations from the Old Testament are indicated in the left margin by a rubricated letter or sign .
= = = Errors = = =
Almost all the necessary corrections of misspellings have been made . Sometimes a stroke of the pen indicates an error , perhaps to be corrected later . Some corrections seem to be written by prima manu ( e.g. Matthew 4 : 10 ; 5 : 19 ) others plainly secondary manu ( Matthew 6 ; Luke 3 ; 10 : 35 ) . The apostrophe is used even when not required , especially in εξ ' , and ουκ ' .
According tο Scrivener movable nu occurs 416 times especially with words ειπεν , εστιν . In Matthew 12 : 7 ; Luke 8 : 10 ; John 5 : 46 ; 7 : 7 ; 8 : 27 there is a hiatus for lack of it . The error of iotacism occurs 358 times : ει for ι ( 16 occurrences ) , ι for ει ( 35 ) , ο for ω ( 40 ) , ω for ο ( 33 ) , αι for ε ( 13 ) , ε for αι ( 31 ) , ει for η ( 23 ) , η for ει ( 19 ) , η for ι ( 11 ) , ι for η ( 7 ) , ε for η ( 11 ) , η for ε ( 2 ) , οι for ι ( 3 ) , ω for ου ( 20 ) , η for υ ( 3 ) , υ for η ( 5 ) , υ for οι ( 1 ) , υ for ει ( 1 ) , η for οι ( 1 ) , οι for η ( 1 ) , ι for υ ( 1 ) , οι for ει ( 2 ) .
There are many errors by homoioteleuton ( Mark 2 : 18 ; 4 : 24 ; 12 : 26 ; 14 : 70 ; 15 : 14 ; Luke 12 : 22 @.@ 47 ; 13 : 28 @.@ 29 ; John 4 : 14 ) .
There are some unusual forms like : ανεπεσαν , ειπαν , εθεωρων , εμελλεν , εμπροσθε , εσπλαγχνισθη , ιδαμεν , ιδεν , σαρκαν , συνετιθεντο .
= = Text = =
The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Caesarean text @-@ type . It belongs to the textual family f13 , known also as Ferrar Family . Also the handwriting and the menology show that is a close member of the group . According to Kurt and Barbara Aland it agrees with the Byzantine standard text 151 times , and 72 times with the Byzantine when it has the same reading as the original text . It agrees 31 times with the original text against the Byzantine . It has 57 independent or distinctive readings . Alands placed it in Category III . According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents the textual family f13 in Luke 1 , Luke 10 , and Luke 20 , as a core member .
The Pericope Adulterae follows Luke 21 : 38 , like in other manuscripts of the Ferrar Family .
Textual variants
The words after the bracket are the readings of the codex ( before the bracket are readings of Textus Receptus ) .
Matthew 1 : 18 and 1 : 23 — εν γαστρι ( pregnant , literary in womb ) ] εγγαστρι ( inwomb )
Matthew 5 : 48 — εν τοις ουρανοις ( in heavens ) ] ουνιος ( heavens )
Matthew 6 : 24 — μαμμωνα ( mammona ) ] μαμωνα ( mamona )
Matthew 7 : 2 — απο ( from ) ] εκ ( from )
Matthew 8 : 4 — Μωσης ( Moses ) ] Μωυσης ( Moses )
Matthew 8 : 8 — δεινως ( terrible ) ] δεινος ( terrible )
Matthew 8 : 8 — ικανος ( worthy ) ] αξιος ( worthy )
Matthew 8 : 26 — τοις ανεμοις ( winds ) ] τω ανεμω ( wind )
Matthew 9 : 17 — απολουνται ( ruined ) ] απολλουνται ( ΝΑ27 has απολλυνται )
Matthew 9 : 17 — αμφοτερα ] αμφοτεροι ( both )
Matthew 11 : 5 — και νεκροι εγειρονται και πτωχοι ευαγγελιζονται ( and the dead are raised up and the poor have the gospel preached to them ) ] και πτωχοι ευαγγελιζονται και νεκροι εγειρονται ( and the poor have the gospel preached to them and the dead are raised up )
Matthew 26 : 39 — ] ωφθη δε αυτω αγγελος απο του ουνου ενισχυσον αυτον και γενομενος εν αγωνια εκτενεστερον προσηυχετο εγενετο δε ο ιδρος αυτου ωσει θρομβη αθματος καταβαινοντες επι την γην
Mark 1 : 9 — Ναζαρετ ( Nazaret ) ] Ναζαρεθ
Mark 1 : 10 — απο ] εκ
Mark 1 : 10 — εκ ( from ) ] εις ( to )
Mark 2 : 4 — κραββατον ] κραβαττον ( bed )
= = History = =
J. Rendel Harris pointed out that the menology of the Ferrar group contains saints which appear to be peculiar to Calabria or Sicily . Abbe Martin had previously stated that certain palaeographical traits to be observed in these manuscripts were characteristic of Calabrian scriptoria .
Of the history of the codex 543 nothing is known until the year 1864 , when it was in the possession of a dealer at Janina in Epeiros . It was then purchased from him by a representative of Baroness Burdett @-@ Coutts ( 1814 – 1906 ) , a philanthropist , together with other Greek manuscripts ( among them codices 532 @-@ 546 ) . They were transported to England in 1870 @-@ 1871 .
The manuscript was presented by Burdett @-@ Coutts to Sir Roger Cholmely 's School , and was housed at the Highgate ( Burdett @-@ Coutts III . 5 ) , in London . In 1922 it was acquired for the University of Michigan . It is currently housed at the University of Michigan ( Ms. 15 ) in Ann Arbor .
Scrivener observed a close textual affinity to the Ferrar group and announced in 1883 in the third edition of " Plain Introduction " ( p . 236 ) as portaining to the same class . Scrivener collated its text and it was edited posthumously in 1893 . This collation was not wholly accurate and Jacob Geerlings , from the University of Utah , gave a new and more accurate collation in 1932 . The collation was made against the Textus Receptus in Stephanus edition ( Editio Regia ) .
= = Gallery = =
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= Golden Sun : The Lost Age =
Golden Sun : The Lost Age ( 黄金の太陽 失われし時代 , Ōgon no Taiyō : Ushinawareshi Toki ) , released under different names in some regions , is a 2002 role @-@ playing video game for the Game Boy Advance , developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo . The Lost Age is the second installment of the Golden Sun series , being the " second part " to the earlier Golden Sun . Players can transfer their characters and items from Golden Sun to The Lost Age by means of a password system or Game Link Cable , and players are rewarded for fully completing both games .
Picking up the story during the events of the previous game , The Lost Age puts the player into the roles of a magic @-@ attuned " adept " named Felix and his allies as they seek to restore the power of alchemy to the world of Weyard . Along the way , the player uses psynergy to defeat enemies and discover new locations , help out local populations , and find elemental djinn which augment the characters ' powers .
Upon release , The Lost Age was generally praised , although many publications found that the game was not as good as Golden Sun . Nonetheless , IGN ranked the game as the eighth @-@ best Game Boy Advance title of 2003 and the 22nd @-@ best GBA game of all time . It has sold over 680 @,@ 000 units . The long @-@ awaited followup , Golden Sun : Dark Dawn , was released in November 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Lost Age is similar to its predecessor in that it is a contemporary presentation of the traditional role @-@ playing video game formula . Players guide a cast of characters as they journey through a fantasy @-@ themed world , interact with other characters , battle monsters , acquire increasingly powerful magic spells and equipment , and take part in a building , predefined narrative . While many actions the player takes are compulsory and central to the story , The Lost Age allows the player to complete many objectives in the order of their choice , visiting previous locations to advance story elements and complete gameplay objectives is given a stronger emphasis than in the previous game .
Much of the time spent outside of battle takes place either in the game 's overworld or within dungeons , caves , and other locales with puzzles integrated into their layout . Unlike the original game , in which the overworld was explored on foot except for a brief , non @-@ navigable boat ride , a large portion of The Lost Age 's gameplay involves navigating a magical ship across a large sea , visiting continents and islands . To complete puzzles , players must either push pillars to construct negotiable paths between elevated areas , climb up and rappel down cliffs , or obtain a special item to progress through the story and game world . Many of these puzzles revolve heavily around the usage of the game ’ s resident form of magic spells , Psynergy , requiring the player to find items that grant the bearer new forms of Psynergy in order to accomplish tasks .
Whereas many role @-@ playing video games limit the usage of their forms of magic to battles as offensive and defensive measures , Psynergy spells are also heavily used in puzzles and exploration . Some types of Psynergy can only be used in combat ; conversely , some spells are only used in the game 's overworld and in non @-@ battle scenarios . Still other Psynergy can be used for both situations ; for example , the “ Frost ” spell can be used to damage enemies in battle , or to transform puddles of water into elongated pillars of ice as part of a puzzle . Psynergy comes in four elements : Venus ( rocks and plants ) , Mars ( fire and heat ) , Jupiter ( wind and electricity ) , and Mercury ( water and ice ) . The player gains more and more Psynergy spells as the game progresses , either through levelling up or acquiring and equipping , or using , special items , and with each " utility " Psynergy spell the party gains access to more locations and secrets hidden within the game world . Players will be required to return to previous locations in the game to finish off puzzles which they could not solve earlier because of the lack of specific Psynergy spells .
= = = Battle = = =
The Lost Age contains both random monster encounters and compulsory battles , which advance the story . When a battle begins , a separate screen is brought up where the enemy party is on the opposing side and the player ’ s party is on the battling side . While battle is conducted , the characters and background swirl around and change positions in a pseudo @-@ 3D effect .
Gameplay in relation to The Lost Age 's battle mode is similar to traditional role @-@ playing video games . In each battle , the player is required to defeat all the enemies using direct attacks with weapons , offensive Psynergy spells , and other means of causing damage , all while keeping their own party alive through items and supportive Psynergy that restore life and supplement defense . If all the player 's characters are downed by reducing their hit points to zero , it is considered “ Game Over ” , and the party is returned to the last village that the player visited and suffers a monetary penalty . The successful completion of a battle yields experience points , coins , and occasionally rare items .
In addition to the main game itself , there is also a competitive battling mode accessible from the menu screen , where players can enter their currently @-@ developed team from their saved game files into an arena where they can battle increasingly difficult CPU @-@ controlled enemies or other players head @-@ to @-@ head to see which of their team setups are stronger . In both cases there are no experience points or coins to be earned .
= = = Djinn system = = =
One of the most important features in Golden Sun : The Lost Age is the collection and manipulation of elemental creatures called Djinn ( singular : Djinni ) , and The Lost Age features a host of new Djinn . They can be found scattered in hiding throughout the game . There are eleven Djinn for each of the four elements ( not counting the ones that can only be found in the original Golden Sun ) that may be allocated to each character . Djinn form the basis of the game ’ s statistics enhancement system , and Set djinn dictate the character ’ s Psynergy capabilities . Attaching different Djinn to different characters modifies the characters ' classes , increasing maximum hit points , Psynergy points , and other statistics , and also alters the available Psynergy that the characters can perform .
Collected Djinn can be assigned to a character of the player 's choice and can be Set , on Standby , or in Recovery . When a Djinni is set , that Djinni exerts influence on its corresponding character ’ s class , statistics and Psynergy collection depending on both the character ’ s innate element and that of the Djinni . In combat , the player can choose to have a character use a set Djinni during that character 's turn . Each Djinni has its own special effect when invoked during combat . These effects include enhanced elemental attacks , buffing or debuffing , healing , and other effects . After using a Djinni , its status is changed to Standby . While on Standby , Djinn do not contribute to a character ’ s class , but can be used for Summon Sequences , where the player summons a powerful elemental spirit . This is the game ’ s most powerful method of attack , and also the riskiest , as it requires Djinn to be on standby and therefore not available to bolster the statistics of whichever character the Djinni is equipped to . Once a Djinni on Standby has been used for a Summon Sequence , it takes a number of turns recovering before it restores itself to Set position on a character , but a subsequent increase in the affinity of the element of the attack is bolstered on the character for the duration of the battle . There are a total of 29 Summon Sequences in The Lost Age ; 16 from the previous game can be used alongside 13 new sequences , each of which must be earned individually ; they are usually acquired by completing optional dungeons .
There is a total of 72 Djinn encompassing the four elements which can be arranged in almost any evenly distributed manner to the eventual eight characters , making for a large array of possible class setups for all eight playable characters , allowing a variety of combat options .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The Lost Age takes place on the same fantasy world as its predecessor , that of the world of " Weyard " , a massive earth @-@ like environment modeled on the old Flat Earth idea of the world . It is a flat , vaguely circular plane whose oceans perpetually spill off the edge of the world 's entire perimeter into what seems to be an endless abyss , although no one knows what is over it . However at the end of the game in the very north of Weyard is a huge black void . The plot progression of The Lost Age spans many continents , islands , and oceans around the two main continents where the previous game takes place . All matter on Weyard consists of any combination of the four base elements : Venus , Mars , Jupiter , and Mercury ; magically @-@ attuned Adepts can manipulate these elements .
= = = Characters = = =
For much of the game , the player controls four characters : Felix is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Venus Adept from the village of Vale , who was an anti @-@ hero in Golden Sun but serves as the game 's new protagonist . He is generally not shown to speak , although he does say " ... " , " ! " and " Why ? " at points in the game . His younger sister , Jenna , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mars Adept also from Vale , and a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old girl and Jupiter Adept named Sheba , as well as a sharp @-@ witted elderly scholar named Kraden , are all hostages that Felix was forced to take with his now @-@ deceased masters , the Mars Adept warriors Saturos and Menardi that served as the previous game 's antagonists . In this game the player takes the role of Felix as he strives to complete Saturos and Menardi 's original objective to restore Alchemy to the world of Weyard , and joining them early on is a Mercury Adept named Piers , a mysterious young man whose ship Felix 's party uses to explore the world throughout their journey .
Several groups of characters serve as Felix 's antagonists in The Lost Age . He is at odds with the heroes of the original Golden Sun , led by the young Venus Adept warrior Isaac , who pursue him across the World , Weyard under the belief that Alchemy would potentially destroy Weyard if unleashed . One of Saturos ' original companions , a powerful and enigmatic Mercury Adept named Alex , allies himself with a second pair of powerful and imposing Mars Adept warriors , Karst and Agatio . They keep the pressure on Felix to ensure he proceeds with his quest as he is supposed to .
= = = Plot = = =
The antagonists of the previous game , Saturos and Menardi , have been slain in battle by the game 's protagonists led by Isaac , but not before the pair succeeded in activating two of four great lighthouses situated across the world of Weyard , the Elemental Lighthouses . Saturos ' companion Felix takes the rest of Saturos ' group and sets out on a journey of his own to complete Saturos ' original objective to activate the remaining two Lighthouses , for lighting all four will achieve the restoration of the powerful force of Alchemy to Weyard . He is joined by his sister Jenna , a Jupiter Adept named Sheba who was previously kidnapped by Saturos , and the scholar Kraden . The group searches for a ship to cross to the western half of Weyard , and learns of a man named Piers who has been falsely accused of piracy and owns a ship they can use . Felix and his group clear his name , and Piers agrees to join them . During this , Isaac 's party continues to pursue them . The group also discovers that their former companion Alex has allied himself with Menardi 's younger sister Karst and her partner Agatio in order to keep Felix on track .
Eventually , Felix 's party is able to achieve entrance into Piers ' home , a legendary , secluded Atlantis @-@ like society named Lemuria far out in the ocean . When they convene with Lemuria 's ancient king , Hydros , they learn about Alchemy 's true nature ; it has always been the sustenance of Weyard 's very life force , and its absence over the past ages has caused the world 's continents to decrease in size and parts of the world to collapse into the abyss . Knowing that restoring Alchemy is what must be done to actually save the world , Felix crosses the sea in order to activate Jupiter Lighthouse . But when Isaac 's pursuing party enters the lighthouse , they are trapped and ambushed by Karst and Agatio . Felix rescues Isaac , but Karst and Agatio escape with the Mars Star formerly in Isaac 's possession .
Felix is finally able to explain to Isaac why Alchemy 's release is a necessary thing for everyone , and that Saturos and Menardi were aiming for this goal merely for the sake of the survival of their home colony of Prox to the far north , located near the Mars Lighthouse . He also reveals that his parents and Isaac 's father are alive and currently being held hostage in Prox in order to coerce Felix 's initial cooperation . Isaac and his company agree to aid Felix , and the group sets out north to activate the Mars Lighthouse . The group discovers that Karst and Agatio have been transformed into mindless dragons and are forced to defeat them - they return the Mars Star before succumbing to their wounds . When they reach the tower 's top , the Wise One , the entity responsible for originally tasking Isaac to prevent the breaking of Alchemy 's seal , confronts them . He warns them that mankind could very well destroy Weyard themselves if they had possession of such a power , and when Isaac insists on breaking the seal regardless the Wise One summons a giant , three @-@ headed dragon for the party to battle in the final struggle .
When the party of Adepts have slain the dragon , they discover that the Wise One had transformed Isaac 's father and Felix 's parents into the now @-@ dead beast . After a short period of mourning , they gather the resolve to finish their objective and activate Mars Lighthouse ; with all four towers across Weyard lit , the process that heralds the return of the force of Alchemy to Weyard ensues at the mountain sanctum Mt . Aleph . Alex is there , however ; he took advantage of everyone else 's quests so that he would gain immense power for himself from the light of the Golden Sun , a manifestation of Alchemy itself . However , he discovers that the Wise One had taken steps to prevent this and is left to die as the mountain collapses and sinks into the ground with him still on it . The Adepts , in the meantime , find that their parents have actually been revived by Alchemy 's return , just as the Wise One originally planned . They are able to recognize that the reason the Wise One appeared to play that cruel trick on them before was to test their resolve as Adepts , and therefore test their ability to handle a great new responsibility : to ensure that throughout the world the newly released force of Alchemy is not abused by Weyard 's populace like it was in the ancient past . The game ends as the Adepts and their parents return to their hometown of Vale to find that it has been destroyed by the energy let loose by the breaking of Alchemy 's seal , but that their families and the other townspeople have survived because the Wise One warned them of the impending danger in advance .
= = Development = =
The Lost Age was first revealed to Japan in early 2002 , with the magazine Famitsu being the first publication to review the game . The Lost Age was highly anticipated ; it topped IGN 's list of Game Boy Advance " Most Wanted " games for 2003 . The North American version of the game was playable at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2002 , and IGN noted that the opening of the game did away with the notoriously boring opening sequence of Golden Sun , introducing the characters in between the action . GameSpot previewed a localized copy of The Lost Age in February 2003 , and noted that the game built on its predecessor 's graphics engine , with " the environments in the game featuring rich detail with little touches — such as birds that fly off as you approach . "
= = Reception = =
The Lost Age generally received positive reviews , but critics were divided on whether or not the game was better than the original Golden Sun . On Metacritic , The Lost Age has an 86 % aggregate rating , compared to Golden Sun 's 91 % . Likewise , GameRankings gives The Lost Age an 87 % overall rating , slightly lower than Golden Sun 's 90 % . Conversely , The Lost Age was ranked 78 on IGN 's Readers Choice Top 100 games ever , higher than its predecessor . It was also rated the 69th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list .
IGN gave the sequel high praise ; while most of the game mechanics remained unchanged , the addition of more complicated puzzles was welcomed . The Lost Age subsequently became IGN 's " Game of the Month " in April 2003 . Shane Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly argued that though The Lost Age is " not going to win any originality contests ( this looks , sounds , and feels nearly identical to its predecessor ) , but when more of the same means more top @-@ notch roleplaying , I can 't complain " . Other publications singled out the graphics and audio as particularly strong features .
Some publications found fault with complaints which remained from the original , including the combat system . IGN and GamePro took issue with the lack of " smart " combat ; if an enemy is killed before other party members attack it , those members switch to defense instead of intelligently attacking the remaining enemies . Ethan Einhorn of GameNOW felt that the only elements that set the fighting system above " typical RPG fare " were the graphics . GameSpy felt that Camelot could have added more features , and criticized the long opening sequence which either alienated players of the previous game , or confused new players by swamping them with unfamiliar places and characters .
The Lost Age sold 96 @,@ 000 units in its first week in Japan , being the best @-@ selling game of the period . The game sold a total of 249 @,@ 000 copies in Japan and 437 @,@ 000 in North America by November 21 , 2004 .
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= Sirkazhi =
Sirkazhi ( [ ˈsiːrkaːɻiː ] ) is a municipal town in Nagapattinam district in Tamil Nadu , India . It is located 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from the coast of the Bay of Bengal , and 250 km ( 160 mi ) from the state capital Chennai . Sirkazhi was a part of Thanjavur district until 1991 and has later been part of Nagapattinam district . The town covers an area of 13 @.@ 21 km2 ( 5 @.@ 10 sq mi ) and in 2011 had a population of 34 @,@ 927 . It is administered by a second grade municipality. a Sirkazhi is part of the Cauvery delta region and agriculture is the major occupation . Roads are the main means of transportation ; the town has 51 @.@ 47 km ( 31 @.@ 98 mi ) of district roads , including a national highway .
The town is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled by the Medieval Cholas , Later Cholas , Later Pandyas , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Marathas and the British . The Tamil trinity of Carnatic music ; Arunachala Kavirayar ( 1711 – 78 ) , Muthu Thandavar ( 1525 – 1600 ) and Marimutthu Pillai ( 1712 – 87 ) , originated from Sirkazhi . The Saiva saint Tirugnanasambandar , foremost of the Saiva Nayanars , was born here in the seventh century . The history of the town is centred on the Sattainathar Temple , which is dedicated to Hindu god Shiva .
= = Etymology and origin = =
In ancient times , this town had twelve different names , including Brahmapuram , Venupuram , Thonipuram , Kazhumalam , Pugali , Sirkazhiswaram and Shri Kali . According to Hindu legend , during one of the biggest deluges that submerged the planet earth , Hindu god Shiva is said to have carried the 64 arts on a raft ( called Thoni in Tamil ) . The presiding deity in the temple , Shiva , is thus called " Thoniappar " ( the one who carried the raft ) and the region is called " Thonipuram " . The Hindu god Brahma is believed to have worshiped Shiva here , giving the name " Bhramapureeswarar " ( the one worshipped by Brahma ) and so the region is also referred as " Bhramapureeswaram " . Shiva is believed to have quelled the arrogance of Hindu god Vishnu , after showing his dominance over the three worlds and hence got the name " Sattainathar " here . The town is thus called " Sattainathapuram " , which in modern times , is a suburb within Sirkazhi . The town was known as " Kalumalam " during the early Chola period . Thirugnanasambandar , the seventh century Saiva nayanar , as an infant is believed to have been fed with the milk of wisdom by the divine mother Parvati on the banks of the temple tank . The child Sambandar started singing the anthology of Tevaram hymns from then on , commencing with " Todudaiya Seviyan " . Sambandar refers the town as " Kazhi " in his verses . It was called Shiyali during British rule , and after Independence , it was renamed " Sirkazhi " .
= = History = =
The earliest mention of Sirkazhi is found in the history of the Chola king Kocengannan from the Sangam Age ( 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE ) , who is believed to have won a bloody battle here . During the 7th – 8th century , there were widespread disputes between the Hindu sects of Saivism and Vaishnavism . Tirugnanasambandar and Thirumangai Azhwar , belonging to Saivism and Vaishnavism , respectively , and both natives of Sirkazhi , had disputes over their religious compositions and theologies during the period . The Chola Kings ruled over the region for more than four centuries , from 850 to 1280 , and were temple patrons . There 41 inscriptions from the Chola kings in the temple that record various gifts like land , sheep , cow and oil to the temple .
The region fell under the control of Pandyas in 1532 and later became part of the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom . The region was conquered in 1674 by Ekoji I ( 1675 – 84 ) , the Maratha enemy of the Nawab of Bijapur and half @-@ brother of Shivaji ( 1674 – 80 ) . The town and the region became part of the British East India Company during the mid @-@ 18th century . Tanjore district was constituted in 1799 when the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II ( 1798 – 1832 ) ceded most of his kingdom to the British East India Company in return for his restitution on the throne . After India 's independence , Sirkazhi continued to be a part of Thanjavur district until 1991 , when it became part of the newly created Nagapattinam district .
= = Geography = =
Sirkazhi is located at 11 @.@ 23 ° N 79 @.@ 73 ° E / 11 @.@ 23 ; 79 @.@ 73 , on the eastern flank of the Kumbakonam @-@ Shiyali ridge , which runs along the Kollidam River . Sirkazhi has an average elevation of 5 @.@ 18 m ( 17 @.@ 0 ft ) above sea level and is located at 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) west of Bay of Bengal . It is located 95 km ( 59 mi ) north @-@ east of Thanjavur , 24 km ( 15 mi ) north of Mayiladuthurai and 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Chidambaram .
The town experiences long summers and short winters , and receives an average yearly rainfall of 1 @,@ 250 mm ( 49 in ) , mainly from the north @-@ east monsoon between October and December . Its close proximity to the sea means that Sirkazhi receives more rainfall than neighbouring towns . Sirkazhi is part of the Cauvery delta region and has irrigation channels , called the Kollidam channels , which carry water from the rivers and provide a rich deposit of fertile silt before reaching the sea . The soil is black and contains fertile alluvial sediment . The area 's main crop is rice ; other crops grown in the area are coconut , tamarind and neem . The landscape mostly consists of plain lands with fields and small portions of scrub jungle . Antelope , spotted deer , wild hog , jackal and fox are present in the jungles and outlying areas of the town . Crow and ordinary game birds are found in large numbers in the town .
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea , megathrust earthquake that occurred on 26 December 2004 , with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra , Indonesia , triggering a series of devastating tsunamis along coastal fringes of the Indian Ocean . Nagapattinam district was the most affected part of Tamil Nadu , accounting for 6 @,@ 064 off the 8 @,@ 009 casualties in the state . Sirkazhi remained mostly unaffected by the tsunami , but the groundwater quality deteriorated where aquifers were close to the water bodies . There was heavy salt water intrusion inland .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Sirkali had a population of 34 @,@ 927 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 028 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 3 @,@ 367 were under the age of six , constituting 1 @,@ 740 males and 1 @,@ 627 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 23 @.@ 21 % and .13 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 81 @.@ 5 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of : 8756 households . There were a total of 11 @,@ 476 workers , comprising 352 cultivators , 1 @,@ 398 main agricultural labourers , 150 in house hold industries , 7 @,@ 681 other workers , 1 @,@ 895 marginal workers , 88 marginal cultivators , 809 marginal agricultural labourers , 77 marginal workers in household industries and 921 other marginal workers .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Sirkazhi had 86 @.@ 91 % Hindus , 9 @.@ 46 % Muslims , 2 @.@ 16 % Christians , 0 @.@ 02 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 46 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 33 % Jains , 0 @.@ 63 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 04 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
In 1981 , there were 15 notified slums accommodating 4 @,@ 499 persons , constituting 17 @.@ 64 % of the population . In 2001 , there were still 15 slums accommodating 7 @,@ 533 persons , constituting 23 @.@ 37 % of the population . The slum area has remained static at 39 @.@ 45 acres ( 0 @.@ 1596 km2 ) . The town has a residential area of 2 @.@ 79 km2 ( 1 @.@ 08 sq mi ) ( 20 @.@ 96 % ) , commercial area of 0 @.@ 4 km2 ( 0 @.@ 15 sq mi ) ( 3 @.@ 04 % ) , industrial area of 0 @.@ 58 km2 ( 0 @.@ 22 sq mi ) ( 4 @.@ 39 % ) , public & semi public area of 1 @.@ 29 km2 ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) ( 9 @.@ 66 % ) and undeveloped area of 8 @.@ 23 km2 ( 3 @.@ 18 sq mi ) ( 38 @.@ 05 % ) .
= = Economy and transport = =
The service sector provides most employment in the town . Limited agriculture is carried out ; the main crop is paddy rice . During the British Raj , Sirkazhi was known for mats made with a kind of cyperus . The headquarters of the taluka and panchayat union administration , and many government offices are located in the town . There are no major industries within the town , except for several rice mills . Sirkazhi has many Hindu temples , which draw in tourism activity . Sirkali Coop Urban Bank , founded on 23 April 1918 is the oldest bank in Sirkali . All major nationalised banks and private banks have branches in the town , and all have atms .
Sirkazhi municipality has 51 @.@ 5 km ( 32 @.@ 0 mi ) of roads : 18 @.@ 3 km ( 11 @.@ 4 mi ) of BT roads , 30 @.@ 4 km ( 18 @.@ 9 mi ) of cement roads , 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) of water @-@ bound macadam surface and 0 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) of other roads . Bullock carts are the traditional mode of transport ; as late as the 1950s , landlords and rich farmers travelled mostly by bullock carts except on rare , long journeys , which they undertook by buses or motor vehicles . Buses are the main mode of public transport from Sirkazhi . The municipality operates a B @-@ Class bus stand with 36 bays that accommodate local and intercity buses . The buses are operated by Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation , connecting the town to Chidambaram , Mayiladuthurai , Karaikkal and other cities in Tamil Nadu .
Sirkazhi 's railway station is on the main line between Chennai and Trichy via Cuddalore and Chidambaram . Daily express trains connect major cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Madurai and Trichy , and weekly express trains connect Tirupathi , Varanasi , Tiruchendur and Bhubaneswar . There are also daily passenger trains to Mayiladuthurai , Salem , Villupuram and Bangalore daily . The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli Airport which is 160 km ( 99 mi ) from Sirkazhi .
= = Education and utility services = =
The first English school in the town was the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission School , which was opened by the Lutheran Mission in 1896 . The Lutheran mission was the earliest Protestant mission founded in Tanjore ( present @-@ day Thajavur ) by Rev. C.V. Schwartz in 1778 to promote Christian knowledge in the region . Of the 32 schools in Sirkazhi , there are nine municipal schools . There are three higher secondary schools , three middle schools , fourteen primary schools and three matriculation schools in the town . There are two arts and science colleges , BEST College of Arts and Science and Vivekananda College of Arts and Science . Srinivasa Subbaraya Polytechnic College ( locally called Puttur Polytechnic ) is located in Puttur , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from Sirkali .
Electricity supply to the town is regulated and distributed by the Sirkazhi Circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Sirkazhi municipality from the Kollidam river ; it is distributed through five water tanks which supply 2 million ( two million ) litres a day . Push carts and tricycles are used to collect solid waste , which is deposited in marsh lands located outside the town . Sirkazhi municipality is implementing underground drainage and the current sewerage system is through septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry away untreated sewage , which is released into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying areas .
Sirkazhi comes under the Sirkazhi Telecom Circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telephone and internet services provider . BSNL also provides a broadband internet service The town has a government hospital , 12 private hospitals , clinics and medical shops .
= = Municipal administration and politics = =
During the British Raj , Shiyali ( present @-@ day Sirkazhi ) was the headquarters of a separate administrative division , or taluka . In 1972 the town was declared a third grade municipality , and was upgraded to a second grade municipality in 1980 . The municipality has 24 wards , each of which has an elected councillor . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : general administration / personnel , engineering , revenue , public health , town planning and IT , which are controlled by a Municipal Commissioner , who is the supreme executive head . Legislative powers are vested in a body of 24 members , one for each of the 24 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson , who is assisted by a deputy . On the revenue administration side , Sirkazhi is a taluka headquarters having three revenue villages : Kavilancheri , Sirkazhi and Thadalan .
For the purposes of state government , Sirkazhi is part of the Sirkazhi assembly constituency , which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . The constituency is reserved for Scheduled Caste ( SC ) candidates . The assembly seat has been won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1977 , 1989 , 1996 and 2006 elections and Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) in 1980 , 1984 , 1991 , 2001 and 2011 . As of 2011 , the MLA of the constituency is M. Sakthi from the ADMK .
In the national parliament , Sirkazhi is a part of the Mayiladuthurai ( Lok Sabha constituency ) , which has six assembly constituencies – Mayiladuthurai , Sirkazhi , Poompuhar , Thiruvidaimarudur ( SC ) , Kumbakonam and Papanasam . The constituency was constituted during the third Lok Sabha ( lower house ) as Mayuram until the 1980 elections , when it was renamed Mayiladuthurai . During the first elections in 1957 , Sirkazhi was part of Chidambaram constituency and was held by the Indian National Congress party . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is R.K. Bharathi Mohan of the ADMK party . From 1962 , the Mayiladuthurai parliament seat was held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) twice between 1967 and 1971 , and from 1971 to 1977 , Tamil Maanila Congress for two terms between 1998 and 1999 and 1996 to 1998 , Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam twice during 2009 and 2014 , Indian National Congress for eight terms during 1962 – 67 , 1977 – 80 , 1980 – 84 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 , 1991 – 96 , 1999 – 2004 and 2004 – 09
Law and order in Sirkazhi is maintained by the Mayiladuthurai sub @-@ division of the Tamil Nadu Police , headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police . There is a police station in the town . There are special units like prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division , headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Culture = =
The Bhramapureeswarar temple , also called Sattainathar temple , is an ancient temple complex dedicated to Shiva , and has three Shiva shrines . The temple is mentioned in the Saiva canonical work , Tevaram , by Thirugnana Sambanthar , Tirunavukkarasar and Sundarar , the foremost Saivite saints of 7th – eighth century CE and is classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam . There is a separate shrine for Sambandar celebrating the miracle of Parvathi suckling the child Sambandar when he was crying for milk . Shiva is worshipped in three different forms ; the Shivalingam ( Bhrammapureeswarar ) , Uma Maheswarar ( Toniappar ) at the middle level , and Bhairavar ( Sattanathar ) at the upper level . The original temple was enlarged during the period of Kulothunga Chola I , Vikrama Chola , Kulothunga Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III ( as in Chidambaram – 11th through the 13th centuries ) . Every year in the Tamil month of Chithirai ( April – May ) , a 10 @-@ day festival is celebrated .
Kazheesirama Vinnagaram temple , also called Thadalan Koil , is dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Trivikrama . Sirkazhi is base to the outlying places like Poompuhar , and the temples Thirusaikkadu , Thiruppallavaneeswaram , Melapperumpallam , Keezhaperumpallam , Thiruvengadu and Thirunangur . Thirukkavalampadi , Thiruvanpurushothamam , Thiruarimeya Vinnagaram , Thiruchsemponsey , Thirumanimadam , Thiruvaikunda vinnagaram , Thiruthevanartthogai , Thiruthetriyambalam , Thirumanikkoodam , Annan Koil and Thiruppaarththanpalli are eleven Vishnu temples , called Nangur Divya Desams revered in Nalayira Divya Prabandham , located in the outskirts of Sirkazhi . The annual Garudasevai festival held during January attracts thousands of pilgrims .
Tamil Isai Moovar ( meaning Tamil trinity of Carnatic music ) namely , Arunachala Kavirayar ( 1711 – 1778 ) , Muthu Thandavar ( 1525 – 1600 ) and Marimutthu Pillai ( 1712 – 1787 ) originated from Sirkazhi . Arunachala composed devotional songs , including Sirkazhi Sthalapuranam and Sirkazhi Kovai , eulogising the town . S. R. Ranganathan , considered to be the father of library science in India , is from Sirkazhi .
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= NTA Film Network =
The NTA Film Network was an early American television network founded by Ely Landau in 1956 . The network was not a full @-@ time television network like CBS , NBC , or ABC . Rather , it operated on a part @-@ time basis , broadcasting films and several first @-@ run television programs from major Hollywood studios . Despite attracting over 100 affiliate stations and the financial support of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox ( which purchased a 50 % share of NTA in November 1956 ) the network proved unprofitable , and was discontinued by 1961 . The NTA Film Network 's flagship station , WNTA @-@ TV , is now WNET , one of the flagship stations of the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) .
= = Origins = =
Parent company National Telefilm Associates was founded by producers Ely Landau and Oliver A. Unger in 1954 when Landau 's film and television production company , Ely Landau , Inc . , was reorganized in partnership with Unger and screenwriter and producer Harold Goldman . NTA was the successor company to U.M. & M. TV Corporation , having purchased U.M. & M. in 1956 .
In October 1956 , NTA launched the NTA Film Network , a syndication service which distributed both films and television programs to independent television stations and stations affiliated with NBC , CBS , or ABC ( DuMont had recently gone out of the network business ) . The ad @-@ hoc network 's flagship station was WNTA @-@ TV , channel 13 in New York . The NTA Network was launched as a " fourth TV network " , and trade papers of the time referred to it as a new television network .
Unlike the Big Three television networks , the local stations in the NTA Film Network were not connected via coaxial cable or microwave relay . Instead , NTA Film Network programs were filmed and then mailed to each station in the network , a method used by television syndicators in the 1950s and 1960s . However , many local stations agreed to broadcast NTA Film Network programs in pattern ( simultaneously ) . Landau 's claim to network status was based on the simultaneous airing of the programs .
The NTA Film Network launched on October 15 , 1956 , with over 100 affiliate stations . In November 1956 , it was announced that 50 % of the network had been purchased by Twentieth Century @-@ Fox , which would also produce original content for the network . The film network grew to 128 stations . In September 1957 , the network purchased KMGM @-@ TV ( now Fox O & O KMSP @-@ TV ) in Minneapolis .
= = Affiliates = =
The following is a list of NTA Film Network affiliate stations in November 1956 .
Later affiliates included KOOK @-@ TV in Billings , Montana ( c . 1958 @-@ 1959 ) , KONO @-@ TV in San Antonio ( c . 1958 – 1959 ) , WISH @-@ TV in Indianapolis ( c . 1958 – 1959 ) , and KTVU in San Francisco ( c . 1959 – 1960 ) . The network purchased KMGM @-@ TV in Minneapolis , in September 1957 .
= = Programs = =
The NTA Film Network aired both films and television series . Among its 1956 – 1957 offerings were 52 Twentieth Century @-@ Fox films . Premiere Performance , a prime time block of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox films , aired from 1957 – 1959 . Other film blocks included TV Hour of Stars and The Big Night ( both 1958 – 1959 ) .
The network 's television programs included :
How to Marry a Millionaire , which aired from 1957 to 1959 , was based on the popular 1953 film of the same name . The series starred Barbara Eden , Merry Anders , Lori Nelson ( 1957 – 1958 ) , and Lisa Gaye ( 1958 – 1959 ) . The final episode aired in August 1959 .
Man Without a Gun , a western series starring Rex Reason and Mort Mills , aired from 1957 to 1959 . The series portrayed Reason as a newspaper editor who brought criminals to justice without the use of guns .
This is Alice , which aired from 1958 to 1959 , starred nine @-@ year @-@ old Patty Ann Gerrity as Alice Holliday , a girl who lived in the fictional town of River Glen , Georgia . The series was directed and produced by Sidney Salkow for NTA and Desilu Productions .
The Play of the Week , which aired from 1959 to 1961 , was a series of 67 televised plays . The program was well received by critics , and received a Peabody Award . The series ended its run on May 1 , 1961 .
Other , lesser @-@ known NTA series included The Bill Corum Sports Show , Man 's Heritage , and The Passerby ( all c . 1957 ) , Official Detective ( 1957 – 1958 ) , Open End ( 1958 – 1961 ) , William Tell ( 1958 – 1959 ) , Assignment : Underwater ( 1959 – 1960 ) , Q. T. Hush ( 1960 – 1961 ) , Sheriff of Cochise / U.S. Marshall ( 1956 – 1958 ) , Alex in Wonderland ( 1959 ) , Newsbeat ( 1959 – 1961 ) Juke Box Jury ( 1958 – 1959 ) , The Best of Bishop Sheen ( 1958 – 1963 ) , Danger Is My Business ( 1958 ) , Divorce Court ( 1958 – 1961 ) , Glencannon ( 1959 ) , Grand Jury ( 1959 ) , Mantovani ( 1959 ) , Henry Morgan and Company ( 1959 ) , George Jessel 's Show Business ( 1959 ) , The Mike Wallace Interview ( 1959 – 1961 ) , The Third Man ( 1960 – 1961 ) , The Oscar Levant Show ( 1960 ) , Confidential Portrait , Crime Reporter , and Probe ( 1962 ) .
In October 1956 , the NTA Film Network also announced provisional plans to telecast live sporting and special events ( using network relays ) by the 1959 – 1960 television season .
= = = Timeline of programs = = =
Below is a timeline showing the airdates of the NTA Film Network 's programs and later NTA offerings . The number of episodes that each series aired is given in parentheses . Some dates are tentative , as accurate records for filmed television series were not always kept .
= = = Schedule = = =
Friday 1958 – 1959
Note : This schedule was announced in May 1958 ; according to the announcement , 17 television stations would follow this schedule for the 1958 – 1959 television season ; other NTA Film Network affiliates aired the programs out of pattern .
= = End of network = =
In January 1959 , Ely Landau was succeeded by Charles C. Barry , who took over as president of network operations . Landau continued to chair National Telefilm Associates . Despite the 50 % ownership of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox , the film network never developed into a major commercial television network on a par with the " Big Three " television networks ; several modern TV historians regard the NTA Film Network as a syndication service rather than a major television network .
By 1961 , WNTA @-@ TV was losing money , and the network 's flagship station was sold to the Educational Broadcasting Corporation that November . WNTA @-@ TV became WNDT ( later WNET ) , flagship station of the National Educational Television network , a forerunner of PBS . NTA network operations did not continue without a flagship station , although parent company National Telefilm Associates continued syndication services ; four television series ( Probe , Tintin , The Fair Adventure , and A Day With Doodles ) were syndicated by NTA between 1962 and 1966 .
The Los Angeles NTA Film Network station , KTTV , went on to become a founding owned and operated station of the Fox television network , which is co @-@ owned with Twentieth Century @-@ Fox and a part of 21st Century Fox .
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= We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again =
" We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " is a song by Jeffrey Comanor from the album A Rumor in His Own Time , which debuted in September 1976 . Written by Comanor , the song describes a couple who spend a night together , one which the narrator wishes would " never end " . Both the song , which Epic Records released as a single , and album failed to chart . Discovered four months later by Arista Records President Clive Davis , " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " was covered by soft rock duo Deardorff & Joseph for their eponymous debut album , released on Arista . After Deardorff & Joseph disbanded , Marcia Day , who managed Maureen McGovern , became the manager of Deardorff , while Susan Joseph , who managed England Dan & John Ford Coley , became the manager of Joseph . Both McGovern and England Dan & John Ford Coley released covers of " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " in February 1978 ; while McGovern 's failed to chart , Dan & Coley 's spent six weeks at number one on the Billboard US Easy Listening chart , reached number two on the RPM Canada Adult Contemporary chart , and went to numbers nine and eleven on the magazines ' respective overall charts .
= = Original release = =
Lyricist and composer Jeffrey Comanor recorded " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " for the album A Rumor in His Own Time , which debuted in September 1976 . Produced by John Boylan and released on Epic Records , both the album and the single failed to chart . " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " describes a couple that spends a night together , one which the narrator wishes " would never end " . Comanor , who wrote the song , stated that his lyrical inspiration originated from a girl he dated who owned a wooden KLH radio that continued to play music quietly when he attempted to turn it off . When Comanor 's next girlfriend , Molly , left the city where he lived , he remembered their last night together and how he " hated that night to end " : a combination of the two memories formed the introductory lyrics of the song .
= = Covers = =
After its release , Arista Records President Clive Davis found the song and wanted Melissa Manchester to record a cover ; instead , he gave it to Deardorff & Joseph , a group that previously opened for Seals and Crofts , and they recorded it for their eponymous debut album . Released as a single in January 1977 , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the US Easy Listening chart for two weeks in April 1977 .
Nineteen months after its initial debut , England Dan & John Ford Coley covered the song for the album Some Things Don 't Come Easy . Produced by Kyle Lehning and engineered by Lehning and Marshall Morgan help from Tom Knox , Big Tree Records issued it as a single on February 17 , 1978 ; the song 's debut preceded its album 's . A Billboard magazine writer described England Dan & John Ford Coley 's cover of " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " as a soft ballad with a " catchy chorus " and " excellent vocal harmonizing " . In a review of Some Things Don 't Come Easy for AllMusic , Joe Viglione called it " far and away the best song on the album " and wrote that its " hook and instrumentation are so radio @-@ friendly that the 45 could be put on repeat and after the 30th spin not bore like many of the tracks [ on Some Things Don 't Come Easy ] " . Another Billboard writer listed " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " as a " hot cut " from the album , along with " You Can 't Dance " , " Calling for You Again " , and " Lovin ' Someone on a Rainy Night " . " Calling for You Again " , written by Coley and Bob Grundy , was the B @-@ side to the single .
In February , Maureen McGovern also recorded a cover that Epic Records released as a single . After Deardorff & Joseph separated , Marcia Day , who managed McGovern , became the manager of Danny Deardorff , while Susan Joseph , who managed Dan & Coley , became the manager of Marcus Joseph . According to Day , Susan told her that " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " would " absolutely not " be Dan & Coley 's next single , and that McGovern could release a cover ; Susan , however , states that she did not know of its plans for future release . On March 17 , 1978 , McGovern promoted her song on season four of the variety talk show Dinah ! , which aired on NBC . Described by Epic as the " title song " to McGovern 's newest album , the cover did not appear on her next album and the single failed to chart .
= = Chart performance = =
On March 25 , 1978 , in their " Top Album Pick " section , Billboard predicted that the first single from Some Things Don 't Come Easy would reach the top @-@ ten ; afterwards , it went to number nine on the magazine 's Hot 100 chart and spent six weeks at number one on their Easy Listening chart . Cashbox placed the song at number fourteen on their US Top 100 Singles chart for the week that ended on April 29 , 1978 . In Canada , " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " peaked on the RPM Top Singles chart at number eleven , while on the Adult Contemporary Tracks chart , the song peaked at number two behind " Dust in the Wind " by the progressive rock band Kansas .
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= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= Military career of Keith Miller =
The military career of Keith Miller , an Australian Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer , lasted from August 1940 until June 1946 , when World War II interrupted his sporting career . Miller enlisted in the Militia , before switching to the Royal Australian Air Force , where he served from November 1941 until 1946 when he was discharged with the rank of flying officer . Miller trained as a fighter pilot , and in the last month of the European theatre of war , he flew combat missions over German installations . However , Miller was more notable for his efforts as a cricketer , representing the Royal Australian Air Force cricket team and after VE Day , the Australian Services in the Victory Tests of 1945 , followed by a tour of the Indian subcontinent and Australia before being demobilised .
While serving in the Militia , Miller continued playing football for St Kilda Saints and interstate cricket for Victoria when he was off duty . Miller struggled to conform to military norms and was soon fined for " using insulting language towards a superior officer " . In late 1941 , he left the Militia and was accepted into the Royal Australian Navy , but tore up his form because his friend was rejected , before enlisting in the RAAF . After his initial training in 1942 , he earned his wings and was deployed to the United Kingdom in early 1943 where he continued his training with the No. 169 Squadron RAF . Miller survived a few disciplinary incidents while training to eventually take part in combat operations in the closing stages of the European theatre of the war , and had several narrow escapes from death throughout his combat and training period . He received several campaign medals for his service .
Away from battle , from 1943 onwards , Miller was selected to represent the RAAF in a series of matches against the Royal Air Force and other English teams . The objective of the matches was to show that the British Commonwealth would not be cowed by German attacks , and the team was officially designated as a military unit . In 1945 , following the Nazi surrender , the RAAF team merged with members of the Australian Imperial Force team to become the Australian Services , involving army and air force personnel , and competed against England in the five Victory Tests . Following the end @-@ of @-@ war tour of England , the Services team toured the Indian subcontinent before returning to Australia and playing in the 1945 – 46 season against the Australian states before being demobilised . Miller was the vice @-@ captain of the team on the return leg of the tour to Australia .
Miller was Australia 's top @-@ scorer during the Victory Tests and came to the fore with his fast bowling . Miller was acclaimed for his free @-@ spirited and adventurous batting , which he attributed to the triviality of sport in comparison to war . This was particularly exhibited in his 185 from 165 minutes for Dominions against England . It was through his involvement in wartime cricket that Miller met many of his future international colleagues , such as England 's Denis Compton , Bill Edrich and Len Hutton .
= = In Australia = =
As was the case with many of his contemporaries , Miller 's sporting career was interrupted by World War II . On 20 August 1940 , towards the end of the football season , almost a year after war broke out , Miller joined the Militia ( army reserve ) , and was assigned to the 4th Reserve Motor Transport Company . In late September , with St Kilda already eliminated from the football season , Miller began his first army training camp at Caulfield Racecourse in Melbourne . This meant that he would be able to continue his sporting career when he was not in training . A non @-@ conformist , he had the first of his many clashes with authority on 4 November , when he was charged with " using insulting language to a superior officer " and fined 10 shillings . Miller 's knockabout persona soon saw him earn the nickname Dusty , referring to his tendency to be involved in a " dust @-@ up " , meaning a physical fight .
During the summer of 1940 – 41 , Miller was granted leave so that he could play interstate cricket . In a season shortened due to war , Miller played in three matches and scored 140 runs at 28 @.@ 00 . In the second match , which was against South Australia , Miller scored 63 , his only fifty of the summer , and bowled for the first time at first @-@ class level , conceding three runs from a solitary over . In the third match he took his maiden first @-@ class wicket , in a war fundraising match for Stan McCabe 's XI against Don Bradman 's XI , that of Ken Ridings , caught behind with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . His pace was noticed by Bradman .
The 1941 VFL season went ahead despite the loss of many players to military service . Miller alternated between playing in the backline and in attack depending on match conditions . When St Kilda were kicking downwind , Miller would play in attack , and when they kicked against the wind , he would return to a defensive position . In the forward line , he alternated with Sam Loxton , a future Invincibles teammate . He booted 28 goals in 16 games , including eight in one match against North Melbourne . Miller also gained a reputation among opponents for kicking them in the ankles . He again showed his disrespect for authority and reputation . In one match against Melbourne , for whom his boss and state cricket team @-@ mate Percy Beames played , Miller charged towards Beames with a raised elbow at the start of the match , forcing his boss to be taken from the field . Miller came second in St Kilda 's best and fairest for 1941 as his team again came second to last .
Miller 's season ended early after he was called back for army service and he was stationed in the northern suburb of Broadmeadows . However , he had disciplinary problems and disliked taking orders from his officers , whom he often felt were inferior to him . He left the Militia on 8 November 1941 . Miller and a friend then attempted to join the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) as stokers . When the navy would not take his friend , Miller tore up his paperwork in protest , left the recruiting office , and walked around the corner to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) recruiting office . He was acutely aware of the risks , as many of his playing colleagues had been killed , injured or captured . The threat of combat increased when the Pacific Theatre of World War II opened on 7 December 1941 with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . The 1941 – 42 cricket season was cancelled and many cricket and football grounds were converted into army bases .
On 30 January 1942 he was called to active service by the RAAF . He was sent to No. 4 Initial Training School at Victor Harbor in South Australia , around 100 km south of Adelaide . Miller quickly showed his anti @-@ authoritarian streak in a training drill in which Miller 's instructor asked the recruits to disarm him . The recruits feared that their weekend leave would be cancelled if they succeeded in confiscating their sergeant 's rifle , but the sergeant assured that that this was not the case . Miller volunteered to combat the instructor , and succeeded by tripping him and removing his firearm . The sergeant angrily protested that Miller had tripped him and told Miller to repeat his feat . Miller again tripped the sergeant and disarmed him , this time contemptuously wiping his boot on his NCO 's shirt and soiling it . The irate instructor cancelled Miller 's leave and put him on guard duty , further threatening the other recruits with the same fate for protesting Miller 's treatment . However , the recruits protested the ruling with the camp adjutant , who overruled the sergeant , putting him on guard duty instead of Miller .
Soon after , on 19 February 1942 , the Japanese launched air raids on Australian soil , targeting the northern city of Darwin . Miller trained at flying schools at Cunderdin , Western Australia and Mallala , South Australia , just north of Adelaide and gained his wings in late 1942 . He played only one match during the football season , playing in a combined West Adelaide and Glenelg Football Club team while posted in South Australia . His team lost . On 17 December he returned to Melbourne and was promoted to the rank of flight sergeant . On 15 January 1943 , he embarked on the USS West Point at Port Melbourne , which was to take him to Europe in readiness for war combat . The journey included a stopover in February at a training camp in Boston in the United States . It was there that Miller met Peg Wagner , his future wife . They were engaged before Miller left for the United Kingdom . He arrived in Scotland on 18 March 1943 and was deployed to the southern English coastal town of Bournemouth . The once @-@ popular tourist resort had been turned into a military centre and was the target of frequent German air raids .
= = Britain = =
Miller continued his training at Bournemouth , spending his spare time pursuing his love of classical music and cricket . Miller had the first of many brushes with death in April , when he was invited to play weekend cricket for a RAAF team in London . While he was away for his first weekend match , the local Bournemouth pub where he ate lunch on Sunday was struck by a German air strike . Miller 's weekly lunchmates were all killed . His selection for the RAAF cricket team had saved him . Miller quickly gained a reputation among the servicemen for his carefree batting and bowling . He often bowled without a proper run @-@ up but managed to trouble batsmen with pace and bounce regardless . The RAAF team was officially formed in preparation for the 1943 season and Miller was selected . The captain was flying officer Keith Carmody . Miller played his first match at Lord 's , the home of cricket , against Warner 's XI , a team that included former England captains Bob Wyatt and Gubby Allen and future Test players Alec and Eric Bedser and Trevor Bailey . Oblivious to authority , Miller pushed a person in the dressing room out of his way before the match started , unaware that it was Warner , the secretary of the Marylebone Cricket Club himself . Warner 's XI batted first , and Miller dismissed Wyatt and Allen in taking 2 / 20 from ten overs as the hosts made 201 . Miller came to the crease at the fall of the first wicket and hit consecutive fours off the bowling of Dick Pollard from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . The RAAF were bowled out for 100 , with Miller top @-@ scoring with 45 . In the second innings , he made 21 not out with two sixes as time ran out and the match ended in a draw . In a match for the United Services against Sussex , Miller top @-@ scored with 134 not out in 120 minutes , striking 12 fours and three sixes . He then tore through Sussex with 7 / 36 , breaking through the defences of six players who were bowled or leg before wicket , as his team won by 225 runs . He also played one match for Sussex against the RAF , scoring 11 and taking 3 / 41 .
The RAAF played eight matches for the season , winning four and losing the rest . Miller 's top score was 141 in faster @-@ than @-@ even time against Public School Wanderers at Hove . He went on to play for Dominions , a composite team from the British Commonwealth , in a two @-@ day match against England in August , scoring 32 and two and bowling a total of eight overs for 46 runs without taking a wicket . England fielded a team of almost Test standard , with six capped Test players and four others who made their debut immediately after the resumption of international cricket following the war . The match marked the first meeting between Miller and his good friend , England batsman Denis Compton . In their first battle at the crease , Miller aimed a short ball that took off past Compton 's shoulder and went for four byes . By the end of his season , Miller 's bowling began to attract media attention . He ended the season in a match at Lord 's between the airmen : the RAAF against the RAF . Miller took 3 / 23 and scored 91 in the RAAF 's total of 8 / 164 . None of the matches during the 1943 season were accorded first @-@ class status .
By late 1943 , Miller has been based at RAF South Cerny in Gloucestershire . One night , he was pulled over by his commanding officer , whom he detested , for not wearing his uniform cap . An altercation resulted , and Miller posed as though he were about to punch his officer . The result was that Miller was charged with insubordination and sentenced to a three @-@ week disciplinary course with hard labour , from 18 October to 9 November . In mid @-@ November he was posted to Ouston near Newcastle upon Tyne where he was trained in the use of radar using Anson and Oxford aircraft . During his stay there , Miller was thrown on his back during a wrestling match , sustaining an injury that caused him recurring problems in later years , diminishing his ability to bowl .
In 1944 , Miller was again selected for the RAAF team . Near @-@ death experiences and the knowledge that he could be the next to die , changed Miller 's outlook to life . An RAAF teammate was killed on a mission soon after hitting a century . In a match against the British Civil Defence Services at Lord 's in July , Miller had reached 96 when an air raid siren signalled the arrival of a German flying bomb . It landed south of the ground and then Miller struck a four to register his ton before another flying bomb crashed close to the ground as he saluted the crowd . In a match against England , which boasted five capped and four future England Test players , Miller scored 85 in 100 minutes . While Miller was at the crease , the RAAF was on track to reach its target but his partners were dismissed around him and the RAAF fell 33 runs short after losing its last seven wickets for 51 runs . He took match figures of 6 / 28 against the West of England at Bristol , and top @-@ scored in the second innings of a low @-@ scoring match with 14 . Miller was also selected for the Dominions match against England , scoring 30 in a drawn encounter . The success of the season , especially Miller and Keith Carmody 's attractive batting , prompted Warner to begin planning for a " Test " series between the respective armed services of England and Australia .
After ten months of training , Miller was offered a commission as a pilot officer . His best friend missed out , so he arranged for Flight Lieutenant Keith Johnson an Australian cricket official , to pull some strings , ensuring his friend 's promotion . The pair were posted to 12 Advanced Flying Unit in Grantham , Lincolnshire in on 15 August 1944 , which was an Operations Training Unit for the purpose of familiarising officers with flying aircraft . However , on a trip back to Ouston to visit their colleagues , a night of drunken revelry led to property damage and injury to another airman . Miller and his friend were charged with eight offences and faced possible expulsion . Luckily for Miller , the Commanding Officer ( CO ) at his new posting at Cranfield , Buckinghamshire was his old CO at Ouston . Miller was given another three @-@ week disciplinary course , but his pleas convinced the CO to reduce the sentence to a fine for the property damage . Miller was allowed to resume his training in Beauforts , Beaufighters and Mosquitos . Again he had a near miss , when some instruments on his plane failed and he was forced to land his Beaufighter for repairs . After the repairs , another pilot used the plane and the problem recurred . The second pilot crash @-@ landed and was killed . Later , Miller was returning from a training mission over France and misjudged the runway , bouncing his plane on the tarmac . Trying to lift off again , only one engine responded and the unequal power supply caused the plane to swerve , missing the hangar by centimetres . He then escaped death by skipping a social appointment that he had agreed to attend . A V1 rocket hit the venue and killed many of the patrons inside . In October , he went AWOL to watch violinist Yehudi Menuhin perform in London and was dismissed , but the CO revoked his decision on the condition that Miller play for his cricket team .
= = Officer = =
At the end of his officer training , Miller was sent aboard a Royal Navy destroyer as part of an exchange programme between the forces . Miller and a friend reported to the harbour late after a night of socialising and were punished by having to wait for their turn on the second vessel . During a voyage to escort 30 merchant ships to Belgium , the vessel was involved in a battle with a German U @-@ boat , which was sunk . Upon his return to England , Miller was promoted to flying officer on 4 November 1944 . Miller was a nervy pilot , with his navigator saying that every landing was " a close shave " .
In March 1945 , Miller was deployed to the RAF station at Great Massingham in Norfolk , East Anglia . He was assigned to No. 169 Squadron RAF , flying Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers . Miller 's squadron took part in missions against Nazi Germany in April and May 1945 . They attacked V1 and V2 production sites on the island of Peenemünde in the North Sea with the objective of depleting the Germans ' offensive capability . On 19 April , Miller took part in an attack on a German installation at Flensburg in Germany . The Mosquitoes flew below 300 m in a four @-@ hour trip . In May , his squadron was deployed in Operation Fire Bash , to attack Westerland Airfield on the island of Sylt off the coast of Denmark . The Nazis had 5 @,@ 000 soldiers , 15 @,@ 000 sailors and 800 artillery pieces defending it . Over 300 British and American airmen had died in an attempt to capture it . Miller and his colleagues had tanks loaded with napalm , which were to be dropped on the Germans . One of Miller 's loads remained dangling from a wing , refusing to drop . He flew back to base with the explosives , and it fell off on landing at the air base . Luckily for Miller , it failed to detonate . However , five of the 24 planes that were involved in the raid were not so lucky , and were shot down . Miller avoided further European missions as bad weather forced the cancellation of additional raids over the next few days , by which time Germany had surrendered . His CO , Neville Reeves , organised for him to fly air force personnel over Germany to view the results of Allied bombing , called " Reeves ' Ruhr Tours " . On one flight , Reeves was leading a formation of aircraft when Miller broke away from the group and returned to base late . When asked why he had gone separately , Miller said that he wanted to fly over Bonn , the birthplace of Beethoven . He was not disciplined for the incident .
= = Victory Tests = =
The end of the war marked the start of the 1945 cricket season . Miller returned to Lord 's and top @-@ scored with 50 for the RAAF against a British Empire XI , as his team opened the season with a six @-@ wicket win . Warner had organised a series of matches between England and Australian servicemen , known as the Victory Tests , to celebrate the end of hostilities . However , Australian cricket administrators would not accredit the three @-@ day matches as official Test matches , arguing that there were not enough Test @-@ level players in the armed services . England were close to full strength , so the AIF and the RAAF teams merged to strengthen their quality . As a result , the Australian Services cricket team was formed under the leadership of Warrant Officer Lindsay Hassett to compete in the Victory Tests . Hassett was the only capped Test player , but six others had first @-@ class experience in Australia . The First Victory Test was at Lord 's and was expected to usher in a new post @-@ war era , which it hoped would be more aggressive and attractive . The last Anglo @-@ Australian Test series before the war had featured a large number of draws due to defensive play . England batted first and Miller came on as the fifth bowler . He bowled his Great Massingham pilot colleague Bill Edrich for 45 to end with 1 / 11 , precipitating an English collapse from 4 / 200 to 267 . In reply to England 's 267 , Miller came to the crease at 3 / 136 and joined Hassett . Miller gradually progressed , and once Australia had taken the lead , he cut loose . After spending 40 minutes in the 90s , he finished with 105 in 210 minutes , with a straight six . The Times opined that his innings was " as good a century as has been seen at Lord 's in many a long day " . Wisden said that he " was always getting runs with the soundness characteristic of most Australians " . Harry Altham declared that " a brilliant new star had joined the cluster of the Southern Cross " . Australia took a 188 @-@ run lead , and reached their second innings target with two balls to spare to win by six wickets despite Miller being run out for only one . He then took 2 / 2 and made a duck as the RAAF lost to the RAF by 16 runs in a one @-@ day match .
Miller went on to play a two @-@ day match for the RAAF against Lancashire , where his 52 was the only fifty in a low @-@ scoring game . He also took match figures of 2 / 28 . After scoring 30 in an innings victory over Learie Constantine 's XI , Miller represented the RAAF against the RAF at Lord 's where he top @-@ scored with 63 in 90 minutes . The Second Victory Test was played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield , where the grandstands were damaged by German air raids . Hassett sent the Englishmen into bat . Miller went wicketless . He was run out in the first innings for 17 . In the second innings , Miller bowled a fast and hostile spell , hitting Test world record holder Len Hutton in the arm before hitting Cyril Washbrook in the head , provoking an angry crowd reaction , comparing Miller to the Bodyline spearhead Harold Larwood . He later removed Washbrook and ended with 2 / 28 . His efforts led to calls for him to start taking his bowling seriously , instead of simply jogging in releasing the ball , especially from former South African representative Bob Crisp . Despite this , Miller fell for eight in the second innings and Australia fell 41 runs short of the target and series was squared .
During June , there was speculation that Miller 's squadron would be deployed to Burma to fight against Japan . In the meantime , the airmen continued to practice their flying , Miller earning Reeves ' ire by making unauthorised leisure flights . Later , he was ordered to fly tour flights over Germany . Not wanting to do so , Miller lodged bogus reports saying that the Mosquitoes were malfunctioning , causing unnecessary maintenance work . Thus , Reeves ordered Miller to take his plane instead , which caught fire in mid @-@ flight . With one functional engine and no navigator to assist him , Miller came back to the air base and bellylanded . The fuselage and one of the wings was broken off and the plane became engulfed in flames . Miller escaped physical injury , but was shaken by the accident . Again Miller escaped disciplinary action , and was playing sport an hour later .
The next day , Miller headed to Lord 's to play for the RAAF against the South of England . Chasing 208 , Miller scored an unbeaten 78 in 95 minutes . The Australians were 3 / 184 , well placed to reach the target of 208 when rain washed out the match . He then scored 30 and took 1 / 14 as the RAAF defeated the Army . In the Third Victory Test at Lord 's , despite his efforts in the previous Victory Test , Miller was only Hassett 's sixth @-@ choice bowler , coming on when England were 2 / 100 . This time he measured out a run up . Miller struck John Dewes before uprooting his off stump . He then bowled Donald Carr for four and then removed Hutton 's off stump . He ended with 3 / 44 from 18 overs . Miller was bowled for seven in the first innings but was rewarded with the new ball in the second innings . He bowled Dewes for a duck with an outswinger , before bowling Edrich and Pollard to end with 3 / 42 . This left Australia a target of 225 in five hours . Miller came into bat at 3 / 104 and saw Australia to the target unbeaten on 71 . C B Fry opined that Miller 's innings was " superbly stroked and directed cover driving of the pace bowling formed the most telling and majestic feature " .
In a two @-@ day match against Yorkshire , Miller struck 111 including three sixes when none of the team @-@ mates passed 30 . His innings featured strokes from both the front and back foot . The next day , he scored 75 in 83 minutes against Durham and took 2 / 1 in another win for the RAAF . That was the first of four back @-@ to @-@ back one @-@ dayers for the RAAF ; Miller scored two , 23 and nine against Scottish Services , Greenock and Scotland .
In the Fourth Victory Test , again at Lord 's , Miller came in at 3 / 108 and after a slow start , scored another century , taking 170 minutes to reach the mark before being removed for 118 . He struck ten fours , all off which were driven . In the second innings , he came to the crease with four wickets down with Australia still in arrears . He scored an unbeaten 35 to ensure that Australia would not collapse further and lose the match . The public reception towards the Victory Tests resulted in an additional fifth match being added to the schedule . To warm up for that match , Miller took 3 / 95 against the North of England .
In the meantime Japan had surrendered , and No. 169 Squadron was disbanded . Miller had spent around 550 hours in the air with the RAF , to whom his RAAF unit had been seconded . For his active service he received the 1939 – 45 Star , France and Germany Star , Defence Medal , War Medal 1939 – 45 and the Australia Service Medal 1939 – 45 .
In the final Fifth Victory Test at Old Trafford , Australia batted first and had collapsed to 4 / 66 under overcast conditions on a green pitch when Miller came to the crease . Against a swinging and seaming ball , Miller struck 14 from the first over that he faced and went on to finish 77 not out in a display that featured strong cutting and driving as Australia could manage only 173 . He took one wicket with the ball but managed only four in the second innings as England won by four wickets to square the series 2 – 2 . Hassett wrote at the end of the series that " This is cricket as it should be ... These games have shown that international cricket can be played as between real friends — so let 's have no more talk of " war " in cricket " . Miller topped the batting averages for the series , with 443 runs at 63 @.@ 28 . His aggregate exceeded that of Hammond and Hutton , who made 369 and 380 respectively . Miller also took 10 wickets at 27 @.@ 70 . Of Miller 's batting , Hassett said that " as a strokeplayer he is second to none " . his exploits in military teams led some to compare him to Jack Gregory , who had broken into top @-@ flight cricket with his exploits with an AIF team immediately after the First World War .
The last big match of the season was a one @-@ off at Lord 's between England and Dominions , a combined team of players from the British Commonwealth . Miller managed 26 in the Dominions ' first innings of 307 , before coming to the crease at 2 / 60 in the second innings with England still leading by 80 runs . Miller settled in quickly , hitting his second ball through the covers for four and moved to 49 in 49 minutes . He brought up his half @-@ century by lifting Hollies straight back into the crowd . Three balls later , he hit another ball to the same point . At stumps , he was 61 not out with Dominions at 3 / 145 . The next morning , his partner Martin Donnelly was dismissed and replaced by Dominions captain Learie Constantine . Miller then began his attack , hitting the dual leg spin pairing of Hollies and Wright to all parts of the ground . At one point , all the fielders except for the wicketkeeper and the bowler were on the fence .
He registered his century in 115 minutes , clouting another five balls over the boundary in the morning session . One of Miller 's sixes travelled over 170 m in the air to Block Q next to the pavilion . He then aimed a lofted shot over long on from the bowling of Hollies , directly at the pavilion . It was still rising when it narrowly went over the press box and clipped the top of the roof . Test spinner James Langridge was brought on and Miller deposited two drives over the fence in his first over .
In one 35 @-@ minute passage of play , he and Constantine added 91 runs , before he departed for 185 from 165 minutes . He had scored a total of 124 runs in 115 minutes of batting in the morning session . Miller had struck a total of 13 fours and seven sixes , prompting Warner to say that in his 60 years of involvement in first @-@ class cricket that he had " never seen such hitting " .
The Dominions went on to win by 45 runs in a match described by Wisden as " one of the finest ever seen " . Commenting of Miller ' innings , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " From the moment he takes guard he plays each ball just that much below its supposed merits that scratches a bowler 's pride " . The former England player C. B. Fry said that Miller was " a batsman already great ... who is likely , later on , to challenge the feats of Australia 's champions of the past ... Miller has something of the dash and generous abandon that were part of Victor Trumper 's charm . " Miller had enjoyed his visit to the home of cricket . In eight innings at Lord 's for the season , he had scored 568 runs at 94 @.@ 68 with three centuries . Wisden concluded
Miller outshone even Hammond and for the latter part of his innings played faultless cricket . The shot experts said was longer than Trott 's landed high on the broadcasting box ... Miller 's other six sixers bounced into seats in front of the Long Room , forcing elderly members to seek safety in the bar .
Miller 's carefree attitude on the playing field enchanted spectators and he was a favourite of the English public . Miller attributed this to the fact that sport was trivial in comparison to war . When asked many years later by Michael Parkinson , about pressure on the cricket field , Miller responded with the famous quote : " pressure is a Messerschmitt up your arse , playing cricket is not " .
The season ended with a few more matches against various English counties . Miller struck 81 not out in a low @-@ scoring win against Nottinghamshire . In a match against Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , which comprised Test @-@ level England players , Miller struck 71 in just over an hour as the Australians finished at 506 and took an innings victory . Miller 's time in England ended on a losing note when he scored a duck and eight and took 2 / 10 and 2 / 17 as the Australian Services lost to Surrey by three wickets . In matches that were given first @-@ class status , Miller had score 725 runs at 72 @.@ 50 for the season , finishing second in the averages and the aggregates . The success of the Australian Services team prompted the Foreign Minister of Australia Doc Evatt to ask the team to stop in India and Ceylon on their return to Australia to play in a fundraising tour for the Red Cross .
= = Services tour of India = =
Miller , the vice @-@ captain of the team , almost missed the trip to India after turning up late for the voyage . The servicemen arrived in Bombay and took a two @-@ day train journey to Lahore to play North Zone . Miller scored 46 in a drawn match . The Australians headed to Delhi , but Miller missed the tour match due to food poisoning . He then led the Australians in a match against West Zone in Bombay with Hassett being rested . Miller top @-@ scored with 106 in a high @-@ scoring draw . In the first match against India at Bombay 's Brabourne Stadium , regarded as unofficial Tests , Miller took two wickets : Rusi Modi in the first innings and Abdul Hafeez Kardar in the second . The match ended in a high @-@ scoring draw with Miller unbeaten on 15 as Australia were 1 / 31 in pursuit of 112 for victory . At this point , with most of the team suffering from dysentery , some of the Australians became disenchanted with the long train journeys across the subcontinent , and tried to ask Hassett and manager Keith Johnson for air travel . When this was rejected , some of the RAAF personnel felt that Hassett should be removed , with Miller as one of the candidates to replace him . With Bradman likely to miss the upcoming tour of New Zealand , the Services captain would be one of the leading candidates to lead Australia . Miller refused to plot against Hassett and the dispute ended when Squadron Leader Stan Sismey arranged for a RAAF plane already in India to transport the team . On the first flight to Calcutta , the squad survived an electrical storm that caused the plane to drop altitude .
The team was scheduled to play East Zone , but the city was gripped in deadly riots as independence activists agitated against British rule . The match went ahead , but on the first day , thousands of protestors invaded the pitch , interrupting play for an hour . Elsewhere in the city , 23 people were killed . Miller scored only 17 and one , both times dismissed by Chandu Sarwate , and did not bowl . On the final day , Miller 's friend Compton , who was playing for East Zone while on deployment with the British Army in India , was nearing a century as his team closed in on victory . The rioters broke through the security presence and invaded the pitch again . The leader of the demonstrators ran up to Compton and said : " Mr Compton , you very good player , but you must stop " . In later years , Miller would quote this remark whenever Compton came to the crease in matches featuring both of them . Compton told the rioters to ask Hassett , saying that the Australian skipper controlled proceedings . Hassett smiled at the leader of the irate demonstrators and asked " You wouldn 't happen to have a cigarette , would you , old boy ? " The rioters calmed down and play resumed . Compton brought up his century with the winning runs . In 2005 , the ECB and Cricket Australia decided that the player adjudged the Player of the Series in the Ashes would be awarded the Compton @-@ Miller Medal , recognising their friendship and rivalry .
In the second match against India , the Australians were 2 / 250 in response to India 's 386 when Miller came in and hit Vinoo Mankad for four sixes from five balls , before falling to the said bowler for 82 . The match ended in a draw , with Miller not taking a wicket after aggravating an injury . Captaining the team , Miller took 3 / 19 and 1 / 8 in a match against South Zone in Madras , the Australians ' only win on Indian soil . However , he had a difficult time with the bat , falling twice to Ghulam Ahmed for a duck and eight . He failed with the bat in the third and final match against India , falling twice to Shute Banerjee for two and seven , but he took 2 / 60 in the first innings as India took the series 1 – 0 . Miller had a disappointing series in the international matches , with 107 runs at 26 @.@ 25 and four wickets at 40 @.@ 50 . Australia 's final match was in Colombo against an All Ceylon team . Miller scored 132 and took 2 / 37 as Australia won by an innings . Not wanting to wait a month for the next boat and a fortnight 's sea voyage , the Australians returned to Perth by hitching a ride on a B @-@ 24 Liberator . The pilot of the RAAF plane had already promised 14 friends a lift so that they would not be stuck in India for another six months , so the Australian team sat on the floor of the aircraft . They made it back to Australia despite suffering engine trouble and an overloaded plane .
= = Services matches in Australia = =
Upon returning to Australia , Hassett 's men were informed by the military and the Australian Board of Control that the Services were to play a further six first @-@ class matches against the state teams . Miller was tired but the fixtures were meant to revive cricket following the war and were also used as a lead @-@ up to the international tour to New Zealand in March 1946 .
Miler started his campaign for Test selection when the servicemen arrived in Perth and played their first match against Western Australia . Miller put in his best batting performance of the season with an 80 in a drawn match , before being rested in the match against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval , which again ended in a draw . Miller finally returned to his home town on 2 January 1946 and was reunited with family and friends before taking on Victoria . Miller top @-@ scored in both innings with 37 and 59 as the military men fell to an innings defeat , troubled by the off spin of Ian Johnson . Miller and the servicemen had another difficult time against New South Wales , as their opponents made 7 / 551 and Miller went wicketless . Miller faced his biggest challenge in Australian conditions in his quest for Test selection when he went out to bat . The Australian selectors had not been in England for the Victory Tests to witness his ability and Miller had not played to his potential on Australian soil . Local Australian opinion was that because the Services had played poorly in Australia , their achievements in England must have been against poor opposition .
He was pitted against Bill O 'Reilly , the leg spinner regarded as the best bowler in the world , and Ray Lindwall , an emerging bowler of express pace , the fastest in Australia . Miller accumulated slowly and was on 74 as Services limped to 9 / 171 . Services had no batsmen left with one man injured and retired hurt , so O 'Reilly allowed the twelfth man to bat , in order to give Miller a chance of making a century . Miller attacked and scored 31 of the last 33 runs , ending with an unbeaten 105 , with 11 fours in 172 minutes . He earned plaudits among cricket pundits on Australian soil . Former leading Test batsman Alan Kippax opined that " Australia has unearthed a new champion " , claiming that he was finer than Jack Gregory and saying that " few batsmen I have watched have had his ability to blend beauty and power " . O 'Reilly said that Miller 's century was " one of the best hundreds ever got against me " . Miller compiled 46 in the second innings before being bowled by O 'Reilly as the Servicemen fell to another innings defeat . Miller finished the season with 2 / 74 and 4 / 49 in a drawn match against Queensland and a pair of fifties in a drawn match against Tasmania . Miller ended the season with 463 runs at 57 @.@ 88 and six wickets at 31 @.@ 83 .
Miller was selected for Australia 's tour of New Zealand , and made his Test debut there . Upon returning to Australia , he was discharged from the RAAF on 26 June 1946 .
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= Aldwych tube station =
Aldwych is a closed station on the London Underground , located in the City of Westminster in Central London . It was opened in 1907 with the name Strand , after the street on which it is located , and was the terminus of the short Piccadilly line branch from Holborn that was a relic of the merger of two railway schemes . The station building is close to the Strand 's junction with Surrey Street , near Aldwych . During its lifetime , the branch was the subject of a number of unrealised extension proposals that would have seen the tunnels through the station extended southwards , usually to Waterloo .
Served mostly by a shuttle train and suffering from low passenger numbers , the station and branch were considered for closure several times . Service was offered only during weekday peak hours from 1962 and finally discontinued altogether in 1994 , when the cost of replacing the lifts was considered too high for the income generated .
Disused parts of the station and the running tunnels were used during both world wars to shelter artworks from London 's public galleries and museums from bombing . The station has long been popular as a filming location and has appeared as itself and as other London Underground stations in a number of films . In recognition of its historical significance , the station is a Grade II listed building .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) first proposed a station in the Strand area in a private bill presented to Parliament in November 1898 . The station was to be the southern terminus of an underground railway line planned to run from Wood Green station ( now Alexandra Palace ) via Finsbury Park and King 's Cross and was originally to be located at the corner of Stanhope Street and Holles Street , north of the Strand . When the two streets were scheduled for demolition as part of the London County Council 's plans for the construction of Kingsway and Aldwych , the GN & SR moved the location to the junction of the two new roads . Royal Assent to the bill was given and the Great Northern and Strand Railway Act 1899 was enacted on 1 August .
In September 1901 , the GN & SR was taken over by the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) , which planned to build an underground line from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus via Knightsbridge . Both were under the control of Charles Yerkes through his Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company and , in June 1902 , were transferred to Yerkes ' new holding company , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) . Neither of the railways had carried out any construction , but the UERL obtained permission for new tunnels between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn to connect the two routes . The companies were formally merged as the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) following parliamentary approval in November 1902 . Prior to confirmation of the merger , the GN & SR had sought permission to extend its line southwards from the future junction of Kingsway and Aldwych , under Norfolk Street to a new interchange under the Metropolitan District Railway 's station at Temple . The extension was rejected following objections from the Duke of Norfolk under whose land the last part of the proposed tunnels would have run .
In 1903 , the GNP & BR sought permission for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to run under Leicester Square , Strand , and Fleet Street and into the City of London . The branch would have passed and interchanged with the already approved Strand station , allowing travel on the GNP & BR from Strand in three directions . The deliberations of a Royal Commission on traffic in London prevented parliamentary consideration of the proposal , which was withdrawn .
In 1905 , with the Royal Commission 's report about to be published , the GNP & BR returned to Parliament with two bills for consideration . The first bill revived the 1903 proposal for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to the City of London , passing and interchanging with Strand station . The second proposed an extension and relocation of Strand station to the junction of Strand and Surrey Street . From there the line was to continue as a single tunnel under the River Thames to Waterloo . The first bill was again delayed and withdrawn . Of the second , only the relocation of Strand station was permitted .
= = = Construction = = =
The linking of the GN & SR and B & PCR routes meant that the section of the GN & SR south of Holborn became a branch from the main route . The UERL began constructing the main route in July 1902 . Progress was rapid , so that it was largely complete by the Autumn of 1906 . Construction of the Holborn to Strand section was delayed while the London County Council constructed Kingsway and the tramway subway running beneath it and while the UERL decided how the junction between the main route and the branch would be arranged at Holborn .
Strand station was built on the site of the Royal Strand Theatre , which had closed on 13 May 1905 and been demolished . Construction of the station began on 21 October 1905 , to a design by the UERL 's architect Leslie Green in the UERL house style of a two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed building faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The station building is L @-@ shaped , with two façades separated by the building on the corner of Strand and Surrey Street . The Strand façade is narrow with a single semi @-@ circular window above the entrance . The façade in Surrey Street is wider with a separate entrance and exit and a shop unit . In anticipation of a revival of the extension to Waterloo and the City route , the station was built with three circular lift shafts able to accommodate six trapezium @-@ shaped lifts . Only one of the shafts was fitted out , with two lifts . The other two shafts rose from the lower concourse to the basement of the station , but could have been extended upwards into the space of the shop unit when required . A fourth smaller @-@ diameter shaft accommodated an emergency spiral stair .
The platforms are 92 feet 6 inches ( 28 @.@ 19 m ) below street level and are 250 feet ( 76 m ) long ; shorter than the GNP & BR 's standard length of 350 feet ( 110 m ) . As with other UERL stations , the platform walls were tiled with distinctive patterns , in this case cream and dark green . Only parts of the platform walls were decorated because it was planned to operate the branch with short trains . Owing to the reduced lift provision , a second route between the platforms and lifts was never brought into use and was left in an unfinished condition without tiling .
= = = Operation = = =
The GNP & BR 's main route opened on 15 December 1906 , but the Strand branch was not opened until 30 November 1907 . Initially , shuttle trains operated to Holborn from the eastern platform into the through platform at Holborn . At peak times , an additional train operated alternately in the branch 's western tunnel into the bay platform at Holborn . During the first year of operation , a train for theatregoers operated late on Monday to Saturday evenings from Strand through Holborn and northbound to Finsbury Park ; this was discontinued in October 1908 .
In March 1908 , the off @-@ peak shuttle service began to use the western platform at Strand and the through platform at Holborn , crossing between the two branch tunnels south of Holborn . Low usage led to the withdrawal of the second peak @-@ hour shuttle and the eastern tunnel was taken out of use in 1914 . On 9 May 1915 , three of the Underground stations in the area were renamed and Strand station became Aldwych . Sunday services ended in April 1917 and , in August of the same year , the eastern tunnel and platform at Aldwych and the bay platform at Holborn were formally closed . A German bombing campaign in September 1917 led to the disused platform being used as storage for around 300 paintings from the National Gallery from then until December 1918 .
In October 1922 , the ticket office was replaced by a facility in the lifts . Passenger numbers remained low : when the station was one of a number on the network considered for closure in 1929 , its annual usage was 1 @,@ 069 @,@ 650 and takings were £ 4 @,@ 500 . The branch was again considered for closure in 1933 , but remained open .
Wartime efficiency measures led to the branch being closed temporarily on 22 September 1940 , shortly after the start of The Blitz , and it was partly fitted out by the City of Westminster as an air @-@ raid shelter . The tunnels between Aldwych and Holborn were used to store items from the British Museum , including the Elgin Marbles . The branch reopened on 1 July 1946 , but patronage did not increase . In 1958 , the station was one of three that London Transport announced would be closed . Again it survived , but the service was reduced in June 1958 to run only during Monday to Friday peak hours and Saturday morning and early afternoons . The Saturday service was withdrawn in June 1962 .
After operating only during peak hours for more than 30 years , the closure announcement came on 4 January 1993 . The original 1907 lifts required replacement at a cost of £ 3 million . This was not justifiable as only 450 passengers used the station each day and it was losing London Regional Transport £ 150 @,@ 000 per year . The Secretary of State for Transport granted permission on 1 September 1994 to close the station and the branch closed on 30 September . Recognising the station 's historical significance as a mostly unaltered station from the early 20th century , the station was given Grade II listed building status in 2011 .
= = = Proposals for extension and new connections = = =
Although the Piccadilly Circus to City of London branch proposal of 1905 was never revisited after its withdrawal , the early plan to extend the branch south to Waterloo was revived a number of times during the station 's life . The extension was considered in 1919 and 1948 , but no progress towards constructing the link was made .
In the years after the Second World War , a series of preliminary plans for relieving congestion on the London Underground had considered various east @-@ west routes through the Aldwych area , although other priorities meant that these were never proceeded with . In March 1965 , a British Rail and London Transport joint planning committee published " A Railway Plan for London " which proposed a new tube railway , the Fleet line ( later renamed the Jubilee line ) , to join the Bakerloo line at Baker Street then run via Bond Street , Green Park , Charing Cross , Aldwych and into the City of London via Ludgate Circus , Cannon Street and Fenchurch Street before heading into south @-@ east London . An interchange was proposed at Aldwych and a second recommendation of the report was the revival of the link from Aldwych to Waterloo . London Transport had already sought parliamentary approval to construct tunnels from Aldwych to Waterloo in November 1964 , and in August 1965 , parliamentary powers were granted . Detailed planning took place , although public spending cuts led to postponement of the scheme in 1967 before tenders were invited .
Planning of the Fleet line continued and parliamentary approval was given in July 1969 for the first phase of the line , from Baker Street to Charing Cross . Tunnelling began on the £ 35 million route in February 1972 and the Jubilee line opened north from Charing Cross in May 1979 . The tunnels of the approved section continued east of Charing Cross under Strand almost as far as Aldwych station , but no work at Aldwych was undertaken and they were used only as sidings . Funding for the second phase of the work was delayed throughout the 1970s whilst the route beyond Charing Cross was reviewed to consider options for serving anticipated development in the London Docklands area . By 1979 , the cost was estimated as £ 325 million , a six @-@ fold increase from the £ 51 million estimated in 1970 . A further review of alternatives for the Jubilee line was carried out in 1980 , which led to a change of priorities and the postponement of any further effort on the line . When the extension was eventually constructed in the late 1990s it took a different route , south of the River Thames via Westminster , Waterloo and London Bridge to provide a rapid link to Canary Wharf , leaving the tunnels between Green Park and Aldwych redundant .
In July 2005 , Ove Arup & Partners produced a report , DLR Horizon 2020 Study , for the Docklands Light Railway ( DLR ) examining " pragmatic development schemes " to expand and improve the DLR network between 2012 and 2020 . One of the proposals was an extension of the DLR from Bank to Charing Cross via City Thameslink and Aldwych . The disused Jubilee line tunnels would be enlarged to accommodate the larger DLR trains and Aldwych station would form the basis for a new station on the line , although requiring considerable reconstruction to accommodate escalators . The estimated cost in 2005 was £ 232 million for the infrastructure works and the scheme was described as " strongly beneficial " as it was expected to attract passengers from the London Underground 's existing east @-@ west routes and from local buses and reduce overcrowding at Bank station . The business case assessment was that the proposal offered high value , although similar values were calculated for other extension proposals from Bank . Further detailed studies were proposed .
In 2015 , a scheme was proposed by the design firm Gensler to convert disused London Underground tunnels into subterranean rail trails , enabling the disused branches of the Piccadilly line and Jubilee line to be used as cycle paths . The scheme , which would involve re @-@ opening Aldwych station as an access point for cyclists , has not been officially approved .
= = Use in media = =
Because it was a self @-@ contained section of the London Underground which was closed outside weekday peak hours , Aldwych station and the branch line from Holborn were popular locations for filming scenes set on the Tube even before their closure . Since the branch 's closure in 1994 , its use in film productions has continued , with the station appearing as itself and , with appropriate signage , as other stations on the network . The track and infrastructure are maintained in operational condition , and a train of ex @-@ Northern line 1972 tube stock is permanently stabled on the branch . This train can be driven up and down the branch for filming . The physical connection with the Piccadilly line northbound tracks remains , but requires manual operation .
Films and television productions that have been shot at Aldwych include :
The Gentle Gunman ( 1952 )
Battle of Britain ( 1969 )
Death Line ( 1972 )
Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1986 )
The Krays ( 1990 )
Patriot Games ( 1994 )
Creep ( 2004 )
V for Vendetta ( 2006 )
The Good Shepherd ( 2006 )
Atonement ( 2007 )
28 Weeks Later ( 2007 )
The Edge of Love ( 2008 )
Mr Selfridge ( 2013 )
Sherlock ( 2014 )
The pre @-@ war operation of the station features in a pivotal scene in Geoffrey Household 's novel Rogue Male , when the pursuit of the protagonist by an enemy agent sees them repeatedly using the shuttle service on the branch line . A chase through Aldwych station ends with the agent 's death by electrocution on the track . A much modified and expanded version of the station appears as a level in the video game Tomb Raider III . The music video for The Prodigy 's song " Firestarter " was filmed in the disused eastern tunnel and one of the unused lift shafts . The station was the subject of an episode of Most Haunted in 2002 .
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= Cher =
Cher ( / ˈʃɛər / ; born Cherilyn Sarkisian ; May 20 , 1946 ) is an American singer and actress . Called the Goddess of Pop , she is described as embodying female autonomy in a male @-@ dominated industry . She is known for her distinctive contralto singing voice and for having worked in numerous areas of entertainment , as well as adopting a variety of styles and appearances during her five @-@ decade @-@ long career .
Cher gained popularity in 1965 as one @-@ half of the folk rock husband @-@ wife duo Sonny & Cher after their song " I Got You Babe " reached number one on the American and British charts . She began her solo career simultaneously , releasing in 1966 her first million @-@ seller song , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " . She became a television personality in the 1970s with her shows The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour , watched by over 30 million viewers weekly during its three @-@ year run , and Cher . She emerged as a fashion trendsetter by wearing elaborate outfits on her television shows . While working on television , she established herself as a solo artist with the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart @-@ topping singles " Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves " , " Half @-@ Breed " , and " Dark Lady " . After her divorce from Sonny Bono in 1975 , Cher launched a comeback in 1979 with the disco @-@ oriented album Take Me Home and earned $ 300 @,@ 000 a week for her 1980 – 82 residency show in Las Vegas .
In 1982 , Cher made her Broadway debut in the play Come Back to the Five and Dime , Jimmy Dean , Jimmy Dean and starred in the film adaptation of the same title . She subsequently earned critical acclaim for her performances in films such as Silkwood ( 1983 ) , Mask ( 1985 ) , and Moonstruck ( 1987 ) , for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress . She then revived her musical career by recording the rock @-@ inflected albums Cher ( 1987 ) , Heart of Stone ( 1989 ) , and Love Hurts ( 1991 ) , all of which yielded several successful singles . She reached a new commercial peak in 1998 with the album Believe , whose title track became the biggest @-@ selling single of all time by a female artist in the UK ; it features the pioneering use of Auto @-@ Tune , also known as the " Cher effect " . Her 2002 – 05 Living Proof : The Farewell Tour became one of the highest @-@ grossing concert tours of all time , earning $ 250 million . In 2008 , she signed a $ 180 million deal to headline the Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas for three years . After seven years of absence , she returned to film in the 2010 musical Burlesque . Cher 's first studio album in 12 years , Closer to the Truth ( 2013 ) , became her highest @-@ charting solo album in the U.S. to date at number three .
Cher has won a Grammy Award , an Emmy Award , an Academy Award , three Golden Globe Awards , a Cannes Film Festival Award , and a special CFDA Fashion Award , among several other honors . Throughout her career , she has sold 100 million records worldwide . She is the only artist to date to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each decade from the 1960s to the 2010s . Outside of her music and acting , she is noted for her political views , philanthropic endeavors and social activism , including LGBT rights and HIV / AIDS prevention .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1946 – 61 : Early life = = =
Cher was born Cherilyn Sarkisian in El Centro , California , on May 20 , 1946 . Her father , John Sarkisian , was an Armenian @-@ American truck driver with drug and gambling problems , and her mother , Jackie Jean Crouch , was an occasional model and bit @-@ part actress who claimed Irish , English , German and Cherokee ancestry . Cher 's father was rarely home when she was an infant , and her parents divorced when Cher was ten months old . Her mother later married actor John Southall , by whom she had a daughter , Georganne Southall .
Now living in Los Angeles , Cher 's mother began acting while working as a waitress . She changed her name to Georgia Holt and played minor roles in films and on television . Holt also secured acting parts for her daughters as extras on television shows like The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet . Her mother 's relationship with Southall ended when Cher was nine years old , but she considers him her father and remembers him as a " good @-@ natured man who turned belligerent when he drank too much " . Holt remarried and divorced several more times , and she moved her family around the country ( including New York , Texas , and California ) . They often had little money , and Cher remembers using rubber bands to hold her shoes together . At one point , her mother left Cher at an orphanage for several weeks . Although they met every day , both found the experience traumatic .
When Cher was in fifth grade , she produced a performance of the musical Oklahoma ! for her teacher and class . She organized a group of girls , directing and choreographing their dance routines . Unable to convince boys to participate , she acted the male roles and sang their songs . By age nine , she had developed an unusually low voice . Fascinated by film stars , Cher 's role model was Audrey Hepburn , particularly due to her role in the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany 's . Cher began to take after the unconventional outfits and behavior of Hepburn 's character . She was disappointed by the absence of dark @-@ haired Hollywood actresses whom she could emulate then . She had wanted to be famous since childhood but felt unattractive and untalented , later commenting , " I couldn 't think of anything that I could do ... I didn 't think I 'd be a singer or dancer . I just thought , well , I 'll be famous . That was my goal . "
In 1961 , Holt married bank manager Gilbert LaPiere , who adopted Cher ( under the name Cheryl LaPiere ) and Georganne , and enrolled them at Montclair College Preparatory School , a private school in Encino , whose students were mostly from affluent families . The school 's upper @-@ class environment presented a challenge for Cher ; biographer Connie Berman wrote , " [ she ] stood out from the others in both her striking appearance and outgoing personality . " A former classmate commented , " I 'll never forget seeing Cher for the first time . She was so special ... She was like a movie star , right then and there ... She said she was going to be a movie star and we knew she would . " Despite not being an excellent student , Cher was intelligent and creative , according to Berman . She earned high grades , excelling in French and English classes . As an adult , she discovered that she had dyslexia . Cher achieved notoriety for her unconventional behavior : she performed songs for students during the lunch hours and surprised peers when she wore a midriff @-@ baring top . She later recalled , " I was never really in school . I was always thinking about when I was grown up and famous . "
= = = 1962 – 65 : Solo career breakthrough = = =
At age 16 , Cher dropped out of school , left her mother 's house , and moved with a friend into Los Angeles , where she took acting classes and worked to support herself . She danced in small clubs along Hollywood 's Sunset Strip , introducing herself to performers , managers , and agents . According to Berman , " [ Cher ] did not hesitate to approach anyone she thought could help her get a break , make a new contact , or get an audition . " Cher met performer Sonny Bono in November 1962 when he was working for record producer Phil Spector . Cher 's friend moved out , and Cher accepted Sonny 's offer to be his housekeeper . Sonny introduced Cher to Spector , who used her as a backup singer on many recordings , including the Ronettes ' " Be My Baby " and the Righteous Brothers ' " You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' " . Spector produced her first single , the commercially unsuccessful " Ringo , I Love You " , which Cher recorded under the name Bonnie Jo Mason .
Cher and Sonny became close friends , eventual lovers , and performed their own unofficial wedding ceremony in a hotel room in Tijuana , Mexico , on October 27 , 1964 . Although Sonny had wanted to launch Cher as a solo artist , she encouraged him to perform with her because she suffered from stage fright , and he began joining her onstage , singing the harmonies . Cher disguised her nervousness by looking at Sonny ; she later commented that she sang to the people through him . In late 1964 , they emerged as a duo called Caesar & Cleo , releasing the poorly received singles " Do You Wanna Dance ? " , " Love Is Strange " , and " Let the Good Times Roll " .
Cher signed with Liberty Records ' Imperial imprint in the end of 1964 , and Sonny became her producer . The single " Dream Baby " , released under the name " Cherilyn " , received airplay in Los Angeles . Encouraged by Imperial , Cher worked with Sonny on her second solo single on the label , a cover version of Bob Dylan 's " All I Really Want to Do " , which peaked at number 15 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1965 . Meanwhile , the Byrds had released their own version of the same song . When competition on the singles charts started between Cher and the Byrds , the group 's record label began to promote the B @-@ side of the Byrds ' single . Roger McGuinn of the Byrds commented , " We loved the Cher version ... We didn 't want to hassle . So we just turned our record over . " Cher 's debut album , All I Really Want to Do ( 1965 ) , reached number 16 on the Billboard 200 ; it was later described by AllMusic 's Tim Sendra as " one of the stronger folk @-@ pop records of the era " .
= = = 1965 – 67 : Sonny and Cher 's rise to pop stardom = = =
In early 1965 , Caesar and Cleo began calling themselves Sonny & Cher . Following the recording of " I Got You Babe " , they traveled to England in July 1965 at the Rolling Stones ' advice ; Cher recalled , " [ they ] had told us ... that Americans just didn 't get us and that if we were going to make it big , we were going to have to go to England . " According to writer Cintra Wilson , " English newspaper photographers showed up when S & C were thrown out of the London Hilton [ because of their outfits ] the night they arrived — literally overnight , they were stars . London went gaga for the heretofore @-@ unseen S & C look , which was neither mod nor rocker . "
" I Got You Babe " reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became , according to AllMusic 's Bruce Eder , " one of the biggest @-@ selling and most beloved pop / rock hits of the mid- ' 60s " ; Rolling Stone listed it among " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2003 . As the song knocked the Beatles off the top of the British charts , English teenagers began to emulate Sonny and Cher 's fashion style , such as bell @-@ bottoms , striped pants , ruffled shirts , industrial zippers and fur vests . Upon their return to the U.S. , the duo made several appearances on the teen @-@ pop showcases Hullabaloo and Shindig ! and completed a tour of some of the largest arenas in the U.S. Their shows attracted Cher look @-@ alikes — " girls who were ironing their hair straight and dyeing it black , to go with their vests and bell @-@ bottoms " . Cher expanded her creative range by designing a clothing line .
Sonny and Cher 's first album , Look at Us ( 1965 ) , released for the Atco Records division of Atlantic Records , spent eight weeks at number two on the Billboard 200 , behind the Beatles ' Help ! . Their material became popular , and the duo successfully competed with the dominant British Invasion and Motown sounds of the era . Sonny and Cher charted ten Billboard top 40 singles between 1965 and 1972 , including five top @-@ ten singles : " I Got You Babe " , " Baby Don 't Go " , " The Beat Goes On " , " All I Ever Need Is You " , and " A Cowboy 's Work Is Never Done " . At one point , they had five songs in the top 50 at the same time , a feat equaled only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley . By the end of 1967 , they had sold 40 million records worldwide and had become , according to Time magazine 's Ginia Bellafante , rock 's " it " couple .
Cher 's following releases kept her solo career fully competitive with her work with Sonny . The Sonny Side of Chér ( 1966 ) features " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " , which reached number two in America and became her first million @-@ seller solo single . Chér , also released in 1966 , contains the Burt Bacharach and Hal David composition " Alfie " , which was added to the credits of the American version of the 1966 film of the same name and became the first stateside version of the popular song . With Love , Chér ( 1967 ) includes songs described by biographer Mark Bego as " little soap @-@ opera stories set to rock music " such as the U.S. top @-@ ten single " You Better Sit Down Kids " .
= = = 1967 – 70 : Backlash from the younger generation , first marriage = = =
By the end of the 1960s , Sonny and Cher 's music had ceased to chart . According to Berman , " the heavy , loud sound of groups like Jefferson Airplane and Cream made the folk @-@ rock music of Sonny and Cher seem too bland . " Cher later commented , " I loved the new sound of Led Zeppelin , Eric Clapton , the electric @-@ guitar oriented bands . Left to myself , I would have changed with the times because the music really turned me on . But Son [ ny ] didn 't like it — and that was that . " Their monogamous lifestyle during the period of the sexual revolution and the anti @-@ drug position they adopted at the height of the drug culture eventually made the duo lose their popular appeal among American youths . According to Bego , " in spite of their revolutionary unisex clothes , Sonny and Cher were quite ' square ' when it came to sex and drugs . " In an attempt to recapture their young audience , the duo produced and starred in the film Good Times ( 1967 ) , which was commercially unsuccessful .
Cher 's next album , Backstage ( 1968 ) , in which she runs in diverse musical directions , including Brazilian jazz and anti @-@ war protest settings , was not a commercial success . In 1969 , she was dropped from Imperial Records . Sonny and Cher had been dropped from Atco ; however , the label wanted to sign Cher for a solo album . 3614 Jackson Highway ( 1969 ) was recorded without the guidance of Sonny and incorporates experiments in soul music ; AllMusic 's Mark Deming proclaimed it " the finest album of her career " . Displeased with the 3614 Jackson Highway album , Sonny prevented Cher from releasing more recordings for Atco .
Meanwhile , Sonny repeatedly cheated on Cher , and by the end of the 1960s their relationship had begun to unravel . According to People magazine , " [ Sonny ] tried desperately to win her back , telling her he wanted to marry and start a family . " They officially married after she gave birth on March 4 , 1969 to Chastity Bono ( who years later became Chaz Bono ) . That year , the duo spent $ 500 @,@ 000 and mortgaged their home to make the film Chastity . Written and directed by Sonny , who did not appear in the movie , it tells the story of a young woman , played by Cher , searching for the meaning of life . The art film failed commercially , putting the couple $ 190 @,@ 000 in debt with back taxes . However , some critics noted that Cher showed signs of acting potential ; Cue magazine wrote , " Cher has a marvelous quality that often makes you forget the lines you are hearing . "
At the lowest point of their career , the duo put together a nightclub routine that relied on a more adult approach to sound and style . According to writer Cintra Wilson , " Their lounge act was so depressing , people started heckling them . Then Cher started heckling back . Sonny ... reprimanded her ; then she 'd heckle Sonny " . The heckling became a highlight of the act and attracted viewers . Television executives took note , and the couple began making guest appearances on prime @-@ time shows , in which they presented a " new , sophisticated , and mature " image . Cher adopted alluring , low @-@ cut gowns that became her signature outfits .
= = = 1971 – 74 : Television career breakthrough , first musical comeback = = =
CBS head of programming Fred Silverman offered Sonny and Cher their own television program after he noticed them as guest @-@ hosts on The Merv Griffin Show in 1971 . The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour premiered as a summer replacement series on August 1 , 1971 , and had six episodes . Because it was a ratings success , the couple returned that December with a full @-@ time show .
Watched by more than 30 million viewers weekly during its three @-@ year run , The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour was praised for the comedic timing , and deadpan Cher mocked Sonny about his looks and short stature . According to Berman , they " exuded an aura of warmth , playfulness , and caring that only enhanced their appeal . Viewers were further enchanted when a young Chastity also appeared on the show . They seemed like a perfect family . " Cher honed her acting skills in sketch comedy roles such as the brash housewife Laverne , the sardonic waitress Rosa , and historical vamps , including Cleopatra and Miss Sadie Thompson . The designer clothing Cher wore were part of the show 's attraction , and her style influenced the fashion trends of the 1970s .
In 1971 , Sonny and Cher signed with the Kapp Records division of MCA Records , and the latter singer released the single " Classified 1A " , in which she sings from the point of view of a soldier who bleeds to death in Vietnam . Written by Sonny , who felt that her first solo single on the label had to be poignant and topical , radio station programmers quickly rejected the song as uncommercial . Since Sonny 's first attempts at reviving their recording career as a duo had also been unsuccessful , Kapp Records recruited Snuff Garrett to work with them . He produced Cher 's first U.S. solo number @-@ one single , " Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves " , which " proved that ... Garrett knew more about Cher 's voice and her persona as a singer than Sonny did " , writes Bego . The song was featured on the 1971 album Chér ( eventually reissued under the title Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves ) , which was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Its second single , " The Way of Love " , reached number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and established Cher 's more confident image as a recording artist .
In 1972 , Cher released the all @-@ ballad set Foxy Lady , demonstrating the evolution of her vocal abilities , according to Bego . Following the release of the album , Garrett quit as producer after disagreeing with Sonny about the kind of material Cher should record . At Sonny 's insistence , in 1973 Cher released an album of standards called Bittersweet White Light , which was commercially unsuccessful . That year , lyricist Mary Dean brought Garrett " Half @-@ Breed " , a song about the daughter of a Cherokee mother and a white father , that she had written especially for Cher . Although Garrett did not have Cher as a client at the time , he was convinced that " it 's a smash for Cher and for nobody else " , so he held the song for months until he got Cher back . " Half @-@ Breed " was featured on the album of the same name and became Cher 's second U.S. solo number @-@ one single . Both the album and the single were certified gold by the RIAA . Cher 's third U.S. solo number @-@ one single was " Dark Lady " , in 1974 , from the namesake album . Later that year , she released a Greatest Hits album that , according to Billboard magazine , proved her to be " one of the most consistent hitmakers of the past five years " , as well as a " proven superstar who always sells records " .
Between 1971 and 1973 , Sonny and Cher 's recording career was revived with four albums released under Kapp Records and MCA Records : Sonny & Cher Live ( 1971 ) , All I Ever Need Is You ( 1972 ) , Mama Was a Rock and Roll Singer , Papa Used to Write All Her Songs ( 1973 ) , and Live in Las Vegas Vol . 2 ( 1973 ) . Cher later commented on this period : " I could do a whole album ... in three days ... We were on the road ... and we were doing the Sonny & Cher Show " .
= = = 1974 – 79 : Divorce from Sonny Bono , second marriage , decline of popularity = = =
Cher and Sonny had marital problems since late 1972 , but appearances were maintained until 1974 . " The public still thinks we are married , " Sonny wrote in his diary at the time , " [ and ] that 's the way it has to be . " In February 1974 , Sonny filed for a separation , citing " irreconcilable differences " . A week later , Cher countered with a divorce suit and charged Sonny with " involuntary servitude " , claiming that he withheld money from her and deprived her of her rightful share of their earnings . The couple battled in court over finances and the custody of Chastity , which was eventually granted to Cher . Their divorce was finalized on June 26 , 1975 .
In 1974 , Cher won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour . The same year , Sonny premiered a solo show on ABC , The Sonny Comedy Revue , which carried the creative team behind the Sonny and Cher show . It was canceled after 13 weeks .
During the divorce proceedings , Cher had a two @-@ year romantic relationship with record executive David Geffen , who freed her from her business arrangement with Sonny , under which she was required to work exclusively for Cher Enterprises , the company he ran . Geffen secured a $ 2 @.@ 5 million deal for Cher with Warner Bros. Records , and she began work on her first album under the label in 1975 . According to Bego , " it was their intention that [ this album ] was going to make millions of fans around the world take her seriously as a rock star , and not just a pop singer . " Despite Cher 's efforts to develop her musical range by listening to artists such as Stevie Wonder , Elton John , James Taylor , Carly Simon , Joni Mitchell , and Bob Dylan , the resulting album , Stars , was commercially and critically unsuccessful . Janet Maslin of The Village Voice wrote , " Cher is just no rock and roller ... Image , not music , is Cher Bono 's main ingredient for both records and TV . " The album has since become a cult classic and is generally considered among her best work .
On February 16 , 1975 , Cher returned to television with a solo show on CBS . Entitled Cher , it began as a highly rated special with guests Flip Wilson , Elton John , and Bette Midler . The show was produced by Geffen and centered on Cher 's songs , monologues , comedy performance , and her variation of clothing , which was the largest for a weekly TV show . Early critical reception was favorable ; Los Angeles Times exclaimed that " Sonny without Cher was a disaster . Cher without Sonny , on the other hand , could be the best thing that 's happened to weekly television this season . " Cher lasted for less than a year , replaced by a new show in which she professionally reunited with ex @-@ husband Sonny ; she said , " doing a show alone was more than I could handle . "
On June 30 , 1975 , four days after finalizing her divorce from Sonny , Cher married rock musician Gregg Allman , co @-@ founder of The Allman Brothers Band . She filed for divorce nine days later because of his heroin and liquor problems , but they reconciled within a month . They had one son , Elijah Blue , on July 10 , 1976 . Sonny and Cher 's TV reunion , The Sonny and Cher Show , debuted on CBS in February 1976 — the first show ever to star a divorced couple . Although the show was a ratings success on its premiere , Cher and Sonny 's insulting onscreen banter about their divorce , her reportedly extravagant lifestyle , and her troubled relationship with Allman caused a public backlash that eventually contributed to the show 's cancellation in August 1977 .
Cher 's next albums , I 'd Rather Believe in You ( 1976 ) and Cherished ( 1977 ) , the latter a return to her pop style at Warner 's producers insistence , were commercially unsuccessful . In 1977 , under the rubric " Allman and Woman " , she recorded alongside Allman the duet album Two the Hard Way , later regarded by History as " the worst of either artist 's respective career " . Their relationship ended following the release of the album , and their divorce was finalized in 1979 . Beginning in 1978 , she had a two @-@ year live @-@ in relationship with Kiss member Gene Simmons . That year , she legally changed her name from Cherilyn Sarkisian La Piere Bono Allman to Cher , to eliminate the use of four surnames . She returned to prime time television with the specials Cher ... Special ( 1978 ) and Cher ... and Other Fantasies ( 1979 ) .
= = = 1979 – 82 : Second musical comeback , shift from disco music to rock = = =
A single mother with two children , Cher realized that she had to make a choice about the direction of her singing career . Deciding to temporarily abandon her desire to be a rock singer , she signed with Casablanca Records and launched a comeback with the single " Take Me Home " and the album of the same name , both of which capitalized on the disco craze . Both the album and the single became instant successes , remained bestsellers for more than half of 1979 , and were certified gold by the RIAA . Sales of the album may have been boosted by the image of a scantily clad Cher in a Viking outfit on its cover . Despite her initial lack of enthusiasm with disco music , she changed her mind after the success , commenting , " I never thought I would want to do disco ... [ but ] it 's terrific ! It 's great music to dance to . I think that danceable music is what everybody wants . "
Encouraged by the popularity of Take Me Home , Cher planned to return to rock music in her next album , Prisoner ( 1979 ) . The album 's cover features Cher draped in chains as a " prisoner of the press " , which caused controversy among feminist groups for her perceived portrayal of a sex slave . She included rock songs , which made the disco release seem unfocused and led to its commercial failure . Prisoner produced the single " Hell on Wheels " , featured on the soundtrack of the film Roller Boogie . The song exploits the late 1970s roller @-@ skating fad and contributed to its popularity .
In 1980 , alongside Italian record producer Giorgio Moroder , Cher wrote her last Casablanca disco recording , " Bad Love " , for the film Foxes . She formed the rock band Black Rose that year with her then @-@ lover , guitarist Les Dudek . Although Cher was the lead singer , she did not receive top billing because she wanted to create the impression that all band members were equal . Since she was easily recognized when she performed with the band , she developed a punk look by cutting her trademark long hair . Despite appearances on television , the band failed to earn concert dates . Their album Black Rose received unfavorable reviews ; Cher told Rolling Stone , " The critics panned us , and they didn 't attack the record . They attacked me . It was like , ' How dare Cher sing rock & roll ? ' " During the band 's active period , Cher was simultaneously doing a residency show in Las Vegas , earning $ 300 @,@ 000 a week . Its companion television special Cher ... A Celebration at Caesars aired on Lifetime in April 1983 . Black Rose disbanded in 1981 . That year , she released a duet with musician Meat Loaf called " Dead Ringer for Love " , which reached number five on the UK Singles Chart and was later described by AllMusic 's Donald A. Guarisco as " one of the more inspired rock duets of 1980s " . In 1982 , Columbia Records released the album I Paralyze , later deemed by Bego as Cher 's " strongest and most consistent solo album in years " despite its low sales .
= = = 1982 – 87 : Film career breakthrough , musical hiatus = = =
With decreasing album sales and a lack of commercially successful singles , Cher decided to further develop her acting career . While she had previously aspired to venture into film , she had only the critically and commercially unsuccessful movies Good Times and Chastity to her credit , and the Hollywood establishment did not take her seriously as an actress . She moved to New York in 1982 to take acting lessons with Lee Strasberg , founder of the Actors Studio , but never enrolled after her plans changed . She auditioned for and was signed by director Robert Altman for the Broadway stage production Come Back to the Five and Dime , Jimmy Dean , Jimmy Dean , playing a member of a James Dean fan club holding a 20 @-@ year reunion . That year , Altman cast her again in the film adaptation of the same title . Cher credits Altman for launching her acting career : " Without Bob [ Robert Altman ] I would have never had a film career . Everyone told him not to cast me ... I am convinced that Bob was the only one who was brave enough to do it . "
Director Mike Nichols , who had seen Cher onstage in Jimmy Dean , offered her the part of Dolly Pelliker , a plant co @-@ worker and Meryl Streep 's lesbian roommate in the film Silkwood . When it premiered in 1983 , audiences questioned Cher 's ability as an actress . She recalls attending a film preview during which the audience laughed when they saw her name in the credits . For her performance , Cher won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture .
In 1985 , Cher formed the film production company Isis . Her next film , Mask ( 1985 ) , reached number two at the box office and was Cher 's first critical and commercial success as a leading actress . For her role as a drug addict biker with a teenage son who has a severe physical deformity , she won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress . During the making of the film , however , she clashed with director Peter Bogdanovich . She attended the 58th Academy Awards in a tarantula @-@ like costume " to show her scorn for the ' system ' " , according to authors James Parish and Michael Pitts . The incident garnered her much publicity .
By 1987 , Cher was receiving attention for her controversial lifestyle , including her tattoos , plastic surgeries , exhibitionist fashion sense , and affairs with younger men . She had romantic relationships with actors Val Kilmer , Eric Stoltz , and Tom Cruise , hockey player Ron Duguay , film producer Josh Donen , Bon Jovi guitarist Richie Sambora , and Rob Camilletti , an 18 @-@ years @-@ younger bagel baker whom she dated from 1986 to 1989 .
= = = 1987 – 92 : Film stardom , third musical comeback = = =
Cher starred in three films in 1987 . In Suspect , she played a public defender who is both helped and romanced by one of the jurors in the homicide case she is handling . Along with Susan Sarandon and Michelle Pfeiffer , she starred as one of three divorcees involved with a mysterious and wealthy visitor from hell who comes to a small New England town in the comedy horror The Witches of Eastwick . In Norman Jewison 's romantic comedy Moonstruck , she played an Italian widow in love with her fiancé 's younger brother . The two latter films ranked among the top ten highest @-@ grossing films of 1987 , at number ten and five , respectively . For her performance in Moonstruck , Cher won the Academy Award for Best Actress and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical . By 1988 , Cher had become one of the most acclaimed and bankable actresses of the decade , commanding $ 1 million per film . That year , she released the fragrance Uninhibited , which earned about $ 15 million in its first year sales .
In 1987 , Cher signed with Geffen Records and revived her musical career with what music critics Johnny Danza and Dean Ferguson describe as " her most impressive string of hits to date " , establishing her as a " serious rock and roller ... a crown that she 'd worked long and hard to capture " . Michael Bolton , Jon Bon Jovi , Desmond Child , and Richie Sambora produced her first Geffen album , Cher , which was certified platinum by the RIAA . It features the rock ballad " I Found Someone " , her first U.S. top @-@ ten single in more than eight years .
Cher 's 19th studio album Heart of Stone ( 1989 ) was certified triple platinum by the RIAA . The music video for its second single , " If I Could Turn Back Time " , caused controversy due to Cher 's performance on a Navy warship , straddling a cannon , and wearing a leather thong that revealed her tattooed buttocks . The song topped the Australian charts for seven weeks , reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became one of Cher 's most successful singles . Further songs from Heart of Stone to reach the U.S. top ten were " After All " , a duet with Peter Cetera , and " Just Like Jesse James " . At the 1989 People 's Choice Awards , Cher won the Favorite All @-@ Around Female Star Award . She embarked on the Heart of Stone Tour in 1990 . Most critics liked the tour 's nostalgic nature and admired Cher 's showmanship . Its parent television special Cher at the Mirage ( 1991 ) was filmed during a concert in Las Vegas .
In her first film in three years , Mermaids ( 1990 ) , Cher paid tribute to her own mother in this story about a woman who moves her two daughters from town to town at the end of a love affair . She conflicted with the film 's first two directors , Lasse Hallström and Frank Oz , who were replaced by Richard Benjamin . Believing Cher would be the star attraction , the producers allowed her creative control for the film . Mermaids was a moderate box office success and received mixed reviews . One of the two songs Cher recorded for the film 's soundtrack , " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " , topped the UK Singles Chart for five weeks .
Cher 's final studio album for Geffen Records , Love Hurts ( 1991 ) , stayed at number one in the UK for six weeks and produced the UK top @-@ ten single " Love and Understanding " . The album was certified gold by the RIAA . In later years , Cher commented that her Geffen label " hit years " had been especially significant to her , " because I was getting to do songs that I really loved ... songs that really represented me , and they were popular ! " She released the exercise book Forever Fit in 1991 , followed by the 1992 fitness videos CherFitness : A New Attitude and CherFitness : Body Confidence . She embarked on the Love Hurts Tour during 1992 . That year , the UK @-@ only compilation album Greatest Hits : 1965 – 1992 peaked at number one in the country for seven weeks . It features three new songs : " Oh No Not My Baby " , " Whenever You 're Near " , and " Many Rivers to Cross " .
= = = 1992 – 97 : Health and professional struggles , directing debut = = =
Partially due to her experiences filming Mermaids , Cher turned down leading roles in such films as The War of the Roses and Thelma & Louise . According to Berman , " After the success of Moonstruck , she was so worried about her next career move that she was overly cautious . " In the early 1990s , she contracted the Epstein – Barr virus and developed chronic fatigue syndrome , which left her too exhausted to sustain her music and film careers . Because she needed to earn money and was not healthy enough to work on other projects , she starred in infomercials launching health , beauty , and diet products , which earned her close to $ 10 million in fees . The skits were parodied on Saturday Night Live and critics considered them a sellout , many suggesting her film career was over . She told Ladies ' Home Journal , " Suddenly I became the Infomercial Queen and it didn 't occur to me that people would focus on that and strip me of all my other things . "
Cher made cameo appearances in the Robert Altman films The Player ( 1992 ) and Prêt @-@ à @-@ Porter ( 1994 ) . During 1994 , she started a mail @-@ order catalogue business , Sanctuary , selling Gothic @-@ themed products , and contributed a rock version of " I Got You Babe " to MTV 's animated series Beavis and Butt @-@ head . Alongside Chrissie Hynde , Neneh Cherry , and Eric Clapton , she topped the UK Singles Chart in 1995 with the charity single " Love Can Build a Bridge " . Later that year , she signed with Warner Music UK 's label WEA and released the album It 's a Man 's World ( 1995 ) , which came out of her idea of covering men 's songs from a woman 's point of view . In general , critics favored the album and its R & B influences , some saying her voice had improved . Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote that " From an artistic standpoint , this soulful collection of grown @-@ up pop songs … is the high point of her recording career . " It 's a Man 's World reached number 10 on the UK Albums Chart and spawned the UK top @-@ ten single " One by One " . Tracks were remixed for the American release of the album , abandoning its original rock sound in favor of a style more accessible to U.S. radio ; it reached number 64 on the Billboard 200 .
In 1996 , Cher played the wife of a businessman who hires a hitman to murder her in the Chazz Palminteri @-@ scripted dark comedy film Faithful . Although the film received negative reviews from critics , Cher was praised for her role ; The New York Times ' Janet Maslin wrote that she " does her game best to find comic potential in a victim 's role . " Cher refused to promote the film , claiming it was " horrible " . She made her directing debut with a segment in the abortion @-@ themed anthology If These Walls Could Talk ( 1996 ) , in which she also starred as a doctor murdered by an anti @-@ abortion fanatic . It drew the highest ratings for an original HBO movie to date , registering an 18 @.@ 7 rating with a 25 share in HBO homes and attracting 6 @.@ 9 million viewers . Her music played a large role in the American TV series The X @-@ Files episode " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " , which aired in November 1997 . Written for her , it tells the story of a scientist 's grotesque creature who adores Cher because of her role in Mask , in which her character cares for her disfigured son .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Death of Sonny Bono , fourth musical comeback = = =
Following Sonny Bono 's death in a skiing accident in 1998 , Cher delivered a tearful eulogy at his funeral , calling him " the most unforgettable character " she had met . She paid tribute to him by hosting the CBS special Sonny & Me : Cher Remembers , which aired on May 20 , 1998 . That month , Sonny and Cher received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Television . Later that year , Cher published the book The First Time , a collection of autobiographical essays of " first @-@ time " events in her life , which critics praised for revealing the singer to be down to earth and genuine . Although the manuscript was almost finished when Sonny died , she could not decide whether to include his death in the book ; she feared being criticized for capitalizing on the event . She later told Rolling Stone , " I couldn 't ignore it , could I ? I might have if I cared more about what people think than what I know is right for me . "
Cher 's 22nd studio album Believe ( 1998 ) marked a musical departure for her , as it comprises dance @-@ pop songs , many of which capture the " disco @-@ era essence " ; Cher said , " It 's not that I think this is a ' 70s album ... but there 's a thread , a consistency running through it that I love . ' " Believe was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA and went on to be certified gold or platinum in 39 countries , selling 20 million copies worldwide . The album 's title track reached number one in more than 23 countries and sold over 10 million copies worldwide . It became the best @-@ selling recording of 1998 and 1999 , respectively , in the UK and the U.S. , and Cher 's most successful single to date . " Believe " topped the UK Singles Chart for seven weeks and became the biggest @-@ selling single of all time by a female artist in the UK , selling over 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the country as of November 2013 . It also topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for four weeks , selling over 1 @.@ 8 million units in the U.S. as of December 1999 . The song earned Cher the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording .
In January 1999 , Cher performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at the Super Bowl XXXIII . Two months later , she sang on the television special VH1 Divas Live 2 , which attracted 19 @.@ 4 million viewers . According to VH1 , it was the most popular , and most watched program in the television network 's history , as Cher 's presence was " a huge part of making it exactly that . " Capitalizing on the success of " Believe " , Cher 's former record company Geffen Records released the compilation album If I Could Turn Back Time : Cher 's Greatest Hits ( 1999 ) , which features the previously unreleased song " Don 't Come Cryin ' to Me " . It was certified gold by the RIAA . The Do You Believe ? tour ran from 1999 to 2000 and was sold out in every American city it was booked in , amassing a global audience of more than 1 @.@ 5 million . Its companion television special , Cher : Live in Concert – From the MGM Grand in Las Vegas ( 1999 ) , was the highest rated original HBO program in 1998 – 99 , registering a 9 @.@ 0 rating among adults 18 to 49 and a 13 @.@ 0 rating in the HBO universe of about 33 million homes . In November 1999 , Cher released the compilation album The Greatest Hits , which sold three million copies outside of the U.S. as of January 2000 .
Cher was named the number @-@ one dance artist of 1999 by Billboard . At the 1999 World Music Awards , she received the Legend Award for her " lifelong contribution to the music industry " . Her next film , Franco Zeffirelli 's Tea with Mussolini ( 1999 ) , got mixed reviews , but she earned critical acclaim for her performance as a rich , flamboyant American socialite whose visit to Italy is not welcome among the Englishwomen ; one reviewer from Film Comment wrote , " It is only after she appears that you realize how sorely she 's been missed from movie screens ! For Cher is a star . That is , she manages the movie star trick of being at once a character and at the same time never allowing you to forget : that 's Cher . "
Not.com.mercial ( 2000 ) was written mostly by Cher after she had attended a songwriters ' conference in 1994 ; it marked her first attempt at writing most of the tracks for an album . As the album was rejected by her record label for being uncommercial , she chose to sell it only on her website . In the song " Sisters of Mercy " , she calls the Catholic nuns who cared for her when she was a child " cruel , heartless and wicked " for keeping her in their orphanage long after her mother attempted to retrieve her ; church leaders quickly issued denouncements .
= = = 2001 – 13 : Touring success , Vegas residency , return to film = = =
Cher 's highly anticipated dance @-@ oriented follow @-@ up to Believe , Living Proof ( 2001 ) , entered the Billboard 200 at number nine and was certified gold by the RIAA . The album includes the UK top @-@ ten single " The Music 's No Good Without You " and " Song for the Lonely " , the latter song dedicated to " the courageous people of New York " following the September 11 attacks . In May 2002 , she performed during the benefit concert VH1 Divas Las Vegas . At the 2002 Billboard Music Awards , she won the Dance / Club Play Artist of the Year Award and was presented with the Artist Achievement Award by Steven Tyler for having " helped redefine popular music with massive success on the Billboard charts " . That year , her wealth was estimated at $ 600 million .
In June 2002 , Cher embarked on the Living Proof : The Farewell Tour , announced as the final live concert tour of her career , although she vowed to continue making records and films . The show highlighted her successes in music , television , and film , featuring video clips from the 1960s onwards and an elaborate backdrop and stage set @-@ up . Initially scheduled for 49 shows , the worldwide tour was extended several times . By October 2003 , it had become the most successful tour ever by a woman , grossing $ 145 million from 200 shows and playing to 2 @.@ 2 million fans . A collection of live tracks taken from the tour was released in 2003 as the album Live ! The Farewell Tour . The NBC special Cher – The Farewell Tour ( 2003 ) attracted 17 million viewers . It was the highest rated network @-@ TV concert special of 2003 and earned Cher the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety , Music , or Comedy Special .
After leaving Warner UK in 2002 , Cher signed a worldwide deal with the U.S. division of Warner Bros. Records in September 2003 . The Very Best of Cher ( 2003 ) , a greatest @-@ hits collection that surveys her entire career , peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 and was certified double platinum by the RIAA . She played herself in the Farrelly brothers comedy Stuck on You ( 2003 ) , mocking her public image as she appears in bed with a much younger boyfriend . Her 326 @-@ date Farewell Tour ended in 2005 as one of the highest @-@ grossing concert tours of all time , seen by over 3 @.@ 5 million fans and earning $ 250 million . In 2008 , she began a three @-@ year , 200 @-@ performance residency at the Colosseum at Caesars Palace , Las Vegas , for which she earned a reported $ 60 million per year . Titled Cher , the production featured state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art video and special effects , elaborate set designs , 14 dancers , four aerialists and more than 20 costume changes .
Cher returned to film in the 2010 musical Burlesque , playing a nightclub impresario whom a young Hollywood hopeful is looking to impress . One of the two songs she recorded for the film 's soundtrack , the power ballad " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " , reached number one on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart in January 2011 , making Cher the only artist to date to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each decade from the 1960s to the 2010s . In November 2010 , she received the honor of placing her handprints and footprints in cement in the courtyard in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . The next year , she lent her voice to Janet the Lioness in the comedy Zookeeper . Dear Mom , Love Cher , a documentary she produced about her mother Georgia Holt , aired on Lifetime in May 2013 .
= = = 2013 – present : Return to music and touring , Broadway project = = =
Closer to the Truth , Cher 's 25th studio album and the first since 2001 's Living Proof , entered the Billboard 200 at number three in October 2013 , marking her highest position on that chart to date . Michael Andor Brodeur from The Boston Globe commented that " Cher 's ' Goddess of Pop ' sash remains in little danger of undue snatching ; at 67 , she sounds more convincing than J @-@ Lo or Madonna reporting from ' the club ' " . Cher premiered the lead single " Woman 's World " on the season four finale of the talent show The Voice , her first live TV performance in over a decade . She later joined the show 's season five as judge Blake Shelton 's team adviser .
On June 30 , 2013 , Cher headlined the annual Dance on the Pier benefit , celebrating Gay Pride day . It became the event 's first sellout in five years . In November 2013 , she appeared as a guest performer and judge on the seventeenth season of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars , during its eighth week , which was dedicated to her . She embarked on the Dressed to Kill Tour in March 2014 , nearly a decade after announcing her " farewell tour " . She quipped about that fact during the shows , saying this would actually be her last farewell tour while crossing fingers . The tour 's first leg , which included 49 sold @-@ out shows in North America , grossed $ 54 @.@ 9 million . In November 2014 , she cancelled all remaining dates due to an infection that affected kidney function .
On May 7 , 2014 , Cher confirmed a collaboration with American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan on their album Once Upon a Time in Shaolin . Credited as Bonnie Jo Mason , she uses an alias of hers originated in 1964 . Only one copy of the album has been produced , and it was sold by online auction in November 2015 . After appearing as Marc Jacobs ' guest at the 2015 Met Gala , Cher posed for his brand 's fall / winter advertising campaign . The fashion designer stated , " This has been a dream of mine for a very , very long time . "
Cher first announced plans for a Broadway musical based on her life and music in June 2012 . At that time , she revealed that the show would feature three actresses playing herself during different stages of her life . She expressed interest in playing a fourth iteration of herself , as a wise figure who gives advice to her younger versions . By 2015 , she was still working on the project , enlisting writer Rick Elice to help her develop the script .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Music = = =
Cher has employed various musical styles , including folk rock , pop rock , power ballads , disco , new wave music , rock music , punk rock , arena rock , and hip hop ; she said she has done this to " remain relevant and do work that strikes a chord " . Her music has mainly dealt with themes of heartbreak , independence , and self @-@ empowerment for women ; by doing so , she became " a brokenhearted symbol of a strong but decidedly single woman " , according to Out magazine 's Judy Wieder . Goldmine magazine 's Phill Marder credited Cher 's " nearly flawless " song selection as what made her a notorious rock singer ; while several of her early songs were penned by or sung with Sonny Bono , most of her solo successes , which outnumbered Sonny and Cher 's successes , were composed by independent songwriters , selected by Cher . Not.com.mercial ( 2000 ) , the singer 's first album mostly written by herself , presents a " 1970s singer @-@ songwriter feel " that proves " Cher adept in the role of storyteller " , according to AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis .
Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times writes , " There were a lot of great records by female singers in the early days of rock … None , however , reflected the authority and command that we associate with rock ' n ' roll today as much as [ Cher 's ] key early hits " . Some of Cher 's early songs discuss subjects rarely addressed in American popular music such as divorce , prostitution , unplanned and underaged pregnancy , and racism . According to AllMusic 's Joe Viglione , the 1972 single " The Way of Love " is " either about a woman expressing her love for another woman , or a woman saying au revoir to a gay male she loved " ( " What will you do / When he sets you free / Just the way that you / Said good @-@ bye to me " ) . Her ability to carry both male and female ranges allowed her to sing solo in androgynous and gender @-@ neutral @-@ themed songs .
= = = Voice = = =
Cher has a contralto singing voice , described by author Nicholas E. Tawa as " bold , deep , and with a spacious vibrato " . Ann Powers of The New York Times called it " a quintessential rock voice : impure , quirky , a fine vehicle for projecting personality . " AllMusic 's Bruce Eder wrote that the " tremendous intensity and passion " of Cher 's vocals coupled with her " ability to meld that projection with her acting skills " can provide " an incredibly powerful experience for the listener " , despite her having a limited vocal range . Paul Simpson , in his book The Rough Guide to Cult Pop ( 2003 ) , states that " Cher [ is ] the possessor of one of the huskiest , most distinctive voices in pop … which can work wonders with the right material directed by the right producer " . He further addresses the believability of her vocal performances : " she spits out the words … with such conviction you 'd think she was delivering an eternal truth about the human condition " .
Writing about Cher 's musical output during the 1960s , Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times stated that " Rock was subsequently blessed with the staggering blues exclamations of Janis Joplin in the late ' 60s and the raw poetic force of Patti Smith in the mid- ' 70s . Yet no one matched the pure , seductive wallop of Cher " . By contrast , her vocal performances during the 1970s were described by Eder as " dramatic , highly intense … [ and ] almost as much ' acted ' as sung " . First heard in the 1980 record Black Rose , Cher employed sharper , more aggressive vocals in her hard rock @-@ oriented albums , establishing her sexually confident image . For the 1995 album It 's a Man 's World , she restrained her vocals , singing in higher registers and without vibrato . The 1998 song " Believe " has an electronic vocal effect proposed by Cher , and was the first commercial recording to feature Auto @-@ Tune — an audio processor originally intended to disguise or correct off @-@ key inaccuracies in vocal music recordings — as a deliberate creative effect . After the success of the song , the technique became known as the " Cher effect " and has since been widely used in popular music . Cher continued to use Auto @-@ Tune on the albums Living Proof ( 2001 ) and Closer to the Truth ( 2013 ) .
= = = Films , music videos , and performances = = =
Author Yvonne Tasker , in her book Working Girls : Gender and Sexuality in Popular Cinema ( 2002 ) , notes that Cher 's film roles often mirrors her public image as a rebellious , sexually autonomous , and self @-@ made woman . In her films , she recurrently serves as a social intermediary to disenfranchised male characters , such as Eric Stoltz 's elephantiasis victim in Mask ( 1985 ) , Liam Neeson 's mute homeless veteran in Suspect ( 1987 ) , and Nicolas Cage 's socially isolated baker with a wooden hand in Moonstruck ( 1987 ) . Film critic Kathleen Rowe wrote of Moonstruck that the depiction of Cher 's character as " a ' woman on top ' [ is ] enhanced by the unruly star persona Cher brings to the part ' . Jeff Yarbrough of The Advocate noted that Cher was " one of the first superstars to ' play gay ' with compassion and without a hint of stereotyping " , as she portrays a lesbian in the 1983 film Silkwood .
Cher 's public image is also reflected in her music videos and live performances , in which she " repeatedly comments on her own construction , on her search for perfection and on the performance of the female body " , wrote Tasker . Unlike other music video and stage acts of that time who often featured female backers who would mimic the singer 's performance , Cher uses a male dancer dressed as her in the 1992 concert video Cher at the Mirage ; Author Diane Negra commented , " In authorizing her own quotation , Cher acknowledges herself as fictionalized production , and proffers to her audience a pleasurable plurality . " James Sullivan of San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " Cher is well aware that her chameleonic glitz set the stage for the current era of stadium @-@ size razzle @-@ dazzle . She 's comfortable enough to see such imitation as flattery , not theft . "
Cher was ranked 17th on VH1 's list of the " 50 Greatest Women of the Video Era " . The 1980 video for " Hell on Wheels " involves cinematic techniques and was one of the first music videos ever . Deemed " controversial " for her performance on a Navy warship , straddling a cannon , and wearing a leather thong that revealed her tattooed buttocks , the 1989 music video for " If I Could Turn Back Time " was the first ever to be banned by MTV .
= = Public image = =
Cher emerged as a fashion trendsetter in the 1960s , popularizing " hippie fashion with bell @-@ bottoms , bandanas , and Cherokee @-@ inspired tunics " . She began working as a model in 1967 for photographer Richard Avedon after then @-@ Vogue editor Diana Vreeland discovered her at a party for Jacqueline Kennedy that year . Avedon took the controversial photo of Cher in a beaded and feathered nude gown for the cover of Time magazine in 1975 . Through her 1970s television shows , she became a sex symbol with her inventive and revealing Bob Mackie @-@ designed outfits , and fought the network censors to bare her navel . Although Cher has been erroneously attributed to being the first woman to expose her navel on television , she was the most prominent to do so since the establishment of the American Code of Practices for Television Broadcasters in 1951 , which prompted network censors to ban navel exposure on U.S. television . People dubbed Cher the " pioneer of the belly beautiful " . In 1972 , after she was featured on the annual " Best Dressed Women " lists , Mackie stated : " There hasn 't been a girl like Cher since [ Marlene ] Dietrich and [ Greta ] Garbo . She 's a high @-@ fashion star who appeals to people of all ages . "
In May 1999 , after the Council of Fashion Designers of America recognized Cher with an award for her influence in fashion , Robin Givhan of Los Angeles Times called her a " fashion visionary " for " striking just the right note of contemporary wretched excess " . Givhan referenced Tom Ford , Anna Sui and Dolce & Gabbana as " [ i ] nfluential designers [ who ] have evoked her name as a source of inspiration and guidance . " She concluded that " Cher 's Native American showgirl sexpot persona now seems to epitomize the fashion industry 's rush to celebrate ethnicity , adornment and sex appeal . " Alexander Fury of The Independent lauded Cher as " the ultimate fashion icon " and traced her influence among female celebrities such as Beyoncé , Jennifer Lopez , and Kim Kardashian , stating that " [ t ] hey all graduated from the Cher school of never sharing the stage , with anyone , or anything … They 're trying to share the spotlight , to have Cher 's success . "
Cher has attracted media attention for her physical appearance — particularly her youthful looks and her tattoos . Journalists have often called her the " poster girl " of plastic surgery . Author Grant McCracken , in his book Transformations : Identity Construction in Contemporary Culture ( 2008 ) , draws a parallel between Cher 's plastic surgeries and the transformations in her career : " Her plastic surgery is not merely cosmetic . It is hyperbolic , extreme , over the top ... Cher has engaged in a transformational technology that is dramatic and irreversible . " Caroline Ramazanoglu , author of Up Against Foucault : Explorations of Some Tensions Between Foucault and Feminism ( 1993 ) , wrote that " Cher 's operations have gradually replaced a strong , decidedly ' ethnic ' look with a more symmetrical , delicate , ' conventional ' ... and ever @-@ youthful version of female beauty ... Her normalised image ... now acts as a standard against which other women will measure , judge , discipline and ' correct ' themselves . "
Cher has six tattoos . The Baltimore Sun called her the " Ms. Original Rose Tattoo " . She got her first tattoo in 1972 . According to Sonny Bono , " Calling her butterfly tattoos nothing was like ignoring a sandstorm in the Mojave . That was exactly the effect Cher wanted to create . She liked to do things for the shock they created . She still does . She 'll create some controversy and then tell her critics to stick it . " In the late 1990s , she began having laser treatments to remove her tattoos . The process was still underway in the 2000s . She stated , " When I got tattooed , only bad girls did it : me and Janis Joplin and biker chicks . Now it doesn 't mean anything . No one 's surprised . " In 1992 , Madame Tussauds wax museum honored Cher as one of the five " most beautiful women of history " by creating a life @-@ size statue . She was ranked 26th on VH1 's list of the " 100 Sexiest Artists " published in 2002 .
Cher 's presence on social media has drawn analysis from journalists . The New York Times writer Jenna Wortham commended Cher on her social media usage , saying " Most celebrities ' social @-@ media feeds feel painfully self @-@ aware and thirsty … In her own way , Cher is an outlier , perhaps the last unreconstructed high @-@ profile Twitter user to stand at her digital pulpit and yell ( somewhat ) incomprehensibly , and be rewarded for it . Online , authenticity and originality are often carefully curated myths . Cher thrives on a version of nakedness and honesty that is rarely celebrated in the public eye . " Monica Heisey of The Guardian called Cher 's Twitter profile " a jewel in the bizarro crown of the internet " , and stated , " While many celebrities use Twitter for carefully crafted self @-@ promotion , Cher just lets it all hang out . "
= = Other interests = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Cher 's primary philanthropic endeavors have included support of health research and patients ' quality of life , anti @-@ poverty initiatives , veterans rights , and vulnerable children . She is the namesake of the Cher Charitable Foundation , which supports international projects such as the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund , Operation Helmet , and the Children 's Craniofacial Association .
Beginning in 1990 , Cher served as a donor and as the National Chairperson and Honorary Spokesperson for the Children 's Craniofacial Association , whose mission is to " empower and give hope to facially disfigured children and their families " . The annual Cher 's Family Retreat is held each June to provide craniofacial patients , their siblings and parents an opportunity to interact with others who have endured similar experiences . She supports and promotes Get A @-@ Head Charitable Trust , which aims to improve the quality of life for people with head and neck diseases .
Cher is a donor , fundraiser , and international spokesperson for Keep a Child Alive , an organization that seeks to accelerate action to combat AIDS pandemic , including the provision of antiretroviral medicine to children and their families with HIV / AIDS . In 1996 , she hosted the American Foundation for AIDS Research ( amfAR ) Benefit alongside Elizabeth Taylor at the Cannes Film Festival . In 2015 , she received the amfAR Award of Inspiration for " her willingness and ability to use her fame for the greater good " and for being " one of the great champions in the fight against AIDS " .
Cher has been a vocal supporter of American soldiers and returning veterans . She has contributed resources to Operation Helmet , an organization that provides free helmet upgrade kits to troops in Iraq and Afghanistan . She has contributed to the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund , which serves military personnel who have been disabled in operations in Iraq and Afghanistan , and those severely injured in other operations . In 1993 , she participated in a humanitarian effort in Armenia , taking food and medical supplies to the war @-@ torn region .
Cher has engaged in the construction of houses with Habitat for Humanity and served as the Honorary National Chair of a Habitat 's elimination of poverty housing initiative " Raise the Roof " , an effort to engage artists in the organization 's work while on tour . In 2007 , she became the primary supporter of the Peace Village School ( PVS ) in Ukunda , Kenya , which " provides nutritious food , medical care , education and extracurricular activities for more than 300 orphans and vulnerable children , ages 2 to 13 years . " Her support enabled the school to acquire land and build permanent housing and school facilities , and in partnership with Malaria No More and other organizations , she piloted an effort to eliminate malaria mortality and morbidity for the children , their caregivers and the surrounding community . In 2016 , after the discovery of lead contamination in the drinking water of Flint , Michigan , Cher donated more than 180 @,@ 000 bottles of water to the city as part of a partnership with Icelandic Glacial .
Cher 's oldest child , Chaz Bono ( born Chastity Bono ) , first came out as a lesbian at age 17 , which reportedly caused her mother to feel " guilt , fear and pain " . However , Cher soon came to accept Chaz 's sexual orientation , and came to the conclusion that LGBT people " didn 't have the same rights as everyone else , [ and she ] thought that was unfair " . She was the keynote speaker for the 1997 national Parents , Families , & Friends of Lesbians and Gays ( PFLAG ) convention , and has since become one of the LGBT community 's most vocal advocates . In May 1998 , she received the GLAAD Vanguard Award for having " made a significant difference in promoting equal rights for lesbians and gay men " . On June 11 , 2009 , Chaz came out as a transgender individual , and his transition from female to male was legally finalized on May 6 , 2010 .
= = = Politics = = =
Cher has said that she is not a registered Democrat , but has attended many Democratic conventions and events . Over the years , she has become known for her political views , having been an outspoken critic of the conservative movement . In an interview with Vanity Fair , she was critical of a variety of political topics , including Republican politicians like Sarah Palin and Jan Brewer . She has commented that she did not understand why anyone would be a Republican because eight years under the administration of George W. Bush " almost killed [ her ] " . During the 2000 United States presidential election , ABC News wrote that she was determined to do " whatever possible to keep him [ Bush ] out of office " . She told the site , " If you 're black in this country , if you 're a woman in this country , if you are any minority in this country at all , what could possibly possess you to vote Republican ? ... You won 't have one fucking right left . " She added , " I don 't like Bush . I don 't trust him . I don 't like his record . He 's stupid . He 's lazy . "
On October 27 , 2003 , Cher anonymously called a C @-@ SPAN phone @-@ in program to recount a visit she made to maimed soldiers at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center and criticized the lack of media coverage and government attention given to injured servicemen . She remarked that she watches C @-@ SPAN every day . Although she identified herself as an unnamed entertainer , she was recognized by the C @-@ SPAN host , who subsequently questioned her about her 1992 support for independent presidential candidate Ross Perot . She said , " When I heard him talk right in the beginning , I thought that he would bring some sort of common @-@ sense business approach and also less partisanship , but then ... I was completely disappointed like everyone else when he just kind of cut and run and no one knew exactly why ... Maybe he couldn 't have withstood all the investigation that goes on now " .
On Memorial Day weekend in 2006 , Cher called into C @-@ SPAN 's Washington Journal endorsing Operation Helmet , a group that provides helmets to help soldiers avoid head injuries while in the war zone . On June 14 , 2006 , she made a guest appearance on C @-@ SPAN with Dr. Bob Meaders , the founder of Operation Helmet . That year , in an interview with Stars and Stripes , she explained her " against the war in Iraq but for the troops " position : " I don 't have to be for this war to support the troops because these men and women do what they think is right . They do what they 're told to do . They do it with a really good heart . They do the best they can . They don 't ask for anything . "
Cher supported Hillary Clinton in her 2008 presidential campaign . After Obama won the Democratic nomination , she supported his candidacy on radio and TV programs . However , in a 2010 interview with Vanity Fair , she commented that she " still thinks Hillary would have done a better job " , although she " accepts the fact that Barack Obama inherited insurmountable problems " . During the 2012 United States presidential election , Cher and comedian Kathy Griffin released a public service announcement titled " Don 't Let Mitt Turn Back Time on Women 's Rights " . In the PSA , the pair criticized Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney for his support of Richard Mourdock , the U.S. Senate candidate who suggested that pregnancies resulting from rape were " part of God 's plan " . In September 2013 , Cher declined an invitation to perform at the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Russia due to the country 's controversial anti @-@ gay legislation that overshadowed preparations for the event . In June 2015 , after Donald Trump announced his candidacy for president , she made a series of critical comments on Twitter , stating that " Donald Trump 's punishment is being Donald Trump " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
According to Goldmine magazine 's Phill Marder , Cher " has been and remains today one of the Rock Era 's most dominant figures " . He described her as the leader of an effort in the 1960s to " advance feminine rebellion in the rock world [ and ] the prototype of the female rock star , setting the standard for appearance , from her early hippie days to her later outlandish outfits , and her attitude — the perfect female punk long before punk even was a rock term . " Cher 's unconventional outfits and dominant attitude over her partner Sonny Bono have influenced the presence of women in rock music , inspiring contemporary singers such as Marianne Faithfull and Nancy Sinatra . According to Jeff Miers from The Buffalo News , " Her music has changed with the times over the decades , rather than changing those times through groundbreaking work " ; however , he felt that subsequent female singers such as Cyndi Lauper , Christina Aguilera , Lady Gaga , and Madonna , whom he calls " her generation 's Cher " , were heavily inspired by Cher 's abilities to combine " showmanship with deep musicality … to make valid statements in a wide variety of trend @-@ driven idioms … to ease effortlessly between pop subgenres [ and ] to shock without alienating her fans " , as well as by her charismatic stage presence and the strong LGBT support among her fan base . Billboard 's Keith Caulfield wrote that " There 's divas , and then there 's Cher . " She is commonly referred to by the media as the " Goddess of Pop . "
Cher has repeatedly reinvented herself through various personas , for which Professor Richard Aquila from Ball State University called her " the ultimate pop chameleon " . The New York Times declared Cher as the " Queen of the Comeback " . According to author Lucy O 'Brien , " Cher adheres to the American Dream of reinvention of self : ' Getting old does not have to mean getting obsolete . ' " Author Craig Crawford , in his book The Politics of Life : 25 Rules for Survival in a Brutal and Manipulative World ( 2007 ) , describes Cher as " a model of flexible career management " , and relates her career successes to a constant reshaping of her image according to the evolving trends of popular culture . He further explains that she billed " each dramatic turnaround of style as another example of rebellion — an image that allowed her to make calculated changes while appearing to be consistent . " Author Grant McCracken stated , " The term ' reinvention ' is now often used to talk about the careers of American celebrities . But in Cher 's case , it is particularly apt [ because she ] is inclined to lock on to each new fashion wave [ and ] is swept violently down the diffusion stream and out of fashion . Only substantial re @-@ creation permits her to return to stardom . " Her " integrity " and " perseverance " are highlighted in the Reaching Your Goals book series of illustrated inspirational stories for children , in which her life is detailed emphasizing the importance of self @-@ actualization : " For years , Cher worked hard to become a successful singer . Then she worked hard to become an actress . Even when she needed money , she turned down movie roles that weren 't right for her . Her goal has always been to be a good actress , not just a rich and famous one . "
Cher 's " ability to forge an immensely successful and lengthy career as a woman in a male @-@ dominated entertainment world " has drawn attention from feminist critics . According to author Diane Negra , Cher was presented in the beginning of her career as a product of male creativity ; Cher remembers , " It was a time when girl singers were patted on the head for being good and told not to think " . However , her image eventually changed due to her " refusal of dependence on a man and the determination not only to forge a career ( as an actor ) on her own terms but to refuse the conventional role assigned to women over forty years old in an industry that fetishises youth " , wrote author Yvonne Tasker . She was featured in the 16th @-@ anniversary edition of Ms. magazine as an " authentic feminist hero " and a 1980s role model for women : " Cher , the straightforward , tattooed , dyslexic single mother , the first Oscar winner to have entered into matrimony with a known heroin addict and to have admitted to being a fashion victim by choice , has finally landed in an era that 's not afraid to applaud real women . " Her 1988 Oscar win signaled an important change in Hollywood , according to Berman , as Cher appeared in a negligee outfit , danced onstage and was applauded for her daring . Stephanie Brush from The New York Times wrote that Cher " performs the function for women moviegoers that Jack Nicholson has always fulfilled for men . Free of the burden of ever having been America 's sweetheart , she is the one who represents us [ women ] in our revenge fantasies , telling all the fatheads ... exactly where they can go . You need to be more than beautiful to get away with this . You need to have been Cher for 40 years . "
The reverence the gay community holds for Cher has been attributed to the accomplishments in her career , her sense of style and her longevity . Alec Mapa of The Advocate elaborates : " While the rest of us were sleeping , Cher 's been out there for the last four decades living out every single one of our childhood fantasies ... Cher embodies an unapologetic freedom and fearlessness that some of us can only aspire to . " Rolling Stone 's Jancee Dunn wrote , " Cher is the coolest woman who ever stood in shoes . Why ? Because her motto is , ' I don 't give a shit what you think , I 'm going to wear this multicolored wig . ' There are folks all over America who would , in their heart of hearts , love to date people half their age , get multiple tattoos and wear feathered headdresses . Cher does it for us . " Alexander Fury of The Independent wrote that Cher " represents a seemingly immortal , omnipotent , uni @-@ monikered level of fame . " Bego stated : " No one in the history of show business has had a career of the magnitude and scope of Cher 's . She has been a teenage pop star , a television hostess , a fashion magazine model , a rock star , a pop singer , a Broadway actress , an Academy Award @-@ winning movie star , a disco sensation , and the subject of a mountain of press coverage . "
= = Achievements and recognition = =
Throughout her career , Cher has sold 100 million records worldwide . She is the only artist to date to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each decade from the 1960s to the 2010s . She has held U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles over the longest period of time in history : 33 years , seven months and three weeks between " I Got You Babe " , which topped the chart for the first time in August 14 , 1965 , and " Believe " , whose last week at number one was April 3 , 1999 . With " Believe " , she became the oldest female artist to have a U.S. number @-@ one song in the rock era , at the age of 52 . Billboard ranked her at number 43 on their " Greatest Hot 100 Artists of All Time " list . In 2014 , the magazine listed her as the 23rd highest @-@ grossing touring act since 1990 , with total earned revenue of $ 351 @.@ 6 million and 4 @.@ 5 million attendance at her shows .
In 2003 , Cher appeared at number 41 on VH1 's list of " The 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons " , which recognizes " the folks that have significantly inspired and impacted American society " . She was ranked 31st on VH1 's list of " The 100 Greatest Women in Music " , based on the period 1992 – 2012 . Esquire magazine placed her at number 44 on their list of " The 75 Greatest Women of All Time " . In a 2001 poll , Biography magazine ranked her as their third favorite leading actress of all time , behind Audrey Hepburn and Katharine Hepburn . She was featured on the " 100 Greatest Movie Stars of our Time " list compiled by People . She is one of the few artists to win three of the four major American entertainment awards ( EGOT — Emmy , Grammy , Oscar , and Tony ) , and one of five actor @-@ singers to have had a U.S. number @-@ one single and won an acting Academy Award .
= = Discography = =
= = Tours and residency shows = =
Cher World Tour ( 1979 – 82 )
Heart of Stone Tour ( 1990 )
Love Hurts Tour ( 1992 )
Do You Believe ? ( 1999 – 2000 )
Living Proof : The Farewell Tour ( 2002 – 05 )
Cher ( 2008 – 11 )
Dressed to Kill Tour ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
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= Coal ball =
A coal ball is a type of concretion , varying in shape from an imperfect sphere to a flat @-@ lying , irregular slab . Coal balls were formed by the early permineralisation of peat by calcite in Carboniferous Period swamps and mires before the peat could become coal . As such , despite not actually being made of coal , the coal ball owes its name to its similar origins as well as its similar shape with actual coal .
Coal balls often preserve a remarkable record of the microscopic tissue structure of Carboniferous swamp and mire plants , which would otherwise have been completely destroyed . Their unique preservation of Carboniferous plants makes them valuable to scientists , who cut and peel the coal balls to research the geological past .
In 1855 , two English scientists , Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney , made the first scientific description of coal balls in England , and the initial research on coal balls was carried out in Europe . North American coal balls were discovered and identified in 1922 . Coal balls have since been found in other countries , leading to the discovery of hundreds of species and genera .
Coal balls may be found in coal seams across North America and Eurasia . North American coal balls are more widespread , both stratigraphically and geologically , than those in Europe . The oldest known coal balls date from the Namurian stage of the Carboniferous ; they were found in Germany and on the territory of former Czechoslovakia .
= = Introduction to the scientific world , and formation = =
The first scientific description of coal balls was made in 1855 by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney , who reported on examples in the coal seams of Yorkshire and Lancashire , England . European scientists did much of the early research .
Coal balls in North America were first found in Iowa coal seams in 1894 , although the connection to European coal balls was not made until Adolf Carl Noé ( whose coal ball was found by Gilbert Cady ) drew the parallel in 1922 . Noé 's work renewed interest in coal balls , and by the 1930s had drawn paleobotanists from Europe to the Illinois Basin in search of them .
There are two theories – the autochthonous ( in situ ) theory and the allochthonous ( drift ) theory – that attempt to explain the formation of coal balls , although the subject is mostly speculation .
Supporters of the in situ theory believe that close to its present location organic matter accumulated near a peat bog and , shortly after burial , underwent permineralisation – minerals seeped into the organic matter and formed an internal cast . Water with a high dissolved mineral content was buried with the plant matter in a peat bog . As the dissolved ions crystallised , the mineral matter precipitated out . This caused concretions containing plant material to form and preserve as rounded lumps of stone . Coalification was thus prevented , and the peat was preserved and eventually became a coal ball . The majority of coal balls are found in bituminous and anthracite coal seams , in locations where the peat was not compressed sufficiently to render the material into coal .
Marie Stopes and David Watson analysed coal ball samples and decided that coal balls formed in situ . They stressed the importance of interaction with seawater , believing that it was necessary for the formation of coal balls . Some supporters of the in situ theory believe that Stopes ' and Watson 's discovery of a plant stem extending through multiple coal balls shows that coal balls formed in situ , stating that the drift theory fails to explain Stopes ' and Watson 's observation . They also cite fragile pieces of organic material projecting outside some coal balls , contending that if the drift theory was correct , the projections would have been destroyed , and some large coal balls are large enough that they could never have been able to be transported in the first place .
The drift theory holds that the organic material did not form in or near its present location . Rather , it asserts that the material that would become a coal ball was transported from another location by means of a flood or a storm .
Some supporters of the drift theory , such as Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson , believed that the presence of marine animals in coal balls proved material was transported from a marine to a non @-@ marine environment . Edward C. Jeffrey , stating that the in situ theory had " no good evidence " , believed that the formation of coal balls from transported material was likely because coal balls often included material formed by transport and sedimentation in open water .
= = = Contents = = =
Coal balls are not made of coal ; they are non @-@ flammable and useless for fuel . Coal balls are calcium @-@ rich permineralised life forms , mostly containing calcium and magnesium carbonates , pyrite , and quartz . Other minerals , including gypsum , illite , kaolinite , and lepidocrocite also appear in coal balls , albeit in lesser quantities . Although coal balls are usually about the size of a man 's fist , their sizes vary greatly , ranging from that of a walnut up to 3 feet ( 1 m ) in diameter . Coal balls have been found that were smaller than a thimble .
Coal balls commonly contain dolomites , aragonite , and masses of organic matter at various stages of decomposition . Hooker and Binney analysed a coal ball and found " a lack of coniferous wood ... and fronds of ferns " and noted that the discovered plant matter " appear [ ed ] to [ have been arranged ] just as they fell from the plants that produced them " . Coal balls usually do not preserve the leaves of plants .
In 1962 , Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson analysed North American coal balls . Their discovery of marine organisms led to classification of coal balls were sorted into three types : normal ( sometimes known as floral ) , containing only plant matter ; faunal , containing animal fossils only ; and mixed , containing both plant and animal material . Mixed coal balls are further divided into heterogeneous , where the plant and animal material was distinctly separated ; and homogeneous , lacking that separation .
= = Preservation = =
The quality of preservation in coal balls varies from no preservation to the point of being able to analyse the cellular structures . Some coal balls contain preserved root hairs , pollen , and spores , and are described as being " more or less perfectly preserved " , containing " not what used to be the plant " , but rather , the plant itself . Others have been found to be " botanically worthless " , with the organic matter having deteriorated before becoming a coal ball . Coal balls with well @-@ preserved contents are useful to paleobotanists . They have been used to analyse the geographical distribution of vegetation : for example , providing evidence that Ukrainian and Oklahoman plants of the tropical belt were once the same . Research on coal balls has also led to the discovery of more than 130 genera and 350 species .
Three main factors determine the quality of preserved material in a coal ball : the mineral constituents , the speed of the burial process , and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation . Generally , coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure are better preserved , although plant remains in most coal balls almost always show differing signs of decay and collapse . Coal balls containing quantities of iron sulfide have far lower preservation than coal balls permineralised by magnesium or calcium carbonate , which has earned iron sulfide the title " chief curse of the coal ball hunter " .
= = Distribution = =
Coal balls were first found in England , and later in other parts of the world , including Australia , Belgium , the Netherlands , the former Czechoslovakia , Germany , Ukraine , China , and Spain . They were also encountered in North America , where they are geographically widespread compared to Europe ; in the United States , coal balls have been found from Kansas to the Illinois Basin to the Appalachian region .
The oldest coal balls were from the early end of the Namurian stage ( 326 to 313 mya ) and discovered in Germany and former Czechoslovakia , but their ages generally range from the Permian ( 299 to 251 mya ) to the Upper Carboniferous . Some coal balls from the US vary in age from the later end of the Westphalian ( roughly 313 to 304 mya ) to the later Stephanian ( roughly 304 to 299 mya ) . European coal balls are generally from the early end of the Westphalian Stage .
In coal seams , coal balls are completely surrounded by coal . They are often found randomly scattered throughout the seam in isolated groups , usually in the upper half of the seam . Their occurrence in coal seams can be either extremely sporadic or regular ; many coal seams have been found to contain no coal balls , while others have been found to contain so many coal balls that miners avoid the area entirely .
= = Analytical methods = =
Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls . The process required cutting a coal ball with a diamond saw , then flattening and polishing the thin section with an abrasive . It would be glued to a slide and placed under a petrographic microscope for examination . Although the process could be done with a machine , the large amount of time needed and the poor quality of samples produced by thin sectioning gave way to a more convenient method .
The thin section technique was superseded by the now @-@ common liquid @-@ peel technique in 1928 . In this technique , peels are obtained by cutting the surface of a coal ball with a diamond saw , grinding the cut surface on a glass plate with silicon carbide to a smooth finish , and etching the cut and the surface with hydrochloric acid . The acid dissolves the mineral matter from the coal ball , leaving a projecting layer of plant cells . After applying acetone , a piece of cellulose acetate is placed on the coal ball . This embeds the cells preserved in the coal ball into the cellulose acetate . Upon drying , the cellulose acetate can be removed from the coal ball with a razor and the obtained peel can be stained with a low @-@ acidity stain and observed under a microscope . Up to 50 peels can be extracted from 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) of coal ball with this method .
However , the peels will degrade over time if they contain any iron sulfide ( pyrite or marcasite ) . Shya Chitaley addressed this problem by revising the liquid @-@ peel technique to separate the organic material preserved by the coal ball from the inorganic minerals , including iron sulfide . This allows the peel to retain its quality for a longer time . Chitaley 's revisions begin after grinding the surface of the coal ball to a smooth finish . Her process essentially entails heating and then making multiple applications of solutions of paraffin in xylene to the coal ball . Each subsequent application has a greater concentration of paraffin in xylene to allow the wax to completely pervade the coal ball . Nitric acid , and then acetone , are applied to the coal ball . Following that , the process merges back into the liquid peel technique .
X @-@ ray powder diffraction has also been used to analyse coal balls . The X @-@ rays of a predetermined wavelength are sent through a sample to examine its structure . This reveals information about the crystallographic structure , chemical composition , and physical properties of the examined material . The scattered intensity of the X @-@ ray pattern is observed and analysed , with the measurements consisting of incident and scattered angle , polarisation , and wavelength or energy .
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= M @-@ 84 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 84 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway starts on the west side of Saginaw at an intersection with M @-@ 58 and runs north through residential and commercial areas . There are two colleges or universities near the trunkline as it connects Saginaw with Bay City , providing an alternate to the freeway that carries Interstate 75 / US Highway 23 ( I @-@ 75 / US 23 ) . The northern terminus is at a pair of intersections with M @-@ 25 on the east side of the Saginaw River in Bay City .
There have been two other highways to bear the M @-@ 84 moniker . The first was one in the Upper Peninsula and the second was in The Thumb area . The current highway was originally part of M @-@ 47 until that road was relocated onto what was formerly US 10 in the Tri @-@ Cities area . Since the 1960s reuse of the number , M @-@ 84 has been extended in the 1970s to replace part of Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 , now Business Spur I @-@ 75 , BS I @-@ 75 ) in Bay City . Other projects have reconstructed and widened the roadway through the Bay City area in the early 21st century .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 84 begins at M @-@ 58 in a residential area on the west side of Saginaw heading due north on Bay Street . At this point , it is five lanes , with two lanes in each direction and a center turn lane . The highway enters Saginaw Township as Bay Road and serves as a major artery in the area , passing the Fashion Square Mall and several other shopping centers and major retail stores near Tittabawassee Road . The main entrance to Saginaw Valley State University is located on M @-@ 84 at Pierce Road just south of the Saginaw – Bay county line .
North of the line , the highway follows West Side Saginaw Road through fields in a less urbanized area . West of University Center and the campus of Delta College , M @-@ 84 crosses over I @-@ 75 / US 23 at exit 160 and proceeds through several curves into Bay City . At the intersection with Euclid Avenue on the city line , M @-@ 13 merges in from the north and the two highways run concurrently along Salzburg Avenue . Since this segment of highway is both northbound M @-@ 84 and southbound M @-@ 13 along eastbound Salzburg Avenue , the two trunklines form a wrong @-@ way concurrency .
M @-@ 13 / M @-@ 84 crosses the west channel of the Saginaw River near the Ted Putz Nature Area to Middle Ground island . The highway continues over the east channel on the Lafayette Avenue Bridge , a drawbridge , to Lafayette Avenue on the eastern bank of the river . At the intersection with Broadway Street , M @-@ 13 turns southward , and M @-@ 84 continues eastward two more blocks . Turning north on Garfield Street , the highway runs parallel to the river through a residential area . North of the 14th Street intersection , Garfield Street curves northeasterly into Washington Avenue , passing to the east of an industrial complex on the river . At the intersection with McKinley Street , a one @-@ way street , M @-@ 84 meets the eastbound direction of M @-@ 25 and BS I @-@ 75 . One block north , M @-@ 84 terminates at the intersection with 7th Street , which carries westbound M @-@ 25 and BS I @-@ 75 ; both intersections also mark BS I @-@ 75 's terminus immediately east of the Veterans Memorial Bridge .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 84 like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic level along M @-@ 84 was 26 @,@ 408 vehicles daily in Saginaw ; the lowest count was 8 @,@ 405 vehicles per day on Washington Street in Bay City . Two sections of M @-@ 84 have been listed on the National Highway System ; the section from the southern terminus north to Tittabawassee Road in the Saginaw area , and from the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange north to M @-@ 25 in the Bay City area . The system is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first M @-@ 84 in Michigan was in the Upper Peninsula starting in 1919 ; the highway ran from Garnet to McLeods Corner , southeast of Newberry , following the current Borgstrom Road in Mackinac County and County Road 393 in Luce County . The highway was replaced by an extension of M @-@ 48 in 1926 . The M @-@ 84 designation was then immediately reused for a section of the former M @-@ 31 in The Thumb ; it ran from M @-@ 81 near Reese running through Fairgrove and Akron to M @-@ 29 at Unionville . This iteration was replaced by M @-@ 83 in 1930 .
The I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway was completed between Saginaw and Bay City in late 1960 or early 1961 ; M @-@ 47 was relocated to the former US 10 between Saginaw and Midland , and M @-@ 84 was redesignated along the former M @-@ 47 between M @-@ 81 at Saginaw and the freeway in Bay City . A new BL I @-@ 75 was created at the same time along the former M @-@ 47 in Bay City . This business loop would be split in half in 1971 resulting in a new business spur ; M @-@ 84 was extended over the southern section between M @-@ 25 and I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 .
A reconstruction project in 2004 – 05 resulted in the roadway being widened to four lanes between Pierce Road in Kochville Township of Saginaw County and Delta Road in Frankenlust Township in Bay County . The 2009 reconstruction resulted in new bridges over I @-@ 75 and widening of the road from Delta Road to 2 Mile Road . Additional construction scheduled for 2011 resulted in the widening of the road from 2 Mile to Euclid .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb =
Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb ( Urdu : آپریشن ضربِ عضب ALA @-@ LC : Āpres ̱ ẖan Ẓarb @-@ i ʿAẓb pronounced [ ɑːpreːʃən zərb @-@ e əzb ] ) is a joint military offensive being conducted by the Pakistan Armed Forces against various militant groups , including the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan ( TTP ) , the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan , the East Turkestan Islamic Movement , Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Jhangvi , al @-@ Qaeda , Jundallah and the Haqqani network . The operation was launched on 15 June 2014 in North Waziristan along the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border as a renewed effort against militancy in the wake of the 8 June attack on Jinnah International Airport in Karachi , for which the TTP and the IMU claimed responsibility . Part of the ongoing war in North @-@ West Pakistan , up to 30 @,@ 000 Pakistani soldiers are involved in Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , described as a " comprehensive operation " to flush out all foreign and local militants hiding in North Waziristan . The operation has received widespread support from the Pakistani political , defence and civilian sectors . As a consequence , the overall security situation improved and terrorist attacks in Pakistan dropped to a six @-@ year low since 2008 .
= = Etymologies = =
Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb ( Urdu : ضربِ عضب ALA @-@ LC : Ẓarb @-@ i ʿAẓb pronounced [ zərb @-@ e əzb ] ) means " sharp and cutting strike " . Azb also refers to the sword owned by the Islamic prophet , which he used in the battles of Badr and Uhud .
= = Strategy = =
For the first time , the Pakistani military implemented a military strategy called " Seek , Destroy , Clear , Hold . " The Pakistani military will seek the target . Once found , it will be destroyed . When destroyed , the infrastructure , bodies and weapons will be cleared and the area will be held both during this time and after its completion to ensure post @-@ operation security and infrastructure rebuilding and / or area rehabilitation . The Seek and Destroy component is from the Vietnam War whereas the Clear and hold component is from the Iraq War . The Pakistani military combined the two doctrines as a single doctrine for the operation to be successful .
= = Background = =
= = = Peace negotiations = = =
Peace negotiations with the Taliban were announced by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif after his election , although previous attempts to engage TTP in dialogue had failed . The first session of talks , between committees appointed by the Pakistani Government and the Taliban , was held on 26 March 2014 at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House in Islamabad . The Taliban did not name representatives from their ranks , instead nominating pro @-@ Taliban religious figures to present their views . The terrorists called for the implementation of Sharia in Pakistan ; the Government of Pakistan demanded the cessation of hostilities , insisting that talks be held within the framework of the Pakistani constitution . A month @-@ long ceasefire was reached on 1 March 2014 .
Besides the meetings at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House , negotiations also involved helicopter travel by government representatives to the areas under militant control near the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border . The government had indicated that stronger military action would be implemented if the talks failed .
= = = = Failure = = = =
Negotiations collapsed after the execution of 23 Pakistani Frontier Corps soldiers by the Taliban on 17 February 2014 . The soldiers had been held by the insurgents since 2010 , and on 17 April 2014 the TTP formally ended the ceasefire . Taliban infighting since March 2014 killed more than 90 militants . The strife , triggered by differences between the Mehsud group ( led by Sheheryar Mehsud ) and another TTP faction ( led by Khan Said Sajna ) , impeded the negotiations . The negotiations were irreversibly damaged by a terrorist attack on Karachi Airport for which the Taliban claimed responsibility and which killed 28 people ( including security personnel ) . A Pakistani military official was quoted to have said , " The army is ready for an operation . It now all depends on the government to make a decision . "
= = = Jinnah Airport attack = = =
The operation began one week after a terrorist attack on Pakistan 's busiest airport . On 8 June 2014 , 10 militants from the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan and TTP attacked Jinnah International Airport , Karachi , killing 28 people including security personnel and wounding at least 18 .
In retaliation , the Pakistani military launched a series of air @-@ strikes targeting terrorist hideouts in the areas bordering Afghanistan . At least 25 militants were killed on 10 June . The figure also included foreign militants killed . Two drone attacks on 12 June killed Uzbek , Afghan and local militants . On 15 June the Pakistani military intensified air @-@ strikes and bombed eight foreign militant hideouts , killing as many as 140 militants ( most Uzbek , including persons linked to the airport attack and airport attack commander and mastermind Abu Abdur Rehman Almani ) in North Waziristan .
= = Preparations = =
The Pakistani military had prepared for the operation long before , and the government prepared for a three @-@ front operation : isolating targeted militant groups , obtaining support from the political parties and saving civilians from the backlash of the operation .
Defence Minister Khawaja Asif said that the nation stood by its military : " The decision was taken after the strategy of dialogue failed . The operation will continue until it reaches its logical conclusion . Any group that challenges Pakistan 's constitution , attacks civilians , soldiers , and government installations and uses Pakistani territory to plan terrorist attacks will be targeted " . Asif added that internally displaced persons would be assisted by the federal and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa governments : " We will try to ensure that the displaced do not have to stay away from their homes for too long . "
The combat troops encircled militant bases in the towns of Mirali and Miranshah . Pakistani officials said that the Afghan 's National Security Forces ( ANSF ) were requested to seal the border on their side so that militants do not escape . The operation involved the Air Force , Navy artillery , tanks and ground troops . According to a military statement , " On the directions of the government , armed forces of Pakistan have launched a comprehensive operation against foreign and local terrorists who are hiding in sanctuaries in North Waziristan . " An official with the military said that between 14 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 soldiers were normally stationed in North Waziristan before the operation , and he expected the offensive to require no more than a total of 30 @,@ 000 troops .
= = Timeline = =
= = = 2014 = = =
= = = = June = = = =
15 June 2014
The first phase of the operation began with intensified airstrikes in North Waziristan , targeting militant training facilities , hideouts , and other infrastructure . The Pakistani military destroyed eight militant hideouts in the previous night 's airstrikes . Hideouts in Degan @-@ Boya and Datta Khel were targeted by jet aircraft , since foreign and local insurgents linked to the Karachi airport attack were confirmed there ; an ammunition dump was also destroyed . As many as 140 militants ( mostly Uzbek ) were reportedly killed in the strikes , including commander and airport attack mastermind Abu Abdur Rehman Almani . North Waziristan was sealed by troops on its border with neighbouring agencies and FATA regions to block the movement of militants . In North Waziristan , troops cordoned off insurgent bases ( including those in the towns of Mir Ali and Miranshah ) . Logistical and administrative arrangements for IDPs were made by the Disaster Management Agency , with the establishment of registration points and IDP camps . Surrender points were established for militants wishing to give up their arms . Aerial surveillance of the area was conducted . Afghan security forces were requested to seal the border on their side to prevent militants from escaping across the border and initiate immediate measures to eliminate TTP militants and their hideouts in Kunar , Nuristan and elsewhere in Afghanistan .
16 June 2014
Seven fleeing militants were killed on the outskirts of Mirali overnight , with three soldiers injured in the exchange of fire . In a separate incident , seven more militants were killed when they tried to flee from the cordoned @-@ off area . Two Pakistani soldiers were reported killed in an exchange of gunfire . Six militant hideouts in Shawal , North Waziristan were destroyed by an early @-@ morning airstrike by two fighter jets , with 27 militants killed . There were no civilians in Shawal . Inter @-@ Services Public Relations ( ISPR ) reported six soldiers killed and three injured in an improvised explosive device ( IED ) explosion between the Afghan border and Ghulam Khan Tehsil in North Waziristan . According to ISPR , a convoy of security forces was targeted on Bane Dar Road in Ghulam Khan ( on the Pakistani @-@ Afghan border ) . Forces cordoned off the area , launching a search operation . Three insurgents were killed by Special Services Group sniper fire while planting IEDs near Miramshah .
17 June 2014
Airstrikes destroyed six hideouts in North Waziristan , killing 25 foreign and local militants . Airstrikes were also conducted in the Hasokhel area of Mir Ali . At least three suspected militants were killed when they attempted to flee a cordoned @-@ off area in Miramshah , with one soldier injured in the exchange of fire . No operations had begun in developed areas to ensure that no militants could escape the cordon and all verified civilians were evacuated . More than 40 percent of North Waziristan was cleared of militants in the first three days of the operation .
19 June 2014
Fifteen militants were reportedly killed overnight in the Zartatangi Heights , east of Miramshah , by army Cobra helicopter gunships . The area was one of the main communications centres of the insurgents . In a separate incident , eight Uzbek militants were killed near Miramshah while planting IEDs on the road between Miramshah and Mir Ali . The evacuation of the civilian population from Miramshah and Ghulam Khan began . Checkpoints were established in a number of locations , where IDPs received food and medicine from security forces . As many as 400 Afghan families left North Waziristan for Afghanistan via Ghulam Khan .
20 June 2014
Three militant hideouts in the Qutab Khel area , on the outskirts of Miramshah , were destroyed in the early morning by army Cobra helicopter gunships with artillery and sniper assistance . Twelve militants , including some foreigners , were killed in the strikes and a large cache of arms and ammunition destroyed . Militants inside cordoned @-@ off areas attempted to flee . Six attempts were halted overnight , and three local residents without identification were arrested trying to flee from the cordon . Another 24 suspects disguised as IDPs were arrested at security checkpoints in Mirali and Miramshah . The civilian evacuation continued from North Waziristan towards Bannu , with 200 @,@ 000 IDPs evacuated so far .
21 June 2014
A total of 30 militants were killed in early @-@ morning airstrikes in uninhabited areas of Khyber and North Waziristan Agencies . Jet aircraft destroyed two hideouts near the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border in Khyber Agency , killing 10 militants . These surgical strikes were in line with the security forces ' strategy to take on the militants across the FATA . Three hideouts were destroyed in Hassu Khel , North Waziristan , killing 20 militants .
23 June 2014
Eight militant hideouts near Mir Ali were destroyed by jet aircraft during the early morning , killing 15 . Tunnels were spotted in the targeted areas . Ten militants were killed attempting to flee from cordoned @-@ off bases in Spinwam and Mir Ali , with two Pakistani soldiers also reportedly killed in an exchange of fire . The curfew was lifted for two hours to evacuate the remaining civilians . At the Saidgai security checkpoint , 414 @,@ 429 IDPs were registered to date . An army medical corps field hospital was being established in Bannu for displaced persons . The civilian evacuation was almost complete . About 450 @,@ 000 IDPs arrived in Bannu , and were registered at the Saidgai checkpoint .
24 June 2014
Twenty militants were killed and 12 hideouts destroyed in early @-@ morning air strikes in Khyber Agency . Twenty @-@ seven militants were killed in afternoon jet strikes in Mir Ali and the surrounding area , with 11 hideouts and a large weapons cache destroyed . An afternoon suicide car @-@ bomb attempt was foiled in the Spinwam area of North Waziristan . When an explosive @-@ laden vehicle approached a checkpoint outside a civilian hospital , soldiers fired at the vehicle ( which exploded 100 meters from the checkpoint . Two soldiers and one civilian were reportedly killed when the roof of a nearby building collapsed from the explosion .
25 June 2014
Pakistan Air Force ( PAF ) jets destroyed five hideouts in Mir Ali , killing 13 militants . Twelve militants surrendered to Pakistani forces .
26 June 2014
The evacuation of 450 @,@ 000 civilians was completed , and the operation 's second phase began with a ground offensive by the Pakistani military . Seven militants surrendered at the North Waziristan surrender center , bringing the total to 19 .
27 June 2014
PAF aircraft destroyed six confirmed hideouts on the outskirts of Mir Ali in an evening raid , killing 11 militants . TTP Miranshah Commander Umer was killed on the outskirts of the town by security forces that night .
28 June 2014
Militant groups were targeted during the early morning by integrated Pakistani artillery , tank and heavy @-@ weapons fire outside Miranshah , killing seven . An al @-@ Qaeda commander , revealed by initial interrogation as an explosives , IED and suicide @-@ belt expert , was arrested trying to flee from a surrounded base . Three militants were arrested by security forces while trying to cross the Indus River near Mianwali . All river crossings were fortified to seal escape routes .
29 June 2014
Sixteen militants were killed when PAF fighter jets targeted their hideouts in Mir Ali , North Waziristan . According to military sources , seven militant hideouts , explosives and ammunition dumps were also destroyed in the airstrikes .
30 June 2014
Early @-@ morning ground operations began in and around Miramshah . Search operations were conducted by infantry and the Special Services Group , killing 15 militants . Troops discovered underground tunnels and IED @-@ preparation factories in the cleared areas , with three soldiers reportedly injured in an exchange of fire . The civilian population had been evacuated . Since the beginning of the operation 376 militants were killed and 19 surrendered , with 61 hideouts destroyed in the operation 's first phase . Seventeen soldiers were reportedly killed .
= = = = July = = = =
1 July 2014
According to the ISPR , during ground operations in Miranshah a landmine factory was discovered and 225 cylinders , 700 pipes filled with explosive materials and 150 unfinished land mines were recovered . Two Pakistani soldiers were killed and a third reportedly injured when militants ambushed a military vehicle in Mir Ali , North Waziristan .
2 July 2014
Ten militants were killed when Pakistani helicopters shelled hideouts in the Khar Warsak region , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of Miramshah , with three hideouts destroyed in the airstrikes .
3 July 2014
The bodies of seven militants were recovered in the Darpa Khel area of Mir Ali . A security official reportedly said , " Bodies were of suspected militants who were gunned down by security forces in Mir Ali tehsil of the agency " , adding that the forces had advanced from Mir Ali and Miramshah Bazaar towards the outskirts of the agency after destroying three hideouts in Mir Ali ( one of which held foreign militants ) .
4 July 2014
Pakistani soldier Niak Fiaz Mohammad was killed by an IED explosion , during a house @-@ to @-@ house search operation in North Waziristan . Mohammed 's funeral was held in Bannu before the soldier 's body was transported to his hometown , Mansehra . ISPR director @-@ general Major General Asim Saleem Bajwa said , " We salute the courage and bravery of Niak Fiaz Shaheed . " A Pakistani soldier from Azad Kashmir was killed in the Jord region of North Waziristan . The soldier , Sadheer Ismail from Malsi Ghari Dupatta , was buried in his family cemetery . Pakistan Army personnel attended Ismail 's funeral , where friends praised his determination and resolve .
5 July 2014
Airstrikes targeted Miramshah and the village of Boya , destroying five militant hideouts , caves , and an ammunition cache . The early @-@ morning strikes killed 20 militants , most of whom were reportedly Uzbeks . A Pakistani soldier was killed during the ground offensive that morning when an IED exploded .
6 July 2014
Hundreds of Taliban fighters reportedly cut their hair and beards to flee the operation . According to IDPs , the Taliban disguised themselves in the weeks before the Pakistan Army operation . Although the militants advocated sharia in Pakistan and were contemptuous of Western culture , refugees said that in North Waziristan the militants enjoyed imported products .
7 July 2014
Pakistani Chief of Army Staff General Raheel Sharif visited North Waziristan . Sharif was received by Lieutenant General Khalid Rabbani , the Peshawar corps commander , and briefed by the general officer commanding for the operation . He commended the troops for their determination , commitment and resolve , praising the progress achieved since the beginning of the operation .
8 July 2014
Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif said in an interview with Radio Pakistan that 400 militants and 20 Pakistani soldiers had been killed so far in the operation . Although he declined to provide a time frame for the operation 's end , he expressed a resolve to finish as early as possible . Airstrikes by the PAF killed 13 militants ( including foreigners ) in the Digaan area of North Waziristan , according to an ISPR press release . Seven militant hideouts were also destroyed .
9 July 2014
Pakistani airstrikes targeted three hideouts , killing 11 militants in Shawal . Ground operations continued in Miramshah , which was 80 @-@ percent cleared .
10 July 2014
The Pakistani army invited local and international media to Miramshah to observe the militant facilities . Flags , weapons and explosive materials were shown . ISPR Director Major General Asim Bajwa and Operation Commander Major General Zafar Khan briefed the media on the operation 's progress . They said that as many as 400 terrorists were killed and another 130 injured to date . Eleven IED factories were uncovered , and over 2 @,@ 000 IEDs confiscated . Bajwa said that underground tunnels built by the militants ( one a kilometer long ) had also been discovered : " This ( Miranshah ) was one of their major base , we have dislodged them from here and now they are on the run , We have also discovered their command and control centre , which would definitely affect their capabilities . "
11 July 2014
Injured Taliban commander Adnan Rashid , al @-@ Qaeda commander Mufti Zubair Marwat and Marwat 's two guards were captured by Pakistani security forces in the Shakai Valley of South Waziristan when they tried to escape from cordoned @-@ off North Waziristan , and were moved to an undisclosed location by army helicopter . Marwat was reportedly the brother of Mufti Sajjad Marwat , an al @-@ Qaeda spokesman for Afghanistan and Pakistan . Rashid was planning to flee to Afghanistan . The arrest was confirmed by the TTP .
12 July 2014
Thirteen militants , primarily foreign , were killed in an early @-@ morning PAF airstrike after firing rockets at a security checkpoint in Mir Ali ; seven hideouts and an ammunition cache were also destroyed . The connection of the cleared area in Miramshah and the Miramshah @-@ Dattakhel road continued . In Khar Warsak and Zartangi , security forces discovered six motorcycle IEDs , two vehicle IEDs , two 12 @.@ 7 mm guns , one 14 @.@ 5 mm gun , three vehicles and eleven explosive belts during the previous 24 hours . Two explosive @-@ laden vehicles were also destroyed in airstrikes at Degan . Three militants , including one Uzbek , were arrested in Boya . Two suicide bombers were identified and chased , but they blew themselves up when encircled by security forces near the town . Eighteen militants were killed in PAF airstrikes in the Mosaki area , 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) east of Miramshah , and artillery shelling in the Kharkamar area , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Miramshah . " Six terrorist hideouts and a huge ammunition cache were destroyed and at least 13 militants , mostly Uzbek , were killed in the Saturday morning strikes , five militants were killed and two militant hideouts were destroyed by artillery fire in the Kharkamar area on Saturday night " , a security official said .
13 July 2014
According to the ISPR , five hideouts in Mir Ali were targeted by the military and several militants were killed .
14 July 2014
After Miramshah was under control , a ground offensive was launched in Mirali ( second @-@ largest town in North Waziristan ) and the nearby Boya area . Pakistani troops killed six militants ( two of them suicide bombers ) , including Taliban commander Matiullah .
15 July 2014
In a media briefing , ISPR director general Major General Asim Bajwa said that 451 militants were dead and 88 hideouts destroyed . According to Bajwa , 26 soldiers were killed in the operation to date . According to ISPR , five Pakistani soldiers were killed in exchanges of fire in and around Mirali ( including an officer , Captain Akash Rabbani ) . Two soldiers were injured , and 11 insurgents were killed .
16 July 2014
Thirty @-@ five militants were killed in airstrikes in the Shawal area . According to an ISPR press release , " Today , early morning at least 35 fleeing terrorists were killed through aerial strikes in Shawal valley " . The Mir Ali ground offensive following the clearance of Miranshah continued , with airstrikes expected .
18 July 2014
House @-@ to @-@ house searches were conducted in areas of Mir Ali . Four militants were killed in an exchange of fire and 12 IEDs , an IED factory and caches of ammunition and foreign currency were seized .
19 July 2014
" The command and control system of terrorists was destroyed in North Waziristan , " said Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif . " There is no place for terrorism in a democratic country . " The villages of Boya and Degan were cleared by Pakistani military , and the ground offensive continued in areas of Mirali . Corps Commander Lieutenant General Khalid Rabbani visited Mirali , Boya and Degan , meeting with the troops , and relief for IDPs was underway .
20 July
Twenty @-@ eight militants were killed in airstrikes targeting six hideouts in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
23 July 2014
Twenty militants , including foreigners , were killed by Pakistani airstrikes which destroying four hideouts in the Shawal tehsil of North Waziristan . The ground operation in Mir Ali continued , with an ammunition factory and foreign currency seized from Mir Ali Bazaar . According to ISPR , a disposal operation of mines and explosive materials was underway in Miramshah with six IED factories cleared by army engineers to date .
24 July 2014
Two Pakistani soldiers were killed in an evening IED explosion near Ghulam Khan , in North Waziristan ( near the Pakistani @-@ Afghan border ) .
26 July 2014
During the Mir Ali ground offensive , eight militants were killed and five hideouts were destroyed .
27 July 2014
Pakistani security forces cleared 70 percent of Mir Ali and adjacent areas .
29 July 2014
The Pakistani Chief of Army Staff , General Raheel Sharif celebrated the Eid al @-@ Fitr with army soldiers and IDPs in Baka Khel and Bannu .
30 July 2014
According to the official sources , a Pakistan Army check post was attacked by Afghan militants in Lower Dir . The cross @-@ border attack involved 70 @-@ 80 militants . In retaliation , at least seven militants were killed and nine others were injured .
= = = = August = = = =
2 August 2014
During the ground operation in Mirali , three militats were killed in fire @-@ exchange . An ammunition dump was also seized .
4 August 2014
During ground offensive in Datta Khel area , Seven Uzbek militants were killed in fire @-@ exchange , two soldiers identified as Subedar Mashkoor and Lans Naik Zaheer were also killed . Data Khel was cleared and the ground operation continued in Mirali and other areas .
5 August 2014
Airstrikes on 6 militant hideouts were conducted by the Pakistani military , killing at least 30 militants . According to ISPR , the raids were carried out in the Datta khel , Marshikhel and Kamsham areas . Mirali was also cleared and the ground operation in Mirali came to an end .
9 August 2014
The Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif during National Security Conference in Islamabad said : " We pay tribute to the sacrifices of our armed forces in the war against terrorism and express solidarity with their families . " Sharif added that the " intensity of the blowback of the military operation would be low . "
14 August 2014
A Pakistani security forces camp in Miramshah was targeted with rockets by unknown militants . No loss of life occurred .
19 August 2014
48 militants were killed in airstrikes and shelling by gunship helicopters of the Pakistani military , destroying seven militant hideouts and several vehicles in North Waziristan and Khyber Agency .
30 August 2014
32 militants were killed and three hideouts destroyed by army gunship helicopters in the remote areas of North Waziristan . According to ISPR , 23 explosive laden vehicles and four ammunition dumps were also destroyed .
= = = = September = = = =
3 September 2014
According to the ISPR , 910 militants had been killed so far in the operation . The ISPR statement added that eighty @-@ two soldiers had also been killed ( 42 were killed in North Waziristan Agency ) , while 269 others have been injured . The Pakistan Armed Forces had cleared Miramshah , Mirali , Datta Khel , Degan , Boya areas of North Waziristan which were considered strongholds of terrorists .
8 September 2014
Ten militants were killed and five vehicles were destroyed by Pakistani gunship helicopters in Boya Degan , according to ISPR .
9 September 2014
A Pakistani soldier and six militants were killed in a counterattack during a clearing operation near Datta Khel . A civilian logistic staff member was also killed while providing supplies to the Pakistani forces .
10 September 2014
35 militants were killed when Pakistan bombed three militant hideouts in Datta Khel . Another 30 militants were killed when Pakistani fighter planes bombed two militant hideouts in Shawal .
12 September 2014
DG ISPR Asim Bajwa stated that the Pakistani Army was ready to go into remote areas to take down militants , if required . He added that the 10 militants behind the attack on Malala Yousafzai that took place on 12 October 2012 had been arrested , and those behind attack on Ziarat residency had also been arrested . He revealed that over 1 @,@ 000 militants had been killed in North Waziristan including 45 hardcore militants , while 134 hardcore militants had also been arrested .
14 September 2014
Three Frontier Corps personnel were killed when a group of militants launched a rocket attack on a mountain fort in Spinwam area of North Waziristan near Afghan border .
15 September 2014
Fifteen militants were killed in fresh air strikes in North Waziristan . " Army Aviation Combat helicopters in precise strikes in Tabai area of North Waziristan Agency destroyed 10 explosive laden vehicles and 5 terrorists hideouts , 15 terrorists were killed , " an ISPR statement said .
16 September 2014
Twenty militants were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in Khyber Agency 's Tor Darra area targeting three militant hideouts and destroying two ammunition dumps . Another 11 militants were killed as a militant attack from across the border targeted Pakistani security forces in Dandi Kuch in the Spinwam area of North Waziristan . Pakistani troops also arrested one terrorist . Three Pakistani paramilitary soldiers were also killed in the gun @-@ battle .
17 September 2014
At least 11 militants and three soldiers were killed on Tuesday when Afghan terrorists attacked a Pakistani border post in North Waziristan Agency from Afghanistan . Another 40 militants were killed in air raids on militant hideouts in North Waziristan . " Precision air strikes destroyed five terrorists ' hideouts as well as ammunition dumps in village Nawe Kili and Zaram Asar in an area north of Dattakhel " , ISPR said . " Many foreigners were among those killed in the air strikes " , it added .
18 September 2014
23 militants were killed in airstrikes on militant hideouts . " Today in precise aerial strikes carried out on terrorists hideouts in Zerom , Ismail Khel , and Datta Khel in North Waziristan , 23 terrorists were killed , " said ISPR .
20 September 2014
TTP spokesperson Shahidullah Shahid confirmed that a senior Commander Gul Hasan Afghani was killed in clashes with the Pakistan Army in the Boya area of the agency two days ago . At least three militants were killed in an exchange of fire with the security forces in Boya area of the North Waziristan , the ISPR said . A Pakistan Army 's naib subedar Muzzamil was also killed during the fire exchange .
23 September 2014
A suicide attack targeted the convoy of Frontier Corps Deputy Inspector General killed at least five people in Peshawar Cantonment including a Soldier and wounded 18 others . FC soldier NK Zareen Afridi was among those who embraced martyrdom .The banned Tehreek @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan claimed responsibility for the attack .
Twenty @-@ three militants were killed in airstrikes in the Bangidar area of Ghulam Khanx in North Waziristan Agency , according to an ISPR press release . According to ISPR reports , nineteen militants were killed in air strikes on militant hideouts in Dandi Kachkol near Ghulam Khan , Gurbaz and Mana near Pasht Ziarat in North Waziristan .
28 September 2014
At least 15 militants were killed when Pakistan air force jets struck militant hideouts in North Waziristan . Foreign militants were also among the dead . Five militant hideouts were also destroyed .
= = = = October = = = =
3 October 2014
Fifteen militants were killed by airstrikes in the Jamrud and Bara areas of Khyber Agency , and three militant hideouts were destroyed , ISPR said in a press @-@ release . Over 1 @,@ 200 militants had been killed in the operation so far .
5 October 2014
Despite the upcoming winter , the Pakistani military decided to continue the operation , dispelling an impression that the harsh weather may force military authorities to halt Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , which has been ongoing since mid @-@ June 2014 . " Conducting operation in winters is certainly a challenge for the security forces but it is also a challenge for militants , " a military official told the media .
12 October 2014
At least 11 militants were killed in military airstrikes targeting two militant hideouts in North Waziristan . In separate airstrikes in the Khyber Agency 's Kuki Khel area , at least 10 militants were killed . Three militant hideouts were also destroyed , said an ISPR statement .
15 October 2014
Five people were killed and seven were injured in a suicide attack targeting members of a peace committee , in the Peer Mela area of Tirah valley .
16 October 2014
In an apparent response to the previous day 's suicide bombing , 21 suspected terrorists were killed in airstrikes in the Khyber Agency 's Tirah Valley , the Pakistani military said . Five terrorist hideouts were also destroyed .
17 October 2014
Eight militants were killed in the Aka Khel area of Khyber Agency , in clashes with Pakistani security forces . A militant hideout was also destroyed during the clashes .
21 October 2014
28 militants , including foreign militants , were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in the Datta Khel area of North Waziristan .
22 October 2014
DG ISPR Asim Bajwa , addressing the media after a friendly cricket match was played between the IDPs , accompanied by star cricketer Shahid Afridi and the Pakistani Army , said that Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb is going well , and that 1 @,@ 100 militants have been killed so far . He refused to give a specific timeline of the operation 's completion , and said that the army is working towards making a " comprehensive plan " to rehabilitate them .
25 October 2014
18 militants were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in Khyber Agency 's Khyber district near the Afghan border .
27 October 2014
Pakistani officials claimed to have found evidence of " new sanctuaries " set up by the TTP and its affiliates in the Afghan territory , near the border with North Waziristan Agency . In two separate incidents of aerial strikes , 33 militants were killed and nine militant hideouts were destroyed , according to the ISPR . " In early morning aerial strikes ahead of Dattakhel , 18 militants were killed . Later , in Gharlamai area another 15 militants were killed by gunship helicopters , " the ISPR statement added .
29 October 2014
Twenty militants were killed , and eight others were injured in airstrikes conducted by the Pakistan Air Force in the Akka Khel area of the Khyber Agency .
= = = = November = = = =
6 November 2014
" Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb has helped disrupt Haqqani network 's ability to launch attacks on Afghan territory " , a senior commander for US and NATO forces in Afghanistan , Lieutenant General Joseph Anderson said in a Pentagon @-@ hosted video briefing from Afghanistan . He added that the Haqqani network was now fractured too .
14 November 2014
Thirty militants including foreigners were killed in air strikes on militant hideouts in Datta Khel .
16 November 2014
27 militants including foreigners and commanders were killed in air strikes in Datta Khel militant hideouts . Last night , seven suspected terrorists were also killed during a search operation in Datta Khel . In the exchange of fire , three Pakistani soldiers were also killed while four were injured . " The Haqqani network and East Turkistan Movement have been eliminated from the area " , commander of Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb Major General Zafarullah Khan said . He added that 1 @,@ 198 terrorists were killed and another 356 were injured so far .
25 November 2014
Twenty terrorists , including members of the Haqqani network were killed in aerial strikes in North Waziristan .
= = = = December = = = =
2 December 2014
32 militants , including foreigners , were killed in airstrikes in Datta Khel and Orakzai regions . In another incident , Pakistani military repulsed a pre @-@ dawn militant attack on a military check post in the Sherin Dara area of Orakzai Agency .
3 December 2014
Fifteen militants were killed in aerial strikes targeting militant hideouts in North Waziristan .
6 December 2014
Pakistani special forces killed al Qaeda commander Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah . Several other militants were also killed during a targeted operation in the Wana subdivision of South Waziristan Agency . During the fore exchange , a Pakistani soldier Havildar Masood was also killed while another was critically injured .
8 December 2014
Airstrikes killed 30 militants , including important commanders in the Datta Khel area of North Waziristan . The killed were local commanders of Hafiz Gul Bahadur and his ally Sadiq Noor .
9 December 2014
It was rumoured that Hafiz Gul Bahadur , a militant commander , was killed in air strikes in Datta Khel district of North Waziristan Agency . A compound where 30 to 40 top commanders of Gul Bahadur 's Shura Mujahideen were having a consultative meeting , was targeted killing all of them .
26 December 2014
Aerial strikes in Datta Khel killed 23 terrorists . An underground ammunition dump and tunnel system was also destroyed .
31 December 2014
Pakistani air @-@ strikes in the Shawal area of North Waziristan killed 23 terrorists .
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = = January = = = =
7 January 2015
Twelve militants were killed as gunship helicopters targeted militant hideouts in Datta Khel . In the air @-@ strikes , four militant hideouts and seven vehicles were also destroyed .
16 January 2015
Director General Inter Services Public Relations ( ISPR ) Major General Asim Saleem Bajwa said security forces have killed 2 @,@ 000 militants in North Waziristan so far . Bajwa added that 200 soldiers had been killed during the Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb and 800 others were injured .
25 January 2015
35 militants , including foreigners , were killed in air strikes targeting militant hideouts in Datta Khel .
27 January 2015
76 militants including foreigners were killed in the Pakistani air @-@ strikes targeting militant hideouts in Datta Khel area of North Waziristan . 53 militants were killed in the first round and 23 militants were killed in the second round of the air @-@ strikes . Six militant hideouts and an ammunition dump was destroyed .
= = = = February = = = =
20 February 2015
A Pakistan Army Major Zahid Shaheed was killed in Datta Khel with a sniper rifle . In Pakistani retaliation , 5 terrorists were killed .
= = = = April = = = =
22 April 2015
At least 35 militants were killed in aerial strikes in South Waziristan and Datta Khel area of North Waziristan , according to ISPR .
= = = = May = = = =
23 May 2015
Four Pakistani soldiers were killed and two others were injured in Dattakhel area of North Waziristan Agency at night after their vehicle was targeted by an improvised explosive device . In Pakistani counter @-@ retaliation , the military launched a search @-@ operation killing seven militants in the pursuing fire @-@ exchange .
= = = = June = = = =
28 June 2015
23 militants were killed in the Pakistani military air @-@ strikes in the North Waziristan and Khyber agencies . Foreign militants were also among those killed in strikes which also targeted ammunition dumps .
= = = = July = = = =
5 July 2015
Seven Pakistani soldiers were killed in the Taliban attaks in North and South Waziristan. in Pir Ghr , Taliban attacked a Pakistani military convoy and killed two soldiers and wounded another three . Another two remote @-@ controlled bomb attacks targeting military vehicles in North Waziristan and South Waziristan killed five soldiers and injured six . According to the Pakistani intelligence officials , the Pakistani military was facing fierce resistance in the final push towards Shawal valley . In the pursuing fire @-@ exchange and military 's retaliation , 12 militants were killed in Datta Khel in the North Waziristan agency .
7 July 2015
A Pakistani soldier was killed in Taliban attack on an army bunker in the South Waziristan agency .
= = = = August = = = =
= = = = September = = = =
= = = = October = = = =
= = = = November = = = =
= = = = December = = = =
= = = 2016 = = =
= = = = January = = = =
= = = = February = = = =
= = = = March = = = =
= = = = April = = = =
On the 3rd of April , the Pakistani government declared victory and the end of the operation after clearing 640 square kilometers in Shawal , killing some 250 terrorists .
= = = = May = = = =
Pakistan clears last militant stronghold North Waziristan Agency
= = = = June = = = =
= = American drone strikes = =
Drone strikes , which were halted for six months at the request of the Pakistani government , resumed for the operation . The following drone strikes took place during the operation :
= = = In 2014 = = =
11 June 2014 – Two strikes in Miramshah killed 16 suspected militants and injured several others . These were the first drone strikes of 2014 ; the previous strike occurred on 25 December 2013 in the Qutab Khel area of Miramshah , killing four suspected militants .
18 June 2014 – At least six militants were killed in Miramshah .
10 July 2014 – A strike in the Datta Khel area killed seven militants and injured three others .
16 July 2014 - Four missiles were fired in a strike in the tehsil of Datta Khel , two on a house and two on a vehicle , killing twenty militants and injuring five .
19 July 2014 - Eleven militants , including two commanders , were killed in the tehsil of Madakhel , Data Khel , North Waziristan . Most of the militants belonged to the Punjabi faction of the Taliban .
6 August 2014 - A strike in Datta Khel killed six militants and injured two others .
24 Sept 2014 : At least 8 people including Uzbek Militants were reportedly killed in a US drone strike Dattakhel tehsil of North Waziristan .
5 October 2014 : At least 5 suspected militants were killed in a US drone strike in Shawal area of South Waziristan tribal region .
6 October 2014 : At least 8 suspected militant were killed and several other injured in a U.S drone strike in Shawal district of North Waziristan .
7 October 2014 : At least 3 suspected militants were killed in a U.S drone strike in North Waziristan region .
30 October 2014 : A US drone strike killed at least 4 , injuring several others in Birmal Tehsil of South Waziristan .
11 November 2014 : A US drone strike in Doa Toi area of Datakhel tehsil in North Waziristan Agency killed 4 suspected militants .
21 November 2014 : Reportedly Five suspected militants including two commander of ' Qaedat al @-@ Jihad in the sub @-@ continent ’ , a newly established branch of Al Qaeda were killed in a US Drone strike in Datakhel region of North Waziristan Agency .
6 December 2014 : A US drone strike killed a key Al Qaeda leader Umar Farooq along with four others in Datakhel region of North Waziristan Agency .
26 December 2014 : Two separate US Drone strikes in the Kund and Mangroti area of Shawal in North Waziristan Agency killed at least 7 suspected militants .
= = = In 2015 = = =
4 January 2015 : A reportedly high @-@ value unidentified Uzbek commander of Taliban 's Gul Bahadur group was killed along with 8 others by a US drone strike in Shawal area of North Waziristan Agency .
15 January 2015 : A US drone strike reportedly killed 7 suspected militants in Wacha Dara area of Liddah Tehsil of South Waziristan Agency .
19 January 2015 : A US drone strike killed 6 while injuring 4 others in the ShahiKhel area of North Waziristan 's Shawwal tehsil .
28 January 2015 : A US drone strike killed 7 while injuring another militant in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
18 March 2015 : A US drone strike killed a TTP commander Khawrey Mehsud along with 3 others in Shabak area of Kurram Agency .
12 April 2015 : A U.S drone strike killed 4 suspected militants in North Waziristan .
16 May 2015 : A drone strike Killed 7 to 13 militants in the Mana area of North Waziristan Agency .
18 May 2015 : A U.S. drone strike killed 6 suspected militants in Zoye Narye Area of North Waziristan .
2 June 2015 : Four suspected militants were killed in a drone strike targeting a vehicle in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
6 June 2015 : At least nine suspected militants were killed in a strike in Shawal 's Zoya Saidgai area , considered to be a hideout of the Afghan Taliban .
= = Yearly Progress = =
On 13 June 2015 , the Pakistani military reported progress in the operation in the course of a year . DG ISPR Asim Saleem Bajwa reported that 2 @,@ 763 militants had been killed so far , including 218 terrorist commanders in 9 @,@ 000 intelligence based operations ( IBOs ) . " Some 837 hideouts of terrorists have been destroyed and 253 tonnes of explosives recovered so far during the operation " , he said . The Army also recovered 18 @,@ 087 weapons , including heavy machine guns , light machine guns , sniper rifles , rocket launchers and AK @-@ 47s . Bajwa said that thousands of terrorists were also arrested , their strongholds cleared and their communication infrastructure destroyed . " 347 officers and soldiers of Pakistan Armed Forces have embraced martyrdom " , he added . The year 2015 was declared to be " a year of victory " and the operation itself a " manifestation of the resolve to root out terrorism in the country " by the Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif .
= = Final phase = =
One and a half years after the start of Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , phenomenal successes have been achieved , with the last pockets close to the Pakistan @-@ Afghan border being cleared . Terrorist backbone broken and structure dismantled . Nexus with sleeper cells largely disrupted . Intelligence based Operations ( IBOs ) continue to burst remaining sleeper cells . 3400 terrorists were killed , with 837 hideouts from where they were carrying out terrorist activities destroyed . During the last 18 months over 13 @,@ 200 IBOs carried out across the country in which 183 hardcore terrorists killed , 21193 arrested . IBOs continue . Success came at a heavy price , 488 valiant officers and men of Pakistan Army , Frontier Corps KPK , Baluchistan , Rangers Sindh sacrificed their lives and 1914 injured in Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb . Total 11 military courts . 142 cases referred to military courts . 55 cases decided , 87 cases in process . 31 hardcore terrorist convicted . Overall improvement in security / law and order owed to Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb . In July , the Pakistan Army Chief , General Raheel Sharif visited the military 's forward @-@ most positions near the Afghan border in North Waziristan He was briefed about the progress and future plans about the Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb and also met the Pakistani troops stationed there . Sharif also visited South Waziristan and Wana agencies . It was reported that the Pakistani military had just completed the preliminary prepatrations for final phase . In the area around Shawal , peaks were cleared .
= = Management of displaced civilians = =
As a result of the operation , 929 @,@ 859 displaced civilians ( from 80 @,@ 302 families ) were registered by Pakistani authorities as of 14 July . Financial support , relief goods and food packages were being distributed and 59 donation points were established across Pakistan by the army .
On 10 July , the Foreign Office of Pakistan said that the rehabilitation of internally displaced persons was an internal matter and reiterated that Pakistan had not requested international assistance . " We have very clear instructions from the prime minister [ to not seek external assistance ] , Pakistan has neither made nor intends to make a request for international assistance . It has been made very clear that all expenditure related to temporarily displaced Pakistanis will be met from our own resources " , Pakistani Foreign Office spokesperson Tasnim Aslam said . However , it was reported that the United States allocated $ 31 million for IDPs and an additional $ 9 @.@ 3 million for health , hygiene , water and sanitation for IDPs and livestock . It was also reported that the United Arab Emirates government allocated $ 20 @.@ 5 million in IDP humanitarian aid . In February 2014 , the Pakistani Finance Minister Ishaq Dar told a visiting US Senator Jack Reed that the cost of the operation so far had reached ₨ 40 billion ( US $ 390 million ) and could go as high as ₨ 130 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion ) .
= = = Return of the IDPs = = =
On 8 December 2014 , the military approved the phased repatriation of the IDPs . The Pakistani army chief said the early return of the IDPs was his top priority . According to senior military officials , civilian authorities were directed to plan the return of the IDPs to their homes in areas which have been cleared of terrorists . On 31 March 2015 , the repatriation started . On the first day , 219 IDPs belonging to 62 families left Bannu for Spinwam and Shahmeri in North Waziristan . In the first phase till 24 April , about 1 @,@ 200 families were to return to their homes in Sinwam , Shamiri , Mirali and Bubali areas of NWA . Each family was given ₨ 25000 ( US $ 250 ) as cash assistance and ₨ 10000 ( US $ 98 ) as transportation expenses at Mirzail . Food ration for six months and non @-@ food items would also be given to each household . For effective disease control , children under five years of age were administered anti @-@ polio vaccines and under 10 years of age were administered anti @-@ measles vaccines . As of 4 May 2015 , only 230 displaced families had returned since the launch of the repatriation programme . " The civil administration can send entire displaced population back to their homes within a month if the area is de @-@ notified as conflict zone , " said an official dealing with IDPs repatriation . According to the official sources , the cut @-@ off date for the return of IDPs was December 2016 .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = Social media = = = =
The decision by the Pakistani military to launch a comprehensive operation was widely supported , with journalists , opinion @-@ makers , politicians and other social @-@ media users commending the operation .
= = = = Pakistan Tehrik @-@ e @-@ Insaf = = = =
- PTI chairman Imran Khan endorsed the military operation in North Waziristan as it became clear that the Taliban were not seriously negotiating . A week before , reiterating his party 's stance on peace talks with militants , Imran said that an offensive in North Waziristan would unite militant forces against the Pakistani state . " Conducting such a military operation when most of the groups in NWA want talks is suicidal , " Imran said in a statement , adding that most groups in North Waziristan desired peace talks with the government . The PTI position changed as it became clear that negotiations were fruitless .
= = = = Jamat @-@ e @-@ Islami = = = =
- Jamat @-@ e @-@ Islami ( JI ) , one of Pakistan 's leading religious parties , continued to oppose any operation in North Waziristan . JI leader Siraj @-@ ul @-@ Haq urged the government to keep the option of negotiations with the Taliban . He warned that a military operation in North Waziristan would trigger a massive human tragedy , saying that it was the duty of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to consider the views of the nation and its leadership ( inside and outside Parliament ) before making a crucial decision affecting national security .
= = = = Muttahida Qaumi Movement = = = =
- According to Muttahida Qaumi Movement senator Babar Khan Ghauri , " This is a commendable decision by the government . We have been repeatedly telling the current government that instead of engaging the terrorists in dialogue , government should act against these elements . Karachi has a number of terrorists and it might suffer from a blow back ; this should be tackled so Karachi does not have to suffer on account of this . " MQM head Altaf Hussain said , " I welcome this operation and I am glad that government is supporting the armed forces , those who have not backed the operation must realize that it is a matter of national security . I appeal to them to come on same page by setting aside their political compulsions . " he said .
= = = = Awami National Party = = = =
- Awami National Party ( ANP ) member Zahid Khan said , " We also held a dialogue previously ( during our government ) but that did not produce effective results . We wanted peace and we were okay if that came through dialogue but unfortunately that could not happen . This time , knowing from our experience , we had cautioned the government that [ the ] dialogue approach would not work . Government should have taken the parliament into confidence before launching the operation but it didn 't . "
= = = = Local tribesmen = = = =
North Waziristan tribal elders assured their support for Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , according to a statement released by ISPR director @-@ general Major General Asim Bajwa . " Many tribal elders from around Miranshah , Mir Ali , Datta Khel assure support to army operation , " Bajwa tweeted . " The tribesmen have assured the army that they would not let the militant to return to the area . "
= = = = Sunni Ulema Board = = = =
On 22 June 2014 , more than 100 Islamic scholars issued a joint fatwa in support of the operation , calling it a jihad : " Crushing of the attempts to disrupt peaceful atmosphere in a Muslim state is jihad " .
= = = International = = =
Afghanistan – Afghan Ambassador to Pakistan Janan Mosazai stated that his government would provide " every possible assistance " to defeat the militants in the operation .
United Arab Emirates – Interior minister Saif bin Zayed Al Nahyan said that his government would co @-@ operate with Pakistan in the war against the extremists .
United Nations – In a statement , the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) estimated that as of 23 June more than 450 @,@ 000 people were internally displaced from the war @-@ torn region . Other UN agencies , such as the UNHCR , agreed to provide tents and other facilities to the camps . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) provided medicines and vaccines to the IDPs to avert a polio outbreak .
United States – The US supported military operations against Taliban militants , a spokesman from the US Embassy in Pakistan said on 16 June , and the US supported every Pakistani step taken for the establishment of peace . The United States had pressured Pakistan for a military operation in North Waziristan for years , and the US Congress linked military assistance to Pakistan for the next fiscal year with military operations in North Waziristan in June 2014 . Rear Adm. John Kirby , the Pentagon press secretary , said that the Pentagon was unaware of Pakistan 's decision to launch a new offensive in North Waziristan : " The Pakistan military and the government understand the threat , and they continue to go after that threat . " On 5 November 2014 , Lt. Gen. Joseph Anderson , a senior commander for US and Nato forces in Afghanistan , said in a Pentagon @-@ hosted video briefing from Afghanistan that the Haqqani network is now " fractured " like the Taliban . " They are fractured . They are fractured like the Taliban is . That 's based pretty much on the Pakistan 's operations in North Waziristan this entire summer @-@ fall , " he said , acknowledging the effectiveness of Pakistan 's military offensive . " That has very much disrupted their efforts in Afghanistan and has caused them to be less effective in terms of their ability to pull off an attack in Kabul , " Anderson added .
China – Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi said that terrorism was a problem common to China and Pakistan , since militants were the enemy of both countries , adding that China fully supported the operation .
Russia – Chairman of the State Duma Sergey Naryshkin commended the operation , while the Pakistani Army Chief , General Raheel Sharif was on an official visit to Russia . " We will stand by Pakistan in its fight against terrorism and extremism for stability in the region . Our relations are independent , more consistent and will further grow , " he added .
= = TTP retaliation = =
= = = Lahore = = =
On 2 November 2014 , a suicide bombing following the daily parade took place at Wagah border in Pakistan , more than 55 killed and over 200 injured . The attack was claimed by militant groups jamaat @-@ ul @-@ Ahrar and jundallah , sub @-@ groups of TTP .
= = = Peshawar = = =
On 16 December 2014 , seven gunmen belonging to the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan ( TTP ) entered an Army Public School in Pakistani city of Peshawar and opened fire on school staff and children , killing 145 people consisting majority of students . The spokesperson of Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan , Mohammad Omar Khorasani , took the responsibility for the attack and said it was revenge for Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb .
= = State 's Counter @-@ retaliation = =
Responding to TTP 's retaliatory attacks , Pakistan has mounted deadliest counter @-@ retaliation on TTP ; first removing the moratorium on executions of terrorists by the Presidential Order , and secondly establishing military courts commissions ( roughly based on Gitmo ) . Pakistani authorities have issued " hang till death " orders to jail superintendents at the nationwide prisons . In weeks , a number of high @-@ value detainees convicted on a terrorism charges were hanged .
Since December 2014 , Pakistan 's intelligence community , law enforcement agencies , antiterrorism forces , and inter @-@ provincial police have been engaged in deadly police encounters in all over the country . News media have been televising the live actions on tracking down the militants and targeting the TTP operatives in series of police encounters . In the afternoon of 20 December , the KP Police and the special agents of the FIA raided a safe house in Shabqadar , a town located in 30 km ( 19 mi ) north of Peshawar . In an exchange of fire at the safe house , the KPK police and the other law enforcement agencies gunned down the six TTP fighters , including their commander and two other high @-@ value targets who assisted in the attack . At the night of 20 December , the team of Pakistan Rangers personnel raided a safe house in Manghopir area of Karachi and killed five members of the TTP in a deadly shoot out .
On 22 December 2014 , Karachi Police and the CID teams chased down and killed the TTP leader , Abid Muchar , along with his three associates in a police encounter . The same night , another action in took place in Karachi when the CID teams , in a high @-@ speed chase in Hawke 's Bay Beach , chased and apprehended five members of al @-@ Qaeda 's South Asian chapter who are suspected of planning an attack on a naval dockyard in Karachi in September .
Acting on a MI information , the navy 's SSGN teams were inserted in secret hideout in Khyber Agency and stalked the six terrorists led by Saddam Jan — the mastermind of the Army Public School attack — at the midnight of 26 December 2014 . In a late night operations , the SSGN combat teams reportedly hunted and killed Jan along with his six militants , while trying to seek sanctuary . An unnamed senior Pakistan government official confirmed the report .
On 9 January 2015 , the CID teams gunned down the four al @-@ Qaeda operatives after another high speed chase took place in Qayyumabad in Karachi . In another separate midnight action in Lahore , the teams of FIA 's special agents , assisted by the Punjab Police , raided a house located in Burki Road . Lasting almost two @-@ hour gun battle , the FIA teams hunted and gunned down Roohullah ( alias : Asadullah ) — the mastermind of the Wagah border attack along with three of his associates . Since the attack , the FIA had been on a hunt for Roohullah and was finally killed in a police encounter in Lahore .
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= Toxotes chatareus =
Toxotes chatareus , sometimes known by the common names seven @-@ spot archerfish or largescale archerfish , is a species of perciform fish in the archerfish genus Toxotes .
They are usually no larger than 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) but may grow up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) . Unlike most archerfish , T. chatareus are sooty rather than silvery in colour . They are omnivorous , feeding on insects , fish , and vegetative matter at the surface of the water . Breeding occurs in the wet season , and 20 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 eggs may be laid at one time .
T. chatareus are distributed throughout southeast Asia and the Indo @-@ Pacific and Australia . They may live in brackish or fresh water , inhabiting mangrove swamps and estuaries as well as further upstream in slow @-@ moving rivers . While occasionally caught and eaten , T. chatareus are more commonly kept in the aquarium . They may be sold with other Toxotidae under the collective label " archerfish " . Caring for T. chatareus in aquaria is somewhat difficult as they need live food given at the surface , rather than flake food .
= = Description = =
Toxotes chatareus are of moderate size , usually between 15 and 20 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Rarely , they may reach up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in length . T. chatareus weigh up to 700 grams ( 25 oz ) . T. chatareus are believed to have a lifespan of three to five years .
T. chatareus have five or six dorsal spines , the fourth of which is the longest , and twelve or thirteen dorsal soft rays . The dorsal spines are generally shorter in specimens collected from freshwater than those from brackish water . T. chatareus also have three anal spines and fifteen to seventeen anal soft rays . T. chatareus have 33 or 34 lateral line scales . The caudal ( tail ) fin in almost square . The anal fin is undivided and the third anal spine is longest .
Overall , the body is sooty but sometimes silvery or gold . The dorsal side is " greenish brown " . The pectoral fins are clear or " dusky " in colour . Pelvic fins may be darker and heavily pigmented . T. chatareus are white and usually has six or seven dark blotches , alternating long and short , along the dorsal side . A dark blotch is also found at the base of the caudal fin . The colour of these blotches may become darker or lighter due to time of day , environment , and stress . The blotches of young fish are darker than those of older fish . Startled or stressed fish are darker than unstressed fish ; fish found in cloudy water may be completely white . It is unknown whether sexual dimorphism occurs .
= = = Comparison to other archerfish = = =
T. chatareus can be distinguished by their sooty colour , as opposed to the typical silver of most other archerfish . They have five dorsal spines , whereas T. jaculatrix have four . The markings on their flanks are also alternating long and short spots rather than bands . T. chatareus also have six or seven markings on its sides , whilst banded archerfish have four to five . T. chatareus has 29 – 30 lateral line scales , compared to 33 – 35 in T. jaculatrix . T. chatareus are also less common upstream than T. microlepis .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Like other archerfish , Toxotes chatareus are able to spit streams of water to knock prey into the water . Despite lacking a neocortex , T. chatareus has well @-@ developed visual cognition and pattern @-@ recognition abilities which allow it to hit prey at distances of up to 150 centimetres ( 59 in ) against complex backgrounds . Behaviour studies on the visual processing of T. chatareus have found that this species is able to recognize and distinguish between different human faces . They feed during the day , consuming plant matter and insects . They are omnivorous ; their diet comprises crustaceans and other fishes , as well as zooplankton , rotifers , cladocerans , and insects ( terrestrial and aquatic ) . T. chatareus has been called a " specialised insectivore " because it does not prey upon certain insects , particularly those that feed upon C4 plants . Diet appears to be ontogenetic ( varying with age ) ; small fish do not consume any vegetative matter , whilst it comprises one @-@ fourth of the diet of larger fish . Diet also varies with location ; when upstream , T. chatareus feed on insects , but when in the estuary , they feed on crustaceans .
= = = Breeding = = =
Toxotes chatareus reproduce by spawning . Spawning in T. chatareus are homochronal ( females only spawn once per season ) and iteroparous ( spawning occurs more than once in a fish 's lifespan ) . Breeding in Toxotes chatareus occurs in the wet season . T. chatareus breed both in brackish and in fresh water . Spawning occurs in shallow , muddy lagoons . Females lay about 20 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 buoyant eggs , each 0 @.@ 4 millimetres in diameter . Females become mature at about 19 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , and males become mature at about 18 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) . T. chatareus become reproductively active at 24 months . When they first hatch , larvae may be less than 4 mm in length ; when they first feed , they are 5 mm and their mouthparts have become well @-@ developed . There is no parental care in this species . Breeding in this species does not involve travelling downstream ; nonetheless , populations may be affected by the construction of obstacles along rivers they inhabit . T. chatareus has not been bred in captivity .
= = Distribution = =
Toxotes chatareus are found in India , Burma , Indonesia and New Guinea , and northern Australia . They are generally found in temperature ranges of 25 to 30 ° C ( 77 to 86 ° F ) , though they have been recorded at temperatures as high as 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) in the Alligator Rivers region and as low as 20 @.@ 5 ° C ( 68 @.@ 9 ° F ) in the Burdekin river region ; these are believed to be the upper and lower limits of their tolerance , respectively . Brackish mangrove swamps form its main habitat , but T. chatareus are also found in freshwater rivers and streams . It occurs in rivers of the Kimberley region of Western Australia , the Kakadu area of the Northern Territory and Arnhem Land in Australia . On the Mekong river , it may be found as far north as Thailand and Laos . They are also found in the upper parts of the Burdekin river , somehow having overcome the Burdekin Falls . T. chatareus are distributed more " patchily " in eastern Australia , and are less abundant .
T. chatareus are known to occur in shaded areas with vegetation overhead , usually at the top layer of the water column . They are found only where there is an intact riparian area , as this is a major source of their food . T. chatareus are usually not found in fast @-@ flowing streams .
= = Relationship to humans = =
Toxotes chatareus have a minor part in fisheries . They are sometimes caught by anglers and are described as " reasonable eating " . T. chatareus are caught and sold in markets , where they are often grouped with the banded archerfish and simply sold as " archerfish " .
T. chatareus are sometimes kept in the aquarium . In aquaria , they can reach about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length , compared to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in the wild . They are one of only three archerfish species to be commonly traded ( the others being T. jaculatrix and T. microlepis ) . They are placed in an aquarium in a minimum size of 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) deep with a volume of 170 to 209 litres ( 37 to 46 imp gal ; 45 to 55 US gal ) . T. chatareus prefer brackish water and need a tall aquarium . T. chatareus have the ability to " jump " out of the water , which in the wild is used to capture prey on low @-@ hanging branches ; they are capable of jumping out of an aquarium that is too short or uncovered . They are compatible with others of their species of similar size , but larger individuals may harass smaller individuals . T. chatareus is fed live food at the surface , though it does occasionally take flake food ; because of this , caring for them is not done by beginners in most home aquaria .
T. chatareus are fairly common and not considered endangered . However , the destruction of their mangrove swamp habitat and increased fishing pressure may pose a risk in the future . The construction of weirs and tidal barrages within its habitat may affect populations in rivers . The growing population in Southeast Asia is also causing pollution to its habitat .
A study found increased ( greater than 0 @.@ 5 μg / g ) levels of mercury in four out of ten specimens sampled at Lake Murray in Papua New Guinea . This may have contributed to increased mercury levels in locals who consumed several species of fish from the lake , T. chatareus included . Compared to the other fishes tested , T. chatareus displayed a high level of mercury . Sediments from the nearby Porgera gold and silver mine are the source of this mercury ; the cause of the high level at which the mercury was accumulated in T. chatareus is not known .
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= USS West Lianga ( ID @-@ 2758 ) =
USS West Lianga ( ID @-@ 2758 ) was a cargo ship for the United States Navy during World War I. She was later known as SS Helen Whittier and SS Kalani in civilian service under American registry , as SS Empire Cheetah under British registry , and as SS Hobbema under Dutch registry .
West Lianga was launched for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in May 1918 as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . West Lianga briefly had the distinction of being the fastest @-@ launched and fastest @-@ completed ocean @-@ going ship in the world . Pressed into cargo service for the US Navy , USS West Lianga was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and completed four round @-@ trip voyages to France for the Navy . After decommissioning in mid 1919 , she was briefly in cargo service out of Seattle before being laid up in late 1921 .
West Lianga was sold to the Los Angeles Steamship Company ( LASSCO ) in early 1929 , refurbished , and renamed Helen Whittier for intercoastal cargo service . When Matson Navigation Company purchased LASSCO in 1931 , Helen Whittier frequently sailed on Matson 's Hawaiian sugar routes . She was renamed Kalani in 1938 and continued in Hawaiian service until 1940 when she was sold to British interests to help fill the United Kingdom 's urgent need for merchant ships .
After sailing to the UK as Kalani , the ship was renamed Empire Cheetah and sailed in transatlantic convoys , making three round trips between February 1941 and May 1942 . At that time , Empire Cheetah was transferred to Dutch interests and renamed Hobbema . She successfully completed one transatlantic roundtrip under Dutch registry and was on the homeward leg of her second in Convoy SC 107 , when that convoy was attacked by a wolf pack of German submarines . Shortly after midnight on 4 November 1942 , Hobbema was struck in the engine room by a single torpedo fired by German submarine U @-@ 132 . Of Hobbema 's complement of 44 men and British gunners aboard , only 16 survived the attack . Hobbema was one of 19 Allied ships in the convoy sunk by German submarines .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Lianga , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington . West Lianga ( Skinner & Eddy No. 21 ; USSB No. 1176 ) was laid down on 14 February 1918 . When she was launched on 20 April with an elapsed time of 55 working days — 65 calendar days — from keel laying to launch , it was in world @-@ record time , beating the launch of Columbia River Shipbuilding 's West Grove , launched after 61 working days in March .
When West Lianga was completed on 4 May , 67 working days after her keel laying , it was another world record , shaving 18 days off of Columbia River Shipbuilding 's previous record . By 1920 , West Lianga had fallen to third @-@ fastest when Edward N. Hurley , the wartime chairman of the USSB , compiled a list of the ten fastest @-@ constructed ocean @-@ going vessels for his 1920 book The New Merchant Marine . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 71 @,@ 600 bonus for completing the ship early .
West Lianga was 5 @,@ 673 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . West Lianga had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 800 DWT . The ship had a single steam turbine that drove her single screw propeller which moved the ship at an 11 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) pace .
= = World War I = =
West Lianga 's activities after her 4 May delivery to the USSB are not entirely clear . Many West ships , to avoid sailing empty to the East Coast , loaded grain products intended for the United Kingdom , France , and Italy and sailed to Europe without unloading or transferring their cargo , but it is not known whether West Lianga did so or not . Whatever her early activities , West Lianga was handed over to the United States Navy at Brooklyn in August 1918 and assigned the identification number 2758 . USS West Lianga was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) on 19 August with Lieutenant Commander Louis Laverge , USNRF , in command .
At New York , West Lianga took on a load of 6 @,@ 882 tons of materiel for the United States Army and a deck @-@ load of 32 trucks and departed for France in a convoy . After unloading her cargo at Bordeaux , she returned to New York on 16 October . After voyage repairs , she loaded another 6 @,@ 685 tons of cargo for the Quartermaster Corps and departed for Europe on 3 November . West Lianga was en route to France when the Armistice that ended fighting was signed on 11 November . West Lianga delivered her cargo to Saint @-@ Nazaire and took on a load of 1 @,@ 700 tons for delivery to the United States . After departing from France on 21 December , West Lianga arrived at New York on 4 January 1919 .
After shifting to New Orleans and taking on a load of cargo there , West Lianga began her third voyage to France . After making her delivery at Brest , the cargo ship took on a load of steel rails and sand as ballast and sailed for Newport News , Virginia , where she arrived on 21 March . She loaded railroad supplies for the Quartermaster Corps and sailed on 4 April on what would be her final NOTS trip to France . After delivery at La Pallice , West Lianga returned to New York on 10 June . Two weeks later , she was decommissioned , struck from the Navy list , and returned to the USSB .
= = Interwar career = =
After her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in June 1919 , West Lianga returned to Seattle and was based out of there for several years of operation . The United States Official Number 216274 was allocated . On 7 September 1921 , the ship was laid up in the reserve fleet at Norfolk . On 19 February 1929 , the USSB sold West Lianga to the Los Angeles Steamship Company ( LASSCO ) for $ 100 @,@ 000 on the basis of unrestricted operation . LASSCO , which announced plans for a $ 50 @,@ 000 overhaul and reconditioning of the ship for operation on its Arrow Line intercoastal cargo service , paid ten percent in cash and signed a note for the balance to be paid over the next ten years .
On 12 March , LASSCO changed West Lianga 's port of registry from Seattle to Los Angeles , and on 26 March , announced that the ship had been renamed Helen Whittier after the daughter of California oil pioneer Max Whittier . The Code Letters LKQR were allocated . LASSCO also announced that Helen Whittier , to be operated by Sudden and Christenson Steamship Company for LASSCO , was scheduled to sail from Baltimore on 25 April to begin her intercoastal service .
Helen Whittier 's activities over the next two years were not recorded in contemporary newspaper accounts , but she was affected by the absorption of LASSCO into its former competitor , Matson Navigation Company , on 1 January 1931 . In late August 1931 , Helen Whittier was added to Matson 's Hawaiian sugar service to Gulf Coast and North Atlantic ports .
Helen Whittier had returned to intercoastal service by early 1934 when The New York Times reported that she had sailed from San Francisco on 23 March and arrived at New York on 25 April . In June that same year , Helen Whittier was one of the Matson ships added to carry food cargo to Hawaii . Shipments of food from the mainland — which accounted for up to 90 % of Hawaii 's needs — had been curtailed as a coastwise strike had affected all ports except Los Angeles . Helen Whittier sailed on her first food delivery on 23 June with 2 @,@ 500 tons of food from Los Angeles to Honolulu .
Duringh 1935 , her Code Letters were change to LKAO . In February 1935 , Helen Whittier was returned to the Hawaiian sugar service full @-@ time . During her time on this service , Helen Whittier often called at New York . One typical voyage , as tracked in The New York Times , began when she departed New York on 23 November for Honolulu , passed through the Panama Canal on 4 December , and arrived at Honolulu . Helen Whittier departed there on 11 January 1936 and arrived at New York again on 16 February . Occasionally , Helen Whittier would make side trips to Baltimore for voyage repairs between her arrival at New York and her next departure for Hawaii . The cargo ship continued her Honolulu – New York service through September 1936 .
In 1938 , Matson renamed the ship Kalani , and continued using her in Hawaiian service through 1940 . On 15 July 1940 , Matson received the permission of the United States Maritime Commission , a successor to the USSB , to sell Kalani to Sir R. Ropner & Co . , Ltd . , of West Hartlepool . Six days after the approval , Kalani , now under British registry , departed from Los Angeles for New York .
= = World War II = =
Kalani , acquired to fill the United Kingdom 's urgent need for merchant vessels , was operated by Ropner under the authority of the Ministry of War Transport . After departing Panama on 4 August , Kalani arrived at New York on 13 August . Kalani shuttled between New York , Albany , and Boston , ending up at Baltimore on 25 August . Sailing from there on 15 September with a load of pig iron , she arrived at Halifax five days later . She departed from Halifax for Liverpool as a part of convoy HX 78 on 4 October but had to turn back and put in at Sydney , Nova Scotia . Kalani set out again on 15 October as a part of Convoy SC 8 , a Sydney – Liverpool convoy . Kalani departed the convoy and arrived at Clyde on 31 October .
= = = Empire Cheetah = = =
Kalani was renamed Empire Cheetah on 12 November , two weeks into a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ month stay at Clyde . Her port of registry was London . The United Kingdom Official Number 168041 and Code Letters GMJT were allocated . Empire Cheetah departed on her first transatlantic voyage under her new name when she sailed with convoy OB 288 on 18 February 1941 . After the convoy came under attack by German bombers and the convoy escorts departed , the convoy dispersed . Although nine convoy ships were sunk by six German and two Italian submarines on 23 – 24 February , Empire Cheetah safely reached her destination of Philadelphia on 10 March .
After taking on a load of steel , Empire Cheetah sailed for Halifax , and then on to Newport , Monmouthshire as a part of convoy HX 122 , arriving on 9 May . She sailed for Swansea on 27 May , and on to Milford Haven on 9 June . On 26 June , she sailed as a part of convoy OB 339 but put back into Milford Haven with defects . Empire Cheetah tried again as a part of convoy OB 343 on 6 July but had to return once again , putting in at Clyde on 9 July .
After a month at Clyde , Empire Cheetah set out a third time for North America in convoy ON 7 which , although dispersed mid @-@ ocean , lost no ships to submarines . Empire Cheetah successfully reached her destination of Boston on 3 September . From there she made her way to Philadelphia on 3 October , and on to Sydney on 23 October . There she joined convoy SC 51 sailing for Holyhead and Manchester the same day with a cargo of grain , steel , and cotton . She arrived at Holyhead on 8 November , but departed for Liverpool three days later . After returning to Holyhead later in the month , Empire Cheetah sailed in convoy BB 106 to Barry , where she arrived on 1 December .
Empire Cheetah spent two and a half months at Barry before sailing to Swansea on 14 February 1942 . Heading to Milford Haven on 23 February , she sailed the next day as a part of convoy ON 70 headed to Portland , Maine , where she safely arrived on 20 March after an intermediate stop at Halifax from 15 – 18 March . Four days later , Empire Cheetah sailed for Boston . She departed Boston on 12 April for Halifax and departed from there in convoy SC 80 five days later for Hull with a general cargo . Empire Cheetah arrived at Loch Ewe on 2 May and sailed the next day for Methil . After arriving at Methil on 6 May , she headed to her destination of Hull on 7 May .
= = = Hobbema = = =
On 18 May at Hull , Empire Cheetah was transferred to the Dutch government and assigned to the Netherlands Shipping & Trading Committee . The ship 's name was changed to Hobbema and the port of registry changed to Den Haag , even though the Netherlands were under German occupation . Hobbema was placed under the management of the British & Continental Shipping Agency Ltd .
Hobbema departed Hull on 23 May and called at Methil and Loch Ewe before sailing for New York as a part of convoy ON 100 on 2 June . After an intermediate stop at Halifax , Hobbema arrived at the Cape Cod Canal on 19 June and proceeded on to New York where she arrived the next day . After making two trips to Philadelphia and back , she departed for Cape Cod Bay to form up with convoy BX 28 for Halifax , where she arrived on 11 July . Hobbema sailed from Halifax to Sydney , Nova Scotia , in convoy HS 28 , and from there sailed on 17 July for Liverpool with convoy SC 92 . After her arrival on 31 July , she spent nearly a month at Liverpool before joining convoy ON 126 for New York , arriving at that destination on 19 September .
Hobbema sailed the next day for Newport News and took on 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of general cargo and ammunition and returned to New York on 15 October . She sailed nine days later as a part of convoy SC 107 headed for Liverpool . On 30 October , German submarine German submarine U @-@ 522 sighted the eastbound convoy and relayed the convoy 's position to the Wolf pack Veilchen of thirteen U @-@ boats and to two other U @-@ boats — U @-@ 522 and U @-@ 521 — patrolling nearby . After getting into position and dodging convoy escorts over the next two days , the wolf pack attacked the convoy on the night of 1 – 2 November and sank seven ships . Another ship was sunk during the day on 2 November . On the night of 2 – 3 November the convoy sailed through thick fog that concealed its location and kept the U @-@ boats at bay . At dawn the fog had lifted and another ship was sunk .
After dark , the wolf pack struck again . At 00 : 10 on 4 November U @-@ 132 closed in and torpedoed Hobbema , Empire Lynx and Hatimura . At 00 : 15 , a single torpedo from U @-@ 132 hit Hobbema on the starboard side in the engine room , immediately knocking out power to the ship , and caused her to begin rapidly sinking . The lifeboats and several life rafts from the port side were launched with 16 men on board . The ship 's master and 20 crewmen along with 7 British gunners died in the attack and sinking . US Navy tugs Uncas and Pessacus rescued Hobbema 's survivors .
At 00 : 40 the entire convoy and nearby U @-@ boats were jolted by a very heavy explosion thought to have been one of the largest prior to atomic bomb testing . The explosion stopped the engine of the tug Uncas rescuing survivors six miles astern of the convoy . SS Titus was rescuing survivors from Empire Lynx when the explosion lifted her bow so violently the crew believed Titus had been torpedoed . The crew abandoned ship before the master realized Titus was undamaged and reboarded to sail to England with a skeleton crew including some Empire Lynx and Hatimura survivors . Titus was drydocked upon arrival in England , but the only damage found was a small dent in her port side . U @-@ 132 is believed to have been destroyed by the explosion . The cause of the explosion is unknown , but it is assumed to have resulted from detonation of the ammunition cargo aboard either Hobbema or Hatimura . In all , 19 Allied ships were sunk from convoy SC 107 .
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= Super Mario 3D Land =
Super Mario 3D Land ( スーパーマリオ3Dランド , Sūpā Mario Surī Dī Rando ) is a platform game in the Super Mario series developed by Nintendo EAD Tokyo , with development assistance from Brownie Brown , for the Nintendo 3DS . The game was the first in the series to be released for the system , and was released worldwide in November 2011 . It was revealed at Nintendo 's Keynote Conference during the 2011 Game Developers Conference held in San Francisco . A sequel , titled Super Mario 3D World , was released for the Wii U in 2013 .
Super Mario 3D Land is unique from other games in the Mario series , as it combines elements from both traditional 2D Mario side @-@ scrolling games and modern free @-@ roaming 3D Mario games . It also introduces new elements into the series , including new power @-@ ups and gameplay mechanics . The main story is similar to previous Super Mario titles , centering on Mario 's efforts to rescue Princess Peach , who has been kidnapped by Bowser , utilizing the aid of the Tanooki Suit amongst other power @-@ ups . The game consists of 96 distinct levels allotted among the 16 worlds .
The game was released to critical acclaim , with gaming critics praising the amount of creativity and technical design presented within the game , though the utilization of 3D into the gameplay was met with a more polarizing reception . The game was a commercial success , and has sold 10 @.@ 73 million copies worldwide as of March 31 , 2016 , making it the fourth best @-@ selling game for the 3DS . It was also the first 3DS game to sell over 5 million copies .
Nintendo re @-@ released the game as a downloadable title via Nintendo eShop . The downloadable version was released in the PAL region on October 4 , 2012 , October 18 , 2012 in North America , and November 1 , 2012 in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario 3D Land is a platform game that has been described by game designer Shigeru Miyamoto as a " 3D Mario that plays as a 2D Mario game " . As such , Super Mario 3D Land combines the elements of traditional side @-@ scrolling video game titles , such as linear @-@ based levels , with those of the modern open world titles , such as moving Mario in three dimensions and performing a variety of actions . Similar to the older side @-@ scrolling Mario games , the health system revolves around Mario shrinking upon taking damage from enemies or hazards , having a dedicated " Dash " button as opposed to using analog input to determine travel speed , and damage while as " Small Mario " results in losing a life . Mario has also learned two new moves : a barrel roll and a roll jump , the former of which can be used to break blocks in a similar manner to jumping at blocks from below or ground pounding , and the latter allowing Mario to cover much horizontal ground in one jump . Super Mario 3D Land utilizes a similar level objective to those games , in which the point of each level is to reach and grab the " Goal Pole " located at the end of the course before the time limit expires .
The game offers a number of traditional Mario items , such as the Super Mushroom , Fire Flower , and Starman , along with new power @-@ ups that bestow special suits onto Mario and grant him new abilities . Returning from Super Mario Bros. 3 is the Super Leaf power @-@ up , which gives Mario the Tanooki suit , allowing him to float in the air and attack with his tail , with a later variant also allowing him to transform into a statue upon performing a ground pound . The player is able to reserve an extra power @-@ up , which can be retrieved by tapping the item visible on the touchscreen .
Other items include the Boomerang Flower , which allows Mario to throw boomerangs that can collect out @-@ of @-@ reach items as well as attack enemies ; the Propeller Box , which allows Mario to reach high places ; and the rare Prize Box , which gives Mario extra Coins while walking around in it . The Invincibility Leaf , which appears after the player dies five times in a level , gives Mario invincibility and Tanooki Suit abilities ; while the P @-@ Wing , which appears after the player dies ten times in a level , sends the player right to the end of the level , near the Goal Pole . ( The invincibility leaf and the P @-@ wing are only available in regular worlds . ) Each course contains three hidden Star Medals that are required to unlock certain levels . The map screen also contains Toad Houses where players can visit Toad and receive additional items , and Mystery Boxes where more Star Medals can be earned . After clearing the game once , a set of " Special " levels are unlocked , some of which contain additional challenges , such as a 30 @-@ second time limit . Clearing the S1 castle unlocks Luigi as a playable character , who has slightly different handling to Mario .
Super Mario 3D Land utilizes the Nintendo 3DS 's autostereoscopic technology , allowing players to perceive depth when viewing the game screen . While the game is designed to not require the 3D effect , some obstacles or points of interest are deliberately more noticeable or easier when the 3D is switched on . Super Mario 3D Land also utilizes optional use of the 3DS gyroscope , which can be used to control cannons and binoculars . The game also features StreetPass functionality , allowing players to exchange Mystery Boxes containing bonus items . StreetPass also gives players another Toad house so they can get items .
= = Plot = =
During a heavy thunderstorm , a tail @-@ like branched tree called the " Tail Tree " , which stands on Princess Peach 's castle grounds , is stripped of all its leaves . The leaves , which turn out to be Super Leaves , were in reality taken by Bowser who is using them to bestow Tanooki Tails on his minions gifting them with new abilities . Unaware of this situation at first , when Mario and the Toads go to inspect the tree the next day they discover a letter from Bowser , learning that he has kidnapped the princess . Mario sets off in pursuit to locate and rescue the princess , learning in the process of Bowser 's intentions for using the aforementioned stolen Super Leaves . After rescuing her , the Toads and Mario return to the Mushroom Kingdom with Tanooki Suits while Mario carries the princess . Mario 's actions lead to the restoration of the Tail Tree . However , a photo falls to the ground revealing Luigi behind bars with a Koopa Troopa and Peepa , beginning Mario 's quest into the eight Special Worlds .
After rescuing Luigi ( who is rescued after Mario beats a certain level ) the two brothers continue on their quest in completing the Special worlds . After they have completed the Special 8 Castle level , a new letter falls to the ground far away in an open plain . The three Toads who helped Mario earlier on investigating the letter and discover that Bowser has kidnapped Peach once again , thus starting Mario 's quest once over . After Mario rescues Peach for the second time , another photo is found with Peach in a Tanooki suit .
= = Development = =
Super Mario 3D Land was developed by Nintendo EAD Tokyo , which had previously developed Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario Galaxy 2 , with assistance from Brownie Brown , another subsidiary of Nintendo . Super Mario Galaxy 2 game director Koichi Hayashida directed the game , and the game music was composed by Takeshi Hama , Mahito Yokota and Asuka Hayazaki ( formally known as Asuka Ohta ) . Super Mario 3D Land took two years to develop , starting from a development team of two people and ending with a team of 30 . The game was first announced by Shigeru Miyamoto in November 2010 , stating that both the 3D Mario game as well as a 2D Mario title were in the works for the Nintendo 3DS . Miyamoto described the 3D game as " completely original " and a cross between Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario 64 .
Super Mario 3D Land was designed to bridge the gap between 2D Mario games and 3D Mario games , and influenced by Miyamoto 's philosophy of keeping the games fun in nature and making sure the player had the utmost opportunity to enjoy the experience of the game . A main concern during development was making a game that would appeal to fans of the 2D Super Mario games as well as the 3D games ; levels were designed so that the player would not get lost , moving Mario in one general direction towards each level 's goal .
One of the inspirations behind the creation of the game was technological advances that made it possible to implement certain elements that could not be done in previous Mario games . Satoru Iwata explained that " since 1996 , when Mario appeared in 3D in Super Mario 64 , it 's always been hard for players to judge how to jump and hit a block floating in a 3D space , " musing that the Nintendo 3DS autostereoscopy allowed for this issue to be fixed . The development team , which only had experience developing on consoles rather than handhelds , first tried playing Super Mario Galaxy 2 on a small television monitor . When it was found that Mario was too small to see and thus difficult to control , 3D Land 's camera system and level terrain needed to be designed for viewing on the small Nintendo 3DS screen , making it easier for players to keep track of Mario . Certain aspects of gameplay were inspired by Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda franchise , including the way that the camera functioned during certain moments . Ideas that were ultimately not incorporated into 3D Land included a pro skater suit for Mario , the ability to change Mario 's size to the extreme , and a feature that replaces Princess Peach 's face with a photographed face . The game 's title was chosen as an homage to the Super Mario Land games released on the Game Boy .
Super Mario 3D Land development was heavily affected by the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that occurred on March 11 , 2011 . The disaster caused public transportation to shut down , preventing Nintendo staff from being able to commute to work , and the Tokyo office remained closed for about a week . Hayashida was inspired by the disaster to encourage his team to communicate more , setting up the office such that staff members could easily see and discuss each other 's work . The team also started holding group meetings to play @-@ test 3D Land 's levels . Hayashida later mentioned that the team expressed hope that the game would inspire joy in spite of the tragedy .
Satoru Iwata revealed the game at the 2011 Game Developer 's Conference and pointed out that the game 's tentative logo sported a tail , stating that its purpose would be revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011 . Miyamoto later stated that " it 's what you think it is " , alluding to the Tanooki Suit , a power @-@ up originally from Super Mario Bros. 3 . While no exact release date was announced , Miyamoto stated that he hoped to release the game during 2011 . The game was showcased at Nintendo 's press conference at E3 2011 , where a 2011 release date was confirmed , along with the appearance of the Tanooki Suit . While the power @-@ up allows Mario to float down gently , unlike Super Mario Bros. 3 he cannot fly .
Super Mario 3D Land was first released in Japan on November 3 , 2011 . It was then released in North America on November 13 , Europe on November 18 , and in Australia on November 24 .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario 3D Land has received critical acclaim . It received an aggregated score of 90 @.@ 09 % on GameRankings and 90 / 100 on Metacritic . The game sold over 343 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in Japan , helping to move over 145 @,@ 000 Nintendo 3DS units . Famitsu awarded Super Mario 3D Land a score of 38 / 40 , praising level design , accessibility for beginners and the use of 3D . IGN gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 5 and an Editor 's Choice award , calling it " brilliant and addictive " and stating that " 3D gaming has never been fully realized before this " . GamesRadar gave the game a score of 9 / 10 , praising its wealth of content , although criticising the inclusion of a run button and some easy difficulty . Game Informer gave 3D Land a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , saying " it lives up to the level of quality set by previous entries and is easily the best reason to own a 3DS " . They also complimented the use of both a run button and the 3D effects while criticising the " lack of variety in boss battles " .
1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish gave the game a less favorable review , noting that certain aspects of the game were too easy in nature , musing a " moderately skilled player is never in danger of running out of lives in Super Mario 3D Land " . He however noted that the game was creative in its presentation , and offered " clever new twists on the familiar to the knuckle @-@ biting intensity of the final stages . " Justin Haywald of GamePro gave the game 5 / 5 , writing that Nintendo successfully captured the nostalgic aesthetic of the series , while still maintaining technical innovation . He reported , " for every familiar bit of music or a level background that reminds you of Mario games past , you have new abilities to use and deviously designed platforming sections that feel completely unique " , while stating that the inclusion of 3D was mostly a gimmick .
GameSpot stated that the game lacked some of the more creative aspects of the best of the series , stating that the 3D was mostly optional , though praised the gameplay as entertaining and fast @-@ paced . X @-@ Play 's Russ Frushtick felt that Super Mario 3D Land was the best game yet released for the 3DS , praising the content as surprisingly vast in nature and claiming that the game was twice as long as initially gauged . The game won the " Best Handheld Game " award in the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards . Super Mario 3D Land was awarded the " Best Platform Game Award " , and Nintendo 3DS Game of the Year 2011 by GameTrailers .
Super Mario 3D Land sold 3 @.@ 09 million units in the U.S. as of August 2014 . In Japan , the game has sold over 1 @.@ 66 million units as of August 1 , 2012 . The game was released to commercial success and has sold 10 @.@ 73 million copies worldwide as of March 31 , 2016 .
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= History of the Swiss Air Force =
The history of the Swiss Air Force began in 1914 with the establishment of an ad hoc force consisting of a handful of men in outdated and largely civilian aircraft . It was only in the 1930s that an effective air force was established at great cost , capable of inflicting several embarrassing defeats on the Nazi Luftwaffe in the course of an initially vigorous defence of neutral Swiss airspace . The Swiss Air Force as an autonomous military service was created in October 1936 . After World War II it was renamed the Swiss Air Force and Anti @-@ Aircraft Command ( Schweizerische Flugwaffe Kommando der Flieger und Fliegerabwehrtruppen ) and in 1996 became a separate service independent from the Army , under its present name Schweizer Luftwaffe .
The mission of the Swiss Air Force historically has been to support ground troops ( erdkampf ) in repelling invasions of neutral Swiss territory , with a secondary mission of defending the sovereignty of Swiss airspace . During World War II this doctrine was severely tested when Switzerland was literally caught in the middle of an air war and subjected to both attacks and intrusions by aircraft of all combatants . Its inability to prevent such violations of its neutrality led for a period to a complete cessation of air intercepts , followed by a practice of coercing small numbers of intruders to submit to internment .
At the end of the 1950s , reflecting both the threat of possible invasion by the Soviet Union and the realities of nuclear warfare , Swiss military doctrine changed to that of a dynamic ( mobile ) defense that included missions for the Swiss Air Force outside of its territory , in order to defeat standoff attacks and nuclear threats , including the possibility of defensive employment of air @-@ delivered nuclear weapons . However the inability to field an air force of sufficient capability to carry out such missions led to a return of traditional doctrine .
In 1995 the Swiss abandoned traditional doctrine and implemented a defensive plan that made control of Swiss airspace its highest and main priority . Modernization of the Swiss Air Force to achieve this mission was subject to popular referenda challenging its cost and practice .
= = Swiss balloon forces = =
Swiss military aviation began in 1900 with the creation of an observation balloon force . Swiss balloonists were first engaged in combat on 7 October 1918 , near the end of World War I , when a German airplane accidentally attacked a Swiss observation balloon stationed close to the German border and killed the observer , Lieutenant Werner Flury . The balloon force was eventually disestablished in 1938 when developments in aviation made it obsolete .
= = Heavier @-@ than @-@ air aviation in World War I = =
Military trials with civilian airplanes were first conducted in 1911 , resulting in many crashes that failed to persuade Swiss authorities of the military utility of the airplane . From September 4 to 6 , 1911 , Failloubaz participated as pilot ( his friend Gustave Lecoultre as observer ) to an exercise with the 1st Swiss Army Corps and demonstrated the military possibilities of aircraft with his Dufaux 5 ; the beginning of the military aviation in Switzerland . Only after the Swiss Officers ' Society collected approximately 1 @,@ 723 @,@ 000 Swiss francs in 1912 – a very large sum for the time – in a national fund drive to the create an air force , did the Swiss Federal Council order the establishment of a Fliegerabteilung on 3 August 1914 . The government also decreed that only bachelors could become military pilots , to avoid the payment of expensive widow 's pensions in the event of casualties .
The outbreak of World War I , in which neutral Switzerland did not take part , and an indifference to air power of the part of the Swiss military establishment prevented the purchase of modern airplanes required to build an effective air force . By the end of 1914 , the force consisted of only eight men flying privately owned airplanes , and by July 1916 , four pilots had been killed in crashes . Swiss aircraft were armed only with carbines and flechettes , ineffective pointed iron spikes that were to be dropped on ground targets . The nominal commander of the Swiss air arm , cavalry captain Theodor Real , resigned his post in November 1916 when the army refrained from using its rudimentary air force to defend Swiss airspace against frequent German intrusions , even after Porrentruy was accidentally bombed by German aircraft on 11 October 1916 .
The first purpose @-@ built military aircraft in the Swiss air force was a Fokker D.II seized after a German pilot made a forced landing in foul weather near Bettlach on 13 October 1916 . In June 1917 , five Nieuport 23 C.1 fighter planes were acquired from France . Swiss industry manufactured more than 100 Häfeli DH @-@ 3 observation aircraft , but efforts to build a Swiss fighter ( the Häfeli DH @-@ 4 ) were halted in 1918 because of the prototypes ' poor performance . By the end of the war , the Swiss air force had only 62 pilots and 68 aircraft of nine different makes , almost all of which were suitable only for observation missions . Its wartime budget of CHF 15 million amounted to just 1 @.@ 25 % of Swiss military expenditures .
= = Interwar years = =
With continuing budgetary restraints , the air force remained in an overall state of neglect during the 1920s . 27 Twenty @-@ seven Fokker D.VII , 16 Hanriot HD.1 , and 15 Nieuport 28 Bébé war surplus airplanes were acquired in 1920 ( as were 20 Zeppelin LZ C.11 reconnaissance biplanes obtained on the postwar black market ) but were soon obsolete , and further efforts to develop indigenous aircraft ( MA @-@ 6 , MA @-@ 7 , and MA @-@ 8 ) were unsuccessful . Seven pilots were killed in 1925 and 1926 before all Swiss military aircraft were equipped with parachutes . By 1929 , only 17 of its 213 airplanes were considered fit for service . The air force consisted of 18 aviation companies ( Flieger @-@ Kompagnien ) , three aerial photography platoons and one airfield company . In the decade following World War I , 162 pilots and 165 observers were trained , and the full complement of the air force was 196 officers , 499 NCOs and 2241 enlisted men . The only aircraft purchased in any quantity were the Potez XXV , and the Swiss @-@ built Häfeli DH @-@ 5 .
The difficulty of maintaining an air force with little funding during a time of rapid technological development was compounded by the Swiss militia system : all but a handful of military personnel were citizen soldiers who served only a few weeks each year following their initial recruitment phase . Military pilot candidates underwent the same recruit training , NCO school and officer candidate school as other Swiss army officers , followed by a pilot school of 173 days , then re @-@ entered civilian life . During his first two years of service , a pilot 's training continued with ten logged flight hours per month , and thereafter he was required to fly fifty hours per year at his convenience .
However , in 1930 the military and civilian leadership decided to establish an effective air force . On 13 December 1929 , in what was in retrospect referred to as the " bill to create an air force " , the Federal Council asked the Swiss Federal Assembly to approve the spending of 20 million francs for the purchase of 65 French Dewoitine D.27 fighters and the manufacture of 40 Dutch ( Fokker C.V @-@ E ) reconnaissance planes under licence . Although the opposition Social Democratic Party collected 42 @,@ 000 signatures in a petition opposing the bill , Parliament passed it handily and declined to allow a referendum on the issue , optional at that time for spending bills .
This was the start of a massive armament programme that would consume more than a billion francs over the next ten years , but after Hitler 's rise to power in Nazi Germany , the Social Democrats added their support to the efforts . They also supported Gottlieb Duttweiler 's 1938 popular initiative calling for the purchase of a thousand aircraft and the training of three thousand pilots . After 92 @,@ 000 citizens signed in support , nearly twice the number necessary for a national popular vote , the federal government offered a referendum proposal in 1939 that was nearly as extensive , which was accepted by a 69 percent majority .
In large part , the money was used to acquire modern aircraft , most notably , 90 state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Messerschmitt Bf 109D and E fighters from Germany in 1938 for 36 @.@ 6 million francs , the last of which were delivered in April 1940 , eight months after the outbreak of World War II . However , the need to expand the size of the pilot corps resulted in the acquisition of 146 trainers from Germany , the Bücker Bü 131 basic and Bücker Bü 133 advanced trainers .
In addition , Swiss factories licence @-@ built 82 Morane @-@ Saulnier D @-@ 3800 and 207 D @-@ 3801 fighters between 1939 and 1945 , and manufactured 152 domestically designed C @-@ 36 fighter @-@ bombers between 1942 and 1948 . Both of these types remained in service well into the 1950s as trainers .
On 19 October 1936 , the air arm was reorganised , and renamed the Schweizerische Flugwaffe ( Department of Aviation and Anti @-@ Aircraft Defense ) , becoming an autonomous service under the Swiss Federal Military Department , analogous to the organizational autonomy of the United States Army Air Forces within the U.S. Army . The Bambini @-@ Code was developed from the need to communicate via radio links in bad quality in noisy environments , of the aircraft who were used from the Swiss Air Force before the start of the second world war .
= = World War II = =
See also Messerschmitt Bf 109 : Combat Service with Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force mobilized on 28 August 1939 , three days before Germany attacked Poland and initiated World War II , with 96 fighter and 121 observation aircraft ; by some accounts the country possessed only eight antiaircraft searchlights . Of the 21 units of the Swiss Air Force , only three were judged combat @-@ ready and five were not yet equipped with aircraft . The Air Force relied on 40 single @-@ seat interceptors for first @-@ line air defense .
This deficiency was addressed by procuring further German Bf 109 , Italian Macchi MC.202 , and French Morane D @-@ 3800 fighters . In 1942 , the Swiss @-@ built F + W C @-@ 36 multipurpose aircraft was introduced into service , and in 1943 , Switzerland opened its own aircraft factory , Flugzeugwerk Emmen . Caverns were built in which to shelter aircraft and maintenance personnel from air attack , for example in Alpnach , Meiringen and Turtmann . In 1942 @-@ 43 , an air gunnery range at Ebenfluh @-@ Axalp was opened for training . The Surveillance Squadron ( Überwachungsgeschwader ) was formed in 1941 and made combat @-@ ready in 1943 . A night fighter squadron was formed for evaluation purposes in 1944 and disbanded in 1950 .
The role of the Swiss Air Force during World War II went through four distinct phases :
September 1939 to May 1940 : Air patrol , in an attempt to enforce a comprehensive no @-@ fly ban issued by the Swiss government to the combatants , made largely ineffective by a 5 – kilometer buffer along the border which Swiss fighters were forbidden to enter .
May to June 1940 : Air combat between Switzerland and Germany in which the Luftwaffe pilots tested Swiss air defenses , and were defeated .
July 1940 to October 1943 : A total ban on air operations , and a release of interned German aircraft and pilots , resulting from the encirclement of Swiss territory by the Axis , the implementation of the Réduit strategy , and recognition that the Air Force would be overwhelmed by the Germans in a sustained campaign .
October 1943 to May 1945 : Resumption of air patrols , a largely passive response , measured by the numbers of intercepts versus the numbers of violations .
= = = Defense of Swiss airspace = = =
During the first months of the war , airmen and anti @-@ aircraft soldiers saw only sporadic combat ; it was on 10 May 1940 , when Germany commenced the drive into the west , that the Swiss army as a whole was mobilized a second time . At the onset of the campaign , German military aircraft first violated Swiss airspace .
The first serious combat involving the Swiss Air Force began in June 1940 . In six days of aerial battles , eleven German aircraft were downed , with a loss of two Swiss aircraft and three airmen killed . Following these incidents , on 6 June , the chief of the Luftwaffe , Hermann Göring , protested the attacks , claiming that most of the German planes had been in French airspace and that the Luftwaffe had entered Swiss airspace only by mistake . Germany demanded financial compensation and an apology by the Swiss government . In a second , more pointed demand on 19 June , Germany stated that they viewed the air battles as a flagrant act of aggression , and if these interceptions continued , Switzerland would face sanctions and retaliation . The next day , General Henri Guisan ordered all Swiss units to stop engaging foreign aircraft , and on 1 July 1940 , the Federal Council apologized for possible border violations by Swiss pilots , without admitting any had occurred . On 16 July , the German government declared that the events were settled . Engaging aircraft of the combatant nations was prohibited until October 1943 , when strategic bombing of Bavaria and Austria by the Allies became an increasing likelihood .
In September 1944 , the last Swiss airman died in combat , shot down by an American P @-@ 51 Mustang while escorting a crippled U.S. B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress to the Dübendorf airfield . During the entire war , 6 @,@ 501 Allied and Axis aircraft violated Swiss airspace , 198 of which aircraft landed on Swiss soil and were interned , and 56 of which crashed .
Swiss aircraft also intercepted U.S. aircraft who were off @-@ course , or whose crews preferred asylum in Swiss internment camps over German or Italian POW camps ; they were then forced to land on Swiss airstrips . When the bombers did not cooperate or even fired at the Swiss ( who were using Axis @-@ type interceptors ) , they were shot down .
= = = Night fighter incident = = =
In 1944 a Luftwaffe Bf 110G @-@ 4 night fighter pursued a British Lancaster heavy bomber into Swiss airspace on the night of April 28 – 29 . Engine trouble forced the German pilot , Wilhelm Johnen , to land at Dübendorf airfield where the pilot was interned . By international law , the Swiss had a right to put the fighter into service , and the Germans were concerned that Allied intelligence would examine its FuG 220 Lichtenstein radar and " Schräge Musik " gun installation .
The Nazi government quickly negotiated a deal in which the Swiss burned the Bf 110 under the supervision of German observers in return for a sale to the Swiss of 12 new Bf 109G @-@ 6 Gustav to replace combat losses . The new fighters were delivered in batches of six on 20 and 22 May . The new planes had serious manufacturing defects from the poor workmanship and production disruptions caused by Allied bombings , and after complaints the Germans refunded half of the six million Swiss franc purchase price .
= = = Attacks on Swiss cities = = =
Swiss cities and railway lines were repeatedly bombed by Allied aircraft during the war , beginning with minor attacks by the Royal Air Force on Geneva , Basel , and Zürich in 1940 . Possibly the most egregious occurred 1 April 1944 when 50 B @-@ 24 Liberators of the U.S. 14th Combat Bomb Wing bombed Schaffhausen , killing and injuring more than 100 , and damaging a large portion of the city . In reaction to comments by Swiss Foreign Minister Marcel Pilet @-@ Golaz that the incident " apparently was a deliberate attack " , American apologies were undermined by ill @-@ advised statements made by Air Force commanders in London which blamed weather and minimized the size and accuracy of the attack . Although an in @-@ depth investigation showed that weather in France , particularly winds that nearly doubled the ground speed of the U.S. bombers , did in fact cause the wing to mistake Schaffhausen for its target at Ludwigshafen am Rhein , the Swiss were not mollified . Incidents escalated , resulting in 13 separate attacks on Swiss territory on 22 February 1945 — the day President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's special assistant , Lauchlin Currie , went to Schaffhausen to lay a wreath on the graves of those killed a year earlier — and simultaneous attacks 4 March that dropped 29 tons of high explosives and 17 tons of incendiaries on Basel and Zürich .
Swiss air defenses were incapable of counteracting large formations of aircraft , but did intercept and , on occasion attack , small groups . Since these were often aircraft crippled by battle damage and seeking asylum , resentment among Allied aircrew was considerable . The causes of the misdirected bombing attacks were bad weather , faulty equipment , incompetence , or excess pilot zeal , rather than malice or purposeful planning , but the lack of intent did not allay the sufferings and suspicions of the Swiss , and the embarrassment to the United States was considerable . A pattern of violation , diplomatic apology , reparation , and new violation ensued through much of the war , and grew in scope as Allied tactical forces neared Germany . It is still a matter of debate if these bombings occurred by accident , since U.S. strategic air forces had a standing order requiring visual identification before bombing any target within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the Swiss frontier , or if some members of the Allies wanted to punish Switzerland for their economic and industrial cooperation with Nazi Germany . In particular , Switzerland permitted train transportation through its territory carrying matériel between Germany and Italy , which was readily visible from the air by Allied pilots .
The incidents drew to a close only after a USAAF delegation appointed by U.S. Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall met with the Swiss in Geneva on 9 March 1945 . The Swiss enumerated every violation since Schaffhausen and demanded full indemnity . The Americans advised that the area requiring positive target identification was henceforth expanded to 150 miles ( 240 km ) from Swiss borders , that no targets within 50 miles ( 80 km ) would be attacked even in clear weather except by personal authorization from American commander General Carl Spaatz , and then only by hand @-@ picked crews , and that tactical air was forbidden to attack any target within ten miles ( 16 km ) of the Swiss border . Even though these restrictions provided the Germans significant protection from air attack over a large part of southern Germany for the final two months of the war , they were effective in ending the violations and did not seriously hamper Allied prosecution of the war .
= = Cold War = =
During World War II , Switzerland struggled with buying and building modern combat aircraft . The fourteen Bf 109G Gustavs acquired from the Germans ( including two interned ) proved increasingly difficult to maintain , and were removed from service in 1947 , although the " Emil " variants purchased earlier continued on until 1949 . The Swiss also acquired nearly 200 aircraft interned after violating its sovereignty , but most were unsuitable for Swiss operations .
However , in 1948 the Swiss were able to purchase 130 surplus P @-@ 51 Mustangs from the United States . Several other aircraft types followed , including the 220 de Havilland Vampires purchased in 1949 and 1953 , 250 de Havilland Venoms acquired 1954 @-@ 56 , and 100 Hawker Hunters from 1958 . The P @-@ 51s replaced the Messerschmitt Bf 109s and remained operational for a decade . Both the Venoms and Vampires showed remarkable longevity , with the Venoms in service until 1983 and the Vampires until 1990 , more than 40 years . Remarkably the Swiss Air Force after these acquisitions was the first air force in the world to operate only jet aircraft in their front @-@ line squadrons .
= = = N @-@ 20 and P @-@ 16 = = =
The Swiss government experimented in development and production of its own jet fighters , the FFA P @-@ 16 and the N @-@ 20 Aiguillon , but was not satisfied with them , desiring relatively simple aircraft that did not require extensive training and thus could be flown by militia pilots . These aircraft were developed in accordance with the doctrine of the Swiss Air Force that close air support of ground operations was its main task . The National Defense Commission ( LVK ) , however , based on the experiences of World War II , also desired an aircraft capable of both " neutrality protection and raid @-@ type operations " , and the result was projects with inherent self @-@ contradictions .
Hoping that competition would lead to the development of effective but simple ground @-@ attack aircraft , the government asked the Flugzeugwerk Altenrhein ( FFA , or " Aircraft Factory Altenrhein " ) and the Federal Aircraft Factory Emmen to develop jet @-@ propelled fighters . Although the Federal Institute of Technology had a world @-@ renowned aerodynamics laboratory , both projects ended in fiasco , as a result of which the Hunter was purchased instead and introduced into service in 1958 .
Both models were plagued from the onset by inefficient engines , but were capable of the short @-@ distance takeoffs required by the Swiss ( 330 meters for the P – 16 , 232 meters for the N @-@ 20 ) . After wind tunnel and engine tests , but before the N – 20 could make its maiden flight , Federal Councillor Karl Kobelt cancelled the N @-@ 20 project in 1953 , leading to much resentment of the government by Emmen engineers when the FFA project was continued . Eventually , neither of the aircraft came into production , although the wings of the P @-@ 16 were later used in the development of the successful Learjet .
The Eidgenössische Flugzeugwerke Emmen N @-@ 20 was a semi @-@ tailless swept wing jet similar to the U.S. Navy 's Vought F7U Cutlass with four engines mounted internally in the wings , fold @-@ out canards to improve its aerodynamics at slow speeds , and a maximum designed airspeed of 1200 km / h , a remarkable velocity for an aircraft of the early 1950s . The FFA P @-@ 16 was a single @-@ engine straight @-@ wing aircraft for which a contract for production of 100 aircraft was awarded in 1958 , but after the second crash of a pre @-@ production model , the order was canceled . The aircraft had met all Swiss Air Force requirements for an STOL attack fighter capable of carrying heavy loads , and the crash was widely considered a pretext for the Swiss parliament to reverse itself . In addition , by the middle of 1958 , influenced by NATO concepts , the LVK had redefined the Swiss doctrine of air power from close air support to counter @-@ air operations . Further , the strategic concepts governing Swiss defense doctrine had shifted to a dynamic ( mobile ) defense that included execution of air missions beyond the Swiss border and the possibility of carrying nuclear weapons , for neither of which the P – 16 was suitable . In this time , the Swiss Air Force also tested a few from the Swiss industry @-@ developed Ground to Air Defence Systems but didn 't introduce any of them into service ( see : 35 mm anti aircraft tank B22L , RSD 58 and RSE Kriens ( Missile ) ) . Also a Mobile Ground to Air Defence System based on the Swiss wheeled APC Mowag Shark equipped with the French Crotale ( missile ) was not bought for the Swiss Air Force .
= = = Mirage affair = = =
The acquisition of the Hunter had solved part of the Swiss dilemma of needing to support both its ground forces and to deploy an air @-@ to @-@ air capability , but while the Hunter could provide some counter @-@ air defense over a battlefield and escort ground @-@ support fighters it was not supersonic nor was it capable of defending Swiss airspace . In 1961 , the Swiss Parliament voted to procure 100 French Dassault Mirage IIICs for this purpose and 67 BL @-@ 64 Bloodhound surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles from the British .
The Swiss acquired a single Mirage for testing , as a preface to production under license of 100 Dassault Mirage IIIS interceptors , with strengthened wings , airframe , and undercarriage . Avionics would differ as well , with the Thomson @-@ CSF Cyrano II radar replaced by the Hughes Electronics TARAN @-@ 18 system , to provide the Mirage IIIS compatibility with the AIM @-@ 4 Falcon air @-@ to @-@ air missile . The Mirage IIIS was intended to be operated as an interceptor , ground attack , and reconnaissance aircraft , using wing pods for the photographic mission .
Production of the Mirage IIIS developed into a scandal . Although the Air Force staff wanted to acquire the best available aircraft on the market , neither it nor the Federal Council had issued performance specifications . The concept of mobile defense had replaced static defense , such as the Réduit strategy of World War II , as the doctrine of the Swiss Armed Forces . The new doctrine required greater numbers of long @-@ range aircraft and tanks in order to combat Soviet troops before they arrived near the Swiss border . The committee on aircraft procurement , which consisted of two military officers and an engineer who was employed by the army , originally proposed " at least 100 Mirages " to be employed in a multi @-@ role capacity .
The parliament first authorized approximately 871 million Swiss francs to build 100 Mirage IIIS under license . But this procurement was soon crushed under massive budget overruns and the government asked for an additional CHF 576 million . The cost overruns were the result of fitting U.S. electronics to the French platform , installing hardpoints for moving the aircraft inside of the caverns by cranes , structural reinforcements for jet @-@ assisted takeoffs , and other extras to improve the off @-@ the @-@ shelf Mirage IIIC . The wish to procure the Mirage IIIS was also boosted by the possibility that the Swiss could acquire aircraft @-@ delivered nuclear weapons , either from France or by producing them themselves .
However , another major reason for rising costs was the need to develop a separate variant for the photo @-@ reconnaissance mission when the underwing pods caused too great a performance penalty . The differences between the IIIS and the IIIRS ( as the reconnaissance version was designated ) resulted in only 36 Mirage IIIS fighters and 18 IIIRS reconnaissance aircraft actually built by the Federal Aircraft Factory at Emmen . Twelve were allocated to a reconnaissance squadron , three to a training group and the rest to two fighter squadrons . It was found that such a small number was insufficient to provide the multi @-@ role capacity deemed essential for the new doctrine . The Mirage IIIS went into service in 1967 , and the IIIRS in 1969 .
The lack of financial oversight and the apparent ease with which Federal Councillor Paul Chaudet and Chief of the General Staff Jakob Annasohn chose the Mirage ( at the time , the world 's fastest jet fighter ) led , for the first time in Swiss history , to the formation of a parliamentary fact @-@ finding commission . As a result , parliamentary oversight on military procurements was improved and the military was given the organizational and professional structures to avoid such budget overruns . One Air Force officer had to retire , and Annasohn himself retired voluntarily in the end of 1964 , followed by Chaudet who stepped down in 1966 .
= = Later Cold War history = =
In 1972 , with the option of nuclear weapons discarded and the likelihood of operations beyond the Swiss border severely restricted , the Federal Military Department ( EMD ) decided that the next generation of aircraft acquired by the Swiss Air Force would be for close air support . While resurrection of the P @-@ 16 was discussed in the Swiss press ( FFA had continued theoretical development the aircraft at its own expense , with its final variant , the AR @-@ 7 , to be equipped with a Rolls @-@ Royce RB168 @-@ 25 engine ) , the choice narrowed to the Milan ( a joint Swiss @-@ French prototype variant of the Mirage III ) and the American A @-@ 7G Corsair II , each of which had strong advocates within the Swiss Air Force .
Still reeling from the " Mirage affair " , when the Milan project failed from lack of orders and the recommendation for purchase of the A @-@ 7 was cancelled , the Air Force instead purchased 30 additional , surplus Hawker Hunters in 1973 to improve its ground attack capability ( the small number of Mirages were reserved for reconnaissance and interceptor roles ) . At this time the Swiss aviation industry and the ETH Zurich made a last attempt for a Swiss made fighter jet , the ALR Piranha but they had no success . And it remained an unfinished project .
The end of the 1970s saw the introduction of the Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger II.The F @-@ 5 won the competition against the F @-@ 4 Phantom II , Dassault Mirage F1 and Saab 37 Viggen , after the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , the Fiat G.91Y and the A @-@ 4N Skyhawk passed out the contest before the flight evaluation . In 1976 the Federal Council ordered 72 aircraft , all of which were delivered by 1979 . A follow @-@ up order for 38 in 1981 brought the totals to 98 single @-@ seat F @-@ 5E and 12 two @-@ seat F @-@ 5F , which were deployed in five squadrons headquartered at Dübendorf . Initially the Tigers were responsible for air sovereignty below 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , but some also took on a ground attack mission as the Hawker Hunters were phased out .
In 1985 the Mirage IIIS fleet , nearing 20 years of operational service , began a major upgrade program to improve the capabilities of the aircraft . The interceptors were retro @-@ fitted with canards manufactured by Israeli Aircraft Industries on the air intakes to improve maneuverability and stability at landing speeds , new avionics and countermeasures , and redesignated the Mirage IIIS C.70.
Meanwhile , the lengthy nature of the Swiss aircraft procurement process , reinforced by the embarrassments of the Mirage Affair , resulted in the simultaneous acquisition of a new fighter to eventually replace the Mirage . The Swiss considered the Dassault Rafale , Dassault Mirage 2000 , the IAI Lavi , the Northrop F @-@ 20 Tigershark , and the BAE Systems / Saab JAS @-@ 39 Gripen fighters before choosing the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon for a fly @-@ off evaluation held in May 1988 . From that competition , the Federal Council chose the Hornet in October 1988 . The Hornets were to be virtually " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " models , nearly identical to those operated by the U.S. Navy but with stronger titanium alloy frames for an anticipated 30 @-@ year service life .
However the competition was reopened in 1990 to allow for a reconsideration of a European fighter , the Mirage 2000 @-@ 5 . In June 1991 the choice of the Hornet was reconfirmed , and the political struggle to have its purchase approved by referendum began . In the meantime , the Soviet Union was dissolved , and with its dissolution the Cold War ended .
= = = Overseas training = = =
A small contingent of Hawker Hunters deployed to Sweden in 1965 for training in air @-@ to @-@ ground delivery of ordnance , and intermittently thereafter , but annual training abroad for the Swiss Air Force did not begin until 1985 . The use of Swiss air space for combat training became increasingly impractical as the performance of supersonic jets increased and created environmental restrictions . The Swiss modified their traditional stance of neutrality to seek other facilities , particularly among NATO European members , to meet their training needs .
The first annual training exercise was acronymed SAKA ( SArdinien KAmpagne ) , first begun 3 January 1985 . It was conducted at the Air Weapons Training Installation ( AWTI ) at Decimomannu Air Base on Sardinia , at the time the only such facility outside of the United States . Up to 18 Swiss Mirages and Tigers per year conducted air combat maneuvering training on its instrumentation range . Following its fifth SAKA exercise in 1989 , however , demands by NATO air forces for the facility resulted in permission for Swiss Air Force usage to be withdrawn .
When its SAKA exercise set for June 1990 had to be cancelled , the Swiss Air Force began a new training program at RAF Waddington in the United Kingdom , which it called NORKA ( NORdsee KAmpagne ) . A newly built Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation ( ACMI ) range operated by British Aerospace provided it with a facility with which to conduct realistic combat training against other aircraft , and it began the first of twelve annual exercises on 16 November 1990 .
= = Post @-@ Cold War developments = =
= = = Changes in doctrine = = =
With the end of the Cold War , the probability of a ground invasion of Switzerland ended , substantially changing Swiss military doctrine and resulting in reduction of both the budget and the size of the Swiss Armed Forces . In Armed Forces Reform 95 , and its supporting program Defense Guidelines 95 , the Air Force retained its basic structure and organization , but became a totally independent service , now called the Swiss Air Force , on 1 January 1996 . For the first time since its inception , subordination of the counter @-@ air role to the ground support mission ended , and defense of domestic airspace was made its highest priority and primary task .
In addition , the Air Force was tasked with gathering intelligence , air reconnaissance , and air transport . Support of ground troops , both doctrinally and as a practical matter , became marginal . These missions were strongly influenced by a shrinking capability , since its combat aircraft could operate by daylight only , its anti @-@ aircraft artillery was obsolete , and the FLORIDA radar system had reached the limits of operational effectiveness . The retirement of the Hawker Hunters in 1994 ended its ground support capability , and a cut of one @-@ third from the defence budget meant that plans for a second purchase of F / A @-@ 18s and supporting air @-@ to @-@ ground weapons ( the reason the multi @-@ capable Hornet was selected ) had to be canceled , leaving both it and the F @-@ 5s in a strictly air @-@ to @-@ air role .
Almost immediately the Air Force was reduced from 290 to 190 fixed @-@ wing aircraft and had five of its twelve bases closed . In 2002 , the Armée XXI reforms continued the pattern of reduction , with bases at Mollis , Turtmann , and Interlaken closed , jets relocated out of Dübendorf ( later planned for closing ) , and the helicopter base at Alpnach placed on the closure list . These closures left Payerne , Sion , and Meiringen as the only combat bases , Emmen as the main helicopter base , and Locarno as a training base . Buochs was maintained for war @-@ time reactivation , and the theoretical plan for using highways near Payerne , Sion , and Lodrino as emergency runways was retained , although no pilots have been trained in their use since the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = New jets and political struggles = = =
In 1993 , a popular initiative that sought to stop the procurement of the 34 F / A @-@ 18 Hornets ( chosen by the Federal Council in 1988 ) to replace the Mirages was defeated by a majority of 57 % . Two versions , a twin @-@ seat D @-@ model and a single @-@ seat C , were built in the United States and flight @-@ tested in 1996 , delivered in December 1996 and 1998 respectively . Thirty @-@ two production kits were shipped to Switzerland for assembly , with the first in service in January 1997 and the final aircraft delivered in December 1999 . One crashed during workups , leaving 28 C 's and 5 Ds assigned to three squadrons . Seven instructor pilots were trained at NAS Cecil Field , Florida , and the United States Navy also provided two instructors on exchange to train Hornet pilots .
In 1990 , the Swiss Air Force acquired 20 British Aerospace Hawk Mk.66s to provide an interim solution to its jet training requirements , but these were retired in 2003 and sold to Finland . The Mirages ended their service in the second half of the 1990s , with the last Mirage fighter retired in 1999 and the final Mirage reconnaissance jet in December 2003 .
When the Hunters were retired in 1994 , the air force made an effort to provide some F @-@ 5 Tigers with an air @-@ to @-@ ground capability but this proved prohibitively expensive , and plans to replace the fleet after 2010 with a fourth @-@ generation jet fighter were begun . A dozen F @-@ 5s were leased in 2004 to Austria for four years ( while it awaited the delivery of new Eurofighters ) , and the Swiss maintenance of its fleet was such that they were considered " low @-@ hours " by the U.S. Navy , which purchased 36 in 2006 – 2008 to replace its aging Aggressor aircraft . This effectively reduced the F @-@ 5 inventory by half , and proposals to replace the Tigers with JAS @-@ 39 Gripens , Rafales , EADS Eurofighter Typhoons , or the advanced Super Hornet variant of the FA @-@ 18 came under consideration . In the end the JAS @-@ 39 Gripen was chosen because it was the cheapest candidate . In the evaluation the JAS @-@ 39 C & JAS @-@ 30D were tested but the choice in the end was to buy 22 JAS @-@ 39E . Because SAAB don 't build the 2 Seater Gripen F of the Gripen E Switzerland will first rent a few Grippen C and 2 @-@ seater Gripen D. Due to financing struggles in the MoD and the possibility of a popular initiative it is uncertain whether the JAS @-@ 39E can be really acquired .
Overseas training continued with the annual NORKA exercises through 2001 , when NORKA was discontinued in favor of NOMAD ( North Sea Operations for Mutual Air Defence ) , a multi @-@ nation ACMI training exercise held annually at RAF Waddington , which Swiss contingents began attending in 2000 . Training in night operations , called NIGHTWAY , began in 1998 at Ørland MAS , Norway , and continued annually except for 1999 and 2005 . Training abroad with NATO nations reflected the changing realities of neutrality , also reflected in 1997 by the official discontinuation within the Swiss Air Force of the " Bambini Code " in favor of the NATO Brevity Code . The Bambini Code , invented in 1941 , was an amalgam of terms in French , German , and Italian for accurate voice communications during high @-@ stress flight operations while the NATO terms are entirely in English and largely developed by the United States Air Force .
Since 1993 the Swiss Air Force has faced continuing challenges from left @-@ wing and environmental lobbies regarding its existence , policy , and operations . On 24 February 2008 , an initiative to ban the training flights of jet aircraft over " tourist areas " of Switzerland ( virtually the entire nation ) to reduce the impact of " noise pollution " , which had been publicly debated since the delivery of the F / A @-@ 18 ( which referendum initiator Franz Weber termed " oversized , ineffective , and ruinous " ) , was defeated by a vote of 68 @.@ 1 % .
= = Aircraft formerly in service with the Swiss Air Force = =
= = Previous aircraft = =
= = Closed Air Force bases = =
Ambri ( LSPM )
Ems GR
Frutigen
Flugplatz Interlaken ( LSMI )
Flugplatz Kägiswil ( LSPG )
Littau
Mollis
Münster VS
Raron ( LSTA )
Reichenbach im Kandertal
Saanen ( LSGK )
San Vittore GR
Sankt Stephan BE ( LSTS )
Turtmann ( LSMJ )
Ulrichen
Zweisimmen ( LSTZ )
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= James Innes ( North Carolina ) =
James Innes ( c.1700 – September 5 , 1759 ) was a military commander and political figure in the Province of North Carolina who led troops both at home and abroad in the service of the Kingdom of Great Britain . Innes was given command of a company of North Carolina 's provincial soldiers during the War of Jenkins ' Ear , and served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of all colonial soldiers in the Ohio River Valley in 1754 during the French and Indian War . After resigning his commission in 1756 , Innes retired to his home on the Cape Fear River . A bequest made by Innes upon his death lead to the establishment of Innes Academy in Wilmington , North Carolina .
= = Early life and emigration = =
Innes was born around 1700 in the Scottish Highlands . In 1732 , Innes purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ; 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) on the Cape Fear River in what is now Bladen County , North Carolina . In or about 1733 , he received an additional grant of 640 acres ( 260 ha ; 1 @.@ 00 sq mi ) . Shortly after Innes ' arrival in North Carolina , Governor Gabriel Johnston appointed him as a justice for New Hanover County , and tried unsuccessfully to appoint Innes to his council .
= = Military and political career = =
= = = War of Jenkins ' Ear = = =
In 1739 , war broke out between Spain and Great Britain over the respective powers ' colonial possessions and spheres of influence . At the outset of that conflict , the British requested that their colonies supply troops for an expedition to South America . Innes was selected by Governor Johnston to lead a company of 100 men from the Cape Fear region to Cartagena in the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada , a city which is located in the modern @-@ day country of Colombia . The Cape Fear company was to be joined by three other companies raised in the Albemarle Sound region . Innes was granted a provincial commission as Captain in the British Army on June 7 , 1740 .
Upon arriving in South America , Innes and his men , as well as North Carolina 's three Albemarle companies , were placed under the direct command of Colonel William Gooch , a baronet and the Governor of Virginia . The fever- and disease @-@ ridden campaign , which culminated in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in the Spring of 1741 , was disastrous for the British . At Cartagena , delays by the British fleet in landing troops to assault a key Spanish fortification , combined with the fact that the ladders used by British scaling parties were shorter than the walls they were intended for , caused the militia and regular soldiers to suffer a 50 percent casualty rate prior to the assault being called off . The Cartagena campaign left only 25 survivors under Innes ' command . The North Carolina contingent returned home in January of 1743 .
Innes was placed in command of the New Hanover militia after his return . In 1748 , after the war between the British and Spanish had expanded into a wider war against the French known in the colonies as King George 's War , a Spanish fleet attacked Brunswick Town , North Carolina , and Innes assisted the local militia under Captain William Dry in repulsing the raiding force .
= = = Inter @-@ war career = = =
Between the War of Jenkins ' Ear and the French and Indian War , Innes served as a commissioner for John Carteret , 2nd Earl Granville , charged with the sale of that proprietor 's lands in the Granville District . Active in the colonial government , Innes was a baron of the Court of Exchequer in Wilmington . There he was associated with Francis Corbin and the Salisbury Land Office ( as a land grant agent ) . After 1750 , Innes served on the Governor 's Council under both Gabriel Johnston and Arthur Dobbs until his death in 1759 .
= = = French and Indian War = = =
After the conclusion of King George 's War in 1748 , tension increased on the frontier between the French @-@ held North American territory and the British colonies on the coast . With the possibility of the outbreak of war in 1754 , Innes , as an experienced soldier , was nominated as the commander of North Carolina militia , which was to be sent to aid Virginia at the request of Governor Robert Dinwiddie . The government of Virginia in particular feared French incursions , as it claimed much of the territory in the Ohio River Valley . Dinwiddie , a fellow Scot , had become friends with Innes , and considered naming him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the provincial forces , but instead chose to name Virginian Joshua Fry . Fry 's death on May 15 , 1754 left the position vacant , and Innes was appointed on June 4 , 1754 , although George Washington had been Fry 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
Washington was given command of the Virginia Regiment upon Fry 's death , and he led that unit into the Ohio River Valley on Dinwiddie 's orders before Innes was appointed his superior . On May 28 , 1754 , Washington 's unit , along with native Mingo allies , surprised a French unit , killing Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , the unit 's commander . A large force of French soldiers then advanced to trap Washington , and on July 3 , 1754 , assaulted him at Fort Necessity near what is now Farmington , Pennsylvania , and forced the Virginian 's surrender . Dinwiddie blamed Matthew Rowan , the acting Governor of North Carolina , for the defeat , stating that had Innes ' men been assembled in a timely fashion , they could have accompanied Washington to the frontier . Nevertheless , this engagement signaled the beginning of colonial combat between the French and English , which by 1755 had erupted into open war .
Innes ' tenure as commander @-@ in @-@ chief had scarcely begun at the onset of the French and Indian War . Innes was directed to go to Wills Creek in Maryland , and to reinforce a fort there , which was to become Fort Cumberland . The North Carolina soldiers that came to Virginia were unruly and difficult to manage , eventually deserting after being informed that their pay was to be reduced , or returning home after Innes himself disbanded the unit due to its instability . To make matters worse , Virginians under Innes ' command were ill @-@ disposed towards him , particularly because he was not a Virginian himself .
Within five months of Innes ' appointment , Horatio Sharpe relieved him of his command , and Innes stayed on at Fort Cumberland as its " campmaster general " . When General Edward Braddock arrived with a force of British regulars in 1755 , Innes was named Governor of Fort Cumberland . Braddock tasked Innes with commanding a reserve force of troops at the fort during the disastrous Braddock expedition , in which Braddock led an army into the Ohio valley where it was ambushed and routed , leaving the general mortally wounded . During that operation , Fort Cumberland was used as a holding area for wounded and sick soldiers . Innes was among the first to hear of Braddock 's defeat , and one of the first to inform Dinwiddie , by way of Lord Fairfax , of the catastrophe . By the mid @-@ 1756 , Innes was permitted to resign his commission and return to North Carolina .
= = Retirement and death = =
Innes lived out the remainder of his life as a planter at " Point Pleasant " , his plantation in North Carolina . Innes left behind his wife Jean , with whom he had no children , and who later married his business associate , Francis Corbin . At her death , Jean Innes was buried between her two husbands .
= = = Legacy = = =
After his death in 1759 , Innes ' will left a bequest for an academy , to be called the Innes Academy . The Academy constructed what became the Thalian Hall in Wilmington , North Carolina , which exists today . Innes Street , the main east – west thoroughfare in Salisbury , North Carolina , is named after him .
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= Eurasian crag martin =
The Eurasian crag martin or just crag martin ( Ptyonoprogne rupestris ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . It is about 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long with ash @-@ brown upperparts and paler underparts , and a short , square tail that has distinctive white patches on most of its feathers . It breeds in the mountains of southern Europe , northwestern Africa and southern Asia . It can be confused with the three other species in its genus , but is larger than both , with brighter tail spots and different plumage tone . Many European birds are resident , but some northern populations and most Asian breeders are migratory , wintering in northern Africa , the Middle East or India .
The Eurasian crag martin builds a nest adherent to the rock under a cliff overhang or increasingly onto a man @-@ made structure . It makes a neat half @-@ cup mud nest with an inner soft lining of feathers and dry grass . Nests are often solitary , although a few pairs may breed relatively close together at good locations . Two to five brown @-@ blotched white eggs are incubated mainly by the female , and both parents feed the chicks . This species does not form large breeding colonies , but is gregarious outside the breeding season . It feeds on a wide variety of insects that are caught in its beak as the martin flies near to cliff faces or over streams and alpine meadows . Adults and young may be hunted and eaten by birds of prey or corvids , and this species is a host of blood @-@ sucking mites . With its very large and expanding range and large population there are no significant conservation concerns .
This bird is closely related to the other three crag martins which share its genus , and has sometimes been considered to be the same species as one or both , although it appears that there are areas where two species ' ranges overlap without hybridisation occurring . All three Ptyonoprogne crag martins are quite similar in behaviour to other Old World swallows that build mud nests , and are sometimes subsumed into the larger genus Hirundo , but this approach leads to inconsistencies in classifying other genera , particularly the house martins .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Eurasian crag martin was formally described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769 and was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . Its nearest relatives are the three other members of the genus , the pale crag martin , P. obsoleta , the rock martin , P. fuligula , and the dusky crag martin , P. concolor . The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific rupestris means " of rocks " , from the Latin rupes " rock " . There are no generally recognised subspecies . Two races , Central Asian P. r. centralasica and P. r. theresae in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco , have been proposed , but the slight differences in size and colour show no consistent geographical pattern . Fossils of this species have been found in Late Pleistocene deposits in Bulgaria , and in central France in layers dated at 242 @,@ 000 to 301 @,@ 000 years ago .
The four Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct an open mud nest and therefore belong to the last group ; Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed , but a DNA analysis showed that an enlarged Hirundo genus should logically contain all the mud @-@ builder genera , including the Delichon house martins , a practice which few authorities follow . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the research showed that if Delichon , Cecropis and Petrochelidon are split from Hirundo , Ptyonoprogne should also be treated as a separate genus .
= = Description = =
The Eurasian crag martin is 13 – 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with a 32 – 34 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 6 in ) wingspan , and weighs an average 23 g ( 0 @.@ 81 oz ) . It has ash @-@ brown upperparts and paler underparts , and has a broader body , wings and tail than any other European swallow . The tail is short and square , with white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . The underwing and undertail coverts are blackish , the eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are alike , but juveniles have buff @-@ brown tips to the plumage of the head , upperparts and wing coverts . This species can be distinguished from the sand martin by its larger size , the white patches on the tail , and its lack of a brown breast band . Where the range overlaps with that of another Ptyonoprogne species , the Eurasian crag martin is darker , browner and 15 % larger than the rock martin , and larger and paler , particularly on its underparts than the dusky crag martin . The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives .
The crag martin 's flight appears relatively slow for a swallow . Rapid wing beats are interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and its long flexible primaries give it the agility to manoeuvre near cliff faces . The average migration flight speed has been measured at 9 @.@ 9 m / s ( 32 @.@ 5 ft / s ) , less than the roughly 11 m / s ( 36 ft / s ) typical for hirundines , but the data is limited . The bird often flies high , and shows the white spots as it spreads its tail . The vocalisations include short high pli , and piieh and tshir calls resembling those of the linnet and the house martin respectively .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Eurasian crag martin breeds in mountains from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe , the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China . Northern populations are migratory , with European birds wintering in north Africa , Senegal , Ethiopia and the Nile Valley , and Asian breeders going to southern China , the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East . Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean , and , like martins in warmer areas such as India , Turkey and Cyprus , just move to lower ground after breeding . The breeding range is bounded by the 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) July isotherm , and wintering areas need a temperature of about 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) for enough insect food to be available . This is a rare species any distance north of its breeding areas . For example , there are only eight records from the UK , none from Ireland , and the first record for Sweden was reported as recently as 1996 . South of its normal wintering range , it has occurred as a vagrant in The Gambia .
Crag martins breed on dry , warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges . The typical altitude is 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 700 m ( 6 @,@ 600 – 8 @,@ 900 ft ) but breeding occurs up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in Central Asia . The Eurasian crag martin 's choice of nest sites is very similar to that of Savi 's pipistrelle , Hypsugo savii ; the bird and the bat often breed in the same locations and have almost identical ranges in Europe . In South Asia , migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Crag martin pairs nest alone or in small colonies , usually containing fewer than ten nests . Nests are on average 30 m ( 98 ft ) apart and each pair aggressively defends its breeding territory against other crag martin and most other bird species . Nesting takes place from May to August , and usually two broods are raised . The nest , built by both adults , is an open half cup made of mud and lined with soft material such as feathers or dry grass . It is constructed under an overhang on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or cave , or on a man @-@ made structure . It takes one to three weeks to build and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . The clutch is two to five eggs with an average of three . The eggs are white with brownish blotches particularly at the wide end , and average 20 @.@ 2 mm × 14 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 80 in × 0 @.@ 55 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 08 g ( 0 @.@ 073 oz ) . The eggs are incubated mainly by the female for 13 – 17 days to hatching , and the chicks take another 24 – 27 days to fledge . Both parents feed the chicks bringing food every two to five minutes , and the young are fed for 14 – 21 days after fledging . With such frequent feeding rates the adults mainly forage in the best hunting zones in the immediate vicinity of the nest , since the further they fly to forage the longer it would take to bring food to the chicks in the nest . In an Italian study , the hatching rate was 80 @.@ 2 percent , and the average number of fledged young was 3 @.@ 1 .
The crag martin has over the last few decades increasingly used houses and other man @-@ made sites to nest . This greater availability of breeding sites has enabled the species to expand its range , but it is possible that this will lead to competition with other hirundines , such as the barn swallow and common house martin , which also use artificial nest sites .
An Italian study showed that , as with other aerial feeders , the start of breeding was delayed by cold or wet weather , but this had no influence on the clutch size nor on the number of fledged young . Unexpectedly , it was found that once the eggs had hatched there was a negative relationship between temperature and the number of fledged young . The authors suggested that hot weather dried up the small rivers where the parents found food . Colony size did not influence the laying date , the clutch size or the number of successfully fledged young , but this species does not form large colonies anyway .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Eurasian crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in its beak in flight , although it will occasionally take prey items off rocks , the ground , or a water surface . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth near to a rock face hunting for insects , feeding both inside and outside the nesting territory . At other times , they may hunt flying above streams or alpine meadows . The insects taken depend on what is locally available and may include flies , ants , aerial spiders , and beetles . Aquatic species such as stoneflies , caddisflies and pond skaters appear to be important in at least Spain and Italy . Unlike other hirundines , these birds feed close to their breeding sites , and may be locally vulnerable to fluctuations in insect availability . This martin is gregarious outside the breeding season , and may form sizeable flocks where food is abundant . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . The crag martin exploits the area close to the cliff when it hunts , relying on its high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
= = Predators and parasites = =
This species is occasionally hunted by the peregrine falcon , which shares its mountain habitat , and during its migration over the Himalayas , it is reported to be subject to predation by crows . Common kestrels , Eurasian sparrowhawks , Eurasian jays and common ravens are also treated as predators and attacked by repeated dives if they approach nesting cliffs . Despite the general aggressiveness of the martin , it tolerates sympatric common house martins , perhaps because the large numbers of that highly colonial species provide an early warning of predators .
The crag martin is a host of blood @-@ sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus , including D. chelidonis , and of the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes . Two new species of parasites were first discovered on this martin , the fly Ornithomya rupes in Gibraltar and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from China .
= = Status = =
The European population of the Eurasian crag martin is estimated to be 360 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 individuals , including 120 @,@ 000 – 370 @,@ 000 breeding pairs . A rough estimate of the worldwide population is 500 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 individuals , with Europe hosting between one @-@ quarter and one @-@ half of the total . The population is estimated to be increasing following a northward expansion , which may be partly due to increased use of man @-@ made structures as nest sites . Expansions of the range have been reported in Austria ( where motorway bridges are used as nest sites ) , Switzerland , the former Yugoslavia , Romania , and Bulgaria . With its very large range and high numbers , the Eurasian crag martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
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= Indian River Inlet Bridge =
The Indian River Inlet Bridge ( officially the Charles W. Cullen Bridge ) is a cable @-@ stayed bridge located in Sussex County , Delaware in the United States . It carries four lanes of Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) over the Indian River Inlet between the Indian River Bay and the Atlantic Ocean . The bridge is within Delaware Seashore State Park between Rehoboth Beach and Bethany Beach . The Indian River Inlet Bridge is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) . The bridge is 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) long and 107 @.@ 66 feet ( 32 @.@ 81 m ) wide , with a span of 950 feet ( 290 m ) and overhead clearance of 45 feet ( 14 m ) .
Prior to the current bridge , four other bridges have spanned the Indian River Inlet , opened in 1934 , 1940 , 1952 , and 1965 , the latter widened by an additional span added in 1976 . All were known informally as the Indian River Inlet Bridge , and all but the first officially were named the Charles W. Cullen Bridge . The 1965 bridge , a steel girder bridge , was subject to scouring from the inlet , leading to the need to replace it . Initial plans for a tied @-@ arch bridge over the inlet in 2004 were over budget , and 2006 plans for a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 427 @-@ meter ) cable @-@ stayed bridge were cancelled because of early construction and legal problems . Construction of the current , 2 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 792 @-@ meter ) bridge began in 2008 as part of a design @-@ build project , with Skanska awarded the contract to build the bridge . The current Indian River Inlet Bridge opened partially in January 2012 and completely in May 2012 at a cost of $ 150 million .
= = Description = =
The Indian River Inlet Bridge crosses the Indian River Inlet connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Indian River Bay to the west . The bridge is located within Delaware Seashore State Park and carries DE 1 between Rehoboth Beach to the north and Bethany Beach to the south . It carries four 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 @-@ meter ) lanes of traffic ( two northbound and two southbound ) , a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ) interior and 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @-@ meter ) exterior shoulder in each direction , and a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 @-@ meter ) -wide sidewalk on the east side of the bridge for pedestrians and bicycles .
The Indian River Inlet Bridge is a cable @-@ stayed bridge , consisting of four pylon towers with 152 stays supporting the bridge . The pylons are located on land in order to avoid erosion from the inlet . The bridge has a total length of 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) and a total width of 107 @.@ 66 feet ( 32 @.@ 81 m ) . The span of the bridge is 950 feet ( 290 m ) with an overhead clearance of 45 feet ( 14 m ) . The height of the pylon towers is 247 @.@ 5 feet ( 75 @.@ 4 m ) above sea level . The bridge has a fiber @-@ optic system that monitors it for issues that could affect its structural integrity . The bridge is designed to last 100 years .
Officially named the Charles W. Cullen Bridge , the bridge is the fourth one at the Indian River Inlet to be named in honor of Charles W. Cullen ( July 8 , 1865 – July 10 , 1948 ) , a lawyer and judge from Georgetown . He served on the Delaware State Highway Commission from 1930 to 1940 and as its chairman from 1938 to 1939 , during which time he oversaw construction of the second bridge to span the Indian River Inlet , replacing a 1934 timber bridge . This bridge was dedicated in May 1940 as the Charles W. Cullen Bridge , but became popularly known as the Indian River Inlet Bridge . The 2012 bridge 's dedication plaque , located at the pedestrian entrance at the south end of the bridge , reads as follows :
" This bridge is named in honor and remembrance of Charles West Cullen ( 1865 – 1948 ) , a man who dedicated his life to public service and to the citizens of Delaware . Between 1930 and 1940 , he served on the State Highway Commission , eventually being elevated to Chairman of the Commission from 1938 @-@ 1939 . While he was Chairman , work was started on a new bridge to span the Indian River Inlet . In recognition for his service on the Commission , the bridge was dedicated on May 28 , 1940 , in his name for his advocacy for the proper opening of the inlet and the internal development of the Indian River . Two additional bridges bearing his name have spanned the inlet since that time . This , the fifth bridge to span the inlet waterway , is also being dedicated in his name . As this bridge serves the public , let us not forget the lifetime of service that he gave . "
= = History = =
The increase in private automobile ownership and growing popularity of Delaware 's beach resort towns during the first half of the 20th century led Delaware to construct the Ocean Highway ( present @-@ day DE 1 and now known as Coastal Highway ) between Rehoboth Beach and Bethany Beach . Completed in 1933 , the Ocean Highway lacked a link to carry it across the Indian River Inlet .
Until 1928 , the Indian River Inlet was a natural waterway that shifted up and down a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the coast . Dredging kept the inlet open in its current location between 1928 and 1937 , and in 1938 the United States Army Corps of Engineers built jetties that hold it in place . With the inlet in a fixed place , it became possible after 1928 to build a bridge to span it , and the completion of the Ocean Highway in 1933 prompted Delaware to build a span to connect the northern and southern segments of the highway .
= = = Earlier bridges = = =
Five bridges have been constructed across the Indian River Inlet . The first was a creosote timber trestle bridge built in 1934 ; its timbers deteriorated quickly in the maritime environment prevailing at the inlet . It was replaced by a concrete @-@ and @-@ steel swing bridge , the first to be named for Cullen , construction of which began in 1938 . This swing bridge , which included a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ) pedestrian walkway and cost $ 165 @,@ 900 , opened with a dedication ceremony on May 28 , 1940 , but collapsed on February 10 , 1948 , succumbing to a combination of a very high tide combined with an easterly wind and ice flows deeply scouring the inlet bottom under its piers ; a pickup truck on the bridge at the time of the collapse fell into the inlet , killing three men who drowned inside the truck . Another concrete @-@ and @-@ steel swing bridge completed in 1952 , the second to be named for Cullen , also became structurally unsound due to ice flow and was closed in 1962 due to storm damage .
The next bridge to be constructed at the site was an 860 @-@ foot ( 262 @-@ meter ) steel girder bridge , the third to be named for Cullen . Its first span opened in 1965 , and it was widened by the addition in 1976 of a second span slightly to the west of the first one , the newer span carrying southbound traffic while the older span became one @-@ way northbound . When the first span opened in 1965 , the inlet was 23 feet ( 7 meters ) deep , but inlet currents led to scouring of the piers of the bridge , first noticed in the 1980s . By the late 1980s , scouring was severe enough to allow U.S. Army Corps of Engineers divers to swim beneath one of the span 's concrete footings . The Corps installed protective riprap around the bridge piers in 1989 , but this was only a temporary solution ; realizing that the bridge could be compromised by damage from just one severe storm , Delaware officials listed it as structurally deficient and requiring replacement . Scouring had increased the inlet 's depth to over 100 feet ( 30 meters ) by 1999 , leading the Corps of Engineers and Delaware officials to question the stability of the pilings and their protective riprap . By 2005 , various reports gave the bridge an expected lifespan of three to five years and estimated that it would have to be closed sometime between 2008 and 2011 and would collapse sometime between 2008 and 2013 . By 2007 , the bridge carried 14 @,@ 000 cars on an average day and an average of 28 @,@ 000 cars per day during the summer months , and the disruption to traffic if the bridge had to be closed before a replacement could open was of increasing concern .
= = = Current bridge = = =
= = = = Early plans and problems = = = =
On August 20 , 2003 , Delaware officials unveiled plans at a public workshop for a new bridge to replace the 1965 bridge and its 1976 addition . A tied @-@ arch design spanning the inlet slightly west of the 1976 addition to the 1965 bridge , the new bridge would have had the longest arched span in the world , with a length of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 meters ) . With an estimated cost of $ 65 million , the new bridge would have had no piers in the water , avoiding the scouring problems that had plagued the earlier spans . Delaware officials hoped that work could begin in the autumn of 2004 and be completed two years later . However , the tied @-@ arch design deterred all but one bidder on the construction contract , and that bid came in much higher than expected and was more than DelDOT could afford at the time . By the autumn of 2005 , a $ 200 million shortfall in the state transportation budget had delayed construction projects all over Delaware and forced the state to put plans for the new bridge on hold , and in the meantime rising labor and materials costs drove the cost of the bridge up to $ 200 million , $ 50 million above the budget .
DelDOT scrapped plans for the tied @-@ arch bridge and put bids out in 2006 for a design – build project for a new bridge of a cable @-@ stayed design , 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 427 meters ) long and without piers in the water . Construction of earthen approach ramps for the new bridge began on either side of the inlet in February 2006 ; the ramp on the north side of the inlet was completed in December 2006 and that on the south side was finished in February 2007 . However , concerns over instability of these ramps arose in the autumn of 2006 , and by March 2007 it had become clear that movement of the ramps was greater than expected . Legal problems also began to affect progress , when an unsuccessful bidder on the new construction contract questioned the process by which it had been awarded to another company that had made a bid of $ 124 @.@ 9 million – $ 800 @,@ 000 more than the lowest bid – but had nonetheless won the contract based on ambiguous pricing and technical criteria . Labor union leaders also complained that the winning bidder had not promised to use Delaware union labor , unlike the lower bidder . Faced with the possibility of a lawsuit , DelDOT in October 2007 decided to cancel construction of the bridge under the existing contract , have the unstable approach ramps removed , and rebid the contract for a longer , 2 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 792 @-@ meter ) cable @-@ stayed bridge – again without piers in the water – of a new design that did not require the flawed approach ramps . During 2008 , the approach ramps were removed , and the Delaware legislature passéd a new bond bill making it easier for state officials to award a bid under clearer pricing and technical criteria .
= = = = Construction = = = =
In August 2008 , Skanska was awarded the $ 150 @-@ million design – build contract to build the new bridge . Skanska started driving test pilings into the ground in the later part of 2008 . In May 2009 , public voting for the aesthetic design features of the bridge decided that the cables would be blue , the pylon tops would be slanted with railings , and the lighting fixtures for the walkway would have a nautical theme . The test pilings for the bridge were completed in June 2009 . Construction of the pylons began in July 2009 with the pouring of concrete into the first pylon . By December 2009 , construction had begun on the approach foundations and the edge girders , with work continuing on the pylon towers and the side abutments . The completion of the design phase of the project and the beginning of the concrete pour for the bridge deck took place in April 2010 . In May 2010 , the bridge received $ 1 @.@ 79 million in federal funding for the pedestrian and bike paths . By this time , the new Indian River Inlet Bridge was about halfway complete .
On January 28 , 2011 , DelDOT filed a lawsuit against bridge design firm Figg Bridge Engineers and subconsultant MACTEC Engineering and Consulting for geotechnical errors . In February 2011 , DelDOT awarded George & Lynch an $ 11 @.@ 6 million contract to build the approach roads to the new Indian River Inlet Bridge as well as to demolish the old bridge . A minor fire occurred on the north side of the bridge construction site ; no damage was reported to the bridge structure . The north side of the bridge was finished in August 2011 when the form travelers were removed . Over 250 people were employed in the construction of the bridge .
The new Indian River Inlet Bridge opened to southbound traffic on January 20 , 2012 . Delaware Governor Jack Markell , U.S. Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT Secretary Shailen Bhatt rode in the first car across the bridge . On January 30 , 2012 , one northbound lane of the new bridge opened . On May 6 , 2012 , the Indian River Inlet Bridge was officially dedicated in a public ceremony in which visitors were able to walk across the bridge . All remaining lanes of the four @-@ lane bridge as well as its pedestrian and bicycle walkway opened that day .
Demolition of the 1965 bridge and its 1976 addition began in the spring of 2012 and was completed in the spring of 2013 .
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= New Zealand =
New Zealand / njuːˈziːlənd / ( Māori : Aotearoa [ aɔˈtɛaɾɔa ] ) is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island , or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands . New Zealand is situated some 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 900 mi ) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 600 mi ) south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . Because of its remoteness , it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans . During its long period of isolation , New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal , fungal and plant life . The country 's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks , such as the Southern Alps , owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions . New Zealand 's capital city is Wellington , while its most populous city is Auckland .
Sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE , Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand , and developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642 , Abel Tasman , a Dutch explorer , became the first European to sight New Zealand . In 1840 , representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi , making New Zealand a British colony . Today , the majority of New Zealand 's population of 4 @.@ 7 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority , followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders . Reflecting this , New Zealand 's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers , with recent broadening arising from increased immigration . The official languages are English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language , with English predominant .
New Zealand is a developed country with a market economy . New Zealand is a World Bank high @-@ income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance , such as health , education , economic freedom and quality of life . Nationally , legislative authority is vested in an elected , unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister , who is currently John Key . Queen Elizabeth II is the country 's head of state and is represented by a Governor @-@ General . In addition , New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes . The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau ( a dependent territory ) ; the Cook Islands and Niue ( self @-@ governing states in free association with New Zealand ) ; and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica . New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development , Pacific Islands Forum , and Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation .
= = Etymology = =
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt , supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America . In 1645 , Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland . British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand .
Aotearoa ( often translated as " land of the long white cloud " ) is the current Māori name for New Zealand . It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans , with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands , including Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui ( the fish of Māui ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( the waters of greenstone ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( the canoe of Aoraki ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled the islands North ( North Island ) , Middle ( South Island ) and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ) . In 1830 , maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 , this was the accepted norm . The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised , and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013 . This set the names as North Island or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . Note that for each island , either its English or Māori name can be used , or both can be used together .
= = History = =
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans . Radiocarbon dating , evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300 , concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands . Over the centuries that followed , these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori . The population was divided into iwi ( tribes ) and hapū ( subtribes ) who would sometimes cooperate , sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other . At some point , a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands ( which they named Rēkohu ) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture . The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 , largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s , although European diseases also contributed . In 1862 , only 101 survived and the last known full @-@ blooded Moriori died in 1933 .
The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642 . In a hostile encounter , four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline . Following Cook , New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing and trading ships . They traded European food , metal tools , weapons and other goods for timber , Māori food , artifacts and water . The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare . Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus , which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns . The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 , killing 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 Māori . From the early 19th century , Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand , eventually converting most of the Māori population . The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre @-@ contact level during the 19th century ; introduced diseases were the major factor .
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand . The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori . In 1835 , following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry , the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection . Ongoing unrest , the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company ( which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori ) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori . The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840 . In response to the New Zealand Company 's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 , even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign . With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants , particularly from the United Kingdom , began to increase .
New Zealand , still part of the colony of New South Wales , became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841 . The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854 . In 1856 the colony effectively became self @-@ governing , gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy . ( Control over native policy was granted in the mid @-@ 1860s . ) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony , premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location , with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 . As immigrant numbers increased , conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s , resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land .
In 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party . The Liberal Government , later led by Richard Seddon , passed many important social and economic measures . In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions . In 1898 Seddon 's government passed the Old @-@ age Pensions Act of 1898 , the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire .
In 1907 , at the request of the New Zealand Parliament , King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self @-@ governing status . Accordingly , the title " Dominion of New Zealand " dates from 1907 .
In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand . New Zealand was involved in world affairs , fighting , as part of the British Empire , in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy . New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work . A Māori protest movement developed , which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi . In 1975 , a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty , and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 . The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi , although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s .
= = Politics = =
= = = Government = = =
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state . The Queen is represented by the Governor @-@ General , whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister . The Governor @-@ General can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors and other key public officials , and in rare situations , the reserve powers ( e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law ) . The powers of the Queen and the Governor @-@ General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet .
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house , the Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950 . The supremacy of Parliament , over the Crown and other government institutions , was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand . The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats . If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured . The Governor @-@ General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister , who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition . Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister , is the highest policy @-@ making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions . By convention , members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet .
Almost all parliamentary general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post voting system . The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . Since the 1996 election , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional ( MMP ) has been used . Under the MMP system each person has two votes ; one is for electoral seats ( including some reserved for Māori ) , and the other is for a party . Since the 2014 election , there have been 71 electorate seats ( which includes 7 Māori electorates ) , and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote , although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats . Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land ( Head of State , Governor @-@ General , Prime Minister , Speaker and Chief Justice ) were occupied simultaneously by women .
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non @-@ politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government . This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions . The Privy Council in London was the country 's final court of appeal until 2004 , when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand . The judiciary , headed by the Chief Justice , includes the Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts .
New Zealand is identified as one of the world 's most stable and well @-@ governed nations . As of 2011 , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . New Zealand has a high level of civic participation , with 79 % voter turnout during the most recent elections , compared to an OECD average of 72 % . Furthermore , 67 % of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions , far higher than the OECD average of 56 % .
= = = Foreign relations and the military = = =
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy . The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan . On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming , " Where she goes , we go ; where she stands , we stand . "
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests , while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty . The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand 's nuclear @-@ free policy . Despite the US 's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia , whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend . Close political contact is maintained between the two countries , with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit , live and work in both countries without restrictions . In 2013 , there are about 650 @,@ 000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia , which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand . 65 @,@ 000 Australians live in New Zealand .
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries . A large proportion of New Zealand 's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment . Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category , which allow up to 1 @,@ 100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year . A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8 @,@ 000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it . New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum ( including the East Asia Summit ) . New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements .
The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches : the Royal New Zealand Navy , the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force . New Zealand 's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack , although it does have a global presence . The country fought in both world wars , with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand 's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia . According to Mary Edmond @-@ Paul , " World War I had left scars on New Zealand society , with nearly 18 @,@ 500 in total dying as a result of the war , more than 41 @,@ 000 wounded , and others affected emotionally , out of an overseas fighting force of about 103 @,@ 000 and a population of just over a million . " New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign . During World War II , the United States had more than 400 @,@ 000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand .
In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars , New Zealand fought in the Korean War , the Second Boer War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions , such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia , the Iran – Iraq border , Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War .
New Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index , which ranks the world 's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations . New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index .
= = = Local government and external territories = = =
Officially , New Zealand is divided into 16 regions .
The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy . Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways , education , land sales and other policies , government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876 . As a result , New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities . The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries .
Since 1876 , various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government . In 1989 , the government reorganised local government into the current two @-@ tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils . The regional councils ' role is to regulate " the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management " , while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage , water , local roads , building consents and other local matters . Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils . The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils , 53 district councils , and the Chatham Islands Council . While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority , it undertakes many functions of a regional council .
New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth . The Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand , Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self @-@ governing states in free association with New Zealand . The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries , but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence . Tokelau is a non @-@ self @-@ governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem , but is administered by a council of three elders ( one from each Tokelauan atoll ) . The Ross Dependency is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility . New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally , so most people born in New Zealand , the Cook Islands , Niue , Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards .
= = Environment = =
= = = Geography = = =
See also : Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands . The two main islands ( the North Island , or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by the Cook Strait , 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) wide at its narrowest point . Besides the North and South Islands , the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island , the Chatham Islands , Great Barrier Island ( in the Hauraki Gulf ) , d 'Urville Island ( in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island ( about 22 km ( 14 mi ) from central Auckland ) . The country 's islands lie between latitudes 29 ° and 53 ° S , and longitudes 165 ° and 179 ° E.
New Zealand is long and narrow ( over 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 mi ) along its north @-@ north @-@ east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) ) , with about 15 @,@ 000 km ( 9 @,@ 300 mi ) of coastline and a total land area of 268 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 103 @,@ 500 sq mi ) . Because of its far @-@ flung outlying islands and long coastline , the country has extensive marine resources . Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world , covering more than 15 times its land area .
The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand , and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3 @,@ 754 metres ( 12 @,@ 316 ft ) . Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south @-@ western corner of the South Island . The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island 's highest mountain , Mount Ruapehu ( 2 @,@ 797 metres ( 9 @,@ 177 ft ) ) . The plateau also hosts the country 's largest lake , Lake Taupo , nestled in the caldera of one of the world 's most active supervolcanoes .
The country owes its varied topography , and perhaps even its emergence above the waves , to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo @-@ Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . About 25 million years ago , a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region . This is now most evident in the Southern Alps , formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other , producing the Puysegur Trench to the south , the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island , and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north .
New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania . The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven @-@ continent model .
Landscapes of New Zealand
= = = Climate = = =
New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the south to 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) in the north . Historical maxima and minima are 42 @.@ 4 ° C ( 108 @.@ 32 ° F ) in Rangiora , Canterbury and − 25 @.@ 6 ° C ( − 14 @.@ 08 ° F ) in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi @-@ arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities , Christchurch is the driest , receiving on average only 640 millimetres ( 25 in ) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest , receiving almost twice that amount . Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine . The southern and south @-@ western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate , with around 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 hours ; the northern and north @-@ eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 500 hours . The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island . Snowfall is less common on the North Island , although it does occur .
Climates of New Zealand
The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand . The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February , but the South Island cities are warmest in January .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
New Zealand 's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country 's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation , and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species . About 82 percent of New Zealand 's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1 @,@ 944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand , including lichen @-@ forming species , is not known , nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic , but one estimate suggests there are about 2 @,@ 300 species of lichen @-@ forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic . The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates . The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands , the majority of which are tussock .
Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest , with only high alpine , wet , infertile and volcanic areas without trees . Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived , with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement . Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement , being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming , leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land .
The forests were dominated by birds , and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi , kakapo , weka and takahē evolving flightlessness . The arrival of humans , associated changes to habitat , and the introduction of rats , ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species , including large birds like the moa and Haast 's eagle .
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuataras , skinks and geckos ) , frogs , spiders ( katipo ) , insects ( weta ) and snails . Some , such as the wrens and tuatara , are so unique that they have been called living fossils . Three species of bats ( one since extinct ) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique , mouse @-@ sized land mammal at least 16 million years old . Marine mammals however are abundant , with almost half the world 's cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters . Many seabirds breed in New Zealand , a third of them unique to the country . More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country .
Since human arrival almost half of the country 's vertebrate species have become extinct , including at least fifty @-@ one birds , three frogs , three lizards , one freshwater fish , and one bat . Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced . However , New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover , including island sanctuaries , pest control , wildlife translocation , fostering , and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas . According to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index , New Zealand is considered a " strong performer " in environmental protection , ranking 14th out of 132 assessed countries .
= = Economy = =
New Zealand has a modern , prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product ( GDP ) at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) per capita of roughly NZ $ 47 @,@ 784 . The currency is the New Zealand dollar , informally known as the " Kiwi dollar " ; it also circulates in the Cook Islands ( see Cook Islands dollar ) , Niue , Tokelau , and the Pitcairn Islands . New Zealand was ranked sixth in the 2013 Human Development Index , fourth in The Heritage Foundation 's 2012 Index of Economic Freedom , and 13th in INSEAD 's 2012 Global Innovation Index .
Historically , extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand 's economy , focussing at different times on sealing , whaling , flax , gold , kauri gum , and native timber . With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain , a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand . High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s . In 1973 , New Zealand 's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community and other compounding factors , such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis , led to a severe economic depression . Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe , and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per @-@ capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank . Since 1984 , successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring ( known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia ) , rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free @-@ trade economy .
Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992 , following the 1987 share market crash , but eventually fell to a record low of 3 @.@ 4 percent in 2007 ( ranking fifth from twenty @-@ seven comparable OECD nations ) . However , the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand , with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters , the longest recession in over thirty years , and unemployment rising back to 7 percent in late 2009 . At May 2012 , the general unemployment rate was around 6 @.@ 7 percent , while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13 @.@ 6 percent . In the September 2014 quarter , unemployment was 5 @.@ 4 % . New Zealand has experienced a series of " brain drains " since the 1970s that still continue today . Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas , mostly in Australia and Britain , which is the largest proportion from any developed nation . In recent years , however , a " brain gain " has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries .
= = = Trade = = =
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade , particularly in agricultural products . Exports account for 24 percent of its output , making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns . Food products made up 55 % of the value of all the country 's exports in 2014 ; wood was the second largest earner ( 7 % ) . Its major export partners are Australia , United States , Japan , China , and the United Kingdom . On 7 April 2008 , New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand – China Free Trade Agreement , the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country . The service sector is the largest sector in the economy , followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction . Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand 's economy , contributing $ 15 @.@ 0 billion to New Zealand ’ s total GDP and supporting 9 @.@ 6 percent of the total workforce in 2010 . International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3 @.@ 1 percent in the year to October 2010 and are expected to increase at a rate of 2 @.@ 5 percent annually up to 2015 .
In 1984 New Zealand eliminated agricultural subsidies .
Wool was New Zealand ’ s major agricultural export during the late 19th century . Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues , but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers . In contrast dairy farming increased , with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007 , to become New Zealand 's largest export earner . In the year to June 2009 , dairy products accounted for 21 percent ( $ 9 @.@ 1 billion ) of total merchandise exports , and the country 's largest company , Fonterra , controls almost one @-@ third of the international dairy trade . Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13 @.@ 2 percent , wool 6 @.@ 3 percent , fruit 3 @.@ 5 percent and fishing 3 @.@ 3 percent . New Zealand 's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy , the number of vineyards doubling over the same period , overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007 .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
In 2014 , renewable energy generated 39 @.@ 5 percent of New Zealand 's gross energy supply , primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power .
New Zealand 's transport network comprises 93 @,@ 805 kilometres ( 58 @,@ 288 mi ) of roads , including 199 kilometres ( 124 mi ) of motorways , and 4 @,@ 128 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 565 mi ) of railway lines . Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services , although the private car is the predominant mode of transport . The railways were privatised in 1993 , but were re @-@ nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008 . The state @-@ owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways , with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by Transdev . Railways run the length of the country , although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers . Most international visitors arrive via air and New Zealand has six international airports , but currently only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji .
The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed , initially as a state @-@ owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990 . Telecom was rebranded as Spark New Zealand in 2014 . Chorus , which was split from Telecom in 2011 , still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure , but competition from other providers has increased . The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure , having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010 .
= = = = Water supply and sanitation = = = =
Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand is universal and of good quality in urban areas . It is provided by local government called Territorial Authorities in New Zealand . Territorial Authorities consist of 14 city councils in urban areas and 53 district councils in rural areas . The legal framework includes the Health Act 1956 amended in 2007 , the Local Government Act 2002 and the Resource Management Act 1991 .
= = Demography = =
As of June 2015 , the population of New Zealand is estimated at 4 @.@ 597 million . New Zealand is a predominantly urban country , with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland , Christchurch , Wellington , and Hamilton . New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures . For instance , in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world 's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey .
Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females , and 80 @.@ 2 years for males . Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline . New Zealand 's fertility rate of 2 @.@ 1 is relatively high for a developed country , and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth . Consequently , the country has a young population compared to most industrialized nations , with 20 percent of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger . By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5 @.@ 3 million , the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent . Despite the high life expectancy , mortality from heart disease is higher in New Zealand than it is in various other developed Western countries such as Australia , the United Kingdom and Canada .
= = = Ethnicity and immigration = = =
In the 2013 census , 74 @.@ 0 % of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European , and 14 @.@ 9 % as Māori . Other major ethnic groups include Asian ( 11 @.@ 8 % ) and Pacific peoples ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) , of which two @-@ thirds live in the Auckland region . The population has become more diverse in recent decades : in 1961 , the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori , with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent .
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander , the informal " Kiwi " is commonly used both internationally and by locals . The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent , although others reject this appellation . The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non @-@ Polynesian New Zealanders .
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand , followed by the early European settlers . Following colonisation , immigrants were predominantly from Britain , Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies . There was also significant Dutch , Dalmatian , Italian , and German immigration , together with indirect European immigration through Australia , North America , South America and South Africa . Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased . In 2009 – 10 , an annual target of 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service — more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents . Just over 25 % of New Zealand 's population was born overseas , with the majority ( 52 % ) living in the Auckland region . The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand 's overseas population , with a quarter of all overseas @-@ born New Zealanders born there ; other major sources of New Zealand 's overseas @-@ born population are China , India , Australia , South Africa , Fiji and Samoa . The number of fee @-@ paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s , with more than 20 @,@ 000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002 .
= = = Language = = =
English is the predominant language in New Zealand , spoken by 98 percent of the population . New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart . The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels : the short- " i " sound ( as in " kit " ) has centralised towards the schwa sound ( the " a " in " comma " and " about " ) ; the short- " e " sound ( as in " dress " ) has moved towards the short- " i " sound ; and the short- " a " sound ( as in " trap " ) has moved to the short- " e " sound . Hence , the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as " bad " , " dead " , " fish " and " chips " sound like " bed " , " did " , " fush " and " chups " to non @-@ New Zealanders .
After the Second World War , Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language ( te reo Māori ) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas . It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation , being declared one of New Zealand 's official languages in 1987 , and is spoken by 4 @.@ 1 percent of the population . There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels , the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime @-@ time content delivered in Māori . Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised . Samoan is the most widely spoken non @-@ official language in New Zealand ( 2 @.@ 3 percent ) , followed by Hindi , Mandarin Chinese , French , and Yue Chinese ( Cantonese ) . New Zealand Sign Language is used by about 28 @,@ 000 people . It was declared one of New Zealand 's official languages in 2006 .
= = = Education = = =
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16 , with the majority attending from the age of 5 . There are 13 school years and attending state ( public ) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person 's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday . New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent , and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification . There are five types of government @-@ owned tertiary institutions : universities , colleges of education , polytechnics , specialist colleges , and wānanga , in addition to private training establishments . In the adult population 14 @.@ 2 percent have a bachelor 's degree or higher , 30 @.@ 4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 @.@ 4 percent have no formal qualification . The OECD 's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand 's education system as the 7th best in the world , with students performing exceptionally well in reading , mathematics and science .
= = = Religion = = =
Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand , although its society is among the most secular in the world . In the 2013 Census , 55 @.@ 0 percent of the population identified with one or more religions , including 49 @.@ 0 percent identifying as Christians . Another 41 @.@ 9 percent indicated that they had no religion . The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism ( 12 @.@ 6 percent ) , Anglicanism ( 11 @.@ 8 percent ) , Presbyterianism ( 8 @.@ 5 percent ) and " Christian not further defined " ( i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination , 5 @.@ 5 percent ) . The Māori @-@ based Ringatū and Rātana religions ( 1 @.@ 4 percent ) are also Christian . Other significant minority religions include Hinduism ( 2 @.@ 3 percent ) , Buddhism ( 1 @.@ 5 percent ) and Islam ( 1 @.@ 2 percent ) . The indigenous Māori Christians tend to be associated with the Anglican and Catholic churches , while Pacific people tend to be Presbyterian , Methodist , Catholic and Latter @-@ day Saint adherents .
= = = Culture = = =
Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment , eventually developing their own distinctive culture . Social organisation was largely communal with families ( whanau ) , sub @-@ tribes ( hapu ) and tribes ( iwi ) ruled by a chief ( rangatira ) whose position was subject to the community 's approval . The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture , particularly with the introduction of Christianity . However , Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity , and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples . More recently American , Australian , Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand . Non @-@ Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent , with Pasifika , the world 's largest Polynesian festival , now an annual event in Auckland .
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged , industrious problem solvers . Modesty was expected and enforced through the " tall poppy syndrome " , where high achievers received harsh criticism . At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country . From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders . In the 1960s , as higher education became more available and cities expanded urban culture began to dominate . Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities , much of New Zealand 's art , literature , film and humour has rural themes . From around the middle of the 20th century , many cultural icons called Kiwiana , started to emerge that now help to define what it means to be a New Zealander ; such as the silver fern and the paua shell .
= = = Art = = =
As part of the resurgence of Māori culture , the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence . Most Māori carvings feature human figures , generally with three fingers and either a natural @-@ looking , detailed head or a grotesque head . Surface patterns consisting of spirals , ridges , notches and fish scales decorate most carvings . The pre @-@ eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses ( wharenui ) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations . These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt , changing and adapting to different whims or needs .
Māori decorated the white wood of buildings , canoes and cenotaphs using red ( a mixture of red ochre and shark fat ) and black ( made from soot ) paint and painted pictures of birds , reptiles and other designs on cave walls . Māori tattoos ( moko ) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel . Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes , originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand . Portraits of Māori were also common , with early painters often portraying them as " noble savages " , exotic beauties or friendly natives . The country 's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism . During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques , creating unique art forms . New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience , with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the " Paradise Now " exhibition in New York in 2004 .
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black , red and white triangles , diamonds and other geometric shapes . Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces , with the most well @-@ known design being the hei @-@ tiki , a distorted human figure sitting cross @-@ legged with its head tilted to the side . Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand , and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions . Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual , practical and lacklustre . However , the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000 , doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels , with some labels gaining international recognition .
= = = Literature = = =
Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas , and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form . Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known . Although still largely influenced by global trends ( modernism ) and events ( the Great Depression ) , writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand . During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit . Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post @-@ war expansion of universities local literature flourished . Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature .
= = = Media and entertainment = = =
New Zealand music has been influenced by blues , jazz , country , rock and roll and hip hop , with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation . Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South @-@ East Asian origins , and after centuries of isolation created a unique " monotonous " and " doleful " sound . Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments or as signalling devices during war or special occasions . Early settlers brought over their ethnic music , with brass bands and choral music being popular , and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s . Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century . The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States . Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition @-@ based art of kapa haka ( song and dance ) has made a resurgence . The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards . Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country 's official weekly record charts .
Radio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960 . The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s . In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film @-@ makers and many films attained a world audience , some receiving international acknowledgement . The highest grossing New Zealand movies include : Hunt for the Wilderpeople , Boy , The World 's Fastest Indian , Once Were Warriors , and Whale Rider . Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations . New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming , along with a large number of Australian and local shows . The country 's diverse scenery and compact size , plus government incentives , have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand , including Avatar , The Lord of the Rings , The Hobbit , The Chronicles of Narnia , King Kong and The Last Samurai . The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies , most of which are foreign @-@ owned , although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations . Between 2003 and 2008 , Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand 's press freedom in the top twenty . As of 2011 , New Zealand was ranked 13th worldwide in press freedom by Freedom House , with the 2nd freest media in the Asia @-@ Pacific region after Palau .
= = = Sports = = =
Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins . Rugby union is considered the national sport and attracts the most spectators . Golf , netball , tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation , while netball , rugby union and football ( soccer ) is popular among young people . Around 54 percent of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school . Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity . Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the " Rugby , Racing and Beer " culture during the 1960s . Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country 's team performs a haka , a traditional Māori challenge , before international matches .
New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union , netball , cricket , rugby league , and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons , rowing , yachting and cycling . New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia , before first participating on its own in 1920 . The country has ranked highly on a medals @-@ to @-@ population ratio at recent Games . The All Blacks , the national men 's rugby union team , are the most successful in the history of international rugby and the reigning World Cup champions . New Zealand is known for its extreme sports , adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition , as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary . Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling , fishing , swimming , running , tramping , canoeing , hunting , snowsports and surfing are also popular . The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific .
= = = Cuisine = = =
New Zealand 's cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim , drawing inspiration from Europe , Asia and Polynesia . For dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style , there 's lamb , pork and cervena ( venison ) , salmon , crayfish ( lobster ) , Bluff oysters , whitebait , paua ( abalone ) , mussels , scallops , pipis and tuatua ( both are types of New Zealand shellfish ) , kumara ( sweet potato ) , kiwifruit , tamarillo and pavlova , the national dessert . A Hāngi is a traditional New Zealand Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven . New Zealand food 's distinctiveness is more in the way New Zealanders eat , generally preferring as relaxed and unaffected as possible , in keeping with the laidback Kiwi psyche . New Zealand 's climate is ideal for fine wine growing , wineries and vineyards .
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= The Hustler ( film ) =
The Hustler is a 1961 American drama film directed by Robert Rossen from Walter Tevis 's 1959 novel of the same name , adapted for the screen by Rossen and Sidney Carroll . It tells the story of small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson and his desire to break into the " major league " of professional hustling and high @-@ stakes wagering by high @-@ rollers that follows it . He throws his raw talent and ambition up against the best player in the country ; seeking to best the legendary pool player " Minnesota Fats . " After initially losing to Fats and getting involved with unscrupulous manager Bert Gordon , Eddie returns to try again , but only after paying a terrible personal price .
The film was shot on location in New York City . It stars Paul Newman as " Fast " Eddie Felson , Jackie Gleason as Minnesota Fats , Piper Laurie as Sarah , and George C. Scott as Bert .
The Hustler was a major critical and popular success , gaining a reputation as a modern classic . Its exploration of winning , losing , and character garnered a number of major awards ; it is also credited with helping to spark a resurgence in the popularity of pool . Real @-@ life pool player Rudolf Wanderone , known at the time as " New York Fats " and " Chicago Fats " , claimed to be the real life inspiration for Gleason 's character , Minnesota Fats , and adopted the name as his own .
= = Plot = =
Small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson travels cross @-@ country with his partner Charlie to challenge the legendary player " Minnesota Fats " . Arriving at Fats ' home pool hall , Eddie declares he will win $ 10 @,@ 000 that night . Fats arrives and he and Eddie agree to play straight pool for $ 200 a game . After initially falling behind , Eddie surges back to being $ 1 @,@ 000 ahead and suggests raising the bet to $ 1 @,@ 000 a game ; Fats agrees . He sends out a runner , Preacher , to Johnny 's Bar , ostensibly for whiskey , but really to get professional gambler Bert Gordon to the hall . Eddie gets ahead $ 11 @,@ 000 and Charlie tries to convince him to quit , but Eddie insists the game will end only when Fats says it is over . Fats agrees to continue after Bert labels Eddie a " loser . " After 25 hours and an entire bottle of bourbon , Eddie is ahead over $ 18 @,@ 000 , but loses it all along with all but $ 200 of his original stake . At their hotel later , Eddie leaves half of the remaining stake with a sleeping Charlie and leaves .
Eddie stashes his belongings at the local bus terminal , where he meets Sarah Packard , an alcoholic who is supported by her father , attends college part @-@ time , and walks with a limp . He meets her again at a bar . They go back to her place but she refuses to let him in , saying he is " too hungry " . Eddie moves into a rooming house and starts hustling for small stakes . He finds Sarah again and this time she takes him in , but with reservations . Charlie finds Eddie at Sarah 's and tries to persuade him to go back out on the road . Eddie refuses and Charlie realizes he plans to challenge Fats again . Eddie realizes that Charlie held out his percentage and becomes enraged , believing that with that money he could have rebounded to beat Fats . Eddie dismisses Charlie as a scared old man and tells him to " go lie down and die " by himself .
At Johnny 's Bar , Eddie joins a poker game where Bert is playing , and loses $ 20 . Afterward , Bert tells Eddie that he has talent as a pool player but no character . He figures that Eddie will need at least $ 3 @,@ 000 to challenge Fats again . Bert calls him a " born loser " but nevertheless offers to stake him in return for 75 % of his winnings ; Eddie refuses .
Eddie humiliates a local pool shark , exposing himself as a hustler , and the other players punish him by breaking his thumbs . As he heals , Sarah cares for him and tells him she loves him , but he cannot say the words in return . When Eddie is ready to play , he agrees to Bert 's terms , deciding that a " 25 % slice of something big is better than a 100 % slice of nothing " .
Bert , Eddie , and Sarah travel to the Kentucky Derby , where Bert arranges a match for Eddie against a wealthy local socialite named Findley . The game turns out to be carom billiards , not pool . When Eddie loses badly , Bert refuses to keep staking him . Sarah pleads with Eddie to leave with her , saying that the world he is living in and its inhabitants are " perverted , twisted , and crippled " ; he refuses . Seeing Eddie 's anger , Bert agrees to let the match continue at $ 1 @,@ 000 a game . Eddie comes back to win $ 12 @,@ 000 . He collects his $ 3 @,@ 000 share and decides to walk back to the hotel . Bert arrives first and subjects Sarah to a humiliating sexual encounter . After , she scrawls " PERVERTED " , " TWISTED " , and " CRIPPLED " in lipstick on the bathroom mirror . Eddie arrives back at the hotel to learn that she has killed herself .
Eddie returns to challenge Fats again , putting up his entire $ 3 @,@ 000 stake on a single game . He wins game after game , beating Fats so badly that Fats is forced to quit . Bert demands a share of Eddie 's winnings and threatens that Eddie will be injured unless he pays . But Eddie says that if he is not killed he will kill Bert when he recovers ; invoking the memory of Sarah , he shames Bert into giving up his claim . Instead , Bert orders Eddie never to walk into a big @-@ time pool hall again . Eddie and Fats compliment each other as players , and Eddie walks out .
= = Cast = =
Cast notes
Pool champion Willie Mosconi has a cameo appearance as Willie , who holds the stakes for Eddie and Fats 's games . Mosconi 's hands also appear in many of the closeup shots .
= = Production = =
The Tevis novel had been optioned several times , including by Frank Sinatra , but attempts to adapt it for the screen were unsuccessful . Director Rossen 's daughter Carol Rossen speculates that previous adaptations focused too much on the pool aspects of the story and not enough on the human interaction . Rossen , who had hustled pool himself as a youth and who had made an abortive attempt to write a pool @-@ themed play called Corner Pocket , optioned the book and teamed with Sidney Carroll to produce the script .
According to Bobby Darin 's agent , Martin Baum , Paul Newman 's agent turned down the part of Fast Eddie . Newman was originally unavailable to play Fast Eddie regardless , being committed to star opposite Elizabeth Taylor in the film Two for the Seesaw . Rossen offered Darin the part after seeing him on The Mike Wallace Interview . When Taylor was forced to drop out of Seesaw because of shooting overruns on Cleopatra , Newman was freed up to take the role , which he accepted after reading just half of the script . No one associated with the production officially notified Darin or his representatives that he had been replaced ; they found out from a member of the public at a charity horse race .
Rossen filmed The Hustler over six weeks , entirely in New York City . Much of the action was filmed at two now @-@ defunct pool halls , McGirr 's and Ames Billiard Academy . Other shooting locations included a townhouse on East 82nd Street , which served as the Louisville home of Murray Hamilton 's character Findley , and the Manhattan Greyhound bus terminal . The film crew built a dining area that was so realistic that confused passengers sat there and waited to place their orders . Willie Mosconi served as technical advisor on the film and shot a number of the trick shots in place of the actors . All of Gleason 's shots were his own ; they were filmed in wide @-@ angle to emphasize having the actor and the shot in the same frames . Rossen , in pursuit of the style he termed " neo @-@ neo @-@ realistic " , hired actual street thugs , enrolled them in the Screen Actors Guild and used them as extras . Scenes that were included in the shooting script but did not make it into the final film include a scene at Ames pool hall establishing that Eddie is on his way to town ( originally slated to be the first scene of the film ) and a longer scene of Preacher talking to Bert at Johnny 's Bar which establishes Preacher is a junkie .
Early shooting put more focus on the pool playing , but during filming Rossen made the decision to place more emphasis on the love story between Newman and Laurie 's characters . Despite the change in emphasis , Rossen still used the various pool games to show the strengthening of Eddie 's character and the evolution of his relationship to Bert and Sarah , through the positioning of the characters in the frame . For example , when Eddie is playing Findley , Eddie is positioned below Bert in a two shot but above Findley while still below Bert in a three shot . When Sarah enters the room , she is below Eddie in two shot while in a three shot Eddie is still below Bert . When Eddie is kneeling over Sarah 's body , Bert again appears above him but Eddie attacks Bert , ending up on top of him . Eddie finally appears above Bert in two shot when Eddie returns to beat Fats .
= = Themes = =
The Hustler is fundamentally a story of what it means to be a human being , couched within the context of winning and losing . Describing the film , Robert Rossen said : " My protagonist , Fast Eddie , wants to become a great pool player , but the film is really about the obstacles he encounters in attempting to fulfill himself as a human being . He attains self @-@ awareness only after a terrible personal tragedy which he has caused — and then he wins his pool game . " Roger Ebert concurs with this assessment , citing The Hustler as " one of the few American movies in which the hero wins by surrendering , by accepting reality instead of his dreams . "
The film was also somewhat autobiographical for Rossen , relating to his dealings with the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . A screenwriter during the 1930s and ' 40s , he had been involved with the Communist Party in the 1930s and refused to name names at his first HUAC appearance . Ultimately he changed his mind and identified friends and colleagues as party members . Similarly , Felson sells his soul and betrays the one person who really knows and loves him in a Faustian pact to gain character .
Film and theatre historian Ethan Mordden has identified The Hustler as one of a handful of films from the early 1960s that re @-@ defined the relationship of films to their audiences . This new relationship , he writes , is " one of challenge rather than flattery , of doubt rather than certainty . " No film of the 1950s , Mordden asserts , " took such a brutal , clear look at the ego @-@ affirmation of the one @-@ on @-@ one contest , at the inhumanity of the winner or the castrated vulnerability of the loser . " Although some have suggested the resemblance of this film to classic film noir , Mordden rejects the comparison based on Rossen 's ultra @-@ realistic style , also noting that the film lacks noir 's " Treacherous Woman or its relish in discovering crime among the bourgeoisie , hungry bank clerks and lusty wives . " Mordden does note that while Fast Eddie " has a slight fifties ring " , the character " makes a decisive break with the extraordinarily feeling tough guys of the ' rebel ' era ... [ b ] ut he does end up seeking out his emotions " and telling Bert that he is a loser because he 's dead inside .
= = Reception = =
The Hustler had its world premiere in Washington , D.C. on September 25 , 1961 . Prior to the premiere , Richard Burton hosted a midnight screening of the film for the casts of the season 's Broadway shows , which generated a great deal of positive word of mouth . Initially reluctant to publicize the film , 20th Century Fox responded by stepping up its promotional activities .
The film was well received by critics , although with the occasional caveat . Variety praised the performances of the entire main cast but felt that the " sordid aspects " of the story prevented the film from achieving the " goal of being pure entertainment . " Variety also felt the film was far too long . Stanley Kauffmann , writing for The New Republic , concurred in part with this assessment . Kauffmann strongly praised the principal cast , calling Newman " first @-@ rate " and writing that Scott 's was " his most credible performance to date . " Laurie , he writes , gives her part " movingly anguished touches " ( although he also mildly criticizes her for over @-@ reliance on Method acting ) . While he found that the script " strains hard to give an air of menace and criminality to the pool hall " and also declares it " full of pseudo @-@ meaning " , Kauffmann lauds Rossen 's " sure , economical " direction , especially in regard to Gleason who , he says , does not so much act as " [ pose ] for a number of pictures which are well arranged by Rossen . It is the best use of a manikin by a director since Kazan photographed Burl Ives as Big Daddy . " The New York Times , despite finding that the film " strays a bit " and that the romance between Newman and Laurie 's characters " seems a mite far @-@ fetched " , nonetheless found that The Hustler " speaks powerfully in a universal language that spellbinds and reveals bitter truths . "
The Hustler received nine Academy Award nominations . The film won two , for Best Art Direction @-@ Set Decoration , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( Harry Horner and Gene Callahan ) and Best Cinematography , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( Eugen Schüfftan ) . The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Newman was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role . Gleason and Scott were both nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ; Scott refused the nomination . Laurie was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role . Rossen received nominations for Best Director and , with Carroll , for Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium .
Newman was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Gleason and Scott were each nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Scott was also nominated as Best New Star of the Year . At the 1962 BAFTA Awards , The Hustler tied with the Soviet film Ballad of a Soldier for Best Film from Any Source . Newman won for Best Foreign Actor and Piper Laurie was nominated for Best Foreign Actress . Gleason was honored as Best Supporting Actor by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures and the film was named among the Board 's ten best films of 1961 . Rossen was named Best Director by the New York Film Critics Circle Awards and Rossen and Carroll shared the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama .
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Bert Gordon - Nominated Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Eddie , you 're a born loser . " - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - # 6 Sports Film
= = Legacy = =
In the decades since its release , The Hustler has cemented its reputation as a classic . Roger Ebert , echoing earlier praise for the performances , direction , and cinematography and adding laurels for editor Dede Allen , cites the film as " one of those films where scenes have such psychic weight that they grow in our memories . " He further cites Fast Eddie Felson as one of " only a handful of movie characters so real that the audience refers to them as touchstones . " TV Guide calls the film a " dark stunner " offering " a grim world whose only bright spot is the top of the pool table , yet [ with ] characters [ who ] maintain a shabby nobility and grace . " The four leads are again lavishly praised for their performances and the film is summed up as " not to be missed . "
Paul Newman reprised his role as Fast Eddie Felson in the 1986 film The Color of Money , for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . A number of observers and critics have suggested that this Oscar was in belated recognition for his performance in The Hustler . In 1997 , the Library of Congress selected The Hustler for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " Carroll and Rossen 's screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America in 2006 as the 96th best motion picture screenplay of all time . In June 2008 , AFI released its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . The Hustler was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the sports genre .
The Hustler is credited with sparking a resurgence in the popularity of pool in the United States , which had been on the decline for decades . The film also brought recognition to Willie Mosconi , who , despite having won multiple world championships , was virtually unknown to the general public . Perhaps the greatest beneficiary of the film 's popularity was a real @-@ life pool hustler named Rudolf Wanderone . Mosconi claimed in an interview at the time of the film 's release that the character of Minnesota Fats was based on Wanderone , who at the time was known as " New York Fatty " . Wanderone immediately adopted the Minnesota Fats nickname and parlayed his association with the film into book and television deals and other ventures . Author Walter Tevis denied for the rest of his life that Wanderone had played any role in the creation of the character . Other players would claim , with greater or lesser degrees of credibility , to have served as models for Fast Eddie , including Ronnie Allen , Ed Taylor , Ed Parker , and Eddie Pelkey .
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= Brittany Pierce =
Brittany Susan Pierce is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Heather Morris , and first appeared in the show 's second episode , " Showmance " . Brittany was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan . In Glee , Brittany is a cheerleader , or " Cheerio " for the fictional William McKinley High School , and a member of the school 's glee club led by Will Schuester . Morris was originally hired to teach Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " dance to the Glee cast . The show at the time was looking for a third cheerleader , and Morris landed the role . Morris was upgraded to a series regular in the series ' second season , in which Brittany is given a larger storyline , solos and dance routines to perform .
Morris plays Brittany as " literally insane " , but also entirely well @-@ meaning and goodhearted . She has said that Brittany " love [ s ] everybody , no matter who they are " ; she is frequently smiling and being nice to people . Brittany 's character traits include her finding recipes confusing , cheating off intellectually disabled classmates , thinking her cat , Lord Tubbington , is reading her diary , and not knowing her right hand from her left . These facts are often presented in one @-@ liners delivered by Morris , many of which she has ad @-@ libbed . Brittany 's one @-@ liners are regularly celebrated in reviews of Glee . The character 's lack of intelligence and forthright manner of speaking means , as Morris puts it , that " Brittany is used by the series ' writers to say things no other character would " . The character has also received positive reviews related to her romantic storyline with her closeted best friend Santana ( Naya Rivera ) . While Brittany is bisexual , and is unashamed of that , Santana has trouble accepting her lesbianism . Brittany has continued to support Santana and urged her to be true to herself .
The character has been received favorably with television critics . Jarrett Wieselman of the New York Post has compared Morris as Brittany to Lynch as Sue , and has opined that she has " emerged as one of the funniest second bananas on TV right now " . Wieselman wrote that since her introduction , Brittany has been given " more and more to do [ and ] less and less to think " , and that the result has been " one of the most clueless characters that 's ever figured out how to dress herself in the morning . " Snarker called Brittany and Santana her " new favourite Glee pairing " , and commented : " While Heather Morris ( Brittany ) and Naya Rivera ( Santana ) have had minimal screen time , they ’ ve made it count . Heather in particular has brought the laughs as the Cheerio least likely to get a Mensa invitation . " Brittany has attracted comparison to Amanda Seyfried 's character from the 2004 hit teen comedy Mean Girls . Morris also receives acclaim for her dancing and her portrayal as Brittany .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Brittany first appears in Glee during the show 's second episode , as a member of William McKinley High 's cheerleading team , the Cheerios . She joins the glee club , New Directions , with her friends and fellow cheerleaders Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) and Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) then enlists the three of them to help her destroy the club from the inside . When the club is due to compete at the sectionals round of show choir competition , Brittany unknowingly leaks their set list to Sue , who leaks the routines to competing glee clubs . New Directions put a new set list together at the last minute , and go on to win the competition regardless . Brittany also reveals that she and Santana have had sex , but are not dating . Following the club 's victory at sectionals , Sue renews her effort to bring them down , and enlists Brittany and Santana to break up co @-@ captains Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) and Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) . They invite Finn on a date with the both of them , but ignore him throughout the evening and ultimately request that he sit in the car and leave them to finish their meal alone . She mentions in the episode " Bad Reputation " that she has made out with almost everyone in the school – guys and girls alike , and the school janitor . She also briefly dates Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) in the episode " Laryngitis " as he wants to appear more masculine to impress his father and he is the only guy she has not made out with in the school .
= = = Season 2 = = =
In the second season episode " Duets " , she asks Santana to be her partner for the duet competition while they are making out . Santana rejects her , so Brittany attempts to make her jealous by dating fellow glee club member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) . She sleeps with Artie , but Santana tells him that Brittany was just using him for his voice , so he breaks up with her , to Brittany 's dismay . Brittany 's relationship with Artie continues to develop ; in " Never Been Kissed " , he gets her to go out with him again . As of " Furt " , they are officially dating . In " Sexy " , following her performance of " Landslide " with Santana and Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) , Santana admits her true feelings for Brittany . Although Santana fears being ostracized by the McKinley High student body for being in a same @-@ sex relationship , she confesses her romantic love to Brittany , feelings which are reciprocated . However , Brittany states that she loves Artie too , and would never do anything to hurt him , even if it means not being able to be with Santana . She says that if she and Artie ever break up , she would be Santana 's , proudly so .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Brittany runs for senior class president in the third season , starting in " I Am Unicorn " , and wins the election in " I Kissed A Girl " , defeating Kurt in the balloting . She and Santana join the Troubletones , a rival all @-@ girls show choir at McKinley , and formally begin dating ; after Santana is outed by Finn , they are open about their relationship . The two rejoin New Directions after the Troubletones lose to them at Sectionals . Santana sends Brittany a singing valentine in " Heart " , and the two publicly kiss afterward . In " Saturday Night Glee @-@ ver " , concerned about Santana 's future plans , Brittany gets the idea to ask Sue to arrange for Santana to get a full scholarship to the top college cheerleading program in the country . After a year of being a do @-@ nothing class president , Brittany puts on a dinosaur @-@ themed senior prom . In the season finale , Brittany reveals that her grades are so bad she is not graduating , but will have to repeat her senior year .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , Brittany competes to become the lead singer of New Directions , but loses to Blaine ( Darren Criss ) . She then loses to him again when she runs to be a second @-@ term senior class president . Santana formally breaks up with Brittany because she feels that their long @-@ distance relationship is not working , though the two remain friends . She then becomes ' blonde buddies ' with Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and then starts to date him . Santana comes back to try and break them up , however fails . Brittany visits MIT , where she is dubbed a mathematical genius . Returning to Lima , she becomes arrogant , refuses to perform at Regionals , leaves the Cheerios , and breaks up with Sam . After Will and Sue fail to get Brittany to change her attitude , Sam gets Santana to return to Lima to intervene . After talking with Santana , Brittany decides to perform at Regionals . Brittany reveals to the glee club she has been offered early admission to MIT and delivers an emotional goodbye , as she will be leaving after Regionals .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Brittany returns to McKinley in " 100 " along with other New Directions alumni following the closure of the Glee club . Brittany states her unhappiness at being a math genius and kisses her ex @-@ girlfriend Santana . In " New Directions " , Brittany agrees to dropping out of MIT before going on a trip to Lesbos with Santana . Santana asks Brittany to go with her to New York after their trip , Brittany accepts . Brittany finally graduates in the episode , one year late . Brittany returns to New York in the last episode of the season " The Untitled Rachel Berry Project " but she finds out that Santana is out of town shooting another Yeast @-@ I @-@ Stat commercial .
= = = Season 6 = = =
At the beginning of season six , Brittany returns with Santana and the rest of Glee club alumni to McKinley High School in " Homecoming " to help Rachel and Kurt recruit for New Directions . In " Jagged Little Tapestry " , while the alumni stick around for another week , Brittany is surprised by Santana 's marriage proposal and gladly accepts . Brittany and Santana then return in " What The World Needs Now " to deal with Santana 's disapproving grandmother Alma – with whom she hasn ’ t spoken since coming out as a lesbian . Brittany takes matters into her own hands and tries to invite Alma to the wedding , but Alma 's prejudice is too strong and she rejects their engagement , and Brittany tells her off for doing so . Later the New Directions serenade them in an attempt to be invited to their upcoming wedding . Brittany and Santana are wed in a double ceremony with Kurt and Blaine in the eighth episode " A Wedding " . Before the ceremony , Sue arrives with Alma , who she has helped to realize that although she may not believe females should marry each other , family is the most important thing , leading her and Santana to reconcile . Brittany and Santana return briefly in the last minutes of the series finale " Dreams Come True " for a last performance with the rest of the Glee Cast to take a bow .
= = Creation and casting = =
Brittany first appears as a guest character in the second episode of the first season of Glee . She was brought in as a member of William McKinley High 's cheerleading team , the Cheerios . Brittany is regularly played by actress Heather Morris . Morris grew up with a strong background in choreography . She was taking acting classes and actively pursuing an acting career when she was offered a spot on recording artist Beyoncé Knowles world tour as a dancer . Morris , however , turned down the job . Shortly thereafter , she was asked by Glee 's choreographer Zach Woodlee to teach the choreography for Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " dance to the Glee actors . At the same time , the show was looking for a third cheerleader , they originally wanted to have the third be African American , but Morris ended up landing the role of Brittany Pierce . Initially a background character who hardly ever spoke , the role grew as writers discovered Morris had a gift for delivering one @-@ liners . In an interview with Brandon Voss of The Advocate.com , Morris said of her casting :
" About six months after I first moved to L.A. , I got a job doing Beyoncé 's tour . After I finished the tour , I started working with choreographer Zach Woodlee , who started hiring me to do things like Fired Up ! and Eli Stone . Prior to the Single Ladies tour I was supposed to move to New York to do West Side Story , but then I dropped dancing and started acting classes because I didn 't want to dance anymore and I really wanted to fulfill my lifelong dream of acting . Zach called me and was like , ' Are you in New York ? ' I was like , ' No , I 'm still here in L.A. and I ’ m acting . ' He was like , ' OK , I need you to come in and teach the " Single Ladies " dance to Chris Colfer and Jenna Ushkowitz for this TV show I 'm doing , Glee . Since you 're acting now , I know Ryan Murphy would love to consider you for a part . Look as cute as you can so he 'll love you even more . ” So I went in to teach the kids with a full @-@ on outfit . I was scheduled to read with Ryan Murphy twice , but he canceled both times . After that , Zach called me and said they might not hire me anyway because they wanted the third cheerleader to be black , so my hopes were shot . But then my agent called a week later and said , ' You 're now cast as Brittany in Glee . ' So it was nuts . "
Brittany 's role in the show was initially intended to be minor , but grew towards the end of the first season . She does not have any solo musical performances during season one , but Morris hoped she would have one in the second season . On April 27 , 2010 , Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported that Morris would be upgraded to a series regular for season two . Speaking to E ! Online , Morris commented : " It 's so fun . I literally just stand there and doze off and then I 'm like , ' Oh yeah , I have to speak now ! ' " At the 2010 Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour , Murphy stated that Brittany would have " big storylines " in the new season , as viewers want to know more about her .
= = Characterization = =
Some of Brittany 's most memorable lines are unscripted , and are instead devised by Murphy during filming , or improvised by Morris . Morris portrays Brittany as being " literally insane . " She is used by the series ' writers to say things no other character would , to the point that Morris considers some of her lines nonsensical . Brittany 's character traits include her finding recipes confusing , cheating off intellectually disabled classmates , thinking her cat is reading her diary , and not knowing her right hand from her left . She is friendly towards all the other characters , and Morris has explained that Brittany " love [ s ] everybody , no matter who they are " , so she is frequently smiling and being nice to people . Morris bases her portrayal of Brittany on the character Karen Smith from the film Mean Girls . She plays Brittany as being very innocent , rather than stupid . In the episode " A Night of Neglect " , Brittany participates in an academic decathlon as a seat warmer , but surprisingly ends up contributing to the win due to the fact that she is somewhat of an idiot savant on the topic of cat diseases . It is also revealed in " Britney / Brittany " that Brittany is also " Britney Spears " as her middle initial is " S " making her " Brittany S. Pierce . "
At the Paley Festival Glee panel in March 2010 , Murphy stated that Brittany and Santana would be seen to make out during the show 's first season . Morris and Rivera only became aware of this after reading a Paley Festival report online . When they asked Murphy about the development , he claimed to have made the statement " to get a kick " out of the " dirty guy " asking about them . Murphy told Morris and Rivera that Glee would not push relationships to appease the show 's fans , but would only pursue those which were " organic and natural . " While there are moments on the show which depict Brittany and Santana as being very close to one another , Morris attributes these to her close relationship with Rivera : " that is just Naya and I joking around with each other and being really close . It 's always her and I just messing around and they end up using it . "
Later in 2010 , when interviewed by After Ellen and discussing the large lesbian audience of Glee , Ryan Murphy confirmed that season two would contain at least one kiss between Brittany and Santana . In January 2011 , several months after Brittany and Santana are seen in bed together , Glee co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk further confirmed that " Brittana is on . Brittana was always on . "
= = Musical performances = =
Brittany performs in many of the series ' musical numbers , though she does not have a solo line until the second season . In that season 's second episode " Britney / Brittany " , Brittany performs " I 'm a Slave 4 U " as a solo and " Me Against the Music " as a duet with Santana . Songs by Morris as Brittany have been released as singles , available for digital download , and have also featured on the show 's soundtrack albums . Brittany sings lead for Kesha 's " Tik @-@ Tok " in the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " . Candace Bulter of ScreenCrave praised the New Directions performance of the song and wrote , " Ke $ ha might be able to out @-@ drink the Glee members , but their cover of her song was phenomenal . " She went on to praise Brittany 's choreography and voice , calling it " mad " and " awesome " . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly praised all of the musical performances and covers of that episode . In the season finale , she sings solo lines in the glee club 's Nationals performance of the original song " Light Up the World " . In the third season , Brittany 's first major performance was in the third episode " Asian F " , where she sings lead on Beyoncé 's " Run the World ( Girls ) " , which garnered superlatives from many reviewers including Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic , who wrote , " Brittany 's performance of ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' was thrilling . It was the most adrenaline @-@ pumping musical number the series has produced : intricately choreographed , expertly shot and edited , perfectly woven into the story , and performed exquisitely by Heather Morris . " She also performs a duet with Santana on " I Wanna Dance With Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " in the Whitney Houston tribute episode " Dance With Somebody " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jarrett Wieselman of the New York Post has compared Morris as Brittany to Lynch as Sue , and noted that she has " emerged as one of the funniest second bananas on TV right now " . Wieselman wrote that since her introduction , Brittany has been given " more and more to do [ and ] less and less to think " , and that the result has been " one of the most clueless characters that 's ever figured out how to dress herself in the morning . " E ! Online 's Megan Masters has also compared Brittany to Sue , and stated that Brittany 's one @-@ liners " easily rival " Sue 's . She deemed Brittany " brainlessly brilliant " , and thanked the Glee producers for creating her : " Never before have we had the pleasure of enjoying such a ridiculously dumb — yet always loveable — character on television . " When a promotional clip for the episode " Sectionals " indicated that Brittany and Santana had slept together , Dorothy Snarker , when writing for lesbian entertainment website AfterEllen.com , praised the pairing and referred to it by the portmanteau " Brittana " . Snarker called the two her " new favourite Glee pairing " , and commented : " While Heather Morris ( Brittany ) and Naya Rivera ( Santana ) have had minimal screen time , they ’ ve made it count . Heather in particular has brought the laughs as the Cheerio least likely to get a Mensa invitation . Never mind Finn and Rachel – I ’ m on Team Brittana now . "
Morris ' performance in Britney / Brittany attracted critical praise ; Lisa de Moraes called " Britney / Brittany " a " great showcase " for the actress , and praised her " spectacular dance moves " and " deadpan flare " . In his otherwise negative review , Todd VanDerWerff deemed Morris " hysterical throughout " and the cast 's best dancer . He stated , " Murphy seems intent on running this character into the ground , but Morris isn 't going to have her stop being funny without a fight . " Jenna Mullins of E ! Online observed , " When Ryan Murphy said this episode was a celebration of Heather , he wasn 't kidding " , and commended her musical performances . Robert Canning of IGN was initially concerned that the episode would diminish Morris ' appeal by elevating her from a background role , but was ultimately pleased that it managed to retain her " fan favorite " secondary character status . While Poniewozik asked " have we gotten to the point as a society where it 's unremarkable that the most popular scripted TV show in the 18 to 49 demographic is also — almost without comment or controversy — the gayest show on broadcast TV ? " , Ann Oldenburg of USA Today questioned whether Glee had gone too far by its depiction of Brittany and Santana kissing and their reference to the sexual act called " scissoring " . Christie Keith , in writing for the lesbian and bisexual media website AfterEllen.com , suggested that " Duets " was the " queerest episode of any series that 's ever been on television " , and stated that she was moved to tears by the final scene of Brittany forlorn without Santana . AfterEllen.com also listed her in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters .
Robert Canning praised Morris for her performance in " A Very Glee Christmas " , and wrote : " The heart of " A Very Glee Christmas " was found in Artie Abrams attempt to keep Brittany 's belief in Santa Claus alive . Heather Morris perfectly played up Brittany 's innocence and joy surrounding everything Santa . Her interaction with the black mall Santa was a highlight . Watching Artie , and eventually the rest of the club , work to keep Brittany 's belief intact was truly in the spirit of Christmas and should have been made into a fuller part of the episode . Also shining in this storyline was Dot Jones as Coach Bieste . Her scene as Santa , and then her knowing expression as she watched Artie walk , were the best moments of the episode . " In January 2010 , Morris and her co @-@ stars won the " Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series . Later that year , Brittany and Santana were nominated for the " Favorite Fictional Lesbian Couple " award at the AfterEllen.com Visibility Awards .
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= Fortress of Humaitá =
The Fortress of Humaitá ( 1854 – 68 ) , known metaphorically as the Gibraltar of South America , was a military installation near the mouth of the River Paraguay . A strategic site without equal in the region , it was " the key to Paraguay and the upper rivers " . It played a crucial role in the bloodiest conflict in the continent 's history : the Paraguayan War .
The site was a meander or sharp horseshoe bend in the river ; practically all vessels wishing to enter the Republic of Paraguay were forced to navigate it . The bend was commanded by a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) line of artillery batteries , at the end of which was a chain boom which , when raised , closed the river to navigation . The fortress was protected from attack on its landward side by impassible swamp or extensive earthworks which , at their greatest extension , stretched for 8 lineal miles ( 13 km ) , had a garrison of 18 @,@ 000 men and deployed 120 cannon . At its zenith Humaitá was reputed to be impassable to enemy shipping .
The widespread perception which it created in its heyday – that Paraguay was practically immune to naval attack – may have induced its Marshal @-@ President Francisco Solano López to take unnecessary risks in foreign policy and , in particular , to seize government vessels and provinces of the much more populous Brazil and Argentina and to send armies to invade them and Uruguay . They united against him in the Treaty of the Triple Alliance . The war led to his country 's utter defeat and ruin and the casualties were immense .
A declared purpose of the Treaty of the Triple Alliance was the demolition of the Humaitá fortifications and that none others of that sort should be built again . However the fortress , though not by then invulnerable to the latest armour @-@ plated warships , was a serious obstacle to the Allies ’ plans to proceed upriver to the Paraguayan capital Asunción and to recapture the Brazilian territory of Mato Grosso : it delayed them for two and a half years . It was taken in the Siege of Humaitá ( 1868 ) , then razed pursuant to the Treaty .
For present @-@ day Paraguayans Humaitá is a symbol of national pride , standing for their country 's unyielding will to resist .
= = Motives for its construction = =
= = = Key to Paraguay = = =
Paraguay is a landlocked country and for much of its history it was difficult of access , except by sailing from the Atlantic up the River Paraná and hence the River Paraguay ( see map ) as the early Spanish explorers had done . There were other means of ingress , but they would have required an invading force to be resupplied through difficult and hostile country . So the command of the river was key to the security of Paraguay , who feared and distrusted its two much larger neighbours Brazil and Argentina .
= = = Anxiety about the Brazilian Empire = = =
In a long history of conflicts between the empires of Portugal and Spain in America , the Portuguese made numerous incursions – some of them permanent – into Spanish @-@ claimed territory . Slave raids by Bandeirantes from what is now Brazil into the Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay carried off many Guaraní inhabitants , who feared and despised the Brazilians . The boundaries between the two empires were not resolved and the conflicts continued after independence , when Portuguese America became the Empire of Brazil . Brazil had no practical access to its own territory of Mato Grosso except by sailing from the Atlantic Ocean up the River Paraguay ( see map ) ; fear that Paraguay might interfere with the navigation was a source of conflict . Where Paraguay ended , and where the Mato Grosso began , was a matter of opinion .
= = = Anxiety about Buenos Aires = = =
The Spanish Viceroyalty of the River Plate occupied an enormous territory roughly coterminous with the modern @-@ day territories of Bolivia , central and northern Argentina , Paraguay and Uruguay . Although it did not exist for very long ( 1776 – 1810 ) the Spanish Viceroy had his seat in the city of Buenos Aires . Upon becoming independent from Spain the city claimed and thought itself rightly to be the capital of an identical territory it called the United Provinces of South America . Other provinces – especially Bolivia , Uruguay and Paraguay – begged to differ and the Viceroyalty broke up in acrimony and warfare . In particular , Buenos Aires did not recognise the independence of Paraguay and in 1811 sent an army under General Belgrano to try to ‘ recover ’ it . The Buenos Aires governor Juan Manuel Rosas during his dictatorship ( 1835 – 52 ) tried to bring Paraguay to heel by closing the River Paraná to commercial traffic ( see Battle of Vuelta de Obligado ) . Buenos Aires province fell out with the other provinces of the Argentine Confederation and declared itself the independent State of Buenos Aires ; it did not recognise Paraguay 's independence even after the others had . It was not until quite late in the nineteenth century ( 1859 ) that a re @-@ united Argentina formally recognised an independent Paraguay . Even so , the boundaries between Argentina and Paraguay were in dispute , notably the Chaco and Misiones territories .
= = = Defensive outlook of Paraguay = = =
Upon its independence in 1811 Paraguay tried to keep out of the anarchy of adjoining Hispanic America . Its formidable dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia ( 1820 – 1840 ) imposed a strict policy of isolation . During his reign few were allowed to enter Paraguay , or to leave it . Professor Williams ' assessment : " In an attempt to coerce Paraguay economically and bring it to its knees , Buenos Aires only stiffened Paraguayan nationalism and produced a voluntary , xenophobic isolation of the breakaway province " .
After Francia 's death he was succeeded by Carlos Antonio López , ( called ‘ López I ’ by some authors , a convenient if inaccurate designation ) , the father of Francisco Solano López ( ‘ López II ’ ) . López I did open up Paraguay to foreign trade and technology , but the steamship made his country vulnerable to invasion and he understandably feared the machinations of his powerful neighbours .
During his presidency there were conflicts , not only with Brazil and Buenos Aires , but also the United States : the USS Water Witch affair of 1855 in which the fort of Itapirú fired upon an American warship , which led to a US naval expedition against Paraguay in 1858 . Although Carlos López was astute enough to know when to back down , he resolved to make Paraguay immune to foreign attack in future .
= = = Immediate cause of its construction ; initial works = = =
In 1777 , in colonial times , a modest guardia ( fortlet or lookout post ) was established at Humaitá , a place about 15 miles above the mouth of the River Paraguay . However , a more formidable version was built in stages on the orders of López I. He started the work hurriedly in 1854 during conflict with Brazil over boundaries and navigation , when Paraguay was threatened by a Brazilian flotilla ; fortunately for López , the Brazilians were delayed by the low state of the river . The Paraguayan author and diplomat Gregorio Benítes − who was in the Paraguayan army at the time − gives a slightly different account . López I , hearing the Brazilian squadron was on its way , immediately transferred 6 @,@ 000 troops from Paso de Patria to Humaitá ; working night and day , in 15 days they fortified that place , including furnaces for making red hot cannonballs . The Brazilian squadron desisted because of the strength of the fortifications ; the low state of the water is mentioned only incidentally .
To a design by the Hungarian colonel of engineers Wisner de Morgenstern , he hastily fortified the river 's left bank with a few batteries , which were continually but slowly augmented , and a trench was dug on the land side enclosing the rear of them . He felled the virgin forest , leaving only a few scattered trees , grubbed up the roots , and laid out the first batteries , to whose completion some two years were devoted . By January 1859 the installation appeared formidable . As described by an eye @-@ witness aboard USS Fulton , part of the Paraguay expedition sent by President Buchanan to demand reparations for wrongs alleged to have been done to the United States
Sixteen ominous apertures pointed their gloom , and whatever else they may contain , upon us ; and , like the eyes of the figure in the picture , seemed to follow the vessel 's motion ... These apertures are those of the casemate battery , constructed of brick , but very deep , and defended by the very formidable battery of sixteen eight inch guns .
Numerous other batteries were noticed . Fulton , having left the rest of her squadron behind , was allowed to proceed upriver .
The works , which were continually extended , were supervised by British engineers , of whom there were a considerable number on contract to the government of Paraguay .
= = Description of the finished fortress = =
= = = Location = = =
The fortress of Humaitá was situated on a level cliff about 30 feet ( 10 metres ) above the river , on a sharp horseshoe bend . The bend , called the ‘ ’ ’ Vuelta de Humaitá ’ ’ ’ was an ideal strategic pinch point . It was some 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) long ; the navigable channel narrowed to only 200 metres ( 660 ft ) broad ; the current was 2 @.@ 8 knots ( 5 @.@ 2 km / h ; 3 @.@ 2 mph ) and in places 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) , difficult for the ships of the day to stem ; and ( a matter that was to horrify the Brazilian navy ) ideal for the release of ‘ torpedoes ' ( nineteenth century floating naval mines ) .
An unpleasant surprise for an invading flotilla was that , owing to the peculiar conformation of the river bed , there were " treacherous backwaters which often neutralize the action of the rudder , in direct proportion to the length of vessels " .
= = = = First impression = = = =
The explorer Captain Sir Richard Burton , who visited the scene during the war – when the Brazilians were still dismantling the fortifications – described it thus :
The sweep is more than usually concave , to the benefit of gunnery and the detriment of shipping . Nothing more dangerous than this great bend , where vessels were almost sure to get confused under fire , as happened at Port Hudson to the fleet commanded by Admiral D. G. Farragut . The level bank , twenty to thirty feet above the river , and dipping in places , is bounded by swamps up @-@ stream and down @-@ stream . Earthworks , consisting of trenches , curtains and redans , disposed at intervals where wanted , and suggesting the lines of Torres Vedras , rest both their extremities upon the river , whose shape here is that of the letter U , and extend in gibbous shape inland to the south . The outline measures nearly eight miles and a half , and encloses meadow land to the extent of 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square yards – a glorious battlefield .
= = = River batteries = = =
An invading force , if steaming around the bend upriver , would have to pass eight batteries , all capable of concentrating fire on the reentrant angle . Furthermore shipping was within range of the heavy guns well before arriving at the bend , and well after it .
= = = = Preliminary batteries = = = =
First it had to pass the Humaitá redoubt , armed with a single 8 inch ( 20 cm calibre ) gun .
It must then pass the Itapirú ( seven guns ) ; the Pesada [ heavy ] ( five guns ) , all partly revetted with brick ; the Octava or Madame Lynch ( three guns en barbette ) ; the Coimbra ( eight guns ) ; and the Tacuarí ( three guns ) .
= = = = The Batería Londres = = = =
Next , the invading flotilla must pass the Batería Londres ( so called because most of the técnicos in Paraguay were recruited by the Limehouse , London , firm of J. & A. Blyth ) . Its walls were 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 27 ft ) thick . It was supposed to be rendered bomb @-@ proof by layers of earth heaped upon brick arches , and there were embrasures for 16 guns . " Of these ports " said Burton " eight were walled up and converted into workshops , because the artillerymen were in hourly dread of their caving in and crumbling down . "
= = = = The Batería Cadenas = = = =
As a climax the invading force would come alongside the Bateria Cadenas ( Chain battery , for it protected the chain boom ) , backed by the Artillery Barracks . According to a survey by the Brazilian engineering corps this battery had 18 guns .
= = = The chain boom = = =
The boom across the river , intended to detain shipping under the guns , is variously described in the sources . Richard Burton and Commander Kennedy RN said it comprised 7 chains twisted together , of which ( wrote Burton ) the largest had a 1 @.@ 75 inch diameter link . It was made fast to a windlass supported by a house about 100 yards from the bank . Nearer the battery stood a still larger capstan . Other sources , notably George Thompson ( de facto chief engineer of Paraguayan army ) wrote that there were three chains side @-@ by @-@ side , of which the heaviest had 7 @.@ 5 inch links , sustained by barges and canoes .
The official staff report of Allied force that captured Humaitá , dated 29 July 1868 , by Corderiro Tôrres e Alvim , said that on both banks of the river there were seven chains which , after entering the water , were bound to three . The latter were partly sustained by large floating iron boxes .
= = = Approach = = =
Before even arriving at the Vuelta de Humaitá an invading squadron would first have to navigate the River Paraguay from its mouth , and run the gauntlet of such batteries as the Paraguayans were able to deploy on its left bank , particularly at Curuzú and Curupayty . Whether unarmoured warships could have done so without being sunk was never ascertained ; during the War the unarmoured wooden vessels of the Brazilian Navy did not attempt it .
Although heavily iron @-@ plated ships ought not be sunk by these river batteries , their very weight and size made them difficult , and at times impossible , to navigate in the shallow waters of the River Paraguay . As Commander Kennedy of the Royal Navy observed :
The river Paraguay presents no important obstacles to navigation , the principal point to observe being the [ seasonal ] rise of the water ; this varies sometimes as much as three fathoms ... The danger attendant on grounding in the Paraguay is ... [ that it ] has a sharp rocky bottom ... The entrance to the Paraguay at Tres Bocas is 500 yards wide , and at medium river there is a depth of twelve feet of water . The iron @-@ clads of the Brazilian fleet , many of which drew twelve and thirteen feet of water , were entirely dependent on these periodical rises , both for forward movements , and also for retreat , if it should have been necessary . Their guns and ammunition were not shipped until they arrived at Corrientes ; for the Paraná is equally shallow in various parts ...
It is difficult to conceive a more formidable obstacle to an advancing squadron than this small portion of the river between Tres Bocas and Humaitá . The water is shallow , and most uncertain in its depth ; the turnings in the channel are sharp and frequent , and every available point was bristling with guns of heavy calibre ...
= = = ' Torpedoes ' = = =
For an invading force of ironclads the most dangerous aspect of Humaitá was not the artillery batteries but the ' torpedoes ' that could be released in the confined , shallow and uncharted stream of the River Paraguay .
These torpedoes were improvised floating contact mines . The first was devised by " a Yankee , Mr. Krüger " . They consisted of a zinc cylinder containing a charge of gunpowder . The largest used a charge of 1 @,@ 500 lbs ( 680 kilos ) and the explosion shook the ground at the town of Corrientes , Argentina forty miles off . The fuses were designed and made by George Frederick Masterman , chief apothecary to the Paraguayan Army : they were glass capsules of sulphuric acid which , when broken by striking a heavy object , ignited a potassium chlorate / sugar mixture .
Although most of these devices failed to go off , except prematurely , one did sink the 1 @,@ 000 ton Brazilian ironclad Rio de Janeiro killing 155 men , and since they were released almost every night they had to be taken seriously . The Brazilian navy had patrol boats out rowing in three shifts , including nights , which tried to spot the floating torpedoes ; if they did , they attempted to hook their floats with grappling irons on long lines . Wrote Commander Kennedy RN , " It was a service of great danger " .
Deploying the torpedoes was not without its dangers either . After Kruger 's death – he was blown up by one of his torpedoes – the work was taken over by a Paraguayan called Ramos who had served an apprenticeship in England . He met the same fate , and the work was given to a Polish refugee named Michkoffsky . Michkoffsky used to take the torpedoes down the river in a canoe rowed by four boys . One day he was distracted and the boys absconded to the Allies with the torpedo : he was arrested , reduced to the ranks and sent to the front , where he was soon killed . An anonymous , if brave , Paraguayan diver tried to attach a torpedo to the Brazilian ironclad Brasil by hand : this was deduced when he was found entangled in her rudder @-@ chains , drowned .
The Paraguayans deliberately moored empty demijohns in the river to make the Brazilian navy suppose they marked the situations of torpedoes . It made them noticeably reluctant to navigate its waters .
= = = Landward defences : the Quadrilateral = = =
The Paraguayans had also taken precautions against Humaitá being seized from the landward side . Much of it was protected naturally by carrizal , marsh or swamp , and where not , an elaborate system of trenches was constructed , eventually extending over 13 km ( 8 mi ) with palisades and chevaux @-@ de @-@ fríse at regular intervals , known as the Quadrilateral ( Cuadrilátero , Polígono or Quadrilatero in various language sources ) . These trenches mounted batteries where appropriate . The trenches and natural barriers are shown in the map reproduced in this section of this Article , which was drawn to scale by Lt. Colonel George Thompson ( engineer ) of the Paraguayan army ; he personally made a detailed trigonometric survey of the ground . The map is corroborated by Burton 's detailed verbal description based on his own inspection on horseback and on figures supplied to him by Lt. Colonel Chodasiewicz of the Argentine Army .
Burton reported that the layout required a garrison of at least 10 @,@ 000 men ; at the time of the Siege of Humaitá the Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ chief estimated that it had 18 @,@ 000 and possibly 20 @,@ 000 men and 120 cannon not including the river batteries .
= = = = Unmapped terrain = = = =
While the Paraguayans were familiar with the ground , maps of the territory were , for the Allies , non @-@ existent . The area lay in the province of Ñeembucú , which is flat , low @-@ lying and obscured by swamp or carrizal . For example , when they established their main camp at Tuyutí in southern Paraguay the Allies did not realise they were placing it within earshot of the southeastern line of the Quadrilateral : the Sauce trench . In his 5 @-@ volume work on the Paraguayan war the Brazilian historian Tasso Fragoso insists that a Brazilian high command letter of April 1867
does not leave the slightest doubt that the allies were completely ignorant not only of the topography of the terrain [ to the south of the fortress ] , but that all of it was protected by lines of [ Paraguayan ] entrenchments .
In order to gradually map the area the Allies were obliged to resort to mangrullos ( improvised watch towers ) or ( a first in South American warfare ) captive observation balloons , but the Paraguayans obscured the terrain by lighting fires of damp grass .
= = = = Headquarters = = = =
López II established his headquarters at Paso Pucú , one of the corners of the Quadrilateral ( see map in this Section ) . Amongst orange groves stood the dwellings of López , his mistress Eliza Lynch , and military officers who enjoyed his confidence e.g. Generals Barrios , Resquín , and Bruges ; also Bishop Palacios , Lt Colonel George Thompson the chief engineer and Dr Stewart the surgeon @-@ general . The houses were simple ranchos with thatched roofs . A quadrangle of large traverses or earthworks protected from Allied artillery fire his house , that of Mrs Lynch , and those of his servants . These earthworks were made of sods and the largest was said to contain 422 @,@ 080 pieces . At the centre of the quadrangle was a mangrullo or watchtower . According to Burton the mangrullo 's ladders were surrounded by hides and matting , " an unusual precaution intended to conceal petticoated ankles " , for it was used by Mrs Lynch ; and indeed a contemporaneous drawing by the Brazilian engineering corps does show , unusually for Paraguay , a mangrullo with a covered ascent .
A large military hospital was established halfway between Humaitá and Paso Pucú and another one for field officers at Paso Pucú itself . At Paso Pucú there were two settlements for female camp @-@ followers ; they assisted in the hospitals and washed the soldiers ' clothes . They were allowed no rations , and lived on what beef the soldiers gave them . There was a cemetery , and a prisoner @-@ of war compound .
= = = = Newspapers = = = =
At headquarters were published the military newspapers Cabichuí ( mainly in Spanish ) and Cacique Lambaré ( mainly in Guaraní ) . These featured crude but effective propaganda woodcuts , often of a racially offensive nature . Paper was in short supply but an ersatz version was improvised from caraguatá ( wild pineapple ) .
= = = = Electrical telegraphy = = = =
In the final stages of the fortifications electrical telegraph lines were laid out from Humaitá and the points in the Quadrilateral to López 's headquarters at Pasó Pucú ; and he could instantly be informed — in Morse code — of an enemy attack on any point . The English military engineer George Thompson , a colonel in the Paraguayan army , recorded that the Guaraní became adept telegraphists .
= = = The Chaco side = = =
On the opposite bank of the River Paraguay begins the area known as the Gran Chaco , with a different , hot , semi @-@ arid climate . The opposite bank , now part of Argentina , but in dispute in those days , was inhabited by none except the fierce Toba Amerindians . In front of Humaitá the land was quite impracticable as far as Timbó which , when the river was high , was completely under water . ( Later , military roads were made through there at vast effort . )
= = Strategic significance and perception = =
At least before the introduction of iron @-@ plated warships , Humaitá had the reputation of being impregnable , and it became famous as the " Sebastopol of South America " . During the war the European press compared it to the Richmond and Vicksburg of the American Civil War . It was also famed in Europe and the United States as the Gibraltar of South America .
Michael Mulhall , editor of the Buenos Ayres Standard , passed the site in 1863 and reported it to the world in these terms :
A succession of formidable batteries which frowned on us as we passed under their range … [ A ] ny vessel , unless iron @-@ plated , attempting to force a passage must be sunk by the raking and concentrated fire of this fortification , which is the key to Paraguay and the upper rivers .
When López I built Humaitá all warships were made of wood , and steamships were mostly paddle @-@ driven . Wooden paddle @-@ steamers , if intending to proceed into Paraguay , would have had to steam , against the current , past the succession of batteries – where the range was 200 metres ( 660 ft ) or less – and somehow cut through the boom of twisted chains , without being sunk : this appeared to be impossible .
A modern appreciation by Professor Whigham :
As a strategic site , Humaitá was without equal in the region , for enemy ships could not ascend the Paraguay [ river ] without passing under its guns . It was also exceptionally well protected on the south and east by marshes and lagoons . The few dry areas leading to it could be reinforced with troops in such a way as to frustrate any attack .
= = Weaknesses = =
In fact , Humaitá was not invulnerable , at any rate after a sufficient supply of river @-@ navigating ironclad warships became available in South America . Indeed Burton , having inspected the captured site , thought that its potency had been greatly exaggerated – to the point that it was a bluff . The commander of the Portuguese war vessel Zarco , also there at the time , wondered how Humaitá could have humbled a powerful navy for so long .
= = = Defective weaponry = = =
Although Paraguay could and did manufacture large artillery guns , there was nevertheless a shortage — partly because guns had to be taken to reinforce the landward artillery – and not all of the guns at Humaitá were of acceptable standard . When Burton inspected them ( August 1868 ) he noted that many had been thrown into deep water but the remainder were poor :
The guns barely deserve the name ; some of them were so honeycombed that they must have been used as street posts ... Not the worst of them were made at Asunción or Ibicuy , whose furnaces and air chimneys could melt four tons per diem . Some had been converted , but it was a mere patchwork . A few rifled 12 @-@ pounders had been cast at Asunción . There were sundry old tubes bearing the arms of Spain ; two hailed from Seville , the San Gabriel ( A.D. 1671 ) and the San Juan de Dios ( 1684 ) .
However , Burton may well have been underestimating the Paraguayan artillery at its zenith : according to both Thompson and Jourdan , some guns had already been evacuated to the Chaco side by the Paraguayans when abandoning the fortress .
= = = Defective fortifications = = =
According to Burton the system of fortification lacked the latest developments , mostly using the obsolete en barbette system which failed to protect the defending artillerymen . The consequence :
Thus the works were utterly unfit to resist the developed powers of rifled artillery , the concentrated discharge from shipping , and even the accurate and searching fire of the Spencer carbine . The Londres work , besides being in a state of decay , was an exposed mass of masonry which ought to have shared the fate of forts from Sumpter to Pulaski , and when granite fails bricks cannot hope to succeed . Had the guns been mounted in Monitor towers , or even protected by sand @-@ bags , the ironclads would have suffered much more than they did in running past them .
Other observers formed similar impressions . Thompson wrote that it should have been easy for the Brazilian flotilla firing grape and canister to " sweep the Paraguayans away from their guns " " . The British gunboat HMS Doterel , which had passed the site in 1865 ( long before it was damaged in the war ) likewise thought the artillerymen were far too exposed , and that even the casemated battery ( the Londres ) had poorly constructed embrasures , so wide open as to be " veritable cannonball receptacles " , very dangerous to the garrison .
= = = Obsolescence = = =
López I fortified Humaitá in the era of the wooden paddle @-@ steamer warship . Gloire , the first ironclad warship was not launched until 1859 and that was in France , intended for a blue @-@ water navy ; and no battles between European ironclads had actually happened .
However , the evolution of the navies in the American Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) had fulfilled a demand for heavily armoured vessels that could navigate in river waters . The Battle of Hampton Roads , in which iron @-@ armoured Union and Confederate warships were unable to sink each other , dramatically demonstrated their resistance to heavy artillery . News of this naval engagement arrived in the River Plate on 14 May 1862 and was reported in the Buenos Aires Standard in these terms :
The two steel vessels commenced a cannonade a mile apart , without doing any damage on either side . In less than an hour and a half they were alongside , and then raged so terrible an encounter that both vessels were enveloped in smoke . Two balls from the Monitor entered her adversary 's cuirass ; as soon as the wind cleared away the smoke the Monitor was seen running round Merrimac , looking for a vulnerable point , the vessels being about 35 yards apart ...
The Merrimac drove her spur against the Monitor , which received the awful shock motionless and unhurt . Now they were so close that the guns fired into each others ' mouths : at length the Confederate got a wound which made her hail the others to tow her into Norfolk . After so terrible a conflict for several hours against heavy artillery , the Monitor showed only a few dinges and scratches . The Merrimac 's spur scarcely marked her side .
The superiority so established of steel @-@ clad vessels has caused an immense sensation in America ...
The American sea @-@ fight caused great excitement in England , since it was feared that the new invention would rob that country of naval supremacy . Wooden men of war were declared , in the House of Commons , to be useless , and the Admiralty had stopped all the fortifications and arsenals , to devote all attention to the construction of a steel fleet 35 in number .
Apart from the more conventional ironclads , which the Brazilian navy could order from Britain or France , as noted the Americans had invented the monitor , an armoured , shallow draft , turreted vessel that presented little superstructure to enemy fire ; monitors could be and were built in Brazil . Thus by the time Lopez II fired the first shots against Brazil ( December 1864 ) the Humaitá defences were obsolescent to the latest naval weaponry that could be manufactured or purchased . Brazil was an enormous country and after the war broke out it could have ( and soon did have ) at least 10 ironclads .
That said , an ironclad naval force , by itself , was unlikely to pose a strategic threat to the Paraguayan nation . For assuming the latest ironclads could get past Humaitá – which they eventually did – it did not follow that unarmoured troopships could do so . Without the logistical support of an invading army , ironclads could not have operated far ahead of their lines of supply , except temporarily .
= = = Lack of tautness in the chain boom = = =
Even heavily armoured vessels might have been impeded by the chain boom , but it turned out to have an Achilles ' heel : it could not be drawn tight enough without intermediate floating supports – and these might be sunk by naval gunfire .
Burton 's description of the chain boom was :
The chain , which consisted of seven twisted together , passed diagonally through a kind of brick tunnel . On this side [ of the River Paraguay ] it was made fast to a windlass supported by a house about 100 yards from the bank . Nearer the battery stood a still larger capstan : the latter , however , wanted force to haul tight the chain .
This was so provided an enemy destroyed the chain 's intermediate floating supports ; for as explained by Thompson , the chains were
supported on a number of canoes , and on three pontoons . The [ Brazilian ] ironclads fired for three months at these pontoons and canoes , sinking all of them , when , of course , the chain went to the bottom , as the river there is about 700 yards wide , and the chain could not be drawn tight without intermediate supports . The chain was thus buried some two feet under the mud of the river , offering no obstacle whatever to the navigation .
= = = Supplying the garrison = = =
Because the marshlands were not ideal for the raising of cattle or the cultivation of manioc or maize , and because the Quadrilateral required a large garrison , food for Humaitá needed to be brought in from elsewhere . However , it was a very difficult position to supply .
Cut off by swamps , there was no easy overland communication with the nearest food @-@ producing regions . There was a coastal road , but it was poor , unfitted for oxcarts or cattle droves during the winter floods . During the War there was a shortage of steam vessels ; small river craft were difficult to land in winter . " Paraguay never resolved these transportation difficulties during the siege of Humaitá , and the army suffered the consequences " , observed Professor Cooney .
Even so , Humaitá withstood a siege of more than two years .
= = Unintended consequences = =
The Humaitá system was built to increase the security of Paraguay , but , as will now be described , its strength – real or perceived – may have had the opposite effect in the end .
= = = Provocation of Brazil = = =
For Brazil the fortifications posed a potential threat to her own security and caused her to make some preparations for war . As noted by Lt Colonel George Thompson of the Paraguayan army :
These batteries commanded the whole bend of the river , and Paraguay made all vessels anchor and ask permission before they could pass up the river . As this was the only practicable road which Brazil had to her province of Matto @-@ Grosso [ sic ] , she naturally disapproved of her stoppage of the river , and gradually accumulated large military stores in Matto @-@ Grosso , with the view , no doubt , of some day destroying Humaitá .
= = = Inducing overconfidence = = =
For Leslie Bethell , López II overestimated Paraguay 's military power , and this induced him to behave recklessly . According to Professor Bethell :
Solano López 's decision to declare war first on Brazil and then on Argentina , and to invade both their territories , proved a serious miscalculation , and one that was to have tragic consequences for the Paraguayan people . At the very least Solano López made an enormous gamble – and lost … Thus Solano López 's reckless actions brought about the very thing that most threatened the security , even the existence , of his country : a union of his two powerful neighbours …
For John Hoyt Williams , Humaitá was instrumental in generating this risk @-@ taking behaviour . According to Professor Williams :
The hundreds of heavy calibre guns mounted at Humaitá and elsewhere , the modern navy , railroad , telegraph , and munitions manufacturing establishments – all helped to bring about the horrendous War of the Triple Alliance and their own destruction by providing the hardware with which Francisco Solano López could become the Mariscal and self @-@ appointed arbiter of the Río de la Plata .
And :
Even El Mariscal would not have dared to do more than to defend his immediate borders had not his military materiel [ Williams expressly specifies Humaitá ] encouraged him to redefine those borders and play the wider and infinitely more dangerous role of fulcrum in the balance of power .
After the passage of Humaitá the Buenos Ayres Standard wrote :
None who have ever seen the place have questioned its strength . Old President López had such implicit faith in its impregnability that he believed if even a Xerxes attacked Paraguay he could not get past Humaitá . The same implicit confidence in its strength was inculcated in the minds of the Paraguayan people . Their watchword was ' Humaitá ' , and possibly to the exaggerated idea of its strength by the present López may be traced the grave political error which step by step led this unfortunate man from the cautious policy of his father to became the great champion of River Plate equilibrium .
= = = An alternative view = = =
A possible alternative view is that López was aware that developments in naval warfare were making Humaitá obsolescent , and therefore decided to take the offensive before Paraguay lost the balance of advantage altogether . Paraguay 's chief engineer the talented William Keld Whytehead cannot have failed to become aware of the advantages of ironclad vessels and it is on record that in 1863 he obtained a British patent for an iron @-@ cladded vessel . Indeed López himself only eight months after the Battle of Hampton roads was pressing the American ambassador in Asunción to procure a monitor for him ; and Paraguay placed orders for several ironclads to be built in European or Brazilian yards before the War . Further support for this view is afforded by López 's hesitation in seizing the Marques de Olinda . According to Thompson :
López was at Cerro Leon at the time [ when the Marques de Olinda arrived at Asunción ] , and hesitated for a whole day whether he should break the peace or not ... [ H ] e knew he could assemble every man in the country immediately and raise a large army ; he knew also that the Brazilians would be a long time recruiting to get a large force together , and he did not think they would wish to carry on a war for long . He said , ' If we don 't have a war now with Brazil , we shall have one at a less convenient time for ourselves . ' He therefore sent ... the ' Tacuarí ' ( the fastest steamer on the River Plate ) ... to bring her back to Asunción .
As against that , none of the sources cited in this Article establish why López declared war without waiting for his ironclads to be completed and delivered . According to Burton " it was the general opinion " that with a single ironclad at their disposal the Paraguayans " would have cleared the river " . He went further :
The war , indeed , was altogether premature : had the cuirassed ships and Whitworths ordered by the Marshal @-@ President begun the campaign , he might now have supplied the place of Mexico with a third great Latin empire .
Instead , at an early stage of the war Paraguay 's wooden vessels , only one of which had been built as a warship , were defeated by a Brazilian wooden flotilla at the Battle of the Riachuelo ; hence the River Paraguay was blockaded by the Brazilian navy ; and so the armoured ships he had ordered could neither be delivered nor paid for . The contracts were taken over by Brazil , who , eventually , used these selfsame ironclads to defeat Humaitá .
= = Upshot = =
On a traditional view , after the death of the cautious López I , his son paid not enough attention to his father 's dying words : to try to settle disputes with Brazil with the pen not the sword . He was induced by the then Uruguayan government to intervene in a conflict in the River Plate region , which he did on 13 November 1864 by firing across the bows of , then seizing , the Brazilian government ship the Marques de Olinda as she was proceeding upriver on her monthly voyage to the Mato Grosso ; he proceeded to seize the Mato Grosso itself . According to the American ambassador to Paraguay Charles A. Washburn , Lopez explained his seizure of the Brazilian ship by saying " with more candor than discretion " that only by a war could the attention and respect of the world be secured to Paraguay ; that although Paraguay was a small power in comparison with Brazil , she had " advantages of position " that gave her an equality of strength ; and that the Paraguayan troops would be already " fortified and intrenched " before the Brazilians could arrive in any considerable numbers .
Encouraged by the sluggish response of Brazil , infuriated by the mockery of the Buenos Aires press and impatient at Argentina 's refusal to permit him to invade a further Brazilian province through sovereign Argentine territory , on 13 April 1865 López fired upon and seized two small Argentine naval vessels moored in the port of Corrientes , then proceeded to take the Argentine province of that name , making Paraguayan paper currency compulsory on pain of death . The resulting War of the Triple Alliance was to destroy his country .
= = = The principal military objective of the Treaty of the Triple Alliance was Humaitá = = =
The Treaty of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay was signed 1 May 1865 and specifically stated that Humaitá must be destroyed and never rebuilt . Article 18 provided that the terms of the Treaty should be kept secret until its " principal objective " had been attained ; Consul Thomas Hutchinson thought this referred , not to the deposition of López , but to the demolition of Humaitá . Numerous political objectives are expressly mentioned in the Treaty , but no other military ones .
On the same day the Allied High Command agreed a strategic plan , the first point of which read :
The objective of the campaign operations − to which [ all ] military operations and [ invasion ] routes must be subordinated − should be the position of Humaitá .
And : -
The distance from Paso de Patria [ the invasion point ] to Humaitá is only seven leagues by land , and whatever be the difficulties of the terrain , the short distance , time and the ability to hit the enemy with the ironclads will compensate for it .
= = Effectiveness in practice = =
Despite Burton 's strictures the Fortress of Humaitá was a serious obstacle to the Allies ’ plans to proceed upriver . On it being announced in Buenos Aires that Paraguay had fired upon and seized the Argentine naval vessels , President Mitre told a furious crowd that :
In twenty @-@ four hours we shall be in the barracks , in a fortnight at Corrientes , and in three months at Asunción .
In fact , the Allies did not occupy the Paraguayan capital until 5 January 1869 , nearly four years after Mitre 's speech . The main reason was the Humaitá complex .
It may have been " only seven leagues by land " from Paso de Patria to Humaitá , but it was land that it necessary to traverse . After expelling the Paraguayans from Argentine soil the Allies landed in Paraguay and occupied Paso de Patria on 23 April 1866 . They did not capture Humaitá until 5 August 1868 . The Humaitá phase of the Paraguayan war is outside the scope of this Article . However , B.C. MacDermot thus summarised the difficulties :
[ T ] he terrain conferred a huge advantage on the defence . Below and around Humaitá was a conglomeration of lagoons , marshes and patches of jungle connected by narrow strips of terra firma which the attacking side had to squeeze through on a narrow front ... [ A ] t only two points was an advance inland possible : at Curupayty to the south and Tayí to the north of Humaitá . Behind the natural defences lay the earthworks of Humaitá , with its long outer perimeter touching on Curupaty , and a smaller fort Timbó on the Chaco side of the river . To add to their difficulties the allies found that the ironclads were not as effective as their reputation had led them to hope . They could not move far ahead of their lines of supply . The Paraguayan artillery could not sink them but it could disable them enough to put them out of action . Below the waterline they were exposed to mines and torpedoes . They could be stopped by underwater obstructions and booms . Their ability to manoeuvre depended excessively on the level of the river , which between September and March could fall as much as fourteen feet , restricting the navigable channels and increasing the perils from obstructions or sandbanks .
These difficulties are almost sufficient to account for the failure of the allies to bring about the quick decision that their overwhelming superiority in numbers and armament entitled them to hope for , but they were also handicapped by divided leadership , national jealousies and as time went on a sinking morale . For the Paraguayans these were the years in which the National Epic , as it is to @-@ day called , was forged out of countless deeds of heroism performed under leaders whose names are known in every home .
An additional cause of delay , according to Professor Williams , was the long pause after the debacle of the Battle of Curupayty when the Allies overestimated the strength both of the opposing army and of Humaitá : they allowed López almost a year to rebuild his forces , devastated at the Battle of Tuyutí .
= = = Endgame = = =
On 19 February 1868 when the river was unusually high six Brazilian ironclad vessels were ordered to dash past Humaitá , which they did with no great difficulty because by then the chain boom was anyway lying in the river bed . The Paraguayans stopped resupplying Humaitá by river and it was starved out . The fortress was finally captured in the Siege of Humaitá , an operation that culminated on 5 August 1868 . It was razed pursuant to the Treaty of the Triple Alliance . It was the decisive year of the Paraguayan War .
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= Chrono Cross =
Chrono Cross ( クロノ ・ クロス ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation video game console . It is the successor to Chrono Trigger , which was released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Chrono Cross was developed primarily by scenarist and director Masato Kato and other designers from Chrono Trigger , including art director Yasuyuki Honne and composer Yasunori Mitsuda . Nobuteru Yūki designed the characters of the game .
The story of Chrono Cross focuses on a teenage boy named Serge and a theme of parallel worlds . Faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child , Serge endeavors to discover the truth of the two worlds ' divergence . The flashy thief Kid and many other characters assist him in his travels around the tropical archipelago El Nido . Struggling to uncover his past and find the mysterious Frozen Flame , Serge is chiefly challenged by Lynx , a shadowy antagonist working to apprehend him .
Upon its release in Japan in 1999 and North America in 2000 , Chrono Cross received high ratings and critical acclaim , earning a perfect 10 @.@ 0 score from GameSpot . The game shipped 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , leading to a Greatest Hits re @-@ release and continued life in Japan as part of the Ultimate Hits series . Chrono Cross was released on July 6 , 2011 , on the Japanese PlayStation Network and on November 8 , 2011 , in North America . Square also released a " Millennium Edition " featuring a calendar , clock , and music sampler disc .
= = Gameplay = =
Chrono Cross features standard role @-@ playing video game gameplay with some differences . Players advance the game by controlling the protagonist Serge through the game 's world , primarily by foot and boat . Navigation between areas is conducted via an overworld map , much like Chrono Trigger 's , depicting the landscape from a scaled @-@ down overhead view . Around the island world are villages , outdoor areas , and dungeons , through which the player moves in three dimensions . Locations such as cities and forests are represented by more realistically scaled field maps , in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services , solve puzzles and challenges , or encounter enemies . Like Chrono Trigger , the game features no random encounters ; enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party . Touching the monster switches perspectives to a battle screen , in which players can physically attack , use " Elements " , defend , or run away from the enemy . Battles are turn @-@ based , allowing the player infinite time to select an action from the available menu . For both the playable characters and the computer @-@ controlled enemies , each attack reduces their number of hit points ( a numerically based life bar ) , which can be restored through some Elements . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints . If all the player 's characters fall in battle , the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter — except for specific storyline @-@ related battles that allow the player to lose . Chrono Cross 's developers aimed to break new ground in the genre , and the game features several innovations . For example , players can run away from all conflicts , including boss fights and the final battle .
= = = Battle and Elements = = =
The Element system of Chrono Cross handles all magic , consumable items , and character @-@ specific abilities . Elements unleash magic effects upon the enemy or party and must be equipped for use , much like the materia of 1997 's Final Fantasy VII . Elements can be purchased from shops or found in treasure chests littered throughout areas . Once acquired , they are allocated to a grid whose size and shape are unique to each character . They are ranked according to eight tiers ; certain high level Elements can only be assigned on equivalent tiers in a character 's grid . As the game progresses , the grid expands , allowing more Elements to be equipped and higher tiers to be accessed . Elements are divided into six paired oppositional types , or " colors , " each with a natural effect . Red ( fire / magma ) opposes Blue ( water / ice ) , Green ( wind / flora ) opposes Yellow ( earth / lightning ) , and White ( light / cosmos ) opposes Black ( darkness / gravity ) . Each character and enemy has an innate color , enhancing the power of using same @-@ color Elements while also making them weak against elements of the opposite color . Chrono Cross also features a " field effect " , which keeps track of Element color used in the upper corner of the battle screen . If the field is purely one color , the power of Elements of that color will be enhanced , while Elements of the opposite color will be weakened . Characters also innately learn some special techniques ( " Techs " ) that are unique to each character but otherwise act like Elements . Like Chrono Trigger , characters can combine certain Techs to make more powerful Double or Triple Techs . Consumable Elements may be used to restore hit points or heal status ailments after battle .
Another innovative aspect of Chrono Cross is its stamina bar . At the beginning of a battle , each character has seven points of stamina . When a character attacks or uses an Element , stamina is decreased proportionally to the potency of the attack . Stamina slowly recovers when the character defends or when other characters perform actions in battle . Characters with stamina below one point must wait to take action . Use of an Element reduces the user 's stamina bar by seven stamina points ; this often means that the user 's stamina gauge falls into the negative and the character must wait longer than usual to recover . With each battle , players can enhance statistics such as strength and defense . However , no system of experience points exists ; after four or five upgrades , statistics remain static until players defeat a boss . This adds a star to a running count shown on the status screen , which allows for another few rounds of statistical increases . Players can equip characters with weapons , armor , helmets , and accessories for use in battle ; for example , the " Power Seal " upgrades attack power . Items and equipment may be purchased or found on field maps , often in treasure chests . Unlike Elements , weapons and armor cannot merely be purchased with money ; instead , the player must obtain base materials — such as copper , bronze , or bone — for a blacksmith to forge for a fee . The items can later be disassembled into their original components at no cost .
= = = Parallel dimensions = = =
The existence of two major parallel dimensions , like time periods in Chrono Trigger , plays a significant role in the game . Players must go back and forth between the worlds to recruit party members , obtain items , and advance the plot . Much of the population of either world have counterparts in the other ; some party members can even visit their other versions . The player must often search for items or places found exclusively in one world . Events in one dimension sometimes have an impact in another — for instance , cooling scorched ground on an island in one world allows vegetation to grow in the other world . This system assists the presentation of certain themes , including the questioning of the importance of one 's past decisions and humanity 's role in destroying the environment . Rounding out the notable facets of Chrono Cross 's gameplay are the New Game + option and multiple endings . As in Chrono Trigger , players who have completed the game may choose to start the game over using data from the previous session . Character levels , learned techniques , equipment , and items gathered copy over , while acquired money and some story @-@ related items are discarded . On a New Game + , players can access twelve endings . Scenes viewed depend on players ' progress in the game before the final battle , which can be fought at any time in a New Game + file .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Chrono Cross features a diverse cast of 45 party members . Each character is outfitted with an innate Element affinity and three unique special abilities that are learned over time . If taken to the world opposite their own , characters react to their counterparts ( if available ) . Many characters tie in to crucial plot events . Since it is impossible to obtain all 45 characters in one playthrough , players must replay the game to witness everything . Through use of the New Game + feature , players can ultimately obtain all characters on one save file . Several characters speak with unique accents , including French and Australian English .
Serge , the game 's protagonist , is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old boy with blue hair who lives in the fishing village of Arni . One day , he slips into an alternate world in which he drowned ten years before . Determined to find the truth behind the incident , he follows a predestined course that leads him to save the world . He is assisted by Kid , a feisty , skilled thief who seeks the mythical Frozen Flame . Portrayed as willful and tomboyish due to her rough , thieving past , she helps Serge sneak into Viper Manor . Kid was raised by Lucca as a child , and vows to find and defeat Lynx , an anthropomorphic panther who burned down Lucca 's orphanage . A sadistic and cruel agent of the supercomputer FATE , Lynx is bent on finding Serge and succeeds in taking his body . He travels with Harle , a mysterious , playful girl dressed like a harlequin . Sent by the Dragon God to shadow Lynx and one day steal the Frozen Flame from Chronopolis , she painfully fulfills her duty though smitten with Serge . To this end , she helps Lynx manipulate the Acacia Dragoons , the powerful militia governing the islands of El Nido . As the Dragoons maintain order , they contend with Fargo , a former Dragoon turned pirate captain who holds a grudge against their leader , General Viper . Their home base , Viper Manor , is also infiltrated by Serge , Kid , and one of three characters — Nikki , a musician , Pierre , a hero @-@ in @-@ training , or Guile , a mysterious magician . Though tussling with Serge initially , the Acacia Dragoons — whose ranks include the fierce warriors Karsh , Zoah , Marcy , and Glenn — later assist him when the militaristic nation of Porre invades the archipelago . The invasion brings Norris and Grobyc to the islands , a heartful commander of an elite force and a prototype cyborg soldier , respectively . As they too seek the Frozen Flame , the plot unfolds amidst several other characters .
= = = Story = = =
Chrono Cross begins with Serge located in El Nido , a tropical archipelago inhabited by ancient natives , mainland colonists , and beings called Demi @-@ humans . Serge slips into an alternate dimension in which he drowned on the beach ten years prior , and meets the thief , " Kid " . As his adventure proceeds from here , Serge is able to recruit a multitude of allies to his cause . While assisting Kid in a heist Viper Manor to steal the Frozen Flame , he learns that that ten years before the present , the universe split into two dimensions — one in which Serge lived , and one in which he perished . Through Kid 's Astral Amulet charm , Serge travels between the dimensions . At Fort Dragonia the use of a Dragonian artifact called the Dragon Tear , Lynx switches bodies with Serge . Unaware of the switch , Kid confides in Lynx , who stabs her as the real Serge helplessly watches . Lynx boasts of his victory and banishes Serge to a strange realm called the Temporal Vortex . He takes Kid under his wing , brainwashing her to believe the real Serge ( in Lynx 's body ) is her enemy . Serge escapes with help from Harle , although his new body turns him into a stranger in his own world , with all the allies he had gained up to that point abandoning him due to his new appearance . Discovering that his new body prevents him from traveling across the dimensions , he sets out to regain his former body and learn more of the universal split that occurred ten years earlier , gaining a new band of allies along the way .. He travels to a forbidden lagoon known as the Dead Sea — a wasteland frozen in time , dotted with futuristic ruins . At the center , he locates a man named Miguel and presumably Home world 's Frozen Flame . Charged with guarding the Dead Sea by an entity named FATE , Miguel and three visions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca from Chrono Trigger explain that Serge 's existence dooms Home world 's future to destruction at the hands of Lavos . To prevent Serge from obtaining the Frozen Flame , FATE destroys the Dead Sea .
Able to return to Another world , Serge allies with the Acacia Dragoons against Porre and locates that dimension 's Dragon Tear , allowing him to return to his human form . He then enters the Sea of Eden , Another world 's physical equivalent of the Dead Sea , finding a temporal research facility from the distant future called Chronopolis . Lynx and Kid are inside ; Serge defeats Lynx and the supercomputer FATE , allowing the six Dragons of El Nido to steal the Frozen Flame and retire to Terra Tower , a massive structure raised from the sea floor . Kid falls into a coma , and Harle bids the party goodbye to fly with the Dragons . Serge regroups his party and tends to Kid , who remains comatose . Continuing his adventure , he obtains and cleanses the corrupted Masamune sword from Chrono Trigger . He then uses the Dragon relics and shards of the Dragon Tears to create the mythic Element Chrono Cross . The spiritual power of the Masamune later allows him to lift Kid from her coma . At Terra Tower , the prophet of time , revealed to be Belthasar from Chrono Trigger , visits him with visions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca . Serge learns that the time research facility Chronopolis created El Nido thousands of years ago after a catastrophic experimental failure drew it to the past . The introduction of a temporally foreign object in history caused the planet to pull in a counterbalance from a different dimension . This was Dinopolis , a city of Dragonians — parallel universe descendants of Chrono Trigger 's Reptites . The institutions warred and Chronopolis subjugated the Dragonians . Humans captured their chief creation — the Dragon God , an entity capable of controlling nature .
Chronopolis divided this entity into six pieces and created an Elements system . FATE then terraformed an archipelago , erased the memories of most Chronopolis 's staff , and sent them to inhabit and populate its new paradise . Thousands of years later , a panther demon attacked a three @-@ year @-@ old Serge . His father took him to find assistance at Marbule , but Serge 's boat blew off course due to a raging magnetic storm caused by Schala . Schala , the princess of the Kingdom of Zeal , had long ago accidentally fallen to a place known as the Darkness Beyond Time and began merging with Lavos , the chief antagonist of Chrono Trigger . Schala 's storm nullified Chronopolis 's defenses and allowed Serge to contact the Frozen Flame ; approaching it healed Serge but corrupted his father . A circuit in Chronopolis then designated Serge " Arbiter " , simultaneously preventing FATE from using the Frozen Flame by extension . The Dragons were aware of this situation , creating a seventh Dragon under the storm 's cover named Harle , who manipulated Lynx to steal the Frozen Flame for the Dragons .
After Serge returned home , FATE sent Lynx to kill Serge , hoping that it would release the Arbiter lock . Ten years after Serge drowned , the thief Kid — presumably on Belthasar 's orders — went back in time to save Serge and split the dimensions . FATE , locked out of the Frozen Flame again , knew that Serge would one day cross to Another world and prepared to apprehend him . Lynx switched bodies with Serge to dupe the biological check of Chronopolis on the Frozen Flame . Belthasar then reveals that these events were part of a plan he had orchestrated named Project Kid . Serge continues to the top of Terra Tower and defeats the Dragon God . Continuing to the beach where the split in dimensions had occurred , Serge finds apparitions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca once more . They reveal that Belthasar 's plan was to empower Serge to free Schala from melding with Lavos , lest they evolve into the " Time Devourer " , a creature capable of destroying spacetime . Lucca explains that Kid is Schala 's clone , sent to the modern age to take part in Project Kid . Serge uses a Time Egg — given to him by Belthasar — to enter the Darkness Beyond Time and vanquish the Time Devourer , separating Schala from Lavos and restores the dimensions to one . Thankful , Schala muses on evolution and the struggle of life and returns Serge to his home , noting that he will forget the entire adventure . She then seemingly records the experience in her diary , noting she will always be searching for Serge in this life and beyond , signing the entry as Schala " Kid " Zeal , implying that she and kid have merged and became whole again . A wedding photo of Kid and an obscured male sits on the diary 's desk . Scenes then depict a real @-@ life Kid searching for someone in a modern city , intending to make players entertain the possibility that their own Kid is searching for them . The ambiguous ending leaves the events of the characters ' lives following the game up to interpretation .
= = = Relation to Radical Dreamers = = =
Chrono Cross employs story arcs , characters , and themes from Radical Dreamers , a Satellaview side story to Chrono Trigger released in Japan . An illustrated text adventure , Radical Dreamers was created to wrap up an unresolved plot line of Chrono Trigger . Though it borrows from Radical Dreamers in its exposition , Chrono Cross is not a remake of Radical Dreamers , but a larger effort to fulfill that game 's purpose ; the plots of the games are irreconcilable . To resolve continuity issues and acknowledge Radical Dreamers , the developers of Chrono Cross suggested the game happened in a parallel dimension . A notable difference between the two games is that Magus — present in Radical Dreamers as Gil — is absent from Chrono Cross . Director Masato Kato originally planned for Magus to appear in disguise as Guile , but scrapped the idea due to plot difficulties . In the DS version of Chrono Trigger , Kato teases the possibility of an amnesiac Magus .
= = Development = =
Square began planning Chrono Cross immediately after the release of Xenogears in 1998 ( which itself was originally conceived as a sequel to the SNES game ) . Chrono Trigger 's scenario director Masato Kato had brainstormed ideas for a sequel as early as 1996 , following the release of Radical Dreamers . Square 's managers selected a team , appointed Hiromichi Tanaka producer , and asked Kato to direct and develop a new Chrono game in the spirit of Radical Dreamers . Kato thought Dreamers was released in a " half @-@ finished state " , and wanted to continue the story of the character Kid . Kato and Tanaka decided to produce an indirect sequel . They acknowledged that Square would soon re @-@ release Chrono Trigger as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles , which would give players a chance to catch up on the story of Trigger before playing Cross . Kato thought that using a different setting and cast for Chrono Cross would allow players unfamiliar with Chrono Trigger to play Cross without becoming confused . The Chrono Cross team decided against integrating heavy use of time travel into the game , as they thought it would be " rehashing and cranking up the volume of the last game " . Masato Kato cited the belief , " there 's no use in making something similar to before [ sic ] " , and noted , " we 're not so weak nor cheap as to try to make something exactly the same as Trigger ... Accordingly , Chrono Cross is not Chrono Trigger 2 . It doesn 't simply follow on from Trigger , but is another , different Chrono that interlaces with Trigger . " Kato and Tanaka further explained their intentions after the game 's release :
We didn 't want to directly extend Chrono Trigger into a sequel , but create a new Chrono with links to the original . Yes , the platform changed ; and yes , there were many parts that changed dramatically from the previous work . But in my view , the whole point in making Chrono Cross was to make a new Chrono with the best available skills and technologies of today . I never had any intentions of just taking the system from Trigger and moving it onto the PlayStation console . That 's why I believe that Cross is Cross , and NOT Trigger 2 .
When creating a series , one method is to carry over a basic system , improving upon it as the series progresses , but our stance has been to create a completely new and different world from the ground up , and to restructure the former style . Therefore , Chrono Cross is not a sequel to Chrono Trigger . Had it been , it would have been called Chrono Trigger 2 . Our main objective for Chrono Cross was to share a little bit of the Chrono Trigger worldview , while creating a completely different game as a means of providing new entertainment to the player . This is mainly due to the transition in platform generation from the SNES to the PS . The method I mentioned above , about improving upon a basic system , has inefficiencies , in that it 's impossible to maximize the console 's performance as the console continues to make improvements in leaps and bounds . Although essentially an RPG , at its core , it is a computer game , and I believe that games should be expressed with a close connection to the console 's performance . Therefore , in regards to game development , our goal has always been to " express the game utilizing the maximum performance of the console at that time . " I strongly believe that anything created in this way will continue to be innovative .
Full production began on Chrono Cross in mid @-@ 1998 . The Chrono Cross team reached 80 members at its peak , with additional personnel of 10 – 20 cut @-@ scene artists and 100 quality assurance testers . The team felt pressure to live up to the work of Chrono Trigger 's " Dream Team " development group , which included famous Japanese manga artist Akira Toriyama . Kato and Tanaka hired Nobuteru Yūki for character design and Yasuyuki Honne for art direction and concept art . The event team originally envisioned a short game , and planned a system by which players would befriend any person in a town for alliance in battle . Developers brainstormed traits and archetypes during the character @-@ creation process , originally planning 64 characters with unique endings that could vary in three different ways per character . Kato described the character creation process : " Take Pierre , for example : we started off by saying we wanted a wacko fake hero like Tata from Trigger . We also said things like ' we need at least one powerful mom ' , ' no way we 're gonna go without a twisted brat ' , and so on so forth . "
As production continued , the length of Cross increased , leading the event team to reduce the number of characters to 45 and scrap most of the alternate endings . Developers humorously named the character Pip " Tsumaru " in Japanese ( which means " packed " ) as a pun on their attempts to pack as much content into the game as possible . To avoid the burden of writing unique , accented dialogue for several characters , team member Kiyoshi Yoshii coded a system that produces accents by modifying basic text for certain characters . Art director Nobuteru Yuuki initially wanted the characters to appear in a more chibi format with diminutive proportions . The game world 's fusion of high technology and ethnic , tribal atmospheres proved challenging at first . He later recalled striving to harmonize the time period 's level of technology , especially as reflected in characters ' garb .
The Chrono Cross team devised an original battle system using a stamina bar and Elements . Kato planned the system around allowing players to avoid repetitive gameplay ( also known as " grinding " ) to gain combat experience . Hiromichi Tanaka likened the Elements system to card games , hoping players would feel a sense of complete control in battle . The team programmed each battle motion manually instead of performing motion capture . Developers strove to include tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor in the battle system 's techniques and animations to distance the game from the Final Fantasy franchise . Masato Kato planned for the game 's setting to feature a small archipelago , for fear that players would become confused traveling in large areas with respect to parallel worlds . He hoped El Nido would still impart a sense of grand scale , and the development team pushed hardware limitations in creating the game 's world . To create field maps , the team modeled locations in 3D , then chose the best angle for 2D rendering . The programmers of Chrono Cross did not use any existing Square programs or routines to code the game , instead writing new , proprietary systems . Other innovations included variable @-@ frame rate code for fast @-@ forward and slow @-@ motion gameplay ( awarded as a bonus for completing the game ) and a " CD @-@ read swap " system to allow quick data retrieval .
Masato Kato directed and wrote the main story , leaving sub @-@ plots and minor character events to other staff . The event team sometimes struggled to mesh their work on the plot due to the complexity of the parallel worlds concept . Masato Kato confirmed that Cross featured a central theme of parallel worlds , as well as the fate of Schala , which he was previously unable to expound upon in Chrono Trigger . Concerning the ending sequences showing Kid searching for someone in a modern city , he hoped to make players realize that alternate futures and possibilities may exist in their own lives , and that this realization would " not ... stop with the game " . He later added , " Paraphrasing one novelist 's favorite words , what 's important is not the message or theme , but how it is portrayed as a game . Even in Cross , it was intentionally made so that the most important question was left unanswered . " Kato described the finished story as " ole ' boy @-@ meets @-@ girl type of story " with sometimes @-@ shocking twists . Kato rode his motorcycle to relieve the stress of the game 's release schedule . He continued refining event data during the final stages of development while the rest of the team undertook debugging and quality control work . Square advertised the game by releasing a short demo of the first chapter with purchases of Legend of Mana . The North American version of Cross required three months of translation and two months of debugging before release . Richard Honeywood translated , working with Kato to rewrite certain dialogue for ease of comprehension in English . He also added instances of wordplay and alliteration to compensate for difficult Japanese jokes . To streamline translation for all 45 playable characters , Honeywood created his own version of the accent generator which needed to be more robust than the simple verbal tics of the Japanese cast . Although the trademark Chrono Cross was registered in the European Union , the game was not released in Europe .
= = = Music = = =
Chrono Cross was scored by freelance video game music composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who previously worked on Chrono Trigger . Director Masato Kato personally commissioned Mitsuda 's involvement , citing a need for the " Chrono sound " . Kato envisioned a " Southeast Asian feel , mixed with the foreign tastes and the tones of countries such as Greece " ; Mitsuda centered his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . Mitsuda cited visual inspiration for songs : " All of my subjects are taken from scenery . I love artwork . " To complement the theme of parallel worlds , he gave Another and Home respectively dark and bright moods , and hoped players would feel the emotions of " ' burning soul , ' ' lonely world , ' and ' unforgettable memories ' " . Mitsuda and Kato planned music samples and sound effects with the philosophy of " a few sounds with a lot of content " .
Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , as selected by Masato Kato , sang the ending song — " Radical Dreamers – The Unstolen Jewel " . Ryo Yamazaki , a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix , helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation 's sound capabilities ; Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Certain songs were ported from the score of Radical Dreamers , such as Gale , Frozen Flame , and Viper Mansion . Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . The melody of Far Promise ~ Dream Shore features prominently in The Dream That Time Dreams and Voyage ~ Another World . Masato Kato faced internal opposition in hiring Noriko Mitose :
Personally , for me , the biggest pressure was coming from the ending theme song . From the start of the project , I had already planned to make the ending into a Japanese song , but the problem was now " who was going to sing the song ? " There was a lot of pressure from the people in the PR division to get someone big and famous to sing it , but I was totally against the idea . And as usual , I didn 't heed to the surrounding complaints , but this time , there was a pretty tough struggle .
Production required six months of work . After wrapping , Mitsuda and Kato played Chrono Cross to record their impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes ; the ending theme brought Kato to tears . Players who preordered the game received a sampler disc of five songs , and Square released a three @-@ CD official soundtrack in Japan after the game 's debut . The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for the PlayStation Awards of 2000 . In 2005 , Square Enix reissued the soundtrack due to popular demand . Earlier that year , Mitsuda announced a new arranged Chrono Cross album , scheduled for release in July 2005 . Mitsuda 's contract with Square gave him ownership and full rights to the soundtrack of Chrono Cross . It was delayed , and at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006 , he revealed it would feature acoustic music and would be " out within the year " , later backtracking and alleging a 2007 release date . Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a finished track on his personal website in January 2009 , and has stated the album will be released to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the Japanese debut of Cross . Music from Chrono Cross has been featured in the September 2009 Symphonic Fantasies concerts , part of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series conducted by Arnie Roth . The track " Dimension Break " was remixed by Mitsuda for inclusion on the charity album Play For Japan in 2011 . That same year , the Chrono Cross theme " Time 's Scar " was voted first place in Hardcore Gaming 101 's " Best Video Game Music of All Time " poll . " Time 's Scar " was also featured in 2012 by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores .
= = Release and reception = =
Chrono Cross shipped 850 @,@ 000 units in Japan and 650 @,@ 000 abroad . It was re @-@ released once in the United States as a Sony Greatest Hits title and again as part of the Japanese Ultimate Hits series . Chrono Cross was also released on the PlayStation Network in Japan on July 6 , 2011 , and in North America on November 8 , 2011 , but a PAL region release has not been announced . Critics praised the game 's complex plot , innovative battle system , varied characters , moving score , vibrant graphics , and success in breaking convention with its predecessor . Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Chrono Cross a Gold Award , scoring it 10 / 10 / 9 @.@ 5 in their three reviewer format ; the first review declared the game to be " a masterpiece , plain and simple " . GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10 , one of only nine games in the 40 @,@ 000 games listed on Gamespot to have been given the score , and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000 . IGN gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 7 , and Cross appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list . Famitsu rated the game 36 out of 40 from four reviewers . As of December 2010 , GameRankings rates Chrono Cross at 92 % .
Reviewers thought the game 's flaws were its vague ending , confusing plot elements , and narrative pacing problems . Fan reaction was largely positive , though certain fans complained that the game was a far departure from its predecessor , Chrono Trigger ; Chrono Cross broke convention by featuring more characters , fewer double and triple techs , fewer instances of time travel , and few appearances of Trigger characters and locations . Producer Hiromichi Tanaka and director Masato Kato were aware of the changes in development , specifically intending to provide an experience different from Chrono Trigger . Kato anticipated and rebuffed this discontent before the game 's release , wondering what the Chrono title meant to these fans and whether his messages ever " really got through to them " . He continued , " Cross is undoubtedly the highest quality Chrono that we can create right now . ( I won 't say the ' best ' Chrono , but ) If you can 't accept that , then I 'm sorry to say this but I guess your Chrono and my Chrono have taken totally different paths . But I would like to say , thank you for falling in love with Trigger so much . " Tanaka added , " Of course , the fans of the original are very important , but what innovation can come about when you 're bound to the past ? I believe that gameplay should evolve with the hardware . "
= = Sequel = =
There is no planned continuation of the Chrono series . In 2001 , Hironobu Sakaguchi revealed the company 's staff wanted to develop a new game and were discussing script ideas . Although Kato was interested in a new title , the project had not been greenlighted . Square then registered a trademark for Chrono Break worldwide , causing speculation concerning a new sequel . Nothing materialized , and the trademark was dropped in the United States on November 13 , 2003 , though it still stands in Japan and the European Union . Kato later returned to Square Enix as a freelancer to work on Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana . Mitsuda also expressed interest in scoring a new Chrono series game . In 2005 , Kato and Mitsuda teamed up to do a game called Deep Labyrinth , and again in 2008 for Sands of Destruction , both for the Nintendo DS . The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the May 1 , 2009 , issue of Famitsu , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked , " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! "
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= Hurricane Ginger =
Hurricane Ginger was the second longest @-@ lasting Atlantic hurricane on record . The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season , Ginger spent 27 @.@ 25 days as a tropical cyclone , lasting from September 6 to October 3 . Twenty of those days ( September 11 @-@ September 30 ) , Ginger was classified as a hurricane . The storm formed northeast of the Bahamas , and for the first nine days of its duration tracked generally eastward or northeastward while gradually strengthening to peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . On September 14 , Ginger slowed and turned to a general westward track , passing near Bermuda on September 23 . There , the hurricane produced gusty winds and high waves , but no damage .
While over the western Atlantic Ocean , Ginger became the last target of Project Stormfury , which sought to weaken hurricanes by depositing silver iodide into tropical cyclone rainbands . Ginger ultimately struck North Carolina on September 30 as a minimal hurricane , lashing the coastline with gusty winds that caused power outages across the region . Heavy rainfall flooded towns and left severe crop damage , with 3 million bushels of corn and 1 million bushels of soybean lost . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 US dollars , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Further north , moderate precipitation and winds spread through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , although no significant damage was reported outside North Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ginger originated in a cold @-@ core upper @-@ level low that persisted for several days in early September in the Western Atlantic Ocean . The upper @-@ level low was located within a large , persistent area of convection from the Gulf of Mexico through the central Atlantic , which resembled the Intertropical Convergence Zone but at a higher latitude . The convective feature was influenced by an anticyclone located over northern South America , which was opposite of the typical flow for September . The anticyclone also led to the formation of Hurricane Fern , Tropical Storm Heidi , and two tropical depressions . By September 5 , the low had descended to the surface as its thermal structure warmed , and the next day it developed into a tropical depression about 235 mi ( 375 km ) northeast of the Bahamas .
After forming , the depression moved slowly southeastward for about 24 hours before turning to the northeast , slowly organizing in the process . On September 10 , the depression turned eastward , and later that day intensified into Tropical Storm Ginger , the seventh named storm of the year in the Atlantic , about 325 mi ( 525 km ) south of Bermuda . The storm quickly intensified , and within 24 hours reached winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , making it a hurricane . It turned to the northeast , passing well to the east of Bermuda . Late on September 13 , Ginger attained its minimum barometric pressure of 959 mbar ( 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) , and early the next day reached peak maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . After reaching a position about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores , the hurricane 's eastward movement halted due to a building ridge to its north and east . It turned sharply southward before turning and beginning a westerly drift , during which Ginger weakened to minimal hurricane status .
For about six days , Ginger maintained minimal hurricane status . As it meandered over the central Atlantic Ocean , it maintained an unusually large eye , reaching 80 mi ( 130 km ) in diameter . On September 18 , Ginger turned to the south and slowly executed a tight counterclockwise loop within three days . By September 21 , the hurricane was tracking south of due west , and the next day suddenly intensified to winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Its westward track briefly posed a threat to Bermuda , although Ginger passed 115 mi ( 185 km ) south of the island on September 23 while slowly weakening . On September 24 , Ginger decelerated before beginning a turn to the southwest . By September 26 , Ginger briefly weakened to minimal hurricane strength , although re @-@ intensification resumed as the track turned to the west and northwest . Around that time , Ginger absorbed the smaller and weaker Tropical Storm Janice to its southeast .
For three days , beginning on September 26 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration deployed planes into the hurricane as part of Project Stormfury , the fourth hurricane to be a part of the weather control experiment . The plane dropped silver iodide into the center of the hurricane , although there was no effect due to Ginger 's large eye and diffuse nature ; this was the last seeding done by the project . By September 28 , Ginger was moving northwestward toward North Carolina and was steadily intensifying . At around 06 : 00 UTC the next day , the hurricane reached a secondary peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , which it maintained for about 18 hours . Afterward , Ginger slowly weakened , and late on September 30 it made landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . It quickly deteriorated over land , weakening first to a tropical storm and then to a tropical depression by late on October 1 . Ginger turned to the north , entered southern Virginia , and later turned to the east . On October 3 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while crossing Hampton Roads into the Atlantic Ocean . The remnants of Ginger continued east @-@ southeastward until being absorbed by a cold front on October 5 .
= = Preparations = =
The threat of the hurricane in Bermuda prompted the British Royal Navy to evacuate a ship , and also resulted in two cruise ships leaving early . The United States military also evacuated some planes and secured the units that remained . Officials closed all of the island 's schools during Ginger 's passage .
Before Ginger struck North Carolina , the American Red Cross set up 28 emergency shelters in six counties , where about 5 @,@ 500 people stayed during the storm . The National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch from Wilmington , North Carolina , to Virginia Beach , Virginia , with gale warnings extending northward to Rehoboth Beach , Delaware . United States military officials evacuated planes and ships from the Norfolk , Virginia , region , in addition to flying planes down the coast to warn boaters of the approaching storm . Ferry services around the Outer Banks were canceled during the storm 's passage , while the Coast Guard ordered the evacuation of workers in three lighthouses .
= = Impact = =
As the hurricane passed south of Bermuda on September 23 , it produced heavy waves , as well as gale force winds for 17 hours . Naval Air Station Bermuda reported peak gusts of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . There was no reported damage , and the hurricane 's passage failed to alleviate persistent drought conditions .
While Ginger was still in the vicinity of Bermuda , it produced high swells and riptides along the East Coast of the United States , prompting the issuing of small craft warnings from Florida to North Carolina . Wave heights reached 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in Sebastian , Florida , and one person was killed in St. Augustine from drowning . There were also initial reports of two missing people in Neptune Beach , Florida , but they were not listed as casualties in the year @-@ end hurricane summary .
As it moved ashore in North Carolina , Ginger produced a storm tide of around 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) along the Outer Banks and up to 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in Pamlico Sound . The storm dropped heavy rainfall peaking at 15 @.@ 58 in ( 396 mm ) in Bodie Island along the Outer Banks , making Ginger among the wettest tropical cyclones in the state . Rainfall from the storm extended southwestward into South Carolina , where precipitation reached 4 @.@ 98 in ( 126 mm ) in Cheraw . In Atlantic Beach , North Carolina , wind gusts reached 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) , the highest associated with Ginger in the United States . The hurricane had a large wind field upon moving ashore , affecting a large portion of North Carolina ; one county official considered Ginger the largest storm in the region since 1936 .
Strong winds from Ginger damaged store fronts and windows , and also downed power lines and trees . Morehead City , where the hurricane moved ashore , lost power and had debris strewn across the streets . The nearby cities of New Bern , Beaufort , and Atlantic Beach also lost power , and one company had 6 @,@ 000 customers without power . Heavy rainfall caused the Neuse and Trent rivers to exceed their banks , resulting in flooding . Several oil tanks along the rivers broke open , creating dangerous boating conditions . Up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water from the Pungo River flooded most of the city of Belhaven , and similar flooding occurred in Washington , entering dozens of buildings and houses . Across the region , the combination of high winds , tides , and flooding closed several bridges and roads , including a portion of U.S. Highway 70 . The winds also destroyed several mobile homes , although coastal damage was less than expected . During Ginger 's passage , the Salvation Army and Red Cross provided more than 3 @,@ 000 people with food assistance .
Further inland , the combination of strong winds and rains left heavy crop damage , destroying 3 million bushels of corn and another million bushels of soybeans ; losses to the corn crop were mitigated due to about half of the crop having been harvested before the storm 's arrival . Heavy damage was also reported to the peanut crop as well as to various fruits and vegetables . In some locations , up to 15 % of the cotton crop was lost , particularly in the northeastern portion of the state . In 45 counties in the eastern portion of the state , farmers affected by the hurricane were eligible for loans from the Farmers Home Administration , following federal approval from United States President Richard Nixon . Governor Robert W. Scott requested federal disaster aid for 24 counties , which was denied . Damage in North Carolina was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 USD , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) , of which about $ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 5 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) was from coastal flooding . One death occurred in Washington when a vehicle accident was possibly caused by a wind gust ; however , it was not conclusively linked to Ginger .
As the storm crossed into Virginia , it continued to produce heavy rainfall , including a total of 7 @.@ 61 in ( 193 mm ) in Norfolk . Near the border between Virginia and North Carolina , the storm produced tides of up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal . Gusty winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) downed a few trees , causing scattered power outages . Above @-@ normal tides and waves caused moderate to heavy beach erosion in Virginia Beach . Further north , Ginger produced above @-@ normal tides , light winds , and scattered rainfall along the Delmarva Peninsula and northward through New York .
= = Record longevity = =
Hurricane Ginger formed on September 6 and lasted until October 3 , for a total of 27 @.@ 25 days . Its duration surpassed that of Hurricane Inga in 1969 , which was the previous record @-@ holder , by three days . In 2003 , it was discovered that the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane lasted as a tropical cyclone longer than Ginger , although its duration as a tropical cyclone was not continuous . This made Ginger the second longest @-@ lived of any Atlantic hurricane , but it remains the storm that lasted the most consecutive days as a tropical cyclone in the basin .
Ginger spent 20 days as a hurricane from September 11 to September 30 , one of the longest durations on record at that intensity . In addition , Ginger co @-@ existed with several other tropical cyclones , including on September 11 when there were four named storms at the same time , a rare occurrence ; the others were Hurricane Edith , Hurricane Fern , and Tropical Storm Heidi .
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= Ontario Highway 90 =
King 's Highway 90 , commonly referred to as Highway 90 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route connected Barrie with the town of Angus and CFB Borden . The highway was designated in 1937 . During the early 1960s , the highway was realigned within Barrie in order to have it interchange with Highway 400 ; originally the route followed Tiffin Street . At the beginning of 1998 , the entire highway was transferred to the City of Barrie and Simcoe County ; it is now known as Simcoe County Road 90 .
= = Route description = =
Today , the former routing of Highway 90 is known as Dunlop Street within Barrie and Simcoe County Road 90 outside of the city . The route begins at a split between Cambrai Road , which provides access to Camp Borden , and Simcoe County Road 10 , which continues south to Alliston and Tottenham . The four lane Simcoe County Road 90 progresses north through the centre of Angus . North of the Barrie Collingwood Railway overhead , it acts as the principal commercial strip for the town . North of Angus , the highway makes a broad 90 degree turn to the east and skims the southern edge of the Minesing Wetlands , an internationally significant bog .
East of the swamp , the road enters Essa , where it intersects the Sunnidale Road ( Simcoe County Road 40 ) . From there to Barrie , the highway passes through a largely rural area . It intersects former Highway 131 , now Simcoe County Road 27 , then enters Barrie at Miller Drive , curving northeast . East of Ferndale Drive , the route crosses Highway 400 at Exit 96 . Shortly thereafter , as it approaches the waterfront of Kempenfelt Bay , the route ends at High Street in downtown Barrie .
Simcoe County Road 90 is two lanes wide between McKinnon Road , north of Angus , and Ferndale Drive in Barrie , although a passing lane is provided for eastbound traffic between Angus and Essa . The road also widens to four lanes briefly at the junction with former Highway 131 west of Barrie , as well as within the city and within Angus . The land use surrounding the route is mixed , with pastures and forests composing the majority of the setting . Residences and small businesses are also scattered throughout the length of the route .
= = History = =
Highway 90 was originally assumed by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , the predecessor to today 's Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) , during the late 1930s . The primary purpose for the highway was to connect the CFB Borden military base at Angus with the main north – south routes of central Ontario . At that time , these were Highway 27 and Highway 11 . On October 6 , 1937 , the DHO designated the Barrie to Angus Road as King 's Highway 90 . The initially unimproved road was paved shortly after the outbreak of World War II ; a contract was awarded to Brennan Paving of Hamilton during the autumn of 1939 , and work completed by the end of the year .
Initially , Highway 90 followed Tiffin Street through Barrie , ending just short of the waterfront of Kempenfelt Bay at the intersection of Essa Street ( Highway 27 ) and Bradford Street ( Highway 11 / 27 ) . However , during the early 1960s the route was modified so as to provide an interchange with Highway 400 . A new interchange was constructed during the late 1950s at what was then known as Elizabeth Street in order to provide better access to downtown Barrie from the freeway . By 1960 , Highway 90 had been rerouted northwest along Ferndale Drive and northeast along Elizabeth Street . Though it still ended at Bradford Street , it intersected it 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) to the north . By 1961 , Elizabeth Street was renamed as Dunlop Street West . By 1964 , Dunlop Street was extended southwest of Ferndale Drive to merge with Tiffin Street at Miller Drive ( the present city limits ) .
The highway remained unchanged for over three decades , with the exception of a Connecting Link agreement established between the MTO and the City of Barrie . However , during the late 1990s , the MTO transferred many highways to lower levels of government as a cost @-@ cutting measure . Highway 90 was transferred to Simcoe County on January 1 , 1998 . The Connecting Link through Barrie was also discontinued . Simcoe County has since renamed its portion of the route as Simcoe County Road 10 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 90 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= = Current construction = =
The current construction to widen the highway to 5 lanes could last until 2020 .
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= Bjarke Ingels =
Bjarke Bundgaard Ingels ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈb ̥ jɑːg ̊ ə ˈb ̥ ɔng ̊ ɒːˀ ˈeŋˀl ̩ s ] ; born 2 October 1974 ) is a Danish architect . He is the founder and creative partner of Bjarke Ingels Group ( BIG ) since 2005 . He is known for buildings that defy traditional architectural conventions and dimensions , ranging from representations of mountains to snowflakes . His designs incorporate sustainable development ideas and sociological concepts , along with sloped lines that are shaped to their surroundings .
In Denmark , he became known for designing two housing complexes in Ørestad : VM Houses and Mountain Dwellings . In 2006 he started his own architecture firm , Bjarke Ingels Group , which grew to a staff of 400 by 2015 . Some of their best known projects are the 8 House housing complex , a zero @-@ emission resort on Zira Island in Azerbaijan described as " one of the world 's largest eco @-@ developments " , the VIA ( West 57 ) apartments in Manhattan , the Google North Bayshore headquarters ( co @-@ designed with Thomas Heatherwick ) , the Superkilen park ; and the Amager Bakke waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant .
Since 2009 , Ingels has won numerous architectural competitions . In October 2011 , the Wall Street Journal named him the Innovator of the Year for architecture . He moved to New York City in 2012 , where in addition to the VIA apartments , BIG won a design contest for improving Manhattan 's flood resistance after Hurricane Sandy , and are designing the new Two World Trade Center building .
= = Early life and background = =
Ingels was born in Copenhagen in 1974 to an engineer father and a dentist mother . Hoping to become a cartoonist , he began to study architecture in 1993 at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts as he thought it would help him to improve his drawing skills . Only after he had been studying for a couple of years did he really take an interest in architecture . He continued his studies at the Escola Tècnica Superior d 'Arquitectura in Barcelona , and returned to Copenhagen to receive his diploma in 1999 . As a third @-@ year student in Barcelona , he set up his first practice and won his first competition .
Alongside his architectural practice , Ingels has been a Visiting Professor at the Rice University School of Architecture , the Harvard Graduate School of Design , the Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture , Planning and Preservation , and mostly recently , the Yale School of Architecture .
= = Career = =
= = = 1998 – 2005 = = =
From 1998 to 2001 , Ingels worked for Rem Koolhaas at the Office for Metropolitan Architecture in Rotterdam . In 2001 , he returned to Copenhagen to set up the architectural practice PLOT together with Belgian OMA colleague Julien de Smedt . The company received national and international attention for their inventive designs . They were awarded a Golden Lion at the Venice Biennale of Architecture in 2004 for a proposal for a new music house for Stavanger , Norway .
PLOT completed a 2 @,@ 500 m2 ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) series of five open @-@ air swimming pools , Islands Brygge Harbour Bath , on the Copenhagen Harbour front with special facilities for children in 2003 . They also completed Maritime Youth House , a sailing club and a youth house at Sundby Harbour , Copenhagen .
The first major achievement for PLOT was the award @-@ winning VM Houses in Ørestad , Copenhagen , in 2005 . Inspired by Le Corbusier 's Unité d 'Habitation concept , they designed two residential blocks , in the shape of the letters V and M ( as seen from the sky ) ; the M House with 95 units , was completed in 2004 , and the V House , with 114 units , in 2005 . The design places strong emphasis on daylight , privacy and views . Rather than looking over the neighboring building , all of the apartments have diagonal views of the surrounding fields . Corridors are short and bright , rather like open bullet holes through the building . There are some 80 different types of apartment in the complex , adaptable to individual needs . The building garnered Ingels and Smedt the Forum AID Award for the best building in Scandinavia in 2006 . Ingels lived in the complex until 2008 when he moved into the adjacent Mountain Dwellings .
In 2005 , Ingels also completed the Helsingør Psychiatric Hospital in Helsingør , a hospital which is shaped like a snowflake . Each room of the hospital was specially designed to have a view , with two groups of rooms facing the lake , and one group facing the surrounding hills .
= = = 2006 – 2008 = = =
After PLOT was disbanded at the end of 2005 , in January 2006 Ingels made Bjarke Ingels Group ( BIG ) its own company . It grew to 400 employees by 2016 .
BIG began working on the 25 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 82 ft ) Mountain Dwellings on the VM houses site in the Ørestad district of Copenhagen , combining 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of housing with 20 @,@ 000 m2 ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of parking and parking space , with a mountain theme throughout the building . The apartments scale the diagonally sloping roof of the parking garage , from street level to 11th floor , creating an artificial , south facing ' mountainside ' where each apartment has a terrace measuring around 93 m2 ( 1 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The parking garage contains spots for 480 cars . The space has up to 16 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 52 ft ) ceilings , and the underside of each level of apartments is covered in aluminium painted in a distinctive colour scheme of psychedelic hues which , as a tribute to Danish 1960s and ' 70s furniture designer Verner Panton , are all exact matches of the colours he used in his designs . The colours move , symbolically , from green for the earth over yellow , orange , dark orange , hot pink , purple to bright blue for the sky . The northern and western facades of the parking garage depict a 3 @,@ 000 m2 ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) photorealistic mural of Himalayan peaks . The parking garage is protected from wind and rain by huge shiny aluminium plates , perforated to let in light and allow for natural ventilation . By controlling the size of the holes , the sheeting was transformed into the giant rasterized image of Mount Everest . Completed in October 2008 , it received the World Architecture Festival Housing Award ( 2008 ) , Forum AID Award ( 2009 ) and the MIPIM Residential Development Award at Cannes ( 2009 ) . Dwell magazine has stated that the Mountain Dwellings " stand as a beacon for architectural possibility and stylish multifamily living in a dense , design @-@ savvy city . "
Their third housing project , 8 House , commissioned by Store Frederikslund Holding , Høpfner A / S and Danish Oil Company A / S in 2006 and completed in October 2010 , was the largest private development ever undertaken in Denmark and in Scandinavia , combining retail with commercial row houses and apartments . It is also Ingels ' third housing development in Ørestad , following VM Houses and Mountain Dwellings . The sloping , bow @-@ shaped 10 @-@ storey building consists of 61 @,@ 000 m2 ( 660 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of three different types of residential housing and 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of retail premises and offices , providing views over the fields and marches of Kalvebod Faelled to the south . The 476 @-@ unit apartment building forms a figure 8 around two courtyards . Noted for its green roof which won it the 2010 Scandinavian Green Roof Award , Ingels explained , " The parts of the green roof that remain were seen by the client as integral to the building as they are visible from the ground . These not only provide the environmental benefits that we all know come from green roofs , but also add to the visual drama and appeal of the sloping roofs and rooftop terrace in between . " The building also won the Best Residential Building at the 2011 World Architecture Festival , and the Huffington Post included 8 House as one of the " 10 Best Architecture Moments of 2001 – 2010 . "
In 2007 , Ingels exhibited at the Storefront for Art and Architecture in New York City and was commissioned to design the Danish Maritime Museum in Helsingør . The current museum is located on the UNESCO World Heritage Site of nearby Kronborg Castle . The concept of the building is ' invisible ' space , a subterranean museum which is still able to incorporate dramatic use of daylight . In launching the $ 40 million project , BIG had to reinforce an abandoned concrete dry dock on the site , 150 metres ( 490 ft ) long , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) wide and 9 metres ( 30 ft ) deep , building the museum on the periphery of the reinforced dry dock walls which will form the facade of the new museum . The dry dock will also host exhibitions and cultural events throughout the year . The museum 's interior is designed to simulate the ambiance of a ship 's deck , with a slightly downward slope . The 7 @,@ 600 m2 ( 82 @,@ 000 sq ft ) exhibition gallery is to house an extensive collection of paintings , model ships , and historical equipment and memorabilia from the Danish Navy . Ingels is collaborating with consulting engineer Rambøll , Alectia for project management , and E. Pihl & Søn and Kossmann.dejong for construction and interior design . Some 11 different foundations are funding the project . Construction began on the museum in September 2010 and it is scheduled for completion by the summer of 2013 . In September 2012 , the Kronborg and Zig @-@ Zag Bridge components to the building were shipped in from China .
= = = 2009 – present : international scope = = =
Ingels designed a pavilion in the shape of a loop for the Danish World Expo 2010 pavilion in Shanghai . The open @-@ air 3 @,@ 000 m2 ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) steel pavilion has a spiral bicycle path , accommodating up to 300 cyclists who experience Danish culture and ideas for sustainable urban development . In the centre , amid a pool of 1 million litres ( 264 @,@ 172 gallons ) of water , is the Copenhagen statue of The Little Mermaid , paying homage to Danish author Hans Christian Andersen .
In 2009 , Ingels designed the new National Library of Kazakhstan in Astana located to the south of the State Auditorium , said to resemble a " giant metallic doughnut " . BIG and MAD designed the Tilting Building in the Huaxi district of Guiyang , China , an innovative leaning tower with six facades . Other projects included the city hall in Tallinn , Estonia , and the Faroe Islands Education Centre in Torshavn , Faroe Islands . Accommodating some 1 @,@ 200 students and 300 teachers , the facility has a central open rotunda for meetings between staff and pupils .
In 2010 , Fast Company magazine included Ingels in its list of the 100 most creative people in business , mentioning his design of the Danish pavilion . BIG projects became increasingly international , including hotels in Norway , a museum overlooking Mexico City , and converting an oil industry wasteland into a zero @-@ emission resort on Zira Island off the coast of Baku , Azerbaijan . The 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) resort started construction in 2010 , and represented the seven mountains of Azerbaijan . It was cited as " one of the world 's largest eco @-@ developments . " The " mountains " were covered with solar panels and provide for residential and commercial space . According to BIG , " The mountains are conceived not only as metaphors , but engineered as entire ecosystems , a model for future sustainable urban development " .
In 2011 , BIG won a competition to design the roof of the Amagerforbrænding industrial building , with 31 @,@ 000 m2 ( 330 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of ski slopes of varying skill levels . The roof is put forward as another example of " hedonistic sustainability " : designed from recycled synthetics , aiming to increase energy efficiency by up to 20 percent . In October 2011 , the Wall Street Journal named Ingels the Innovator of the Year for architecture , later saying he was " becoming one of the design world 's rising stars " in light of his portfolio .
In 2012 , Ingels moved to New York to supervise work on a pyramid @-@ like apartment building on West 57th Street , a collaboration with real estate developer Durst Fetner Residential . BIG opened a permanent New York office , and became committed to further work in New York . By mid @-@ 2012 that office had a staff of 50 , which they used to launch other projects in North America . In 2014 Ingels 's design for an integrated flood protection system , the DryLine , was a winner of the Rebuild By Design competition created by the Department of Housing and Urban Development in the wake of Hurricane Sandy . The DryLine will stretch Manhattan 's shoreline on the Lower East Side , with a landscaped flood barrier in East River Park , enhanced pedestrian bridges over the FDR drive , and permanent and deployable floodwalls north of East 14th Street .
BIG designed the Lego House that began construction in 2014 in Billund , Denmark . Ingels said of it , " We felt that if BIG had been created with the single purpose of building only one building , it would be to design the house for Lego . " Designed as a village of interlocking and overlapping buildings and spaces , the house is conceived with identical proportions to the toy bricks , and can be constructed one @-@ for @-@ one in miniature . They also designed the Danish Maritime Museum in Elsinore , Denmark , and a master plan for the new Smithsonian Institution south campus in Washington , D.C. This is part of a 20 @-@ year project that will begin in 2016 .
Ingels also designed two extensions for his former High School in Hellerup , Denmark — a handball court , and a larger arts and sports extension . The handball court , in homage to the architect 's former math teacher , sports a roof with curvature that traces the trajectory of a thrown handball .
In 2015 Ingels began working on a new headquarters for Google in Mountain View , California with Thomas Heatherwick , the British designer . Bloomberg Businessweek hailed the design as " The most ambitious project unveiled by Google this year ... " in a feature article on the design and its architects . Later that year , BIG was chosen to take up the design of Two World Trade Center , one of the towers replacing the Twin Towers . The work had initially been entrusted to the British firm Foster and Partners .
= = Other engagements = =
In 2009 , Ingels became a co @-@ founder of the KiBiSi design group , together with Jens Martin Skibsted and Lars Larsen . With interests in urban mobility , architectural illumination and personal electronics , KiBiSi designs bicycles , furniture , household objects and even aircraft , becoming one of Scandinavia 's most influential design groups . KiBiSi designed the furniture for Ingels ' Danish Pavilion at EXPO 2010 .
Ingels 's first book , Yes Is More : An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution , catalogued 30 projects from his practice . It was in the form of a comic book , as he believed that 's the best way to tell stories about architecture . A sequel , Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation , explored 60 case studies through a climatic lens , to examine where and how people live on the planet , working from the warmest regions to the coldest . The book was designed by Grammy Award winning designer Stefan Sagmeister , and accompanied by an exhibition of the same name at the National Building Museum in Washington D.C. The book featured well known projects such as VIA ( West 57th ) , Amager Bakke , 8 House , Gammel Hellerup High School , Superkilen , The Lego House and the Danish Maritime Museum , amongst others .
In 2009 , Ingels spoke at a TED event in Oxford , UK . He presented the case study “ Hedonistic sustainability ” in a workshop on managing complexityat the 3rd International Holcim Forum 2010 in Mexico City , and was a member of the Holcim Awards regional jury for Europe in 2011 .
In 2015 , a division of the Kohler Company , Kallista , released a new line of bath and kitchen products designed by Ingels . Named " taper " , the fixtures featured minimalist and mid @-@ century Danish design .
= = = Film = = =
Ingels was cast in My Playground , a documentary film by Kaspar Astrup Schröder that explores parkour and freerunning , with much of the action taking place on and around BIG projects .
He was also part of the documentary film Genre de Vie , about bicycles , cities and personal awareness . It looks at desired space and our own impact to the process of it . The film documents urban life empowered by the simplicity of the bicycle .
= = Design philosophy = =
In 2009 , The Architectural Review said that Ingels and BIG " has abandoned 20th @-@ century Danish modernism to explore the more fertile world of bigness and baroque eccentricity ... BIG 's world is also an optimistic vision of the future where art , architecture , urbanism and nature magically find a new kind of balance . Yet while the rhetoric is loud , the underlying messages are serious ones about global warming , community life , post @-@ petroleum @-@ age architecture and the youth of the city . " The Netherlands Architecture Institute described him as " a member of a new generation of architects that combine shrewd analysis , playful experimentation , social responsibility and humour . "
In an interview in 2010 , Ingels provided a number of insights on his design philosophy . He defines architecture as " the art of translating all the immaterial structures of society – social , cultural , economical and political – into physical structures . " Architecture should " arise from the world " benefiting from the growing concern for our future triggered by discussion of climate change . In connection with his BIG practice , he explains : " Buildings should respond to the local environment and climate in a sort of conversation to make it habitable for human life " drawing , in particular , on the resources of the local climate which could provide " a way of massively enriching the vocabulary of architecture . "
Luke Butcher noted that Ingels taps into metamodern sensibility , adopting a metamodern attitude ; but he " seems to oscillate between modern positions and postmodern ones , a certain out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ worldness and a definite down @-@ to @-@ earthness , naivety and knowingness , idealism and the practical . " Sustainable development and renewable energy are important to Ingels , which he refers to as " hedonistic sustainability " . He has said that " It 's not about what we give up to be sustainable , it 's about what we get . And that is a very attractive and marketable concept . " He has also been outspoken against " suburban biopsy " in Holmen , Copenhagen , caused by wealthy older people ( the grey @-@ gold generation ) living in the suburbs and wanting to move into the town to visit the Royal Theatre and the opera .
In 2014 , Ingels released a video entitled ' Worldcraft ' as part of the Future of StoryTelling summit , which introduced his concept of creating architecture that focuses on turning " surreal dreams into inhabitable space " . Citing the power of alternate reality programs and video games , like Minecraft , Ingels ' ' worldcraft ' is an extension of ' hedonistic sustainability ' and further develops ideas established in his first book , Yes Is More . In the video ( and essay by the same name in his second book , Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation ) Ingels notes : " These fictional worlds empower people with the tools to transform their own environments . This is what architecture ought to be ... " " Architecture must become Worldcraft , the craft of making our world , where our knowledge and technology doesn 't limit us but rather enables us to turn surreal dreams into inhabitable space . To turn fiction into fact . "
= = Notable projects = =
For a full list of projects , see Bjarke Ingels Group # Completed projects
Two World Trade Center New York City , office building ( On hold , Larry Silverstein is in talks with News Corporation and 21st Century Fox to create a joint headquarters . )
= = = Exhibitions = = =
2007 BIG City , Storefront for Art and Architecture , New York
2009 Yes is More , Danish Architecture Centre , Copenhagen
2010 Yes is More , CAPC , Bordeaux and WECHSELRAUM , Stuttgart
2015 Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation , National Building Museum
= = Awards = =
For a more detailed list of awards , see Bjarke Ingels Group # Awards
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= Black American Sign Language =
Black American Sign Language ( BASL ) or Black Sign Variation ( BSV ) is a dialect of American Sign Language ( ASL ) spoken most commonly by deaf African Americans in the United States . The divergence from ASL was influenced largely by the segregation of schools in the American South . Like other schools at the time , schools for the deaf were segregated based upon race , creating two language communities among deaf signers : White deaf signers at White schools and Black deaf signers at Black schools . Today , BASL is still used by signers in the South despite schools having been legally desegregated since 1954 .
Linguistically , BASL differs from other varieties of ASL in its phonology , syntax , and lexicon . BASL tends to have a larger signing space meaning that some signs are produced further away from the body than in other dialects . Signers of BASL also tend to prefer two @-@ handed variants of signs while signers of ASL tend to prefer one @-@ handed variants . Some signs are different in BASL as well , with some borrowings from African American English .
= = History = =
Like many educational institutions for hearing children during the 1800s and early 1900s , schools for deaf children were segregated based on race . The first school for the deaf in the United States , The American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , was founded in 1817 but did not admit any Black students until 1952 . Of the schools for the deaf that began to be created , few admitted students of color . Seeing a lack of educational opportunities for the Black deaf , Platt Skinner founded the Skinner School for the Colored Deaf , Dumb , and Blind in 1856 in Niagara Falls , New York . Skinner described his school as " the first effort of its kind in the country ... We receive and instruct those and only those who are refused admission to all other institutions and are despised on account of their color . " The school moved to Trenton , New Jersey in 1860 . After its closure in 1866 , no Northern state created an institution for the Black deaf . Even after these states outlawed segregation by 1900 , integration was sparse as some institutions allowed Black students and others did not .
After the foundation and success of the American School for the Deaf , many other institutions for the deaf were founded throughout the country . Since schools , particularly in the South , were segregated , many Southern states created separate schools or departments for the Black deaf . The first school established for the Black deaf below the Mason – Dixon line opened in the District of Columbia in 1857 and remained segregated until 1958 . The last Southern state to create an institution for the Black deaf was Louisiana in 1938 . Black Deaf children thus became a language community isolated from the White Deaf with different means of language socialization , allowing for different dialects to develop . Because the education of White children was privileged over that of Black children , Oralism — the prominent pedagogical method of the time — was not as strictly applied to the Black deaf students . Oralist methods often forbade the use of sign language , so Black deaf students had more opportunities to use ASL than their White peers . Despite the decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 which declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional , integration was slow to come , and schools for the deaf were no exception : the last desegregated in 1978 , 24 years after the decision .
As schools began to integrate , students and teachers noticed differences in the way Black students and White students signed . Carolyn McCaskill , professor of ASL and Deaf Studies at Gallaudet University , recalls the challenge of understanding the dialect of ASL spoken by her White principal and teachers after her segregated school integrated : " When I began attending the school , I did not understand the teacher and she did not understand me because we used different signs . " Carl Croneberg was the first to discuss differences between BASL and White ASL in his appendices of the 1965 version of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , and work has continued on BASL since then .
As deaf education and sign language research continued to evolve , so did the perception of ASL . With the publication of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , ASL began to be recognized as a legitimate language . The greater acceptance of ASL as a language led to standardization and the development of a prestige dialect which was based upon the signs used at Gallaudet University . Despite this standardization , there are still regional accents of ASL similar to spoken languages . Dialects that are different from the standard one , and especially those spoken by marginalized groups , are often stigmatized . As a non @-@ standard dialect , BASL is stigmatized by signers and seen as inferior to prestige dialects of ASL . This difference in prestige has led BASL speakers to code switch to a prestige dialect when speaking with different groups of people , despite BASL being mutually intelligible with other dialects of ASL .
= = Phonology = =
When asked , many signers in the South gave anecdotal accounts of differences between the signing of Black and White signers . These differences turned out to be aspects of the differing phonology of BASL . Among these accounts were claims that Black signers had a larger signing space and used more two @-@ handed signs . Investigation into these anecdotes has found correlations .
When compared , Black signers were more likely to produce signs outside of the typical signing space and to use two @-@ handed signs than were White signers . Adverbs are most likely to utilize a larger signing space . Less marked forms such as pronouns , determiners , plain verbs , and nouns tend to be less likely to be produced outside the typical signing space . The selection of two @-@ handed signs over one @-@ handed signs was found to have systematic constraints on their production . When the sign could be produced with one or two hands , Black signers often produced the variant that matched the handedness of the following sign ; if the following sign was two @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce a two @-@ handed variant , while if the following sign was one @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce the one @-@ handed variant . The use of innovative one @-@ handed forms though , even in environments which favored them , did not exceed 50 percent .
BASL signers further tend to favor lowered variants of side @-@ of @-@ forehead signs resulting in contact at the cheek . The sign KNOW is usually produced by placing the fingers of a flat hand on the temple , but when lowered the fingers make contact at the cheek . Early research showed that BASL signers used these lowered forms at a rate of 53 percent with grammatical category being the strongest constraint . Other conditioning environments for lowered signs depend on preceding location ; for instance , signs produced in front of the body lead to lowered sign variants while signs produced at the head cause signers to favor non @-@ lowered forms .
= = Syntax = =
Unlike ASL , BASL allows for the frequent use of syntactic repetition . In a study conducted by McCaskill , of 26 signers ( 13 Black and 13 White ) , there were 57 instances of repetition from Black signers compared to 19 from White signers , and of those 19 instances , 18 came from a single signer . The use of repetition by BASL signers is considered to be pragmatic rather than as a way to clarify meaning .
A study in 2004 by Melanie Metzger and Susan Mather found that Black male signers used constructed action , with or without constructed dialogue , more often than White signers , but never used constructed dialogue by itself . These results were not reproduced in a later study into constructed action and constructed dialogue by McCaskill , which found that Black signers not only used constructed dialogue , but did so more frequently than white signers .
= = Lexical variation = =
Lexical variation between BASL and other dialects of ASL was first noted in the Dictionary of American Sign Language . In a later study of 34 lexical signs , Black signers had 28 signs that White signers did not know . Older signers are more likely to use variant signs than younger signers , and most , having been developed in segregated schools for the Black Deaf , refer to everyday life . Younger signers of BASL are less likely to use these variants , but when asked about them are aware that older signers have and use these innovative signs .
= = = Borrowing from African American English = = =
A body of work has arisen looking at the similarities between Black American Sign Language and African American English ( AAE ) since both are language varieties marked by their use in African American communities . In 1998 John Lewis investigated the incorporation of aspects of AAE into BASL . He reported that , during narrative storytelling by a Black signer , there were " Ebonic shifts " marked by shifts in posture and rhythmicity and by incorporating side @-@ to @-@ side head movement . He concluded that this " ' songified ' quality was related to the style of AAE . This finding was not reproduced by McCaskill , which she attributes to the nature of the speech acts : Lewis analyzed a narrative event while McCaskill utilized natural or elicited data . Lexical borrowing has been seen in BASL signers under age 35 which is likely due to the advances in mass media — younger signers would have more contact with AAE through movies , television , and the Internet .
When asked about distinctive features of their signing , Black Deaf signers tended to identify a number of idioms borrowed from AAE . Some were literal translations like I FEEL YOU or GIRL PLEASE which are signed the standard way but have meanings different from their literal interpretation . Other loan words modified existing signs like STOP TRIPPING which took the bent @-@ v handshape of TRIP and moved it up to the head to indicate a new meaning of " stop imagining things . "
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= Good Girl Gone Bad =
Good Girl Gone Bad is the third studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released on May 31 , 2007 , by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records . Rihanna worked with various producers on the album , including Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Terius " Dream " Nash , Neo da Matrix , Timbaland , Carl Sturken , Evan Rogers and StarGate . Inspired by Brandy Norwood 's fourth studio album Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , Good Girl Gone Bad is a pop , dance @-@ pop and R & B album with 1980s music influences . Described as a turning point in Rihanna 's career , it represents a departure from the Caribbean sound of her previous releases , Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) and A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . Apart from the sound , she also endorsed a new image for the release going from an innocent girl to an edgier and more sexual look .
Critics gave generally positive reviews of the album , praising its composition and Rihanna 's new musical direction , though some criticized the record 's lyrics and inconsistency . The album received seven Grammy Award nominations and one win in the Best Rap / Sung Collaboration category for " Umbrella " at the 2008 ceremony . The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it sold more than 2 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States . The album reached number one in Canada , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and it has sold over 7 million copies worldwide .
Good Girl Gone Bad spawned five singles , including the international hits " Umbrella " and " Don 't Stop the Music " ; Rolling Stone placed the former at number 412 on the magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . In support of the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide concert tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour . The album was reissued as Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded in June 2008 with three new songs , including the Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one hits " Take a Bow " and " Disturbia " . It was followed by Rihanna 's first remix album , Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes , in January 2009 , which featured remixes from Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , the Soul Seekerz and the Wideboys .
= = Background and title = =
Rihanna 's second studio album , A Girl like Me , was released in April 2006 . It is a pop @-@ oriented record with dancehall and R & B influences . It had a mixed critical reception : some critics praised Rihanna 's new musical direction , while others criticized some of the album 's songs . Around its time of release , many critics felt that Rihanna 's style , sound , and musical material were too similar to those of American singer Beyoncé . The album sold over 587 @,@ 308 copies in the United Kingdom and more than 1 @,@ 330 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In early 2007 , Rihanna began work on her third studio album . In an interview with MTV News , she announced that " the new music is going in a different direction . Not on purpose , but I just want to hear something fresh and mostly uptempo . I think that 's where I want to go on this one . You feel different every album , and [ at ] this stage I feel like I want to do a lot of uptempo [ songs ] . " The same year , Rihanna dismissed her innocent image for an edgier look with a new hairstyle , which was inspired by actress Charlize Theron 's bob cut in the 2005 science fiction thriller Æon Flux .
Rihanna explained that she wanted to keep the audience dancing and be soulful at the same time . She sought to make an album that people would listen to without skipping tracks . She cited Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , the fourth studio album by American singer Brandy Norwood , as her main inspiration for the album . In May 2007 , Rihanna revealed that she called the album Good Girl Gone Bad because it represents her bolder and more independent image : " I 'm not the innocent Rihanna anymore . I 'm taking a lot more risks and chances . I felt when I cut my hair , it shows people I 'm not trying to look or be anybody else . The album is very edgy . "
= = Recording and production = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was recorded in Westlake Recording Studios and Conway Studios in Los Angeles , Battery Studios and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City , Chicago Recording Company and Pressure Studios in Chicago , Phase One Audio Group in Toronto , Lethal Studios in Bridgetown , Barbados , Espionage Studios in Oslo and Parr Street Studios in Liverpool . Rihanna spent the week of the 2007 Grammy Awards working with American R & B singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo , who gave her vocal lessons . They wrote and sang " Hate That I Love You " , which was co @-@ written and produced by Norwegian duo StarGate . Ne @-@ Yo told Vibe magazine , " The best way to express an emotion like love is through storytelling . It makes it more ' I can relate to this character in this song , because I 've been through something similar . ' You hear that kind of storytelling in the song that I wrote for Rihanna called ' Hate That I Love You ' . "
American producers Tricky Stewart and Dream had written the track " Umbrella " in 2007 with pop singer Britney Spears in mind . Her label rejected the song before she could hear it , stating they had enough songs for her to record ; at the time , Spears was working on her fifth studio album Blackout . The producers then reached out to Mary J. Blige , who did not have time to consider the song for her next album . Finally , L.A. Reid , then @-@ CEO of Def Jam Recordings , bought the record and forwarded it to Rihanna . Initially , Stewart was unsure whether Rihanna was the right artist for the song , but after they had recorded the " ella , ella " catch phrase for the track , he felt optimistic . Rapper Jay Z added rap vocals . Stewart also co @-@ wrote and produced " Breakin ' Dishes " with Nash .
" Rehab " , " Sell Me Candy " , and " Lemme Get That " were composed and produced by Timbaland for the album . He was on the FutureSex / LoveShow concert tour with Justin Timberlake to promote Timberlake 's 2006 album FutureSex / LoveSounds . After a show in Chicago , they joined Rihanna in the studio , where Timberlake experimented with beats and melodies . Weeks later , the three met in New York City , where Timberlake had conceptualized a song for Rihanna . Timbaland , who penned a song for Rihanna under the title " Rehab " , was producing a beat , over which Timberlake improvised his lyrics . Hannon Lane also co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song . Timberlake told Entertainment Weekly that he believed " Rehab " to be " the bridge for [ Rihanna ] to be accepted as an adult in the music industry " . Rihanna told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that she enjoyed working with Timberlake , and learned much from the sessions .
= = Composition = =
A dance @-@ pop and pop / R & B album influenced by 1980s music , Good Girl Gone Bad is a departure from the Caribbean sound of Rihanna 's previous two records . Lyrically , the album is close to some teen pop records , " where sexual @-@ ism and consumerism supersede personal connection . "
The LP opens with the lead single " Umbrella " , an R & B song performed with drums and thundercloud synths . Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian compared the singer 's vocals to the voices of Ciara and Cassie . The second track , " Push Up On Me " , features echo electro claps and surging synths . " Don 't Stop the Music " is a dance @-@ pop and techno song that contains rhythmic devices used mainly in hip hop music . The song samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . The fourth song is " Breakin ' Dishes " ; Peter Robinson of The Observer called it a " wronged @-@ woman bonanza , packed with hooks , chants and flashes of lyrical brilliance . " " Shut Up and Drive " is a new wave and pop rock song , influenced by 1970s and 1980s musical styles , sampling New Order 's 1983 single " Blue Monday " . The collaboration with Ne @-@ Yo , " Hate That I Love You " , is a folky R & B song ; Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared it to Ne @-@ Yo 's singles " Sexy Love " and " Because of You " .
The seventh track on the album , " Say It " , samples the 1990s song " Flex " by Mad Cobra ; it consists of silky and warm groove and features island @-@ oriented music characteristics . " Sell Me Candy " features jumbled and noisy production with chaotic beats . The ninth song , " Lemme Get That " , has boom @-@ bap beats and is produced by Timbaland . " Rehab " is an old @-@ styled R & B track with a groove that is built around tambourine shakes , acoustic guitar swirls and a subtle backbeat . Doug Rule of Metro Weekly noted similarities among the structures of " Rehab " and Timberlake 's 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . " Question Existing " is an " eerie , smoky , destitute , emotional , and a sonic sidestep . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media described the opening lyrics of the song as inspired by " puerile psuedoporn " . The album concludes with the title track " Good Girl Gone Bad " , which is played with an acoustic guitar and click tracks .
= = Singles = =
Released as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad , " Umbrella " was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the US on April 24 , 2007 . The song received acclaim from music critics , who praised its production , vocals and the collaboration between Rihanna and Jay Z. " Umbrella " reached number one in more than seventeen countries worldwide , including on the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . In the United Kingdom , the song topped the singles chart for ten consecutive weeks , while in the United States , it was at the top for seven consecutive weeks . As of June 2013 , " Umbrella " has sold 4 @,@ 236 @,@ 000 digital copies there , making it Rihanna 's fifth @-@ best selling single in the country . Director Chris Applebaum shot the accompanying music video , which features scenes of Rihanna nude and covered in silver paint . The video earned the singer nominations at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Direction , Video of the Year and Monster Single of the Year ; it won the latter two .
The second single from the album , " Shut Up and Drive " , was serviced to contemporary hit radio in the US on June 12 and rhythmic radio the following week . The song received mixed response from critics : some praised the composition , while others criticized the lyrics . It reached the top ten on more than twelve national charts , including number five on the UK Singles Chart and number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for the song was shot by Anthony Mandler in Prague , the Czech Republic . The third single , " Hate That I Love You " , which features Ne @-@ Yo , was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the United States on August 21 . Critics gave the song positive reviews and praised the collaboration between the singers ; they compared it to the previous works written by Ne @-@ Yo , including the song " Irreplaceable " by Beyoncé . " Hate That I Love You " reached number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the UK Singles Chart .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was digitally released as an EP via the iTunes Store on September 7 . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its production and the interpolation of the " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . " Don 't Stop the Music " won Best International Song at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards . The single peaked atop of the singles charts in eight countries , reaching number three on the Hot 100 and number four on the UK Singles Chart . It is the seventh @-@ best selling single by Rihanna in the United States , with 3 @,@ 521 @,@ 000 digital copies sold as of June 2013 . Mandler shot the music video in a nightclub in Prague , the Czech Republic . " Rehab " was released as the fifth and final single from Good Girl Gone Bad ; it was sent to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 6 , 2008 . Critics were divided on the song 's production and composition , and some compared its structure to that of Timberlake 's 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . It reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Anthony Mandler directed the accompanying music video , which was shot in Vasquez Rocks Park , near Los Angeles . Timberlake also appears in the video .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Release = = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was first released by the Universal Music Group on CD in Portugal on May 31 , 2007 . It was released in the Netherlands and in Poland the following day . The album was launched in Finland and the United Kingdom on June 4 and in the United States the following day on CD and LP . Good Girl Gone Bad was released on CD in Germany on June 8 , on LP in Australia on June 12 and on CD in New Zealand on the same date . A deluxe edition of the album , featuring a bonus disc with dance remixes , was launched on June 27 in Japan .
In early 2008 , Rihanna unveiled a new song , " Take a Bow " , on the KIIS @-@ FM radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest . MTV News reported that the track would serve as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , a reissue of the original album to mark its first anniversary . Rihanna further announced that the expanded album would contain another two songs , " Disturbia " and the duet with American pop rock band Maroon 5 , titled " If I Never See Your Face Again " to supplement the original track listing . Among other achieved awards and nominations , " Disturbia " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " received nominations for Best Dance Recording and Pop Collaboration with Vocals respectively at the 2009 Grammy Awards .
Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes was released on January 27 , 2009 , and contains club remixes of tracks from the original album and the re @-@ issue . The songs were remixed by producers and disc jockeys such as Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , Soul Seekerz and Wideboys . Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes peaked at number 106 on the Billboard 200 and number four on the US Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums chart . As of July 2010 , it sold 49 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = = Live performances = = =
Rihanna performed " Umbrella " with " Shut Up and Drive " and " Breakin ' Dishes " at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend on May 21 , 2007 . She performed " Umbrella " with Jay Z at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards at the Gibson Amphitheatre , Universal City , California , on June 3 . A reviewer of Rap @-@ Up wrote , " she looked hot and the production was on point " during the performance . She performed the song at the Tonight Show with Jay Leno on June 5 and on June 16 at The View . Rihanna performed " Shut Up and Drive " at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at The Palms in Las Vegas , and was joined by American rock band Fall Out Boy . In early October 2007 , Rihanna was the guest star at the Late Show with David Letterman , where she gave a performance of " Shut Up and Drive " . On November 18 , Rihanna performed a medley consisting of " Umbrella " and " Hate That I Love You " at the 2007 American Music Awards at the Nokia Theater in Los Angeles , California . Ne @-@ Yo accompanied her for the performance of " Hate That I Love You " .
Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes , France , on January 26 , 2008 . She also performed the song at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10 in a medley with " Umbrella " . For the performance , she was joined by American funk band , The Time . On April 28 , 2008 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Center with Kanye West , N.E.R.D and Lupe Fiasco . She sang " Rehab " , " Hate That I Love You " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Umbrella " . On June 20 , she was a guest on NBC 's Today Concert Series in Rockefeller Center , New York City . She performed " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " . She also performed " Rehab " live on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , where she won the awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the awards ceremony , she performed wearing an eye patch , which she removed after she was lowered to the main stage .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide and second overall tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) . She performed in Europe , North America , Oceania , Asia and Africa . During the concert shows she wore S & M @-@ inspired outfits and high boots . Mike Usinger of The Georgia Straight gave the show a mixed review ; he wrote that even though Rihanna 's vocals were improved , he felt she still struggled to keep the audience engaged . Jason MacNeil of Canadian Online Explorer gave a positive review of the concert after the show at Molson Amphitheatre , saying " the singer made a rather eye @-@ popping impression , opening with ' Pon de Replay ' and clad in a sexy , dominatrix @-@ like studded black leather ensemble . " During a show planned for February 13 in Malaysia , Malaysia 's conservative Islamic party recommended that Rihanna 's concert tour be banned from performing , citing her outfits . A video album , Good Girl Gone Bad Live , was filmed at the Manchester Arena show in Manchester , United Kingdom , on December 6 , 2007 . The Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD was released on June 9 and 13 , 2008 , in the United Kingdom and Germany through Mercury Records and the Universal Music Group respectively .
= = Critical response = =
Good Girl Gone Bad received generally favorable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 based on 16 reviews . Uncut called it a " shiny , trans @-@ atlantic blend of Europop vim , R & B grit and Caribbean bounce . " Andy Kellman of AllMusic deemed it quintessential pop music and said each of its tracks was a potential hit . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised the album , describing it as " more raw , perhaps edgier and more risqué " than Rihanna 's previous material . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that the album " sounds as if it were scientifically engineered to deliver hits " . Peter Robinson of The Observer commended her collaborators for " masking her own shortcomings " and commented that , " While Rihanna lacks her peers ' charisma , she 's a great vessel for exhilarating mainstream pop . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan found the album varied and satisfying . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly felt that , although it " goes bad when Rihanna tries her hand at treacly ballads and glum sentiment " , at times Good Girl Gone Bad is a " thrilling throwback to more than a decade ago , when upstart producers haphazardly mashed R & B with hip @-@ hop to create chunky jeep anthems such as Mary J. Blige 's ' Real Love ' . "
In a mixed review , Rodney Dugue of The Village Voice felt that the album " never settles on a sound " and only cited its three Timbaland @-@ produced songs as highlights . Although he found the ballads to be improvements from Rihanna 's previous albums , Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani criticized the lyrics , particularly those written by Justin Timberlake , as an " Achilles ' high heel for Rihanna " . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian found Rihanna to be " ill @-@ suited " for its dance @-@ pop songs and stated , " The gimmicky samples and pounding beats bury her personality , and the summery reggae of her first two albums is sorely missed . " Robert Christgau of MSN Music cited " Umbrella " as a " choice cut " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It became Rihanna 's then @-@ best start album entry . The next week , it fell to number seven with 81 @,@ 000 copies sold . The re @-@ issue sold 63 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and helped Good Girl Gone Bad jump from number 124 to number seven on the US Billboard 200 in its 55th week . It was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; by November 2013 , both Good Girl Gone Bad and the reissue had sold 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone . To date , it is her best @-@ selling album in the former country . The album debuted atop of the Canadian Albums Chart and became Rihanna 's second number @-@ one album in the country . It was certified quintuple platinum by Music Canada , denoting shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It became her first album to top the chart , and stayed on the chart for 177 weeks . In 2011 , the album peaked at number 16 on the UK R & B Albums Chart . It was certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and sold over 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 copies in the country . It ended at number 10 on the UK 2007 year @-@ end list and number six on the 2008 year @-@ end list . As of March 2015 , Good Girl Gone Bad is the 46th best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . In Ireland , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number three on the Irish Singles Chart on June 7 , 2007 . After four weeks on the chart , it reached the top . The album peaked at number one on the Swiss Hitparade chart and stayed on the chart for 91 weeks . In Australia , it peaked at number two and was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 210 @,@ 000 copies . By November 2011 , Good Girl Gone Bad had sold over 11 million copies worldwide .
= = Impact = =
According to Biography.com , Good Girl Gone Bad inspired Rihanna to transform her image from a " teen pop princess " persona into a " fully fledged superstar and sex symbol " . People magazine noted that Rihanna follows the likes of recording artists Janet Jackson and Christina Aguilera " when she sheds her innocent image for an edgier look and sound " . Jay @-@ Z also spoke about " Umbrella " and stated that the song represents an artistic grow for Rihanna , " If you listen to the lyrics to that song , you know the depth and how far she 's come . " Regarding the commercial impact of the album , Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watson wrote , " For a pop star who was once dismissed as being incapable of yielding more than one hit song per album , Rihanna 's newfound staying power is nothing short of remarkable – and proof that there 's room for more than one diva in this game . " Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic concluded that it was Good Girl Gone Bad that made Rihanna a " full @-@ fledged international pop star with a regular presence atop the charts " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy described the album , as the closest thing to a Thriller that 2007 / 08 is likely to produce .
At the 2008 Grammy Awards ceremony , Good Girl Gone Bad received seven Grammy Awards nominations , including Record of the Year and Song of the Year for " Umbrella " , Best Dance Recording for " Don 't Stop the Music " , Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R & B Song for " Hate That I Love You " . It won the accolade for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Umbrella " . Additionally , magazine Rolling Stone placed " Umbrella " at number 412 on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . The album also won the International Album of the Year award at the 2008 Juno Awards .
Before its physical release , " Umbrella " achieved the biggest debut in the six @-@ year history of the iTunes Store in the United States , breaking a record previously held by the 2006 single " Hips Don 't Lie " . Following its digital release , the song debuted atop the Hot Digital Songs chart , with first @-@ week sales of more than 277 @,@ 000 units . The single became the highest digital debut in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking downloads in 2003 , surpassing Timberlake 's " SexyBack " 250 @,@ 000 sales record in 2006 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a denotes a vocal producer
^ b denotes a co @-@ producer
^ c denotes a remixer and additional producer
" Push Up on Me " samples " Running with the Night " , as written by Lionel Richie and Cynthia Weil , and performed by Richie .
" Don 't Stop the Music " samples " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , as written and performed by Michael Jackson , which itself samples " Soul Makossa " , as performed by Manu Dibango .
" Shut Up and Drive " samples " Blue Monday " , as written and performed by New Order ( Stephen Morris , Peter Hook , Bernard Sumner and Gillian Gilbert ) .
" Say It " samples " Flex " , as written by Ewart Brown , Clifton Dillon , Sly Dunbar and Brian Thompson , and performed by Mad Cobra .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Good Girl Gone Bad adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Herrerasaurus =
Herrerasaurus was one of the earliest dinosaurs . Its name means " Herrera 's lizard " , after the rancher who discovered the first specimen . All known fossils of this carnivore have been discovered in rocks of Carnian age ( late Triassic according to the ICS , dated to 231 @.@ 4 million years ago ) in northwestern Argentina . The type species , Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis , was described by Osvaldo Reig in 1963 and is the only species assigned to the genus . Ischisaurus and Frenguellisaurus are synonyms .
For many years , the classification of Herrerasaurus was unclear because it was known from very fragmentary remains . It was hypothesized to be a basal theropod , a basal sauropodomorph , a basal saurischian , or not a dinosaur at all but another type of archosaur . However , with the discovery of an almost complete skeleton and skull in 1988 , Herrerasaurus has been classified as either an early theropod or an early saurischian in at least five recent reviews of theropod evolution , with many researchers treating it at least tentatively as the most primitive member of Theropoda .
It is a member of the Herrerasauridae , a family of similar genera that were among the earliest of the dinosaurian evolutionary radiation .
= = Description = =
Herrerasaurus was a lightly built bipedal carnivore with a long tail and a relatively small head . Adults had skulls up to 56 cm ( 22 in ) long and were up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in total length and 350 kg ( 770 lb ) in weight . Smaller specimens were half the size , with skulls only about 30 cm ( 12 in ) long .
Herrerasaurus was fully bipedal . It had strong hind limbs with short thighs and rather long feet , indicating that it was likely a swift runner . The foot had five toes , but only the middle three ( digits II , III , and IV ) bore weight . The outer toes ( I and V ) were small ; the first toe had a small claw . The tail , partially stiffened by overlapping vertebral projections , balanced the body and was also an adaptation for speed . The forelimbs of Herrerasaurus were less than half the length of its hind limbs . The upper arm and forearm were rather short , while the manus ( hand ) was elongated . The first two fingers and the thumb ended in curved , sharp claws for grasping prey . The fourth and fifth digits were small stubs without claws .
Herrerasaurus displays traits that are found in different groups of dinosaurs , and several traits found in non @-@ dinosaurian archosaurs . Although it shares most of the characteristics of dinosaurs , there are a few differences , particularly in the shape of its hip and leg bones . Its pelvis is like that of saurischian dinosaurs , but it has a bony acetabulum ( where the femur meets the pelvis ) that was only partially open . The ilium , the main hip bone , is supported by only two sacrals , a basal trait . However , the pubis points backwards , a derived trait as seen in dromaeosaurids and birds . Additionally , the end of the pubis has a booted shape , like those in avetheropods ; and the vertebral centra has an hourglass shape as found in Allosaurus .
Herrerasaurus had a long , narrow skull that lacked nearly all the specializations that characterized later dinosaurs , and more closely resembled those of more primitive archosaurs such as Euparkeria . It had five pairs of fenestrae ( skull openings ) in its skull , two pairs of which were for the eyes and nostrils . Between the eyes and the nostrils were two antorbital fenestrae and a pair of tiny , 1 @-@ centimeter @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) slit @-@ like holes called promaxillary fenestrae .
Herrerasaurus had a flexible joint in the lower jaw that could slide back and forth to deliver a grasping bite . This cranial specialization is unusual among dinosaurs but has evolved independently in some lizards . The rear of the lower jaw also had fenestrae . The jaws were equipped with large serrated teeth for biting and eating flesh , and the neck was slender and flexible .
According to Novas ( 1993 ) , Herrerasaurus can be distinguished based on the following features : the presence of a premaxilla @-@ maxilla fenestra , and the dorsal part of laterotemporal fenestra is less than a third as wide as the ventral part ; the presence of a ridge on the lateral surface of the jugal bone , and a deeply incised supratemporal fossa that extends across the medial postorbital process ; the subquadrate ventral squamosal process has a lateral depression , and the quadratojugal bone overlaps the posterodorsal quadrate face ; the pterygoid process of the quadrate has an inturned , trough @-@ shaped ventral margin , and the presence of a slender ribbed posterodorsal dentary process ; the surangular bone has a forked anterior process for articulation with the posterodorsal dentary process ; the humerus ' internal tuberosity is proximally projected and separated from the humeral head by a deep groove ( also present in coelophysoids ) ; possesses enlarged hands , which are 60 % of the size of the humerus + radius , and the humeral entepicondyle is ridge @-@ like with anterior and posterior depressions ; and the posterior border of the ilial peduncle forms a right angle with the dorsal border of the shaft on the ischium
According to Sereno ( 1993 ) , Herrerasaurus can be distinguished based on the following features , all of which are unknown in other herrerasaurids : a circular pit is present on the humeral ectepicondyle , a feature also present in Saturnalia ; a saddle @-@ shaped ulnar condyle of the humerus , and the articular surface for the ulnare on the ulna is convex ; the articular surface of the ulnare is smaller than that of the ulna , a feature unknown in Staurikosaurus and Sanjuansaurus ; the centrale is placed distal to the radiale ; a broad subnarial process of the premaxilla , and a broad supratemporal depression ( noted by Sereno and Novas , 1993 ) ; the basal tuber and the occipital condyle are subequal in width ( noted by Sereno and Novas , 1993 )
= = History = =
Herrerasaurus was named by paleontologist Osvaldo Reig after Victorino Herrera , an Andean goatherd who first noticed its fossils in outcrops near the city of San Juan in 1959 . These rocks , which later yielded Eoraptor , are part of the Ischigualasto Formation and date from the late Ladinian to early Carnian stages of the Late Triassic period . Reig named a second dinosaur from these rocks in the same publication as Herrerasaurus ; this dinosaur , Ischisaurus cattoi , is now considered a junior synonym and a juvenile of Herrerasaurus .
Reig believed Herrerasaurus was an early example of a carnosaur , but this was the subject of much debate over the next 30 years , and the genus was variously classified during that time . In 1970 , Steel classified Herrerasaurus as a prosauropod . In 1972 , Peter Galton classified the genus as not diagnosable beyond Saurischia . Later , using cladistic analysis , some researchers put Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus at the base of the dinosaur tree before the separation between ornithischians and saurischians . Several researchers classified the remains as non @-@ dinosaurian .
Two other partial skeletons , with skull material , were named Frenguellisaurus ischigualastensis by Fernando Novas in 1986 , but this species too is now thought to be a synonym . Frenguellisaurus ischigualastensis was discovered in 1975 , and was described by Novas ( 1986 ) who considered it a primitive saurischian , and possibly a theropod . Novas ( 1992 ) and Sereno and Novas ( 1992 ) examined the Frenguellisaurus remains and found them referable to Herrerasaurus . Ischisaurus cattoi was discovered in 1960 and described by Reig in 1963 . Novas ( 1992 ) and Sereno and Novas ( 1992 ) reviewed its remains and found them to be referable to Herrerasaurus .
A complete Herrerasaurus skull was found in 1988 , by a team of paleontologists led by Paul Sereno . Based on the new fossils , authors such as Thomas Holtz and José Bonaparte classified Herrerasaurus at the base of the saurischian tree before the divergence between prosauropods and theropods . However , Sereno favored classifying Herrerasaurus ( and the Herrerasauridae ) as primitive theropods . These two classifications have become the most persistent , with Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Bittencourt and Kellner ( 2004 ) favoring the early theropod hypothesis , and Max Langer ( 2004 ) , Langer and Benton ( 2006 ) , and Randall Irmis and his coauthors ( 2007 ) favoring the basal saurischian hypothesis . If Herrerasaurus were indeed a theropod , it would indicate that theropods , sauropodomorphs , and ornithischians diverged even earlier than herrerasaurids , before the middle Carnian , and that " all three lineages independently evolved several dinosaurian features , such as a more advanced ankle joint or an open acetabulum " . This view is further supported by ichnological records showing large tridactyl ( three @-@ toed ) footprints that can be attributed only to a theropod dinosaur . These footprints date from the Ladinian ( Middle Triassic ) of the Los Rastros Formation in Argentina and predate Herrerasaurus by 3 to 5 million years .
The study of early dinosaurs such as Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor therefore has important implications for the concept of dinosaurs as a monophyletic group ( a group descended from a common ancestor ) . The monophyly of dinosaurs was explicitly proposed in the 1970s by Galton and Robert T. Bakker , who compiled a list of cranial and postcranial synapomorphies ( common anatomical traits derived from the common ancestor ) . Later authors proposed additional synapomorphies . An extensive study of Herrerasaurus by Sereno in 1992 suggested that of these proposed synapomorphies , only one cranial and seven postcranial features were actually derived from a common ancestor , and that the others were attributable to convergent evolution . Sereno 's analysis of Herrerasaurus also led him to propose several new dinosaurian synapomorphies .
= = Classification = =
Herrerasaurus was originally considered to be a genus within Carnosauria , which then included forms similar to Megalosaurus and Antrodemus ( the latter is equivalent to Allosaurus ) , even though Herrerasaurus lived many millions of years before them and retained multiple primitive features . This carnosaurian classification was amended upon by Rozhdestvensky and Tatarinov in 1964 , who classified Herrerasaurus within the family Gryponichidae inside Carnosauria . The same year , Walker published a differing opinion that Herrerasaurus instead was allied with Plateosauridae , although it differed in possessing a pubic boot . Walker also proposed that Herrerasaurus may instead be close to Poposaurus ( now considered a pseudosuchian ) and the unnamed theropod from the Dockum Group of Texas ( now assigned to the rauisuchian Postosuchus ) . In 1985 , Charig noted that Herrerasaurus was of uncertain classification , showing similarities to both " prosauropods " and " carnosaurians " . Romer ( 1966 ) , simply noted that Herrerasaurus was a prosauropod possibly within Plateosauridae . In the description of Staurikosaurus , Colbert noted that there were many similarities between his taxon and Herrerasaurus , but classified them in separate families , with Herrerasaurus in Teratosauridae . In 1970 , Bonaparte also proposed similarities between Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus , and while classifying them both clearly as in Saurischia , he stated that they appeared as though they could not be placed in a current family . This was further supported by Benedetto in 1973 , who named for the taxa the new family Herrerasauridae , which he classified as saurischians , possibly within Theropoda but not in Sauropodomorpha . However , in 1977 Galton proposed that Herrerasauridae only included Herrerasaurus , and found it to be Saurischian incertae sedis .
Proposed in 1987 by Brinkman and Sues , Herrerasaurus has at times been considered basal to Ornithischia and Saurischia , although Brinkmann and Sues still considered it to be inside Dinosauria . They supported this on the basis that Herrerasaurus has a large pedal digit V , and has a well developed medial wall on the acetabulum . Brinkmann and Sues considered Staurikosaurus and Herrerasaurus to not form a true group called Herrerasauridae , and that instead they were successively more primitive forms . Also , they considered the characters used by Benedetto to be invalid , instead representing only the plesiomorphic state that was found in both taxa . This was disagreed with in 1992 by Novas , who stated many derived synapomorphies of Herrerasauridae , such as a distinct pubic boot , but still classified them as basal to Ornithischia and Saurischia . Novas defined the family as the least common ancestor of Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus and all its descendants . A differing definition of Herrerasaurus but not Passer domesticus first suggested by Sereno ( 1998 ) , and more closely follows the original inclusion proposed by Benedetto . Another group , Herrerasauria was named by Galton in 1985 , and defined as Herrerasaurus but not Liliensternus or Plateosaurus by Langer ( 2004 ) , who used the node @-@ based definition for Herrerasauridae .
In a revision of basal Dinosauria , Padian and May ( 1993 ) discussed the definition of the clade , and redefined it as the latest common ancestor of Triceratops and birds . They also discussed what this definition would do to the most basal taxa , such as Herrerasauridae , and Eoraptor . Padian and May considered that since both Herrerasauridae and Eoraptor lack many diagnostic features of Saurischia or Ornithischia , that they could not be considered inside Dinosauria .
A later 1994 study by Novas instead classified Herrerasaurus within Dinosauria , and strongly supported its position within Saurischia , as well a provided synapomorphies shared with Theropoda . Novas found that the primitive features of lacking a brevis fossa and having only two sacral vertebrae were simply reversals found in the genus . In 1996 , Novas went further by supporting a theropod position for Herrerasaurus with a phylogenetic analysis , which placed it closer to Neotheropoda than Eoraptor or Sauropodomorpha . Langer ( 2004 ) mentioned that this hypothesis was widely accepted , but that more later authors instead preferred to place Herrerasaurus as well as Eoraptor basal to Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha , a clade called Eusaurischia . Langer ( 2004 ) conducted a phylogenetic analysis , and found that it was much more likely that Herrerasaurus was a basal saurischian , than either a theropod or a non @-@ dinosaurian . Langer 's proposal was supported by multiple studies until the discovery of Tawa , when Nesbitt et al. conducted a more inclusive analysis , and the resulting cladogram placed Herrerasauridae basal to Eoraptor , but closer to Dilophosaurus than Sauropodomorpha . Unlike Nesbitt , Ezcurra ( 2010 ) conducted a phylogenetic analysis to place his new taxon Chromogisaurus , and found that Herrerasauridae was basal to Eusaurischia .
In 2010 , Alcocer and Martinez described a new taxon of herrerasaurid , Sanjuansaurus . It could be distinguished from Herrerasaurus based on multiple features . In the phylogenetic analysis , Herrerasaurus , Sanjuansaurus and Staurikosaurus all were in a polytomy , and Herrerasauridae was the most primitive group of saurischian , outside Eusaurischia , Eoraptor and Guaibasaurus . In 2011 , Martinez et al. described Eodromaeus , a basal theropod from the same formation as Herrerasaurus . In a phylogenetic analysis , Eoraptor was placed within Sauropodomorpha , Herrerasauridae was placed as the most basal theropods , and Eodromaeus was placed as the next most basal . A more recent analysis , by Bittencourt et al . ( 2014 ) , placed Herrerasauridae in a polytomy with Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha , with Eoraptor also being in an unresolved position . This cladogram is shown below .
Other members of the clade may include Eoraptor from the same Ischigualasto Formation of Argentina as Herrerasaurus , Chindesaurus from the Upper Petrified Forest ( Chinle Formation ) of Arizona , and possibly Caseosaurus from the Tecovas Formation of the Dockum Group in Texas , although the relationships of these animals are not fully understood , and not all paleontologists agree . Other possible basal theropods , Alwalkeria from the Late Triassic Maleri Formation of India , and Teyuwasu , known from very fragmentary remains from the Late Triassic of Brazil , might be related . Paul ( 1988 ) noted that it had been incorrectly suggested that Staurikosaurus pricei was a juvenile Herrerasaurus . This claim was refuted when pelvic bones from a juvenile Herrerasaurus were discovered , which upon examination did not resemble the pelvic bones of Staurikosaurus .
= = Paleobiology = =
The teeth of Herrerasaurus indicate that it was a carnivore ; its size indicates it would have preyed upon small and medium @-@ sized plant eaters . These might have included other dinosaurs , such as Pisanosaurus , as well as the more plentiful rhynchosaurs and synapsids . Herrerasaurus itself may have been preyed upon by giant rauisuchids like Saurosuchus ; puncture wounds were found in one skull .
Coprolites ( fossilized dung ) containing small bones but no trace of plant fragments , discovered in the Ischigualasto Formation , have been assigned to Herrerasaurus based on fossil abundance . Mineralogical and chemical analysis of these coprolites indicates that if the referral to Herrerasaurus was correct , this carnivore could digest bone .
Comparisons between the scleral rings of Herrerasaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
In a 2001 study conducted by Bruce Rothschild and other paleontologists , 12 hand bones and 20 foot bones referred to Herrerasaurus were examined for signs of stress fracture , but none were found .
PVSJ 407 , a Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis , had a pit in a skull bone attributed by Paul Sereno and Novas to a bite . Two additional pits occurred on the splenial . The areas around these pits are swollen and porous , suggesting the wounds were afflicted by a short @-@ lived non @-@ lethal infection . Because of the size and angles of the wound , it is likely that they were obtained in a fight with another Herrerasaurus .
= = Paleoecology = =
The holotype of Herrerasaurus ( PVL 2566 ) was discovered in the Cancha de Bochas Member of the Ischigualasto Formation in San Juan , Argentina . It was collected in 1961 by Victorino Herrera , in sediments that were deposited in the Carnian stage of the Triassic period , approximately 235 to 221 million years ago . Over the years , the Ischigualasto Formation produced other fossils ultimately referred to Herrerasaurus . In 1958 , A.S. Romer discovered specimen MCZ 7063 , originally referred to Staurikosaurus in Carnian sediments . Herrerasaurus specimens PVL 2045 and MLP ( 4 ) 61 , were collected in 1959 and 1960 , respectively , in sediments that were deposited in the Norian stage of the Triassic period , approximately 228 to 208 million years ago . In 1960 , Scaglia collected specimen MACN 18 @.@ 060 , originally the holotype of Ischisaurus cattoi , in sediments deposited in the Carnian stage . In 1961 , Scaglia collected Herrerasaurus specimen PVL 2558 , in the Carnian beds of this formation . In 1990 , the Cancha de Bochas Member produced more Herrerasaurus specimens , also from its Carnian beds . Specimen PVSJ 53 , originally the holotype of Frenguellisaurus , was collected by Gargiulo & Oñate in 1975 in sediments that were deposited in the Carnian stage .
Although Herrerasaurus shared the body shape of the large carnivorous dinosaurs , it lived during a time when dinosaurs were small and insignificant . It was the time of non @-@ dinosaurian reptiles , not dinosaurs , and a major turning point in the Earth 's ecology . The vertebrate fauna of the Ischigualasto Formation and the slightly later Los Colorados Formation consisted mainly of a variety of crurotarsal archosaurs and synapsids . In the Ischigualasto Formation , dinosaurs constituted only about 6 % of the total number of fossils , but by the end of the Triassic Period , dinosaurs were becoming the dominant large land animals , and the other archosaurs and synapsids declined in variety and number .
Studies suggest that the paleoenvironment of the Ischigualasto Formation was a volcanically active floodplain covered by forests and subject to strong seasonal rainfalls . The climate was moist and warm , though subject to seasonal variations . Vegetation consisted of ferns ( Cladophlebis ) , horsetails , and giant conifers ( Protojuniperoxylon ) . These plants formed lowland forests along the banks of rivers . Herrerasaurus remains appear to have been the most common among the carnivores of the Ischigualasto Formation . It lived in the jungles of Late Triassic South America alongside another early dinosaur , the one @-@ meter @-@ long Eoraptor , as well as Saurosuchus , a giant land @-@ living rauisuchian ( a quadrupedal meat eater with a theropod @-@ like skull ) ; the broadly similar but smaller Venaticosuchus , an ornithosuchid ; and the predatory therapsid chiniquodontids . Herbivores were much more abundant than carnivores and were represented by rhynchosaurs such as Hyperodapedon ( a beaked reptile ) ; aetosaurs ( spiny armored reptiles ) ; and therapsids , including kannemeyeriid dicynodonts ( stocky , front @-@ heavy beaked quadrupedal animals ) such as Ischigualastia and traversodontid cynodonts ( somewhat similar in overall form to dicynodonts , but lacking beaks ) such as Exaeretodon . These non @-@ dinosaurian herbivores were much more abundant than early ornithischian dinosaurs like Pisanosaurus .
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= Fridtjof Nansen =
Fridtjof Nansen ( / ˈfrɪd.tjɒf ˈnænsən / FRID @-@ choff NAN @-@ sən ; 10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930 ) was a Norwegian explorer , scientist , diplomat , humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate . In his youth he was a champion skier and ice skater . He led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888 , traversing the island on cross @-@ country skis . He won international fame after reaching a record northern latitude of 86 ° 14 ′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893 – 96 . Although he retired from exploration after his return to Norway , his techniques of polar travel and his innovations in equipment and clothing influenced a generation of subsequent Arctic and Antarctic expeditions .
Nansen studied zoology at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania ( renamed Oslo in 1925 ) , and later worked as a curator at the Bergen Museum where his research on the central nervous system of lower marine creatures earned him a doctorate and helped establish modern theories of neurology . After 1896 his main scientific interest switched to oceanography ; in the course of his research he made many scientific cruises , mainly in the North Atlantic , and contributed to the development of modern oceanographic equipment . As one of his country 's leading citizens , in 1905 Nansen spoke out for the ending of Norway 's union with Sweden , and was instrumental in persuading Prince Carl of Denmark to accept the throne of the newly independent Norway . Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London , where he helped negotiate the Integrity Treaty that guaranteed Norway 's independent status .
In the final decade of his life , Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations , following his appointment in 1921 as the League 's High Commissioner for Refugees . In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the displaced victims of the First World War and related conflicts . Among the initiatives he introduced was the " Nansen passport " for stateless persons , a certificate recognised by more than 50 countries . He worked on behalf of refugees until his sudden death in 1930 , after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued . This office received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1938 . Nansen was honoured by many nations , and his name is commemorated in numerous geographical features , particularly in the polar regions .
= = Family background and childhood = =
The Nansen family originated in Denmark . Hans Nansen ( 1598 – 1667 ) , a trader , was an early explorer of the White Sea region of the Arctic Ocean . In later life he settled in Copenhagen , becoming the city 's borgmester in 1654 . Later generations of the family lived in Copenhagen until the mid @-@ 18th century , when Ancher Antoni Nansen moved to Norway ( then ruled by Denmark ) . His son , Hans Leierdahl Nansen ( 1764 – 1821 ) , was a magistrate first in the Trondheim district , later in Jæren . After Norway 's separation from Denmark in 1814 , he entered national political life as the representative for Stavanger in the first Storting , and became a strong advocate of union with Sweden . After suffering a paralytic stroke in 1821 Hans Leierdahl Nansen died , leaving a four @-@ year @-@ old son , Baldur Fridtjof Nansen , the explorer 's father .
Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life , who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway . He married twice , the second time to Adelaide Johanne Thekla Isidore Bølling Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg from Bærum , a niece of Herman Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg who had helped frame the Norwegian constitution of 1814 and was later the Swedish king 's Norwegian Viceroy . Baldur and Adelaide settled at Store Frøen , an estate at Aker , a few kilometres north of Norway 's capital city , Christiania ( since renamed Oslo ) . The couple had three children ; the first died in infancy , the second , born 10 October 1861 , was Fridtjof Nansen .
Store Frøen 's rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansen 's childhood . In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing , while in the autumn the chief pastime was hunting for game in the forests . The long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing , which Nansen began to practice at the age of two , on improvised skis . At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation . This exploit had near @-@ disastrous consequences , as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow , pitching the boy forward : " I , head first , described a fine arc in the air ... [ W ] hen I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist . The boys thought I had broken my neck , but as soon as they saw there was life in me ... a shout of mocking laughter went up . " Nansen 's enthusiasm for skiing was undiminished , though as he records , his efforts were overshadowed by those of the skiers from the mountainous region of Telemark , where a new style of skiing was being developed . " I saw this was the only way " , wrote Nansen later .
At school , Nansen worked adequately without showing any particular aptitude . Studies took second place to sports , or to expeditions into the forests where he would live " like Robinson Crusoe " for weeks at a time . Through such experiences Nansen developed a marked degree of self @-@ reliance . He became an accomplished skier and a highly proficient skater . Life was disrupted when , in the summer of 1877 , Adelaide Nansen died suddenly . Distressed , Baldur Nansen sold the Store Frøen property and moved with his two sons to Christiania . Nansen 's sporting prowess continued to develop ; at 18 he broke the world one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) skating record , and in the following year won the national cross @-@ country skiing championship , a feat he would repeat on 11 subsequent occasions .
= = Student and adventurer = =
In 1880 Nansen passed his university entrance examination , the examen artium . He decided to study zoology , claiming later that he chose the subject because he thought it offered the chance of a life in the open air . He began his studies at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania ( renamed Oslo in 1925 ) early in 1881 .
Early in 1882 Nansen took " ... the first fatal step that led me astray from the quiet life of science . " Professor Robert Collett of the university 's zoology department proposed that Nansen take a sea voyage , to study Arctic zoology at first hand . Nansen was enthusiastic , and made arrangements through a recent acquaintance , Captain Axel Krefting , commander of the sealer Viking . The voyage began on 11 March 1882 and extended over the following five months . In the weeks before sealing started , Nansen was able to concentrate on scientific studies . From water samples he showed that , contrary to previous assumption , sea ice forms on the surface of the water rather than below . His readings also demonstrated that the Gulf Stream flows beneath a cold layer of surface water . Through the spring and early summer Viking roamed between Greenland and Spitsbergen in search of seal herds . Nansen became an expert marksman , and on one day proudly recorded that his team had shot 200 seal . In July , Viking became trapped in the ice close to an unexplored section of the Greenland coast ; Nansen longed to go ashore , but this was impossible . However , he began to develop the idea that the Greenland icecap might be explored , or even crossed . On 17 July the ship broke free from the ice , and early in August was back in Norwegian waters .
Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university . Instead , on Collett 's recommendation , he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the Bergen Museum . He was to spend the next six years of his life there — apart from a six @-@ month sabbatical tour of Europe — working and studying with leading figures such as Gerhard Armauer Hansen , the discoverer of the leprosy bacillus , and Daniel Cornelius Danielssen , the museum 's director who had turned it from a backwater collection into a centre of scientific research and education . Nansen 's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of neuroanatomy , specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures . Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date , in which he stated that " anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells " could not be demonstrated with certainty . This unorthodox view , confirmed by the simultaneous researches of the embryologist Wilhelm His and the psychiatrist August Forel . Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory , originally proposed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal . His subsequent paper , The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System , published in 1887 , became his doctoral thesis .
= = Crossing of Greenland = =
= = = Planning = = =
The idea of an expedition across the Greenland icecap grew in Nansen 's mind throughout his Bergen years . In 1887 , after the submission of his doctoral thesis , he finally began organising this project . Before then , the two most significant penetrations of the Greenland interior had been those of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1883 , and Robert Peary in 1886 . Both had set out from Disko Bay on the western coast , and had travelled about 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) eastward before turning back . By contrast , Nansen proposed to travel from east to west , ending rather than beginning his trek at Disko Bay . A party setting out from the inhabited west coast would , he reasoned , have to make a return trip , as no ship could be certain of reaching the dangerous east coast and picking them up . By starting from the east — assuming that a landing could be made there — Nansen 's would be a one @-@ way journey towards a populated area . The party would have no line of retreat to a safe base ; the only way to go would be forward , a situation that fitted Nansen 's philosophy completely .
Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures , and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six . Supplies would be manhauled on specially designed lightweight sledges . Much of the equipment , including sleeping bags , clothing and cooking stoves , also needed to be designed from scratch . These plans received a generally poor reception in the press ; one critic had no doubt that " if [ the ] scheme be attempted in its present form ... the chances are ten to one that he will ... uselessly throw his own and perhaps others ' lives away " . The Norwegian parliament refused to provide financial support , believing that such a potentially risky undertaking should not be encouraged . The project was eventually launched with a donation from a Danish businessman , Augustin Gamél ; the rest came mainly from small contributions from Nansen 's countrymen , through a fundraising effort organised by students at the university .
Despite the adverse publicity , Nansen received numerous applications from would @-@ be adventurers . He wanted expert skiers , and attempted to recruit from the skiers of Telemark , but his approaches were rebuffed . Nordenskiöld had advised Nansen that Sami people , from Finland in the far north of Norway , were expert snow travellers , so Nansen recruited a pair , Samuel Balto and Ole Nielsen Ravna . The remaining places went to Otto Sverdrup , a former sea @-@ captain who had more recently worked as a forester ; Oluf Christian Dietrichson , an army officer , and Kristian Kristiansen , an acquaintance of Sverdrup 's . All had experience of outdoor life in extreme conditions , and were experienced skiers . Just before the party 's departure , Nansen attended a formal examination at the university , which had agreed to receive his doctoral thesis . In accordance with custom he was required to defend his work before appointed examiners acting as " devil 's advocates " . He left before knowing the outcome of this process .
= = = Expedition = = =
On 3 June 1888 Nansen 's party was picked up from the north @-@ western Icelandic port of Ísafjörður by the sealer Jason . A week later the Greenland coast was sighted , but progress was hindered by thick pack ice . On 17 July , with the coast still 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) away , Nansen decided to launch the small boats ; they were within sight of the Sermilik Fjord , which Nansen believed would offer a route up on to the icecap .
The expedition left Jason " in good spirits and with the highest hopes of a fortunate result " , according to Jason 's captain . There followed days of extreme frustration for the party as , prevented by weather and sea conditions from reaching the shore , they drifted southwards with the ice . Most of this time was spent camping on the ice itself — it was too dangerous to launch the boats . By 29 July they were 380 kilometres ( 240 mi ) south of the point where they had left the ship . On that day they finally reached land , but were too far south to begin the crossing . After a brief rest , Nansen ordered the team back into the boats and to begin rowing north .
During the next 12 days the party battled northward along the coast through the ice floes . On the first day they encountered a large Eskimo encampment near Cape Steen Bille , and there were further occasional contacts with the nomadic native population as the journey continued . On 11 August , when they had covered about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) and had reached Umivik Bay , Nansen decided that although they were still far south of his intended starting place , they needed to begin the crossing before the season became too advanced for travel . After landing at Umivik , they spent the next four days preparing for their journey , and on the evening of 15 August they set out . They were heading north @-@ west , towards Christianhaab ( now Qasigiannguit ) on the west Greenland shores of Disko Bay , 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) away .
Over the next few days the party struggled to ascend the inland ice over a treacherous surface with many hidden crevasses . The weather was generally bad ; on one occasion all progress was halted for three days by violent storms and continuous rain . On 26 August Nansen concluded that there was now no chance of reaching Christianhaab by mid @-@ September , when the last ship was due to leave . He therefore ordered a change of course , almost due west towards Godthaab ( now Nuuk ) , a shorter journey by at least 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) . The rest of the party , according to Nansen , " hailed the change of plan with acclamation " . They continued climbing , until on 11 September they had reached a height of 8 @,@ 922 feet ( 2 @,@ 719 m ) above sea level , the summit of the icecap with temperatures dropping to − 50 ° F ( − 46 ° C ) at night . From then on the downward slope made travelling easier , although the terrain was difficult and the weather remained hostile . Progress was slow because of fresh snowfalls which made dragging the sledges as hard as pulling them through sand . By 26 September they had battled their way down to the edge of a fjord that ran westward towards Godthaab . From their tent , some local willows and parts of the sledges Sverdrup constructed a makeshift boat , and on 29 September Nansen and Sverdrup began the last stage of the journey , rowing down the fjord . Four days later , on 3 October 1888 , they reached Godthaab , where they were greeted by the town 's Danish representative . His first words were to inform Nansen that he had been awarded his doctorate , a matter that " could not have been more remote from my thoughts at that moment " . The crossing had been accomplished in 49 days , making 78 days in total since they had left the Jason ; throughout the journey the team had maintained careful meteorological , geographical and other records relating to the previously unexplored interior . The rest of the team arrived in Godthaab on 12 October .
Nansen soon learned that no ship was likely to call at Godthaab until the following spring , though they were able to send letters back to Norway via a boat leaving Ivigtut at the end of October . He and his party therefore spent the next seven months in Greenland , hunting , fishing and studying the life of the local inhabitants . On 15 April 1889 the Danish ship Hvidbjørnen finally entered the harbour , and Nansen and his comrades prepared to depart . " It was not without sorrow that we left this place and these people , among whom we had enjoyed ourselves so well " , Nansen recorded .
= = Interlude and marriage = =
Hvidbjørnen reached Copenhagen on 21 May 1889 . News of the crossing had preceded its arrival , and Nansen and his companions were feted as heroes . This welcome , however , was dwarfed by the reception in Christiania a week later , when crowds of between thirty and forty thousand — a third of the city 's population — thronged the streets as the party made its way to the first of a series of receptions . The interest and enthusiasm generated by the expedition 's achievement led directly to the formation that year of the Norwegian Geographical Society .
Nansen accepted the position of curator of the Royal Frederick University 's zoology collection , a post which carried a salary but involved no duties ; the university was satisfied by the association with the explorer 's name . Nansen 's main task in the following weeks was writing his account of the expedition , but he found time late in June to visit London , where he met the Prince of Wales ( the future King Edward VII ) , and addressed a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) .
The RGS president , Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff , said that Nansen has claimed " the foremost place amongst northern travellers " , and later awarded him the Society 's prestigious Founder 's Medal . This was one of many honours Nansen received from institutions all over Europe . He was invited by a group of Australians to lead an expedition to Antarctica , but declined , believing that Norway 's interests would be better served by a North Pole conquest .
On 11 August 1889 Nansen announced his engagement to Eva Sars , the daughter of Michael Sars , a zoology professor who had died when Eva was 11 years old . The couple had met some years previously , at the skiing resort of Frognerseteren , where Nansen recalled seeing " two feet sticking out of the snow " . Eva was three years older than Nansen , and despite the evidence of this first meeting , was an accomplished skier . She was also a celebrated classical singer who had been coached in Berlin by Désirée Artôt , one @-@ time paramour of Tchaikovsky . The engagement surprised many , since Nansen had previously expressed himself forcefully against the institution of marriage ; Otto Sverdrup assumed he had read the message wrongly . The wedding took place on 6 September 1889 , less than a month after the engagement .
= = Fram expedition = =
= = = Theories and plans = = =
Nansen first began to consider the possibility of reaching the North Pole by using the natural drift of the polar ice when , in 1884 , he read the theories of Henrik Mohn , the distinguished Norwegian meteorologist . Artifacts found on the Greenland coast had been identified as coming from the lost US Arctic exploration vessel Jeannette , which had been crushed and sunk in June 1881 on the opposite side of the Arctic Ocean , off the Siberian coast . Mohn surmised that the location of the artefacts indicated the existence of an ocean current , flowing from east to west all the way across the polar sea , possibly over the pole itself . A strong enough ship might therefore enter the frozen Siberian sea , and drift to the Greenland coast via the pole .
This idea remained with Nansen during following years . After his triumphant return from Greenland he began to develop a detailed plan for a polar venture , which he made public in February 1890 at a meeting of the recently formed Norwegian Geographical Society . Previous expeditions , he argued , had approached the North Pole from the west , and had failed because they were working against the prevailing east @-@ west current . The secret of success was to work with this current . A workable plan , Nansen said , would require a small , strong and manoeuvrable ship capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years . The ship would sail to the approximate location of Jeannette 's sinking , and would enter the ice . It would then drift west with the current towards the pole and beyond it , eventually reaching the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen .
Many experienced polar hands were dismissive of Nansen 's plans . The retired American explorer Adolphus Greely called the idea " an illogical scheme of self @-@ destruction " . Sir Allen Young , a veteran of the searches for Sir John Franklin 's lost expedition , and Sir Joseph Hooker , who had sailed south with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , were equally dismissive . However , after an impassioned speech Nansen secured the support of the Norwegian parliament , which voted him a grant . The balance of funding was met by private donations and from a national appeal .
= = = Preparations = = =
Nansen chose Colin Archer , Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect , to design and build a suitable ship for the planned expedition . Using the toughest oak timbers available , and an intricate system of crossbeams and braces throughout its length , Archer built a vessel of extraordinary strength . Its rounded hull was designed so that it would slip upwards out of the grip of packing ice . Speed and sailing performance were secondary to the requirement of making the ship a safe and warm shelter during a predicted lengthy confinement . With an overall length of 128 feet ( 39 m ) and a beam of 36 feet ( 11 m ) , the length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of just over three gave the ship its stubby appearance , justified by Archer thus : " A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [ Nansen 's ] object must differ essentially from any known vessel . " The ship was launched by Eva Nansen at Archer 's yard at Larvik , on 6 October 1892 , and was named Fram , in English " Forward " .
From thousands of applicants , Nansen selected a party of twelve . Otto Sverdrup from the Greenland expedition was appointed captain of Fram and second @-@ in @-@ command of the expedition . Competition for places on the voyage was such that reserve Army lieutenant and dog @-@ driving expert Hjalmar Johansen signed on as ship 's stoker , the only position available .
= = = Into the ice = = =
Fram left Christiania on 24 June 1893 , cheered on by thousands of well @-@ wishers . After a slow journey around the coast , the final port of call was Vardø , in the far north @-@ east of Norway . Fram left Vardø on 21 July , following the North @-@ East Passage route pioneered by Nordenskiöld in 1878 – 79 , along the northern coast of Siberia . Progress was impeded by fog and ice conditions in the mainly uncharted seas . The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon , where a ship 's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water . Nevertheless , Cape Chelyuskin , the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass , was passed on 10 September . Ten days later , as Fram approached the area in which Jeannette had been crushed , heavy pack ice was sighted at around latitude 78 ° N. Nansen followed the line of the pack northwards to a position recorded as 78 ° 49 ′ N , 132 ° 53 ′ E , before ordering engines stopped and the rudder raised . From this point Fram 's drift began .
The first weeks in the ice were frustrating , as the drift moved unpredictably , sometimes north , sometimes south ; by 19 November Fram 's latitude was south of that at which she had entered the ice . Only after the turn of the year , in January 1894 , did the northerly direction become generally settled ; the 80 ° mark was finally passed on 22 March . Nansen calculated that , at this rate , it might take the ship five years to reach the pole . As the ship 's northerly progress continued at a rate rarely above a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) a day , Nansen began privately to consider a new plan — a dog sledge journey towards the pole . With this in mind he began to practice dog @-@ driving , making many experimental journeys over the ice . In November Nansen announced his plan : when the ship passed latitude 83 ° he and Hjalmar Johansen would leave the ship with the dogs and make for the pole while Fram , under Sverdrup , continued its drift until it emerged from the ice in the North Atlantic . After reaching the pole , Nansen and Johansen would make for the nearest known land , the recently discovered and sketchily mapped Franz Josef Land . They would then cross to Spitzbergen where they would find a ship to take them home .
The crew spent the rest of the 1894 – 95 winter preparing clothing and equipment for the forthcoming sledge journey . Kayaks were built , to be carried on the sledges until needed for the crossing of open water . Preparations were interrupted early in January when violent tremors shook the ship . The crew disembarked , fearing that the vessel would be crushed , but Fram proved herself equal to the danger . On 8 January 1895 the ship 's position was 83 ° 34 ′ N , above Greely 's previous Farthest North record of 83 ° 24 .
= = = Dash for the pole = = =
On 14 March 1895 , after two false starts and with the ship 's position at 84 ° 4 ′ N , Nansen and Johansen began their journey . Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles ( 660 km ; 410 mi ) to the pole , an average daily journey of seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . After a week of travel a sextant observation indicated that they were averaging nine nautical miles a day , ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) , putting them ahead of schedule . However , uneven surfaces made skiing more difficult , and their speeds slowed . They also realised that they were marching against a southerly drift , and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression . On 3 April Nansen began to wonder whether the pole was , indeed , attainable . Unless their speed improved , their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land . He confided in his diary : " I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time . " On 7 April , after making camp and observing that the way ahead was " a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon " , Nansen decided to turn south . He recorded the latitude of the final northerly camp as 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N , almost three degrees beyond the previous Farthest North mark .
= = = Retreat = = =
At first Nansen and Johansen made good progress south , but on 13 April suffered a serious setback when both of their chronometers stopped . Without knowing the correct time , it was impossible for them to calculate their longitude and thus navigate their way accurately to Franz Josef Land . They restarted the watches on the basis of Nansen 's guess that they were at longitude 86 ° E , but from then on were uncertain of their true position .
Towards the end of April they observed the tracks of an Arctic fox , the first trace they had seen of a living creature other than their dogs since leaving Fram . Soon they began to see bear tracks , and by the end of May seals , gulls and whales were in evidence . On 31 May , by Nansen 's calculations , they were only 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Cape Fligely , the northernmost known point of Franz Josef Land . However , travel conditions worsened as the warmer weather caused the ice to break up . On 22 June the pair decided to rest on a stable ice floe while they repaired their equipment and gathered their strength for the next stage of their journey . They remained on the floe for a month . The day after leaving this camp Nansen recorded : " At last the marvel has come to pass — land , land , and after we had almost given up our belief in it ! " Whether this still @-@ distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know — they had only a rough sketch map to guide them . On 6 August they reached the edge of the ice , where they shot the last of their dogs — they had been killing the weakest regularly since 24 April , to feed the others . They then lashed their two kayaks together , raised a sail and made for the land .
It was soon clear that this land was part of a group of islands . As they moved slowly southwards , Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder , on the western edge of Franz Josef Land . Towards the end of August , as the weather grew colder and travel became increasingly difficult , Nansen decided to camp for the winter . In a sheltered cove , with stones and moss for building materials , the pair erected a hut which was to be their home for the next eight months . With ready supplies of bear , walrus and seal to keep their larder stocked , their principal enemy was not hunger but inactivity . After muted Christmas and New Year celebrations , in slowly improving weather they began to prepare to leave their refuge , but it was 19 May 1896 before they were able to resume their journey .
= = = Rescue and return = = =
On 17 June , during a stop for repairs after the kayaks had been attacked by a walrus , Nansen thought he heard sounds of a dog barking , and of voices . He went to investigate , and a few minutes later saw the figure of a man approaching . It was the British explorer Frederick Jackson , who was leading an expedition to Franz Josef Land and was camped at Cape Flora on the nearby Northbrook Island . The two were equally astonished by their encounter ; after some awkward hesitation Jackson asked : " You are Nansen , aren 't you ? " , and received the reply " Yes , I am Nansen . " Johansen was soon picked up , and the pair were taken to Cape Flora where , during the following weeks , they recuperated from their ordeal . Nansen later wrote that he could " still scarcely grasp " the sudden change of fortune ; had it not been for the walrus attack that caused the delay , the two parties might have been unaware of each other 's existence .
On 7 August Nansen and Johansen boarded Jackson 's supply ship Windward , and sailed for Vardø where they arrived on the 13th . They were greeted by Hans Mohn , the originator of the polar drift theory , who was in the town by chance . The world was quickly informed by telegram of Nansen 's safe return , but as yet there was no news of Fram . Taking the weekly mail steamer south , Nansen and Johansen reached Hammerfest on 18 August , where they learned that Fram had been sighted . She had emerged from the ice north and west of Spitsbergen , as Nansen had predicted , and was now on her way to Tromsø . She had not passed over the pole , nor exceeded Nansen 's northern mark . Without delay Nansen and Johansen sailed for Tromsø , where they were reunited with their comrades .
The homeward voyage to Christiania was a series of triumphant receptions at every port . On 9 September Fram was escorted into Christiania 's harbour and welcomed by the largest crowds the city had ever seen . The crew were received by King Oscar , and Nansen , reunited with family , remained at the palace for several days as a special guest . Tributes arrived from all over the world ; typical was that from the British mountaineer Edward Whymper , who wrote that Nansen had made " almost as great an advance as has been accomplished by all other voyages in the nineteenth century put together " .
= = National figure = =
= = = Scientist and polar oracle = = =
Nansen 's first task on his return was to write his account of the voyage . This he did remarkably quickly , producing 300 @,@ 000 words of Norwegian text by November 1896 ; the English translation , titled Farthest North , was ready in January 1897 . The book was an instant success , and secured Nansen 's long @-@ term financial future . Nansen included without comment the one significant adverse criticism of his conduct , that of Greely , who had written in Harper 's Weekly on Nansen 's decision to leave Fram and strike for the pole : " It passes comprehension how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition . "
During the 20 years following his return from the Arctic , Nansen devoted most of his energies to scientific work . In 1897 he accepted a professorship in zoology at the Royal Frederick University , which gave him a base from which he could tackle the major task of editing the reports of the scientific results of the Fram expedition . This was a much more arduous task than writing the expedition narrative . The results were eventually published in six volumes , and according to a later polar scientist , Robert Rudmose @-@ Brown , " were to Arctic oceanography what the Challenger expedition results had been to the oceanography of other oceans . "
In 1900 Nansen became director of the Christiania @-@ based International Laboratory for North Sea Research , and helped found the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea . Through his connection with the latter body , in the summer of 1900 Nansen embarked on his first visit to Arctic waters since the Fram expedition , a cruise to Iceland and Jan Mayen Land on the oceanographic research vessel Michael Sars , named after Eva 's father . Shortly after his return he learned that his Farthest North record had been passed , by members of the Duke of the Abruzzi 's Italian expedition . They had reached 86 ° 34N on 24 April 1900 , in an attempt to reach the North Pole from Franz Josef Land . Nansen received the news philosophically : " What is the value of having goals for their own sake ? They all vanish ... it is merely a question of time . "
Nansen was now considered an oracle by all would @-@ be explorers of the north and south polar regions . Abruzzi had consulted him , as had the Belgian Adrien de Gerlache , each of whom took expeditions to the Antarctic . Although Nansen refused to meet his own countryman and fellow @-@ explorer Carsten Borchgrevink ( whom he considered a fraud ) , he gave advice to Robert Falcon Scott on polar equipment and transport , prior to the 1901 – 04 Discovery Expedition . At one point Nansen seriously considered leading a South Pole expedition himself , and asked Colin Archer to design two ships . However , these plans remained on the drawing board .
By 1901 Nansen 's family had expanded considerably . A daughter , Liv , had been born just before Fram set out ; a son , Kåre was born in 1897 followed by a daughter , Irmelin , in 1900 and a second son Odd in 1901 . The family home , which Nansen had built in 1891 from the profits of his Greenland expedition book , was now too small . Nansen acquired a plot of land in the Lysaker district and built , substantially to his own design , a large and imposing house which combined some of the characteristics of an English manor house with features from the Italian renaissance . The house was ready for occupation by April 1902 ; Nansen called it Polhøgda ( in English " polar heights " ) , and it remained his home for the rest of his life . A fifth and final child , son Asmund , was born at Polhøgda in 1903 .
= = = Politician and diplomat = = =
The union between Norway and Sweden , imposed by the Great Powers in 1814 , had been under considerable strain through the 1890s , the chief issue in question being Norway 's rights to its own consular service . Nansen , although not by inclination a politician , had spoken out on the issue on several occasions in defence of Norway 's interests . It seemed , early in the 20th century that agreement between the two countries might be possible , but hopes were dashed when negotiations broke down in February 1905 . The Norwegian government fell , and was replaced by one led by Christian Michelsen , whose programme was one of separation from Sweden .
In February and March Nansen published a series of newspaper articles which placed him firmly in the separatist camp . The new prime minister wanted Nansen in the cabinet , but Nansen had no political ambitions . However , at Michelsen 's request he went to Berlin and then to London where , in a letter to The Times , he presented Norway 's legal case for a separate consular service to the English @-@ speaking world . On 17 May 1905 , Norway 's Constitution Day , Nansen addressed a large crowd in Christiania , saying : " Now have all ways of retreat been closed . Now remains only one path , the way forward , perhaps through difficulties and hardships , but forward for our country , to a free Norway " . He also wrote a book , Norway and the Union with Sweden , specifically to promote Norway 's case abroad .
On 23 May the Storting passed the Consulate Act establishing a separate consular service . King Oscar , refused his assent ; on 27 May the Norwegian cabinet resigned , but the king would not recognise this step . On 7 June the Storting unilaterally announced that the union with Sweden was dissolved . In a tense situation the Swedish government agreed to Norway 's request that the dissolution should be put to a referendum of the Norwegian people . This was held on 13 August 1905 and resulted in an overwhelming vote for separation , at which point King Oscar relinquished the crown of Norway while retaining the Swedish throne . A second referendum , held in November , determined that the new independent state should be a monarchy rather than a republic . In anticipation of this , Michelsen 's government had been considering the suitability of various princes as candidates for the Norwegian throne . Faced with King Oscar 's refusal to allow anyone from his own House of Bernadotte to accept the crown , the favoured choice was Prince Charles of Denmark . In July 1905 Michelsen sent Nansen to Copenhagen on a secret mission to persuade Charles to accept the Norwegian throne . Nansen was successful ; shortly after the second referendum Charles was proclaimed king , taking the name Haakon VII . He and his wife , the British princess Maud , were crowned in the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906 .
In April 1906 Nansen was appointed Norway 's first Minister in London . His main task was to work with representatives of the major European powers on an Integrity Treaty which would guarantee Norway 's position . Nansen was popular in England , and got on well with King Edward , though he found court functions and diplomatic duties disagreeable ; " frivolous and boring " was his description . However , he was able to pursue his geographical and scientific interests through contacts with the Royal Geographical Society and other learned bodies . The Treaty was signed on 2 November 1907 , and Nansen considered his task complete . Resisting the pleas of , among others , King Edward that he should remain in London , on 15 November Nansen resigned his post . A few weeks later , still in England as the king 's guest at Sandringham , Nansen received word that Eva was seriously ill with pneumonia . On 8 December he set out for home , but before he reached Polhøgda he learned , from a telegram , that Eva had died .
= = = Oceanographer and traveller = = =
After a period of mourning , Nansen returned to London . He had been persuaded by his government to rescind his resignation until after King Edward 's state visit to Norway in April 1908 . His formal retirement from the diplomatic service was dated 1 May 1908 , the same day on which his university professorship was changed from zoology to oceanography . This new designation reflected the general character of Nansen 's more recent scientific interests . In 1905 he had supplied the Swedish physicist Walfrid Ekman with the data which established the principle in oceanography known as the Ekman spiral . Based on Nansen 's observations of ocean currents recorded during the Fram expedition , Ekman concluded that the effect of wind on the sea 's surface produced currents which " formed something like a spiral staircase , down towards the depths " . In 1909 Nansen combined with Bjørn Helland @-@ Hansen to publish an academic paper , The Norwegian Sea : its Physical Oceanography , based on the Michael Sars voyage of 1900 .
Nansen had by now retired from polar exploration , the decisive step being his release of Fram to his fellow @-@ Norwegian Roald Amundsen , who was planning a North Pole expedition . When Amundsen made his controversial change of plan and set out for the South Pole , Nansen stood by him . Between 1910 and 1914 , Nansen participated in a several oceanographic voyages . In 1910 , aboard the Norwegian naval vessel Fridtjof , he carried out researches in the northern Atlantic , and in 1912 he took his own yacht , Veslemøy , to Bear Island and Spitsbergen . The main objective of the Veslemøy cruise was the investigation of salinity in the North Polar Basin . One of Nansen 's lasting contributions to oceanography was his work designing instruments and equipment ; the " Nansen bottle " for taking deep water samples remained in use into the 21st century , in a version updated by Shale Niskin .
At the request of the Royal Geographical Society , Nansen began work on a study of Arctic discoveries , which developed into a two @-@ volume history of the exploration of the northern regions up to the beginning of the 16th century . This was published in 1911 as Nord i Tåkeheimen ( " In Northern Mists " ) . That year he renewed an acquaintance with Kathleen Scott , wife of Robert Falcon Scott whose Terra Nova Expedition had sailed for Antarctica in 1910 . Biographer Roland Huntford has asserted that Nansen and Kathleen Scott enjoyed a brief love affair . Many women were attracted to Nansen , and he had a reputation as a womaniser . His personal life was troubled around this time ; in January 1913 he received news of the suicide of Hjalmar Johansen , who had returned in disgrace from Amundsen 's successful South Pole expedition . In March 1913 , Nansen 's youngest son Asmund died after a long illness .
In the summer of 1913 Nansen travelled to the Kara Sea , by the invitation of Jonas Lied , as part of a delegation investigating a possible trade route between Western Europe and the Siberian interior . The party then took a steamer up the Yenisei River to Krasnoyarsk , and travelled on the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway to Vladivostok before turning for home . Nansen published a report from the trip in Through Siberia . The life and culture of the Russian peoples aroused in Nansen an interest and sympathy he would carry through to his later life . Immediately before the First World War , Nansen joined Helland @-@ Hansen in an oceanographical cruise in eastern Atlantic waters .
= = = Statesman and humanitarian = = =
On the outbreak of war in 1914 Norway declared its neutrality , alongside Sweden and Denmark . Nansen was appointed president of the Norwegian Union of Defence , but had few official duties , and continued with his professional work as far as circumstances permitted . As the war progressed , the loss of Norway 's overseas trade led to acute shortages of food in the country , which became critical in April 1917 when the United States entered the war and placed extra restrictions on international trade . Nansen was dispatched to Washington by the Norwegian government ; after months of discussion he secured food and other supplies in return for the introduction of a rationing system . When his government hesitated over the deal , he signed the agreement on his own initiative .
Within a few months of the war 's end in November 1918 a draft agreement had been accepted by the Paris Peace Conference to create a League of Nations , as a means of resolving disputes between nations by peaceful means . The foundation of the League at this time was providential as far as Nansen was concerned , giving him a new outlet for his restless energy .
He became president of the Norwegian League of Nations Society , and although the Scandinavian nations with their traditions of neutrality initially held themselves aloof , his advocacy helped to ensure that Norway became a full member of the League in 1920 , and he became one of its three delegates to the League 's General Assembly .
In April 1920 , at the League 's request , Nansen began organising the repatriation of around half a million prisoners of war , stranded in various parts of the world . Of these , 300 @,@ 000 were in Russia which , gripped by revolution and civil war , had little interest in their fate . Nansen was able to report to the Assembly in November 1920 that around 200 @,@ 000 men had been returned to their homes . " Never in my life " , he said , " have I been brought into touch with so formidable an amount of suffering . " Nansen continued this work for a further two years until , in his final report to the Assembly in 1922 , he was able to state that 427 @,@ 886 prisoners had been repatriated to around 30 different countries . In paying tribute to his work , the responsible committee recorded that the story of his efforts " would contain tales of heroic endeavour worthy of those in the accounts of the crossing of Greenland and the great Arctic voyage . "
Even before this work was complete , Nansen was involved in a further humanitarian effort . On 1 September 1921 , prompted by the British delegate Philip Noel @-@ Baker , he accepted the post of the League 's High Commissioner for Refugees . His main brief was the resettlement of around two million Russian refugees displaced by the upheavals of the Russian Revolution . At the same time he tried to tackle the urgent problem of famine in Russia ; following a widespread failure of crops around 30 million people were threatened with starvation and death . Despite Nansen 's pleas on behalf of the starving , Russia 's revolutionary government was feared and distrusted internationally , and the League was reluctant to come to its peoples ' aid . Nansen had to rely largely on fundraising from private organisations , and his efforts met with limited success . Later he was to express himself bitterly on the matter :
There was in various transatlantic countries such an abundance of maize , that the farmers had to burn it as fuel in their railway engines . At the same time the ships in Europe were idle , for there were no cargoes . Simultaneously there were thousands , nay millions of unemployed . All this , while thirty million people in the Volga region — not far away and easily reached by our ships — were allowed to starve and die .
A major problem impeding Nansen 's work on behalf of refugees was that most of them lacked documentary proof of identity or nationality . Without legal status in their country of refuge , their lack of papers meant they were unable to go anywhere else . To overcome this , Nansen devised a document that became known as the " Nansen passport " , a form of identity for stateless persons that was in time recognised by more than 50 governments , and which allowed refugees to cross borders legally . Among the more distinguished holders of Nansen passports were the artist Marc Chagall , the composer Igor Stravinsky , and the dancer Anna Pavlova . Although the passport was created initially for refugees from Russia , it was extended to cover other groups . After the Greco @-@ Turkish wars of 1919 – 1922 Nansen travelled to Constantinople to negotiate the resettlement of hundreds of thousands of refugees , mainly ethnic Greeks who had fled from Turkey after the defeat of the Greek Army . The impoverished Greek state was unable to take them in , and so Nansen devised a scheme for a population exchange whereby half a million Turks in Greece were returned to Turkey , with full financial compensation , while further loans facilitated the absorption of the refugee Greeks into their homeland . Despite some controversy over the principle of a population exchange , the plan was implemented successfully over a period of several years . In November 1922 , while attending the Conference of Lausanne , Nansen learned that he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922 . The citation referred to " his work for the repatriation of the prisoners of war , his work for the Russian refugees , his work to bring succour to the millions of Russians afflicted by famine , and finally his present work for the refugees in Asia Minor and Thrace " . Nansen donated the prize money to international relief efforts .
From 1925 onwards he spent much time trying to help Armenian refugees , victims of Armenian Genocide at the hands of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War and further ill @-@ treatment thereafter . His goal was the establishment of a national home for these refugees , within the borders of Soviet Armenia . His main assistant in this endeavour was Vidkun Quisling , the future Nazi collaborator and head of a Norwegian puppet government during the Second World War . After visiting the region , Nansen presented the Assembly with a modest plan for the irrigation of 36 @,@ 000 hectares ( 360 km2 or 139 square miles ) on which 15 @,@ 000 refugees could be settled . The plan ultimately failed , because even with Nansen 's unremitting advocacy the money to finance the scheme was not forthcoming . Despite this failure , his reputation among the Armenian people remains high . Nansen wrote the book , Armenia and the Near East in 1923 which describes his sympathies to the plight of the Armenians in the wake of losing its independence to the Soviet Union . The book was translated in many languages including Norwegian , English , French , German , Russian and Armenian . After his visit to Armenia , Nansen wrote two additional books called " Gjennem Armenia " ( " Across Armenia " ) , published in 1927 and " Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga " ( " Through Caucasus to Volga " ) .
Within the League 's Assembly , Nansen spoke out on many issues besides those related to refugees . He believed that the Assembly gave the smaller countries such as Norway a " unique opportunity for speaking in the councils of the world . " He believed that the extent of the League 's success in reducing armaments would be the greatest test of its credibility . He was a signatory to the Slavery Convention of 25 September 1926 , which sought to outlaw the use of forced labour . He supported a settlement of the post @-@ war reparations issue , and championed Germany 's membership of the League , which was granted in September 1926 after intensive preparatory work by Nansen .
= = Later life = =
On 17 January 1919 Nansen married Sigrun Munthe , a long @-@ time friend with whom he had had a love affair in 1905 , while Eva was still alive . The marriage was resented by the Nansen children , and proved unhappy ; an acquaintance writing of them in the 1920s said Nansen appeared unbearably miserable and Sigrun steeped in hate .
Nansen 's League of Nations commitments through the 1920s meant that he was mostly absent from Norway , and was able to devote little time to scientific work . Nevertheless , he continued to publish occasional papers . He entertained the hope that he might travel to the North Pole by airship , but could not raise sufficient funding . In any event he was forestalled in this ambition by Amundsen , who flew over the pole in Umberto Nobile 's airship Norge in May 1926 . Two years later Nansen broadcast a memorial oration to Amundsen , who had disappeared in the Arctic while organising a rescue party for Nobile whose airship had crashed during a second polar voyage . Nansen said of Amundsen : " He found an unknown grave under the clear sky of the icy world , with the whirring of the wings of eternity through space . "
In 1926 Nansen was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews in Scotland , the first foreigner to hold this largely honorary position . He used the occasion of his inaugural address to review his life and philosophy , and to deliver a call to the youth of the next generation . He ended :
We all have a Land of Beyond to seek in our life — what more can we ask ? Our part is to find the trail that leads to it . A long trail , a hard trail , maybe ; but the call comes to us , and we have to go . Rooted deep in the nature of every one of us is the spirit of adventure , the call of the wild — vibrating under all our actions , making life deeper and higher and nobler .
Nansen largely avoided involvement in domestic Norwegian politics , but in 1924 he was persuaded by the long @-@ retired former Prime Minister Christian Michelsen to take part in a new anti @-@ communist political grouping , the Fatherland League . There were fears in Norway that should the Marxist @-@ oriented Labour Party gain power it would introduce a revolutionary programme . At the inaugural rally of the League in Oslo ( as Christiania had now been renamed ) , Nansen declared : " To talk of the right of revolution in a society with full civil liberty , universal suffrage , equal treatment for everyone ... [ is ] idiotic nonsense . "
Following continued turmoil between the centre @-@ right parties , there was even an independent petition in 1926 gaining some momentum that proposed for Nansen to head a centre @-@ right national unity government on a balanced budget program , an idea he did not reject . He was the headline speaker at the single largest Fatherland League rally with 15 @,@ 000 attendees in Tønsberg in 1928 . In 1929 he went on his final tour for the League on the ship Stella Polaris , holding speeches from Bergen to Hammerfest .
In between his various duties and responsibilities , Nansen had continued to take skiing holidays when he could . In February 1930 , aged 68 , he took a short break in the mountains with two old friends , who noted that Nansen was slower than usual and appeared to tire easily . On his return to Oslo he was laid up for several months , with influenza and later phlebitis , and was visited on his sickbed by H.M.K. , Haakon VII of Norway .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nansen died of a heart attack , at home , on 13 May 1930 . He was given a non @-@ religious state funeral before cremation , after which his ashes were laid under a tree at Polhøgda . Nansen 's daughter Liv recorded that there were no speeches , just music : Schubert 's Death and the Maiden , which Eva used to sing . Among the many tributes paid to him subsequently was that of Lord Robert Cecil , a fellow League of Nations delegate , who spoke of the range of Nansen 's work , done with no regard for his own interests or health : " Every good cause had his support . He was a fearless peacemaker , a friend of justice , an advocate always for the weak and suffering . "
Nansen had been a pioneer and innovator in many fields . As a young man he embraced the revolution in skiing methods that transformed it from a means of winter travel to a universal sport , and quickly became one of Norway 's leading skiers . He was later able to apply this expertise to the problems of polar travel , in both his Greenland and his Fram expeditions . He invented the " Nansen sledge " with broad , ski @-@ like runners , the " Nansen cooker " to improve the heat efficiency of the standard spirit stoves then in use , and the layer principle in polar clothing , whereby the traditionally heavy , awkward garments were replaced by layers of lightweight material . In science , Nansen is recognised both as one of the founders of modern neurology , and as a significant contributor to early oceanographical science , in particular for his work in establishing the Central Oceanographic Laboratory in Christiania .
Through his work on behalf of the League of Nations , Nansen helped to establish the principle of international responsibility for refugees . Immediately after his death the League set up the Nansen International Office for Refugees , a semi @-@ autonomous body under the League 's authority , to continue his work . The Nansen Office faced great difficulties , in part arising from the large numbers of refugees from the European dictatorships during the 1930s . Nevertheless , it secured the agreement of 14 countries ( including a reluctant Great Britain ) to the Refugee Convention of 1933 . It also helped to repatriate 10 @,@ 000 Armenians to Yerevan in Soviet Armenia , and to find homes for a further 40 @,@ 000 in Syria and Lebanon . In 1938 , the year in which it was superseded by a wider @-@ ranging body , the Nansen Office was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .
In 1954 the League 's successor body , the United Nations , established the Nansen Medal , later named the Nansen Refugee Award , given annually by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to an individual , group or organisation " for outstanding work on behalf of the forcibly displaced " . A central street in Sofia Bulgaria is named after Fridtiof Nansen , and a memorial plate is mounted on a nearby building .
In his lifetime and thereafter , Nansen received honours and recognition from many countries . Nansen Ski Club , the oldest continually operated ski club in the United States , located in Berlin , New Hampshire , is named in his honour . Numerous geographical features are named after him : the Nansen Basin and the Nansen @-@ Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean ; Mount Nansen in the Yukon region of Canada ; Mount Nansen , Mount Fridtjof Nansen and Nansen Island , all in Antarctica . Polhøgda is now home to the Fridtjof Nansen Institute , an independent foundation which engages in research on environmental , energy and resource management politics . In 1968 a film of Nansen 's life , Bare et liv – Historien om Fridtjof Nansen was released , directed by Sergei Mikaelyen , with Knut Wigert as Nansen . In 2004 the Royal Norwegian Navy launched the first of a series of five Fridtjof Nansen @-@ class frigates . The lead ship of the group is HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen ; two others are named after Roald Amundsen and Otto Sverdrup . In the ocean , Nansen is commemorated by Nansenia , small mesopelagic fishes of family Microstomatidae . In space , he is commemorated by asteroid 853 Nansenia . In 1964 , the IAU adopted the name Nansen for an impact crater at the Lunar north pole , after the Norwegian explorer .
= = Works = =
Paa ski over Grønland . En skildring af Den norske Grønlands @-@ ekspedition 1888 – 89 . Aschehoug , Kristiania 1890 . Tr. as The First Crossing of Greenland , 1892 .
Eskimoliv . Aschehoug , Kristiania 1891 . Tr. as Eskimo Life , 1893 .
Fram over Polhavet . Den norske polarfærd 1893 – 1896 .. Aschehoug , Kristiania 1897 . Tr. as Farthest North , 1897 .
The Norwegian North Polar Expedition , 1893 – 1896 ; Scientific Results ( 6 volumes , 1901 ) .
Norge og foreningen med Sverige . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania 1905 . Tr. as Norway and the Union With Sweden , 1905 .
Northern Waters : Captain Roald Amundsen 's Oceanographic Observations in the Arctic Seas in 1901 . J. Dybwad , 1906 .
Nord i tåkeheimen . Utforskningen av jordens nordlige strøk i tidlige tider . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania 1911 . Tr. as In Northern Mists : Arctic Exploration in Early Times , 1911 .
Gjennem Sibirien . Jacob Dybwads forlag , Kristiania , 1914 . Tr. as Through Siberia the Land of the Future , 1914 .
Frilufts @-@ liv . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1916 .
En ferd til Spitsbergen . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1920 .
Rusland og freden . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1923 .
Blant sel og bjørn . Min første Ishavs @-@ ferd . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1924 .
Gjennem Armenia . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Oslo , 1927 .
Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Oslo , 1929 . Tr. as Through The Caucasus To The Volga , 1931 .
English translations
Armenia and the Near East . Publisher : J.C. & A.L. Fawcett , Inc . , New York , 1928 . ( excerpts ) .
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= Planet of the Ood =
" Planet of the Ood " is the third episode of the fourth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was broadcast on BBC One on 19 April 2008 . It features the return of the Ood , who appeared in the second series episodes " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " .
The episode takes place in the year 4126 on the Ood @-@ Sphere , the titular planet of the episode . The Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) investigate Ood Operations , a company that is selling the Ood as a servant race , to discover the reason the Ood are happy to serve . When they find a group of unprocessed Ood , they become horrified at the alterations performed and resolve to free the Ood . The episode was well @-@ received for its central theme of slavery .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor sets the TARDIS controls to random and materialises on a snowy alien planet . Outside , he and Donna find an injured Ood lying in the snow . Just before he dies , the Ood 's eyes turn red and it makes a lunge for the Doctor and startles him with his ferocity . The Doctor surmises that the Ood was being influenced by a being near them . They find a nearby industrial complex called Ood Operations , a company that has been harvesting and selling the Ood as servants . The Doctor discovers that they are on the Ood @-@ Sphere in the year 4126 , close to the Sense @-@ Sphere of the Sensorites . The " Red Eye " phenomenon begins affecting other Ood on the planet and several people are killed in the weeks before the Doctor arrived . The possessed Ood keep stating that " the circle must be broken " . Ood Operations consider the phenomenon to be a disease similar to foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . The CEO of Ood Operations , Klineman Halpen , tells the Doctor the method of killing each time is identical : the victims are electrocuted by the Ood 's translation spheres .
Throughout the episode , Donna becomes sympathetic to the Ood and is horrified by their enslavement . The Doctor also takes an interest in the Ood , noting that no species could naturally evolve to be servants . He and Donna travel through the complex and find a batch of uncultivated Ood singing together . Instead of a translation sphere , they hold a " hindbrain " that gives them individuality . This hindbrain is being removed and replaced with the translation sphere by the humans to make them subservient , and the Doctor rebukes Halpen for lobotomising the Ood . The Doctor and Donna are captured by Ood Operations ' security force . Shortly after , the Ood begin a mass revolution and the complex is evacuated . The Doctor follows Halpen to a locked warehouse that contains a large brain , which is revealed to be the Ood 's collective consciousness . The brain 's control of the Ood is limited by a circle of pylons emitting a forcefield . Halpen plans to kill the brain and by extension all of the Ood , but is stopped by the Doctor , Donna , and Dr. Ryder . Dr. Ryder reveals that he is secretly an activist for " Friends of the Ood " , and had slowly infiltrated the company to gain access to the pylons and lower their force field to cause the revolution . Halpen is outraged at his betrayal , so he throws Dr. Ryder into the brain , killing him . Halpen 's personal Ood servant , Ood Sigma , has been using Halpen 's hair loss medication to slowly convert Halpen into an Ood . Ood Sigma tells the Doctor and Donna that he will take care of Halpen .
The Doctor shuts down the pylons , freeing the Ood and allowing them all to sing in a telepathic collective . As the Doctor and Donna prepare to leave , Ood Sigma promises to include the " Doctor @-@ Donna " in the Ood 's song . He also tells the Doctor that his song will soon be ending .
= = = Continuity = = =
The red eye phenomenon in the Ood is a symptom of them being possessed . In " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " they were under the Beast 's control . In " Death is the Only Answer " , Albert Einstein is transformed into a red @-@ eyed Ood . In " The Doctor 's Wife " , an Ood named Nephew is possessed but displays bright green eyes instead of red .
The Ood @-@ Sphere is in the same solar system as the Sense @-@ Sphere , the location for the 1964 serial The Sensorites ; the Sensorites and Ood are visually and mentally similar .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Keith Temple and directed by Graeme Harper . Executive producer Russell T Davies had envisioned the Ood 's return because their previous appearance , the 2006 two @-@ part story " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " , had been overshadowed by the appearance of the Devil . Davies subsequently provided Temple with a brief for the episode which included the term " ice planet " and the storyline of a business selling the Ood as a commodity . Temple 's drafts of the episode were described as " too dark " and " too old Doctor Who " ; Temple stated on the episode 's commentary that his early draft was " a six @-@ part [ serial ] in 45 minutes " .
Temple and Davies thought that the episode was not a " fun reappearance " of an old monster ; instead , they felt that there was " an actual story to tell " . Temple emphasised in his script that the Doctor overlooked the Ood under the shadow of the Devil , and the character had to see his shortcomings . Temple 's script also emphasised the Ood 's slavery ; both Temple and lead actor David Tennant commented that the existence of a species born to serve was complicated , the latter stating complications with Richard Dawkins ' " selfish gene " theory . Donna 's role in the episode was to further humanise the Doctor , and her opinion of the Ood changing from her initial disgust at their appearance to empathy for them was important to the episode and her character development . Susie Liggat cited the writing as part of Doctor Who 's importance — she thought the story about " liberating oppressed people " could be applied domestically or globally .
The episode 's antagonist , Klineman Halpen , is portrayed by Tim McInnerny . Davies considered his character — " a middle manager who 's out of his depth " — a perfect villain . Temple described him as " narcissistic " , " preening " and " ruthless ... without sentiment " . McInnerny said " It 's always nice to play a bastard ... I 'm glad Halpen 's a three @-@ dimensional bastard ! That makes him interesting ! " . Temple epitomised Halpen in a scene where he kills an operative for the activist group " Friends of the Ood " ; Davies and Tennant felt that his " disgusting " and " gothic ... Edgar Allan Poe " fate would be undeserved otherwise .
Filming for the episode took place in August 2007 . The opening and closing outdoor scenes were filmed in Trefil Quarry in the Brecon Beacons , the external scenes of the complex at Aberthaw Cement Works , and scenes in the " battery farm " were filmed in a hangar at RAF Saint Athan . CGI was used sparingly in production ; the snow was paper snow adhered by water , and the Ood heads contained complex animatronics . McInnerny wore a prosthetic mask with two layers for his transformation scene though the production team 's best boy provided motion capture for the computer @-@ generated profile of the appendages coming out of his mouth when this needed to be refilmed and McInnerny was unavailable .
= = Reception = =
" Planet of the Ood " was the most watched programme in its timeslot , with 7 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode was the second most @-@ watched programme of the day , beaten by Britain 's Got Talent , and was the twelfth most watched programme of the week . The episode 's Appreciation Index was 87 ( considered Excellent ) .
Scott Matthewman , writing for The Stage , gave a mixed review of the episode . He thought that " pretty much the only surprise in the way the humans who made up the Ood Corporation were presented came as PR girl Solana ( Ayesha Dharker ) escaped with the Doctor and Donna , only to betray their position by calling for the guards , " and " the revelation that Ryder ( Adrian Rawlins ) has been working to infiltrate the Corporation is thrown away ... as quickly as it is revealed . " However , he thought Donna was becoming " fast ... one of the strongest and most well @-@ rounded companions in the series ’ history " , and " there were some nice interpretations of the Ood ’ s natural development " . Caitlin Moran of The Times thought the episode was " really really good ... – one that will have you staring at your screen and asking , once again , ' How can something so good be happening so early on a Saturday night , in my own front room ? ' " . She enjoyed the scene where the Doctor and Donna talk about slaves in contemporary culture , saying that Tate " really , really isn ’ t that bad when she says [ " We don 't have slaves . " ] " . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode five stars out of five . Rawson @-@ Jones opened his review by saying " Doctor Who can occasionally transcend the properties of a mere family television show to reach out and give viewers a poignant , beautiful epiphany and greater sense of the world they inhabit , " citing Donna 's reaction on seeing the uncultivated Ood as the moving part of the episode . He thought the episode as a whole " exemplifies just how powerful and emotive Doctor Who can be when writing , direction and performance are all harmonious and complete their own Ood @-@ like circle " , and was appreciative of the acting . The episode 's only flaw was when Donna said " Why do you say ' Miss ' ? Do I look single ? " , but was otherwise " an extremely impressive , contemplative examination of the abhorrent nature of humanity " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Planet of the Ood " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe =
Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe ( née Clemm ; August 15 , 1822 – January 30 , 1847 ) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe . The couple were first cousins and married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27 . Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple 's relationship . Though their marriage was loving , some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister . In January 1842 she contracted tuberculosis , growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family 's cottage , at that time outside New York City .
Along with other family members , Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage . The couple often moved to accommodate Poe 's employment , living intermittently in Baltimore , Philadelphia , and New York . A few years after their wedding , Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet . Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband 's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her . After her death , her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband 's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore , Maryland . Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated : a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death .
The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe , who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope . Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose , where dying young women appear as a frequent motif , as in " Annabel Lee " , " The Raven " , and " Ligeia " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died as an infant only ten days earlier . Her father William Clemm , Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore . He had married Maria Poe , Virginia 's mother , on July 12 , 1817 , after the death of his first wife , Maria 's first cousin Harriet . Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria . After his death in 1826 , he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage . Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders , aided with an annual $ 240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes , who was paralyzed and bedridden . Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband , " General " David Poe , a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state .
Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829 , four months after his discharge from the Army . She was seven at the time . In 1832 , the family – made up of Elizabeth , Maria , Virginia , and Virginia 's brother Henry – was able to use Elizabeth 's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore . Poe 's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe , who had been living with the family , had recently died on August 1 , 1831 . Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux . The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two , at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux 's hair to give to Poe . Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7 , 1835 , effectively ending the family 's income and making their financial situation even more difficult . Henry died around this time , sometime before 1836 , leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm 's only surviving child .
In August 1835 , Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond , Virginia to take a job at the Southern Literary Messenger . While Poe was away from Baltimore , another cousin , Neilson Poe , the husband of Virginia 's half @-@ sister Josephine Clemm , heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia . Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl 's marriage to Edgar at such a young age , though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later . Edgar called Neilson , the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore , Maryland , his " bitterest enemy " and interpreted his cousin 's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia . On August 29 , 1835 , Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria , declaring that he was " blinded with tears while writing " , and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision . Encouraged by his employment at the Southern Literary Messenger , Poe offered to provide financially for Maria , Virginia and Henry if they moved to Richmond .
= = = Marriage = = =
Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22 , 1835 . The couple might have been quietly married as well , though accounts are unclear . Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16 , 1836 , when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse . Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13 , though her age was listed as 21 . This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride 's alleged age . The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington , the owner of the boarding house in which Poe , Virginia , and Virginia 's mother Maria Clemm were staying . Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal . The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg , Virginia .
Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple 's age and blood relationship . Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual , nor was Poe 's nicknaming his wife " Sissy " or " Sis " . Another Poe biographer , Kenneth Silverman , contends that though their first @-@ cousin marriage was not unusual , her young age was . It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife . Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view , citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe " loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother , but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband . " Some scholars , including Marie Bonaparte , have read many of Poe 's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin . It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage , although no evidence is given . This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem " Annabel Lee " : a " maiden ... by the name of Annabel Lee " . Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women " in the way that normal men need them " , but only as a source of inspiration and care , and that Poe was never interested in women sexually . Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that , from the time she turned 16 , they had a " normal " married life until the onset of her illness .
Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple . Poe 's one @-@ time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship : " His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty . " Poe once wrote to a friend , " I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife . " She , in turn , by many contemporary accounts , nearly idolized her husband . She often sat close to him while he wrote , kept his pens in order , and folded and addressed his manuscripts . She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23 , dated February 14 , 1846 :
= = = Osgood / Ellet scandal = = =
The " tattling of many tongues " in Virginia 's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents . In 1845 , Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood , a married 34 @-@ year @-@ old poet . Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it . She often invited Osgood to visit them at home , believing that the older woman had a " restraining " effect on Poe , who had made a promise to " give up the use of stimulants " and was never drunk in Osgood 's presence .
At the same time , another poet , Elizabeth F. Ellet , became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood . Though , in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman , Poe called her love for him " loathsome " and wrote that he " could do nothing but repel [ it ] with scorn " , he printed many of her poems to him in the Broadway Journal while he was its editor . Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive and , while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846 , she saw one of Osgood 's personal letters to Poe . According to Ellet , Virginia pointed out " fearful paragraphs " in Osgood 's letter . Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters , motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal . Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters . Angered by their interference , Poe called them " Busy @-@ bodies " and said that Ellet had better " look after her own letters " , suggesting indiscretion on her part . He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house .
Though these letters had already been returned to her , Ellet asked her brother " to demand of me the letters " . Her brother , Colonel William Lummis , did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him . In order to defend himself , Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English . English , Poe 's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer , likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence . The easiest way out of the predicament , he said , " was a retraction of unfounded charges " . Angered at being called a liar , Poe pushed English into a fistfight . Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight , though English claimed otherwise , and Poe 's face was badly cut by one of English 's rings . In Poe 's version , he said , " I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death . " Either way , the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair .
Osgood 's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations . She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying , " The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery " created by Poe himself . She put all the blame on Poe , suggesting the incident was because Poe was " intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy " . Ellet spread the rumor of Poe 's insanity , which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers . The St. Louis Reveille reported : " A rumor is in circulation in New York , to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe , the poet and author , has been deranged , and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica . " The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband . Virginia , however , had been very affected by the whole affair . She had received anonymous letters about her husband 's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845 . It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters , and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that " Mrs. E. had been her murderer . "
= = = Illness = = =
By this time , Virginia had developed consumption , first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842 . While singing and playing the piano , Virginia began to bleed from the mouth , though Poe said she merely " ruptured a blood @-@ vessel " . Her health declined and she became an invalid , which drove Poe into a deep depression , especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement . In a letter to a friend , Poe described his resulting mental state : " Each time I felt all the agonies of her death — and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity . But I am constitutionally sensitive — nervous in a very unusual degree . I became insane , with long intervals of horrible sanity . "
Virginia 's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move , in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her . They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden . In this home , Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing . The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844 , traveling by train and steamboat . Virginia waited on board the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street . By early 1846 , family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted , " I know I shall die soon ; I know I can 't get well ; but I want to be as happy as possible , and make Edgar happy . " She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel .
= = = Move to Fordham = = =
In May 1846 , the family ( Poe , Virginia , and her mother , Maria ) moved to a small cottage in Fordham , about fourteen miles outside the city , a home which is still standing today . In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia , dated June 12 , 1846 , he urged her to remain optimistic : " Keep up your heart in all hopelessness , and trust yet a little longer . " Of his recent loss of the Broadway Journal , the only magazine Poe ever owned , he said , " I should have lost my courage but for you — my darling little wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial , unsatisfactory and ungrateful life . " But by November of that year , Virginia 's condition was hopeless . Her symptoms included irregular appetite , flushed cheeks , unstable pulse , night sweats , high fever , sudden chills , shortness of breath , chest pains , coughing and spitting up blood .
Nathaniel Parker Willis , a friend of Poe 's and an influential editor , published an announcement on December 30 , 1846 , requesting help for the family , though his facts were not entirely correct :
Illness of Edgar A. Poe . — We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption , and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs . We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life . That is , indeed , a hard lot , and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need .
Willis , who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife , was one of his greatest supporters in this period . He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book , The Marriage Ring ; or How to Make a Home Happy .
The announcement was similar to one made for Poe 's mother , Eliza Poe , during her last stages of tuberculosis . Other newspapers picked up on the story : " Great God ! " , said one , " is it possible , that the literary people of the Union , will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York ? For so we are led to believe , from frequent notices in the papers , stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery , death , and disease , with not a ducat in the world . " The Saturday Evening Post asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft : " It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever , and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption — they are without money and without friends . " Even editor Hiram Fuller , whom Poe had previously sued for libel , attempted in the New York Mirror to garner support for Poe and his wife : " We , whom he has quarrelled with , will take the lead " , he wrote .
Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes , with skin so pale it was called " pure white " , causing a " bad complexion that spoiled her looks " . One visitor to the Poe family noted that " the rose @-@ tint upon her cheek was too bright " , possibly a symptom of her illness . Another visitor in Fordham wrote , " Mrs. Poe looked very young ; she had large black eyes , and a pearly whiteness of complexion , which was a perfect pallor . Her pale face , her brilliant eyes , and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look . " That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human . William Gowans , who once lodged with the family , described Virginia as a woman of " matchless beauty and loveliness , her eye could match that of any houri , and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate " . She might have been a little plump . Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life .
While dying , Virginia asked her mother : " Darling ... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy — you will never never leave him ? " Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849 . As Virginia was dying , the family received many visitors , including an old friend named Mary Starr . At one point Virginia put Starr 's hand in Poe 's and asked her to " be a friend to Eddy , and don 't forsake him " . Virginia was tended to by 25 @-@ year @-@ old Marie Louise Shew . Shew , who served as a nurse , knew medical care from her father and her husband , both doctors . She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe 's old military cloak , as well as bottles of wine , which the invalid drank " smiling , even when difficult to get it down " . Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson , second wife of Poe 's foster @-@ father John Allan , which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe .
= = = Death = = =
On January 29 , 1847 , Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew : " My poor Virginia still lives , although failing fast and now suffering much pain . " Virginia died the following day , January 30 , after five years of illness . Shew helped in organizing her funeral , even purchasing the coffin . Death notices appeared in several newspapers . On February 1 , The New York Daily Tribune and the Herald carried the simple obituary : " On Saturday , the 30th ult . , of pulmonary consumption , in the 25th year of her age , VIRGINIA ELIZA , wife of EDGAR A. POE . " The funeral was February 2 , 1847 . Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis , Ann S. Stephens , and publisher George Pope Morris . Poe refused to look at his dead wife 's face , saying he preferred to remember her living . Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family , from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage .
Only one image of Virginia is known to exist , for which the painter had to take her corpse as model . A few hours after her death , Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor . She is shown wearing " beautiful linen " that Shew said she had dressed her in ; Shew might have been the portrait 's artist , though this is uncertain . The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes . The image was passed down to the family of Virginia 's half @-@ sister Josephine , wife of Neilson Poe .
In 1875 , the same year in which her husband 's body was reburied , the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten . An early Poe biographer , William Gill , gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed . Gill 's story was reported in the Boston Herald twenty @-@ seven years after the event : he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia 's bones in his shovel , ready to throw them away as unclaimed . Poe himself had died in 1849 , and so Gill took Virginia 's remains and , after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore , arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe 's left side in a small bronze casket . Virginia 's remains were finally buried with her husband 's on January 19 , 1885 — the seventy @-@ sixth anniversary of her husband 's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected . The same man who served as sexton during Poe 's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia 's mother Maria Clemm .
= = Effect and influence on Poe = =
Virginia 's death had a significant effect on Poe . After her death , Poe was deeply saddened for several months . A friend said of him , " the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him . He did not seem to care , after she was gone , whether he lived an hour , a day , a week or a year ; she was his all . " A year after her death , he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when , he said , " a wife , whom I loved as no man ever loved before " , had fallen ill . While Virginia was still struggling to recover , Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time . How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue , debated in Poe 's lifetime and also by modern biographers . Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife 's sickness as his own illness , and that he found the cure to it " in the death of my wife . This I can & do endure as becomes a man — it was the horrible never @-@ ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could not longer have endured without the total loss of reason " .
Poe regularly visited Virginia 's grave . As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote , " Many times , after the death of his beloved wife , was he found at the dead hour of a winter night , sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow " . Shortly after Virginia 's death , Poe courted several other women , including Nancy Richmond of Lowell , Massachusetts , Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence , Rhode Island , and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond . Even so , Frances Sargent Osgood , whom Poe also attempted to woo , believed " that [ Virginia ] was the only woman whom he ever loved " .
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= Star Trek : Enterprise ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise commenced airing on UPN in the United States on September 18 , 2002 and concluded on May 21 , 2003 after 26 episodes . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . The second season saw the series continue a concentration on stand @-@ alone episodes as seen in the debut season , but the decision was made to start an ongoing story @-@ arc to run into the third season with the second season finale episode " The Expanse " . The second season also saw the return of executive producer Rick Berman to writing duties after he had been working on the film Star Trek : Nemesis .
The season continued the Temporal Cold War story @-@ arc with the opening episode " Shockwave " ( part two ) , and the producers sought to include further appearances by the Andorians and the Vulcans . It also introduced the Romulans in their earliest appearance in the Star Trek timeline with the episode " Minefield " , and the Borg made an appearance in the series in " Regeneration " . Berman and Brannon Braga sought to bring Patrick Stewart in to direct an episode of Enterprise , and it was also suggested that either he or Whoopi Goldberg could appear on @-@ screen as their Star Trek : The Next Generation characters . Berman also said he was open to an appearance by William Shatner .
According to the Nielsen Ratings received for the episodes , the season stayed steady above four percent with the exception of two dips below that level . One of these dips included the episode " Horizon " , which with its 2 @.@ 2 percent rating , was the lowest viewed episode of the series at that point . The critical reception to the second season was mixed , with one reviewer stating that the series did not learn from the mistakes of the first season and another calling it childish for the lack of consequences being seen in the episodes . However , the introduction of the ongoing story @-@ line in the season finale was met with praise . The series was nominated for five Emmy Awards , four Saturn Awards and two Hugo Awards but did not win in any categories .
= = Plot overview = =
The second season continues the Human exploration of interstellar space by the crew of Enterprise , and further mention is made of the Temporal Cold War . The early encounters and historic culture of familiar Star Trek franchise races , such as the Vulcans , Andorians , Klingons , Romulans , Tholians , Borg , and Tellarites , are also explored further . The season ends with a cliffhanger that sets up the Xindi story arc , set in the Delphic Expanse , of the third season .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired .
= = Production = =
Production on the second season of Enterprise began on June 24 , 2002 , on a location shoot for the second episode of the season , " Carbon Creek " . Once production on that episode was complete , the crew moved onto the second part of " Shockwave " , which would be broadcast first . It was produced in that order as " Carbon Creek " only required Scott Bakula , Connor Trinneer and Jolene Blalock from the main cast to appear . The remaining cast returned on July 10 , for the first day of production for the second half of " Shockwave " .
Executive producer Rick Berman was looking forward to resuming writing with Brannon Braga on episodes of Enterprise as he had been previously busy with work on the film Star Trek : Nemesis . He was also in talks to bring Patrick Stewart in to direct an episode of the series , saying that the pair had discussed this and Stewart was interested but was busy at the time filming X2 in Canada . He added that once Stewart had a few weeks spare in his schedule , that they would see if he could be brought in to direct an episode .
Two other Star Trek alumni returned to Enterprise to direct . These were Roxann Dawson and LeVar Burton . Dawson had previously played B 'Elanna Torres on Star Trek : Voyager , and had directed the episodes " The Andorian Incident " and " Vox Sola " during the first season of Enterprise as well as two episodes of Voyager . She said that after a season of working together , the cast of Enterprise were finding their characters " beautifully " . Prior to the second season cast members Linda Park and Connor Trinneer undertook the same directing course that Dawson previously took during her time on Voyager .
Burton had played Geordi La Forge in Star Trek : The Next Generation , before moving into directing with the 100th episode of Voyager , " Timeless " . He had directed two episodes of Enterprise during the first season , and filmed a further two during the second season including " First Flight " . This episode was the 50th episode of the series and featured guest appearances from three members of the crew of the United States Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise ( CVN @-@ 65 ) .
There were several links in promotion between Star Trek : Nemesis and Enterprise , as season two saw Enterprise form half of a two @-@ hour block called " Out of This World Wednesdays on UPN " , with a new series of The Twilight Zone forming the second half . This promotion had a Nemesis competition tied into it , offering the chance for five winners to take a trip to Los Angeles to attend the premiere of the film . Another competition linked Nemesis back to Enterprise , with participating Loews Cinemas offering the chance to win a walk @-@ on role on the series .
= = Themes = =
Brannon Braga said that the production team sought to increase the tempo of season two compared to the first season . He said at a press junket held by the Television Critics Association in July 2002 that " We 're just starting . We want to capitalise more on the fact that [ Enterprise ] is a sequel . We want to have a season that maybe has more action in it than it had last season . " He predicted that possible storylines would include Jonathan Archer fulfilling more of his potential as Captain of the Enterprise , as well as further instalments in the Temporal Cold War story @-@ arc and further interactions between the crew and both the Andorians and the Vulcans .
Braga said that they wanted to avoid overloading the Temporal Cold War but instead they wanted to create an ongoing element to the series during season two . He expected that it would feature in the first episode of the season , " Shockwave " ( part two ) , but then there would be a break before it was featured again . He also revealed that the recurring character of Daniels wasn 't entirely human , and that this would be revealed during the second season while at a panel discussion at the Official Star Trek Convention in Las Vegas in August 2002 . Berman , said that the revelation of who was controlling the Suliban would not be shown during the second season , but he promised a " really good " season and was open to William Shatner appearing in the show . Scott Bakula also referred to a previous discussion with Berman where the producer suggested that Patrick Stewart or Whoopi Goldberg could appear on @-@ screen in the second season through the means of time travel from their time on Star Trek : The Next Generation .
Perhaps the biggest announcement made prior to the start of the season was the return of the Romulans to Star Trek . They had not previously been seen on Enterprise , and Braga was well aware that they would have to carefully consider the continuity as the crew of James T. Kirk 's Enterprise were the first to see a Romulan in the episode " Balance of Terror " . He said " The continuity is airtight . Believe me . We know . We know ... " . The species were due to make their first appearance in the Star Trek timeline in the episode " Minefield " , which was written by former The X @-@ Files writer John Shiban . At the same time that the Romulans were due to appear in Enterprise , work was underway on the Romulan @-@ centric film , Star Trek : Nemesis . The second season also saw an appearance by the Borg in the episode " Regeneration " , which was intended to follow up on the events in Star Trek : First Contact .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season opened with Nielsen ratings of 4 @.@ 9 / 8 percent for " Shockwave " ( part two ) . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The ratings received for the season rose over the next few episodes to 5 @.@ 4 / 8 percent for " Dead Stop " - the most watched episode of the season . " Vanishing Point " was the first episode of the season to drop below a 4 percent rating , but not the last as " Judgment " , " The Breach " and " Horizon " also received ratings below the season average . The ratings received by " Horizon " of 2 @.@ 2 percent were a series low at that point . But the ratings increased following that trio of episodes , and the season ended with " The Expanse " receiving ratings of 4 @.@ 4 / 7 percent .
= = = Critical response = = =
At the time of the broadcast of the final episode of the season , Scott D. Pierce for the Deseret News described Enterprise as not " an awful show , it 's just , well , boring . " He called the new story arc introduced in " The Expanse " a " promising idea " . But also added , " it 's pretty hard to get your hopes up too high for Enterprise . "
Randy Miller III , in his review of the Blu @-@ ray release of the second season for DVD Talk , said that the memory of this season was worse than it actually was . He criticised the studio 's instance at stand @-@ alone episodes but said that there was a marked improvement about halfway through the season , calling the finale " game @-@ changing " . He added that at the time of the DVD release , he did not feel so positively towards the season and agreed with Holly Ordway 's opinion at the time . Ordway had said that the second season sought to be more realistic , but that it feels childish as no one gets hurt or killed - even in the episode " Marauders " which saw a group of colonists defend themselves from renegade Klingons . She called the finale a " giant reset button " on the series , adding that it seemed that the show was about to become a sequel to Voyager but squandering the premise it had been given .
Michael Simpson , while writing for SciFiNow , suggested that the second season of Enterprise " suggests a fatal failure to recognise what went wrong " with the first season . He said that the inclusion of the Borg in the episode " Regeneration " lacked fresh ideas as a similar idea had previously appeared in season one with the Ferengi making first contact but not being named in " Acquisition " . He was frustrated with the season due to the " unfulfilled potential " , and praised episodes such as " Carbon Creek " , " Singularity " and " Cogenitor " . James Hunt at the website Den of Geek placed three second season episodes in his top ten list of Enterprise . In ninth place , " First Flight " was chosen as it demonstrated that Jonathan Archer was " the most Kirk @-@ esque Captain since the original " . " Regeneration " was placed in third position , while " Carbon Creek " was the runner @-@ up for the best episode because it was an early episode in which the series found its feet .
= = = Awards = = =
Enterprise received five nominations in three categories at the 55th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of these were in the " Outstanding Special Visual Effects For A Series " category ; " Dead Stop " , " The Crossing " and " The Expanse " . The series had won that category at the 54th Emmy Awards , for the pilot " Broken Bow " . Michael Westmore 's team was nominated for " Outstanding Makeup For A Series ( Prosthetic ) " for their work on the episode " Canamar " and Dennis McCarthy musical score for " The Expanse " was nominated for " Outstanding Music Composition For A Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " .
Both " Carbon Creek " and " A Night in Sickbay " were nominated at the 2003 Hugo Awards for " Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form " , but lost to " Conversations with Dead People " - an episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . At the 29th Saturn Awards , the series was nominated for " Best Network Television Series " and Scott Bakula , Joelene Blalock and Connor Trinneer were nominated for " Best Actor on Television " , " Best Supporting Actress on Television " and " Best Supporting Actor on Television " , respectively . However , the series did not win any of the awards it was nominated for .
= = Media information = =
As part of the releases of Enterprise on Blu @-@ ray announced in early 2013 , a box set featuring the episodes of the second season was released on August 19 in the United Kingdom and a day later in the United States and Canada .
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= Pilot ( Glee ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the American television series Glee , which premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 2009 . An extended director 's cut version aired on September 2 , 2009 . The show focuses on a high school show choir , also known as a glee club , set within the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . The pilot episode covers the formation of the club and introduces the main characters . The episode was directed by series creator Ryan Murphy , and written by Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . Murphy selected the music featured in the episode , with the intention of maintaining a balance between showtunes and chart hits .
The episode achieved 9 @.@ 619 million viewers on first broadcast , and 4 @.@ 2 million when the director 's cut version aired . Critical response was mixed , with The New York Times 's Alessandra Stanley highlighting the episode 's unoriginality and stereotyped characters , but praising the showmanship and talent of the cast . The Daily News 's David Hinckley opined that the show was imperfect and implausible but " potentially heartwarming , " while USA Today 's Robert Bianco noted casting and tone problems , but commented positively on the show 's humor and musical performances . Mary McNamara for the LA Times wrote that the show had a wide audience appeal , calling it : " the first show in a long time that 's just plain full @-@ throttle , no @-@ guilty @-@ pleasure @-@ rationalizations @-@ necessary fun . "
= = Plot = =
Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) learns that Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , the head of William McKinley High School 's glee club has been fired for inappropriate sexual behavior toward student Hank Saunders ( Ben Bledsoe ) . The school principal , Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , gives Will permission to take over the club , and he plans to revitalize it , naming the group New Directions . The club consists of fame @-@ hungry Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , diva Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , flamboyant countertenor Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , paraplegic electric guitar player Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) and stuttering goth Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) . Will 's efforts are derided by Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , head of the school 's successful cheerleading team , the Cheerios who soon plans to abolish the Glee club to restore her money funded towards the spoilt Cheerios . His wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is also unsupportive , suggesting that Will become an accountant to increase their income and give up teaching . Rachel threatens to leave the club if Will cannot find a male vocalist with talent comparable to hers . When the school 's football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) allows Will to try to recruit football team members , in return that he put a good word for Emma for him ( because Ken likes her ) , he discovers that quarterback Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is secretly a talented singer . He plants marijuana in Finn 's locker , and blackmails him into joining New Directions . Finn , determined not to disappoint his widowed mother , complies .
Will takes New Directions to see Vocal Adrenaline , a rival club , perform . He is accompanied by Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , the school 's mysophobic guidance counselor , who has a crush on him . Vocal Adrenaline perform an impressive rendition of Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " , which leaves New Directions worried about their chances of competing in the regional show choir competition . When Will returns from the performance , Terri informs him she is pregnant . Believing he needs to support his family , Will regretfully tells the club he is resigning , and applies for a job as an accountant . Finn is attacked by the football team for his involvement with New Directions , and initially decides to quit the club . The team traps Artie in a portable toilet which they intend to tip over , however , Finn refuses to take part . He apologizes to the Glee club members , and the group resolves to continue without Will . Emma urges Will to reconsider his decision to leave by showing him a video of him in Glee Club when he was at McKinley High , and when he comes across New Directions performing " Don 't Stop Believin ' " he decides to stay , telling the club he couldn 't bear to see them win Nationals without him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan created Glee . Murphy drew inspiration from his own childhood , which saw him play the lead role in all of his high school 's musicals . Brennan and producer Mike Novick were also highly involved in their own schools ' glee clubs . Brennan originally wrote a script for a Glee movie , but Murphy believed the concept would work better as a TV series . Fox picked up the series pilot within 15 hours of receiving the script , which Murphy attributes in part to the success of the network 's American Idol , commenting : " It made sense for the network with the biggest hit in TV , which is a musical , to do something in that vein " . Murphy intended the show to be a form of escapism , explaining : " There 's so much on the air right now about people with guns , or sci @-@ fi , or lawyers running around . This is a different genre , there 's nothing like it on the air at the networks and cable . Everything 's so dark in the world right now , that 's why ' Idol ' worked . It 's pure escapism . " With regards to Glee 's audience , Murphy intended for it to be a family show which would appeal to adults as well as children , with adult characters starring equally alongside the teenage leads . Glee is set in Lima , Ohio . Murphy chose a Midwest setting as he himself originates from Indiana , and recalls childhood visits to Ohio to the Kings Island theme park . Although set in Lima , the show is actually filmed at Paramount Studios in Hollywood .
= = = Music = = =
The episode features covers of numerous songs sung on @-@ screen by the characters . Musical segments take the form of performances , as opposed to the characters singing spontaneously , as the intention is for the series to remain reality @-@ based . Murphy has commented that his interest lay in creating a " postmodern musical " , rather than " doing a show where people burst into song " , drawing on the format of Chicago . Murphy is responsible for selecting all of the songs used , and strives to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits , as : " I want there to be something for everybody in every episode . That 's a tricky mix , but that 's very important – the balancing of that . "
Songs featured in the pilot are " Where is Love ? " from Oliver ! , Aretha Franklin 's " Respect " , " Mister Cellophane " from Chicago , Katy Perry 's " I Kissed a Girl " , " On My Own " from Les Misérables , " Sit Down , You 're Rockin ' the Boat " from Guys and Dolls , " You 're the One That I Want " from Grease , REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " , Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " and " Don 't Stop Believin ' " and " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " by Journey . The director 's cut version also includes an acoustic rendition of John Denver 's " Leaving on a Jet Plane " . Murphy was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained : " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " The score of the episode features a cappella covers of instrumental songs provided by The Swingle Singers . Dance routines were choreographed by Zach Woodlee .
Four of the songs featured in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download . " On My Own " charted at number 42 in Ireland and 73 in the UK , and " Can 't Fight This Feeling " charted at number 117 in the UK . " Rehab " charted at number 93 in Australia , 38 in Ireland , 62 in the UK and 98 in America . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " reached number 2 in the UK , 4 in America , 50 in Canada , 5 in Australia , 4 in Ireland and 16 in New Zealand . It sold 177 @,@ 000 copies in the US in its first week , and went on to sell the most copies of any Glee single : it was certified gold with 500 @,@ 000 sales in the US in October 2009 , and reached one million in sales and platinum certification in March 2011 ; it has also been certified platinum in Australia .
= = = Casting = = =
In casting Glee , Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway , where he found Morrison , who had previously starred on stage in Hairspray and The Light in the Piazza , Michele , who starred in Spring Awakening , and Ushkowitz , from the Broadway revival of The King and I. The role of Rachel was written specifically for Michele . Colfer had no previous professional experience , but reminded Ryan of the character of Kurt from The Sound of Music , and was thus cast as Kurt Hummel . He originally auditioned for Artie with the song " Mr. Cellophane " , however Murphy was so impressed by his performance that the role of Kurt was created for him . Colfer commented on his casting : " I 'm so happy to be a part of something that is so new and different and so needed at this time . It 's good to have something positive , especially for kids in small towns , like myself , who need a little pick @-@ me @-@ up . It 's true : You can be famous – even if there 's no money left in the world . "
Auditioning actors with no theatrical experience were required to prove they could sing and dance as well as act . Mays auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show , while Monteith initially submitted a tape of himself acting only , and was requested to submit a second , musical tape , in which he sang " a cheesy , ' 80s music @-@ video @-@ style version " of REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . " Monteith has deemed his casting " spot on " as : " I 'm just like my character . I 've never trained or had any lessons . I can just do it – with some adjustments , obviously . " McHale came from a boy @-@ band background , having previously been part of the group Not Like Them . He auditioned with the song " Let It Be " and tested alongside Colfer and Ushkowitz . He explained that the diversity of the cast 's backgrounds reflects the range of different musical styles within the show itself : " It 's a mix of everything : classic rock , current stuff , R & B. Even the musical theater stuff is switched up . You won 't always recognize it . " Lynch was originally intended to be a guest star , but became a series regular when a Damon Wayans pilot she was working on for ABC fell through .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Over the hour of broadcast , the first airing of the episode drew an average of 9 @.@ 619 million US viewers . It began with 12 @.@ 518 million , dropping after the first half @-@ hour from first place in the ratings to third , retaining only 8 @.@ 917 million viewers . The episode ranked fourteenth in the weekly program ratings , and was the fourth most viewed show on the Fox network for the week . It received a 3 @.@ 9 / 7 rating / share in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . The director 's cut version of the episode attained 4 @.@ 2 million viewers , and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was the nineteenth highest viewed show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 04 million viewers . It was watched by 278 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , a 1 @.@ 3 % audience share , and by a further 100 @,@ 000 on timeshift , a 0 @.@ 6 % share . The director 's cut was aired on January 11 , 2010 , followed by Showmance , and was watched by 1 @.@ 76 million viewers , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Following the first broadcast of the episode , Glee was nominated for three Teen Choice Awards : Choice TV : Breakout Series , Choice TV : Breakout Star Male ( Cory Monteith ) and Choice TV : Breakout Star Female ( Lea Michele ) . Murphy was nominated for the 2009 Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing of a Comedy Series for his work on the episode . Robert J. Ulrich , Eric Dawson , Carol Kritzer and Jim Carnahan won an Artios Award for casting of a comedy series , Mark Hutman was nominated for the " Single Camera Television Series " Art Directors Guild Award , and David Klotz won a Golden Reel Award for " Best Sound Editing : Short Form Music in Television " for his work on the episode . At the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , Murphy , Falchuk and Brennan were nominated for the " Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series " award for their work on the episode . Murphy was additionally nominated for the " Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series " award , and Hutman , Christopher Brown and Barbara Munch were nominated for the " Outstanding Art Direction for a Single @-@ Camera Series " award .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker gave the episode an A , posing the question : " Has there ever been a TV show more aptly named than Glee ? It both embodies and inspires exactly that quality . " Glee was the top ranked topic on social networking site Twitter on the night of its initial airing . Alessandra Stanley for the New York Times called the show " blissfully unoriginal in a witty , imaginative way " , saying the characters are " high school archetypes " but noted " a strong satiric pulse that doesn ’ t diminish the characters ’ identities or dim the showmanship of a talented cast " . The Daily News ' David Hinckley wrote that the show " isn 't close to perfect " but " has likable characters , a good sense of humor and a reasonably deft touch with music . " He called the pilot episode " not very plausible " but " potentially heartwarming " , writing of the musical choices : " The duet of " You 're the One That I Want " from Grease may be a little obvious , but setting a group dance routine to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " shows some inspiration . Whether Glee can hold that note remains a very unanswered question . But it will at least be worth watching to see . " USA Today 's Robert Bianco assessed : " There 's a lot to like here : the exuberance of the musical numbers , the bite to the comedy and the joy of seeing something different . It has casting and tone problems , but it has all summer to fix them . "
The Baltimore Sun 's David Zurawik was critical of the show 's characterization and comedy , but was impressed by the staging of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , calling it " so elevating and inspirational that it almost redeems all the stereotypes and lame humor that come before . Grit my teeth as I did at how one @-@ dimensionally empty @-@ headed the writing could be , I will still be back for the start of this series in the fall because of its musical punch . " Tom Jicha for The Sun Sentinel similarly claimed of the episode that : " A lively score and appealing performers somewhat compensate for overly familiar characters and plotting " , while Rob Owen for the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette agreed : " It 's the music that makes Glee a gleeful delight . Without the song @-@ and @-@ dance production numbers , this Fox pilot would be just another high @-@ school @-@ set comedy @-@ drama . "
The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan commented that : " the two biggest musical numbers are tremendously entertaining . They 're shot and performed with verve , and they put to shame those medleys contestants often perform on the Wednesday edition of American Idol " , but again observed : " Whether it will work as a satirical dramedy about the cutthroat social environment of high school is another matter . " Of the principal cast , Ryan said : " Casting Matthew Morrison as Will Schuester [ ... ] was a wise move ; the actor not only has a sweet voice but a hangdog hopefulness that gives a needed anchor to the show 's more satirical elements . Cory Monteith gives quarterback Finn Hudson a jock @-@ ish authority mixed with an appealingly square naivete , and Lea Michele not only has an amazing voice but manages to make her character , spoiled diva Rachel Berry , more than a humorless stereotype . " She was critical , however , of Gilsig as Terri , calling her " the worst thing about Glee " and opining : " As written by Murphy and played by Gilsig , the character is screechy , unfunny and deeply unpleasant . It 's as if Ryan didn 't trust that the audience would get behind Will and the saga of his ragtag glee club and so saw fit to give the teacher the shrewish , nagging wife from hell . "
In contrast , Tom Shales for The Washington Post criticized Morrison as Will , writing : " Morrison is definitely not gleeful and doesn 't seem particularly well equipped to be a high @-@ school impresario ; as pipers go , he 's not even marginally pied . " Shales was more positive regarding Lynch 's performance , and concluded that : " Dramatic tension isn 't exactly plentiful , but pleasingly staged songs and a general aura of retro ingenuousness come through , and seem awfully if fitfully refreshing " . Variety 's Brian Lowry also highlighted acting and characterization issues with the show , writing that : " It 's among the adults , alas – who are mostly over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons – where Glee nearly sails off the rails , from Jane Lynch 's tyrannical cheer matron to the salivating football coach , a bit like the Rydell High gang in Grease . " Lowry felt that : " Modest redemption comes from the stammering Emma ( Heroes ' Jayma Mays ) , who has a clear crush on Will , even though he 's married to his high @-@ school sweetheart . Perhaps to foster a rooting interest ( or at least sympathy ) for a Will @-@ Emma pairing , said wife ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is initially presented as a ditsy shrew . " Mary McNamara for the Los Angeles Times has called Glee : " the first show in a long time that 's just plain full @-@ throttle , no @-@ guilty @-@ pleasure @-@ rationalizations @-@ necessary fun . " She praised Lynch as Sue , writing that " Lynch alone makes Glee worth watching " , and claimed that overall : " The music , though by no means edgy , is energetic with a wide audience appeal , like the show itself .
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= I Ching =
The I Ching ( [ î tɕíŋ ] or Classic of Changes , is an ancient divination text and the oldest of the Chinese classics . Possessing a history of more than two and a half millennia of commentary and interpretation , the I Ching is an influential text read throughout the world , providing inspiration to the worlds of religion , psychoanalysis , business , literature , and art . Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou period ( 1000 – 750 BC ) , over the course of the Warring States period and early imperial period ( 500 – 200 BC ) it was transformed into a cosmological text with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the " Ten Wings . " After becoming part of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BC , the I Ching was the subject of scholarly commentary and the basis for divination practice for centuries across the Far East , and eventually took on an influential role in Western understanding of Eastern thought .
The I Ching uses a type of divination called cleromancy , which produces apparently random numbers . Four numbers , 6 to 9 , are turned into a hexagram , which can then be looked up in the I Ching book , arranged in an order known as the King Wen sequence . The interpretation of the readings found in the I Ching is a matter of centuries of debate , and many commentators have used the book symbolically , often to provide guidance for moral decision making as informed by Taoism and Confucianism . The hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such as yin and yang and Wu Xing .
= = The divination text : Zhou yi = =
The core of the I Ching is a Western Zhou divination text called the Changes of Zhou ( 周易 Zhōu yì ) . Various modern scholars suggest dates ranging between the 10th and 4th centuries BC for the assembly of the text in approximately its current form . Based on a comparison of the language of the Zhou yi with dated bronze inscriptions , Edward Shaughnessy dated its compilation in its current form to the early decades of the reign of King Xuan of Zhou , in the last quarter of the 9th century BC . A copy of the text in the Shanghai Museum corpus of bamboo and wooden slips ( recovered in 1994 ) shows that the Zhou yi was used throughout all levels of Chinese society in its current form by 300 BC , but still contained small variations as late as the Warring States period . It is possible that other divination systems existed at this time ; the Rites of Zhou name two other such systems , the Lianshan and the Guizang .
= = = Name and origins = = =
The name Zhou yi literally means the " changes " ( Chinese : 易 ; pinyin : Yì ) of the Zhou dynasty . The " changes " involved have been interpreted as the transformations of hexagrams , of their lines , or of the numbers obtained from the divination . Feng Youlan proposed that the word for " changes " originally meant " easy " , as in a form of divination easier than the oracle bones , but there is little evidence for this . There is also an ancient folk etymology that sees the character for " changes " as containing the sun and moon , the cycle of the day . Modern Sinologists believe the character to be derived either from an image of the sun emerging from clouds , or from the content of a vessel being changed into another .
Traditionally , the Zhou yi is associated with the legendary world ruler Fu Xi . According to the canonical Great Commentary , Fu Xi observed the patterns of the world and created the eight trigrams ( Chinese : 八卦 ; pinyin : bāguà ) , " in order to become thoroughly conversant with the numinous and bright and to classify the myriad things . " The Zhou yi itself does not contain this legend and indeed says nothing about its own origins . The Rites of Zhou , however , also claims that the hexagrams of the Zhou yi were derived from an initial set of eight trigrams . During the Han dynasty there were various opinions about the historical relationship between the trigrams and the hexagrams . Eventually , a consensus formed around 2nd century AD scholar Ma Rong 's attribution of the text to the joint work of Fu Xi , King Wen of Zhou , the Duke of Zhou , and Confucius , but this traditional attribution is no longer generally accepted .
= = = Structure = = =
The basic unit of the Zhou yi is the hexagram ( 卦 guà ) , a figure composed of six stacked horizontal lines ( 爻 yáo ) . Each line is either broken or unbroken . The received text of the Zhou yi contains all 64 possible hexagrams , along with the hexagram 's name ( 卦名 guàmíng ) , a short hexagram statement ( 彖 tuàn ) , and six line statements ( 爻辭 yáocí ) . The statements were used to determine the results of divination , but the reasons for having two different methods of reading the hexagram are not known , and it is not known why hexagram statements would be read over line statements or vice versa .
The book opens with the first hexagram statement , yuán hēng lì zhēn ( 元亨利貞 ) . These four words , translated traditionally by James Legge as " originating and penetrating , advantageous and firm , " are often repeated in the hexagram statements and were already considered an important part of I Ching interpretation in the 6th century BC . Edward Shaughnessy describes this statement as affirming an " initial receipt " of an offering , " beneficial " for further " divining " . The word zhēn ( 貞 , ancient form ) was also used for the verb " divine " in the oracle bones of the late Shang dynasty , which preceded the Zhou . It also carried meanings of being or making upright or correct , and was defined by the Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan as " to enquire into the correctness " of a proposed activity .
The names of the hexagrams are usually words that appear in their respective line statements , but in five cases ( 2 , 9 , 26 , 61 , and 63 ) an unrelated character of unclear purpose appears . The hexagram names could have been chosen arbitrarily from the line statements , but it is also possible that the line statements were derived from the hexagram names . The line statements , which make up most of the book , are exceedingly cryptic . Each line begins with a word indicating the line number , " base , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , top " , and either the number 6 for a broken line , or the number 9 for a whole line . Hexagrams 1 and 2 have an extra line statement , named yong . Following the line number , the line statements may make oracular or prognostic statements . Some line statements also contain poetry or references to historical events .
= = = Usage = = =
Archaeological evidence shows that Zhou dynasty divination was grounded in cleromancy , the production of seemingly random numbers to determine divine intent . The Zhou yi provided a guide to cleromancy that used the stalks of the yarrow plant , but it is not known how the yarrow stalks became numbers , or how specific lines were chosen from the line readings . In the hexagrams , broken lines were used as shorthand for the numbers 6 ( 六 ) and 8 ( 八 ) , and solid lines were shorthand for values of 7 ( 七 ) and 9 ( 九 ) . The Great Commentary contains a late classic description of a process where various numerological operations are performed on a bundle of 50 stalks , leaving remainders of 6 to 9 . Like the Zhou yi itself , yarrow stalk divination dates to the Western Zhou period , although its modern form is a reconstruction .
The ancient narratives Zuo zhuan and Guoyu contain the oldest descriptions of divination using the Zhou yi . The two histories describe more than twenty successful divinations conducted by professional soothsayers for royal families between 671 BC and 487 BC . The method of divination is not explained , and none of the stories employ predetermined commentaries , patterns , or interpretations . Only the hexagrams and line statements are used . By the 4th century BC , the authority of the Zhou yi was also cited for rhetorical purposes , without relation to any stated divination . The Zuo zhuan does not contain records of private individuals , but Qin dynasty records found at Shuihudi show that the hexagrams were privately consulted to answer questions such as business , health , children , and determining lucky days .
The most common form of divination with the I Ching in use today is a reconstruction of the method described in these histories , in the 300 BC Great Commentary , and later in the Huainanzi and the Lunheng . From the Great Commentary 's description , the Neo @-@ Confucian Zhu Xi reconstructed a method of yarrow stalk divination that is still used throughout the Far East . In the modern period , Gao Heng attempted his own reconstruction , which varies from Zhu Xi in places . Another divination method , employing coins , became widely used in the Tang dynasty and is still used today . In the modern period , alternative methods such as specialized dice and cartomancy have also appeared .
In the Zuo zhuan stories , individual lines of hexagrams are denoted by using the genitive particle zhi , followed by the name of another hexagram where that specific line had another form . In later attempts to reconstruct ancient divination methods , the word zhi was interpreted as a verb meaning " moving to " , an apparent indication that hexagrams could be transformed into other hexagrams . However , there are no instances of " changeable lines " in the Zuo zhuan . In all 12 out of 12 line statements quoted , the original hexagrams are used to produce the oracle .
= = The classic : I Ching = =
In 136 BC , Emperor Wu of Han named the Zhou yi " the first among the classics " , dubbing it the Classic of Changes or I Ching . Emperor Wu 's placement of the I Ching among the Five Classics was informed by a broad span of cultural influences that included Confucianism , Daoism , Legalism , yin @-@ yang cosmology , and Wu Xing physical theory . While the Zhou yi does not contain any cosmological analogies , the I Ching was read as a microcosm of the universe that offered complex , symbolic correspondences . The official edition of the text was literally set in stone , as one of the Xiping Stone Classics . The canonized I Ching became the standard text for over two thousand years , until alternate versions of the Zhou yi and related texts were discovered in the 20th century .
= = = Ten Wings = = =
Part of the canonization of the Zhou yi bound it to a set of ten commentaries called the Ten Wings . The Ten Wings are of a much later provenance than the Zhou yi , and are the production of a different society . The Zhou yi was written in Early Old Chinese , while the Ten Wings were written in a predecessor to Middle Chinese . The specific origins of the Ten Wings are still a complete mystery to academics . Regardless of their historical relation to the text , the philosophical depth of the Ten Wings made the I Ching a perfect fit to Han period Confucian scholarship . The inclusion of the Ten Wings reflects a widespread recognition in ancient China , found in the Zuo zhuan and other pre @-@ Han texts , that the I Ching was a rich moral and symbolic document useful for more than professional divination .
Arguably the most important of the Ten Wings is the Great Commentary ( Dazhuan ) or Xi ci , which dates to roughly 300 BC . The Great Commentary describes the I Ching as a microcosm of the universe and a symbolic description of the processes of change . By partaking in the spiritual experience of the I Ching , the Great Commentary states , the individual can understand the deeper patterns of the universe . Among other subjects , it explains how the eight trigrams proceeded from the eternal oneness of the universe through three bifurcations . The other Wings provide different perspectives on essentially the same viewpoint , giving ancient , cosmic authority to the I Ching . For example , the Wenyan provides a moral interpretation that parallels the first two hexagrams , 乾 ( qián ) and 坤 ( kūn ) , with Heaven and Earth , and the Shuogua attributes to the symbolic function of the hexagrams the ability to understand self , world , and destiny . Throughout the Ten Wings , there are passages that seem to purposefully increase the ambiguity of the base text , pointing to a recognition of multiple layers of symbolism .
The Great Commentary associates knowledge of the I Ching with the ability to " delight in Heaven and understand fate ; " the sage who reads it will see cosmological patterns and not despair in mere material difficulties . The Japanese word for " metaphysics " , keijijōgaku ( 形而上学 ; pinyin : xíng ér shàng xué ) is derived from a statement found in the Great Commentary that " what is above form [ xíng ér shàng ] is called Dao ; what is under form is called a tool " . The word has also been borrowed into Korean and re @-@ borrowed back into Chinese .
The Ten Wings were traditionally attributed to Confucius , possibly based on a misreading of the Records of the Grand Historian . Although it rested on historically shaky grounds , the association of the I Ching with Confucius gave weight to the text and was taken as an article of faith throughout the Han and Tang dynasties . The I Ching was not included in the burning of the Confucian classics , and textual evidence strongly suggests that Confucius did not consider the Zhou yi a " classic " . An ancient commentary on the Zhou yi found at Mawangdui portrays Confucius as endorsing it as a source of wisdom first and an imperfect divination text second .
= = Hexagrams = =
In the canonical I Ching , the hexagrams are arranged in an order dubbed the King Wen sequence after King Wen of Zhou , who founded the Zhou dynasty and supposedly reformed the method of interpretation . The sequence generally pair hexagrams with their upside @-@ down equivalents , although in eight cases hexagrams are paired with their inversion . Another order , found at Mawangdui in 1973 , arranges the hexagrams into eight groups sharing the same upper trigram . But the oldest known manuscript , found in 1987 and now held by the Shanghai Library , was almost certainly arranged in the King Wen sequence , and it has even been proposed that a pottery paddle from the Western Zhou period contains four hexagrams in the King Wen sequence . Whichever of these arrangements is older , it is not evident that the order of the hexagrams was of interest to the original authors of the Zhou yi . The assignment of numbers , binary or decimal , to specific hexagrams is a modern invention .
The following table numbers the hexagrams in King Wen order .
= = Interpretation and influence = =
The Sinologist Michael Nylan describes the I Ching as the best @-@ known Chinese book in the world . In East Asia , it is a foundational text for the Confucian and Daoist philosophical traditions , while in the West , it attracted the attention of Enlightenment intellectuals and prominent literary and cultural figures .
= = = Eastern Han and Six Dynasties = = =
During the Eastern Han , I Ching interpretation divided into two schools , originating in a dispute over minor differences between different editions of the received text . The first school , known as New Text criticism , was more egalitarian and eclectic , and sought to find symbolic and numerological parallels between the natural world and the hexagrams . Their commentaries provided the basis of the School of Images and Numbers . The other school , Old Text criticism , was more scholarly and hierarchical , and focused on the moral content of the text , providing the basis for the School of Meanings and Principles . The New Text scholars distributed alternate versions of the text and freely integrated non @-@ canonical commentaries into their work , as well as propagating alternate systems of divination such as the Taixuanjing . Most of this early commentary , such as the image and number work of Jing Fang , Yu Fan and Xun Shuang , is no longer extant . Only short fragments survive , from a Tang dynasty text called Zhou yi jijie .
With the fall of the Han , I Ching scholarship was no longer organized into systematic schools . The most influential writer of this period was Wang Bi , who discarded the numerology of Han commentators and integrated the philosophy of the Ten Wings directly into the central text of the I Ching , creating such a persuasive narrative that Han commentators were no longer considered significant . A century later Han Kangbo added commentaries on the Ten Wings to Wang Bi 's book , creating a text called the Zhouyi zhu . The principal rival interpretation was a practical text on divination by the soothsayer Guan Lu .
= = = Tang and Song dynasties = = =
At the beginning of the Tang dynasty , Emperor Taizong of Tang ordered Kong Yingda to create a canonical edition of the I Ching . Choosing the 3rd @-@ century Zhouyi zhu as the official commentary , he added to it a subcommentary drawing out the subtler levels of Wang Bi 's explanations . The resulting work , the Zhouyi zhengi , became the standard edition of the I Ching through the Song dynasty .
By the 11th century , the I Ching was being read as a work of intricate philosophy , as a jumping @-@ off point for examining great metaphysical questions and ethical issues . Cheng Yi , patriarch of the Neo @-@ Confucian Cheng – Zhu school , read the I Ching as a guide to moral perfection . He described the text as a way to for ministers to form honest political factions , root out corruption , and solve problems in government .
The contemporary scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers , although he did not intend his arrangement to be used mathematically .
= = = Neo @-@ Confucian = = =
The 12th century Neo @-@ Confucian Zhu Xi , cofounder of the Cheng – Zhu school , rejected both of the Han dynasty lines of commentary on the I Ching , proposing that the text was a work of divination , not philosophy . However , he still considered it useful for understanding the moral practices of the ancients , called " rectification of the mind " in the Great Learning . Zhu Xi 's reconstruction of I Ching yarrow stalk divination , based in part on the Great Commentary account , became the standard form and is still in use today .
As China entered the early modern period , the I Ching took on renewed relevance in both Confucian and Daoist study . The Kangxi Emperor was especially fond of the I Ching and ordered new interpretations of it . Qing dynasty scholars focused more intently on understanding pre @-@ classical grammar , assisting the development of new philological approaches in the modern period .
= = = Korean and Japanese = = =
In 1557 , the Korean Neo @-@ Confucian Yi Hwang produced one of the most influential I Ching studies of the early modern era , claiming that the spirit was a principle ( li ) and not a material force ( qi ) . Hwang accused the Neo @-@ Confucian school of having misread Zhu Xi . His critique proved influential not only in Korea but also in Japan . Other than this contribution , the I Ching was not central to the development of Korean Confucianism , and by the 19th century , I Ching studies were integrated into the silhak reform movement .
In medieval Japan , secret teachings on the I Ching were publicized by Rinzai Zen master Kokan Shiren and the Shintoist Yoshida Kanetomo . I Ching studies in Japan took on new importance in the Edo period , during which over 1 @,@ 000 books were published on the subject by over 400 authors . The majority of these books were serious works of philology , reconstructing ancient usages and commentaries for practical purposes . A sizable minority focused on numerology , symbolism , and divination . During this time , over 150 editions of earlier Chinese commentaries were reprinted in Japan , including several texts that had become lost in China . In the early Edo period , writers such as Itō Jinsai , Kumazawa Banzan , and Nakae Toju ranked the I Ching the greatest of the Confucian classics . Many writers attempted to use the I Ching to explain Western science in a Japanese framework . One writer , Shizuki Tadao , even attempted to employ Newtonian mechanics and the Copernican principle within an I Ching cosmology . This line of argument was later taken up in China by the Qing scholar and official Zhang Zhidong .
= = = Early European = = =
Leibniz , who was corresponding with Jesuits in China , wrote the first European commentary on the I Ching in 1703 , arguing that it proved the universality of binary numbers and theism , since the broken lines , the " 0 " or " nothingness " , cannot become solid lines , the " 1 " or " oneness " , without the intervention of God . This was criticized by Hegel , who proclaimed that binary system and Chinese characters were " empty forms " that could not articulate spoken words with the clarity of the Western alphabet . In their discussion , I Ching hexagrams and Chinese characters were conflated into a single foreign idea , sparking a dialogue on Western philosophical questions such as universality and the nature of communication . In the 20th century , Jacques Derrida identified Hegel 's argument as logocentric , but accepted without question Hegel 's premise that the Chinese language cannot express philosophical ideas .
= = = Modern = = =
After the Xinhai Revolution , the I Ching was no longer part of mainstream Chinese political philosophy , but it maintained cultural influence as China 's most ancient text . Borrowing back from Leibniz , Chinese writers offered parallels between the I Ching and subjects such as linear algebra and logic in computer science , aiming to demonstrate that ancient Chinese cosmology had anticipated Western discoveries . The Sinologist Joseph Needham took the opposite stance , arguing that the I Ching had actually impeded scientific development by incorporating all physical knowledge into its metaphysics . The psychologist Carl Jung took interest in the possible universal nature of the imagery of the I Ching , and he introduced an influential German translation by Richard Wilhelm by discussing his theories of archetypes and synchronicity . Jung wrote , " Even to the most biased eye , it is obvious that this book represents one long admonition to careful scrutiny of one 's own character , attitude , and motives . " The book had a notable impact on the 1960s counterculture and on 20th century cultural figures such as Philip K. Dick , John Cage , Jorge Luis Borges , and Herman Hesse .
The modern period also brought a new level of skepticism and rigor to I Ching scholarship . Li Jingchi spent several decades producing a new interpretation of the text , which was published posthumously in 1978 . Gao Heng , an expert in pre @-@ Qin China , reinvestigated its use as a Zhou dynasty oracle . Edward Shaughnessy proposed a new dating for the various strata of the text . New archaeological discoveries have enabled a deeper level of insight into how the text was used in the centuries before the Qin dynasty . Proponents of newly reconstructed Western Zhou readings , which often differ greatly from traditional readings of the text , are sometimes called the " modernist school . "
= = Translations = =
The I Ching has been translated into Western languages dozens of times , the most influential edition being the 1923 German translation of Richard Wilhelm . The earliest complete published I Ching translation in a Western language was a Latin translation done in the 1730s by Jesuit missionary Jean @-@ Baptiste Régis that was published in Germany in the 1830s . Although Thomas McClatchie and James Legge had both translated the text in the 19th century , the text gained significant traction during the counterculture of the 1960s , with the translations of Wilhelm and John Blofeld attracting particular interest . Richard Rutt 's 1996 translation incorporated much of the new archaeological and philological discoveries of the 20th century . Gregory Whincup 's 1986 translation also attempts to reconstruct Zhou period readings and is arguably easier to read .
The most commonly used English translations of the I Ching are :
Legge , James ( 1882 ) . The Yî King . In Sacred Books of the East , vol . XVI . 2nd edition ( 1899 ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press ; reprinted numerous times .
Wilhelm , Richard ( 1950 ) . The I Ching or Book of Changes . Cary Baynes , trans . Bollingen Series 19 . Introduction by Carl G. Jung . New York : Pantheon Books . 3rd edition ( 1967 ) , Princeton : Princeton University Press ; reprinted numerous times .
Other notable English translations include :
McClatchie , Thomas ( 1876 ) . A Translation of the Confucian Yi @-@ king . Shanghai : American Presbyterian Mission Press .
Blofeld , John ( 1965 ) . The Book of Changes : A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching . New York : E. P. Dutton .
Lynn , Richard John ( 1994 ) . The Classic of Changes . New York , NY : Columbia University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 231 @-@ 08294 @-@ 0 .
Rutt , Richard ( 1996 ) . The Book of Changes ( Zhouyi ) : A Bronze Age Document . Richmond : Curzon . ISBN 0 @-@ 7007 @-@ 0467 @-@ 1 .
Shaughnessy , Edward L. ( 1996 ) . I Ching : the Classic of Changes . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 36243 @-@ 8 .
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= Béla H. Bánáthy =
Béla Heinrich Bánáthy ( Hungarian : Bánáthy Béla ; December 1 , 1919 – September 4 , 2003 ) was the founder of the White Stag Leadership Development Program , organized the International Systems Institute , and was co @-@ founder of the General Evolutionary Research Group , A Hungarian @-@ American who remained loyal to his birth country his entire life , he served as an influential professor of systems theory , systems scientist and professor at San Jose State University and UC Berkeley . He became a widely read and respected author in the United States .
He grew up in largely rural Hungary and served in the Hungarian military during World War II . When Russia invaded Hungary in April 1945 , he and his family fled to Allied occupied Austria and lived in a displaced persons camp for six years . In 1951 , they emigrated to Chicago , sponsored by the Presbyterian church . Within the year his former commanding officer suggested to the U.S. government that they hire Bánáthy as a Hungarian instructor at the Army Language School in Monterey , California . While living in Monterey , he founded the White Stag Leadership Development Program . His program gained national attention , and the Boy Scouts of America conducted research into incorporating leadership training into its programs . The Boy Scouts of America 's Wood Badge and junior leader training programs had until then focused primarily on Scoutcraft skills , not leadership , and William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt among others resisted the change .
After 20 years , Bánáthy left the renamed Defense Language Institute and went to work for the Far West Laboratory for Research and Development in Berkeley and later San Francisco . He retired from Far West in 1989 but maintained an active interest in social systems and science , including attending many conferences and advising students and others in those fields . In 1992 , he helped restart the Hungarian Scout Association within his native country . In 2003 , Bánáthy and Eva moved to live with their son Tibor in Chico , California . After a brief and unexpected illness , Bánáthy died on September 4 , 2003 .
= = Biography = =
Béla Bánáthy was born in 1919 in Gyula , Hungary , as the oldest of four sons . His father Peter was a minister of the Reformed Church in Hungary and his mother Hildegard Pallmann was a teacher . Peter Bánáthy had earned the honorary title Vitéz for his service during World War I , and Béla , as his oldest son , inherited the title .
= = = Youth spent in Hungary = = =
When Bánáthy was about six years old , their family informally adopted Tamas Feri . Tamas was about 13 years old and from a poor gardener 's family . Tamas took Bánáthy on his first overnight camp out with his patrol to a small forest near Gyula . Bánáthy 's father became the Scoutmaster of the " small scouts " troop ( similar to American Cub Scouts ) .
When Bánáthy was nine years old , he became the troop leader ; during one national holiday , led the troop in a parade . About that time , the entire troop spent two weeks camping at a church camp at Leányfalu , north of Budapest . The church groups lived in wooden barracks , but Bánáthy 's troop stayed in tents , " as Scouts are supposed to do " .
The family moved about 84 kilometres ( 52 mi ) from Bánáthy 's birthplace of Gyula , to Makó , Hungary , about 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) southeast of Budapest . He joined the regular scout program of the Hungarian Scout Association and " Csanad Vezer " Troop 92 . During the 1930s , the troop had more than 50 Scouts and 30 " small scouts " . They held their monthly troop meetings on Sunday in a large gimnazium and met weekly every Saturday as a patrol . Bánáthy reported : " Our weekly patrol meetings focused on scoutcraft and Scout spirit and guiding us to move through the various stages of advancement in rank . "
The Hungarian Scout program had four stages . During the first three years , Bánáthy advanced three stages . The last stage required Bánáthy to earn 25 merit badges . This last stage was called Turul , after the mythical bird of Hungary . From spring to fall , as weather permitted , the patrol had many outings . Every summer the troop went on a two- to three @-@ week long summer camp . Bánáthy and his troop attended the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 . Up until this time , he had intended to follow his father into the ministry , but changed his mind .
Bánáthy later wrote ,
The highlight of the Jamboree for me was meeting Baden Powell , the Chief Scout of the World . One day , he visited our camp with the Chief Scout of Hungary , Count Pál Teleki ( who later became our Prime Minister ) , and the chief of the camp staff , Vitez Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas , a general staff officer of the Hungarian Royal Army . A few years later he became the commander of the Royal Ludovika Akademia ( when I was a student there ) . In the 1940s , he became the Chief Scout of Hungary . ( I was serving on his staff as head of national junior leadership training . )
For me the Jamboree became a crucial career decision point . I resolved to choose the military as a life work ... There were two sources of this decision . One was my admiration of Lord Baden @-@ Powell , and his life @-@ example as a hero of the British Army and the founder and guide of scouting . The other was the influence of Captain Varkonyi , a staff officer of the Jamboree , who was assigned to our Subcamp . We spent hours in conversation about scouting and the military as a career , as a major service in the character development of young Hungarian adults . After the Jamboree we corresponded for a while . By the end of the year I shared my decision with my parents .
While at the Jamboree , Bánáthy briefly met Joseph Szentkiralyi , another Scout from Hungary . Hungarian Sea Scout Paul Ferenc Sujan and American Maurice Tripp also attended . More than 20 years later , these three men collaborated in helping Bánáthy build a leadership program for youth in the United States .
Also in 1933 , Bánáthy attended the regional patrol leader training week . Later in 1934 , Bánáthy and six other members of his troop traveled to the National Jamboree in Poland . They camped in a large pine forest and visited Kraków and Warsaw . The Polish government hosted a banquet for all of the Scouts in the Presidential Palace . In 1934 , he was awarded the best notebook prize of the national spring leadership camp and in 1935 , he was invited to serve on the junior staff of the same camp at Hárshegy , Budapest . In 1935 , the troop traveled to the Bükk Mountains in northeastern Hungary for their summer camp . As a Senior Patrol leader , Bánáthy and two others took a bicycle tour in advance of the summer camp to preview the camping site .
= = = Military service during World War II = = =
The two military men that Bánáthy had met , and from whom he developed a desire to serve in the military , soon played roles on the national stage that would affect Bánáthy . In 1937 , Bánáthy entered the Ludovika Akadémia , as was the custom for young men aspiring to military careers . In 1940 , at age 21 , Bánáthy was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the armored infantry . Later that year he met his future wife Eva Balazs .
Pál Teleki , whom Bánáthy had met at the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 , was Chief Scout of Hungary and Prime Minister of Hungary . He and Regent Miklós Horthy tried to keep Hungary out of the war . They did seek reversal of what they believed was the unjust geographic division of Hungary by the 1920 Treaty of Trianon , which Germany promised to them . Through the First Vienna Award , the country gained a portion of Czechoslovakia that had historically been part of Hungary , and via the Second Vienna Award , they regained additional Romanian territory that had formerly been Hungarian .
When Yugoslavia 's government fell in a bloodless coup d 'état , Germany 's southern flank was exposed , and its planned invasion of Russia was threatened . Germany planned to invade and compel Belgrade 's support for the Axis ; it suggested that Hungary should also attack . Teleki refused , and the Germans asked permission to transport their troops across Hungary .
The British , with whom Teleki had had a long relationship , sent word via the Hungarian Minister in London that they would declare war if he assented to this action . Teleki soon learned that Regent Horthy and General Henrik Werth , Chief of Staff of the Hungarian Army , had permitted the Germans to cross Hungary 's borders . On 3 April 1941 , Teleki committed suicide . Horthy named General Farkas as the country 's new Chief Scout .
Bánáthy served two tours on the Russian front in World War II as an armored infantry officer . The peace @-@ time Hungarian Army had received very little training . The Hungarian Army expanded rapidly from an initial force of 80 @,@ 000 , but when fighting started , the rank @-@ and @-@ file of the army had undergone only eight weeks of training .
In 1941 , Bánáthy 's unit advanced as part of German Army Group South to within 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) of Moscow , during a severe November ice storm . Wounded during the action , Banathy returned from the front to Budapest for convalescence . He married his fiancé , Eva Balazs , with his arm in a sling .
In 1942 , as a soldier in the 109 @,@ 000 strong Second Hungarian Army , Bánáthy returned to the Russian front with the Hungarian Second Army ( Second Magyar Honved ) . They fought at the Don River bend , supporting the German attack during the Stalingrad . They were charged with protecting the 8th Italian Army 's's northern flank between the Novaya Pokrovka on the Don River to Rossosh , part of the larger force defending the drive by the German 6th Army against Soviet General Vasily Chuikov 's 62nd Army , which was defending Stalingrad .
On 13 January 1943 , the Russian troops , with an overwhelming force in numbers and equipment , began the Voronezh @-@ Kharkov Strategic Offensive Operation on the Bryansk , Voronezh , and Southwestern Fronts . They rapidly destroyed the Hungarian Second Army in which Bánáthy served near Svoboda on the Don River . During the Second Hungarian Army 's 12 months of activity on the Russian front , from an initial force of about 200 @,@ 000 Hungarian soldiers and 50 @,@ 000 Jewish forced laborers , it had lost about 100 @,@ 000 to death , 35 @,@ 000 wounded , and 60 @,@ 000 taken prisoners of war . About 40 @,@ 000 men returned to Hungary , where they became scapegoats by Hitler for the catastrophic Axis defeat . " No nation lost as much blood during World War II in such a short period of time . "
Bánáthy had been seriously wounded and returned to Budapest , where he spent seven months recuperating . Afterward he was promoted as a junior officer of the Royal Hungarian Army and served on the faculty of the Ludovika Akademia under Commandant General Farkas . Farkas sought a volunteer to teach junior leader training at the academy and Bánáthy volunteered . Farkas also asked Bánáthy to organize a Scout Troop for young men , 19 years and older , which was a common practice within the Hungarian Scout Association at the time . Bánáthy became committed to training the young men in officer 's leadership skills ; he served as the voluntary national director for youth leadership development and a member of the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association .
In July 1944 Bánáthy 's mentor Colonel @-@ General Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas was Commander of the Hungarian VI Army Corps , which had been garrisoned at Debrecen . He replaced General Beregfy , who was loyal to the fascist Arrow Cross Party . During that month , Farkas ' VI Army Corp was instrumental in repelling a Red Army attack across the Carpathian mountains . On 15 October 1944 , Farkas was named commander of the Pest bridgehead and Government Commissioner for Evacuation . In early November 1944 , the first Russian units appeared on the southeastern edge of Budapest . As an associate of Farkas , Bánáthy likely had advance notice of the Russian advance . He also knew he would likely be executed if captured . Bánáthy was able to get his wife Eva , one @-@ year @-@ old son Béla and two @-@ week @-@ old son László out of Budapest . Bánáthy 's family , along with other officers and their families , found shelter at first in farmhouses , and later in bunkers , caves , and trenches .
When the Hungarian Second Army was disbanded on 1 December 1944 due to a lack of equipment and personnel , the remaining units of the Second Army , including Bánáthy 's , were transferred to the Third Army . The Siege of Budapest began when the city was encircled on 29 December 1944 by the Red Army . Bánáthy fought with the remainder of his unit against the Russians until after Budapest fell on 13 February 1945 . The Axis was striving to protect the last oil fields they controlled in western Hungary around Lake Balaton . By late March 1945 , most of what was left of the Hungarian Third Army was surrounded and destroyed about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) to the west of Budapest in an advance by the Soviet 46th Army towards Vienna . The remaining shattered units fought on as they retreated progressively westward through the Transdanubian Mountains towards Austria .
Bánáthy 's family and others of the remainder of his and other military units made their way west , along with tens of thousands of other refugees , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) into Austria , trying to stay ahead of advancing Russian troops . Temperatures through the time of their flight remained near 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) .
= = = Life in displaced persons camp = = =
Bánáthy reunited with his family in Austria . As the war ended and Austria was occupied in April 1945 by the French , British , Soviet and US military forces , the family was placed in an Allied displaced persons camp . They were housed in a single 6 by 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 by 3 @.@ 0 m ) room in a wooden barrack ; it served as their bedroom , kitchen , living room and firewood storage area . Food was extremely scarce and for five years they subsisted on around 600 calories per person per day . They were among 1 @.@ 4 million displaced persons in Austria at the time during a worldwide food shortage as a result of the war . Food was also severely restricted by punitive U.S. policies including directive JCS 1067 . In 1947 German citizens were surviving on 1040 calories a day , but the Allies were also suffering from food shortages .
Bánáthy later traded for milk to give two @-@ year @-@ old Béla and one @-@ year @-@ old László enough protein . As extremely little food was available in the camps , in early 1947 his wife 's twin sister came from Hungary to take their older two sons back to live with the older sister . The Pallendal family , Bánáthy 's in @-@ laws , was well @-@ educated and relatively wealthy , so they had access to more food than what was available in the camps . They intended to return the Banathy boys to their parents within a year . Beginning in early 1948 , when the Cold War ensued , it became virtually impossible for refugees or displaced persons to cross from the border of one country into another , or even from one Occupation Zone to another . The Pallendal family could not return the two boys from behind the Iron Curtain .
In 1948 , shortly after their third son Tibor was born , the Banathy family was moved to another camp , near a Marshall Plan warehouse . Bánáthy was assigned to unload sacks of wheat from railroad cars . He contacted the World Scouting Movement for assistance and began to organize scouting in the DP camps . During 1947 , Bánáthy was named the Hungarian Scout Commissioner for Austria ; he led training for Hungarian Scout leaders along with his former commanding officer Farkas . He was ordained by the World Council of Churches and became minister for youth among Hungarian refugees . Banathy served as director of religious education of the Protestant Refugee Service of Austria , was editor of a religious youth service and of a Scout publication .
In 1948 Bánáthy 's fourth son Robert was born . Bánáthy soon found work as a technical draftsman in the statistical office of a U.S. Army warehouse . In 1949 , with help from a Swiss foundation , Bánáthy assisted in establishing and was selected as the President of the Collegium Hungaricum , a boarding school for refugees , at Zell am See near Saalfelden , Austria . In the same year , the Communist government in Hungary seized the businesses belonging to the Pallendal family . Because they were members of the social elite , the Communist government considered them to be a political threat .
In 1951 , in what was a common practice during this time , the Hungarian Police arrived at dawn to seize the Pallendal family home and arrest and deport the family from Budapest . Seven @-@ year @-@ old Béla and six @-@ year @-@ old László Banathy , along with their Pallendal grandmother and two aunts , were put aboard a freight train and sent toward Russia . The train stopped occasionally and a few hundred people were forced off at rural towns . The Pallendal family was ejected in eastern Hungary . There an uncle located them and hid them from authorities in a small village .
= = = Emigrates to the United States = = =
In January , 1951 , the student body of the Presbyterian McCormick Theological Seminary in Chicago sponsored Béla , Eva , Tibor and Robert Banathy as refugees to the United States . Bánáthy lived with his family at the Seminary , where he worked nights 60 hours a week shoveling coal to fire the Seminary furnace . At the same time , he was studying English from a book . He occasionally preached at nearby Hungarian churches . His wife found work in a paper factory and Tibor , their third son , entered American public school .
= = = Begins teaching Hungarian language = = =
When World War II ended , General Farkas was designated as the U.S. Army 's liaison to former Hungarian prisoners of war . In 1951 he recommended Bánáthy as a Hungarian language instructor , and the younger man was invited to teach at the U.S. government 's Army Language School in Monterey , California . Bánáthy moved to Monterey in June 1951 , a pivotal change in his life . At the Army Language School , he met Joseph Szentkiralyi ( Americanized as St. Clair ) , the founder of the Hungarian Department . He learned they had met when Banathy was 14 at the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 . The wives of the two men met and realized they had been girlhood friends in grammar school in Budapest . From having managed a Pendall family restaurant in Budapest before World War II , Eva took work as a waitress in a restaurant on the Monterey Peninsula . Bánáthy served as President of his local Parent @-@ Teacher Association and on the board of the local Red Cross . In the same year , Paul Ferenc Sujan , another former scout , joined the language school faculty .
On February 28 , 1956 , Bánáthy was naturalized as a United States citizen . After nine years of separation , and repeated failures to get his sons repatriated from behind the Iron Curtain , Bánáthy obtained help from Dr. Eugene Blake , President of the National Council of Churches ; Representative Charles M. Teague ; Ernest Nagy , Vice Consul in the U.S. Legation in Budapest ; Hulda Neiburh of the McCormick Theological Seminary ; and Howard Pyle , deputy assistant to President Dwight D. Eisenhower . He was finally able to arrange for 13 @-@ year @-@ old Béla and 11 @-@ year @-@ old László to emigrate to the United States A photograph of the two boys greeting their mother was featured in Life Magazine .
Carrying pictures of their parents , two Hungarian brothers arrived at New York International Airport , Idlewild , Queens , yesterday ... The pictures are necessary because the boys ... have not seen their mother and father for nine years .
The boys were greeted by their parents at San Francisco International Airport at 1 : 10 a.m. The boys ' release marked the first time since the Cold War that anyone under 65 years old had been allowed to leave Hungary to be reunited with family .
= = Professional life = =
Bánáthy was an educator , a systems and design scientist , and an author . At the Army Language School , he taught in the Hungarian language department , later becoming its chairman .
= = = White Stag Leadership Development Program = = =
In 1957 Bánáthy began enlarging a concept for a leadership development program . As Council Training Chairman in the Monterey Bay Area Council of the Boy Scouts of America , he received strong support from the Council Executive and Council Executive Board for his proposal to train boys in leadership skills . He was assisted by fellow Hungarians Joe Szentkiralyi ( aka St. Clair , Chair of the Hungarian Language Department at the Army Language school ) and Paul Sujan ( Hungarian Language Instructor at the Army Language school ) ; Fran Peterson ( a member of the National Council and a Scoutmaster from Chular , California ) ; and Maury Tripp ( a Scouter from Saratoga , California , a member of the National Council , and a research scientist ) . " Lord Baden @-@ Powell was my personal idol and I long felt a commitment to give back to Scouting what I had received " , Bánáthy said .
As part of his master 's degree program in counseling psychology at San José State University , he wrote a thesis titled " A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting " . This book described the founding principles of the White Stag program , which was later adapted by the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America . Prior to Bánáthy 's work , the adult Wood Badge and the junior leader training programs had focused on teaching Scoutcraft skills and some aspects of the Patrol Method . His research and findings on teaching principles and competencies of leadership had a huge impact on these two programs , shifting their focus to leadership skills .
Some individuals on the national staff and many volunteers across the nation resisted the idea of changing the focus of Wood Badge from training leaders in Scoutcraft to leadership skills . Among them was William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt , who had been the first United States Wood Badge Course Director in 1948 . Although officially retired , he had many loyal followers . He was adamant that Wood Badge should continue to teach Scoutcraft skills and tried to persuade the national council to stick to that tradition , but his objections were ignored .
The leadership competencies Banathy articulated became the de facto method for Scout adult and junior leader training . ( In 2008 , the White Stag program celebrated its 50th anniversary . ) In 1960 , the Monterey Bay Area Council recognized Béla for his exceptional service to youth and awarded him the Silver Beaver .
In the 1970s , due to the success of the White Stag program , Bánáthy was appointed to the Interamerican Scout Committee and participated in three interamerican " Train the Trainer " events in Mexico , Costa Rica , and Venezuela . He guided their national training teams in designing leadership development by design programs . Béla also taught in Sunday School and was on the Board of the United Methodist Church of the Wayfarer in Carmel , California .
= = = Systems science = = =
In the 1960s Bánáthy began teaching courses in applied linguistics and systems science at San José State University . In 1962 he was named Dean and Chairman of the East Europe and Middle East Division at the Army Language School , overseeing ten language departments . In 1963 he completed his master 's degree in psychology at San Jose State University , and in 1966 he received a doctorate in education for a transdisciplinary program in education , systems theory , and linguistics from the University of California in Berkeley . During the mid @-@ 1960s Bánáthy was named Chair of Western Division of the Society for General Systems Research . He published his first book , Instructional Systems , in 1968 .
= = = Large complex systems = = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , Bánáthy was a visiting professor at the University of California , Berkeley and continued teaching at San Jose State University . In 1969 , he left the renamed Defense Language Institute and became a Program Director , and later Senior Research Director and Associate Laboratory Director , at the Far West Laboratory for Research and Development ( now WestEd ) in Berkeley ( later moved to San Francisco ) . He " directed over fifty research and development programs , designed many curriculum projects and several large scale complex systems , including the design and implementation of a Ph.D. program in educational research and development for UC Berkeley " .
In the 1970s and 1980s , he focused his research on the application of systems and design theories and methodologies in social , social service , educational , and human development systems . In the 1980s he developed and guided a Ph.D. curriculum in humanistic systems inquiry and social systems design for the Saybrook Graduate School .
= = = International Systems Institute = = =
In 1981 , he founded the International Systems Institute ( ISI ) , a non @-@ profit , public benefit scientific and educational corporation in Carmel , California , USA . He organized its first meeting at Fuschl am See , Austria in 1982 .
What was truly revolutionary about the International Systems Institute was Banathy 's method for organizing conferences . Banathy observed that in traditional conferences , a few usually well @-@ respected or prestigious individuals would apply to present " pre @-@ packaged new ideas " to others . In typical conferences , presenting almost always carries more prestige than listening ; the few presenters share their wisdom with the many . This one @-@ to @-@ many or " hierarchical knowledge distribution system " slowed the sharing and spreading of ideas about which many people cared deeply if not passionately , as there was always limited opportunity for interchange among participants . This interaction was usually wedged into the interstices of the formal schedule in the form of informal , spontaneous gatherings for which no record existed .
The notion that presenting is more important than listening aroused lifelong antipathy in Bánáthy . When he formulated the leadership competencies of the White Stag Leadership Development Program in the 1960s , he described the passing of knowledge from one to another as " Manager of Learning " . He wrote extensively about how the focus should be on the learner , not the teacher .
Bánáthy advanced a different vision for conferences , one that would allow everyone to fully engage . He proposed that everyone be given the opportunity to prepare and distribute papers to all participants in advance of the conference . And instead of listening to speeches , conference attendees took part in extended , non @-@ hierarchical conversations about the conference papers . The conference proceedings were the result of these conversations . Bánáthy felt strongly that systems scholars from all over the world should be given ongoing opportunities to engage in extended conversations so they might put their expertise " actively into the service of humanity worldwide " .
Bánáthy wrote : " We aspire to reap the ' reflecting and creating power ' of groups that emerge in the course of disciplined and focused conversations on issues that are important to us and to our society " . Participants at International Systems Institute gatherings have , since the original meeting organized by Bánáthy in 1982 , organized them around this principle and referred to them as " conversations " .
= = = General Evolutionary Research Group = = =
In 1984 , he was co @-@ founder with general evolution theorist Ervin László and others of the initially secret General Evolutionary Research Group . A member of the Society of General Systems Research since the 1960s , he was Managing Director of the Society in the early 1980s , and in 1985 he became its president . He then served on its Board of Trustees . During the 1980s , he served on the Executive Committee of the International Federation of Systems Research . In 1989 , he retired from Far West Labs and returned to live on the Monterey Peninsula . He continued to serve as Professor Emeritus for the Saybrook Graduate School , counseling Ph.D. students . He also continued his work with the annual ISI international systems design conversations , and authored a number of articles and books about systems , design , and evolutionary research . He served two terms as president of the International Federation of Systems Research during 1994 @-@ 98 .
He coordinated over twenty international systems research conferences held in eight countries , including the 1994 Conversation on Systems Design conversation held at Fuschl Am See , Austria , sponsored by the International Federation of Systems Research . He was also honorary editor of three international systems journals : Systems Research and Behavioral Science , the Journal of Applied Systems Studies , and Systems . He was on the Board of Editors of World Futures , and served as a contributing editor of Educational Technology .
= = Final years = =
In 1992 , Bánáthy , a long @-@ standing member of the Hungarian Scout Association Abroad ( Külföldi Magyar Cserkészszövetség ) , traveled from his Monterey , California home in the United States to Hungary following its renewed freedom . There , he helped restart the Hungarian Scout Association within his native country .
Bánáthy spent considerable time during the last few years of his life caring for his wife Eva in their home in Carmel , California . She had been in poor health for a number of years after a stroke . In the summer of 2003 Bánáthy and his wife moved to live with their son Tibor in Chico , California . After a brief and unexpected illness , Bánáthy died on September 4 , 2003 . He and Eva had been married 64 years at the time of his death .
= = Publications = =
Bánáthy wrote and published several books and hundreds of articles . A selection :
1963 , A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting , Monterey Bay Area Council , Monterey , California .
1964 , Report on a Leadership Development Experiment , Monterey Bay Area Council , Monterey , California .
1968 , Instructional Systems , Fearon Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8224 @-@ 3930 @-@ 1
1969 , Leadership Development — World Scouting Reference Papers , No. 1 , Boy Scouts World Bureau , Geneva , Switzerland .
1972 , A Design for Foreign Language Curriculum , D.C. Heath . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 669 @-@ 82073 @-@ 7
1973 , Developing a Systems View of Education : The Systems Models Approach , Lear Siegler Fearon Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8224 @-@ 6700 @-@ 7
1985 , with Kenneth D. Bailey et al . ( ed . ) , Systems Inquiring : Applications , Volume II of the Proceedings of the Society for General Systems Research International Conference . Seaside , CA : Intersystems Publications .
1991 , Systems Design of Education , A Journey to Create the Future , Educational Technology , Englewood Cliffs , NJ . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87778 @-@ 229 @-@ 2
1992 , A Systems View of Education : Concepts and Principles for Effective Practice , Educational Technology , Englewood Cliffs , CA . ISBN 0 @-@ 87778 @-@ 245 @-@ 8
1992 , " Comprehensive Systems Design in Education : Building a Design Culture , " in : Education . Educational Technology , 22 ( 3 ) 33 – 35 .
1996 , Designing Social Systems in a Changing World , Plenum , NY . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 45251 @-@ 0
1998 , Evolution Guided by Design : A Systems Perspective , in Systems Research , Vol . 15 .
1997 , A Taste of Systemics , The Primer Project , 2007 .
2000 , Guided Evolution of Society : A Systems View , Springer ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 46382 @-@ 2
2000 , The Development of the AgoraWebsite : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Agora Structure , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Bio : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Story : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Reflections : The Circle of Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Guided Evolution of Society : A Systems View , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York .
2002 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , " The Agora Project : the New Agoras of the Twenty @-@ first Century , " Systems Research and Behavioral Science
2002 , with Gordon Rowland , " Guiding our evolution : If we don 't do it , who will ? "
2005 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , et al . ( ed . ) , Dialogue as a Means of Collective Communication ( Educational Linguistics ) , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 48689 @-@ 0
2007 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , et al . ( ed . ) , Dialogue as a Means of Collective Communication ( Volume 2 ) , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 75842 @-@ 8
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= Pithole , Pennsylvania =
Pithole , or Pithole City , is a ghost town in Cornplanter Township , Venango County in Pennsylvania , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Oil Creek State Park and the Drake Well Museum , the site of the first commercial oil well in the United States . Pithole 's sudden growth and equally rapid decline , as well as its status as a " proving ground " of sorts for the burgeoning petroleum industry , made it one of the most famous of oil boomtowns .
Oil strikes at nearby wells in January 1865 prompted a large influx of people to the area that would become Pithole , most of whom were land speculators . The town was laid out in May 1865 , and by December was incorporated with an approximate population of 20 @,@ 000 . At its peak , Pithole had at least 54 hotels , 3 churches , the third largest post office in Pennsylvania , a newspaper , a theater , a railroad , the world 's first pipeline and a red @-@ light district " the likes of Dodge City 's . " By 1866 , economic growth and oil production in Pithole had slowed . Oil strikes around other nearby communities and numerous fires drove residents away from Pithole and , by 1877 , the borough was unincorporated .
The site was cleared of overgrowth and was donated to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1961 . A visitor center , containing exhibits pertaining to the history of Pithole , was built in 1972 . Pithole was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
= = Etymology = =
The city of Pithole derived its name from its proximity to Pithole Creek , which flows through Venango County to the Allegheny River . The origin of the name " Pithole " itself , however , is a mystery . One origination theory is that early pioneers stumbled across strange fissures from which sulfurous fumes wafted . Such " pit @-@ holes " are found in the area where Pithole Creek empties into the Allegheny River , with some measuring 14 inches ( 36 cm ) wide and 8 feet ( 2 m ) long . Another possible explanation involves the discovery of ancient pits dug by early settlers , some 8 feet ( 2 m ) wide and 12 feet ( 4 m ) deep , that were cribbed with oil @-@ soaked timbers . These " pit @-@ holes " , found along Oil Creek and in Cornplanter Township , supposedly predate the Senecas who inhabited the area from the mid @-@ 17th to the late 18th century .
= = Geology = =
Most of the oil produced in northwestern Pennsylvania was formed in sandstone reservoir rocks at the boundary between the Mississippian and Devonian rock layers . Over time , the oil migrated toward the surface , became trapped beneath an impervious layer of caprock , and formed a reservoir . The presence of upwards @-@ curving folds in the caprock called anticlines , or sometimes an inversion of an anticline called a syncline , greatly varied the depth of the reservoirs , from around 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to just beneath the surface .
The majority of the oil wells in the vicinity of Pithole and the Oil Creek valley tapped into a sandstone formation known as the Venango Third sand . The Venango Third contained large volumes of oil under high pressure at only 450 to 550 feet ( 140 to 170 m ) below ground level . Other oil @-@ producing formations in the area were " the Venango First and Second [ sands ] , the latter often prevailing after the Third sand was lost . " At Pithole , the " first sandstone was reached at 115 feet [ 35 m ] , the second at 345 feet [ 105 m ] , the third at 480 feet [ 146 m ] , the fourth at 600 feet [ 183 m ] , and the oil itself at 615 feet [ 187 m ] " by the Frazier Well , according to a report by the Oil City Register . Inaccurate numbering of the layers by the drillers , however , put the Fourth sand above the real Third at 670 feet ( 200 m ) .
= = Geography and climate = =
Pithole is located in northwestern Pennsylvania , 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Erie and 103 miles ( 166 km ) north @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . The nearest cities to Pithole are Titusville , approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the northwest , and Oil City , 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the southwest . Pithole is located on Pithole Road ( State Route 1006 ) , almost 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Pennsylvania Route 36 and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east Pennsylvania Route 227 .
Pithole was laid out with four primary east – west streets : First , Second , Third and Fourth . Duncan , Mason , Prather , Brown and Holmden Streets traversed Pithole from north to south . Each street was 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , except for Duncan at 80 feet ( 24 m ) . All five north – south streets terminated at First Street ; Mason started at Third ; Prather and Brown started at Fourth . Duncan and Holmden Streets both began at a Y @-@ intersection with the road from Titusville . All four east – west streets began at Duncan and ended at Holmden Street except for First , which extended to the Frazier Well .
July is the hottest month in Pithole , when the average high temperature is 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and the average low is 57 ° F ( 14 ° C ) . January is the coldest month with an average high of 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) and an average low of 13 ° F ( − 11 ° C ) . The average 44 inches ( 1 @,@ 118 mm ) of precipitation a year wreaked havoc on Pithole 's many unpaved streets , especially the heavily traveled First and Holmden . Portions of First Street were planked or corduroyed in response to the resulting quagmire of mud that would often trap wagons and draft animals .
= = History = =
The area around Pithole , and modern @-@ day Venango County , was formerly inhabited by Eries , who were eventually wiped out by the Iroquois in 1653 . On October 23 , 1784 , the Iroquois , which included the Seneca , ceded the land to Pennsylvania in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix . Venango County was formed from portions of Allegheny and Lycoming counties on March 12 , 1800 . Cornplanter Township was settled in 1795 and was incorporated on November 28 , 1833 .
In 1859 , Edwin Drake successfully drilled the first oil well along the banks of Oil Creek , outside of Titusville in Crawford County . Within a half year , over 500 wells were built along Oil Creek , in the 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) corridor from Titusville to the creek 's mouth at the Allegheny River in Oil City . Other wells were drilled down the Allegheny towards Franklin and upriver to Tionesta in Forest County . Pithole Creek did not attract the same attention from speculators and investors , who preferred to risk their money on the tried @-@ and @-@ true method of drilling on flatter terrain near large rivers like the Allegheny and Oil Creek , rather than gamble on rougher terrain . In January 1864 , Isaiah Frazier leased two tracts of land , totaling 35 acres ( 14 ha ) , from Thomas Holmden , a farmer along Pithole Creek . Frazier , James Faulkner Jr . , Frederick W. Jones and J. Nelson Tappan formed the United States Petroleum Company in April 1864 and started drilling what was dubbed the United States Well , or Frazier Well , in June . On January 7 , 1865 , the Frazier Well struck oil .
= = = Boom = = =
Two weeks after the Frazier strike , the Twin Wells , just to the south of the Frazier Well , also struck oil . In May 1865 , A. P. Duncan and George C. Prather purchased the Holmden Farm , including the portions still leased to United States Petroleum , for $ 25 @,@ 000 and a bonus of $ 75 @,@ 000 . The wooded bluff overlooking the Frazier and Twin Wells was cleared and a town was laid out . The town was divided into 500 lots , which were put up for sale on May 24 . By July , the population was estimated to have been at least 2 @,@ 000 . The population of Pithole rose to 15 @,@ 000 people in September and 20 @,@ 000 by Christmas . Pithole was incorporated as a borough on November 30 , 1865 .
As many residents were temporary , Pithole had a total of 54 hotels ranging from simple rooming houses to luxury hotels like the Chase and Danforth Houses , or the Bonta House located in Prather City on the bluff on the opposite side of Pithole Creek . The Astor House , Pithole 's first hotel , was built in one day . Construction of the hotel was especially poor ; a lack of insulation and innumerable gaps in the walls made conditions in the hotel miserable during the winter . At one point , the Pithole Post Office , located on the first @-@ floor of the Chase House , was the third @-@ busiest in the state of Pennsylvania , behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . Three different churches — Catholic , Methodist and Presbyterian — were constructed by their respective congregations . Pithole 's local newspaper , the Pithole Daily Record was started on September 5 , 1865 . The largest building in Pithole — the three @-@ story , 1 @,@ 100 @-@ seat Murphy 's Theater — opened on September 17 . Among all the glamour , " every other building [ in Pithole ] was a bar " . Prostitution was rampant in Pithole , with most of the brothels built along First Street . Although the borough council passed ordinances banning the sex trade and carried out raids in an attempt to enforce them , they had little impact .
As oil production increased through the success of wells like the Frazier , Twin , Pool , Grant , and the two Homestead Wells , transportation of the oil to the outside world was still reliant on teamsters . The teamsters were notorious for mistreatment of their horses , most of which lost their hair due to a buildup of oil and only had a lifespan of a few months in Pithole . The high mortality rate caused a horse shortage , with more having to be brought in by rail from Ohio and New York . Teamsters often refused to work on days when the roads were impassable or gouged the oil producers . Various investors , fed up with the teamsters , pooled resources and built a plank toll road from Pithole to Titusville . Samuel Van Sykle , an oil buyer also frustrated with the teamsters , designed the world 's first pipeline , which opened on October 9 , 1865 . The 2 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 51 mm ) , 5 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) pipeline connected Pithole to the Oil Creek Railroad and was initially able to transport 81 barrels ( 13 m3 ) per hour operating with three steam engines , equivalent to 300 teams working a 10 @-@ hour shift . A fourth engine brought the pipeline 's maximum capacity to 2 @,@ 500 barrels ( 397 m3 ) a day . The Oil City and Pithole Railroad ( OC & P ) was opened on December 18 . A second railroad was partly built but never finished , and plans for other railroads never led to construction . Along with the pipeline , another innovation developed in Pithole was the railroad tank car , which was essentially two wooden tanks , each with a capacity of 80 barrels ( 13 m3 ) , mounted onto a flatcar .
= = = Bust = = =
In March 1866 , a chain of banks owned by Charles Vernon Culver , a financier and member of United States House of Representatives for Pennsylvania 's 20th congressional district , collapsed . This triggered a financial panic throughout the oil region , bursting the oil bubble . Speculators and potential investors stopped coming to Pithole and life in Pithole settled down . In the early morning of February 24 , a house caught fire and the flames were spread to other buildings by the wind . In two hours , most of Holmden Street , and parts of Brown and Second Streets , were reduced to smoldering ashes . The worst of multiple fires occurred on August 2 , burning down several city blocks and destroying 27 wells .
When many oil strikes occurred elsewhere in Venango County in 1867 , people left Pithole , often taking their houses and places of business with them or abandoning their property . By December 1866 , the population had dropped to 2 @,@ 000 . The newspaper was relocated to Petroleum Center in July 1868 , becoming the Petroleum Center Daily Record . Both the Chase House and Murphy 's Theater were sold in August 1868 and moved to Pleasantville . Prather and Duncan sold their interests in Pithole before the downturn ; Prather split an estimated $ 3 million with his two brothers and moved to Meadville , while Duncan returned to Scotland with his fortune . The 1870 United States Census recorded the population of Pithole as only 237 . The borough charter of Pithole was officially annulled in August 1877 . The remains of the city were sold , in 1879 , back to Venango County for $ 4 @.@ 37 . The Catholic church was dismantled and moved to Tionesta in 1886 ; the Methodist church was kept in " usable condition " through private donations before being taken down in the 1930s . A stone altar was erected and consecrated by the Methodist Episcopal Church on August 27 , 1959 , the centennial of the Drake Well strike .
= = Visitor center = =
The site was purchased in 1957 by James B. Stevenson , the publisher of the Titusville Herald , who later served as the chairman of the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission from 1962 to 1971 . Stevenson cleared the brush from the site , and donated it to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1961 . Today , only a few foundations and mowed paths mark the buildings and former streets of Pithole . The site of Pithole was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on March 20 , 1973 . A walking tour of Pithole 's 84 @.@ 3 acres ( 34 @.@ 1 ha ) of streets can be completed in 42 minutes . The visitor center was constructed in 1972 .
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission operates the visitor center as part of the nearby Drake Well Museum , adjacent to Oil Creek State Park , outside of Titusville . The visitor center contains several exhibits , including a scale model of the city at its peak , an oil @-@ transport wagon that is stuck in mud , and a small , informational theater . The visitor center is usually open , annually , from the Memorial Day weekend , at end of May , through Labor Day in September . The season is kicked off with the annual Wildcatter Day celebration featuring music , tours , demonstrations and other activities .
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= King of Pop ( album ) =
King of Pop is a compilation album by American recording artist Michael Jackson released in commemoration of Michael Jackson 's 50th birthday . The album differs significantly in each country it was released because fan voting was employed to determine the songs for each country 's version . The album 's title comes from the title Jackson acquired approximately 20 years earlier . The album 's launch was made public on June 20 , 2008 , with the official announcement of the Australian version . The first release came with the German edition ( which is identical to the Swiss edition ) on August 22 , 2008 .
Fans in countries where Sony BMG operates national offices were given the opportunity to vote for songs from a list of Jackson 's back catalogue to be included in their country 's version of the album . Aside from the tracks selected by fans , a megamix of five songs from the Thriller album by Jason Nevins was also included in the pool . The album has been released in a total of 26 countries . Each pool list and release date differed slightly by country . " Billie Jean " is the only song to appear on all versions of the album . There has been no announcement of a release in North America .
= = Background = =
Prior to the release of King of Pop , Jackson issued the double @-@ disc album Thriller 25 , a 25th anniversary edition of Thriller . It was a commercial success , having done particularly well as a re @-@ issue , peaking at number one in eight countries and Europe . It reached number two in the US , number three in the UK and top 10 on over 30 national charts . In the US , Thriller 25 was just 14 @,@ 000 copies short of reaching the peak position , selling 166 @,@ 000 copies . It was ineligible for the Billboard 200 chart as a re @-@ release , but entered atop the Pop Catalog chart , where it stayed for 10 non @-@ consecutive weeks and had the best sales on that chart since December 1996 .
A few months afterward , Sony announced the release of regional editions of the King of Pop compilation , in celebration of Jackson 's 50th birthday . The album 's title is a reference to the same title Jackson acquired approximately 20 years ago when actress and friend Elizabeth Taylor presented Jackson with an " Artist of the Decade " award at the 1989 Soul Train Awards , proclaiming him " the true king of pop , rock and soul " . MTV , VH1 , FOX , and Jackson 's record label began marketing Jackson as the " King of Pop " to coincide with the release of Dangerous and the music video for " Black or White " , the album 's first single .
= = Versions = =
= = = Argentina = = =
On November 11 , the Argentinian version of the compilation was released . It contains 2 bonustracks : the song Come Together ( that is featured in Moonwalker and also the HIStory album , released in 1995 ) and a radio edit of the Megamix of the Thriller album . 2 tracks on the album , Billie Jean and Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough were named incorrectly as " Billy Jean " and " Don 't Stop Till You Get Enough " .
" Billie Jean " - 4 : 53
" Beat It " - 4 : 18
" Black Or White " - 4 : 15
" Bad " - 4 : 07
" Heal the World " ( 7 Edit ) - 4 : 32
" Human Nature " - 4 : 05
" Don 't Stop Till You Get Enough " ( 7 Edit ) - 3 : 59
" Smooth Criminal " - 4 : 18
" Man In The Mirror " - 5 : 18
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " - 4 : 12
" Come Together " ( Bonus Track ) - 4 : 02
" Thriller Megamix " ( Bonus Track ) ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 07
= = = Austria = = =
On July 20 , the Austrian version of the double disc compilation was announced ; it was released on Jackson 's birthday . The pool list fans got to choose from contained 100 tracks . This is the only version of the album to contain the single ABC , which is the earliest song on any version of the album .
Disc 1
" Man in the Mirror " - 5 : 19
" Smooth Criminal " - 4 : 11
" Billie Jean " - 4 : 53
" The Way You Make Me Feel " - 4 : 58
" Black or White " - 4 : 16
" Remember the Time " - 3 : 59
" You Are Not Alone " ( Single Version ) - 4 : 55
" Human Nature " - 4 : 05
" Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ( Single Version ) - 4 : 17
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) - 4 : 09
" Dirty Diana " - 4 : 41
" We 've Had Enough " - 5 : 45
" Give In to Me " - 5 : 30
" Will You Be There " ( Radio Edit ) - 3 : 39
" Heal the World " ( 7 " Edit ) - 4 : 32
" Got the Hots " - 4 : 27
Disc 2
" ABC " - 2 : 57
" Can You Feel It " - 5 : 58
" Say Say Say " - 3 : 58
" Thriller " ( Single Version ) - 5 : 12
" Bad " - 4 : 07
" Who Is It " ( 7 " Edit ) - 4 : 00
" Earth Song " ( Radio Edit ) - 5 : 02
" Beat It " - 4 : 18
" Rock with You " ( Single Version ) - 3 : 23
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " - 4 : 12
" We Are the World " ( Demo ) - 5 : 20
" Stranger in Moscow " - 5 : 22
" You Rock My World " - 5 : 09
" Scream " - 4 : 40
" Ghosts " - 5 : 08
" Thriller Megamix " ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 07
= = = Australia = = =
The Australian version was announced by Sony BMG Australia on June 20 , 2008 , and was released on Jackson 's birthday . Starting on June 21 , 2008 , Australian fans had three weeks to vote for their 30 favourite tracks for the album ; made up of Jackson 's prior material . Each fan could choose five songs from the pool ; made up of all the tracks from Off the Wall , Thriller ( 2001 special edition , including " Carousel " ) , Bad ( 2001 special edition ) , Dangerous , HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix , Invincible and the track " For All Time " from Thriller 25 . The pool of songs also included seven from Jackson 's time in The Jackson 5 / The Jacksons . These songs were " Blame It on the Boogie " , " Can You Feel It " , " ABC " , " I Want You Back " , " I 'll Be There " and " Ben " . King of Pop was released in two editions : The first was a limited edition digipak that featured the names of selected voters , messages left by the fans and a fold @-@ out poster that follows Jackson through his musical career ; The second edition was a standard release of the album without the poster . This is the only version of the album to contain the single You Can 't Win . This Australia version contains the full 9 @-@ minute version of Thriller Megamix instead of the radio edit commonly found on other versions .
Disc 1 :
" Billie Jean "
" Man in the Mirror "
" Smooth Criminal "
" Beat It "
" Thriller "
" They Don 't Care About Us "
" Who Is It "
" Black or White "
" You Rock My World "
" Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' "
" The Way You Make Me Feel "
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough "
" Dirty Diana "
" Blood on the Dance Floor "
" Rock With You "
" Stranger in Moscow "
" Remember the Time "
| style = " width : 50 % ; text @-@ align : left ; vertical @-@ align : top ; " | Disc 2 :
" Will You Be There "
" Give In to Me "
" You Are Not Alone "
" Say Say Say "
" Scream "
" State of Shock "
" Got the Hots "
" You Can 't Win "
" Fall Again "
" Sunset Driver "
" Someone Put Your Hand Out "
" In the Back "
" We Are the World "
" One More Chance "
" Thriller Megamix "
= = = Belgium = = =
On July 26 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 25 . Fans could vote for their 5 favorite tracks from a pool of 124 , on the web site of the Belgian newspaper Het Nieuwsblad . This is the only version of the album to contain the single Girlfriend .
" Billie Jean "
" Beat It "
" Bad "
" Blood on the Dance Floor "
" Say Say Say "
" Can You Feel It "
" Blame It on the Boogie "
" Another Part of Me "
" Baby Be Mine "
" 2 Bad "
" Dangerous "
" Dirty Diana "
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough "
" Earth Song "
" Childhood "
" Beautiful Girl "
" Come Together "
" Butterflies "
" Break of Dawn "
" Cry "
| style = " width : 50 % ; text @-@ align : left ; vertical @-@ align : top ; " |
" Heal the World "
" Ghosts "
" Burn This Disco Out "
" Can 't Let Her Get Away "
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You "
" Thriller "
" Give In to Me "
" HIStory "
" Smooth Criminal "
" Human Nature "
" Remember the Time "
" Liberian Girl "
" Scream "
" D.S. "
" Girlfriend "
" Jam "
" Rock with You "
" Man in the Mirror "
" For All Time "
" Don 't Walk Away "
= = = Brazil = = =
The Brazilian edition was released on October 17 . This is the only version of the album to contain the single The Girl Is Mine 2008 and not contain Smooth Criminal
= = = China = = =
On December 18 , 2009 , China version named " Michael Jackson King Of Pop The China Collection " released by Sony Music China .
Different from the other versions , Fans in China were not given the opportunity to vote for songs included in China 's version , and this version was not released in 2008 to celebrate Michael Jackson 's birthday , but after his death in late 2009 . The songs in China 's version were a selection from the Hong Kong Version with the exclusion of Smooth Criminal , Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough , and Blood on the Dance Floor . Spine of slipcase incorrectly mentions the title as " King Of Pop - The Hong Kong Collection " .
= = = Finland = = =
The Finnish edition was released on October 1 .
= = = France = = =
" King of Pop - The French Fans ' Selection " was released on December 12 .
= = = Germany & Switzerland = = =
On July 14 , it was announced that German fans had until July 28 to choose their top 30 songs from an extensive pool of 121 tracks ; The German version was released on August 22 . The German pool list contained almost every song Jackson released in his solo career . Notably expansions on the pool choice included : A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection . There were also 8 tracks included from the singers time in The Jackson 5 / Jacksons ; slightly more than the other versions . The German edition was also released in Switzerland on the same day . In Germany , King of Pop is the fourth most downloaded album of all time .
= = = Greece = = =
The 32 @-@ track double @-@ CD Greek edition was released on November 17 , 2008 . Sony BMG Greece teamed up with music television channel Mad TV through which fans cast votes for their favourite songs .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
On August 6 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 28 . Fans could vote for 10 of their favorite tracks on the web site of Sony BMG Hong Kong .
= = = Hungary = = =
On July 9 , it was announced that Hungarian fans had until July 27 , to choose their songs from an extensive pool of 122 tracks , in a two @-@ stage process . The pool list contained almost every song Jackson has released in his solo career . Notably expansions on the pool choice included : A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection ( these are not available in the Australian or New Zealand version ) . In the first round ( July 9 - July 15 ) the fans were able to vote for their top 50 tracks . In round two ( July 16 - July 27 ) the 50 were cut down to the album track list .
= = = India = = =
Sony BMG India partnered with ibibo.com to roll out the Indian version of ' Michael Jackson - King Of Pop ' . The double CD collection was available in stores by January 2009 and is a special selection of Michael Jackson songs collectively voted by community members of ibibo.com. Additionally the best moon walkers were selected by the Ibibo community along with Sony BMG and could win laptops and iPods .
= = = Italy = = =
" King of Pop - The Italian Fans ' Selection " was released on October 3 . It was the first collection to feature the full version of " Carousel " from the Special Edition of Thriller , and the only version of the album to contain " Tabloid Junkie " .
= = = Japan = = =
On July 18 , the Japanese edition " キング ・ オブ ・ ポップ @-@ ジャパン ・ エディション " ( King of Pop - Japan edition ) was announced with fans picking from a selection pool of 120 tracks . The compilation was released on September 24 by Sony Music Japan .
= = = Netherlands = = =
On July 22 , it was announced that Dutch fans could vote for their favorite Jackson tracks , choosing 5 songs from a list of 100 . The release date of the album was August 22 .
= = = New Zealand = = =
On July 3 , it was announced that fans in New Zealand would have until July 20 , to vote for their version of King of Pop . In New Zealand , the compilation was released on August 25 . Fans could vote for five songs in a pool that differed slightly from the Australian song pool . The songs available from Thriller 25 were different ; " For All Time " had been replaced by " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " . " Todo Mi Amor Eres Tu " from Bad ( 2001 special edition ) was not available . While the Australian pool included seven songs from Jackson 's group career , the New Zealand pool had only three : " Blame It on the Boogie " , " Can You Feel It " and " State of Shock " .
= = = Philippines = = =
Sony BMG Philippines and MYX Music Channel announced the Philippine release of the King of Pop . Filipino fans were asked to send their Top 10 all @-@ time favorite Michael Jackson tracks via e @-@ mail . The album was released on August 28 , 2008 . This is the only version of the album to contain the single Gone Too Soon .
= = = Poland = = =
On August 29 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released in Poland on October 20 . Fans could vote for 20 of their favourite tracks from a pool of 120 on the special web site of Sony BMG Poland . That site was launched on August 29 ( on Michael Jackson 's 50th birthday ) and voting was closed on September 17 .
= = = Portugal = = =
The Portuguese edition was released on December 9 , 2008 .
= = = South Korea = = =
" King of Pop - The Korean Limited Edition " was released on December 11 , 2008 .
= = = Spain = = =
" King of Pop - Edición Exclusiva España " was released in Spain on January 13 , 2009 . This is the only version of the album to contain the song Unbreakable .
= = = Sweden = = =
The Swedish edition was released on October 15 .
= = = Taiwan = = =
On July 31 , 2009 , double disc album called " King of Pop ( The Taiwan Colletion ) " released by Sony Music Taiwan . This version released after Michael Jackson 's death , and the track listing is exactly the same as Hong Kong Version .
= = = Turkey = = =
" King of Pop - The Turkish Collection " was released on November 24 .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
On July 18 , the United Kingdom version of the compilation was announced , with a release date of August 25 . Sony BMG UK teamed up with GMTV and The Sun allowing fans , until August 10 , to pick 18 tracks from the song pool . The pool list , at only 50 tracks , is the least diverse ; there were no songs included from Jackson 's group career . 66 @,@ 000 people took part in the vote . Despite the pool conducting a possible 18 tracks , only 17 are included . Most notable is the fact that " Scream " is included on the album , as this song had not appeared on any compilation album in the United Kingdom prior due to legal rights with Janet Jackson 's label Virgin Records .
= = = = Deluxe box set = = = =
In the United Kingdom , a three disc version was released on September 29 , 2008 . The third disc was advertised as featuring " Rarities and Classic 12 " s " , although many of the mixes were already remastered and re @-@ released on the 2006 boxset Visionary : The Video Singles .
The album tracks are :
= = = Comparison = = =
The songs included on each international version and format are summarised below , with their disc and track numbers ( interactively sortable using the track order on an edition ) .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Japanese battleship Yashima =
Yashima ( 八島 , Yashima ) was a Fuji @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was designed and built in the United Kingdom . She participated in the early stages of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . She was involved in the subsequent operations until she struck two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904 . She did not sink immediately , but capsized while under tow a number of hours later . The Japanese were able to keep her loss a secret from the Russians for over a year so they did not try to take advantage of her loss .
= = Description = =
Yashima was 412 feet ( 125 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a full @-@ load draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 925 m ) . She normally displaced 12 @,@ 230 long tons ( 12 @,@ 430 t ) and had a crew of 650 officers and enlisted men . Unlike her sister ship Fuji , she was fitted as an admiral 's flagship .
The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by ten cylindrical boilers . The engines were rated at 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 25 knots ( 33 @.@ 80 km / h ; 21 @.@ 00 mph ) . Yashima , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 46 knots ( 36 @.@ 04 km / h ; 22 @.@ 39 mph ) from 14 @,@ 075 ihp ( 10 @,@ 496 kW ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Yashima 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of ten 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns , four mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and six mounted on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included fourteen 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns and ten 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns of the same calibre . She was also armed with five 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . Yashima 's waterline armour belt consisted of Harvey armour and was 14 – 18 inches ( 356 – 457 mm ) thick . The armour of her gun turrets was six inches thick and her deck was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick .
In 1901 , the ship exchanged 16 of her 47 mm guns for an equal number of QF 12 pounder 12 cwt guns . This raised the number of crewmen to 652 and later to 741 .
= = Construction and career = =
Yashima , an old name for Japan , was ordered as part of the 1894 Naval Programme and the ship was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at their Elswick shipyard on 6 December 1894 as yard number 625 . The ship was launched on 28 December 1896 and completed on 17 August 1897 , at a total cost of ¥ 10 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . She conducted her sea trials during the following month . Yashima departed the UK on 15 September and arrived at Yokosuka on 30 November .
She was initially assigned to the Standing Fleet , the IJN 's primary combat fleet , but was reduced to reserve on 20 November . The ship was reclassified as a first @-@ class battleship on 21 March 1898 and reassigned to the Standing Fleet . Two years later , Yashima was again placed in reserve where she remained until reactivated on 28 December 1903 and assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet of the Combined Fleet .
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Yashima , commanded by Captain Hajime Sakamoto , participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered only 17 , while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged . Yashima was not hit during the battle .
On 10 March , Yashima and her sister Fuji , under the command of Rear Admiral Nashiba Tokioki , blindly bombarded the harbour of Port Arthur from Pigeon Bay , on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula , at a range of 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . They fired 154 twelve @-@ inch shells , but did little damage . When they tried again on 22 March , they were attacked by Russian coast defence guns that had been transferred there by the new Russian commander , Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov , and also from several Russian ships in Port Arthur using observers overlooking Pigeon Bay . The Japanese ships disengaged after Fuji was hit by a 12 @-@ inch shell .
Yashima participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , he turned back for Port Arthur and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , Makarov one of the 677 killed . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , Nashiba put to sea with the battleships Hatsuse ( flagship ) , Shikishima , and Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . On the following morning , the squadron encountered a minefield laid by the Russian minelayer Amur . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering around 11 : 10 and Yashima struck two others when moving to assist Hatsuse . One blew a hole in her starboard aft boiler room and the other detonated on the starboard forward side of her hull , near the underwater torpedo room . After the second detonation the ship had a 9 ° list to starboard that gradually increased during the day .
Yashima was towed away from the minefield , north towards the Japanese base in the Elliott Islands . She was still taking on water at an uncontrollable rate and Captain Sakamoto ordered the ship anchored around 17 : 00 near Encounter Rock to allow the crew to easily abandon ship . He assembled the crew , which sang the Japanese national anthem , Kimigayo , and then abandoned ship . Kasagi took Yashima in tow , but the battleship 's list continued to increase and she capsized about three hours later , after the cruiser was forced to cast off the tow , roughly at coordinates 38 ° 34 ′ N 121 ° 40 ′ E. No Russians observed Yashima sink so the Japanese were able to conceal her loss for more than a year . As part of the deception , the surviving crewmen were assigned to four auxiliary gunboats that were assigned to guard Port Arthur for the rest of the war and addressed their letters as if they were still aboard the battleship .
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= Conquistador ( Thirty Seconds to Mars song ) =
" Conquistador " is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , featured on their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . Written by lead vocalist Jared Leto , who also produced the song with Steve Lillywhite , " Conquistador " features combative lyrics and call @-@ and @-@ response verses . Described as the " wild child " of the album , it is an alternative rock song with influences and elements from electronica . Thirty Seconds to Mars premiered the song on Vevo on May 2 , 2013 , two weeks before the album 's release .
" Conquistador " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the composition and its raw energy . The song appeared on the UK Rock Chart upon the album 's release at number 24 for a single week , being one of two songs from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams to appear on the chart , the other being " City of Angels " . Thirty Seconds to Mars included the song in the setlist of their Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and the subsequent Carnivores Tour .
= = Background = =
" Conquistador " was written by lead vocalist Jared Leto , who also produced the song with Steve Lillywhite . The latter had previously worked with Thirty Seconds to Mars on the production of the band 's third studio album , This Is War ( 2009 ) . The song was engineered by Jamie Reed Schefman and mixed by Lillywhite . Clay Blair engineered it for mixing at Boulevard Recording in Los Angeles , California . It was recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound and mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering in Los Angeles . Thirty Seconds to Mars unveiled six songs from their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , including " Conquistador " , during a preview held at the Electric Lady Studios in New York City on March 14 , 2013 .
" Conquistador " was officially revealed on March 18 , 2013 , at a press release for the announcement of the band 's fourth album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . In the weeks preceding the album 's release , the band promoted a Twitter hashtag , namely # MARSmay21st , to which , on May 2 , 2013 , it successfully reached the worldwide trending topics on the social platform . As a way of saying thanks to their fans for trending the hashtag , the band released the lyric video for " Conquistador " on Vevo the same day , two weeks before the album 's release . Jared Leto explained that Thirty Seconds to Mars were " very excited " to release the song and to show the " flip side of the coin " to " Up in the Air " , the album 's lead single which had a more electronic @-@ influenced sound .
= = Composition = =
" Conquistador " is an alternative rock song with influences and elements from electronica , utilizing programming and synthesizers . It opens with an electronic buzz followed by the sounds of guitars and drum beats , with a heavy bassline . The song features call @-@ and @-@ response verses leading to an anthemic chorus as Jared Leto voices the line " Say a prayer " . It includes the contribution from the band 's fans , credited as the Knights of the White Shadow , who provide additional vocals recorded at the band 's studio . During the song 's bridge , Leto proclaims " This is a fight to the death " over a " crushing " riff by guitarist Tomo Miličević and " pounding " drums by Shannon Leto . James Montgomery , writing for MTV News , felt that the sentiment " seems oddly fitting " as the song " crashes and careens " around Leto 's vocals .
In an interview with Loudwire , Jared Leto named the song the " dark wild child " of Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . He explained , " Unbridled , and full of anarchistic madness , this song is crushed full of passion and energy . " He further described it as " big and bombastic and full of guitars " . The track features combative lyrics and repeated chants of " We will rise again " . Nadia Noir of CBS News felt that " conquistador " is an " apt title " for the " bombastic blitzkreig @-@ rock tune , an apocalyptic summons to something greater " . Michael Depland of MTV explained that the song 's lyrics suggest " tumult and upheaval " , while critic Emily Zemler from Billboard magazine wrote that its chanting chorus makes the song feel " almost like a war cry " . In a preview of the record , Jeff Benjamin from Fuse felt that the track is " self @-@ detonated with the band 's recognizable alt @-@ rock bombast , complete with soaring violins , " and noted that it " closed with a massive , stadium @-@ filling chorus , delivered in [ Leto 's ] famous screamo vocal . "
= = Reception = =
" Conquistador " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Emily Zemler of Billboard called it " one of the grandest numbers " on the album and an " appropriately compelling early track " . Kaitlyn Hodnicki from Stature magazine described the song as a " sleazy rock stomp " that works " perfectly " with drummer Shannon Leto 's " addictive beat " , with lead guitarist Tomo Miličević delivering " one of his best riffs so far " . She also felt that the grit in Jared Leto 's voice is " surprising " and " works well " with the tone of the track . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic praised it as one of the album 's highlights . Alex Lai from Contactmusic gave the song a positive review , calling it a " thumping anthem " which is " instantly grasped " with the various chanted vocal parts . Brent Faulkner from PopMatters felt that the song " reveals " the total picture of the album , noticing the " dirty guitars that rock from the onset " . He stated that " Leto never fights the production for vocal clarity , even when things grow gargantuan on the anthemic chorus . "
Chris Maguire , writing for AltSounds , was impressed with the song , calling it a " solid rock track " , while Ian Winwood from Kerrang ! found it " rousing " . Adam Silverstein of Digital Spy named it a stand @-@ out track from the album and felt that songs like " Conquistador " " power up the vibe " . James Montgomery from MTV praised its " massive guitars , stabbing strings and thundering drums " . Andy Baber of musicOMH noticed the song 's " big guitar riff " and the " combative lyrics " . PureVolume 's Tom Lanham called it a " marching " that " keeps upping the sonic ante " . In a mixed review , John Watt from Drowned in Sound described the track as a " weird Brit @-@ rock stomp " which " fails to resonate " . Dan Slessor of Alternative Press felt that the song sounded " just too easy " for the typical sound of the band .
= = Live performances = =
" Conquistador " was first performed at special concerts , dubbed as Church of Mars , in May 2013 , shortly before the release of the album . It later became a signature part of the following Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour . The song , along with " Birth " , usually served as a set opener during the entirety of the tour , much like their appearances on Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams as opening tracks . However , it was later moved to the middle of the setlist . Fans and critics responded favorably to the song in a live setting . Ashley Zimmerman from the New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach felt that " everyone got even more amped " as the band performed songs like " Conquistador " , while Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic deemed it a highlight of the show .
Thirty Seconds to Mars performed " Conquistador " at multiple major festivals , including Rock Werchter , Pinkpop , Download , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park , which saw the band playing as headline act . The song was also included in the Carnivores Tour , a tour on which Thirty Seconds to Mars co @-@ headlined with Linkin Park , and usually appeared approximately halfway through the set .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Performed by Thirty Seconds to Mars
Written by Jared Leto
Produced by Steve Lillywhite and Jared Leto
Recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound , Los Angeles , California
Additional vocals by Knights of the White Shadow
Audio engineering by Jamie Reed Schefman
Mixed by Steve Lillywhite
Engineered for Mix by Clay Blair at Boulevard Recording , Los Angeles , California
Mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering , Los Angeles , California
Credits adapted from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Ashley Tisdale =
Ashley Michelle Tisdale ( born July 2 , 1985 ) is an American actress , singer , and producer . During her childhood , she appeared in more than 100 TV advertisements and had roles in theatre and television shows . In 2004 , she was cast as Maddie Fitzpatrick in Disney Channel 's The Suite Life of Zack & Cody , and rose to prominence in 2006 as Sharpay Evans in the television film High School Musical . The High School Musical series included three films and the spin @-@ off Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure ( 2011 ) . Tisdale 's resultant popularity led her to sign a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 2006 . Her debut album , Headstrong ( 2007 ) , was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and features the single " He Said She Said " . Two years later , Tisdale released her second studio album , Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she announced plans to make music again and confirmed that she has been recording her third studio album .
From 2007 until 2015 , Tisdale voiced Candace Flynn in Disney Channel 's three @-@ time Emmy Award @-@ winning animated series Phineas and Ferb . The cartoon quickly became the television 's most @-@ watched animated series among kids and tweens and has received critical acclaim . Her other roles have included Savannah Monroe in The CW 's television drama series Hellcats ( 2010 – 11 ) , Jody Sanders in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) and the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch ( 2013 – 14 ) , for which she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 2014 .
Besides acting and singing , Tisdale has ventured into producing . After forming a production company in 2008 , she began working as the executive producer on films and television series including the ABC Family television film Picture This ( 2008 ) , the unscripted series Miss Advised ( 2013 ) , and the comedy series Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1985 – 2003 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Tisdale was born in Monmouth County , New Jersey , on July 2 , 1985 , to Lisa Morris and contractor Michael Tisdale . Her father is Christian and her mother is Jewish ; she was raised with " a little bit of both " religions . Tisdale 's elder sister Jennifer is an actress and producer . She is also related to businessman Ron Popeil through her maternal grandfather Arnold Morris who was best known for being a pitchman for the Ginsu knife . At the age of three , Tisdale met her manager , Bill Perlman , at a New Jersey mall . He sent her to various auditions for commercials , and she was placed in more than 100 national network TV advertisements as a child . She began her theatrical career by appearing in Gypsy : A Musical Fable and The Sound of Music at Monmouth County 's Jewish Community Center .
Tisdale was eight years old when she was cast to play the part of Cosette in the musical Les Misérables , and only recalled taking a single singing lesson before landing the role . In 2007 , Tisdale told Newsday , " When I was little , I saw the play Les Misérables on Broadway . I thought it was the most amazing thing I have ever seen , so I went to my manager and told him I wanted to be in it " . Tisdale toured for two years with Les Misérables before landing a role in a touring production of Annie in Korea . At the age of 12 , Tisdale sang for President Bill Clinton during an event at the White House . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , after moving to Los Angeles , California with her family , Tisdale had minor roles in television shows including The Hughleys , Smart Guy , 7th Heaven , Boston Public , and Bette , appeared in the feature films A Bug 's Life and Donnie Darko , and worked as a model for Ford Models . For her role as Carol Prader in Boston Public , she received a 2000 Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Guest Performance In a TV drama " .
= = = 2004 – 06 : High School Musical and rise to prominence = = =
The producers of the Disney Channel television series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody cast Tisdale as Maddie Fitzpatrick , a teenage candy @-@ counter girl who works in a fancy hotel , in 2004 . The series premiered in March 2005 and ended in September 2008 . For this role , she won her first award at the Nickelodeon UK Kids ' Choice Awards 2007 for " Best TV Actress " in 2008 .
In 2006 , Tisdale played Sharpay Evans in the Disney Channel Original Movie High School Musical . High School Musical became Disney Channel 's most @-@ watched movie that year , viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million in its US premiere broadcast . The soundtrack , on which Tisdale contributed vocals for several songs , sold more than 3 @.@ 7 million copies in the US and became the top @-@ selling album that year . All of the songs featured on the soundtrack appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Tisdale subsequently became the first female artist to debut with two songs simultaneously on the Hot 100 chart , with What I 've Been Looking For and " Bop to the Top " . High School Musical was nominated for six Primetime Emmy Awards , winning two . To promote the film , Tisdale and the cast embarked on a tour titled High School Musical : The Concert during 2006 and 2007 . After meeting dancer Jared Murillo while working on High School Musical , he and Tisdale dated from 2007 to 2009 .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Studio albums and film career = = =
After the release of High School Musical , Tisdale opted not to sign with Disney 's affiliated record label Hollywood Records like her co @-@ stars . She eventually signed with Warner Bros. Records to a recording contract , and she began work on her debut album Headstrong . In December 2006 , producer J.R. Rotem confirmed he was producing and writing with Tisdale on the album . In contrast to her songs in High School Musical , Tisdale opted to pursue a more mature sound with R & B , dance @-@ pop , and hip hop influences while working on her debut . To promote Headstrong , the song " Be Good to Me " was released to mainstream radio stations in the month preceding the album 's release as its lead single . Headstrong was released in February 2007 and debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 64 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . The second single " He Said She Said " became Tisdale 's most successful single in the US . A documentary about the album 's creation , along with a three @-@ song music video trilogy , was featured on a music DVD titled There 's Something About Ashley , released in November 2007 . Headstrong was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Work on High School Musical 2 began in 2007 , and Tisdale was confirmed to return for the sequel as Sharpay Evans . The film premiered on Disney Channel in August 2007 to 17 million viewers and became the most @-@ watched movie on cable television . She received positive reviews for her performance in the film , which earned two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations . The soundtrack , featuring Tisdale , debuted at number one on the Billboard chart with sales of 615 @,@ 000 copies , making it the fourth biggest week 's sales for a soundtrack album as of 2014 .
Disney Channel picked up the animated series Phineas and Ferb in 2006 ; Tisdale was cast as the voice of Candace Flynn , a main character whose primary motivation is getting her brothers in trouble . The series ' first episode was broadcast immediately after the premiere of High School Musical 2 to 10 million viewers and became the most @-@ watched animated series among kids and tweens in 2010 . Phineas and Ferb has also received acclaim by critics and has won three Primetime Emmy Awards .
In 2008 , Tisdale formed her own production company , Blondie Girl Productions . The television film Picture This marked Tisdale 's debut as an executive producer and as an actress in a leading role ; she played Mandy Gilbert , an unpopular and bullied teenager . The film premiered on ABC Family in 2008 to 4 @.@ 3 million viewers .
Tisdale reprised her role as Sharpay Evans in High School Musical 3 : Senior Year , which premiered in October 2008 . It earned $ 42 million in its domestic opening weekend , and grossed a total of $ 255 million worldwide . Her performance in the film earned her critical acclaim , earning an MTV Movie Award for " Breakthrough Performance Female " in 2009 . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled her one of film 's breakout stars , and Mark Kermode said Tisdale was 2008 's " best supporting actress " .
Tisdale began work on her second studio album Guilty Pleasure soon after she finished promoting High School Musical 3 : Senior Year . She said she had been involved in every aspect of the production of the album , from its " guitar @-@ driven " sound to much of the writing process . " It 's Alright , It 's OK " was the song chosen to precede the album as its lead single ; it was released to mainstream radio and digital retailers in April 2009 . Guilty Pleasure was eventually released in June 2009 . Described by Tisdale as a " rocker and edgier " album , it debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , selling 25 @,@ 000 copies in the first week ; this was significantly lower than the first @-@ week sales for her previous album .
Tisdale starred in the 2009 20th Century Fox family film Aliens in the Attic as teenager Bethany Pearson . Although she is credited as one of the main characters , The New York Times said Tisdale " spends much of the film off screen " . The film was a minor success in box offices , grossing $ 60 million worldwide . From 2009 to 2011 , she was in a relationship with director Scott Speer , who directed five of her music videos .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Return to broadcast television and producing = = =
Tisdale 's return to broadcast television was announced in 2010 . She starred in The CW drama series Hellcats as Savannah Monroe , the captain of a cheerleading team . The series based its script on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick ; it was described by critics as " Election meets Bring It On " . TV Guide reported Tisdale was the best @-@ paid cast member of the series , earning $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . Hellcats ran for one season before being cancelled by The CW in 2011 .
She performed voice roles in animated series during 2010 , including The Cleveland Show , Family Guy , and Glenn Martin , DDS . In 2012 , she made a guest appearance in an episode of Raising Hope and had a starring role in a CBS pilot produced by Louis C.K. , which was not picked up by the channel . Tisdale also portrayed a desirable and high @-@ priced escort in a two @-@ episode arc in the fifth season of FX 's Sons of Anarchy . In 2010 , Disney Channel announced its intention to produce a High School Musical spin @-@ off focusing on the life of Sharpay Evans in New York after she concluded high school . Tisdale was confirmed to return as Evans for the spin @-@ off and serve as the executive producer of the project . Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure premiered on Disney Channel to 5 million viewers in August 2011 .
Tisdale and her production company Blondie Girl Productions signed a multiyear production deal with Relativity Media in 2010 to create , develop , and produce films and television series . Miss Advised was the first project on which Tisdale served as the executive producer without also performing in a starring role . A reality show that followed three single relationship experts , it debuted on Bravo in the United States and aired for one season in 2012 .
= = = 2013 – present : Return to television and marriage = = =
In 2013 , E ! aired a television special produced by Tisdale named Inner Circle that focused on her friendship with actress Vanessa Hudgens . The next year , Tisdale teamed again with Disney Channel on the film Cloud 9 , on which she worked as an executive producer . ABC Family 's comedy series Young & Hungry is also produced by Tisdale ; it stars Emily Osment and premiered in June 2014 . Future projects Tisdale and her production company have been working on include three series intended for internet release .
In June 2012 , The Weinstein Company announced that Tisdale had been given the leading role in Dimension Films ' Scary Movie 5 . Starring alongside Lindsay Lohan and Charlie Sheen , she portrayed Jody , a dancer in her late @-@ 20s . The film was released in April 2013 , and grossed $ 15 million on its first weekend , making it the lowest @-@ grossing weekend for a Scary Movie film ; it was also panned by critics . Tisdale had a recurring role in ABC 's sitcom Super Fun Night as Jazmine , the sister of Rebel Wilson 's character , and guest starred on CBS 's The Crazy Ones in 2013 . That same year , Tisdale was cast to voice the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch . For her performance as Sabrina , Tisdale was nominated for " Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program " in the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards . In December 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter announced Tisdale was cast to star as a prostitute in the comedy Amateur Night alongside Jason Biggs . In 2014 , Tisdale auditioned for TBS 's workplace comedy series Clipped , on which she was eventually cast in a main role as Danni . The series ran from June to August 2015 , and was canceled in October after one season .
Four years after the release of her second studio album Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , Tisdale told MTV that she had been recording her third studio album . She said she was inspired to make music again and that she hoped to " surprise people a little bit , something different from what I 've done before " . Tisdale announced to MTV that she opted to pursue a dance @-@ pop sound on the album , which was expected to be released in 2014 . In December 2013 , Tisdale teased on her Twitter account about a " special project " related to music . She confirmed that the project was a single titled " You 're Always Here " , which was written about her late grandfather . The song was eventually released independently to digital stores that same month .
Tisdale began dating Christopher French , the lead singer of the band Annie Automatic , in December 2012 . They became engaged in August 2013 and married on September 8 , 2014 in a small private ceremony held in Santa Barbara , California .
Tisdale confirmed in a 2016 interview that she will not be returning to the High School Musical franchise for its fourth installment .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Acting = = =
Tisdale said that she brings something different with every character she portrays in order to make them her own . After the completion of the High School Musical series in 2008 , Tisdale was at first reluctant on accepting older roles because she felt " you can never go backward " . She eventually began to accept more mature roles in 2012 . Her first adult roles were Emma Jean , a high @-@ priced escort in the drama series Sons of Anarchy ( 2012 ) , and Jody Sanders , a mother of three children in the feature film Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) . Tisdale commented after Scary Movie 5 that the role had taken her out of her comfort zone , and that she planned to continue to challenge herself in the future . While discussing her portrayal of Logan Rawlings , a lesbian , on Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) , she said she likes " to play different characters and push the envelope out of [ her ] own comfort level " , but confessed she had been nervous about the idea of playing a lesbian .
Her acting performances have been met with praise by critics and film producers . She was named a " scene stealer " in High School Musical 2 ( 2007 ) by Laura Fries of Variety . Jennifer Frey of The Washington Post says that Tisdale dominated the film despite not being the lead character , while Andy Webster of The New York Times praised her acting style , mainly because of her " elastic face [ that ] lends itself to numerous reaction shots " . John Schultz , who directed the film Aliens in the Attic ( 2009 ) in which Tisdale starred , says she is a " big comedic actress " and has a " gift " for comedy . The creator of the television series Hellcats ( 2010 ) , Kevin Murphy , praised her acting skills and said Tisdale " can hold multiple colors in the same palette . " Her performance in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) , however , received negative reviews . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter panned the film as whole and said Tisdale was not funny enough. and Rafer Guzman of Newsday added she did not have " comic timing " in the film .
= = = Musical style = = =
Tisdale 's music , which is predominantly considered pop , has included ballads , dance @-@ pop , hip hop , and rock influences . Boys , heartbreak , and relationship breakups are common themes in Tisdale 's songs . She defined her music career as a way to connect herself with the fans and to inspire them . She claimed that , while Headstrong ( 2007 ) allowed her to " learn [ herself ] as an artist " , with her second album , Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , she knew exactly what she wanted to do as an artist .
She often co @-@ writes the songs she records ; for her debut album Headstrong , she had writing credits in four songs , while she co @-@ wrote five tracks for her album Guilty Pleasure . The songs in which she has songwritting credits are often personal . In 2009 , while discussing the songs she co @-@ wrote for her second studio album , Tisdale said that " a lot of the songs on the album [ were ] about survival and staying strong " and that she wanted those songs to be " a statement and a reflection of what [ she went ] through over the past year and how [ she has ] grown up . " She named the song " What If " as the most personal song she co @-@ wrote for Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she discussed the death of her grandfather in the song " You 're Always Here " , which she wrote with her husband French .
Her music has received mixed reactions by critics . Her debut album Headstrong was compared to the first works of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera by Billboard . Heather Phares of AllMusic defined Tisdale 's voice as " pleasant enough " but not " distinctive " while reviewing her debut album Headstrong and added she had " more character singing " as her role in the High School Musical series . Phares later praised Tisdale 's voice by saying her " chirpy , slightly saccharine voice is perfect " . Her second studio album Guiilty Pleasure , released in 2009 , achieved a 48 % rating on Metacritic , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " . Keri Masson of Billboard stated that Tisdale " can deliver the radio @-@ ready goods " with her 2009 album Guilty Pleasure , but criticized the album as a whole ; he believed the album " doesn 't give the singer room to comfortably let loose " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , also of AllMusic , said she is not " convincing " on Guilty Pleasure , but praised the overall quality of the songs on the album . Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times gave the album a negative review ; she said the album has " few glimmers of hope " and went on to criticize the producers as " not seem [ ing ] to have gifted Tisdale with their best work " . Despite the mixed reception by critics , the album was well received by fans ; it achieved a user score of 6 @.@ 5 on Metacritic , which means " generally favorable reviews " , and was also named the seventh best album of the decade by Billboard readers in 2009 .
= = = Influences = = =
Tisdale has named many influences on her musical career , including Christina Aguilera , Michael Jackson , Lady Gaga , Pat Benatar , Pink , Katy Perry , Kelly Clarkson , Led Zeppelin , and AC / DC . Tisdale said that " almost anything " inspires her , but she is mainly inspired by female pop singers .
Her main acting influences are Jake Gyllenhaal , Johnny Depp , Robin Williams and Rebel Wilson . Tisdale claims that she would like to emulate Shia LaBeouf 's career because " he did it so well " and that she is inspired by Wilson 's ability to work simultaneously as a writer , producer and actress in ABC 's Super Fun Night .
= = Public image = =
Tisdale is considered a sex symbol , ranking on Maxim 's Hot 100 list of sexiest women and hottest celebrities in the 2008 list ( at number 10 ) , in 2013 ( at number seven ) , and in 2014 ( at number 33 ) . She appeared on the cover of Maxim 's May 2013 issue and was in the 2011 annual " nude issue " for Allure in May of that year . She told Allure that " being in this shoot was me saying , ' I 'm not just the young girl everybody thinks I am . I 'm actually a woman . ' "
Tisdale has become a popular and active figure in social media ; she is one of the most @-@ followed musicians on Twitter , with more than 12 million followers , and she has more than 22 million Likes on Facebook . Her popularity on social media led her to appear for three weeks on Billboard 's Social 50 chart , peaking at number 18 , and to win the award for " Social Media Superstar " at the Young Hollywood Awards in 2014 . She was also named the 45th most influential woman on Twitter by The Huffington Post in 2015 .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Tisdale has supported various charitable organizations and causes during her career . She collaborated with the Make a Wish Foundation in 2008 by visiting sick children in hospitals and helping to raise funds for the organization . Tisdale is also a supporter of Habitat for Humanity , a charity devoted to building homes for people in need . She was scheduled to perform on Idol Gives Back 2008 , along with her High School Musical co @-@ star Vanessa Hudgens . However , they were unable to appear due to their High School Musical 3 : Senior Year filming schedule ; they recorded a video from the film 's set to support the cause instead . She contributed to the A Very Special Christmas 7 album with her rendition of Wham ! ' s " Last Christmas " ; proceeds from sales benefited the Special Olympics . Tisdale was a phone operator during Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief , a charity telethon held on January 2010 to raise funds for seven non @-@ profit organizations that carried out relief work in Haiti following the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
Tisdale volunteered for the " Get on the Bus " charity campaign in 2011 , which was hosted by the television series Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . She helped to build a house for a family and later performed some of her songs to raise funds . In 2012 , she became the face of Project Pink , a campaign launched by Puma SE to raise money for the research of breast cancer treatments . As part of the campaign , she visited Los Angeles ' BEST After School Enrichment Program at Pacoima Charter School in California and presented each child that attended with shoes , clothes , and gift cards . In 2013 , Tisdale recorded her song titled " You 're Always Here " and later released it to digital stores as a charity single . During an interview with On Air with Ryan Seacrest , she confirmed that 30 percent of the proceeds of the song would go to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
= = = Business endorsements = = =
In 2007 , Tisdale appeared in promotional campaigns for Staples , T @-@ Mobile , Toys " R " Us , and the Eckō Red clothing brand ; the latter included a mall tour in the US , featuring performances in fashion shows . In 2008 , she was the face of Degree Girl in the US ; to promote the deodorant , she shot several commercials and covered five hit singles from the 1980s , including Cyndi Lauper 's " Time After Time " . That year , Tisdale was paid $ 5 @.@ 5 million for her work in films , television , and endorsement deals , leading her to being named number 17 in the Forbes ' High Earners Under 30 list , number 94 on the Forbes 2008 Celebrity 100 list , and number six on the Forbes ' Hollywood 's 10 Top @-@ Paid Tweens list , a chart that listed actors whose work is directed to the 8 @-@ to @-@ 14 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . In 2011 , Tisdale joined the Got Milk ? campaign . She was the face of Ocean Pacific in 2012 , along with actress Sarah Hyland , in which they were required to pose for numerous shots wearing a variety of colorful bikinis . In 2014 , she promoted the U.S. launch of Lindt HELLO chocolates by producing an episode of the online series It Started with HELLO . In September 2015 , Tisdale was named creative director of Signorelli . She will be overseeing the creation of their spring 2017 sportswear line .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Headstrong ( 2007 )
Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
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