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= Iris ( TV series ) =
Iris ( Hangul : 아이리스 ) is a 2009 South Korean espionage television drama series , starring Lee Byung @-@ hun , Kim Tae @-@ hee , Jung Joon @-@ ho , Kim Seung @-@ woo , Kim So @-@ yeon and T.O.P ( Choi Seung @-@ hyun ) of Big Bang . It aired on KBS2 from October 14 to December 17 , 2009 , on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21 : 55 for 20 episodes .
With a budget in excess of 20 billion won ( 17 million USD ) , it , along with its spin @-@ off Athena : Goddess of War , share the record for the most expensive Korean dramas ever produced . The series was a critical and commercial success , with an average viewership of over 30 % in addition to ranking as the top program consistently every week after its debut . The series also took home many of the highest honors at the 2009 KBS Drama Awards , including Lee Byung @-@ hun winning the top recognition , the Daesang Award . Among other nominations and recognitions , Lee and Kim Tae @-@ hee were also named as one of the best on @-@ screen couples .
The plot revolves around two brothers from the 707th Special Mission Battalion recruited into a secret South Korean black ops agency known as the National Security Service . Of the pair , recruit Kim Hyun @-@ jun begins to uncover evidence that his foggy past may not be so irrelevant to his joining of the secret organization after all . As the two friends find their loyalties tested and forge new , unlikely alliances , the journey takes them from their home country to Hungary , Japan , and China where they find themselves at the center of an international conspiracy .
The success of the series has led to a feature film , a 2010 spin @-@ off , and a sequel series in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Brothers Kim Hyun @-@ jun ( Lee Byung @-@ hun ) and Jin Sa @-@ woo ( Jung Joon @-@ ho ) , were training under the South Korean army 's 707th Special Mission Battalion until they were scouted by NSS ( National Security Service ) . The duo was independently scouted by the beautiful NSS agent , Choi Seung @-@ hee ( Kim Tae @-@ hee ) ; the two didn 't realize they have fallen for the same woman and continued to win her love . Unaware they have been scouted , the two were secretly captured and subjected through a simulated torture test and the duo passed their test to be worthy NSS agents .
After completing the test , Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo were introduced to the director of the NSS , Baek San ( Kim Yeong @-@ cheol ) . Baek San explained to them that the NSS is a secret organization tasked with preempting foreign threats and protecting the country 's interests through wetwork operations , including assassination of anyone who could be a threat to South Korean ( SK ) national security . Since its founding in 1976 , during the rule of Park Chung @-@ hee , the agency 's very existence has remained a state secret from everyone , including the President .
After entering NSS , the pair learned that Seung @-@ hee was their undercover scout agent . While the duo was surprised and somewhat hurt , Hyun @-@ jun was angered the most as he felt his heart was toyed with ; during a team celebration dinner , Hyun @-@ jun confronted her alone and the two embraced the passion they have for one another . Afterwards , the two maintained a secret romantic relationship without the knowledge of anyone .
Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee took the opportunity to secretly fly off to Akita @-@ Japan for a romantic winter escape after saving the life of SK President Cho Myung @-@ ho ( Lee Jung @-@ gil ) ; Baek San seized opportunity to reveal NSS to the president to gain his support . While vacationing , the couple befriended a young teen , Yuki ( who was smitten with Hyun @-@ jun at first sight ) . However , their vacation was cut short after being recalled back by NSS for a life @-@ changing mission at Budapest : recovering the head NK nuclear scientist , Hong Seung @-@ ryong .
At Budapest , Sa @-@ woo catches up with Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee to extract Hong Seung @-@ ryong back to SK ; Sa @-@ woo learned of their romantic relationship and pretended to be happy for them . Unfortunately , Hong Seung @-@ ryong was killed along with his handlers by IRIS Agent , Vic . Afterwards , Baek San ( who is secretly an IRIS agent ) tricked Hyun @-@ jun by having him assassinate North Korean Minister Yoon .
Hyun @-@ jun successfully killed NK Minister Yoon and was on the run . NK agents , Seon @-@ hwa and Cheol @-@ young , hunted for Hyun @-@ jun as he escaped . Wounded , Hyun @-@ jun escaped capture and tried to get help , but Baek San betrayed him by manipulating Sa @-@ woo to silence him ; he escaped capture and after reunited with Seung @-@ hee . The couple agreed to run away together , but both thought each other had been killed by the enemy ( Seung @-@ hee by car bomb and Hyun @-@ jun by crashed plane ) . Because of their failure to capture Hyun @-@ jun , NK agent , Seon @-@ hwa , was stripped of her title and jailed .
Both Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee survived their ordeal . Hyun @-@ jun was rescued by Jeong @-@ hoon ( a friend of Hyun @-@ jun 's deceased parents and revealed Baek San murdered them ) . Seung @-@ hee refused to accept Hyun @-@ jun 's death , but Sa @-@ woo convinced her he is dead . Jeong @-@ hoon warned Hyun @-@ jun of a war profiteering organization known as IRIS , a force that had long existed to create political turmoil to profit from a country 's strife and his counter @-@ agency that opposes them . Not willing to help a stranger , he escaped to Akita @-@ Japan to investigate .
NK intelligence later found out Hyun @-@ jun lives and gave Seon @-@ hwa a final chance to kill Hyun @-@ jun for redemption . Seon @-@ hwa failed and was captured by Hyun @-@ jun ; he gave mercy and even offered his life to her after he completes his quest for vengeance . Seon @-@ hwa believed him and eventually integrated herself with Yuki 's family as well . Over time , Seon @-@ hwa falls in love with him . The two eventually make their way back to Korea after an unfortunate scuffle with Vic that lead to Yuki and her family 's death . Hyun @-@ jun defects and cooperates with a NK black @-@ ops team to get his revenge on Baek San .
Not long , Baek San and Sa @-@ woo ( manipulated into working for IRIS ) found Jeong @-@ hoon . They used NSS resources to track him down . Before Jeong @-@ hoon died , he activated a video feed to record his final moments for Hyun @-@ jun ( via cell phone video ) to see . The video was meant to be part evidence and also a clue for Hyun @-@ jun to continue his mission ; the clue led him to meet President Cho Myung @-@ ho once again . In a private meeting , Hyun @-@ jun finally had a chance to explain his side of the story and that he is now a double @-@ agent between both sides to stop a nuclear plot ( by IRIS ) from happening .
Around the same time , Cheol @-@ young , discovered his own commanding officer , Gi @-@ hoon , is part of a coup with IRIS to start a civil war and take control both sides of Korea under their unified control . Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa teams up with the very black @-@ ops team that 's in charge of nuking South Korea . Because he 's not trusted , Hyun @-@ jun helped the team infiltrate and attack NSS HQ to steal special equipment to complete building their nuke . However , their actions wasn 't enough to earn the team 's trust as they had their own agendas and the team went ahead with their plans without Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa .
It was between this time that Hyun @-@ jun finally reunited with Seung @-@ hee and learned what really happened at Budapest , including Sa @-@ woo 's actions . It was also the first time she learned about IRIS , however , there wasn 't enough time to explain things as NSS agents are after them . Seung @-@ hee confronts Sa @-@ woo with the truth and told him she 'll never forgive his actions against Hyun @-@ jun .
Impatient of allowing IRIS to act any further through NSS , President Cho Myung @-@ ho had Head of National Security , Yoo Kwang @-@ ho , execute a hostile takeover on NSS ; both Sa @-@ woo and Baek San were arrested for conspiracy . Later , on the president 's official announcement of reunification , Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa searched for the hidden nuke . During this time , Cheol @-@ young successfully rooted out IRIS agents within North Korean ranks ; through arrested confessions , he reported to the duo that IRIS had targeted the Federal Building Complex , the U.S. Embassy , and the Blue House . While searching throughout Seoul , Hyun @-@ jun realized the notes they found earlier corresponded to a particular bus route and figured out the nuke was within a moving tour bus . However , their former NK black @-@ ops teammates tried to stop them in a massive gunfight to lead to their deaths ; Hyun @-@ jun saved the day . With the nuke neutralized and all enemy forces killed , the SK president thanked Hyun @-@ jun in his efforts and earned his complete faith .
Peace had finally come and Hyun @-@ jun took time off . Afterwards , Hyun @-@ jun took the time to bid farewell to Seon @-@ hwa . Even though Hyun @-@ jun got presidential permission to allow Seon @-@ hwa live in SK ; due to her unrequited love for Hyun @-@ jun , she declined and returned to NK . Seon @-@ hwa wanted to retire from being an agent ; she would quickly return to SK with the Cheol @-@ young when she realized Seung @-@ hee 's profile was within a discovered IRIS personnel database and wanted to warn Hyun @-@ jun of the potential danger .
Meanwhile , Hyun @-@ jun went to Jeju Island to vacation with Seung @-@ hee , but inexplicably left without notice . Hyun @-@ jun couldn 't find her as he was called back to Seoul due to the IRIS jailbreak with Sa @-@ woo and Baek San . She would later confess that she met with Baek San as he tried to recruit her into IRIS . She explained that Baek San helped raise her like a daughter and she didn 't want to talk about it due to personal conflicts within herself ; Hyun @-@ jun sympathized and forgave her .
In the hunt for Baek San , Hyun @-@ jun found and killed Vic ; he avenged Yuki 's death . Clues left behind suggests that IRIS had hidden themselves within private golf club house ; Hyun @-@ jun infiltrated and attacked the golf club house with an NSS team to arrest Baek San and Sa @-@ woo , but Sa @-@ woo escaped . When Hyun @-@ jun and Baek San finally meet , Hyun @-@ jun demanded Baek San to ask for forgiveness , but Baek San couldn 't help laugh at the matter . Hyun @-@ jun was tempted to kill Baek San , but Hyun @-@ jun had him arrested .
Later , Sa @-@ woo and IRIS agents attacked a local mall for hostages to blackmail both sides of the Korean government to release their IRIS agents and to make SK 's president announce their political stand to not unite with NK . Hyun @-@ jun became the negotiator for the president and for the hostages ' release , but he was really there to appeal to Sa @-@ woo 's conscience . Because the IRIS agents had conflicting commands with Sa @-@ woo , Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo were forced to team up again and kill all the IRIS agents . During the gun @-@ fight , Sa @-@ woo was mortally wounded . Dying before his friends , he apologized and was forgiven before he died . With all things hindering the reunification process gone , the peace talks resumed .
At the reunification summit , the president personally requested Hyun @-@ jun to be at his side . Concurrently , NSS agents realized they 've been duped : the presumed dead IRIS agents at the mall crisis was actually the hostages . The true IRIS agents escaped and infiltrated the summit to kill all delegates . IRIS agents killed and replaced various security agents for a massacre . Unfortunately , it failed with Seung @-@ hee 's interference . She pretended to be an IRIS agent and used the confusion to stop them . This created mass panic as IRIS agents make their stand against all security forces . Ultimately , the SK president and NK forces survived the assault and Hyun @-@ jun saved the day again .
In the aftermath , Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee left NSS for a normal life . While Seung @-@ hee waited at a lighthouse for Hyun @-@ jun , he was driving up to meet her and propose . However , during the drive , Hyun @-@ jun was sniped in the head by IRIS Agent Ray ( from IRIS II ) . Afterwards , Hyun @-@ jun ’ s life and death were later classified , Baek San was sent to a “ black prison , ” and IRIS receded for three years until they regained their strength to take on the world once again .
= = Cast = =
Iris featured an ensemble cast split between characters of North Korean and South Korean descent . Because the series explores the tension and mentality behind the two sides of the conflict , both the North and South perspectives are shown at length . The plot focuses on the cast overcoming the manipulation they face at an international level and occasionally attempting to reconcile their differences to fight an evil greater than either side ever acknowledged , making way for scenarios in which their allegiances are stressed and put to the test .
Lee Byung @-@ hun as Kim Hyun @-@ jun
A soldier with the South Korean Special Forces , Hyun @-@ jun has floated through life with little attention for the details . Possessing a photographic memory , top athletic ability , and proficiency with most firearms , he has little difficulty distinguishing himself as a member of the NSS . Assuming the codename " TK1 " during operations , he is frequently paired with his brother and colleague Jin Sa @-@ woo .
Kim Tae @-@ hee as Choi Seung @-@ hee
Ranked as a " Team Leader " within the NSS , Seung @-@ hee is an expert profiler that assisted the second @-@ in @-@ command , Park Sang @-@ hyun , with recruiting Kim Hyun @-@ jun and , more directly , Jin Sa @-@ woo . Admired for her beauty and perspicacity , Seung @-@ hee is universally liked within the organization and remains very close with fellow NSS member Yang Jung @-@ in .
Jung Joon @-@ ho as Jin Sa @-@ woo
A friend that has grown up alongside Hyun @-@ jun , Sa @-@ woo is the more level @-@ headed and responsible of the two . While members of the Special Forces , they often found themselves in fierce competitions , and after joining the NSS , find themselves competing for the affection of Choi Seung @-@ hee . In accordance with Hyun @-@ jun 's codename , he becomes known as " TK2 " .
Kim Seung @-@ woo as Park Cheol @-@ young
A seasoned and steadfast supporter of the WPK , Park Cheol @-@ young is the head of the North Korean security team responsible for escorting and protecting heads of state on diplomatic missions . He first encounters Kim Hyun @-@ jun as they are caught in a political impasse in Hungary — one that leaves Park and his entire team at the mercy of their superiors should they not resolve the situation quickly in their favor .
Kim So @-@ yeon as Kim Seon @-@ hwa
Despite being one of very few females to achieve her status , Kim Seon @-@ hwa has gained the trust and acknowledgment of her colleagues in the North Korean security forces . As a subordinate of Park Cheol @-@ young and a ranking officer in his security outfit , she has great admiration for her superior and harbors deep resentment for the South .
T.O.P. as Vick
A mysterious assassin working for an even more mysterious organization , Vick answers to a man known only as " Mr. Black . " Though of apparent Korean descent , his actual origins are unknown and he communicates fluently in both English and Korean . Often , he is responsible for eliminating political targets and retrieving , as well as destroying , sensitive information at the behest of his superiors .
= = = Supporting cast = = =
= = = = National Security Service ( NSS ) = = = =
The NSS is headed by Baek San ( Kim Yeong @-@ cheol ) , its standing deputy director only in title and the man responsible for the recruiting of Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo . The named director of the NSS comes and goes with each change of power in the presidency , but it is the deputy director that oversees the organization . Baek San 's motivations for many of his actions are mysterious , occasionally outright inconsistent with that of the general national interests . Due to the very existence of the organization being kept secret , he enjoys a state of personal protection that few others do .
While Baek San oversees the organization , the acting chief director , Park Sang @-@ hyun ( Yoon Je @-@ moon ) , is the general supervisor and runs the daily operations of the NSS . He fabricated the understanding but also intransigent where failures are concerned , often personally dealing with each and every agent . For field assignments , he watches over and commands all missions set domestically .
Many of the NSS agents have close personal ties to one another , and the floor supervisor and head of security resources , Yang Jung @-@ in ( Kim Hye @-@ jin ) , is no exception . She is often viewed as a dependable and accommodating authority figure and remains a very close friend to colleague Choi Seung @-@ hee .
Being the South 's first line of defense against foreign threats , the NSS houses technology unavailable to their sister intelligence agencies . The two primary tech agents , Yang Mi @-@ jung ( Juni ) and Hwang Tae @-@ sung ( Na Yoon ) , are often responsible for ensuring field agents have all that is required to see their missions through . Mi @-@ jung does not meet the expected conventions of someone involved in national intelligence . Given that her sense of fashion and general interests are more contemporary than that of her associates , she often stands out from the others , but her status as the top hacker in Korea has made her irreplaceable . Still , Tae @-@ sung remains the more perdurable of the two and is often instrumental in the success of a number of operations .
The forensics and scientific investigations section is headed by Oh Hyun @-@ ku ( Yoon Joo @-@ sang ) , an eccentric that is the eldest of the general staff . He often exhibits a fatherly relationship with many of the agents , including Mi @-@ jung and Seung @-@ hee .
= = = = The Blue House = = = =
Due to the overarching plot of the series involving the disputes inherent to the Korean Peninsula and the intricacies of the foreign relations between the North and South , the Blue House and its primary staff are featured prominently throughout . The candidate that wins the election and assumes office is eventual President of South Korea Cho Myung @-@ ho ( Lee Jung @-@ gil ) . His administration begins with his undertaking the grand task of forwarding talks of reunification between the North and South after witnessing the grim reality that is the struggle between the two nations . With strong ambitions , he leads diplomatic outreaches with the North that no one expected of a candidate so early in his term .
President Cho 's chief advisor and head of his cabinet is Jung Jyun @-@ jun ( Jung Han @-@ yong ) , and is one of the few around him that the president feels he can trust with any information , no matter how sensitive it may be . Later in the series , he becomes the only reliable lifeline the president has against the influence of sabotage originating inside and outside the Blue House .
The secretary to the president , Hong Soo @-@ jin ( Myung Ji @-@ yun ) , tends to find herself at odds with the head of the his chief advisor . She rarely speaks her mind freely and appears to have allegiances beyond those that are already apparent .
= = = = Others = = = =
Given the wide range of countries the characters find themselves in throughout the story , a number of recurring characters arise from countries outside of Korea .
Early in the series , Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee encounter a young Japanese schoolgirl while in Akita by the name of Yuki ( Karen Miyama ) . Her family operates one of the tourist traps nearby , and she exhibits affection for Hyun @-@ jun and attempts to find herself in his company as much as possible . Later , it is Hyun @-@ jun that needs her , as Yuki and her family help him when he needs them most .
When Hyun @-@ jun finds himself tangled in a political web while in Japan , he crosses paths with Eriko Sato ( Yoo Min ) . A Japanese woman with the country 's national intelligence agency , Sato is charged with investigating foreign threats that find themselves on Japanese soil .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Based on the general concept of the 1999 film Shiri , Iris was first revealed in 2008 by its production company Taewon Entertainment and attracted wide attention due to its record budget and star power . Kang Je @-@ gyu , the director of Shiri , was involved with initially developing the project for television , which would later be directed by Kim Kyu @-@ tae and Yang Yun @-@ ho .
Written by Kim Hyun @-@ jun , Jo Gyu @-@ won , and Kim Jae @-@ un , the series began pre @-@ production without the backing of a Korean broadcaster in an attempt to spark a bidding war amongst potential suitors .
On April 18 , 2008 , it was announced that Lee Byung @-@ hun had been cast in the lead role . It was to be Lee 's first television role since 2003 after a five @-@ year hiatus to focus on film roles , including the 2009 film G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra , which had been filming at the time of the announcement . Lee 's salary was the third highest in the history of Korean television dramas , amounting to ₩ 100 million ( $ 90 @,@ 000 USD ) per episode and was six times greater than that of the Korean industry guideline . His salary was inclusive of an overhead deal of ₩ 1 @.@ 5 billion won ( $ 1 @.@ 35 million USD ) in guarantees due to his namesake drawing potential investors , particularly in Japan , and opportunities in other overseas markets .
The production company announced on June 24 that Big Bang member T.O.P would be starring alongside Lee as an assassin and the recurring antagonist of the series . It was announced on October 10 that Kim Tae @-@ hee , known for her roles in Forbidden Love and Stairway to Heaven , had been cast as the female lead in the series . Like Lee , she had not worked in television for several years and had been working in film prior to accepting the role .
Pre @-@ production continued on Iris as it drew increasing attention not only in Korea but also in Japan due to Lee 's involvement . Kim Seung @-@ woo and Jung Joon @-@ ho were also cast as the head of the North Korean security team and Kim Hyun @-@ jun 's lifelong friend , respectively .
The large budget and notable talent for the project made it difficult for the production company to secure directors willing to take on the series , causing 2009 to begin with a brief stir of media attention . Shortly thereafter , Taewon announced that the search was over and Kim Kyu @-@ tae and Yang Yun @-@ ho would be helming the series . Simultaneously , KBS was announced as the South Korean broadcaster . Later in the month , on February 19 , Kim So @-@ yeon was cast as a North Korean agent .
= = = Filming and promotion = = =
The first filmed scenes of Iris were shot in Akita , Japan on March 10 , 2009 . Lee Byung @-@ hun 's popularity in Japan caused the series and its production to gain immediate notability in the country . Lee 's filming was often shadowed by fans , beginning with thousands greeting him at Akita Airport upon his arrival . Due to several pivotal moments of the series being filmed in the prefecture , Akita soon experienced a surge of Korean tourists going on tours tailored to followers of the show . The crew went on to shoot in Japan for three weeks and left the country on March 28 .
With its unprecedented budget , Iris was able to pioneer several firsts for Korean television dramas , particularly with its large scale action sequences . Throughout filming , the actors were often responsible for filming their own stunts and action sequences , including Lee Byung @-@ hun jumping from the 130 meter @-@ tall Tamagawa Dam in Semboku , Akita . To prepare for the demanding physical requirements of the series , several members of the primary cast , including Kim Tae @-@ hee , underwent special training to lend authenticity to the action . During a break in filming , Lee Byung @-@ hun appeared at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival in support of the production in May . A press conference was also held later in the month with the entire finalized cast of the series .
The following international shoot commence on June 9 in Hungary . Shot in and around Budapest and other locales , the filming lasted for one month before the cast and crew returned to Korea . In late July , it was announced that Iris would air on Wednesdays and Thursdays on KBS2 , for premiere on October 14 . Filming continued throughout the year and , on October 5 , a production press conference was held for the Korean and world media just over a week prior to the series premiere .
Filming continue after the premiere of the series . On November 29 , 2009 , the filming crew took over a section of Sejong @-@ ro at Gwanghwamun Plaza , Seoul for twelve hours to film lengthy gunfight scenes . The five lanes along the plaza in front of the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts were closed to traffic for filming from 07 : 00 to 19 : 00 . This marks the first time the Seoul Metropolitan Government has granted permission to blocked traffic along the Plaza for filming and it is part of Government 's plans to promote the city 's major tourist attractions .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Iris premiered on October 14 , 2009 to strong ratings and went on to become one of the most critically and commercially successful series of the year , earning numerous awards for its actors and production .
The series ended its initial run on December 17 , 2009 . KBS announced that an Iris special would be aired the following week , on December 22 . The special contained extensive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the filming in Hungary , Japan , and Korea , along with numerous interviews with the cast and crew .
On January 28 , 2010 , it was reported that the distribution rights for the Japanese market were purchased by TBS for a record 400 million yen ( $ 4 @.@ 2 million USD ) . The station began airing the Japanese @-@ dubbed version during primetime — a first for a South Korean @-@ produced drama series in the country — on April 21 , 2010 with numerous acting talents providing the voiceovers , including Tatsuya Fujiwara as Kim Hyun @-@ jun . The two @-@ hour premiere drew TBS 's highest ratings for the day and doubled the station 's usual average for the timeslot . The airing had been preceded by a promotional blitz with stars Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee appearing on numerous Japanese programs , in addition to billboards and posters being placed throughout Tokyo .
Publicity for Iris in Japan was strong from its premiere and beyond . In late May 2010 , a set of two concert events billed as dramatic live stage shows drew sold @-@ out crowds that amounted to over 60 @,@ 000 attendees . The concerts were a combination of live interviews with much of the primary cast , re @-@ enactments of pivotal scenes from the series , and performances by the musical acts featured in its soundtrack . Broadcaster TBS revealed in June 2010 that airings of the series on its satellite offerings had broken records daily , doubling the ratings of its previous programs . Such was the influence of the series that flights between Seoul and Akita that had been nearing decommission were revitalized as a result of mounting tourist interest . Due to the commerce generated for Akita prefecture as a result of Iris having filmed there , local governments in Japan began competing for interest from producers in order to solicit tourists with future installments of the series .
A producer with Taewon Entertainment , the production company behind Iris , was quoted on May 6 , 2010 as saying they were in negotiations toward exporting the series to American television for broadcast on a major network . The episode count would be reduced from the original twenty down to twelve and , should the deal go through , would mark the first time a South Korean @-@ produced drama program was aired on a major television network in the United States .
= = Ratings = =
= = International broadcast = =
= = Media = =
= = = Music = = =
The Iris original soundtrack was released as a 16 @-@ track album on November 13 , 2009 , with music composed by Yi Dong @-@ jun and Choe Seong @-@ gwon . The soundtrack contained a number of the vocal themes used in the series , including those by Baek Ji @-@ young , Shin Seung @-@ hun , and Big Bang .
On December 24 , a limited edition was released as a two @-@ disc set with a 76 @-@ page photobook . The first disc contained ten vocal themes , four of which were used in the second half of the series and not included on the original release . The second disc collected fifteen instrumentals used as backdrops during the show 's run , including four not on the previous collection .
In the week preceding the premiere of Iris on Japanese television , it was announced that Big Bang would be contributing an all @-@ new ballad to be inserted into the TBS airings . Titled " Tell Me Goodbye , " the song was released as a single in the country on June 9 , 2010 , and was available in both a CD and a CD & DVD edition .
Coinciding with the initial broadcast of the series in Japan , a deluxe soundtrack box @-@ set was released on May 26 , 2010 by Being Inc . In addition to featuring thirteen vocal themes and nineteen instrumentals on two discs , the release includes a 72 @-@ page photobook adapted from the previous Korean release and a DVD of music videos used to promote the series . Those featured were " Hallelujah " by Big Bang , " Don 't Forget " by Baek Ji @-@ young , and " Love of Iris " by Shin Seung @-@ hun .
= = = Novelization and graphic novel = = =
A two @-@ volume novelization was published prior to and during the show 's initial run . Written by Chae Woo @-@ do , the first volume was published on October 12 , 2009 , two days prior to the show 's premiere on KBS . The second volume was published exactly one month later on November 12 , and , unlike its predecessor , did not follow the eventual plot of the television series .
In July 2010 , it was confirmed that an Iris graphic novel was in the works for a Fall 2011 release . Reports of the project , which features the likenesses of Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee , date back to August 2009 , prior to the series airing . Launching first in Japan and later in Korea , the graphic novel retained the relationship between the male and female leads but deviates from the scenarios featured in the original story .
= = = Home video = = =
Iris was released on Region 3 DVD in South Korea on February 12 , 2010 in an 8 @-@ disc set , complete with English subtitles . The first pressing included a 50 @-@ page photobook with previously unpublished photographs from the production of the series .
Earlier , on November 27 , 2009 , a 100 @-@ minute making @-@ of documentary titled Iris Navigate DVD was released for the Japanese market , documenting the filming of the series in Hungary , Japan , and Korea .
The full series is set to be released over two uncut DVD box @-@ sets in Japan . The first was announced for a July 2 , 2010 release and retails for 19 @,@ 950 yen ( $ 212 USD ) , with the second following on September 15 . On August 3 , 2010 , the first volume was released on Blu @-@ ray with the second set to follow on October 20 , both priced at 25 @,@ 200 yen ( $ 268 USD ) . The first pressings included replica NSS ID cards , a postcard set , a bonus disc , and a 24 @-@ page data booklet .
In addition , two behind @-@ the @-@ scenes production diary box @-@ sets began to be issued in Japan beginning June 16 , 2010 . The first follows the cast 's filming in Akita and Hungary while the second tracks their work in Korea and was released September 15 .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Iris was the top @-@ rated program for its initial run and received strong ratings throughout , culminating in nearly 40 % of the South Korean viewing audience tuning in for its finale .
The series and its actors won numerous awards at the 2009 KBS Drama Awards , including Lee Byung @-@ hun receiving the Daesang for his portrayal of Kim Hyun @-@ jun . Kim Tae @-@ hee was given the Excellence Award for an Actress , while Jung Joon @-@ ho and Kim Seung @-@ woo were both awarded the Excellence Award for an Actor for their work on the series . Yoon Joo @-@ sang was named Best Supporting Actor , and Kim So @-@ yeon was given the Popularity Award . Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee were one pair to win the Best Couple Award , and in addition , Lee was also honored with the Netizens ' Award for an Actor .
At the 46th annual Baeksang Arts Awards , Lee won for Best Actor and the series itself was awarded Best Drama .
On August 27 , 2010 , series cast member Jung Jun Ho and lead producer Chung Tae @-@ won were on hand at an appreciation ceremony held by the prefecture of Akita in Japan . The prefecture 's governor presented Iris with the award as an expression of gratitude for encouraging tourism and awareness of the area . Later , in September , Lee Byung @-@ hun was named as a recipient to be honored with the Seoul Tourism Award for " portraying and boosting the beauty and lively aspects of Seoul " for his work on the series . In October 2010 , Lee was also cited for an award from the Japanese Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism over the series .
At the 2010 International Drama Festival in Tokyo , Lee Byung @-@ hun was named Best Actor in Asia for his appearance in the series . Iris itself was also acknowledged as the best foreign production at the same ceremony .
= = Spin @-@ off = =
A spin @-@ off series to begin filming in 2010 and premiered later in the same year was announced following the success of Iris . Starring Jung Woo @-@ sung , Cha Seung @-@ won , Soo Ae , Choi Si @-@ won and Lee Ji @-@ ah , the series Athena : Goddess of War was filmed on location in a number of overseas locations , including Italy , New Zealand , Japan , and the United States . Production head of Taewon Entertainment , Chung Tae @-@ won , confirmed in an interview on May 31 , 2010 that Iris and Athena would be set in the same universe , allowing for crossovers between characters of the two franchises . Filming on Athena was projected to last over five months , with production commencing in Korea in June before moving to Italy in July . The series premiered December 13 , 2010 on SBS and saw its finale on February 21 , 2011 . Shortly before the series ended , the head of production was quoted as expressing interest in producing sequels to continue Athena and further connect it to other entries in the franchise .
= = Sequel = =
A true sequel series , tentatively titled Iris 2 , was originally announced for October 2011 . At the time of announcement , pre @-@ production was underway and reports estimated filming on the sequel was expected to commence in March 2011 . Representatives from Taewon Productions stated in April 2010 that they expected original stars Lee Byung @-@ hun , Kim Tae @-@ hee , and Kim So @-@ yeon to be cast in the sequel . Later , just prior to the finale of Athena being broadcast , lead producer Chung Tae @-@ won confirmed that he anticipated Iris 2 to be in production in time for a fall 2012 premiere . Concurrently , it was reported that the proposed series remained in pre @-@ production with the scriptwriters in the process of crafting the story . Chung also revealed that no casting decisions had been made and that the writing staff were preparing two potential versions of the series as a result — one featuring the full original cast and another that would see the return of only a select few . The leads of the original series , Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee , were officially confirmed to ultimately not be reprising their roles for the sequel on August 24 , 2012 .
On September 13 , 2012 , it was announced that veteran film and television actor Jang Hyuk had been offered the lead in Iris 2 . Actress Lee Da @-@ hae was confirmed on September 18 as being eyed for the female lead in the series , which would reunite her with co @-@ star Jang Hyuk from their work on 2010s award @-@ winning historical series Chuno . In addition to confirming the two leads , on September 19 , several additions were made to the cast , with Kim Seung @-@ woo , Kim Min @-@ jong , Kim Yeong @-@ cheol , Im Soo @-@ hyang , and Oh Yeon @-@ soo all being confirmed for the series . Kim Seung @-@ woo has signed on to reprise his role of North Korean agent Park Cheol @-@ young previously featured in Iris and Athena , while Kim Min @-@ jong is set to return as defector Kim Gi @-@ soo from Athena and Kim Yeong @-@ cheol is to come back as the villain from the original series , Baek San . Several others , including Kang Ji @-@ young from South Korean pop group Kara , Yoon Doo @-@ joon of boy band B2ST , and Lee Joon from MBLAQ were all also discussed for roles , along with American actor Daniel Henney .
Iris 2 premiered on February 13 , 2013 .
= = Feature film = =
Iris : The Movie is a feature length edit of the twenty episode TV series for cinemas . While not featuring a differing story , additional scenes were shot that expanded upon the original storyline , including an all @-@ new extended ending . The film first saw its premiere at the 34th Hong Kong International Film Festival and was later screened for potential international buyers at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival with a runtime of 123 minutes . The movie was released via content distribution company Cine21i in Korea on November 22 , 2010 , and was announced to be launching on IPTV , cable networks , and 100 online websites . The title 's distributors include Kadokawa Pictures in Japan , I @-@ cable Entertainment in Hong Kong , and Clover Films in Singapore .
The movie saw its theatrical premiere in Japan on January 8 , 2011 under the title Iris : The Last .
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= Black Isle 's Torn =
Black Isle 's Torn was a role @-@ playing video game developed for Windows by Black Isle Studios , announced on March 22 , 2001 and cancelled in July of that year . The game was to use a modified version of the SPECIAL role @-@ playing system , which had been implemented in the Fallout series . Developed on various editions of the Lithtech engine , Torn possessed features unseen in previous Black Isle Studios games , such as 3D graphics and real @-@ time camera movement .
In Torn , the player assumed the role of a wanderer , who was cursed to bring misfortune to people and places around it . Under a king 's orders , the player undertook quests to clarify a series of conflicting prophecies . Unlike several other Black Isle Studios games , the game was to take place in an original world titled " Torn " instead of a traditional Dungeons & Dragons location .
= = Gameplay = =
Torn was to use a modified version of the SPECIAL system ; combat occurred in quasi @-@ real @-@ time , rather than strictly being turn @-@ based . To achieve this , Black Isle Studios created the " recovery system " , in which action points were used to determine the amount a combatant could accomplish in a given amount of time . Action points were spent with each action , and based on what percentage of an acting character 's total action points were used , that character would need to wait a varying amount of time before taking action again . For example , if two characters expend half of their action points , they will attack each other at the same speed , regardless of the point totals for each character . Exceptions to this were to include recovery being hindered by movement , using items , or switching equipment , which was always allowed , though it reset the recovery time .
Like Fallout , the game was not to support character classes ; instead , the designers opted for a system where a player defined their character by the skills and special abilities selected when leveling up . For example , a character with skill choices of stealth and assassination would become the rough equivalent of a " rogue " . The system would have allowed players to choose their characters ' race , which would change the types of abilities selectable .
= = = Companions = = =
Torn was to allow the player direct control over only the protagonist character . However , up to five artificial intelligence @-@ controlled " companions " could be hired at once , and would have replaced a conventional adventuring party . Companions would have interacted with one another , obligating the player to find companions who worked well together .
Torn would have introduced a unique method for the player to communicate with and control allies ; altering their behaviour through conversation , and a command menu and hot key @-@ driven command system which allowed the player to give companions commands at any time . The system was based around the concept of simple behaviors , such as " Attack , " which could be combined into complex strings . Companions could be ordered to attack , support , defend themselves , follow the player character without attacking , and / or remain behind . It was also possible for the player to command them to carry these orders out in " aggressive " or " passive " manners . Lastly , commands and manners could be " leashed " to other party members or the player character ; for example , " support the entire party aggressively , " or " support another companion passively . " Depending on the playable character 's personality , and the orders companions were given , their level of co @-@ operation would vary .
Companions would have followed commands to the best of their ability , but in accordance with their personality ; for example , a berserker @-@ type companion told to attack aggressively would charge into melee combat , while an assassin @-@ type companion would attempt to hide , and then creep about knocking foes unconscious or backstabbing . In contrast , a priestess @-@ type companion might support the player character by casting beneficial spells , while a paladin @-@ type would give support by attacking the player character 's target , and then healing the protagonist after the battle or if he or she came close to dying .
While these features were publicized , Feargus Urquhart later stated that " even at the end of our work on Torn , we were still considering going back to a system that gave players direct , full control over the party members " .
= = = Magic system = = =
Torn was to contain four types of magic : Chaos , Order , Alchemy and Summoning . Order magic primarily consisted of healing , protective , and empowering spells . Conversely , Chaos magic was to have consisted of harmful elemental attacks , detrimental status afflictions , and invisibility spells .
Alchemical magic was used to create or alter potions to achieve more powerful effects , repair or enchant items , identify unknown items or creatures , and combine different Order or Chaos spells to create spells with multiple elements ( such as earth and fire spells creating a molten metal spell ) . Alchemical magic could also imbue a target with elemental attributes ; for example , a warrior imbued with the Water element would deal extra cold @-@ type damage but receive additional heat @-@ type damage .
Lastly , Summoning magic was to consist of " Call " and " Gate " spells , the former summoning entities able to exist for a set duration of time , or until slain . Summoned creatures behaved in different manners ; one type might simply defend the caster , while another worked to heal the caster and his or her allies . Gate spells opened a portal , allowing different things access to the game 's world . Lead designer David Maldonado called the resulting spells " generally amongst the weirdest in the game , " with the effect often being a combination of " normal " spells fired simultaneously .
Unlike Black Isle Studios ' previous games , Torn would have used a " mana point " system . Each spell cast would deplete mana points ; when fully depleted , a spell @-@ caster would have been unable to cast spells until their mana had been restored . Certain races were more adept at casting certain types of magic than others , increasing the importance of racial choice in how the player wished to experience the game .
= = Setting and plot = =
Torn 's background plot established an omnipotent being , dubbed " the Architect , " as the ultimate creator of the game 's universe . The Architect created a number of god @-@ like beings , who in turn created the world " Torn " . The gods eventually divided into three separate factions , each pursuing a different philosophy . One faction worshipped Chaos , believing in constant alteration of the world , while another worshipped Order , believing that all things should remain unchanged ; between these two was a third faction , which promoted balance between chaos and order .
The game 's various races were originally created for combat purposes by the three factions of gods , as the deities struggled to dominate Torn with their respective viewpoints . The name of the game 's world was to have been derived from this conflict , due to the ravaging of the world which took place . In the end , the Architect banished the feuding Chaos and Order factions to the ethereal realms of " nightmare " and " dream " , respectively , and left Torn in the hands of the faction that advocated balance . While isolated , the Order and Chaos factions continued influencing the world 's development , although their segregation forced them to act indirectly through agents still residing in Torn 's world . Resulting from the ability of Torn 's inhabitants to draw energy from the separate realms occupied by the gods of Chaos and Order , magic became available .
Black Isle Studios stated on multiple occasions that their goal was to create a world that was both familiar to role @-@ playing game fans , while simultaneously new . David Maldonado once commented on this in an interview with IGN :
" I feel that a sense of familiarity and association is a powerful thing , and may be used to heighten a player 's emotional experience in the game . If something can be tied into existing imagery ( even if only subtly so ) and be enhanced by or play off of pre @-@ existing feelings and conceptions within the player , why throw away that extra bit of power at your disposal ? "
Later in the interview , Maldonado explained how the world of Torn came about :
" I was given a set of directives by Feargus Urquhart , Black Isle Studios ' division head . He was clear that he would encourage the sort of mature , gritty setting that we used in Fallout or Planescape : Torment , but didn 't want a world that was simply " covered in darkness " ... there should places of light , darkness , and a whole lot o ' gray in between . He also wanted some sort of clear , over @-@ arching conflict that influenced all things on some level but didn 't simply overpower everything . We decided on Order vs. Chaos as it 's far less black and white than Good vs. Evil ... after all , agents of Order or Chaos could potentially use any means at their disposal to bring about the rise of their cause , meaning that either side has its share of goodies and baddies . "
To this end , the game 's plot was to contain a splinter group of Order followers who would scheme to destroy the entire world , in order to re @-@ create it as a new , unblemished one , so as to achieve " ultimate order . "
Torn 's primary narrative revolved around a wandering protagonist character , cursed to bring pain and misfortune wherever he or she traveled , and to whomever he or she traveled with . A misguided king , later revealed to be the game 's ultimate antagonist , would have acted as the player 's benefactor , assigning them various quests in order to discover the truth about a series of apparently conflicting prophecies . It would eventually have been revealed that all the prophecies , and even the protangonist character 's mysterious curse , could be rationalized , and were in fact related to the protagonist character , effectively granting the player control over which interpretation of the future was realized .
= = Development = =
Announced during GDC 2001 , Torn was subject to much interest by the press , because the team behind the cult classic Planescape : Torment was revealed to be developing it , and the game itself was to use the much @-@ praised SPECIAL system . According to lead designer David Maldonado , the game had been in development for " about fourteen months " before its announcement .
Torn made a playable showing at E3 2001 . Although the preview was an early build of the game with several graphical features disabled , it was generally well received . However , the division director of Black Isle Studios , Feargus Urquhart , later stated that the switch from the LithTech 2 @.@ 3 engine to the upgraded 3 @.@ 0 version shortly before the E3 presentation had " significant ramifications " , and the amount of changing and recoding necessitated by the switch caused the game 's E3 showing to suffer .
In July 2001 , after circulation of rumors , Torn was officially cancelled . Following the incident , fifty @-@ six members of Black Isle Studios ' staff were laid off . The ultimate reason for Torn 's cancellation was eventually revealed by Feargus Urquhart :
" I don 't know if we ever released an official reason on why [ Torn ] was canceled , but in a nutshell , the game was canceled because it was not going to be done in time to get Interplay the revenue the company needed to continue operations . That sounds like it was all Interplay 's fault , but that 's really not the case . The project was not going well and continued to be an ongoing challenge . "
At least a few other members of the development team contested this appraisal off the record , however , and management issues as well as unreasonable expectations for another Baldur 's Gate @-@ style hit have been mentioned .
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= Joseph Desha =
Joseph Desha ( December 9 , 1768 – October 11 , 1842 ) was a U.S. Representative and the ninth governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky . After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , Desha 's Huguenot ancestors fled from France to Pennsylvania , where Desha was born . Eventually , Desha 's family settled near present @-@ day Gallatin , Tennessee , where they were involved in many skirmishes with the Indians . Two of Desha 's brothers were killed in these encounters , motivating him to volunteer for " Mad " Anthony Wayne 's campaign against the Indians during the Northwest Indian War . Having by then resettled in Mason County , Kentucky , Desha parlayed his military record into several terms in the state legislature .
In 1807 , Desha was elected to the first of six consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . A Democratic @-@ Republican , he was considered a war hawk , supporting the War of 1812 . In 1813 , he volunteered to serve in the war and commanded a division at the Battle of the Thames . Returning to Congress after the war , he was the only member of the Kentucky congressional delegation to oppose the unpopular Compensation Act of 1816 . Nearly every other member of the delegation was defeated for reelection after the vote , but Desha 's opposition to the act helped him retain his seat . He did not seek reelection in 1818 , and made an unsuccessful run for governor in 1820 , losing to John Adair . By 1824 , the Panic of 1819 had ruined Kentucky 's economy , and Desha made a second campaign for the governorship almost exclusively on promises of relief for the state 's large debtor class . He was elected by a large majority , and debt relief partisans captured both houses of the General Assembly . After the Kentucky Court of Appeals overturned debt relief laws favored by Desha and the majority of the legislature , the legislators abolished the court and created a replacement court , to which Desha appointed several debt relief partisans . The existing court refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the move , and during a period known as the Old Court – New Court controversy , two courts of last resort existed in the state .
Although popular when elected , Desha 's reputation was damaged by two controversies during his term . The first was his role in the ouster of Horace Holley as president of Transylvania University . While the religious conservatives on the university 's board opposed Holley because they considered him too liberal , Desha 's opposition was primarily based on Holley 's friendship with Henry Clay , one of Desha 's political enemies . After Desha bitterly denounced Holley in an address to the legislature in late 1825 , Holley resigned . Desha 's reputation took a further hit after his son , Isaac , was charged with murder . Partially because of Desha 's influence as governor , two guilty verdicts were overturned . After the younger Desha unsuccessfully attempted suicide while awaiting a third trial , Governor Desha issued a pardon for his son . These controversies , along with an improving economy , propelled Desha 's political foes to victory in the legislative elections of 1825 and 1826 . They abolished the so @-@ called " Desha court " over Desha 's veto , ending the court controversy . In a final act of defiance , Desha threatened to refuse to vacate the governor 's mansion , although he ultimately acquiesced without incident , ceding the governorship to his successor , National Republican Thomas Metcalfe . At the expiration of his term , he retired from public life and ultimately died at his son 's home in Georgetown , Kentucky , on October 11 , 1842 .
= = Early life and career = =
Joseph Desha was born to Robert and Eleanor ( Wheeler ) Desha in Monroe County , Pennsylvania , on December 9 , 1768 . He was of part French Huguenot ancestry , and his ancestors had fled from France to Pennsylvania after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , which had largely protected the Huguenots from religious persecution . He obtained a limited education in the state 's rural schools . In July 1781 , Desha 's family relocated to Fayette County , Kentucky , and the following year , they settled in what was then known as Cumberland district near the present @-@ day city of Gallatin , Tennessee . Desha 's younger brother , Robert , would later represent Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives .
Like most frontier settlers , the Desha family frequently found themselves in conflict with American Indians after moving to Tennessee , and between the ages of 15 and 22 , Joseph Desha volunteered in several military campaigns against them . In one such campaign , two of his brothers were killed while fighting alongside him . Following the war , Desha lived with William Whitley in the town of Crab Orchard , Kentucky . He married Margaret " Peggy " Bledsoe in December 1789 . The couple had thirteen children over the course of their marriage . In 1792 , the family moved to Mason County , Kentucky , where Desha worked as a farmer . In 1794 , he served in the Northwest Indian War under Lieutenant William Henry Harrison . He participated in General " Mad " Anthony Wayne 's rout of the Indians at the August 20 Battle of Fallen Timbers .
Desha entered politics in 1797 , when he was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to the Kentucky House of Representatives . When the House debated the Kentucky Resolutions in 1798 , he chaired the Committee of the Whole . He again served in the House from 1799 to 1802 , and was elected to the Kentucky Senate from 1802 to 1807 . Concurrent with his legislative career , he continued to serve in the state militia . On January 23 , 1798 , he was appointed as a major in the 29th Regiment . He was promoted to colonel on March 23 , 1799 , and on September 5 , 1805 , he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 7th Brigade of the Kentucky Militia . On December 24 , 1806 , he was made a major general , remaining with the 7th Brigade .
= = Service in the House and the War of 1812 = =
Desha was elected without opposition to the first of six consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1807 . Though he was known as a capable orator , he did not speak often , claiming it was best " to think much and speak but little . " He opposed renewing the charter of the First Bank of the United States because most of the bank 's investors were foreigners . Specifically , he was concerned about the fact King George III of Great Britain was a major shareholder . ( It was thought by many that the British monarch was on the verge of madness at this time . ) The bank 's charter ultimately was not renewed in 1811 .
Early in his career , Desha advocated an adequate army to defend American territory from Great Britain and France . He supported President Thomas Jefferson 's Embargo Act of 1807 and related enforcement legislation . He was considered a war hawk , and House Speaker Henry Clay , a fellow Kentuckian and leader of the War Hawks in the House , selected him to serve on the House Foreign Relations Committee during the Twelfth Congress ( 1811 – 13 ) . Consistent with Clay 's expectations , Desha consistently supported the war measures brought before the House , including bills to arm merchant ships , increase the number of regular troops in U.S. Army , and authorize President James Madison to accept volunteer units for military service . Proclaiming his dissatisfaction with Macon 's Bill Number 1 , he maintained that all embargoes and sanctions would fail as long as " the British have a Canada or a Nova Scotia on the continent of America " , although he acknowledged the high cost in both money and lives that annexation of Canada would entail . On June 4 , 1812 , he voted in favor of a declaration of war on Great Britain , officially beginning the War of 1812 .
Desha returned to Kentucky after the congressional session . He responded to Governor Isaac Shelby 's call for volunteers to serve in William Henry Harrison 's campaign into Upper Canada . He was commissioned a major general and given command of the 2nd Division of Kentucky militia . The 3 @,@ 500 @-@ man division , composed of the 2nd and 5th Brigades and the 11th Regiment , assembled on the Ohio River at Newport , Kentucky . They joined Harrison in forcing the British retreat from Detroit and held the Indian allies of the British off his left flank during the American victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5 , 1813 . According to historian Bennett H. Young , Desha 's old friend William Whitley had a premonition of his own death the night before the battle and gave his rifle and powderhorn to Desha , asking him to convey it to his widow , along with a message of his affection . Whitley was indeed killed in the fighting the following day .
Desha resumed his service in Congress at its next term . He was disappointed at the decision not to pursue the annexation of Upper Canada and to ignore British impressment of American mariners in favor of pursuing peace with the British . Ultimately , he was dissatisfied with the Treaty of Ghent that ended the war . When William Henry Harrison was being considered by Congress for the position of general @-@ in @-@ chief in late 1813 and early 1814 , Desha opposed giving him the title because he claimed that Harrison had determined not to pursue British General Henry Procter following the Battle of the Thames and had only done so after strenuous urging by Isaac Shelby . Desha 's charge was a contributing factor in Congress 's decision to remove Harrison 's name from a resolution of thanks for service in the Northwest Army and withhold from him a Congressional Gold Medal . Both Harrison and Shelby denied Desha 's account , and as the issue began to damage Desha 's reelection chances , he partially recanted his story . He claimed that he had only told some friends that Harrison was wary of pursuit during a council of war held at Sandwich , Ontario , after the battle , but that he had not personally witnessed a disagreement over the pursuit between Harrison and Shelby .
Desha gradually became more conservative after his return to the House , consistently resisting expansion of the U.S. Navy . He also opposed Secretary of War James Monroe 's request to maintain a standing peacetime army of 20 @,@ 000 men . Desha argued that a large standing army provided the advocates of a larger federal government with an excuse to increase taxes , and proposed that the standing army should consist of only 6 @,@ 000 men . A coalition of Federalists and conservative Democratic @-@ Republicans in the House united to adopt Desha 's suggestion by a vote of 75 – 65 . The version of the bill passed by the Senate , however , required a standing army of 15 @,@ 000 men . The legislation was referred to a conference committee , which ultimately adopted a compromise of 10 @,@ 000 men .
During the Fourteenth Congress ( 1815 – 17 ) , he was the only member of the twelve @-@ member Kentucky congressional delegation to oppose the Compensation Act of 1816 . The act , sponsored by fellow Kentuckian Richard Mentor Johnson , modified congressional compensation , paying each member a flat salary of $ 1 @,@ 500 a year instead of a $ 6 per diem while Congress was in session . The measure proved extremely unpopular with the electorate . Every member of the Kentucky delegation that voted for the bill – excepting Johnson and Henry Clay , who were both extremely popular – lost his congressional seat , either because he did not seek reelection or because he was defeated by another candidate .
Desha served as chairman of the Committee on Public Expenditures during the Fifteenth Congress ( 1817 – 19 ) . On March 14 , 1818 , he voted with the minority against a resolution introduced by South Carolina 's William Lowndes asserting Congress 's power to appropriate federal funds for the construction of internal improvements . He did not run for reelection in 1818 .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1820 = =
Desha was one of four candidates who sought the governorship of Kentucky in 1820 . In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 – the first major financial crisis in United States history – the primary issue of the campaign was debt relief . Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state 's large debtor class , particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Second Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington . The Second Party System had not yet developed , but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue . The first – primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis – was dubbed the Relief Party or faction and favored more legislation favorable to debtors . Opposed to them was the Anti @-@ Relief Party or faction ; it was composed primarily of the state 's aristocracy , many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government . They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression .
Although Desha was clearly aligned with the Relief faction , the faction 's leader was John Adair , a veteran of the War of 1812 whose popularity was augmented because of his very public defense of the Kentuckians who served under him at the Battle of New Orleans against charges of cowardice by Andrew Jackson . Adair won a close election with 20 @,@ 493 votes , besting William Logan 's 19 @,@ 947 votes , Desha 's 12 @,@ 418 votes , and Anthony Butler 's 9 @,@ 567 votes . Relief partisans also secured control of both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly . Much debt relief legislation was passed during Adair 's term , but as his term neared expiration , the Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down one popular and expansive debt relief law as unconstitutional , ensuring that debt relief would again be the central issue in the upcoming gubernatorial election .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1824 = =
With Adair constitutionally ineligible to seek a second consecutive term , Desha was the first candidate to publicly declare his intention to seek the governorship in 1824 . He began his campaign in late 1823 and faced little opposition until Christopher Tompkins declared his candidacy in May 1824 . Tompkins was a little @-@ known judge from Bourbon County who vehemently held to the principles of the Anti @-@ Relief faction . Colonel William Russell , a military veteran of 50 years , also sought to carry the mantle of the Anti @-@ Relief faction . While not as eloquent or well @-@ versed in the faction 's rhetoric , he had few political enemies and his military career brought him great respect among the electorate .
While Tompkins and his supporters primarily campaigned through the state 's newspapers , most of which supported the Anti @-@ Relief faction , Desha traveled the state making stump speeches . Offering no specific platform , he focused exclusively on the idea that he opposed " judicial usurpation " and believed " all power belonged to the people " . He was generally acknowledged as the candidate of the Relief Party , but historian Arndt M. Stickles has noted that he used Anti @-@ Relief rhetoric in some counties . Desha attacked Tompkins ' record as a judge , claiming that he had consistently supported the Second Bank of the United States and the current Court of Appeals . This , Desha said , put him in direct and open opposition to the state 's farmers and ensured that , if he were elected , the state would be governed by the judicial branch , not the governor . Desha claimed the state 's newspapers persecuted him the same way the Anti @-@ Relief party persecuted debtors . He also charged that Tompkins was not the true choice of the Anti @-@ Relief party , but only gained its support by being the first candidate with that position to announce his candidacy . Backers of Russell , who consistently ran a distant third in voter support , agreed with this claim , saying Tompkins had joined the race before a date that had been previously agreed on among Anti @-@ Relief candidates , giving him an unfair advantage over Russell .
Anti @-@ Relief partisans opened many lines of attack against Desha . They said his refusal to articulate a specific campaign platform showed that he was trying to be all things to all people . They assailed his military record , claiming he had only volunteered for service in the War of 1812 after being promised command of a division , that he balked at fighting and discouraged General Harrison 's pursuit of the British and Indians , and that he billed excessive expenses to the government after his service . Desha 's legislative career was also subject to scrutiny and attack . Anti @-@ Relief partisans claimed that he had espoused certain positions for the sole purpose of pitting the state 's agrarian interests against its aristocracy . They charged that he had secretly favored the Compensation Act of 1816 and had worked to pass it , despite his vote against it . In contrast to his rhetoric in favor of a strong , well @-@ equipped army and navy , opponents claimed he had actually voted against increasing the military 's budget . As further evidence of his lack of trustworthiness , they pointed to his vote for William H. Crawford while serving as a presidential elector in 1816 , even though Kentuckians were nearly unanimous in their support of James Monroe .
Although Desha was universally acknowledged as the leading candidate during the early months of the campaign , as election day approached , some began to doubt whether he could withstand the withering attacks of the Anti @-@ Relief Party . The Frankfort Argus , a pro @-@ Desha newspaper , remained confident , however , predicting that the Relief candidate would win by a margin of 4 @-@ to @-@ 1 . On election day , Desha secured a comfortable victory , receiving 38 @,@ 378 votes , nearly 60 % of the votes cast , and carrying large majorities even in some strongly Anti @-@ Relief counties . Tompkins garnered 22 @,@ 499 votes , with his support concentrated mostly in Central Kentucky . Russell finished third with 3 @,@ 900 votes . Desha and his allies in the General Assembly interpreted the victory as a mandate from the voters to aggressively pursue their debt relief agenda .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
On November 4 , 1824 , just months after the election , the state capitol building was destroyed by a fire . Some furnishings and records were saved , but the four @-@ year @-@ old building was a total loss . When Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette toured the United States in 1825 , a new capitol had not yet been constructed and the governor 's mansion was too small to host a proper reception , so the governor had to entertain the dignitary at Weisiger 's Tavern .
Desha 's major accomplishment as governor was in the area of internal improvements . In 1825 , he convinced the legislature to fund the creation of the Louisville and Portland Canal on the Falls of the Ohio . The canal opened in 1830 , and proved very profitable , so much so that Desha lamented the fact that the state had split the cost of the project – and consequently , its profits – with the federal government and private investors . He also urged state investment in a turnpike joining Maysville to Louisville via Lexington . He advocated using excess money earmarked for education to construct hard @-@ surfaced roads in the state , but the General Assembly was less responsive to this suggestion .
= = = Old Court – New Court controversy = = =
Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark wrote that Desha " made rash promises to relieve the horde of bankrupt voters ... promises on which he had to deliver . " His first address to the legislature was critical of the judiciary in general , especially the Supreme Court 's recent decision in the case of Green v. Biddle which held that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky prior to Kentucky becoming a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict . Encouraged by Desha 's strong stance against the judiciary , Relief partisans set about removing the judges on the Court of Appeals who had earlier struck down their debt relief legislation . The first punitive measure proposed against the offending judges was to reduce their salaries to 25 cents per year , but this course was quickly abandoned . Next , legislators attempted to remove the judges by address , but they found they lacked the necessary two @-@ thirds majority in both houses to effect this removal .
Finally , on December 9 , 1824 , the Kentucky Senate passed a measure repealing the legislation that created the Kentucky Court of Appeals and establishing a new court of last resort in the state . The bill was sent to the House , and a vigorous debate ensued on December 23 . During the debate , which continued past midnight , Desha appeared on the floor of the chamber to lobby legislators to support the bill and actually moved the previous question to end debate , which was , in the words of Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison , a " flagrant violation of House rules " . The House passed the bill by a vote of 54 – 43 , and Desha signed it immediately .
On January 10 , 1825 , Desha appointed four justices to the new court . He chose his Secretary of State , former U.S. Senator William T. Barry , as chief justice . The other three members were Lexington lawyer James Haggin , Circuit Judge John Trimble ( brother of Supreme Court Justice Robert Trimble ) , and Benjamin Patton . Of the new court – called by detractors the " Desha court " – Barry " seems to have been the only one who had in a measure an even show in experience , prestige , and ability to rank as a jurist with the old @-@ court justices " , according to Stickles . Achilles Sneed , clerk of the Old Court , refused to surrender the court 's records to Francis P. Blair , clerk of the New Court , so Blair took the records from Sneed 's office by force , and Sneed was fined 10 pounds for contempt of court because of his refusal to cooperate . The Old Court continued to hear cases in a Frankfort church , while the New Court occupied the official court chambers . Neither recognized the other , and both claimed to be the legitimate court of last resort in the state . Most of the state 's lawyers and judges were supporters of the Old Court and continued to practice before them and abide by their mandates , but others chose to acknowledge the New Court as legitimate .
Although Desha and his entire administration campaigned on behalf of New Court candidates during the legislative elections of 1825 , Old Court supporters regained the state House and evenly split the Senate between Old and New Court supporters . Desha 's message to the newly reconstituted General Assembly remained critical of banks and the judiciary , but urged legislators to seek a compromise to resolve the court question . Stickles records that Desha was sincere in his desire for a compromise , albeit one that would save face for the New Court Party . He promised that , if the legislature would again authorize appointment of a new set of judges , he would appoint them equally from both parties . Another plan would have expanded the court to six judges , with three appointed from each party . One legislator proposed that all members of both courts resign , along with Desha , lieutenant governor Robert B. McAfee , and all the legislators in the General Assembly , essentially allowing the state government to reset itself . This bill passed the House but was killed in the Senate . The House passed a measure to restore the Old Court , but the Senate deadlocked on the measure and McAfee , the presiding officer in the Senate , cast the tie @-@ breaking vote to defeat it .
By 1826 , the economic climate in the state had improved significantly . Seeing the resultant upsurge in Old Court support , two of the four New Court justices resigned . Desha offered the appointments to three different individuals , all of whom ignored or rejected them . John Telemachus Johnson finally accepted the appointment in April 1826 , and the New Court met with only three justices during its 1826 term . In the August 1826 elections , the Old Court Party won majorities of 56 – 44 in the House and 22 – 16 in the Senate . Desha again encouraged the legislators to compromise to resolve the court impasse . The Old Court majorities in both houses , however , completely repudiated the New Court , passing a bill to restore the Old Court and overturn all legislation related to the New Court . Desha vetoed the bill , and scolded the legislators for passing a blatantly partisan bill as opposed to a compromise measure . The General Assembly overrode Desha 's veto on January 1 , 1827 . In a conciliatory move , the Senate confirmed Desha 's appointment of George M. Bibb , a New Court partisan , to a position on the re @-@ empowered Old Court after John Boyle resigned to accept a federal judgeship in November 1826 .
= = = Pardon of Isaac Desha = = =
Governor Desha 's reputation was further tarnished because of a pardon issued to his son . On November 2 , 1824 , Isaac B. Desha had brutally murdered Francis Baker , a Mississippian who was visiting Kentucky . On November 24 , 1824 , John Rowan , one of the governor 's allies in the General Assembly , introduced legislation ordering the Fleming County Circuit Court to convene a special session on January 17 , 1825 , for Isaac Desha 's trial and providing that the accused should have the option to request a change of venue to Harrison County at that time . Miles from the scene of the murder , Harrison County was the governor 's home county , and he possessed a great deal of influence with officials there . Governor Desha appeared before the legislative committee considering the bill on November 26 and asked that they report it favorably to the full legislature . This was done , and the bill was approved on December 4 , 1824 .
At his trial in December , Isaac Desha requested the change of venue ; the case was transferred to Harrison County and scheduled for early January . John Trimble was scheduled to hear the case , but Governor Desha appointed him to the New Court of Appeals following the " abolishment " of the Old Court in late 1824 . Trimble personally appealed to Judge George Shannon of Lexington to hear the case . Governor Desha assembled a formidable defense team for his son , including his newly appointed Secretary of State , William T. Barry ; John Rowan , who had just been elected to the U.S. Senate ; and former congressmen William Brown and T. P. Taul . William K. Wall and future Congressman John Chambers – the Commonwealth 's Attorneys for Harrison and Fleming counties , respectively – collaborated with attorney Martin P. Marshall to prosecute the case . Governor Desha attended each day of the proceedings , seated with the defense counsel .
Despite the best efforts of his father to secure a favorable venue , judge , and defense team , on January 31 , 1825 , the jury convicted Isaac Desha of murder and sentenced him to hang . Rowan immediately requested a new trial upon grounds of jury interference , and Shannon granted the request on February 10 . Jury selection proved problematic , occupying at least parts of four terms of the Harrison County Circuit Court . In September 1825 , a jury was finally empaneled . The judge , Harry O. Brown , had been temporarily appointed to his position by Governor Desha to fill a vacancy . Desha was again found guilty , and sentenced to hang on July 14 , 1826 . Judge Brown overturned the verdict because the prosecution had not proven that the murder took place in Fleming County , as alleged in the indictment against Desha . The state argued that this was of no consequence , since a change of venue had already been granted , but the judge 's ruling stood , and Governor Desha 's reputation took a further hit .
In July 1826 , Isaac Desha , free on bail while awaiting a third trial and apparently in a highly intoxicated state , attempted suicide by cutting his own throat . Physicians saved his life by reconnecting his severed windpipe with a silver tube . He recovered , and in June 1827 , faced a third trial . During the June term of the court , Desha 's lawyers used a number of peremptory challenges to again prevent the court from empaneling a jury . The judge ordered him held without bail until the next session of the court , but Governor Desha , who was present at the proceedings , stood and issued a pardon for his son , as well as lambasting the judge in a lengthy impromptu speech . Some accounts hold that the governor immediately resigned upon granting the pardon , but the official records reflect no such action .
Following his release , Isaac Desha traveled to Texas under an alias , where he robbed and killed another man . He was identified based on family resemblance and the silver pipe that had earlier saved his life . After being arrested , he confessed to both murders . He died of a fever the day before his trial in August 1828 .
= = = Conflict with Horace Holley = = =
Another controversial issue during Desha 's tenure was his disdain for Horace Holley , president of Transylvania University . From the time Holley assumed the post of president in 1818 , the university had risen to national prominence and attracted well @-@ qualified and well @-@ respected faculty members such as Constantine Samuel Rafinesque , Daniel Drake , Charles Caldwell , William T. Barry , and Jesse Bledsoe . However , Holley 's New England Unitarian beliefs were too liberal for the tastes of many in Kentucky . Many called Holley an infidel and charged that he was a drinker and a gambler . He was criticized for spending time at the horse races and for furnishing his home with nude classical statues .
Desha was drawn into the Holley controversy during the 1824 presidential election . When no candidate achieved a majority of the electoral votes cast , the contest was resolved by the U.S. House of Representatives . Desha and the New Court partisans in the General Assembly instructed the state 's congressional delegation to cast their votes for Andrew Jackson , but the delegation , led by House Speaker Henry Clay , defied these instructions and voted instead for John Quincy Adams . Because of this vote , Clay , a trustee for Transylvania and supporter of Holley , became Desha 's political enemy . Desha 's hostility for Transylvania and Holley worsened when , in the aftermath of the Isaac Desha trial , a student at Transylvania delivered a speech critical of the governor in the university 's chapel . Although Holley was present for the speech , Transylvania historian John D. Wright , Jr. wrote that he did not know the student 's topic beforehand and after hearing the speech , made no effort to condone its content . It was Holley 's practice , however , to allow students to speak openly about current political matters , regardless of which position they took . Desha maintained that , because Holley had not silenced the student , he was at fault for tacitly condoning disrespectful criticism of the state 's chief executive .
Desha vehemently attacked Transylvania and Holley in his annual message to the General Assembly in November 1825 . He claimed that the university had not made wise use of the public funding allocated to it by previous Assemblies , noting in particular that Holley 's salary as president exceeded his own . Finally , Desha claimed that under Holley , Transylvania had become too elitist and could not be otherwise , given the high cost of attendance . Holley , who had traveled to Frankfort to speak with Desha and the legislature , was present for Desha 's speech . Afterward , he decided instead to return to Lexington and tender his resignation . Sympathetic members of the university 's board of trustees convinced Holley to remain for another year . Kentucky historian James C. Klotter opined that , with Holley 's departure , " perhaps the state 's best chance for a world @-@ class university had passed . "
= = = Gubernatorial legacy and transition = = =
The numerous controversies of Desha 's term severely damaged his reputation . Harrison recorded that a visitor to Kentucky remarked in 1825 , " [ Desha ] is said by some to possess talents ; I have never been furnished with evidence . " Harrison further noted that " [ b ] y 1828 , many Kentuckians would have agreed with that assessment . "
Desha supported William T. Barry , the Democratic @-@ Republican gubernatorial nominee , to succeed him . Early reports showed Barry leading his opponent , National Republican Thomas Metcalfe , but the final margin favored Metcalfe . Not only did Desha not agree with Metcalfe politically , he believed that the governorship should go to a high @-@ born aristocrat . Although Metcalfe was the son of a Revolutionary War soldier , his nickname of " Old Stone Hammer " indicated his pride in his trade of masonry , which was considered a common profession .
Due to a constitutional quirk , Metcalfe 's term was scheduled to begin eight days before the expiration of Desha 's . Desha charged that Metcalfe was not allowing him to finish out his term and threatened not to vacate the governor 's mansion until his term officially ended . Clark records as legend that , after drinking heavily at a local tavern , Metcalfe and some of his supporters formed a mob and went to the governor 's mansion to evict him by force . Accounts in the local newspapers of the time instead record that the Deshas left the mansion peacefully without intervention by Metcalfe .
= = Later life and death = =
At the expiration of his term as governor , Desha retired from public life to his farm in Harrison County . During the final years of his life , Desha and his wife Margaret moved to Georgetown , Kentucky , where one of his sons , a physician , lived . Desha died at his home in Georgetown , Kentucky , on October 11 , 1842 , and was buried on the grounds . The state erected a monument over his grave . In 1880 , both Desha 's body and the monument were moved to Georgetown Cemetery .
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= Geoffrey A. Landis =
Geoffrey Alan Landis ( born May 28 , 1955 ) is an American scientist , working for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) on planetary exploration , interstellar propulsion , solar power and photovoltaics . He holds nine patents , primarily in the field of improvements to solar cells and photovoltaic devices and has given presentations and commentary on the possibilities for interstellar travel and construction of bases on the Moon , Mars , and Venus .
Supported by his scientific background Landis also writes hard science fiction . For these writings he has won a Nebula Award , two Hugo Awards , and a Locus Award , as well as two Rhysling Awards for his poetry . He contributes science articles to various academic publications .
= = Biography = =
Landis was born in Detroit , Michigan and lived in Virginia , Maryland , Philadelphia , and Illinois during his childhood . His senior education was at New Trier High School , Winnetka , Illinois . He holds undergraduate degrees in physics and electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) and a PhD in solid @-@ state physics from Brown University . He is married to science fiction writer Mary A. Turzillo and lives in Berea , Ohio .
= = Career = =
After receiving his doctorate at Brown University , Landis worked at the NASA Lewis Research Center ( now NASA Glenn ) and the Ohio Aerospace Institute before accepting a permanent position at the NASA John Glenn Research Center , where he does research on Mars missions , solar energy , and technology development for future space missions . He holds nine patents , and has authored or co @-@ authored more than 300 published scientific papers in the fields of astronautics and photovoltaics .
Landis has commented on the practicalities of generating oxygen and creating building materials for a future Moon base in New Scientist , and on the possibilities of using readily available metallic iron to manufacture steel on Mars .
He is the recipient of numerous professional honors , including the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Aerospace Power Systems Award , the NASA Space Flight Awareness award and the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement Stellar Award in 2016 .
= = = Photovoltaic Power Systems = = =
Much of Landis ' technical work has been in the field of developing solar cells and arrays , both for terrestrial use and for spacecraft .
= = = Mars = = =
Landis has worked on a number of projects related to developing technology of human and robotic exploration of Mars and scientific analysis of the Martian surface , including studies of the performance of photovoltaic cells in the Mars environment , the effect of Martian dust on performance , and technologies for dust removal from the arrays . He was a member of the Rover team on the Mars Pathfinder mission , and named the Mars rock , " Yogi " . He is a member of the science team on the 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers mission , where his work includes observations of Martian dust devils , atmospheric science measurements , and observation of frost on the equator of Mars . He was also a member of the Mars ISPP Propellant Precursor experiment team for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander mission , an experiment package to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the Martian atmosphere . ( which was cancelled after the failure of the Mars Polar Lander ) .
He has also done work on analyzing concepts for future robotic and human mission to Mars . These include the Mars Geyser Hopper spacecraft , a Discovery @-@ class mission concept that would investigate the springtime carbon dioxide Martian geysers found in regions around the south pole of Mars , the Human Exploration using Real @-@ time Robotic Operations ( " HERRO " ) concept for telerobotic Mars exploration , and concepts for use of In @-@ situ resource utilization for a Mars Sample Return mission . In a 1993 paper , he suggested the use of a phased program of Mars exploration , with a series of incremental achievements leading up to human landings on Mars .
= = = NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts = = =
Landis was a fellow of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts ( " NIAC " ) , where he worked on a project investigating the use of laser- and particle @-@ beam pushed sails for propulsion for interstellar flight . In 2002 Landis addressed the annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the possibilities and challenges of interstellar travel in what was described as the " first serious discussion of how mankind will one day set sail to the nearest star " . Dr. Landis said , " This is the first meeting to really consider interstellar travel by humans . It is historic . We 're going to the stars . There really isn 't a choice in the long term . " He went on to describe a star ship with a diamond sail , a few nanometres thick , powered by solar energy , which could achieve " 10 per cent of the speed of light " .
He was selected again as a NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts fellow in 2012 , with an investigation of a Landsailing rover for Venus exploration , and in 2015 was the science lead on a NIAC study to design a mission to Neptune 's moon Triton .
= = = Academic positions = = =
In 2005 – 2006 , he was named the Ronald E. McNair Visiting Professor of Astronautics at MIT , and won the AIAA Abe M. Zarem Educator Award in 2007 . Landis has also been a faculty member of the International Space University ; in 1998 he was on the faculty of the Department of Mining , Manufacturing , and Robotics in the Space Studies Program , and in 1999 he was on the faculty of the 12th Space Studies Program at the Suranaree University of Technology in Nakhon Ratchasima , Thailand. and co @-@ chair of the student project " Out of the Cradle . " He was also a guest lecturer at the ISU 13th Space Studies Program in Valparaíso , Chile , and the 2015 Space Studies Program in Athens , Ohio .
As a writer , he was an instructor at the Clarion Writers Workshop at Michigan State University in 2001 . He was a guest instructor at the Launch Pad workshop for 2012 .
= = Writing = =
= = = Science fiction = = =
= = = = History = = = =
Landis first science fiction story , Elemental , appeared in Analog in December 1984 , and received a nomination for a Hugo award as well as earning him a nomination for the John W. Campbell award for Best New Writer . In the field of science fiction , Landis has published over 70 works of short fiction , and two books . He won the 1989 Nebula Award for best short story for " Ripples in the Dirac Sea " ( Asimov 's Science Fiction , October 1988 ) , the 1992 Hugo Award for " A Walk in the Sun " ( Asimov 's Science Fiction , October 1991 ) , and the 2003 Hugo for his short story " Falling Onto Mars " ( Analog Science Fiction and Fact , July / Aug 2002 ) .
His first novel , Mars Crossing , was published by Tor Books in 2000 , winning a Locus Award . A short story collection , Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) , was published by Golden Gryphon Press in 2001 and named as noteworthy by trade magazine Publishers Weekly . He has also won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for the novelette The Man in the Mirror ( 2009 ) . His 2010 novella The Sultan of the Clouds won the Sturgeon award for best short science fiction story , and was nominated for both the Nebula and Hugo awards .
He attended the Clarion Workshop in 1985 , with other emerging SF writers such as Kristine Kathryn Rusch , Martha Soukup , William Shunn , Resa Nelson , Mary Turzillo and Robert J. Howe .
= = = = Novels = = = =
Mars Crossing ( 2000 )
= = = = Collections = = = =
Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) ( 16 shorts )
A Walk in the Sun
Impact Parameter
Elemental
Ecopoiesis
Across the Darkness
Ouroboros
Into the Blue Abyss
Snow
Rorvik 's War
Approaching Perimelasma
What We Do Here at NASA
Dark Lady
Outsider 's Chance
Beneath the Stars of Winter
The Singular Habits of Wasps
Winter Fire
A Walk in the Sun ( Great Science Fiction Stories ) 2004
= = = = Short Stories = = = =
Ripples in the Dirac Sea
A Walk in the Sun
Falling Onto Mars
The Man in the Mirror 2009
The Sultan of the Clouds 2010
A Hotel in Antarctica 2014
= = = Poetry = = =
Landis has also published a number of poems , much of it involving science fiction or science themes . He won the Rhysling Award twice , for his poems " Christmas , after we all get time machines " in 2000 ( which also won the 2000 Asimov 's Reader 's Award for best poem ) , and for " Search " in 2009 , and the Dwarf Stars Award in 2010 , for the poem " Fireflies " . He has won the Asimov 's Reader 's award for best poem three times , most recently in 2014 , for his poem " Rivers " . In 2009 , he won 2nd place in the Hessler Street Fair poetry contest for his poem " Five Pounds of Sunlight , " and 1st place in 2010 for " Human Potential . "
His poetry collection Iron Angels was published in 2009 .
= = = Major awards = = =
1989 Nebula Award for best short story for " Ripples in the Dirac Sea "
1992 Hugo Award for best short story " A Walk in the Sun "
2001 Locus Award for best first novel for Mars Crossing
2003 Hugo Award for best short story " Falling Onto Mars "
2011 Theodore Sturgeon Award for best short science fiction for " The Sultan of the Clouds "
2014 Robert A. Heinlein Award " bestowed for outstanding published works in science fiction and technical writings that inspire the human exploration of space . "
= = = Other writing = = =
Landis has also written non @-@ fiction and popular science articles , encyclopedia articles and columns for a large range of publications , including Analog Science Fiction and Fact , Space Sciences , Asimov 's Science Fiction , Spaceflight , and Science Fiction Age . His article " The Demon Under Hawaii " won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for best science article in 1993 .
= = Works = =
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( 1991 ) . Myths , legends , and true history . Author 's Choice Monthly 26 . Eugene , OR : Pulphouse Publications . OCLC 25242854 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( November 2001 ) . Mars Crossing . Tor Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8125 @-@ 7648 @-@ 1 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( December 2001 ) . Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) . Urbana , IL : Golden Gryphon Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 930846 @-@ 06 @-@ 1 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( 2009 ) . Iron Angels . Van Zeno Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9789244 @-@ 7 @-@ 8 .
Geoffrey A. Landis . Laser @-@ powered Interstellar Probe on the Geoffrey A. Landis : Science. papers available on the web
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= Sitti Nurbaya =
Sitti Nurbaya : Kasih Tak Sampai ( Sitti Nurbaya : Unrealized Love , often abbreviated Sitti Nurbaya or Siti Nurbaya ; original spelling Sitti Noerbaja ) is an Indonesian novel by Marah Rusli . It was published by Balai Pustaka , the state @-@ owned publisher and literary bureau of the Dutch East Indies , in 1922 . The author was influenced by the cultures of the west Sumatran Minangkabau and the Dutch colonials , who had controlled Indonesia in various forms since the 17th century . Another influence may have been a negative experience within the author 's family ; after he had chosen a Sundanese woman to be his wife , Rusli 's family brought him back to Padang and forced him to marry a Minangkabau woman chosen for him .
Sitti Nurbaya tells the story of two teenage lovers , Samsulbahri and Sitti Nurbaya , who wish to be together but are separated after Samsulbahri is forced to go to Batavia . Not long afterwards , Nurbaya unhappily offers herself to marry the abusive and rich Datuk Meringgih as a way for her father to escape debt ; she is later killed by Meringgih . It ends with Samsulbahri , then a member of the Dutch colonial army , killing Datuk Meringgih during an uprising and then dying from his wounds .
Written in formal Malay and including traditional Minangkabau storytelling techniques such as pantuns , Sitti Nurbaya touches on the themes of colonialism , forced marriage , and modernity . Well @-@ received upon publication , Sitti Nurbaya continues to be taught in Indonesian high schools . It has been compared to Romeo and Juliet and the Butterfly Lovers .
= = Writing = =
Sitti Nurbaya was written by Marah Rusli , a Dutch @-@ educated Minangkabau from a noble background with a degree in veterinary science . His Dutch education led him to become Europeanized . He abandoned some Minangkabau traditions , but not his view of the subordinate role of women in society . According to Bakri Siregar , an Indonesian socialist literary critic , Rusli 's Europeanisation affected how he described Dutch culture in Sitti Nurbaya , as well a scene where the two protagonists kiss . A. Teeuw , a Dutch critic of Indonesian literature and lecturer at the University of Indonesia , notes that the use of pantuns ( a Malay poetic form ) shows that Rusli was heavily influenced by Minangkabau oral literary tradition , while the extended dialogues show influence from the tradition of musyawarah ( in @-@ depth discussions by a community to reach an agreement ) .
Indonesian critic Zuber Usman credits another , more personal , experience as influencing Rusli in writing Sitti Nurbaya and his positive view of European culture and modernity . After expressing interest in choosing a Sundanese woman to become his wife , which " caused an uproar among his family " , Rusli was told by his parents to return to his hometown and marry a Minangkabau woman chosen by them ; this caused conflict between Rusli and his family .
= = Plot = =
In Padang in the early 20th century Dutch East Indies , Samsulbahri and Sitti Nurbaya – children of rich noblemen Sutan Mahmud Syah and Baginda Sulaiman – are teenage neighbours , classmates , and childhood friends . They begin to fall in love , but they are only able to admit it after Samsu tells Nurbaya that he will be going to Batavia ( Jakarta ) to study . After spending the afternoon at a nearby hillside , Samsu and Nurbaya kiss on her front porch . When they are caught by Nurbaya 's father and the neighbours , Samsu is chased out of Padang and goes to Batavia .
Meanwhile , Datuk Meringgih , jealous of Sulaiman 's wealth and worried about the business competition , plans to bankrupt him . Meringgih 's men destroy Sulaiman 's holdings , driving him to bankruptcy and forcing him to borrow money from Meringgih . When Meringgih tries to collect , Nurbaya offers to become his wife if he will forgive her father 's debt ; Datuk Meringgih accepts .
Writing to Samsu , Nurbaya tells him that they can never be together . However , after surviving Meringgih 's increasingly violent outbursts , she runs away to Batavia to be with Samsu . They fall in love again . Upon receiving a letter regarding her father 's death , Nurbaya hurries back to Padang , where she dies after unwittingly eating a cake poisoned by Meringgih 's men on his orders . Receiving news of her death by letter , Samsu seemingly commits suicide .
Ten years later , Meringgih leads an uprising against the Dutch colonial government to protest a recent tax increase . During the uprising , Samsu ( now a soldier for the Dutch ) meets Meringgih and kills him , but is mortally wounded himself . After meeting with his father and asking for forgiveness , he dies and is buried next to Nurbaya .
= = Characters = =
Sitti Nurbaya
Sitti Nurbaya ( sometimes spelled Siti Nurbaya ; abbreviated Nurbaya ) is the title character and one of the main protagonists . Indonesian short @-@ story writer and literary critic Muhammad Balfas describes her as a character who is capable of making her own decisions , indicated by her decision to marry Datuk Meringgih when he threatens her father , willingness to take control with Samsulbahri , and dismissal of Datuk Meringgih after the death of her father . She is also independent enough to move to Batavia to look for Samsulbahri on her own . Her actions are seen as being heavily against adat — the strong Indonesian cultural norms — and this eventually leads to her being poisoned . Her beauty , to the point that she is called " the flower of Padang " , is seen as a physical manifestation of her moral and kind nature .
Samsulbahri
Samsulbahri ( sometimes spelled Sjamsulbahri ; abbreviated Samsu ) is the primary male protagonist . He is described as having skin the colour of langsat , with eyes as black as ink ; however , from afar he can be confused with a Dutchman . These physical attributes have been described by Keith Foulcher , a lecturer of Indonesian language and literature at the University of Sydney , as indicating Samsu 's mimicry and collaborationist nature . His good looks are also seen as a physical manifestation of his moral and kind nature .
Datuk Meringgih
Datuk Meringgih is the primary antagonist of the story . He is a trader who originated from a poor family , and became rich as a result of shady business dealings . Indonesian writer and literary critic M. Balfas described Meringgih 's main motivations as greed and jealousy , being unable to " tolerate that there should be anyone wealthier than he " . Balfas writes that Datuk Meringgih is a character that is " drawn in black and white , but strong enough to create serious conflicts around him . " He later becomes the " champion of anti @-@ colonist resistance " , fuelled only by his own greed ; Foulcher argues that it is unlikely that Datuk Meringgih 's actions were an attempt by Rusli to insert anti @-@ Dutch commentary .
= = Style = =
According to Bakri Siregar , the diction in Sitti Nurbaya does not reflect Marah Rusli 's personal style , but a " Balai Pustaka style " of formal Malay , as required by the state @-@ owned publisher . As a result , Rusli 's orally @-@ influenced story telling technique , often wandering from the plot to describe something " at the whim of the author " , comes across as " lacking " .
Sitti Nurbaya includes pantuns ( Malay poetic forms ) and " clichéd descriptions " , although not as many as contemporary Minangkabau works . The pantuns are used by Nurbaya and Samsul in expressing their feelings for each other , such as the pantun
Its main messages are presented through debates between characters with a moral dichotomy , to show alternatives to the author 's position and " thereby present a reasoned case for [ its ] validation " . However , the " correct " ( author 's ) point of view is indicated by the social and moral standing of the character presenting the argument .
= = Themes = =
Sitti Nurbaya is generally seen as having an anti @-@ forced marriage theme or illustrating the conflict between Eastern and Western values . It has also been described as " a monument to the struggle of forward @-@ thinking youth " against Minangkabau adat .
However , Balfas writes that it is unjust to consider Sitti Nurbaya as only another forced marriage story , as the marriage of Nurbaya and Samsu would have been accepted by society . He instead writes that Sitti Nurbaya contrasts Western and traditional views of marriage , criticising the traditionally accepted dowry and polygamy .
= = Reception = =
Rusli 's family was not pleased with the novel ; his father condemned him in a letter , as a result of which Rusli never returned to Padang . His later novel , Anak dan Kemenakan ( 1958 ) was even more critical of older generation 's inflexibility .
Until at least 1930 , Sitti Nurbaya was one of Balai Pustaka 's most popular works , often being borrowed from lending libraries . After Indonesia 's independence , Sitti Nurbaya was taught as a classic of Indonesian literature ; this has led to it being " read more often in brief synopsis than as an original text by generation after generation of Indonesian high school students " . As of 2008 , it has seen 44 printings .
Sitti Nurbaya is generally considered one of the most important works of Indonesian literature , with its love story being compared to William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet and the Chinese legend of the Butterfly Lovers . Some Western critics , including Dutch critic A. Teeuw and writer A. H. Johns , consider it to be the first true Indonesian novel , as opposed to Azab dan Sengsara , which was less developed in its theme of forced marriage and the negative aspects of adat .
Teeuw wrote that the moral messages and sentimentality in Sitti Nurbaya are overdone , similar to Azab dan Sengsara . However , he considers the plot of Sitti Nurbaya more interesting for a reader from a Western background than the older novel .
Siregar wrote that Rusli " in many things acts as a dalang " , or puppet master , occasionally removing the characters in order to speak directly to the reader , making the message too one @-@ sided . He considered the plot to be forced in places , as if the author were preventing the story from flowing naturally . He considered Rusli a mouthpiece of the Dutch colonial government , who had controlled Indonesia since the early 17th century , for making Samsul , " the most sympathetic character " , a member of the Dutch forces and Datuk Meringgih , " the most antipathetic character " , the leader of Indonesian revolutionary forces , as well as for Rusli 's antipathy to Islam in the novel .
Sitti Nurbaya inspired numerous authors , including Nur Sutan Iskandar , who stated that he wrote Apa Dayaku Karena Aku Perempuan ( What Am I to Do Because I Am a Girl , 1924 ) as a direct result of reading it ; Iskandar later wrote Cinta yang Membawa Maut ( Love that Brings Death , 1926 ) , which deals with the same themes . The Sitti Nurbaya storyline has often been reused , to the point that Balfas has referred to similar plots as following " the ' Sitti Nurbaya ' formula " .
= = Adaptations = =
Sitti Nurbaya has been translated into numerous languages , including Malaysian in 1963 . It has been adapted into a sinetron ( soap opera ) twice . The first , in 1991 , was directed by Dedi Setiadi , and starred Novia Kolopaking in the leading role , Gusti Randa as Samsulbahri , and HIM Damsyik as Datuk Meringgih . The second , starting in December 2004 , was produced by MD Entertainment and broadcast on Trans TV . Directed by Encep Masduki and starring Nia Ramadhani as the title character , Ser Yozha Reza as Samsulbahri , and Anwar Fuady as Datuk Meringgih , the series introduced a new character as a competitor for Samsul 's affections .
In 2009 , Sitti Nurbaya was one of eight classics of Indonesian literature chosen by Taufik Ismail to be reprinted in a special Indonesian Cultural Heritage Series edition ; Sitti Nurbaya featured a West Sumatran @-@ style woven cloth cover . Actress Happy Salma was chosen as its celebrity icon .
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= Battle of The Cedars =
The Battle of The Cedars ( French : Les Cèdres ) was a series of military confrontations early in the American Revolutionary War during the Continental Army 's invasion of Quebec that had begun in September 1775 . The skirmishes , which involved limited combat , occurred in May 1776 at and around The Cedars , 45 km ( 28 mi ) west of Montreal , Quebec . Continental Army units were opposed by a small number of British troops leading a larger force of Indians ( primarily Iroquois ) , and militia .
Brigadier General Benedict Arnold , commanding the American military garrison at Montreal , had placed a detachment of his troops at The Cedars in April 1776 , after receiving rumors of British and Indian military preparations to the west of Montreal . The garrison surrendered on May 19 after a confrontation with a combined force of British and Indian troops led by Captain George Forster . American reinforcements on their way to The Cedars were also captured after a brief skirmish on May 20 . All of the captives were eventually released after negotiations between Forster and Arnold , who was bringing a sizable force into the area . The terms of the agreement required the Americans to release an equal number of British prisoners . However , the deal was repudiated by Congress , and no British prisoners were freed .
Colonel Timothy Bedel and Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield , leaders of the American force at The Cedars , were court @-@ martialed and cashiered from the Continental Army for their roles in the affair . After distinguishing himself as a volunteer , Bedel was given a new commission in 1777 . News of the affair included greatly inflated reports of casualties , and often included graphic but false accounts of atrocities committed by the Iroquois , who made up the majority of the British forces .
= = Background = =
The Cedars is located on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River , about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) from the center of modern Montreal , to the southwest of the western tip of the island of Montreal , from which it is separated by the Ottawa River . The nearby rapids in the Saint Lawrence required portage , making The Cedars a strategic landing point for anyone navigating the river to or from Montreal . Crossing of the Ottawa River was made between Fort Anne and Quinze @-@ Chênes , now Vaudreuil .
= = = Montreal = = =
In September 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War , a Continental Army under the direction first of Major General Philip Schuyler , and later of Brigadier General Richard Montgomery , invaded the British Province of Quebec . The city of Montreal was taken without a fight on November 13 , following the Siege of Fort St. Jean . Montgomery left a garrison of troops under the command of Major General David Wooster in control of Montreal before leading the rest of the army to Quebec City . The occupation of Montreal was poorly managed , and relations between the Americans and the population , including those supportive of the Americans , deteriorated for a variety of reasons . One major factor that contributed to the poor relations was the American interdiction of trade with the Indian populations on the upper St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes , since the trade goods might be used to support British garrisons in those areas . The fur trade was economically important to the city , and its absence affected both supporters and opponents of the American cause .
Following the American losses at the battle of Quebec at the end of 1775 , Wooster eventually led reinforcements to Quebec . He arrived early in April 1776 , and the military administration of Montreal passed temporarily to Colonel Moses Hazen before going to Brigadier General Benedict Arnold , who had been in command at Quebec . The American forces occupying the city numbered about 500 , with additional forces at posts outside the city . Wooster had reported to General Schuyler as early as March 5 of rumored scheming between British troops and Indians to the west of the city . In response to these alarming reports , as well as the unauthorized departures of two fur traders and Claude de Lorimier , a British Indian agent from Montreal , Hazen had sent 400 troops commanded by Colonel Timothy Bedel of Bedel 's Regiment to occupy a strategic position at The Cedars in early April . Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield led an advance force that arrived at The Cedars on April 26 and began construction of a wooden stockade fort , fortifying it with two 4 @-@ pound cannons . Bedel and the rest of the detachment arrived on May 6 .
= = = British call to arms = = =
The Indian agent Lorimier traveled west to Oswegatchie , where a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of George Forster had occupied Fort de La Présentation . Lorimier proposed recruiting a force of Indians to launch an attack on Continental forces at Montreal from the west . When Forster agreed , Lorimier went to Saint Regis , where he recruited 100 Mohawk men from Akwesasne . Word of these activities led the American rebels to fortify The Cedars .
At Fort Niagara in early May the Loyalist captain , John Butler , held a conference with several hundred tribesmen , primarily from the Six Nations of the Iroquois , in which his goal was to break pledges of neutrality some of them had made in 1775 . Butler , an experienced Indian agent , plied the natives with liquor and tales of combat ; he convinced more than 50 Seneca , Cayuga , and Onondaga warriors to join the British cause , as well as some warriors from further west . Historians are uncertain whether any of these recruits participated in the action at The Cedars , but it appears unlikely . Stanley ( 1973 ) is of the opinion that Indian participation was limited to those recruited by Lorimier , who went as far as Gananoque to recruit . Lanctot ( 1967 ) and Smith do not identify any specific tribes participating in the action .
James Stanley Goddard , one of the fur traders who left with Lorimier , traveled further west in an ultimately unsuccessful effort to raise an Indian force to oppose the Americans occupying Quebec . He reached Fort Michilimackinac in June , where the British commander , Captain Arent DePeyster , sent him recruiting among the Menominee and Winnebago tribes near Green Bay . DePeyster also sent out Joseph Ainsse , a local Indian interpreter , to recruit from tribes closer to the fort . None of the Indians recruited by these men reached Montreal until well after the Americans had left the city .
= = Prelude = =
Once forces began assembling at Oswegatchie , Lorimier made arrangements with a sympathetic priest near The Cedars for the provisioning of supplies for the troops . With the assistance of some men of the 8th Foot , he strategically hid several shallow @-@ draft boats , known as bateaux , near a point where the Saint Lawrence River could be crossed .
Forster left Oswegatchie on May 12 with about 40 regular troops , 10 British and French @-@ speaking Canadien militia , and 160 Iroquois . On May 14 , they picked up 44 more Iroquois at Saint Francis , and camped at the western end of Saint Francis Lake on May 16 . On May 17 , Forster received scouting reports about the troop strength at The Cedars . The Indians were concerned about the number of troops , but news that the Americans were in retreat from the city of Quebec emboldened them to act .
On May 15 , Bedel left The Cedars , leaving Butterfield in charge of the fort . Bedel later claimed that the reason for his departure was to meet with the friendly Caughnawaga Indians . In his court martial , the judges concluded this claim was suspect . He returned to Montreal and reported that a force of 150 British troops of the 8th Foot and about 500 Iroquois commanded by Forster was approaching . On this news , Colonel John Paterson sent Major Henry Sherburne with 140 men from his regiment toward The Cedars . Arnold , who was meeting with the retreating Continental Army command at Sorel , returned to Montreal when the news reached him and set about organizing a larger relief force .
= = Battle = =
= = = The Cedars = = =
Forster 's force landed near the American @-@ occupied fort on May 18 , and sent in a demand for surrender . Butterfield countered with a request to withdraw under arms , which Forster refused . The parties exchanged fire . During the course of the exchange , Forster received word that Sherburne had crossed the Ottawa River from the island of Montreal to Quinze @-@ Chênes , but , believing The Cedars to have fallen already , had retreated back across the river . This news caused the besiegers to redouble their efforts the next day . Additional help arrived for the British in the form of about 40 Canadiens under Jean @-@ Baptiste Testard de Montigny ; Forster sent them to harass Sherburne . Word then came to Forster that Sherburne had resumed his advance ; Butterfield , unaware of this , surrendered the fort . The terms of capitulation included a guarantee of the personal safety of the captured men . The Iroquois plundered the fort 's stores , and denied some of the captives small pouches of sometimes valuable personal items .
= = = Quinze @-@ Chênes = = =
Sherburne reached Fort Anne , across the Ottawa River from Quinze @-@ Chênes , on May 17 . A scout he sent across the river the next day was captured by Lorimier . The scout was allowed to notify Sherburne of his capture ; in his message he included a claim that 500 Indians had surrounded the fort at The Cedars . Consequently , Sherburne decided to delay crossing the river , and sent word back to Montreal requesting further assistance .
Sherburne decided to advance on May 20 . Some of his men were apparently suffering from the aftereffects of smallpox , so these were left behind . Sherburne landed about 100 of his men at Quinze @-@ Chênes , about 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) from The Cedars . When word of this crossing reached Forster , he ordered Lorimier to take 100 Indians and stop Sherburne . Lorimier was at first only able to raise 40 warriors , but was joined on the way by another 40 . Sherburne , not realizing that Butterfield had already surrendered , marched his troops right at Lorimier 's advancing force . They fought for about 40 minutes before Sherburne , believing he was being attacked by a much larger force , surrendered . The Iroquois claimed these captives as war spoils , since they were not part of the fort 's garrison , and prepared to kill some of them in retaliation for their own losses . Only the intervention of Forster , who paid a ransom , prevented this ; it did not prevent the Iroquois from stripping the prisoners of all but their clothes .
= = = Arnold 's relief = = =
Following his successes , Forster moved his forces , including all of the prisoners , down to Quinze @-@ Chênes , where more Loyalist militia had assembled . Leaving some of the prisoners there , he advanced on May 23 to Fort Senneville , a fortified works located on the southwest tip of Montreal island that was owned by Montigny . In the meantime , Arnold gathered most of the few remaining forces in Montreal , and sent requests to the outposts around the city for additional troops . By May 24 , he was entrenched at Lachine , south of the city , and his force had reached 450 men . Forster began to advance on Lachine , but decided to retreat back to Quinze @-@ Chênes when his scouts notified him of Arnold 's position . He also received intelligence from Montreal that Arnold 's force was going to be massively reinforced — the reported number of reinforcements was 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 men , more than Arnold had available in the area .
Once his scouts reported Forster 's retreat , Arnold gave chase . He reached Fort Senneville ( which he burned ) on May 26 , just as Forster 's men were landing on the far shore at Quinze @-@ Chênes . Arnold decided to send a group of Caughnawagas , who were friendly to the Americans , with a demand that Forster release his prisoners and a threat that he would destroy area Indian villages if any of the prisoners were harmed . Forster countered that he would permit his Indians to kill the prisoners if Arnold attacked . Arnold attempted to cross the Ottawa River with a number of his men in bateaux , but Forster used the four @-@ pounders captured at The Cedars to drive them back .
Arnold called a war council so the Americans could consider their options . He wanted to mount a surprise attack the next morning ; Hazen , who had acquired significant experience fighting Indians in the French and Indian War , argued against the idea . The disagreement between the two men was severe enough that it nearly provoked Arnold to file charges of insubordination against Hazen . The council decided not to act , voting Arnold 's proposed attack down . Early in the morning of May 27 , a boat crossed the river carrying Sherburne and Forster 's deputy , Lieutenant Parke . Forster , whose forces were somewhat reduced as some of the Indians had returned to their homes , had negotiated a prisoner exchange with Sherburne and Butterfield . After further negotiations , both Arnold and Forster agreed to terms . The American prisoners were returned to Arnold at Fort Anne on May 30 , after being delayed for two days by high winds on the river .
= = Aftermath = =
The Americans never held up their side of the prisoner exchange . Formally repudiating the agreement over the protests of George Washington , Congress accused Forster of mistreating American prisoners by turning them over to the Indians . In a breach of etiquette , the letter containing the repudiation was delivered to Lieutenant General John Burgoyne , instead of the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief and governor of the province , Guy Carleton . The Congressional action may have been tainted by overly lurid accounts of the action — Charles Carroll , part of a Congressional delegation that was in Montreal at the time , reported that " a hundred or more [ American troops ] were barbarously murdered by savages . " Arnold 's report of the incident included otherwise unsubstantiated allegations that two prisoners were killed by Forster 's Indians . Some histories of the action ( for example , the 1882 history by Jones ) include accounts of significant atrocities committed by the Indians , but little supporting evidence has been found . The Congressional repudiation complicated an attempted prisoner exchange in 1781 involving Burgoyne and Henry Laurens , a congressman from South Carolina whom the British were holding in the Tower of London ; Laurens was eventually freed in exchange for a promise to help negotiate Lord Cornwallis 's release .
Arnold initially blamed Bedel for the defeat . He removed both Bedel and Butterfield from command and sent them to Sorel for court @-@ martial . Due to the army 's retreat , the two men were not tried until August 1 , 1776 at Fort Ticonderoga . Both were convicted and cashiered from the army . Bedel continued to volunteer his services , and following Burgoyne 's surrender at Saratoga in October 1777 , he was given a new commission by Congress .
The site of some of the skirmishes was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1928 .
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= Bert Trautmann =
Bernhard Carl " Bert " Trautmann , OBE ( 22 October 1923 – 19 July 2013 ) was a German professional footballer who played for Manchester City from 1949 to 1964 .
Brought up during times of inter @-@ war strife in Germany , Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe early in the Second World War , serving as a paratrooper . He fought on the Eastern Front for three years , earning five medals , including an Iron Cross . Later in the war , he was transferred to the Western Front , where he was captured by the British as the war drew to a close . One of only 90 of his original 1 @,@ 000 @-@ man regiment to survive the war , he was transferred to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Ashton @-@ in @-@ Makerfield , Lancashire . Trautmann refused an offer of repatriation , and following his release in 1948 , settled in Lancashire , combining farm work with playing goalkeeper for a local football team , St Helens Town .
Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an outstanding goalkeeper , resulting in interest from Football League clubs . In October 1949 , he signed for Manchester City , a club playing in the country 's highest level of football , the First Division . The club 's decision to sign a former Axis paratrooper sparked protests and 20 @,@ 000 people attended a demonstration . Over time , he gained acceptance through his performances in the City goal , playing in all but five of the club 's next 250 matches .
Named FWA Footballer of the Year for 1956 , Trautmann entered football folklore with his performance in the 1956 FA ( Football Association ) Cup Final . With 17 minutes of the match remaining , Trautmann suffered a serious injury while diving at the feet of Birmingham City 's Peter Murphy . Despite his injury , he continued to play , making crucial saves to preserve his team 's 3 – 1 lead . His neck was noticeably crooked as he collected his winner 's medal ; three days later an X @-@ ray revealed it to be broken .
Trautmann played for Manchester City until 1964 , making 545 appearances . After his playing career , he moved into management , first with lower @-@ division sides in England and Germany , and later as part of a German Football Association development scheme that took him to several countries , including Burma , Tanzania and Pakistan . In 2004 , he was appointed an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for promoting Anglo @-@ German understanding through football . Trautmann died at home in Valencia , Spain , on 19 July 2013 , aged 89 .
= = Early life in Germany = =
Trautmann was born on 22 October 1923 in Walle , a middle class area in west Bremen , living with his father who worked in a fertiliser factory by the docks , and his mother Frieda , a housewife . He had a brother , Karl @-@ Heinz , three years his junior , with whom he enjoyed a close relationship . The bleak economic climate of the early 1930s forced the Trautmanns to sell their house and move to an apartment block in the working class area of Gröpelingen , where Bernhard lived until 1941 .
The young Bernhard had a keen interest in sport , playing football , handball and völkerball ( a form of dodgeball ) . To this end , he joined the YMCA and football club Blau und Weiss . He took to playing for the football club with enthusiasm , but the YMCA activities did not interest him to the same extent .
In August 1933 , he joined a new organisation , the Jungvolk , a precursor to the Hitler Youth . The following year , he won several local junior athletics events and was awarded a certificate for athletic excellence signed by Paul von Hindenburg , the President of Germany . At the onset of the Second World War , Trautmann was working as an apprentice motor mechanic .
= = Second World War = =
Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe as a radio operator in 1941 . During training , he showed little aptitude for radio work , and transferred to Spandau to become a Fallschirmjäger ( paratrooper ) . He served first in Occupied Poland , though being stationed far behind the front line resulted in boredom for his regiment , which resorted to sports and practical jokes to pass the time . One such practical joke involving a car backfired on Trautmann , resulting in a staff sergeant burning his arms . Trautmann was court @-@ martialled , and received a three @-@ month prison sentence . At the start of his confinement , Trautmann came down with acute appendicitis , and spent the remainder of his sentence in a military hospital .
In October 1941 , he rejoined the 35th Infantry Division at Dnepropetrovsk , Ukraine , where the German advance had halted . Over @-@ winter hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Soviet Army supply routes were the unit 's main focus and in spring , Trautmann was promoted to Unteroffizier ( corporal ) . Gains were made in 1942 , but the Soviet counter @-@ offensive hit Trautmann 's unit hard , and by the time it was withdrawn from the Eastern Front , only 300 of the original 1 @,@ 000 men remained . Trautmann won five medals for his actions on the Eastern Front , including an Iron Cross First Class .
Promoted to Feldwebel ( sergeant ) , Trautmann was part of a unit formed from the remnants of several others which had been decimated in the east , and moved to France in anticipation of the Allied invasion of Normandy . In 1944 , he was one of the few survivors of the Allied bombing of Kleve , and with no unit left decided to head home to Bremen . By this point , German soldiers without valid leave papers were being shot as deserters , so Trautmann sought to avoid troops from either side . However , a few days later , he was captured in a barn by two American soldiers . Deciding that Trautmann had no useful intelligence to give them , the soldiers marched him out of the barn with his hands raised . Fearing he was about to be executed , Trautmann fled . After evading his captors , he jumped over a fence , only to land at the feet of a British soldier , who greeted him with the words " Hello Fritz , fancy a cup of tea ? " Earlier in the war , he had been captured by the Russians and later the French Resistance , but escaped both times . With the war drawing to a close , Trautmann did not attempt a third escape .
He was imprisoned near Ostend , Belgium , then transferred to a transit camp in Essex , where he was interrogated . As a volunteer soldier who had been subject to indoctrination from a young age , he was classified a category " C " prisoner by the authorities , meaning he was regarded as a Nazi . Trautmann , one of only 90 of his original regiment to survive the war , was then transferred to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp at Marbury Hall , near Northwich , Cheshire , and interned with other category " C " prisoners . He was soon downgraded to non @-@ Nazi " B " status , after which he was taken to Fort Crosby in Hightown near Liverpool where he stayed for a short while working on local farms and mixing with the locals , from here he was sent to PoW Camp 50 ( now Byrchall High School ) in Ashton @-@ in @-@ Makerfield in Lancashire between St Helens and Wigan , where he stayed until 1948 .
Football matches were regularly held at the camp , in which Trautmann played outfield . However , in a match against amateur team Haydock Park , Trautmann was injured while playing centre @-@ half . He swapped positions with goalkeeper Günther Lühr , and from that day forward played as a goalkeeper . During this time he became known as " Bert " , as the English had trouble pronouncing " Bernd " , the abbreviated version of his name .
= = Early football career = =
With closure of the PoW camp imminent , Trautmann declined an offer of repatriation and stayed in England , working on a farm in Milnthorpe then subsequently working on bomb disposal in Huyton .
In August , 1948 he started playing amateur football for the non @-@ league Liverpool County Combination club St Helens Town , through which he met the club secretary 's daughter , Margaret Friar , whom he later married . Over the course of the 1948 – 49 season , Trautmann 's goalkeeping reputation steadily grew and a series of large crowds were attributed to his performances , including a record 9 @,@ 000 attendance in the final of a local cup competition , the Mahon Cup . The success of that season elevated the club into Division Two of the Lancashire Combination League for the start of 1949 – 50 .
= = Joins Manchester City = =
Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an able goalkeeper , resulting in interest from Football League clubs . As the following season commenced , a number of League clubs showed interest in signing him . The first to offer him a contract was Manchester City , a club playing in the highest level of football in the country , the First Division . On 7 October 1949 Trautmann signed for the club as an amateur and turned professional shortly after . Trautmann became the first sportsman in Britain to wear Adidas , thanks to his friendship with Adolf Dassler .
= = = Supporter discontent = = =
Some Manchester City fans were unhappy about signing a former member of the Luftwaffe . Season ticket holders threatened a boycott , and various groups in Manchester and around the country bombarded the club with protest letters . In addition to this difficulty , Trautmann was replacing the recently retired Frank Swift , one of the greatest keepers in the club 's history . Though privately expressing doubts about the signing , the club captain , Eric Westwood , a Normandy veteran , made a public display of welcoming Trautmann by announcing , " There 's no war in this dressing room " . Trautmann made his first team debut on 19 November against Bolton Wanderers , and after a competent display in his first home match , protests shrank as fans discovered his talent . He continued to receive abuse from crowds at away matches , which affected his concentration in some early games ; in December 1949 , he conceded seven goals at Derby County .
City 's match against Fulham in January 1950 was Trautmann 's first visit to London . The match received widespread media attention , as most of the British press were based there ; several leading sportswriters watched Trautmann in action for the first time . The damage caused to the city by the Luftwaffe meant former paratrooper Trautmann was a target of hatred for the crowd , who yelled " Kraut " and " Nazi " . City were struggling in the league , and widely expected to suffer a heavy defeat but a string of saves from Trautmann meant the final score was a narrow 1 – 0 loss . At the final whistle , Trautmann received a standing ovation , and was applauded off the pitch by both sets of players . The Manchester City team struggled throughout the season , and was relegated to the Second Division .
= = = Early Manchester City career = = =
Manchester City returned to the top flight at its first attempt , and in the following years Trautmann established himself as one of the best keepers in the league , playing in all but five of his club 's next 250 league matches . By 1952 , his fame had spread to his home country , leading Schalke 04 to offer Manchester City £ 1 @,@ 000 for his services . The offer was refused ; the club responded that they thought Trautmann to be worth twenty times more .
In the mid @-@ 1950s , the Manchester City manager Les McDowall introduced a new tactical system using a deep @-@ lying centre @-@ forward , which became known as the Revie Plan after Don Revie who played centre @-@ forward . The system depended on maintaining possession of the ball wherever possible , which required Trautmann to make use of his throwing ability . For goalkeepers of Trautmann 's era , it was usual to kick the ball as far as possible downfield after making a save . By contrast , Trautmann , influenced by the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics , sought to start attacks by throwing the ball to a wing @-@ half , typically Ken Barnes or John McTavish . The wing @-@ half then passed to Revie to develop the attack .
= = 1955 FA Cup Final = =
Using the Revie Plan , Manchester City reached the 1955 FA Cup Final , in which Trautmann became the first German to play in an FA Cup final . City faced Newcastle United , winners of the cup in 1951 and 1952 . Nerves affected the City players , and they went behind to a Jackie Milburn goal after only 45 seconds . Further problems were caused by the loss of Jimmy Meadows to injury after 18 minutes , leaving City with 10 men , a disadvantage that meant Trautmann 's ability to start attacks from throws was limited . Though City equalised in the first half , they struggled in the second , and after 57 minutes Trautmann was outwitted by Bobby Mitchell , who scored Newcastle 's second goal . The match finished as a comfortable 3 – 1 win for Newcastle , and Trautmann gained a runners @-@ up medal .
= = 1956 FA Cup Final = =
Manchester City had a strong season in 1955 – 56 , finishing fourth in the league and reached the FA Cup final against Birmingham City . Trautmann , one of the team 's most prominent performers , won the FWA Footballer of the Year Award shortly before the match , the first goalkeeper to win the award . Two days later , Trautmann stepped out onto the Wembley pitch for the match that would gain him worldwide acclaim .
During the previous final , nerves had contributed to the opposition scoring an early goal , but the City team was more settled on this occasion . Under the influence of Don Revie who was outstanding on the day , City scored an early goal , a left @-@ footed strike by Joe Hayes . Birmingham equalised on 14 minutes . The match remained level until midway through the second half , when Jack Dyson and Bobby Johnstone scored two goals in as many minutes to give Manchester City a 3 – 1 lead . Birmingham attacked strongly in the next ten minutes . In the 75th minute , Trautmann , diving at an incoming ball , was knocked out in a collision with Birmingham 's Peter Murphy in which he was hit in the neck by Murphy 's right knee . No substitutes were permitted in those days , so Trautmann , dazed and unsteady on his feet , carried on . For the remaining 15 minutes he defended his net , making a crucial interception to deny Murphy once more . Manchester City held on for the victory , and Trautmann was the hero because of his spectacular saves in the last minutes of the match . Trautmann admitted later that he had spent the last part of the match " in a kind of fog " .
His neck continued to cause him pain , and Prince Philip commented on its crooked state as he gave Trautmann his winner 's medal . Trautmann attended that evening 's post @-@ match banquet despite being unable to move his head , and went to bed expecting the injury to heal with rest . As the pain did not recede , the following day he went to St George 's Hospital , where he was told he merely had a crick in his neck which would go away . Three days later , he got a second opinion from a doctor at Manchester Royal Infirmary . An X @-@ ray revealed he had dislocated five vertebrae , the second of which was cracked in two . The third vertebra had wedged against the second , preventing further damage which could have cost Trautmann his life .
= = = Recovery from injury = = =
Trautmann 's convalescence took several months , resulting in him missing a large part of the 1956 – 57 season . Jack Savage deputised during his absence . At the start of December , Trautmann played two reserve matches , but lacked confidence . He was restored to the first team on 15 December for a match against Wolverhampton Wanderers , but conceded three goals . He struggled to regain his form in the remainder of the season , leading to calls from some fans and media for him to retire . Others criticised the club , believing that Trautmann had been forced to play while still not fully recovered from injury .
The 1957 – 58 season was an unusual one for Manchester City , which became the first and thus far only English team to both score and concede 100 goals in a season . Trautmann played in 34 matches , and though he did not play in the 9 – 2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion , an 8 – 4 defeat to Leicester City was a record for the most goals conceded by Trautmann in a match in his career , and in the entire season he kept only two clean sheets .
= = Testimonial = =
Trautmann appeared in 545 matches for City during the 15 @-@ year period between 1949 and 1964 .
On 15 April 1964 , he ended his career with a testimonial in front of a crowd officially numbered at 47 @,@ 000 , though the true figure was estimated to be closer to 60 @,@ 000 . Trautmann captained a combined Manchester City and Manchester United XI that included Bobby Charlton and Denis Law , against an International XI that included Tom Finney , Stanley Matthews , Ronnie Clayton and Jimmy Armfield .
= = International football = =
Though recognised as one of the leading goalkeepers of his era , he never played for his native country . Trautmann met with the German national coach , Sepp Herberger , in 1953 , who explained that travel and political implications prevented him from selecting a player who was not readily available , and that he could only consider including Trautmann if he were playing in a German league . Consequently , Trautmann 's international isolation prevented him from playing in the 1954 World Cup , in which his countrymen were victorious . Trautmann 's only experience of international football came in 1960 , when the Football League decided to include non @-@ English players in the Football League representative team for the first time . Trautmann captained the League against the Irish League , and also played against the Italian League .
= = Later career = =
After leaving City , Trautmann played briefly for Wellington Town , who offered him £ 50 per match . Age had diminished his abilities , but his debut at Hereford showed he still had the ability to draw crowds . However , he was sent off at Tonbridge for violent conduct in his second match , and never played again .
= = Style of play = =
Trautmann excelled at shot @-@ stopping , particularly penalties , saving 60 % of those he faced over the course of his career . The Manchester United manager Matt Busby mentioned Trautmann 's anticipation in his pre @-@ match team talks : " Don 't stop to think where you 're going to hit it with Trautmann . Hit it first and think afterwards . If you look up and work it out he will read your thoughts and stop it . " Similar sentiments were expressed by the Manchester City forward Neil Young , who recalled that " the only way to beat him with a shot in training was to mis @-@ hit it " . As a former handball player , Trautmann was adept at throwing the ball long distances , an attribute he used to start attacking moves , particularly after witnessing the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics use such tactics to good effect in Hungary 's 6 – 3 victory over England in 1953 .
Trautmann found it difficult to accept criticism , and allowed only close friends to suggest changes to his game . He occasionally dwelt on mistakes to the detriment of his concentration , a tendency his friend Stan Wilson called " picking at daisies " . A short temper also caused occasional problems ; he was sent off on more than one occasion .
= = Coaching career = =
After a couple of months pondering his future career plans , he received a telephone call from the Stockport County chairman , Victor Bernard , who offered him the position of general manager . Stockport was a struggling lower league club with a small budget , and Trautmann 's appointment was an attempt to improve its image . Many people in the local area supported one of the two Manchester clubs , so to stimulate interest Trautmann and Bernard decided to move matches to Friday evenings , when neither Manchester club would be playing . This improved revenue , but the team continued to struggle . Trautmann resigned in 1966 following a disagreement with Bernard . From 1967 to 1968 , he was the manager of the German team Preußen Münster , taking them to a 13th @-@ place finish in the Regionalliga West , following which he had a short spell at Opel Rüsselsheim .
The German Football Association then sent him as a development worker to countries without national football structures . His first posting was in Myanmar ( Burma ) , where he spent two years as the national coach , qualifying for the Olympics in 1972 , and winning the President 's Cup , a tournament contested by south @-@ east Asian countries , later that year . His work subsequently took him to managing Tanzania , Liberia , Pakistan and North Yemen , until 1988 , when he retired and settled in Spain .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Over the course of his career , Trautmann received many plaudits from leading football figures . The Russian goalkeeper Lev Yashin , himself considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time , believed that Trautmann and himself were the " only ... two world @-@ class goalkeepers " .
Trautmann 's idiosyncratic style of play also had an influence on budding young goalkeepers at the height of his career . The former Arsenal goalkeeper Bob Wilson names Trautmann as his boyhood hero , and Gordon Banks cited him as an influence on his playing style .
Media outlets have since recognised Trautmann 's reputation , with Trautmann placed unofficially as the 19th greatest goalkeeper of all @-@ time by the Daily Mail . ESPN consider Trautmann as one of the greatest FA Cup goalkeepers , with Trautmann representing Manchester City in two consecutive FA Cup finals in 1955 and 1956 while his lunge at Peter Murphy 's feet to grasp the ball in the 1956 FA Cup Final is rated as the greatest FA Cup save – a save that broke Trautmann 's neck .
In November 1995 , Trautmann returned to Maine Road to open the rebuilt Kippax Stand . However , the stand was gone within a decade : in May 2003 the club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium , Maine Road was closed and its stadium demolished the following year .
= = Awards = =
In 1997 Trautmann received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany . He was appointed an honorary OBE in 2004 for his work in Anglo @-@ German relations , and received the award at the British Embassy in Berlin . The following night , at a concert given by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra , he met the Queen . " Ah , Herr Trautmann . I remember you , " she said . " Have you still got that pain in your neck ? "
In 2005 , he was inducted into the National Football Museum 's Hall of Fame . He continued to follow Manchester City and visited Manchester to watch them play , as recently as April 2010 . Trautmann said during his visit , " I watch all City 's games on TV , they 're still my club " , and added , " I love England too and still shout for them – even if they 're playing Germany ! " In 1999 , he had also appeared in the BBC Timewatch programme episode " The Germans We Kept " , recounting the experiences of German prisoners of war who decided to remain in the UK .
= = Personal life = =
Trautmann married a St Helens woman , Margaret Friar , in 1950 , but they divorced in the 1960s . ( Catrine Clay Trautmann 's Journey p . 259 ) The couple had three children , John , Mark and Stephen . John , his firstborn son , was killed in a car accident a few months after the FA Cup Final in 1956 , aged five . According to Trautmann , his wife 's struggle to come to terms with the loss ultimately resulted in the breakup of their marriage . He also had a daughter from a previous relationship from whom he was estranged for many years . He married Ursula von der Heyde , a German national , while living in Burma in the 1970s , but divorced in 1982 . From 1990 , Trautmann lived with his third wife Marlis in a small bungalow on the Spanish coast near Valencia . He since helped found the Trautmann Foundation , which continues his legacy by fostering courage and sportsmanship .
Trautmann 's autobiography Steppes to Wembley was published in 1956 .
= = Death = =
Trautmann died at home in Spain on 19 July 2013 at the age of 89 . He had suffered two heart attacks earlier in the year . The president of the German Football Association , Wolfgang Niersbach , said that Trautmann was " an amazing sportsman and a true gentleman ... a legend " . Bob Wilson , a former Arsenal goalkeeper , tweeted , " Amazing man who helped bring our warring countries closer together " . Joe Corrigan , a former Manchester City goalkeeper , said Trautmann was " a fantastic man and was one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time " .
= = Honours = =
Manchester City
FA Cup : 1956
Individual
FWA Footballer of the Year : 1956
Member of the English Football Hall of Fame
= = Career statistics = =
Sources : Rowlands , Trautmann : The Biography , p . 252 ; James , Manchester City : The Complete Record , pp. 367 – 395 .
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= Hurricane Debby ( 2000 ) =
Hurricane Debby caused minor damage in the Greater and Lesser Antilles in August 2000 . The seventh tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the annual season , Debby developed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on August 19 . Favorable conditions allowed the depression to become Tropical Storm Debby early on August 20 , and further strengthening into a hurricane occurred 24 hours later . Sustained winds peaked at 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) on August 21 . Debby made three landfalls on August 22 , in Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , and Virgin Gorda , before re @-@ entering the Atlantic north of Puerto Rico . As Debby moved parallel to the north coast of Hispaniola late on August 23 , it weakened back to a tropical storm . The storm tracked westward and weakened further , instead of approaching Florida and strengthening into a major hurricane . While south of eastern Cuba on August 24 , Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression , six hours before completely dissipating .
Light rainfall and gusty winds caused minor damage in Barbuda , Saint Martin , and Trinidad and Tobago . In the United States Virgin Islands , brief blackouts and damage reaching $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) was reported . Effects were most severe in Puerto Rico , where isolated locations experienced more than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall . The heavy precipitation resulted in mudslides and flooding , which in turn damaged roads , bridges , and houses . At least 406 homes on the island were flooded , five of which suffered moderate to severe damage . Additionally , there were many car accidents in San Juan due to slick roads . One indirectly fatality was reported after a man fell off his roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish . Damage on the island of Puerto Rico reached $ 501 @,@ 000 . In Dominican Republic , the Civil Defense Force reported that severe flooding in the northern portions of that country caused the evacuation of more than 700 people . Overall , the storm caused roughly $ 35 @,@ 000 in damage across the island . Impact was lesser in Haiti , where squalls tore tin roofs off of numerous shanty homes and subsequently flooded a few . Additionally , rainfall in Cuba brought relief to an 8 month long drought impacting the region .
= = Meteorological history = =
A strong tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 16 . By the following day , an area of low pressure was noted near 10 ° N 30 ° W. However , Dvorak classifications were not be initiated due to insignificant convective banding . At 0000 UTC on August 18 , the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) indicated a low @-@ level circulation , though the system was still considered " too weak to classify " . The TAFB released an initial classification later that day at 1145 UTC . Convective banding had increased , though the system as a whole was poorly organized . It then began to gradually organize while moving westward at approximately 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) . By late on August 19 , convection had consolidated around a well @-@ defined center of circulation . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Seven developed at 1800 UTC , while located about 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Windward Islands . In the initial advisory by the National Hurricane Center , the agency noted a large area of convection , weak vertical wind shear , warm sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) , all of which produced a favorable environment for intensification .
The depression strengthened and became Tropical Storm Debby at 0000 UTC on August 20 . Operationally , it was not upgraded to a tropical storm until 15 hours later . After classification , the center of circulation was difficult to locate due to the re @-@ organization of convection . Although the circulation remained relatively disorganized , the central dense overcast ( CDO ) associated with Debby was large , symmetrical , and had cold cloud tops . By 0600 UTC on August 21 , Debby had strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . Despite reconnaissance aircraft flight reports of sustained winds ranging from 92 to 101 mph ( 148 to 163 km / h ) , Debby was not upgraded to a hurricane . Six hours later , the storm reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Additionally , Debby attained its minimum barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on August 22 . It was operationally not upgraded to a hurricane until 0900 UTC on August 22 , due to a poorly defined circulation . Hurricane @-@ force winds were very concentrated , extending only 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the storm 's center of circulation .
At 0600 UTC on August 22 , Debby made landfall in Barbuda with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . A few hours later , the storm also struck Saint Barthélemy at the same intensity . It made a third landfall in Virgin Gorda with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , at 1500 UTC on August 22 . In an advisory issued later that day , the National Hurricane Center noted that although the agency anticipated further strengthening , it would not be " significant " in the short @-@ term , due to Debby 's rapid movement west @-@ northwestward and potential land interaction with Hispaniola . Late on August 22 , the storm passed about 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Puerto Rico . Early on August 23 , computer models varied extensively with the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GDFL ) model , regarded by the National Hurricane Center as an " extreme outlier " , depicting a 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) low pressure area over the Florida Keys on August 26 . Due to increasing southwesterly wind shear , Debby began to weaken and was downgraded to a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on August 23 , while situated north of Dominican Republic .
Beginning late on August 23 , it was predicted that Debby would re @-@ strengthen , as SSTs were between 84 and 86 ° F ( 29 and 30 ° C ) and the storm was anticipated to resume the original west @-@ northwest movement , reducing land interaction . However , Debby curved westward and continued to become increasingly disorganized , with the low @-@ level circulation being displaced well west of the main , deep convective area . Early on August 24 , the storm entered the Windward Passage and began passing south of Cuba . The National Hurricane Center continued to predict re @-@ intensification , but noted the potential for degeneration into a tropical wave during the next few days in its advisory at 0900 UTC on August 24 , due to persistent wind shear . Three hours later , Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression . The storm degenerated into a tropical wave at 1800 UTC on August 24 , while located south of Cuba .
= = Preparations = =
Several storm warnings were issued for the Greater and Lesser Antilles to warn residents of the approaching storm . In Philipsburg , Sint Maarten , several shops in the downtown area were boarded up to prepare for Debby 's approach . Elsewhere along the range of the cyclone 's predicted path , homes and businesses were boarded up , and families buried emergency supplies in the ground . Ten United States Navy ships and two submarines off the Coast of Vieques Island temporarily abandoned training exercises and moved over 300 miles ( 480 km ) to the south of Puerto Rico , out of the storm predicted path . On Antigua , electricity was shutoff to prevent storm damage to the island 's infrastructure . When the hurricane moved into the coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands , the Hovensa oil refinery in St. Croix was shut down , and as a result gas prices rose .
Around 7 @,@ 000 people in Cuba were evacuated to avoid the oncoming hurricane . Several shelters were opened by the Montserrat Red Cross on Montserrat , but few people sought refuge in them . Over 40 shelters were ready for use in Nassau , Bahamas , even though Debby never affected the island . A total of 889 people in the northern coastal plains were evacuated and placed in shelters out of Debby path . Three shelters were opened for the coming of Debby in Saint Thomas , and another two in Saint John . The total number of people in all five shelters only reached 64 . An additional 17 people took refuge in an unknown number of shelters on St. Croix .
In addition , many tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in the Greater and Lesser Antilles . At 2100 UTC on August 20 , a hurricane watch was issued for Sint Maarten , Saba , and Sint Eustatius , while there was a tropical storm watch for Antigua , Barbuda , and Anguilla . Early on August 21 , the hurricane watch was expanded to include the United States Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico . Additionally , the tropical storm watch was extended out to the British Virgin Islands , Guadeloupe , Montserrat , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and Saint Martin . A hurricane warning was issued for Guadeloupe , Puerto Rico , and the Virgin Islands late on August 21 . In Dominica , both a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch were reported , while a tropical storm watch was put into effect in Dominican Republic . At 0300 UTC on August 22 , a hurricane watch was issued for Haiti north of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince as was a tropical storm warning in Dominican Republic from Palenque to Cabrera . An hour later , a tropical storm watch was put into effect for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands . By 0900 UTC on August 22 , Dominican Republic 's entire north coast was under a hurricane warning . Additionally , the tropical storm watch for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands was upgraded to a hurricane watch .
The hurricane warning for Antigua , Barbuda , Guadeloupe , Montserrat , and St. Kitts and Nevis was discontinued at 1200 UTC on August 22 , as was the tropical storm warning for Dominica . Three hours later , a hurricane warning was issued for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , and another hurricane watch was posted for the central Bahamas . Additionally , the hurricane warning for Saba , Sint Eustatius , Sint Maarten , was discontinued . At 2100 UTC on August 22 , a hurricane watch was issued in Cuba for the provinces of Holguín and Las Tunas , while a tropical storm warning was issued for Haiti north of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . The hurricane warning for the United States Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico was lowered to a tropical storm warning , before being canceled early on August 23 . Additionally , all watches and warning east of the United States Virgin Islands were discontinued . On August 23 , a hurricane warning was issued for the central Bahamas and Cuba in the provinces of Guantanamo , Holguín , and Las Tunas . A hurricane watch was put into effect for the northwestern Bahamas and Cuba in Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila on the north coast and Santiago de Cuba and Granma on the south coast . By 1500 UTC on August 25 , all of the remaining tropical cyclone watches and warnings were cancelled .
Although the hurricane was still situated far from Florida , a state of emergency was declared for the Florida Keys . Non @-@ residents in Monroe County were forced to leave , causing a significant reduction in the tourism for the year 2000 . For a period of time , forecasters predicted Debby to approach the Florida Keys as a Category 2 hurricane , while the GDFL predicted a much more intense Debby near the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane with a minimum central pressure of 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
= = Impact = =
Because of the relatively weak and disorganized nature of the storm , impact throughout its path was widespread , but not particularly severe . Puerto Rico bore the brunt of the storm , followed by the United States Virgin Islands , then the Dominican Republic . Debby was attributed to about $ 735 @,@ 000 in damage and 1 indirect fatality , which occurred in Puerto Rico when a man fell off a roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Throughout the Leeward Islands , gusty winds damaged fruit trees and downed power lines . Wind gusts estimated to have reached 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) lashed Anguilla . Some trees were destroyed , and electrical poles and power lines were downed . In Antigua , downed utility poles and trees were spotted . Precipitation totals in Antigua peaked at 0 @.@ 91 inches ( 23 mm ) . Rainfall on the island of Barbuda reached 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . Debby caused moderate roof damage to several structures and destroyed a few sheds and fruit trees . Sint Maarten reported little rainfall as the storm almost uneventfully passed over the island , causing mostly minor flooding and vegetation damage . Losses reached $ 750 @,@ 000 , though it was entirely from cruise ship cancellations and closed businesses . With damage nearly nonexistent , the Sint Maarten Tourism Bureau remarked that Debby " was the weakest hurricane St. Maarten experienced in several years . "
On Saint Barthélemy , wind gusts as strong as 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Gustavia were reported . Wind damage was minor , limited to some downed trees and power poles . Rainfall totals were very light , ranging from 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 98 inches ( 15 to 25 mm ) . Tides on the island reached about 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) above normal . Similar wave heights were reported on Saint Martin , while precipitation was slightly higher , ranging from 0 @.@ 78 to 1 @.@ 37 inches ( 20 to 35 mm ) . Impact was minimal on Guadeloupe . Wave heights reached approximately 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Rainfall was also light on Guadeloupe , with 1 @.@ 45 inches ( 37 mm ) in Le Moule , 1 @.@ 22 inches ( 31 mm ) in Sainte @-@ Rose , 1 @.@ 07 inches ( 27 mm ) in La Désirade , 0 @.@ 66 inches ( 17 mm ) in Sainte @-@ Anne , and 0 @.@ 66 inches ( 17 mm ) in Pointe @-@ à @-@ Pitre . Feeder bands from Debby affected countries as far south as Trinidad and Tobago , where heavy rainfall resulted in flooding in the Barrackpore region .
= = = United States territories = = =
In the United States Virgin Islands , losses reached approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 . On Saint Thomas , 1 @.@ 93 inches ( 49 mm ) of rain was recorded . At the Cyril E. King Airport , sustained winds reached 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) , while gusts up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were reported . Elsewhere on Saint Thomas , one sailboat was washed ashore on Vessup Beach . Sustained winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and gusts of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) on Saint Croix caused brief power outages . Additionally , 0 @.@ 46 inches ( 11 @.@ 7 mm ) of rain fell in St. Croix . Minor landscape damage occurred on Saint John .
Debby also dropped up to 12 inches ( 30 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall across Puerto Rico in less than 48 hours , causing mudslides and damage to bridges and roads ; however , most of the island territory only received 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) of precipitation . The maximum rainfall on the island was 12 @.@ 63 inches ( 32 mm ) in Río Piedras , Puerto Rico . Additionally , 12 @.@ 16 inches ( 31 mm ) of precipitation was recorded near Cayey , though there were unofficial reports of 17 inches ( 43 mm ) in the interior mountains of the region . The hurricane dropped around 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of rain in San Juan , producing slick roads that resulted in several minor car accidents . There were 406 homes affected from the flooding , 5 of which were moderately to severely damaged . Losses in Puerto Rico reached $ 501 @,@ 000 , primarily in the Caguas municipality . The storm was also indirectly responsible for the death of a 78 @-@ year @-@ old man who fell while trying to remove a satellite dish from the roof of his home .
= = = Dominican Republic = = =
On the northern coast of the Dominican Republic , waves and rainfall caused light to moderate damage . Storm surge damaged about 20 homes and dozens of families were evacuated from Cabrera , Nagua , Río San Juan , and Samaná . In Nagua , several districts were left without drinking water and electricity after gusts blew down power cables and large trees . At San José de Matanzas , several coconut trees were uprooted from the ground . Also , two houses were slightly damaged from wind gusts . In the nearby town of La Vega , bridges over the Piedra River and Jumunucu River collapsed due to the heavy rainfall and flooding . In southern Puerto Plata , flooding in Aguas Negras , Playa Oeste and Dubeau districts forced dozens of families to leave their houses . In Monte Cristi , heavy rainfall caused flooding in various low @-@ lying districts , with over 200 people affected in the coastal portion of the province . Another town , Salcedo , lost approximately 23 sq mi ( 60 km2 ) of bananas , with the damage estimated to have reached approximately $ 35 @,@ 000 ( RD $ 500 @,@ 000 DOP ) . The country 's Civil Defense Force stated that over 700 people on the northern coast were forced out of their homes after severe flooding . A wedding was also delayed at the bavaro beach resort after flooding left the alter area suitable only for ducks .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
Residents living in shanties in northern Haiti fled their homes during the storm . In Port @-@ de @-@ Paix , strong winds tore off many tin roofs and flooded some homes . A small coastal village , Carenage , experienced high winds that sunk at least five boats . Storm surge also swept away one home , but without any reports of injury or death . In Cuba , the remnants of Debby brought rainfall to the eastern portion of the country , particularly Guantánamo Province , with 24 ‑ hour precipitation totals of 3 @.@ 22 inches ( 82 mm ) in San Antonio del Sur , 2 @.@ 55 inches ( 65 mm ) in Maisí , and 2 @.@ 28 inches ( 58 mm ) and 2 @.@ 16 inches ( 55 mm ) at separate locations in Guantánamo . Due to a severe eight @-@ month drought in Guantanamo Province , the accumulated rainfall was largely beneficial . However , as a precaution against potential flooding , more than 32 @,@ 000 people and thousands of cattle residing in low @-@ lying areas were evacuated to higher ground . A few locations reported gusty winds . At Maisí , sustained winds between 29 and 31 mph ( 47 and 50 km / h ) were reported , along with gusts up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) . Additionally , tides caused coastal flooding in Baracoa .
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= Grey @-@ necked rockfowl =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl ( Picathartes oreas ) is a medium @-@ sized bird in the family Picathartidae with a long neck and tail . Also known as the grey @-@ necked picathartes , this passerine is mainly found in rocky areas of close @-@ canopied rainforest from south @-@ west Nigeria through Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , and south @-@ west Gabon . It additionally lives on the island of Bioko . Its distribution is patchy , with populations often isolated from each other . The rockfowl typically chooses to live near streams and inselbergs in its forested habitat . It has no recognized subspecies , though some believe that it forms a superspecies with the white @-@ necked rockfowl . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl has grey upperparts , a light grey breast , and lemon @-@ coloured underparts . Its unusually long tail is used for balance , and its thighs are muscular . The head is nearly featherless , with the exposed skin being powder blue on the forehead and upper mandible and carmine on the hindcrown . The bird ’ s cheeks and eyes are covered in a large , circular black patch that , though narrow , connects and divides the carmine and powder blue skin at the peak of the crown . Though the bird is usually silent , some calls are known .
This rockfowl feeds primarily on insects , though some plant matter , such as fruit and flower buds , is eaten . One feeding strategy involves following Dorylus army ant swarms , feeding on insects flushed by the ants . Rockfowl move through the forest mainly through a series of hops and bounds , or short flights in low vegetation . It travels either alone or in small groups . This species rarely flies for long distances . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is monogamous and pairs nest either alone or in the vicinity of other pairs , sometimes in colonies of two to five nests , though one colony of forty nests has been recorded . These nests are constructed out of mud and are formed into a deep cup that is built on rock surfaces , typically in caves or on cliffs . Two eggs are laid twice a year . Though the birds breed in colonies , infanticide exists in this species , with rockfowl attempting to kill the young of other pairs . Nestlings mature in about a month .
This species is classified as vulnerable as its dwindling and fragmented populations are threatened by habitat destruction . A conservation plan has been drawn up for this species , and research into its current distribution is ongoing . Some of the indigenous peoples of Cameroon either respect this species or , in some cases , fear it . Today , this rockfowl is considered one of Africa ’ s most desirable birds by birders and is a symbol of ecotourism across its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described by Anton Reichenow in 1899 from a bird collected at the base of Mount Cameroon near Limbe , Cameroon . He published his description in Ornithologische Monatsberichte and described it as Picathartes oreas . The generic name was first used by René @-@ Primevère Lesson in 1828 after he split the grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's close relative the white @-@ necked rockfowl from the crow genus Corvus and placed it in its own genus , Picathartes , as the white @-@ necked rockfowl did not share characteristics common to members of Corvus such as a feathered head . This generic name comes from a combination of the Latin genera pica for " magpie " and cathartes for " vulture " . The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek word oreas , meaning " mountain " . Since its initial description , the picathartes have been placed in more than five different families , including those of crows ( Corvidae ) , starlings ( Sturnidae ) , Old World flycatchers ( Muscicapidae ) , babblers ( Timaliidae ) and Old World warblers ( Sylviidae ) . Today the grey @-@ necked rockfowl and the white @-@ necked rockfowl are believed to comprise a unique family , Picathartidae . Additionally , it has been suggested , though not generally accepted , that the two rockfowl represent the remnants of an ancient bird order . Recent DNA analysis has shown that Picathartidae and its closest relatives , southern Africa 's rockjumpers and south @-@ east Asia 's rail @-@ babbler , form a clade . The analysis suggests that the rockfowl split from the common ancestor of their clade 44 million years ago . It is believed that the ancestor of this clade originated in Australia and spread to Africa . Though the grey @-@ necked rockfowl has no subspecies , it may form a superspecies with the white @-@ necked rockfowl , with plumage and facial pattern being the main differences between the two species .
This species has numerous common names , including the grey @-@ necked rockfowl , grey @-@ necked picathartes , bare @-@ headed rockfowl , red @-@ headed rockfowl , blue @-@ headed picathartes , and grey @-@ necked bald crow . Rockfowl is a reference to the species ' habit of building mud nests on rock surfaces and caves . Picathartes refers to the species ' scientific name . Bald crow is a reference to its featherless head and somewhat crow @-@ like appearance , especially in its beak .
= = Description = =
This rockfowl measures approximately 33 to 38 centimetres ( 13 to 15 in ) in length , with its notably long tail contributing about 14 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) . This species does not show sexual dimorphism . The adult 's head is largely featherless , and the skin on the forehead and forecrown as well as the upper mandible of the beak behind the bird 's nostril is a powder blue . The lower mandible and rest of the upper mandible are black . This beak is unusually large and crow @-@ like at 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in length and is also decurved . There are some small , bristle @-@ like feathers located on the crown that can be erected . Behind the crown , the species ' bare skin on the hindcrown and nape is carmine in coloration and has a few more bristle @-@ like feathers . The area between these patches of skin , as well as the lores , cheeks , and ear region , are featherless with black skin . Its eyes are dark brown . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's mantle , back , rump , and uppertail coverts are all grey . The feathers on the rump are long , dense , and silky . Additionally , the tail is grey . The rockfowl 's chin , throat , sides of the neck , and upper breast are all a pale grey . This bird is buffy lemon in colour on its lower breast , belly , flanks , thighs , and undertail coverts , though the flanks can sometimes appear to be greyish . The wing is grey , though the wing 's remiges are black , forming a line between the lemon underparts and grey upperparts . Its legs and feet are silver @-@ grey and muscular . The adult rockfowl weighs 200 to 250 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) .
The nestling is born nearly featherless except for tiny primary quills and a fine down along its spine , humerus , forearm , and femur . Its skin is dark pink but displays variable black patches on its upperside . The gape is yellow . As the nestling develops , its plumage begins to resemble that of the adult , though it has white flecks on its wing coverts and the featherless skin on the head is black or dark brown , not powder blue , on the forecrown and dark reddish brown , not carmine , on the hindcrown . After fledging , the immature closely resembles the adult except for the bare patch on the back of the head being golden yellow instead of carmine and the tail being only a third as long as that of an adult .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is a relatively silent species . It has been known to give a quiet , one to two second long , hissing " wheet " call several times at intervals of about four seconds . To give this call , the rockfowl opens its beak and inflates its throat . When bringing food to their nests , the adults give one or two " peep " s . After reaching the nest , the adult repeatedly makes a low " ga @-@ a @-@ a " sound that has been described as being between a snore and a sigh . It also makes a hissing noise that has been described as a " shisss " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is found in West Africa from southeast Nigeria to southwest Gabon . In Nigeria , it is only found in the nation 's southeastern corner near the coast and the Cameroon border . The species is widespread in southwestern Cameroon , and this country is considered to be the species ' stronghold . It is found throughout Equatorial Guinea and into southwestern Gabon . Additionally , the species resides in the southwestern forests of the island of Bioko in the Gulf of Guinea . There is only one record of this species from the Republic of the Congo , though it is suspected that the rockfowl may have an undiscovered population in this country . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's total range covers approximately 314 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 121 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl prefers rugged terrain in these forests covered in large boulders , caves , and gorges . Additionally , it often found near inselbergs and a source of water , either a river or a forest pool . The understory of its forests has sparse undergrowth or open spaces but is covered in mosses , ferns , lianas , and epiphytes . In southwestern Bioko it is found in low forests that receive nearly 10 metres ( 33 ft ) of rain a year . Bioko 's habitat also has dense undergrowth and vertical gorges near a caldera . The rockfowl 's habitat is normally found between 450 and 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 and 6 @,@ 890 ft ) above sea level , though it is lower in elevation on Bioko . This species is non @-@ migratory , and at one site in Cameroon the birds remained within 300 metres ( 980 ft ) of their nesting site throughout the year . It is capable of living near human activity , and one breeding site in Cameroon was located within 30 metres ( 98 ft ) of a maize plot . This and other recent observations suggest that the rockfowl has greater tolerance for degraded habitat than previously thought .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
This rockfowl usually lives either alone or in pairs , although small flocks of three to ten birds are not uncommon . It normally moves through its habitat in a series of runs and long , springing hops on the ground and in low branches . It uses its tail for balance while hopping and running . When in a flock , rockfowl hop almost in unison . In the unusual occurrences when the species does fly , it is fast and is capable of navigating through the trees and rocks well . When it is standing still , the rockfowl has its tail down and its head looking up . Typically , it silently evades any unusual movements in their forest . However , if these birds know that they have been sighted , they can become quite inquisitive and occasionally approach observers . This is not a shy species once it knows that it has been seen , and often studies things of interest , including humans , from an open location . When this species is suspicious , it raises the small crown on its head and the ruff on its neck while uttering a muffled groan . It is most active in the early morning and late evening , and from 10 : 30 am to 7 : 00 pm remains perched with little activity either in liana @-@ tangled areas or in caves away from the nests . To scratch its head , the species lifts its foot over its head . It bathes in small pools . While its lifespan in the wild is unknown , it has lived up to 25 years in captivity .
= = = Diet = = =
This species forages in the early morning or late afternoon either alone or in small groups in leaf litter and on dead tree trunks . It is also known to leap upwards to grab prey on overhanging foliage . It looks for its prey either by standing still and scanning the surrounding area or by tossing the leaf litter away with its beak . It also frequently follows columns of Dorylus ants , feeding on the insects flushed by the ants . It also is known to hunt in streams for crabs and fish . It crushes snails with its beak and , if its prey struggles , smashes it against the ground . While an uncommon occurrence , male rockfowl have been observed giving food to a female .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl feeds on a diverse range of invertebrates and small vertebrates , though plant matter does constitute a major part of its diet . It is known to eat beetles , including weevils , rove beetles , and click beetles from the genus Psephus , butterflies , ants from the genera Dorylus and Pachycondyla , grasshoppers , cockroaches from the family Blattidae , earwigs , caterpillars , ant @-@ lions , silverfish , and earthworms . Small lizards , frogs , snails , and slugs are also eaten , as are crabs from the genus Potamon , fruits , flower buds , mosses , and leaves . Fish have also been identified as a prey item in Nigeria . At at least one nesting site , it relies heavily on the arthropods feeding on the bat guano near the cave for sustenance , while this behaviour has been reported to a lesser extent at other sites . It is known to regurgitate what it has eaten in pellet form . Overall , between 52 and 60 percent of the bird 's diet is believed to be composed of animals . Rove beetle larvae and ants were the most frequently eaten prey in a study in Nigeria .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl breeds either alone or in small colonies averaging two to five nests in size , though nearly fifty nests are present at one site . It is monogamous and therefore does not breed with rockfowl other than its mate . It is believed to breed cooperatively in Equatorial Guinea , as four different birds were observed feeding one nest . The rockfowl 's courtship displays are unknown . The timing of the egg laying in a colony is not synchronized , leading to various stages of development of nestlings within the colony . It has been suggested that this is to promote cooperative breeding . The laying dates also vary by region , typically coinciding with a few weeks before the onset of the wet season ; in areas where the wet season is bimodal , two different breeding seasons occur . However , in mountainous regions such as Mount Cameroon , it breeds during the dry season to avoid the frequent mists of the wet season . Birds in Nigeria lay their eggs between August and November , birds in Gabon lay between November and April , birds in western Cameroon lay between March and November with peaks of June , July , and October , and birds in southern Cameroon have two breeding seasons , a main one from October to December and a secondary one lasting from April to May . In Equatorial Guinea , nesting occurs in mid @-@ February .
This rockfowl builds its nest onto the sides of rocks , normally in caves , where nests are built both by the entrance and deep within , or on nearly vertical cliff faces , which can be either bare or have some vegetation , though never woody branches , near the nest . Nests need to be built under an overhang to protect it from water , and the rock surface normally slopes forward slightly . The nests are almost always found near water , which can be in the form of either streams or forest pools . These streams , particularly those located at the base of a nesting cliff , help keep predators away from the nests . Nests on rock surfaces are normally built 1 @.@ 2 to 5 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 17 @.@ 1 ft ) above the ground . In addition to the rock face nests , there is a record of a nest being constructed on the buttress root of a Piptadeniastrum tree above a small stream . Two nests were even built onto a concrete bridge in Gabon 's Lopé National Park . The male and female rockfowl work equally on the nest 's construction , and it can take two to three months to build one , though in some extreme cases it takes more than a year . The nest itself is a half @-@ cup constructed of dry mud with grass fibres and dead leaves mixed in , often with the plant matter sticking out of the nest 's walls . It is either built onto the rock surface or , in some cases , is built more like a retaining wall across the opening of a small rock fissure . Nests are built at least away 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) from each other , and in some cases up to 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . The nest is normally 30 to 40 centimetres ( 12 to 16 in ) thick , though the nest is uneven in its construction and one nest was 140 centimetres ( 55 in ) thick . It is about 290 centimetres ( 110 in ) wide and 400 centimetres ( 160 in ) long and weighs about 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . However , nest sizes do have a large degree of variability . After the mud dries , it becomes a very hard structure . The inside of the nest is lined with rootlets and thin strips of grass .
One to three eggs , normally two , are laid , with the second egg being laid between 24 and 48 hours after the first . The eggs are variable in coloration and can be a light yellow @-@ brown with dark brown blotches , creamy white with dark brown or grey blotches , or pale grey with brown mottling . The eggs weigh about 15 @.@ 2 grams ( 0 @.@ 54 oz ) and have an average size of 40 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 59 in ) by 27 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 08 in ) . The rockfowl begins to incubate after both eggs are laid . The time the rockfowl spends incubating varies greatly , though it is mostly for less than five minutes at a time with nearly two hours between sessions . Both the male and female rockfowl incubate . When the incubating bird 's mate comes , it gives a brief call that causes the incubating bird to leave the nest . In the two days prior to hatching , the adult rockfowl prods at the eggs , sometimes with food in its beak . Incubation lasts for 21 to 24 days . When the infants hatch , they hatch about a day apart . The adult rockfowl quickly remove the eggshell fragments from the nest . The newborn weighs only 12 grams ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) after hatching , but it quickly gains weight . The eyes open and the tail begins to grow on the fifth day . During the first couple of days , food is brought to the nestlings three to six times an hour , peaking in the evening . Begging nestlings expose their beak and gape to their parent , though they do not make a sound . The second @-@ hatched nestling often fails to gain weight and dies , and there is evidence suggesting that the adults cannibalize the remains . For the first ten days after hatching , one adult rockfowl stays and guards the nestlings while the other collects food ; despite this , nests have been destroyed by chimpanzees and drills . The chicks leave the nest after 24 days . Infanticide has been recorded in this species , with rockfowl killing other rockfowl 's young . In one case , a second pair of rockfowl moved onto a nest after killing the first pair 's nestlings .
= = Relationship with humans = =
In Cameroon , the grey @-@ necked rockfowl is respected by the indigenous peoples and , in some cases , even feared . It is known by many names to the indigenous peoples of Nigeria , with most of the translating to " bird of the rocks " or " fowl of the stream " . Hunters sheltering in the rockfowl 's nesting caves have been known to kill and eat adult rockfowl , though it is generally thought to be too small to eat and is left for children to hunt . In the 1950s and 1960s , western zoos desired this species , leading to a large demand to collect the rockfowl for display . British conservationist and author Gerald Durrell made this species a target on two of his trips to Cameroon , which he describes in The Bafut Beagles and A Zoo in My Luggage . The trade of this species is non @-@ existent today , and , as the zoo population did not sustain itself despite sporadic breeding , the last captive rockfowl died at the Frankfurt Zoo in 2009 . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl has been depicted on numerous postage stamps from Cameroon and Nigeria , as well as stamps from Benin and Togo , where it does not live . It is considered one of the most difficult species of bird to see in the wild . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is a symbol for both conservation and ecotourism efforts in its range . This species is considered one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by ornithologists .
= = = Conservation = = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is considered to be vulnerable due to habitat destruction , its isolated populations , collection of adults , predation , and a low breeding success rate . Its habitat is being destroyed to create large agricultural fields and cocoa plantations , as well as for logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture . Due to the highly specialized requirements for its habitat , its population is very fragmented , and the species is believed to be naturally rare . Competition for its nesting sites is a result of these strict requirements and can lead to infanticide . Its estimated population is between 2 @,@ 500 and 10 @,@ 000 individuals , though it is believed that the population is at the lower end of the estimate . However , due to the inaccessibility of some parts of its range , it is also possible that this species is more common than believed . The population of some of these colonies is reaching the minimum levels needed for long @-@ term viability . It also falls victim to spring traps set for mammals by hunters . However , a more serious threat to its numbers was the widespread collection of rockfowl for display in zoos in the 1950s and 1960s . There is a risk that it will be negatively affected by ecotourism due to disturbances in its daily routine if proper viewing procedures are not followed .
Cameroon is the only nation with a national law protecting this species . This law prohibits killing the rockfowl , though it can be captured with a proper permit . International trading of the grey @-@ necked rockfowl is governed under CITES Appendix I , meaning that legal trading of this species is only authorized in extraordinary circumstances . In 2006 BirdLife International drafted an international action plan to provide strategies for protecting this species . This plan focused on surveying the remaining habitat , raising awareness amongst the local populace , and limiting the continued destruction of its habitat .
This rockfowl is protected in some of the areas in which it lives by national parks . Additionally , there seems to be little habitat destruction in Gabon and on Bioko as the locations in these places in which the rockfowl lives is believed to be too inaccessible for future human development . Recent surveys have also discovered new populations of the grey @-@ necked rockfowl .
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= God Hates Us All =
God Hates Us All is the ninth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on September 11 , 2001 , the album received positive critical reviews and entered the Billboard 200 at number 28 . It was recorded in three months at The Warehouse Studio in Canada , and includes the Grammy Award @-@ nominated " Disciple " . The album is the band 's last to feature drummer Paul Bostaph until their 2015 Repentless . Guitarist Kerry King wrote the majority of the lyrics , taking a different approach from earlier recordings by exploring topics such as religion , murder , revenge and self @-@ control .
= = Recording = =
Slayer began writing lyrics for a new album prior to their appearance at the 1999 Ozzfest . However , every three to four months the band was distracted by commitments to Ozzfest , and worldwide " Tattoo the Earth " tour with Slipknot . Guitarist Jeff Hanneman later admitted " that was the last break . Then we got our shit together . " The band 's longtime producer , Rick Rubin , was too busy to work with Slayer , and felt " burned out " — unable to create intense music . Araya and King had similar feelings about Rubin , and King remarked he " wanted to work with someone into the heavy @-@ music scene , and Rubin 's not anymore . I wanted somebody who knows what 's hot , knows what 's selling , knows the new techniques , and will keep me on my toes . " Rubin recommended two producers , although the first producer was not going to work out personality @-@ wise according to Hanneman . The band gave second candidate , Matt Hyde , a trial on the song " Bloodline " , which appeared in the movie Dracula 2000 . The band was pleased with Hyde 's work on " Bloodline " and hired him to produce the entire album . " Bloodline " was also briefly used in the 2009 film Law Abiding Citizen . The song " Here Comes the Pain " had originally been recorded almost two years prior to the release of God Hates Us All , appearing on the compilation album WCW Mayhem : The Music in 1999 , and then used as the opening theme for WCW Thunder from February 16 , 2000 to the final episode on March 21 , 2001 .
God Hates Us All was to be recorded in a Hollywood studio ; however , the band relocated to Vancouver , British Columbia due to the availability of cheaper studio time . Hyde recommended a studio to the band — The Warehouse Studio ( owned by Bryan Adams ) as he had previously worked there . The studio was altered to make it " feel like home " for Slayer ; as opposed to the setting for , in King 's words , the " lightweight Canadian pop singer " . This consisted of adding incense burners , candles , dimmed lights and pornography on the walls . Two banner flags of two middle fingers were also hung up . Vocalist Tom Araya says " that was basically the attitude of Slayer in the studio . We had a red devil head on one of the speakers . We had a skull on another . That 's the kind of shit we put up . Spooky stuff that makes you feel at home . "
Hyde used the digital audio workstation Pro Tools during the engineering , production , and audio mixing stages of the album . Slayer members wanted to keep the use of computer effects to a minimum , only to include a small amount of delay and distortion . As with previous recordings , the drum tracks were recorded first . Drummer Paul Bostaph follows a simple rule suggested by Rubin when in the studio : " The perfect take is the one that felt like it was going to fall apart but never did . " Seven @-@ string guitars were used on the tracks " Warzone " and " Here Comes the Pain , " the first time Slayer had done so . King was at the B.C. Rich guitar company ( manufacturer of his signature model , the KKV ) and decided to borrow a seven string guitar . After writing one song , King ordered a seven string as he thought " there 's no point having one tuning for just one song , " so he wrote another , going on to comment " you don 't have to be good to make up a seven @-@ string riff . " The album features two songs on seven string guitars , four songs with guitars tuned to Drop @-@ B and all other songs in C # Standard .
= = Lyrical themes = =
God Hates Us All explores such themes as religion , murder , revenge , and self @-@ control . King wrote a majority of the lyrics , which he based on " street " subjects which everyone could relate to , rather than " Satan this , " " Satan that , " and " the usual Dungeons & Dragons shit " from the band 's previous records . King told Guitar World :
I definitely wanted to put more realism in it , more depth . God Hates Us All isn 't an anti @-@ Christian line as much as it 's an idea I think a lot of people can relate to on a daily basis . One day you 're living your life , and then you 're hit by a car or your dog dies , so you feel like , " God really hates me today . "
The song " Threshold " is about reaching one 's limit with a person in a situation where one is about to break — and are about to blow up as they get " under your skin " , while " Cast Down " features a fallen Angel who falls into drugs . " God Send Death " and " Deviance " take up the idea of killing people for pleasure . Both songs were written by Hanneman . Having read several books on serial killers , Hanneman came to the conclusion he could only kill someone if they really " pissed him off " , and decided he was unable to kill someone he did not know just for power . He later admitted he was trying to get into that person 's mind ; " why do they get off on it ? Without being angry , just killing for the sake of killing and getting off on it . I just wanted to get into that mindset . "
While other members went to local pubs , Araya spent his free hours reading factual books regarding serial killers , including Gordon Burn 's Happy Like Murderers : The Story of Fred and Rosemary West . Araya was seeking inspiration , and aimed to sound convincing while singing the lyrics , avoiding himself to sound like a gimmick . Araya sang the lyrics more " over @-@ the @-@ top " than done on previous albums , as King 's writing style is more " aggro . " This resulted in Kerrang ! reviewer Jason Arnopp describing the album 's lyrics as " so packed with foul and abusive language that it sounds as if D @-@ 12 and the Sopranos family were going head @-@ to @-@ head in a celebrity swearathon . "
= = Cover art and album title = =
God Hates Us All was originally intended to be named Soundtrack to the Apocalypse . However , Araya suggested that the title would be better used for a box set , which the band released in 2003 . The phrase God Hates Us All originates from the song " Disciple " , during which the line is repeated over the chorus . The lyrics are in reference to God 's allowance of acts such as suicide and terrorism , while seemingly doing nothing to prevent them ( see problem of evil ) . A member of the heavy metal band Pantera suggested using " God Hates Us All " for a shirt design after King played the song to the band . King agreed , although he thought the phrase would have more impact as the album title .
The original album cover depicts a Bible spiked with nails placed in a pentagram star shape , covered in blood with the word " Slayer " burnt across it . The liner notes intersperse the lyrics between passages from the biblical book of Job , partly crossed out with a black marker . The idea was suggested by the band 's record company , although King wanted more time to develop a better cover . King 's concept for the cover was to show nails in the shape of a pentagram , and have them miss keywords in Bible verses so it appeared as if it had been created by a sociopath who knew where every word appears . He later complained that the outcome was typical of " a record company with absolutely no idea what the fuck they were going to do " , and said that the cover " looked like a seventh grader defaced the Bible . " A slip insert was placed in front of the covers in major retail outlets .
= = Reception = =
God Hates Us All was set for release on July 10 ; however , concerns regarding audio mixing , the album cover , and the band 's label — American Recordings — changing distributor , caused the release date to be delayed until September 11 , 2001 . The release drew a connection to the September 11 attacks , which was the second time Slayer caused controversy towards one of their releases — the video for " Seasons in the Abyss " was filmed in Egypt and released prior to the Gulf War . In its week of release , God Hates Us All debuted at number 28 on the Billboard 200 , and sold 51 @,@ 000 copies . It entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number 9 , and debuted at number 18 on the top Internet album chart . As of August 16 , 2006 the album has sold 304 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
God Hates us All received generally positive reviews from music critics . On Metacritic , the album has a score of 80 out of 100 based on 12 reviews . Kerrang ! ' s Jason Arnopp described the album as " easily Slayer 's most convincing collection since Seasons in the Abyss , " awarding the album five out of five . Rolling Stone 's Rob Kemp wrote the record was " Slayer 's most brutal record since 1986 's immortal ( or undead ) Reign in Blood , " describing the music as " galloping double @-@ bass @-@ drum salvos " which " switch on a dime to furious double @-@ time pummeling , as ominous power chords and jagged shred solos slice and dice with Formula One precision . " Kemp awarded the album three and a half out of five . AllMusic reviewer Jason Birchmeier commented that " nearly 20 years into their evolution , Slayer have abandoned the extravagancies and accessibility of their late- ' 80s / early- ' 90s work and returned to perfect the raw approach of their early years . A near flawless album , " and that Araya 's performance possibly makes " the most exhausting Slayer album yet . "
Not all critics were impressed with the album . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin dismissively labeled the album as " another failure on the band 's part to take the initiative and reinvent themselves . " Krgin described King as " the weaker and less inventive of the two main songwriters " ( King and Hanneman ) , feeling the album followed " a familiar direction that almost always sounds tired and forced " as a result of King being the album 's main songwriter . Krgin also singled out Araya for criticism , and called the vocalist a " hollow shell of his former self , boasting a singing style that is monotonous , devoid of creativity and at times virtually unlistenable . " Krgin awarded the record 6 out of 10 , and ended the review by observing that " Slayer 's rapidly diminishing record sales ( Diabolus In Musica has shifted less than 300 @,@ 000 copies in the US compared to 600 – 700 @,@ 000 + ) as a sign that the band is in dire need of a new lease on life . " The Washington Post gave it a mixed review , stating , " Of course , what Slayer says isn 't supposed to be nearly as important as how it says it : The riffs are all overdriven and suffocating , and that 's a conscious decision . In its simplest form , a song like " Exile " could pass for Motorhead pushed through the blades of a lawn mower , but that 's selling Slayer short ; guitarist Kerry King actively fights the groove that naturally comes from playing heavy rock @-@ and @-@ roll . "
The song " Disciple " received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Metal Performance " at the 44th Grammy Awards , the band 's first nomination . The members cared neither about the nomination nor the award ceremony , and although they did not expect to win , thought it was " cool " to be nominated . The ceremony took place on February 27 , 2002 , with Tool winning the award for their song " Schism " .
= = Bostaph 's departure = =
Prior to Christmas 2001 , Bostaph sustained a chronic elbow injury which hindered his ability to drum , resulting in his decision to leave the band . His third @-@ to @-@ last performance with Slayer was recorded on War at the Warfield . To date , Bostaph has not viewed the footage ; he has likened the experience to " breaking up with a girlfriend , " and wants to move on with his life . Bostaph does not regret his time spent with the band , and described the period as a high point in his career . Bostaph eventually rejoined Slayer in 2013 , once again replacing Dave Lombardo .
Without a drummer the band were unable to finish their God Hates Us All tour . King contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo almost ten years after his departure , and asked him if he would be willing to play for the remainder of the tour . Lombardo accepted the offer , and played for the remaining 21 shows ; however , he did not take on a permanent position with the band .
Following the tour , the band continued their search for a permanent drummer , and sought solicitation via demo tape and snail mail . Interested fans sent video recordings of renditions of the songs " Disciple , " " God Send Death , " " Stain of Mind , " " Angel of Death " , " Postmortem / Raining Blood , " " South of Heaven , " " War Ensemble , " and " Seasons in the Abyss " ; complete with résumés . The band listened to hundreds of demo tapes , and created a " good pile " and " ungood pile , " though the " ungood " was much larger . Those whose performances the band were pleased with were offered an audition in Dallas , San Francisco or Peoria , Illinois ; many applicants , however , were unable to attend due to flight costs . The band auditioned roughly two to three drummers a day , and their top choice was one of Lombardo 's recommendations . However , the band ultimately returned to Lombardo after deciding that they could not find a drummer who suited the job ; Lombardo re @-@ joined Slayer and attended music festivals worldwide to promote God Hates Us All and record drums on the 2006 album Christ Illusion .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Limited edition = = =
The European LP does not contain track 12
= = = Bonus DVD materials = = =
" Darkness of Christ " ( DVD Intro video )
" Bloodline " ( Video )
" Raining Blood " ( Live Video ) ( 2001 @-@ 12 @-@ 07 San Francisco , CA )
" Interview / B @-@ Roll Footage
= = Personnel = =
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= Liberty Head double eagle =
The Liberty Head double eagle or Coronet double eagle is an American twenty @-@ dollar gold piece struck as a pattern coin in 1849 , and for commerce from 1850 to 1907 . It was designed by Mint of the United States Chief Engraver James B. Longacre .
The largest denomination of United States coin authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 was the eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece . The large amount of bullion being brought east after the discovery of gold in California in the 1840s caused Congress to consider new denominations of gold coinage . The gold dollar and double eagle were the result . After considerable infighting at the Philadelphia Mint , Chief Engraver James B. Longacre designed the double eagle , and it began to be issued for commerce in 1850 . Only one 1849 double eagle is known to survive ; it rests in the National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian .
The coin was immediately successful ; merchants and banks used it in trade . It was struck until replaced by the Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle in 1907 , and many were melted when President Franklin D. Roosevelt recalled gold coins from the public in 1933 . Millions of double eagles were sent overseas in international transactions throughout its run to be melted or placed in bank vaults . Many of the latter have now been repatriated to feed the demand from collectors and those who desire to hold gold .
= = Inception = =
Under the Mint Act of 1792 , the largest @-@ denomination coin was the gold eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece . Also struck were a half eagle ( $ 5 ) and quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 ) . Bullion flowed out of the United States for economic reasons for much of the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The eagle 's size made it convenient for use in international transactions , and , faced with the likelihood that most being struck were exported , the Director of the Mint Elias Boudinot ended its production in 1804 . In 1838 , coinage resumed after Congress revised the weight and fineness of American gold coins . The new eagle was struck to a design by Christian Gobrecht , who was one of the Mint 's engravers .
In 1836 , the Public Ledger , a Philadelphia newspaper , proposed the issuance of both a gold dollar and a twenty @-@ dollar piece ; they wrote of the latter , " Twenty [ silver dollars ] are an encumbrance in a pocket ... if we are to have larger coins , let them be of gold . Along with the eagle , which has the size of the half dollar , we would recommend the double eagle , which [ would be ] of the size of our silver dollar , [ and ] would contain the value of twenty . " Others perceived a need for a large U.S. gold coin to be used in international transactions — American merchants sometimes used high @-@ denomination Latin American gold coins for that purpose .
No proposal for a gold twenty @-@ dollar piece was considered until after the California Gold Rush , beginning in 1848 , greatly increased the amount of the metal available in the United States . The increase in the supply of gold caused silver coins to be worth more than their face value , and they were heavily exported , generating new support for a gold dollar to take their place in commerce . The massive quantity of gold made a larger denomination desirable as well , to more efficiently convert gold to coins . In January 1849 , North Carolina Congressman James Iver McKay amended his previously introduced legislation for a gold dollar to provide for a double eagle as well . He wrote to Mint Director Robert M. Patterson , who responded , " there can be no other objection to the Double eagle except that it is not needed . It will be a handsome coin , between the half dollar and dollar in size . "
Concerned about likely Whig opposition to the coinage bill , McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version of the bill into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked on ground it would be too small ; the double eagle on the claim that it would be heavily abraded in circulation , and would become lightweight . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would be unasked @-@ for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations . Ingersoll stated that a twenty @-@ dollar piece would be " doubled into a ponderous and unparalleled size " . Nevertheless , the bill providing for the issuance of the gold dollar and double eagle passed both houses by large margins , and was signed into law by President James K. Polk on March 3 , 1849 . According to numismatist David Lange , " the double eagle was a banker 's coin intended to simplify transfers of large sums between financial institutions and between nations " .
= = Preparation = =
The act authorizing the gold dollar and double eagle precipitated conflict at the Philadelphia Mint . There the officers , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun . Patterson despised Calhoun , and Longacre became a loner at the mint . Most of Peale 's formal duties were performed by his predecessor , Adam Eckfeldt , who continued to do the work of chief coiner despite his retirement . Peale spent the resulting free time running a private medal business taking commissions from the public and using the government 's facilities , including its Contamin portrait lathe . This machine , used in Peale 's medal work , was needed to reduce models of new designs to coin @-@ sized reductions from which working dies could be made . So long as no new coin designs were needed , dies could be reproduced mechanically , without using the Contamin device . Although it belonged to his department , Longacre did not use the Contamin lathe much until Congress ordered that the two new coins be struck .
When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no assistants . He completed work on the gold dollar first , anxious to show that he could create a coin design . In May , he requested that Patterson hire another engraver to assist him . The director declined , willing only to have engraving work contracted out . This was unsatisfactory to Longacre , who was responsible under the law for the proper execution of coinage dies , and who could not supervise outside work .
As Longacre worked on the double eagle design , according to numismatist Walter Breen , " Peale , with Patterson 's tacit approval , began harassment . " Longacre prepared a large model of the new coin in wax , and was instructed to give it to Peale for use in preparing a metal galvano , which could be used in the lathe . The operation failed , and Longacre 's model was destroyed . Longacre had , however , made a cast of his model in plaster , and was able to use it in the machine . The resulting steel die had to be hardened in Peale 's department ; as Longacre put it , " it unluckily split in the process " . According to numismatic historian Don Taxay , " Peale 's adoption of a process not normally used at the Mint , together with its catastrophic failures , seems more than coincidental " .
Longacre set forth on a third attempt to create a die . He was hampered not only by the continued opposition of Peale , but by poor lighting and the noxious fumes that penetrated his office at the Philadelphia Mint . A friend , New York engraver Charles Cushing Wright , arranged for Peter F. Cross to assist Longacre with making hubs and dies . Cross made the first obverse die in November and December 1849 at Longacre 's direction , and the chief engraver made the reverse . On December 22 , 1849 , Patterson wrote to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith that the dies were completed . He enclosed a double eagle , asking Meredith , if he approved of the piece , to send word as quickly as possible to allow the coinage of 1849 double eagles in quantity . Before any reply could be received , Peale objected on December 24 , complaining that the relief of the head of Liberty was so high that pieces struck using the Philadelphia Mint 's steam @-@ powered machinery could not fully bring out the design — the coin sent to Meredith had been coined on a medal press , by hand . In addition , Peale alleged that the head was in such high relief that the coins would not stack . Patterson sent Peale 's letter to Meredith on December 25 , noting that this meant there would be a lengthy delay .
Longacre completed the lower @-@ relief dies about January 12 , 1850 . Peale did not test them for two weeks ; when he did , he rejected them , stating that Liberty 's head opposed the eagle on the reverse , making it difficult for the full design to be brought forth . He stated that Longacre would have to move the position of the head . Longacre , outraged , appealed to Director Patterson , who took no action , but early the next month came to see Longacre in his office . He told the engraver that the Taylor administration ( which had taken office in March 1849 ) had decided on Longacre 's removal , and urged him to send in his resignation as quickly as possible . Longacre did not resign , but went to Washington to see Secretary Meredith . He found that Patterson had lied to Meredith about a number of matters . For example , when Longacre took a new double eagle from his pocket , Meredith expressed surprise , believing that the dies from which it had been made had been broken . Longacre kept his job .
According to numismatic author Q. David Bowers , Longacre 's last set of dies were completed in February 1850 , and were accepted . Breen , however , stated that the first production coins appeared about January 26 , 1850 . Only one 1849 double eagle is known to be extant ; it forms part of the Smithsonian Institution 's National Numismatic Collection . The specimen sent to Meredith is unlocated , and is said to have been owned in the 1950s by coin dealer William K. Nagy , whose former business partner John W. Haseltine supposedly acquired it from the Meredith estate . Nagy allegedly stated that he had sold the coin to a private collector . One 1849 piece , in gilt brass , was later struck for Philadelphia druggist and numismatist Robert Coulton Davis , who had close ties to the Mint . Its location is also unknown .
= = Design = =
The obverse depicts a head of Liberty in the Greco @-@ Roman style , facing left , with her hair pulled back — according to numismatists Jeff Garrett and Ron Guth , " attractively " — in a bun . Some of her hair descends the back of her neck . She wears a coronet , inscribed " Liberty " , and is surrounded by thirteen stars , representative of the original states , and the year of issue . The reverse features a heraldic eagle , holding a double ribbon , on which " E Pluribus Unum " is inscribed . The double ribbon is an allusion by Longacre to the denomination of the piece he was designing . The design is a variant on the Great Seal of the United States ; the eagle protects a shield , which represents the nation , and holds an olive branch and arrows . Above the bird , Longacre again placed thirteen stars , arranged as a halo , together with an arc of rays .
Longacre 's initials , JBL , appear on the truncation of the head . The gold dollar and twenty @-@ dollar piece were the first American federal coins on which the designer 's initials appear — on the gold dollar , only the " L " is used . Longacre 's designs for the double eagle and the Type I gold dollar ( 1849 – 1854 ) are similar .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule disliked the double eagle and other Longacre coins showing Liberty , calling them routine . He did find that the reverse " has some commendable points of heraldic imagery " and likened that side of the coin to " the frontispiece for a patriotic brochure " . The Daily Alta California in May 1850 reprinted a piece from an unnamed Eastern newspaper , which said of the new piece , " we cannot say that we admire it ... [ the eagle on the reverse is ] imperfectly formed , and marred by some adjacent flummery intended for radiance we suppose , by which the whole thing is rendered confused " . The Journal of Commerce , a New York periodical , suggested that the piece be replaced with one showing George Washington on one side and on the other " a handsome eagle standing out as if it were not ashamed of itself " . The Boston Evening Transcript suggested that Mint authorities should be " stopping the issuance of this very shabby coin . The manager of the mint would seem to be utterly destitute of taste to allow such a specimen to go forth . " Bowers , writing in 2004 , stated that despite the negative contemporary reaction , the design of the double eagle is now very popular among collectors .
= = Production = =
= = = Type I ( 1850 – 1866 ) = = =
The double eagle soon became the most popular gold coin in terms of the number of pieces struck . During the denomination 's life , from 1850 to 1933 , far more gold was struck into double eagles than into all other denominations combined . Of all gold coins struck from the start of gold coinage for circulation in 1795 to the end in 1933 , just under half of the coins struck were double eagles , but 78 % of the gold used was struck into twenty @-@ dollar pieces . According to Bowers , the double eagle " represented the most efficient way to coin a given quantity of gold bullion into coin form " .
Regular production of the double eagle began with the striking of just over a million at Philadelphia in 1850 , and 141 @,@ 000 at the New Orleans Mint that year . Double eagles were struck at New Orleans every year from 1850 to 1861 , generally in small quantities . In the early years of the Liberty Head double eagle , when no mint was in the Far West , some California gold was presented there for coining into double eagles . Once the San Francisco Mint opened in 1854 , New Orleans mintages were light as for the most part only local gold was deposited , and there was not much of it . The Philadelphia Mint continued to receive much of the California gold . After Louisiana seceded from the Union in 1861 , some of the double eagles from New Orleans that year , though bearing the standard designs , were struck under the authority of the State of Louisiana , and later , the Confederacy . That mint then closed , reopening in 1879 . The branch mints at Charlotte and Dahlonega , which also closed with the Civil War , had limited coinage facilities , and struck no denomination higher than a half eagle .
A shortage of gold coins occurred in California and the Far West in the early 1850s ; federal authorities refused to accept gold dust for payment of customs duties and private minters soon stepped into the breach . California Senator William Gwin proposed legislation to establish assay offices in California and for the issuance of high @-@ denomination gold coins , as large as $ 10 @,@ 000 . Although most of his proposals were defeated , an assay office was established at San Francisco . Nevertheless , two money panics roiled California , and in 1852 , Congress established the San Francisco Mint . The first double eagle was coined there on April 3 , 1854 ; struck in proof condition , that piece is now part of the National Numismatic Collection . Just over half of the double eagles struck between 1850 and 1933 were minted at San Francisco .
Many of the high @-@ grade San Francisco Type I double eagles known today were taken from shipwrecks , where they had rested for over a century . These ships included the SS Brother Jonathan , the SS Central America , and the SS Yankee Blade . Thousands of almost @-@ pristine 1857 double eagles struck at San Francisco ( 1857 @-@ S ) went down with the Central America when it sank off the East Coast of the United States that September , as did some 435 people , including Captain William Herndon . The cargo was salvaged beginning in the 1980s ; once litigation over its ownership was settled , the pieces were marketed to the public . The Brother Jonathan , a luxurious paddle steamer en route from San Francisco north to Portland , sank in July 1865 ; few survived the wreck . The thousands of double eagles and other coins on board were salvaged beginning in 1996 , and once litigation concluded , many mint state double eagles came on the market .
The word " LIBERTY " on double eagles between 1850 and 1858 was originally spelled " LLBERTY " by Longacre , who converted the second L into an I ; this is visible under magnification . In 1860 , Assistant Engraver Anthony C. Paquet completed a revision of the reverse , with taller , narrower letters . After production had begun in early 1861 at Philadelphia and San Francisco , it was noticed that the design lacked a rim high enough to protect the design from abrasion , and the Mint went back to the old reverse . Only a handful of the Philadelphia specimens were not melted , but by the time word reached San Francisco to stop production , the western mint had issued 20 @,@ 000 pieces . A Philadelphia specimen sold at auction for $ 1 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 in August 2006 , setting a record for the Liberty Head double eagle series . In February 2013 , an 1866 @-@ S double eagle with no motto was discovered in the Saddle Ridge Hoard in the Gold Country on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in California . Only a very small number of proof coins in the Liberty Head double eagle series were struck for sale to the public , beginning in 1858 , at Philadelphia ; Breen noted , " few collectors could afford them even then " .
= = = Type II ( 1866 – 1876 ) = = =
With the nation in the midst of an internal war , in November 1861 , Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase received a proposal that American coinage bear an expression of faith in God . After various wordings were considered , " In God We Trust " was placed on the new two @-@ cent piece in 1864 . The Act of March 3 , 1865 that authorized the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece also required that the motto appear on all coins large enough to bear it . Pursuant to this mandate , Longacre began re @-@ engraving the various denominations of U.S. coinage . In 1866 , he added " In God We Trust " to all coins that did not already have it , excepting the pieces smaller in diameter than the nickel , a coin which began to be struck that year . The San Francisco Mint used up leftover double eagle reverse dies from 1865 before switching over during 1866 .
Longacre made the required addition to the double eagle by slightly enlarging the circle of stars on the reverse , and placing the motto within it . He took the opportunity to make other changes to the double eagle . The shield on the reverse was given rococo sides ; previously they had been straight . A ninth leaf was added to the olive branch , and the shape of the leaves was changed . The finials of the scroll were made smaller though more elaborate — on the left @-@ hand scroll , the finials impinge less on the letters " ibus " in " Pluribus " than before . The eagle 's wings and tail feathers were also slightly elongated .
In 1870 , the Carson City Mint opened in Nevada at the urging of silver mining interests , so that ore could be refined and converted to coin locally . In addition to silver , it struck gold half eagles , eagles , and double eagles . The 1870 @-@ CC double eagle , like other coins from that mint 's first year of operations , is a great rarity — only 3 @,@ 789 were struck . One sold for $ 414 @,@ 000 at auction in March 2009 . Carson City double eagles circulated for the most part only locally , since they were only struck in response to the deposit of gold bullion and the request of the depositor that it be coined into twenty @-@ dollar pieces . Heavy production of the coin occurred in San Francisco and satisfied the needs of Californians and those in the export trade . As gold did not circulate in the East , most Philadelphia pieces of this era were either sent west , or exported and melted .
In November 1872 , Chief Engraver William Barber , Longacre 's successor , submitted a set of logotypes to show how the following year 's date would appear on the coinage . They were approved , but on January 18 , 1873 , Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden filed a written complaint , stating that the " 3 " in the date too closely resembled an " 8 " . Barber was ordered to redo his work ; this decision affected most denominations of U.S. coins . The differences between the " Closed 3 " and " Open 3 " on the double eagle are small . One difference is that on the Closed 3 , the two knobs on the " 3 " are equal in size ; on the Open 3 the upper one is somewhat smaller . All Carson City and most San Francisco issues from that year are Closed 3 .
= = = Type III ( 1877 – 1907 ) = = =
In 1876 , William Barber altered the double eagle 's reverse , emboldening " In God We Trust " . The two varieties are known as the " Heavy Motto " and " Light Motto " types . He made more extensive changes for the following year 's production . He truncated Liberty 's neck at a sharper angle to allow more space for the date , which was punched into the dies by hand . In Longacre 's original version , the tip of Liberty 's coronet is very close to the seventh star clockwise from the date ; beginning in 1877 , it points between the sixth and seventh stars . A more noticeable change was made to the reverse , where the denomination , formerly " Twenty D. " , was spelled out as " Twenty Dollars " . The phrase " E Pluribus Unum " , on the ribbon that the eagle bears , was enlarged . The new dies initially created difficulties at the Mint and Barber made minor adjustments to the design over the first few months of production .
Many double eagles were struck at San Francisco between 1877 and 1883 . Beginning in 1881 , mintage of double eagles at Philadelphia was sharply curtailed . For the seven years 1881 – 1887 , only 4 @,@ 521 were made at that mint for circulation , none being struck in 1882 , 1883 , and 1887 . They were struck yearly in proof at Philadelphia : the 1883 ( mintage 92 ) , 1884 ( 71 ) and 1887 ( 121 ) are great rarities . The mintage of 2 @,@ 325 at New Orleans in 1879 , the only postwar strikings there , is unexplained — Breen suggested that the local mint superintendent might have anticipated a demand for the denomination . Double eagles were unpopular in commerce in the South , as were eagles . Millions of double eagles were sent to Europe as payment in international transactions beginning in the 1880s , often in cloth bags containing 250 coins , for a total of $ 5 @,@ 000 per bag .
In 1900 , William Barber 's successor as chief engraver , his son Charles E. Barber , slightly adjusted the design ; other modifications to U.S. coins about that time suggest that he most likely did it as part of a plan to re @-@ engrave all denominations . The most significant change made by Charles Barber was smoothing the back of the eagle 's neck . In 1904 , the Mint set records for production of double eagles : 6 @,@ 256 @,@ 699 at Philadelphia and 5 @,@ 134 @,@ 175 at San Francisco — highs for the series for those mints . The only higher production of double eagles , after the Liberty Head series ended , was the figure of 8 @,@ 816 @,@ 000 from Philadelphia in 1928 .
The 1891 discovery of gold at Cripple Creek , Colorado , in 1891 led to a gold rush there . The greater availability of gold in Colorado was one reason the Denver Mint was authorized in 1904 — it opened in 1906 . About a dozen proofs were struck for presentation to dignitaries when production of double eagles was inaugurated at Denver on April 4 , 1906 .
= = = Replacement = = =
In 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt complained to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie M. Shaw , about the designs on American coinage , and enquired if a sculptor such as the President 's friend , Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , could be hired to provide beautiful , up @-@ to @-@ date designs .
The following year , the Mint hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to create new designs for the four gold pieces then being struck , as well as the cent . Other commissions delayed him , and as he became more ill with the cancer that would kill him , his work slowed . Chief Engraver Barber repeatedly objected to the design Saint @-@ Gaudens finally submitted , which shows Liberty striding across a rocky outcrop , on the grounds that its relief was too high . After Saint @-@ Gaudens 's death on August 3 , 1907 , Barber produced his own , low @-@ relief version of Saint @-@ Gaudens 's coin . Its striking began in late 1907 , and it entered commerce that December — thereby putting an end to the Liberty Head double eagle series .
= = Collecting = =
Large quantities of double eagles were melted in the 1930s by the government after they were called in under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Although many of the double eagles exported in bulk in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were melted — records show that most sent to the United Kingdom were recoined into sovereigns — millions remained in banks . Large quantities of double eagles were found in the vaults of European banks beginning in the 1940s , and were placed on the numismatic market . Many common and low @-@ grade Liberty Head double eagles have been sold as investments , valued based on their bullion content . Type I double eagles have been recovered from shipwrecks , bringing many high @-@ grade early specimens onto the market , with the romance of " treasure coins " increasing the public demand .
In the 19th century , double eagles were little collected . Numismatists did not yet consider mintmarked coins to be distinct from those without . Even proof coins — with mintages in the dozens or low hundreds — sold on the secondary market at a slight increase from face value , and probably many were spent in hard times . In 1909 , early numismatic writer Edgar H. Adams published a catalog of American gold issues . No Liberty Head double eagle was considered by Adams to be worth more than the value inscribed on it .
As it became clear in the 1940s that the withdrawal of gold coins in 1933 had left several late @-@ date Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagles unexpectedly rare , collector interest grew in the denomination . The massive importation of double eagles held overseas once Americans were allowed to own gold again in 1974 added to the supply , but according to numismatic writer and coin dealer Bowers , " today they are of such wide popularity , fascination , and interest that the record prices achieved [ at an important sale in 1949 ] seem like incredible bargains ! "
There are many ways to collect Liberty Head double eagles . Some , wishing only a few pieces , may choose one each of the three major types , or seek pieces from the five mints that struck them . Carson City double eagles are highly popular . As the 1870 @-@ CC is almost unobtainable , collectors may limit themselves to Carson City Type III pieces ( 1877 – 1893 ) . Collectors seeking one double eagle per year of mintage will find it expensive to fill the 1886 entry , a year in which double eagles were only struck at Philadelphia , and just 1 @,@ 000 business strikes and 106 proof pieces were issued . The 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1886 in Very Fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 22 @,@ 500 .
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= 1979 Gillette Cup Final =
The 1979 Gillette Cup Final was a cricket match between Somerset County Cricket Club and Northamptonshire County Cricket Club played on 8 September 1979 at Lord 's in London . It was the seventeenth final of the Gillette Cup , which had been the first English domestic knock @-@ out competition between first @-@ class sides . Northamptonshire had won the competition in 1976 ; Somerset were playing their second consecutive final , having lost to Sussex in 1978 .
After winning the toss , Northamptonshire captain Jim Watts opted to bowl first . Somerset scored 269 runs off their full allocation of 60 overs , during which West Indian batsman Viv Richards top @-@ scored for the county , totalling 117 runs . In their response , Northamptonshire lost early wickets , but a partnership of 113 between Geoff Cook and Allan Lamb kept them in the game . Six wickets from Joel Garner helped Somerset bowl their opponents out for 224 with 3 @.@ 3 overs remaining , earning the county the first trophy in their 104 @-@ year history .
= = Background = =
Northamptonshire 's only previous Gillette Cup Final appearance had come three summers earlier when they beat Lancashire by four wickets to win the 1976 Gillette Cup , which was the club 's only silverware since becoming a first @-@ class county in 1905 . Somerset had appeared in two previous finals , losing in 1967 to Kent , and in 1978 to Sussex . In addition to losing the Gillette Cup final in 1978 , Somerset had narrowly missed out in the John Player League , and according to Vic Marks , there was " a deep determination to atone for the acute disappointments of the 1978 season . "
= = Route to the final = =
Northamptonshire entered the competition in the second round , in which they were drawn against Surrey County Cricket Club . They won the match by six wickets , aided by a century from Geoff Cook which earned him the man of the match award . In the quarter @-@ finals , they beat Leicestershire by eight wickets , with particularly economical bowling from Sarfraz Nawaz and Richard Williams helping to limit their opponents to 180 , a total which Northamptonshire reached with 4 @.@ 2 overs to spare . Northamptonshire batted first during their semi @-@ final against Sussex , a match which they won by 37 runs . Allan Lamb and Peter Willey shared a partnership of 157 for the fourth wicket , and Willey 's economical bowling was then instrumental in restricting Sussex to 218 , for which he was named man of the match .
Like their opponents in the final , Somerset joined the tournament in the second round , facing Derbyshire . Bowling first , Somerset limited their opponents to 224 ; Joel Garner was their most economical bowler . In reply , Somerset captain and opening batsman Brian Rose remained not out on 88 when his side reached their winning target with 3 @.@ 5 overs remaining , having lost two wickets . Kent travelled to Taunton for the quarter @-@ final , in which Somerset chose to bat first after winning the toss . Only Graham Burgess reached a half @-@ century for Somerset against a bowling attack which included five Test players . In Kent 's reply , Garner claimed five wickets and Ian Botham three as Somerset bowled their opponents out for 60 runs . Against Middlesex in the semi @-@ final , Somerset 's bowlers were once again led by Garner , who picked up four wickets as the London @-@ based club were dismissed for 185 . Somerset won with 9 @.@ 4 overs remaining for the loss of three wickets and Peter Denning remained unbeaten on 90 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
The sun was shining on the morning of the final , and Somerset 's captain Brian Rose was glad when Northamptonshire won the toss . The conditions favoured batting first , but had Somerset won the toss they would most likely have chosen to bat second , given their success in chasing throughout the season . Northamptonshire captain Jim Watts opted to field , giving Somerset the benefit of batting first . Somerset 's opening batsmen began quickly , taking the score to 34 before Peter Denning was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper George Sharp off the bowling of Sarfraz Nawaz . His wicket in the seventh over brought in Viv Richards . Before going out to bat , Richards focussed his mind on the fact that " it wasn 't a day for daring , carefree sixes . It was a day for maturity " . Rose played a patient innings for his 41 runs , before being bowled by Watts , leaving Somerset 95 / 2 . At the other end , Richards was playing what David Foot described as " a controlled gem " . He remained at the wicket until the final over , scoring 117 runs in a chanceless innings . His boundaries were scored predominantly from straight drives and leg hits , powerfully struck . Ian Botham played aggressively when he came in at number five , scoring 27 runs off 17 deliveries , and Joel Garner played similarly when he batted towards the end of the innings , adding 24 runs to the total . Somerset batted through their full allocation of overs , finishing on 269 / 8 . Of the Northamptonshire bowlers , Watts was the most economical , conceding 34 runs off his 12 overs . Tim Lamb conceded the most , allowing 70 runs to be scored from his 12 . The wickets were shared by the bowlers ; Watts , Lamb and Griffiths took two each , while Sarfraz Nawaz and Peter Willey claimed one apiece . Towards the end of the innings , Watts broke a bone in his right hand when catching a throw from the outfield , which prevented him from participating further in the match .
The Northamptonshire reply was made more difficult when Garner trapped Wayne Larkins leg before wicket and induced Richard Williams to hit his own wicket during his opening bowling spell . Opening batsman Geoff Cook was then joined at the crease by Allan Lamb , and the pair fought back , adding 113 runs in 13 overs before Cook was run out by Roebuck . In his history of Somerset cricket , Roebuck describes this run out as vital , though he does not give himself credit , stating that " Geoff Cook ran himself out " . Marks identified the point at which Lamb was stumped by Derek Taylor as the point at which " victory was almost assured . " Jim Yardley and George Sharp added 20 and 22 runs respectively , but with their captain , Watts , unable to bat through injury , and Somerset 's West Indian fast bowler Garner in good form , Northamptonshire were bowled out for 224 . Garner added four more wickets to the two he had taken during his first spell , to finish with career @-@ best figures of six wickets for 29 runs . Garner , Botham and Keith Jennings all bowled very economically , each restricting their opponents to less than 30 runs from their bowling . Somerset won the match by 45 runs , winning the Gillette Cup , the first trophy they had won during their 104 @-@ year history .
= = = Scorecard = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Somerset were awarded £ 5 @,@ 500 for winning the competition , while Northamptonshire collected £ 2 @,@ 500 . The day after their success in the Gillette Cup Final , Somerset travelled to Nottingham , where they beat Nottinghamshire to clinch the 1979 John Player League . The Somerset captain , Brian Rose was one of two Somerset players to be named as a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1980 , primarily for his captaincy of Somerset during the 1979 season . Also one of the five players was Joel Garner , of whom Wisden said " His part in Somerset 's double success during 1979 admits no arguments as to his potent and continuing ability to swing matches . " Northamptonshire were eliminated in the first round of the 1980 Gillette Cup , but won the 1980 Benson & Hedges Cup , defeating Essex in the final .
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= Smalls Paradise =
Smalls Paradise ( often called Small 's Paradise and Smalls ' Paradise , and not to be confused with Smalls Jazz Club ) , was a nightclub in Harlem , New York City . Located in the basement of 2294 Seventh Avenue , it opened in 1925 and was owned by Ed Smalls . At the time of the Harlem Renaissance , Smalls Paradise was the only one of the well @-@ known Harlem night clubs to be owned by an African @-@ American and integrated . Other major Harlem night clubs admitted white patrons only , unless the person was an African @-@ American celebrity .
The entertainment at Smalls Paradise was not limited to the stage ; waiters danced the Charleston or roller @-@ skated as they delivered orders to customers . Waiters were also known to vocalize during the club 's floor shows . Unlike most of the Harlem clubs which closed between 3 @-@ 4am , Smalls was open all night , offering a breakfast dance which featured a full floor show beginning at 6am .
After 30 years as the owner of the night club , Ed Smalls sold the club to Tommy Smalls ( no relation ) in 1955 . It was later owned by Wilt Chamberlain , and renamed Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise . Many well known musicians , both white and African @-@ American , - appeared at the club over the years , and often came to Smalls after their evening engagements to jam with the Smalls Paradise band . The club was responsible for promoting popular dances such as the Charleston , the Madison and the Twist . Smalls Paradise was the longest @-@ operating club in Harlem before it closed in 1986 . The building has been the site of Thurgood Marshall Academy since 2004 .
= = Early history = =
Entrepreneur Ed Smalls owned a small venue in Harlem , the Sugar Cane Club , from 1917 to 1925 , which catered primarily to local residents . When Smalls opened Smalls Paradise in the basement of an office building at 2294 Seventh Avenue , he envisioned a night club which would not exclude his neighbors , but would also be attractive to New Yorkers who lived in the city 's downtown area . Smalls arranged a lavish gala for the club 's opening on October 26 , 1925 , which was attended by almost 1 @,@ 500 people . Though Prohibition was in effect , patrons were able to bring their own liquor or purchase bootlegged liquor from the club 's waiters .
Opening Day music was provided by Charlie Johnson and his musicians , who remained as the " house band " for ten years . The members of Johnson 's band included Jabbo Smith , Benny Carter , Jimmy Harrison , Sidney De Paris and Sidney Bechet . While performing at Smalls Paradise in 1925 , Sam Wooding and his orchestra were heard by a Russian impressario ; Leonidoff promptly hired Wooding and his musicians for a European tour with the Chocolate Kiddies revue . The revue opened in Berlin in 1925 , with Wooding and his band performing in the revue for a year . Wooding and his orchestra left the revue to perform in Europe and South America until 1927 .
Banjo player Elmer Snowden , whose band played at the Smalls Paradise Sunday matinees , would often jam with the Johnson band after he had finished his nightly performance at the Hot Feet Club . Other musicians also made it a habit to drop in at Smalls Paradise after their engagements were over for the evening . Glenn Miller , Tommy Dorsey and Buddy Rich often came to Smalls Paradise to jam with the house band for the joy of it .
Like the other large and successful night clubs in Harlem , the Cotton Club and Connie 's Inn , Smalls regularly showcased revues which featured the club 's permanent staff of entertainers . Ed Smalls commissioned original music for the stage productions of the night club . Smalls Paradise was the only major Harlem night spot which was owned by an African @-@ American , and was racially integrated . The other clubs admitted white patrons only unless the person was an African @-@ American celebrity . Smalls previously had some success in attracting a racially mixed clientele at his Sugar Cane Club with the quality entertainment and waiters who danced while balancing trays of drinks and sang during floor shows . Beginning with the opening of Smalls Paradise , Smalls had his waiters dance the Charleston while serving guests ; patrons were also served drinks by waiters on roller skates .
Smalls Paradise had no cover charge and stayed open longer than most of the others , including the Cotton Club . At Smalls Paradise , patrons could also reserve a seat at the club by paying a yearly fee . Many regular visitors of Harlem 's night clubs also found the food better at Smalls Paradise than at either The Cotton Club or Connie 's Inn . While most of the night spots shut their doors between 3 and 4 am , Smalls Paradise began breakfast dances at 6 am with a floor show of up to 30 dancers and a full jazz band .
Smalls Paradise celebrated its fourth anniversary in 1929 and by 1930 , it began an arrangement with WMCA Radio to have twice weekly broadcasts from the club . During Ed Small 's ownership of the club , he organized many gala charity events which were held at Smalls Paradise with the proceeds donated to help the needy of the Harlem community . One memorable gala in 1931 featured Bill " Bojangles " Robinson . Entertainers from both the Cotton Club and Connie 's Inn made appearances at the event with the permission of the clubs ' management . Ed Smalls was doing well enough at the time of the club 's tenth year in business to greatly expand the Smalls Paradise floor space by moving the club 's bar upstairs . Smalls continued to expand the club on street level , opening his Orchid Room in 1942 .
In the early 1930s , a female singer with Charlie Johnson 's band arranged an audition with the band for a young hopeful at Smalls Paradise . When the girl was asked what key she sang in , she replied that she did not know , and the audition was unsuccessful . This was Billie Holiday 's first try as a professional singer . Jazz musician Fats Waller was a frequent visitor to Smalls Paradise . With a new Victor recording contract in 1934 , Waller was in need of sidemen to record with . Playing in the house band at Smalls Paradise were Harry Dial and Herman Autrey ; both were recruited by Waller at Smalls Paradise and recorded with him as Fats Waller and His Rhythm .
A young Malcolm X , who enjoyed the atmosphere at Smalls Paradise , worked there as a waiter between 1942 and 1943 . Civil rights activist Doctor W. E. B. Du Bois celebrated his 83rd birthday at Smalls Paradise on February 23 , 1951 . The banquet , sponsored by Albert Einstein , Mary McLeod Bethune , Paul Robeson and others , was originally to be held at New York 's Essex House . This was during the era of McCarthyism ; a pro @-@ McCarthy group circulated a newsletter labeling Du Bois , Einstein and others connected with the dinner as being pro @-@ Communist . When the Essex House canceled the banquet , it was held at Smalls Paradise .
= = New ownership = =
= = = Tommy Smalls = = =
Founder and long @-@ time owner Ed Smalls sold the club to popular disc jockey Tommy Smalls in late 1955 . Smalls , known as " Dr. Jive " , was an early enthusiast of rock ' n ' roll . Like his contemporary , Alan Freed , Smalls also organized rock ' n ' roll shows held at New York area theaters . He held a grand opening gala at the club on December 13 , 1955 , which was attended by many prominent people in the music industry . A special guest was baseball star Willie Mays . He began broadcasting his WWRL radio program from the club shortly after his ownership .
= = = Wilt Chamberlain = = =
By the late 1950s , Smalls Paradise was in trouble as it had lost substantial business . Basketball star Wilt Chamberlain , who had always wanted to own a night club ; was able to purchase Smalls Paradise with a business partner in 1961 . After purchasing the club , Chamberlain spent up to 18 hours a day at Smalls Paradise , as a celebrity host and learning the night club business . He renamed the venue Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise and changed the club 's style of music from jazz to rhythm and blues for economic reasons . One of the first performers at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise was Ray Charles . Chamberlain also began booking African @-@ American comedians ; Redd Foxx played at Big Wilt 's in December 1961 . Smalls Paradise had been a place for African @-@ American baseball players to gather during the time it was owned by Tommy Smalls . Under Chamberlain 's ownership , it now became a place where African American basketball players would meet .
A number of white jazz musicians regularly performed at the club alongside blacks . Jazz guitarist Pat Martino recalls that he began playing at the club as a teenager ( in the late 1950s ) , and would often play until 4am in the morning . After the clubs closed he would then join guitarists such as Wes Montgomery and Grant Green for breakfast .
= = Dances renew popularity = =
Smalls Paradise played a role in popularizing the Madison in 1960 , but the night club 's burst of popularity in the early 1960s came from the later dance craze , the Twist . Since Tuesday nights were exceptionally slow at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise , the club looked for a way to bring in more business . Someone came up with the idea to hold Twist dance contests on Tuesday evenings and the club 's weekly contest started in December 1961 . A hostess for the Paris night club , the Blue Note , visited Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise shortly after the contest began ; she was there to learn the Twist and take the dance back to the Paris club ,
By the beginning of 1962 , BBC @-@ TV came with a crew to film the twisting at the night spot for broadcast in the UK and journalists from many foreign newspapers visited to take photos and file news stories . Delegates from the United Nations had also found their way to the night club for the Tuesday night contest . Those participating in the contest were patrons of Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise . The only dance professionals doing the twist at the club were Mama Lou Parks and the Parkettes , who were there to provide lessons to novices . The Tuesday night twist contest brought patrons in limousines from downtown just as the entertainment at Smalls Paradise had done years before . As King Curtis played , Chamberlain was greeting royalty , as well as various show business and political figures . Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise saw over 250 @,@ 000 guests in the year since its weekly Twist contest began . The club was continually at capacity on Tuesday evenings until it closed at 4 am . Many people had to be turned away each week because they did not have the necessary reservations .
When author James Baldwin 's 1962 novel Another Country appeared in print , his publisher held a twist party for him at Baldwin 's favorite night club , Smalls Paradise . The guest list included many of Baldwin 's friends as well as literary figures . Despite the fact that many in @-@ town celebrities were also invited , some of those who were not on the guest list crashed the party .
= = After the Twist = =
In 1968 , a group of Tuskegee University students arrived in New York hoping to make a musical impression . They auditioned at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise but were turned down by one of the owners who believed the music genre funk was on the way out . A few days later , the group received a call from Big Wilt 's , asking if they would be able to fill in for a last @-@ minute performance cancellation at the club . Even though this was to be a one @-@ night performance , the Commodores agreed to play at Big Wilt 's . The engagement was extended substantially , with the group winning praise from the club 's talent manager , along with an invitation to play at Big Wilt 's anytime .
Singer Millie Jackson , a guest at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise , began heckling a female vocalist onstage . When the vocalist challenged Jackson by asking her to do better . Jackson accepted the dare by singing Don 't Play It No More . This was Jackson 's first public appearance as a singer ; she was hired for an engagement within two weeks of stepping onto the stage at Smalls .
By the early 1970s , it was necessary to revamp Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise once more . Some of the club 's patrons were using the night spot for illicit activities , such as drug dealing . The night club was cleared of those engaging in undesirable activities . Changes in the entertainment policy brought in acts like Jerry Butler and The Dells and the Vilmac Room was built for those who preferred to dance to a disco beat .
= = Last dance = =
By 1983 , the club was known as the New Smalls Paradise . This version of Smalls Paradise offered everything from music and dancing to craft shows and political speeches . By 1986 , the club , which was the longest @-@ operating night club in Harlem , had fallen vacant . Before its closure it had undergone a transition from a jazz to a disco club . Just prior to the club 's demise , the New York Swing Dance Society brought the Lindy Hop back to the dance floor at Smalls .
The structure was purchased by the Abyssinian Development Corporation . The nonprofit corporation , affiliated with the Abyssinian Baptist Church , planned to completely renovate the building and add three floors to it . Further plans for the building were to lease the structure for 50 years to the New York Board of Education to house its Thurgood Marshall Academy and to lease space for an International House of Pancakes restaurant . The school opened in 2004 ; all traces of Smalls Paradise were wiped out with the renovation .
= = In popular culture = =
Photographer and writer Carl Van Vechten was a frequent patron of Harlem 's night clubs for some years . Van Vechten had been a guest at Ed Smalls ' Sugar Cane Club as well as at Smalls Paradise . Van Vechten 's 1926 novel , Nigger Heaven , was based on some of his observations of Harlem 's night life ; he referred to Smalls Paradise as The Black Venus in the novel . After the book was published , Smalls ' employees were offended enough by Van Vechten 's portrayal of Harlem to bar Van Vechten from the night club permanently .
In 1932 , Elmer Snowden with his Smalls Paradise band and some of the club 's entertainers , were hired by Warner Brothers to star in a film short called Smash Your Baggage . The entire group was credited as " Smalls Paradise Entertainers " and not by individual names . The film 's plot involved a group of Pullman porters who decided to hold a benefit for one of their own . The ten @-@ minute film was shot at the Atlantic Avenue station of the Long Island Rail Road and it is the only recording of these musicians playing together ; this group produced no records together .
Smalls Paradise was the subject of a 1945 film , It Happened in Harlem , produced by All American News . The plot revolves around Ed Smalls ' singer drawing record crowds at Smalls Paradise until the singer receives his draft notice . Smalls begins auditions to try to replace his star vocalist . A little @-@ known young man with a following tries to audition for Smalls , but is turned away . One of the young man 's ardent fans then persuades Smalls to give him an audition . Actor George Wiltshire plays the role of Ed Smalls .
= = Albums recorded at Smalls Paradise = =
Groovin ' at Smalls ' Paradise Jimmy Smith 1957
Cool Blues Jimmy Smith 1958
Live At Small 's Paradise Babs Gonzales 1953
Live at Small 's Paradise King Curtis 1966
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= Hydnum repandum =
Hydnum repandum , commonly known as the sweet tooth , wood hedgehog or hedgehog mushroom , is an edible mushroom with no poisonous lookalikes . A basidiomycete fungus of the family Hydnaceae , it is the type species of the genus Hydnum . The fungus produces fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) that are characterized by their spore @-@ bearing structures — in the form of spines rather than gills — which hang down from the underside of the cap . The cap is dry , colored yellow to light orange to brown , and often develops an irregular shape , especially when it has grown closely crowded with adjacent fruit bodies . The mushroom tissue is white with a pleasant odor and a spicy or bitter taste . All parts of the mushroom stain orange with age or when bruised .
A mycorrhizal fungus , Hydnum repandum is broadly distributed in Asia , Australia , North America and Europe where it fruits singly or in close groups in coniferous or deciduous woodland . This is a choice edible species , although mature specimens can develop a bitter taste . Mushrooms are collected and sold in local markets of Europe , Mexico , and Canada .
= = Taxonomy = =
First officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , Hydnum repandum was sanctioned by Elias Fries in 1821 . The species has been shuffled to several genera : Hypothele by Jean @-@ Jacques Paulet in 1812 ; Dentinum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 ; Tyrodon by Petter Karsten in 1881 Sarcodon by Lucien Quélet in 1886 . After a 1977 nomenclatural proposal by mycologist Ronald H. Petersen was accepted , Hydnum repandum became the official type species of the genus Hydnum . Previously , supporting arguments for making H. repandum the type were made by Marinus Anton Donk ( 1958 ) and Petersen ( 1973 ) , while Zdeněk Pouzar ( 1958 ) and Kenneth Harrison ( 1971 ) thought that H. imbricatum should be the type .
Several forms and varieties of H. repandum have been described . Forms albidum and rufescens , found in Russia , were published by T.L. Nikolajeva in 1961 ; the latter taxon is synonymous with H. rufescens . Form amarum , published from Slovenia by Zlata Stropnik , Bogdan Tratnik and Garbrijel Seljak in 1988 , is illegitimate as per article 36 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , as it was not given a sufficiently comprehensive description . Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla described H. repandum var. rufescens in 1859 . Carleton Rea described the white fruit bodied version as a variety — H. repandum var. album — in 1922 .
Molecular studies have shown that the current species concept for H. repandum may need revision as there is a poor overlap between morphological and molecular species concepts . Phylogenetic analysis of European specimens , based on internal transcribed spacer and 5.8S DNA sequences , indicates that H. repandum specimens form two distinct clades , whose only consistent morphological distinction is cap size . These genetic differences may indicate the presence of undescribed cryptic species , and that the taxon may currently be undergoing intensive speciation .
The specific epithet repandum means " bent back " , referring to the wavy cap margin . The varietal epithet album means " white as an egg " . Hydnum repandum has been given several vernacular names : " sweet tooth " , " yellow tooth fungus " , " wood urchin " , " spreading hedgehog " , " hedgehog mushroom " , or " pig 's trotter " . The variety alba is known as " white wood " .
= = Description = =
The orange- , yellow- or tan @-@ colored pileus ( cap ) is up to 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide , although specimens measuring 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) have been documented . It is generally somewhat irregular in shape ( it may be convex or concave at maturity ) , with a wavy margin that is rolled inward when young . Caps grow in a distorted shape when fruit bodies are closely clustered . The cap surface is generally dry and smooth , although mature specimens may show cracking . Viewed from above , the caps of mature specimens resemble somewhat those of chanterelles . The flesh is thick , white , firm , brittle , and bruises yellow to orange @-@ brown . The underside is densely covered with small , slender whitish spines measuring 2 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . These spines sometimes run down at least one side of the stipe . The stipe , typically 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , is either white or the same color as the cap , and is sometimes off @-@ center . It is easy to overlook the mushrooms when they are situated amongst gilled mushrooms and boletes , because the cap and stipe are fairly nondescript and the mushrooms must be turned over to reveal their spines . The pure white variety of this species , H. repandum var. album , is smaller than the main variety , with a cap measuring 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide and a stipe that is 1 – 3 in ( 2 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 6 cm ) long .
The spore print is pale cream . Spores are smooth , thin @-@ walled and hyaline ( translucent ) , roughly spherical to broadly egg @-@ shaped , and measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . They usually contain a single , large refractive oil droplet . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 30 – 45 by 6 – 10 µm . The cap cuticle is a trichodermium ( where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface ) of narrow , club @-@ shaped cells that are 2 @.@ 5 – 4 µm wide . Underneath this tissue is the subhymenial layer of interwoven hyphae measuring 10 – 20 µm in diameter . The spine tissue is made of narrow ( 2 – 5 µm diameter ) , thin @-@ walled hyphae with clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
North American lookalikes include the white hedgehog ( Hydnum albidum ) and the giant hedgehog ( Hydnum albomagnum ) . H. albidum has a white to pale yellowish grey fruit body that bruises yellow to orange . H. albomagnum is large and paler than H. repandum . Hydnum umbilicatum is smaller , with caps measuring 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and thinner stipes that are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Its caps are umbilicate ( with a navel @-@ like cavity ) , sometimes with a hole in the center of the cap , unlike the flattened or slightly depressed caps of H. repandum . Microscopically , H. umbilicatum has spores that are larger and more elliptical than those of H. repandum , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . A European lookalike , Hydnum rufescens , is also smaller than H. repandum , and has a deeper apricot to orange color . Hydnum ellipsosporum , described as a new species from Germany in 2004 , differs from H. repandum by the shape and length of its spores , which are ellipsoid and measure 9 – 11 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . Compared to H. repandum , it has smaller fruit bodies , with cap diameters ranging from 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Hyndum repandum is a mycorrhizal fungus . The fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground or in leaf litter in both coniferous and deciduous forests . They can also grow in fairy rings . Fruiting occurs from summer to autumn . The species is widely distributed in the northern temperate zone , and is one of the most common of the tooth fungi . It has been recorded from Australia , Europe , northern Asia , and North America . In Europe , it has been listed as a vulnerable species in the Red Data Lists of the Netherlands , Belgium , and Germany ; Sweden lists it as being of Least Concern .
= = Edibility = =
The hedgehog mushroom is considered to be a good edible , having a sweet , nutty taste and a crunchy texture . Some consider it the culinary equivalent of the chanterelle . Author Michael Kuo gives it an edibility rating of " great " and notes that there are no poisonous lookalikes , and that they are unlikely to be infested with maggots . Delicately brushing the cap and stipe of specimens immediately after harvest will help prevent soil from getting lodged between the teeth . Hydnum repandum mushrooms can be cooked by pickling , simmering in milk or stock , and sautéeing , which creates a " tender , meaty texture and a mild flavor . " The mushroom tissue absorbs liquids well and assumes the flavors of added ingredients . The firm texture of the cooked mushroom makes it suitable for freezing . Its natural flavor is reportedly similar to the peppery taste of watercress , or oysters . Older specimens may have a bitter taste , but boiling can remove the bitterness . Specimens found under conifers can taste " unpleasantly strong " . The form amarum , locally common in Slovakia , is reportedly inedible because its fruit body has a bitter taste at all developmental stages .
Hydnum repandum is frequently sold with chanterelles in Italy , and in France , it is one of the officially recognized edible species sold in markets . In Europe , it is usually sold under its French name Pied @-@ de @-@ Mouton ( mutton 's foot ) . It is also collected and sold in local markets of Mexico , Spain and British Columbia , Canada . H. repandum mushrooms are also used as a food source by the red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ) .
As a widespread edible species , Hydnum repandum has been the subject of several scientific studies determining its nutritional and chemical composition . H. repandum fruit bodies contain 10 @.@ 7 % moisture and 9 @.@ 2 % ash . The organic acid composition includes malic acid ( 0 @.@ 31 grams per 100 g of mushroom , dry weight ) and citric acid ( 0 @.@ 65 % ) . One study assessed the proportion of essential amino acids ( value expressed as a percentage of the total amino acids ) : valine , 3 @.@ 9 % ; leucine , 14 @.@ 5 % ; isoleucine , 3 @.@ 2 % ; threonine , 4 @.@ 4 % ; methionine , 1 % ; lysine , 4 @.@ 2 % ; phenylalanine , 3 @.@ 4 % ; tryptophan , 1 @.@ 4 % . Lipid content is 4 @.@ 7 % ( expressed as a percent of dry matter ) . Major fatty acids include palmitate ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) , stearate ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) , oleate ( 26 @.@ 4 % ) , lineoleate ( 47 @.@ 5 % ) , and linolenate ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) . The mycosterol content has been recorded as 628 milligrams of ergosterol and 85 mg of fungisterol ( both values per 100 grams of dry matter ) .
= = Chemistry = =
Both H. repandum and the variety album contain the diepoxide compound repandiol ( 2R , 3R , 8R , 9R ) -4,6 @-@ decadiyne @-@ 2 @,@ 3 : 8 @,@ 9 @-@ diepoxy @-@ 1 @,@ 10 @-@ diol ) , which was shown to have potent cytotoxic activity against various tumor cells in laboratory culture . At the molecular level , repandiol is an alkylating agent . It inserts crosslinks between strands of DNA , making it difficult for the genetic material to be expressed or replicated .
The volatile chemicals responsible for the fruity aroma of the mushroom are known . The 12 compounds include eight @-@ carbon derivatives such as 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , ( E ) -2 @-@ octenol , and ( E ) -1,3 @-@ octadiene .
European studies conducted after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster have shown that the fruit bodies have a high rate of accumulation of the radioactive isotope cesium .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Dugan FM . ( 2011 ) . " Conspectus of World Ethnomycology " . St. Paul , Minnesota : American Phytopathological Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89054 @-@ 395 @-@ 5 .
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= Hanlon Expressway =
The Hanlon Expressway or Hanlon Parkway is a high @-@ capacity at @-@ grade suburban limited @-@ access road connecting Highway 401 with the city of Guelph in the Canadian province of Ontario . The 17 km ( 11 mi ) route travels in a generally north @-@ south direction in the city 's west end . It is signed as Highway 6 for its entire length ; from Wellington Street to Woodlawn Road it is concurrent with Highway 7 . The speed limit alternates between 70 and 80 km / h ( 45 and 50 mph ) .
Though the road was originally designed to be a freeway , budget limitations precluded the construction of overpasses ; apart from the interchanges with Highway 401 , Laird Road , and Wellington Street West ( Highway 7 and former Highway 24 ) , all junctions are at @-@ grade intersections . There are also two railway crossings near the northern terminus , though both are for spur lines . The Hanlon is graded and landscaped similarly to a freeway , with broad flat shoulders and an open median .
It was initially built between 1972 and 1975 , after years of planning and engineering . The first interchange , at Wellington Street , was opened 25 years later in 2001 . In late 2013 , a second interchange was completed at Laird Road . The Government of Ontario has announced plans to build a new Highway 7 freeway bypass joining the current northern terminus of the Hanlon Expressway to the Conestoga Parkway in Kitchener ; in @-@ line with this work , the Hanlon Expressway will be upgraded to 400 @-@ series standards . Long @-@ term plans call for a potential extension south of Highway 401 to meet Highway 6 south of Freelton .
= = Route description = =
The Hanlon Expressway begins at a trumpet interchange with Highway 401 and cuts through several farms northward before curving slightly westward to follow along the west side of the right @-@ of @-@ way of Hanlon Road . It enters Guelph at Maltby Road , skirting the outskirts of urban development . At the Laird Road interchange , opened in late 2013 , the expressway encounters the Hanlon Creek Business Park . As it progresses into residential subdivisions , the Hanlon Expressway encounters an at @-@ grade intersection , with Downey Road travelling to the west and Kortright Road West to the east . Continuing north , the route crosses to the east side of the Hanlon Road right @-@ of @-@ way as it intersects Stone Road West to the west of the Stone Road Mall . Before crossing the Speed River , the expressway meets College Avenue West , an at @-@ grade intersection at the southwest corner of Centennial Park Arena .
The Hanlon Expressway crosses the Speed River as it swerves to the west and meets Wellington Street , the only other interchange along the route . To the east , Wellington Road is Highway 7 , which follows the Hanlon Expressway north from the interchange ; to the west it was formerly Highway 24 . North of the Wellington Road the expressway was built slightly west of what is now Silvercreek Parkway . It passes beneath the a line of the Goderich – Exeter Railway , a sideline of the Canadian Pacific Railway , before encountering three at @-@ grade intersections : Paisley Road , Willow Road and Speedvale Avenue West . This section also features two at @-@ grade rail crossings . Shortly thereafter , it ends at Woodlawn Road West ; Highway 6 travels east from this point while Highway 7 travels west .
The road , like with nearby Hanlon Creek , is named after Felix Hanlon , one of the men who cut the first tree in Guelph along with John Galt . He was one of the original settlers in the area , and his family eventually deeded their land to the city .
= = History = =
Prior to the construction of the Hanlon Expressway , Hanlon Road existed as far north as College Avenue . Edinburgh Road was the westernmost crossing of the Speed River . On the opposite side of the valley , Silvercreek Road continued , as it does today , along the same right @-@ of @-@ way as Hanlon Road . With the rapid suburban expansion of Guelph in the 1950s and 1960s , a revised transportation plan was conceived to handle the increasing traffic load . The Guelph Area Transportation Study was completed in 1967 , and recommended a new controlled @-@ access highway to allow through @-@ traffic on Highway 6 to bypass the city . Route planning , engineering and design began on October 2 , 1967 and was subsequently completed in 1969 . Construction began between Waterloo Avenue and Stone Road in 1970 ;
this section opened on June 28 , 1972 . The next section , from Stone Road to Clair Road , opened in October 1973 . Work on the northern section from Waterloo Avenue to Woodlawn Road began in August 1974 . That section , as well as the final section south to Highway 401 were opened on November 7 , 1975 .
Initially , the Hanlon featured no interchanges . Despite this , this Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) has planned to upgrade the route to a freeway since at least 1994 , when an environmental assessment ( EA ) for the expressway north of the Speed River was completed . Construction of the Wellington Avenue interchange began in October 1998 ; it opened in July 2001 , connecting Wellington Street west of the expressway with the Silvercreek Parkway into downtown Guelph . The interchange cost C $ 13 @.@ 2 million and opened a year later than expected due to a design flaw that resulted in several months of delay and a lawsuit against the MTO resulting in a budget overrun of C $ 3 @.@ 2 million . No further work has been done north of the Speed River , and the 1994 EA now requires updating . On April 30 , 2012 , construction began on the Laird Road interchange . It partially opened on the week of November 11 , 2013 , and was fully opened on November 29 , 2013 , in a public ceremony attended by local officials as well as Guelph MPP Liz Sandals .
= = Future = =
As initially envisioned , the Hanlon Expressway will be upgraded to a controlled @-@ access highway by removing all existing at @-@ grade intersections and improving the highway to 400 @-@ series standards . Planning for this work initially began in the early 1990s with the EA for the section north of the Speed River , which resulted in the construction of the Wellington Street interchange . The EA for the section south of the Speed River began in early 2007 . The Laird Road interchange and associated closing of the Clair Road intersection were the first projects completed as part of this work .
Future projects will result in numerous changes . A full interchange will be constructed between Wellington County Road 34 and Maltby Road ; the intersection with the former will become an overpass while the latter will be closed , with Maltby Road terminating at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac on both sides of the expressway . Further north , a partial @-@ access diamond interchange will be built at Downey Road / Kortright Road West , with ramps from the northbound lanes and to the southbound lanes and the crossroad run beneath the expressway . The lack of ramps on the north side is due to the proximity of Stone Road to the north , where a full interchange will be constructed . A service road will be constructed along the west side of the expressway connecting Downey Road and Stone Road to provide better access to the YMCA , which previous controversial plans had neglected . At College Road , an underpass will be built .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Hanlon Expressway , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Wellington County .
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= Bounded weak echo region =
The bounded weak echo region , also known as a BWER or a vault , is a radar signature within a thunderstorm characterized by a local minimum in radar reflectivity at low levels which extends upward into , and is surrounded by , higher reflectivities aloft . This feature is associated with a strong updraft and is almost always found in the inflow region of a thunderstorm . It cannot be seen visually . The BWER has been noted on radar imagery of severe thunderstorms since 1973 and has a lightning detection system equivalent known as a lightning hole .
= = Description and attributes = =
The BWER is a nearly vertical channel of weak radar echo , surrounded on the sides and top by significantly stronger echoes . The BWER , sometimes called a vault , is related to the strong updraft in a severe convective storm that carries newly formed atmospheric particulates , called hydrometeors , to high levels before they can grow to radar @-@ detectable sizes . BWERs are typically found at mid @-@ levels of convective storms , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) above the ground , and are a few kilometers in horizontal diameter . Identifying the location of the updraft region is important because it is linked to locations where severe weather normally occurs . The presence of a BWER has been part of a method to diagnose thunderstorm strength as part of the Lemon technique since 1977 . The updraft strength within the BWER supports the growth of large hailstones just above the vault , which can be displaced slightly into the direction of motion of the parent supercell storm .
= = = Detection = = =
The bounded weak echo region ( BWER ) is a region of low radar reflectivity bounded above by an area of higher radar reflectivity which shows evidence of a strong updraft within mesocyclones . Radar analysts have recognized this phenomenon since at least 1973 , using different elevation scans . Methods of objectively corroborating that a BWER is associated with a mesocyclone is done by using a weather radar with Doppler effect to obtain the precipitations velocities . This have been available operationally in United States since 1997 with the NEXRAD network . When using the lightning detection system , lightning holes ( uncovered in 2004 ) correspond to where a BWER would be seen on radar .
A cross @-@ section of the three @-@ dimensional reflectivity of a thunderstorm shows the vault better . Algorithms were developed by the J.S. Marshall Radar Observatory of McGill University in Canada to locate the overhang region in a thunderstorm by the late 1980s . Its radar uses 24 angles , giving it good vertical resolution . In United States , fewer scanning angles are made within the WSR @-@ 88D radar which makes it more difficult to detect the overhang . Once the overhang is located , it is possible to make a cross @-@ section to view if it is related with a BWER . However , since 1997 algorithms have been developed by the National Weather Service to determine regions of reflectivity gradient in three dimensions and the presence of BWER in convection .
The development of a pronounced BWER can lead to tropical cyclone @-@ like radar signatures over land when located with a low angle plan position indicator ( PPI ) . When using the lightning detection system , lightning holes ( uncovered in 2004 ) correspond to where a BWER would be seen on radar .
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= Venture Science Fiction =
Venture Science Fiction was an American digest @-@ size science fiction magazine , first published from 1957 to 1958 , and revived for a brief run in 1969 and 1970 . Ten issues were published of the 1950s version , with another six in the second run . It was founded in both instances as a companion to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction ; Robert P. Mills edited the 1950s version , and Edward L. Ferman was editor during the second run . A British edition appeared for 28 issues between 1963 and 1965 ; it reprinted material from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction as well as from the US edition of Venture . There was also an Australian edition , which was identical to the British version but dated two months later .
The original version was only moderately successful , although it is remembered for the first publication of Sturgeon 's Law . The publisher , Joseph Ferman ( father of Edward Ferman ) , declared that he wanted well @-@ told stories of action and adventure ; the resulting fiction contained more sex and violence than was usual for the science fiction ( sf ) genre in the late 1950s , and sf historian Mike Ashley has suggested that the magazine was ahead of its time . It succumbed to poor sales within less than two years . The second US version was no more successful , with less attractive cover art and little in the way of notable fiction , though it did publish Vonda McIntyre 's first story . By the end of 1970 , Venture had ceased publication permanently .
= = First US run = =
In late 1949 , publisher Lawrence E. Spivak launched The Magazine of Fantasy , one of many new titles in a crowded field of genre magazines . The title was changed to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction ( usually abbreviated to F & SF ) with the second issue , and the new magazine rapidly became successful and influential within the science fiction field . The editors were Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas , and the managing editor was Robert P. Mills . In 1954 , Joseph Ferman , a partner of Spivak 's , bought the magazine from him . Ferman subsequently decided to launch a companion magazine , and gave it to Mills to edit .
The new magazine was titled Venture Science Fiction , and the first issue was dated January 1957 . Mills was managing editor of F & SF throughout Venture 's first run ; he became editor of F & SF shortly after Venture ceased publishing in July 1958 . The editorial philosophy was laid out by Ferman in the inaugural issue : " strong stories of action and adventure ... There will be two prime requisites for Venture stories : In the first place , each must be a well @-@ told story , with a beginning , middle and end ; in the second place , each must be a strong story — a story with pace , power and excitement . " Ferman hoped to take advantage of a gap in the science fiction magazine market opened up by the demise of Planet Stories , one of the last sf pulps , which had ceased publication in late 1955 . Planet Stories had focused on adventure stories , as opposed to the realistic style becoming more popular in science fiction in the 1950s , and Ferman hoped to combine the virtues of the melodramatic pulp fiction style with the literary values that were key to F & SF 's success . Venture 's bias towards action @-@ oriented adventure led to stories with relatively more sex and violence than those in competing magazines , and sf historian Mike Ashley has commented that it was perhaps five or ten years ahead of its time . One story , " The Girl Had Guts " , by Theodore Sturgeon , involved an alien virus that caused its victims to vomit up their intestines ; Ashley records a reviewer saying that the story made him physically ill .
Ed Emshwiller supplied eight of the ten covers ; he had sold several covers to F & SF by this time , so his work reinforced the sense of connection between the two magazines . Emshwiller also contributed interior illustrations in the first issue , but the main interior artist was John Giunta , with John Schoenherr contributing some of his earliest work to several of the later issues .
Some well @-@ known writers appeared during this incarnation of Venture , including Isaac Asimov , Clifford Simak , Marion Zimmer Bradley , Robert Silverberg , and Damon Knight . Not all the fiction was adventure oriented . For example , Sturgeon 's story " The Comedian 's Children " tells of a telethon host and his relationship with his sponsors , and Leigh Brackett 's " All the Colors of the Rainbow " deals with racism after aliens have contacted humanity . These and other examples can be regarded as stories of character with strong themes , in keeping with Ferman 's stated goals in his inaugural editorial . Venture was also the place that " Sturgeon 's Law " first saw print . This adage is now usually seen in the form " 90 % of everything is crap " . It was formulated by Sturgeon in about 1951 , and a version of it appeared in the March 1958 issue of Venture , under the name " Sturgeon 's Revelation " .
An editorial , " Venturings , " appeared in each issue of the first series ; after Ferman used the first one as a platform for editorial policy , it was usually written by Mills , who occasionally turned the column over to letters from SF figures . The very last editorial , in July 1958 , featured a eulogy of C.M. Kornbluth by Frederik Pohl , and one of Henry Kuttner by Sturgeon . Kornbluth and Kuttner had died within two months of each other earlier that year .
Sturgeon began a book review column , " On Hand . . . Offhand " , in the July 1957 issue that continued for the rest of the magazine 's run . This was Sturgeon 's first review column ; more than a decade later he wrote a similar column for Galaxy Science Fiction . The January 1958 issue saw the first in a series of four science articles by Asimov that also continued until Venture folded . The series was transferred to F & SF , beginning with the November 1958 issue , and eventually ran to 399 consecutive articles ; it is not often remembered that it began in F & SF 's short @-@ lived companion magazine .
Venture kept to a steady bimonthly schedule for ten issues , but its circulation never reached a sustainable level , and it was canceled in mid @-@ 1958 . The large number of competing magazines probably hurt sales , though since many of the competitors lasted for only one or two issues , Venture can be thought of as at least a partial success . An anthology drawn from the magazine 's fictiion , No Limits , was published in 1964 by Ballantine Books , attributed to Joseph Ferman as editor .
= = British and Australian editions = =
In December 1959 , a British edition of F & SF appeared from Atlas Publishing and Distributing Limited , a London @-@ based publisher . Atlas had published a British edition of Analog ( formerly Astounding Science Fiction ) since 1939 . In 1963 the abolition of import restrictions meant that Analog could be directly imported , and since there was no longer a need for a British edition , Atlas decided to start a new sf magazine to replace it . The new Venture Science Fiction drew many of its stories from the US version , but it also reprinted from the late 1950s F & SF , since there had been no British edition of that magazine until the end of 1959 . Within a year Atlas decided to abandon their edition of F & SF as well ; the last issue appeared in June 1964 .
The British version of Venture began in September 1963 , and ran for 28 numbered issues , through December 1965 ; the editor was Ronald R. Wickers . The stories selected from F & SF for the UK edition of Venture did not overlap with material already reprinted in the UK edition of F & SF . The first five issues had pictorial covers , but thereafter the cover simply listed the names of the contributing authors . This unattractive presentation , and the lack of much in the way of interior artwork , probably hurt sales . Atlas 's stated reason for ending the magazine was that it was " due to the expiration of available material " , but there were in fact many stories available to reprint . It is more likely that the real reason was that the US edition of F & SF was by then easily available in the UK , and that circulation was falling .
Atlas also published an Australian edition , which was identical to the British edition except that it was dated two months later ; the issues ran from November 1963 to February 1966 .
= = Second US run = =
A little over ten years after the first US edition ceased , a new version appeared , again as a companion to F & SF . This time the magazine was quarterly . The debut issue was dated May 1969 , and it was edited by Edward L. Ferman — son of Joseph Ferman — who was also the editor of F & SF . There was no statement of editorial intent for this version , but the policy was straightforward : a novel was presented in each issue . Although these were substantially cut , they still took up most of the magazine , with the result that the other stories tended to be very short . As in the first incarnation , the contents were of fairly good quality , with contributions from well @-@ known writers . However , the magazine was no more successful than before , and lasted for only six quarterly issues ; the last issue was August 1970 .
The condensed novels that appeared in this version of Venture included Hour of the Horde , by Gordon R. Dickson ; Plague Ship , by Harry Harrison ; Star Treasure , by Keith Laumer ; and Beastchild , by Dean R. Koontz . The short fiction included little of note , though " The Snows Are Melted , the Snows Are Gone " , an early story by James Tiptree , Jr . , appeared in 1969 , and " Breaking Point " , by Vonda McIntyre , was published in February 1970 . " Breaking Point " was McIntyre 's first published fiction , but , perhaps because it was published as by " V. N. McIntyre " , it has been missed by several bibliographers . There was also a Reginald Bretnor Feghoot story in each issue : these were a series of very short stories , based on bad puns , that had begun in F & SF the previous year .
Ron Goulart contributed a book review column to each issue of the second incarnation , and there was an occasional film review . This version of Venture did not credit the artists , but most of the covers were signed by Bert Tanner , who was listed on the masthead as the art director . Tanner 's cover art was much less distinguished than Emshwiller 's work for the first run of the magazine , and it is likely that this had a negative effect on sales : Tanner 's work has been likened to " pencil sketches overlaid by a single color " . Tanner also contributed much , but not all , of the interior art ; other artists who can by identified by their signatures include Emshwiller , Derek Carter , and Bhob Stewart , who illustrated Tiptree 's story in the November 1969 issue .
= = Bibliographic details = =
For the first incarnation , Venture was priced at 35 cents throughout , and maintained a 128 @-@ page count along with a regular bimonthly schedule , starting with January 1957 and ending with the July 1958 issue . The first volume had six numbers , and the second had four . The British edition was numbered consecutively from 1 to 28 without any volume numbers , and was priced at 2 / 6 ( ₤ 0 @.@ 12 1 ⁄ 2 ) until the July 1964 issue , after which the price was 3 / - ( ₤ 0 @.@ 15 ) . The second US version began in May 1969 with volume 3 number 1 , and maintained a regular quarterly schedule until the last issue in August 1970 . Each issue was priced at 60 cents , and like its predecessor had a page count of 128 .
After the first US edition ceased publication , F & SF added the line " including Venture Science Fiction " to the masthead , in order to ensure that the publisher retained the rights to the title . The line reappeared in February 1971 , several months after the failure of the second US edition , and was finally dropped in February 1990 .
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= Southern Adventist University =
Southern Adventist University is a Seventh @-@ day Adventist college in Collegedale , Tennessee , owned and operated by the Southern Union Conference of Seventh @-@ day Adventists . U.S. News & World Report categorizes it as a Southern Regional College , and the magazine has consistently ranked it as one of the top @-@ tier schools in that category . Southern Adventist University occupies a 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) campus in a rural setting in the Tennessee River Valley .
It was founded in 1892 in Graysville , Tennessee , as Graysville Academy and was the first Adventist school in the southern U.S. Due to the need for additional space for expansion the school relocated in 1916 and was renamed Southern Junior College . In 1944 Southern began awarding baccalaureate degrees and was renamed Southern Missionary College . In 1996 the institution started conferring master 's degrees and adopted its current name .
Southern offers associate , baccalaureate , master 's , and doctoral degrees . It is accredited by multiple organizations including the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools . Its Institute of Archaeology offers an undergraduate degree in biblical archaeology ; Southern is one of only two schools which offer the degree . It is known for its emphasis on Adventist beliefs and conservative religious and social practices , and is considered the most conservative of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist schools in North America . The college operates a radio station ( WSMC @-@ FM ) , a health food store and a wellness center . Enrollment was 3 @,@ 053 students in 2010 , its highest level to date .
= = History = =
Southern 's roots stem from the establishment of Graysville Academy in Graysville , Tennessee , in 1892 , in a part of the South much affected by the American Civil War . The area saw the battle of Chickamauga and the Chattanooga campaign , and was the staging ground for Sherman 's Atlanta campaign . The Academy was privately funded at first , with no financial support from the Adventist church . In 1897 it was renamed the Southern Industrial School and then Southern Training School in 1901 . The school moved to the community of Thatcher 's Switch in 1916 , renaming it Collegedale . In 1943 , Kenneth A. Wright became president of the school . During Wright 's administration , Southern Junior College became accredited as a four @-@ year college . A new name , Southern Missionary College , was adopted in 1944 , and Southern granted its first baccalaureate degrees two years later . When the school became a university in 1996 , the trustees voted on a new name : Southern Adventist University .
= = = Graysville Academy , 1892 @-@ 1897 = = =
The Graysville Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church was organized on September 8 , 1888 , and by the fall of 1890 , the members had dedicated a church building . R.M. Kilgore , former president of the Illinois Conference had been asked to supervise the church 's work in the Southern United States . He had just moved to Graysville and was present for the church dedication . As the superintendent for the church 's work in the South , Kilgore repeatedly advocated the establishment of a school .
Kilgore invited George W. Colcord ( 1843 – 1902 ) , to come to Graysville and establish a school . Colcord was the founder of Milton Academy , which is the forerunner of Walla Walla University . The General Conference Education Secretary , W. W. Prescott , along with Kilgore and Colcord worked together to establish the school at Graysville . Colcord and his wife Ada began the school . The first term began in February , 1892 , with 23 students . The second term began in September of that year . By January 1893 Colcord reported that 62 students were in attendance . By 1893 there were three full @-@ time teachers and three part @-@ time teachers . Prescott considered the positive attitude of the school 's faculty , students and supporters to be indicators of the school 's future success and good reason to start other such schools in the South .
During 1892 , Colcord operated the school privately . Then , at the session of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist General Conference held at Battle Creek , Michigan , February 17 to March 6 , 1893 , the church officially took over the school . This first school in the South inspired the session to recommend that other schools also be established .
In the Fall of 1894 , Graysville Academy faced a crisis . Fourteen of the members of the Graysville Church were indicted for having violated the Tennessee Sunday law . This included Colcord , his nephew , Prof. I. C. Colcord , and M. C. Sturdevant , manager of the boys ' dormitory .
The church members found guilty refused to pay the fines , choosing to go to prison instead . The imprisonment of the school 's leaders resulted in its immediate closing for the rest of the year . The students , some of whom were ready to graduate , returned to their homes .
= = = Southern Industrial School , 1897 @-@ 1901 = = =
In November 1897 , the district conference voted to change the school 's name to Southern Industrial School . The name change reflected a change in the school 's emphasis . Industries were established including a wagon and blacksmith shop , a broom shop , a printshop and a school farm . The farm grew peaches , pears and many types of berries and vegetables .
= = = Southern Training School , 1901 @-@ 1916 = = =
The Southern Union Conference was organized in April 1901 . Kilgore , the superintendent of the Southern District , known as District 2 , was elected the first president of the Southern Union Conference . The headquarters was in Graysville . The General Conference arranged for the Southern Union to take over the operation of the Southern Industrial School . The property was transferred to the Southern Union . They renamed the school the Southern Training School . It offered 14 grades of instruction .
= = = Southern Junior College , 1916 @-@ 1945 = = =
= = = = Relocation = = = =
Eventually the Graysville school outgrew its 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) site . Church leaders looked for a larger plot of land . They believed " that the only education worth while in these strenuous days is that practical kind which teaches the student to actually do with his hand the things he learns about in books . " To provide for this practical concern , they found a larger property . Plans were made to relocate the college program to a 285 @-@ acre ( 115 ha ) farm at Thatcher 's Switch east of Chattanooga . The move from Graysville to Thatcher 's Switch involved moving most of the school 's equipment , livestock , and implements to the new site fifty miles away . The school moved and opened in its new location by October , 1916 . The community was soon renamed Collegedale and the school as Southern Junior College . The term training school had become associated with reform schools while at the same time the junior college designation had become a popular one .
Graysville Academy continued on at the original site as a church and conference @-@ sponsored secondary boarding academy until 1938 .
= = = = Pioneer years = = = =
In 1916 , the school 's property holdings totaled $ 32 @,@ 000 . Two years later , due mainly to the construction of additional buildings on campus , the school 's holdings increased to $ 113 @,@ 000 . Many students earned their tuition by helping to construct these buildings . Southern was financially supported by two union conferences of the Church 's North American administration . The school organized construction bees . Interested church members came from across the South to help in these bees .
At first , the school taught only students in grades 1 @-@ 12 with a total enrollment of 59 students . In 1918 , three students were taking post @-@ high school level classes . The total student enrollment at this time was 175 .
Southern Junior College served two union conferences of Seventh @-@ day Adventists , the Southern and the Southeastern . Later these two would be reorganized into one , the Southern Union Conference . In 1920 , Lynn H. Wood , the president of the college , presented a major report to meetings for both union conferences . He reviewed the events of the first four years at the Ooltewah location .
According to Wood , enrollment grew quickly because of a tuition work program . Students of limited means realized they could get an education and improve themselves . This put a strain on housing . But the desire for an education motivated the students to cope with those early inadequate facilities , " Students have been willing to live in shacks and tents , to put up with all kinds of inconvenience , in order that they might receive the character development that the school had for them . " Wood referred to these first few years as the " pioneer years . " He wrote that the positive spiritual attitude of the students made these years the most enjoyable that one could wish for .
The college built the girls ' dormitory first . The girls moved in before it was finished , even before there was any heating , doors or chairs . They used " curtains for doors , sat upon their trunks for chairs — any way to get along . "
= = = = Faith community support = = = =
The building of the boys ' dormitory began in the summer of 1918 . The students helped build it , and , in doing so , many earned their way through school . Shortly after the beginning of the school year in 1918 , a " Workers ' Bee " took place . Church workers from all across the South and from church headquarters in Washington , D.C. came to the college to build the boys ' dormitory . For two and a half weeks they worked and associated with the students . They succeeded in putting up most of the framework .
Other help from the Adventist faith community included a $ 6 @,@ 000 donation by the Southern Publishing Association for a water supply system and another " Working Bee " to build a large dairy barn , a blacksmith shop , and a corn crib . People interested in the college 's success bought surrounding properties and donated them to the institution , more than doubling the school 's area to close to 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) . This allowed the school to protect itself from families moving so close that they hindered their young people attending from learning some independence , President Wood wrote . He encouraged families to send their young people to the school , and if the cost was too high for some of them , he advised that church leaders make sure they got the help they needed for their young people to attend and live in the dormitory .
= = = Southern Missionary College , 1944 @-@ 1982 = = =
In 1944 , the Seventh Day Adventist General Conference Spring Council voted for Southern to become a four @-@ year college . The enrollment that first year was the highest ever to date , 436 students . The theology , teaching and pre @-@ nursing departments had the highest enrollments . Industries that helped students earn their tuition included a wood shop , a broom factory , a printing press , and a farm . The name Southern Missionary College was chosen at a combined meeting of the members of the college board , the union educational board , and the college faculty .
= = = Southern College of Seventh @-@ day Adventists , 1982 @-@ 1996 = = =
On July 1 , 1982 , the word " Missionary " was dropped from the school 's name . The reported reasons for the change were that the general population reacted negatively to the term ; foreign countries resisted accepting church workers who were from a " missionary " college ; the name incorrectly identified the school as only a Bible college , rather than a fully accredited , four @-@ year liberal arts institution ; and , graduates found the name " missionary " made it more difficult for them to get a job . Southern was the last Adventist college in North America to retain " missionary " in its title . The others changed their names many years earlier .
In their official announcement of the name change , the Board of Trustees of Southern Missionary College explained that a shorter name would help popularize it . They also stated that , " The word ' Southern ' has been associated with the College since its beginning — Southern Industrial School , Southern Training School , Southern Junior College , Southern Missionary College , and now Southern College . "
= = = Early 1980s controversy = = =
Southern College found itself drawn into a wider church controversies involving Desmond Ford who was dismissed from ministry in the Adventist church in 1980 , and Walter Rae , and Ronald Numbers 's book , The Prophetess of Health . It began after a visit to the campus by a leading Bible scholar and theologian of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church , Edward Heppenstall , on his understanding of the church 's " investigative judgment " teaching , and who was also mentor to Desmond Ford . Then grew when a teacher from the theology department made a comment that seemed to disagree with statements made by church pioneer Ellen G. White . The incident along with other concerns led to accusations that faculty at the school did not believe in White as a prophet and led to calls for their dismissal . Southern President Frank Knittel and Board of Trustees member Tom Zwemer resigned , and Jerry Gladson , a professor of Old Testament Studies at Southern , also left the school . His credentials as a minister of the church were not renewed .
= = = Southern Adventist University , 1996 @-@ present = = =
In May 1996 , the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools granted approval for Southern to become an accredited Level III institution , allowing the school to confer master 's degrees . By September of that year , the college 's constituency approved the name change to Southern Adventist University . In 1996 , attendance was 1600 . Since 1996 , Southern has continued to grow and build , reaching a peak enrollment of 3 @,@ 053 in 2010 ( compared with 2 @,@ 079 in 1980 ) .
= = Academics = =
The student @-@ faculty ratio at Southern Adventist University is 16 : 1 and its most selected majors are biological and biomedical sciences ; business , management , marketing , and related support services ; education ; and health professions and related clinical sciences . Southern offers 81 undergraduate degrees , with sixty majors , thirty @-@ eight minors and two one @-@ year certificate programs . It also offers master 's degrees in business , computer science , education , psychology , nursing , religion and social work . The university is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the Accrediting Association of Seventh @-@ day Adventist Schools , Colleges , and Universities . In 2009 , the Princeton Review , an education services company , selected Southern as one of 141 institutions it listed in its " Best in the Southeast " section .
= = = School of Nursing = = =
The nursing program was instituted in 1934 . Upon completion of the program students were able to transfer to Florida Sanitarium and Hospital , where they could earn a diploma in nursing . In 1963 , Southern 's President Rees announced that the school 's nursing program had received its Bachelor of Science National League of Nursing accreditation . In 2002 , the master 's program also received official accreditation . Southern 's School of Nursing has existed on the Collegedale campus since 1956 .
In 2003 , the School announced an accelerated program allowing registered nurses with an associate 's degree to receive a Master of Science in Nursing . At this date approximately half of Southern 's nursing graduate program were non @-@ Adventist .
In December 2010 , the college temporarily suspended a home health nursing program after two of its nursing students were accosted at gunpoint in Chattanooga . The school is considering a safer , more controlled environment for the program .
In 2011 , the university opened Florida Hospital Hall , a new building with twice the space of the former nursing building , to accommodate an expanding student base .
= = = Institute of Archaeology = = =
The Institute of Archaeology is part of the School of Religion . It coordinates the archaeological programs at Southern through an undergraduate degree , an archeological museum , the William G. Dever Research Library and its archaeological excavations and publications . Southern is one of two schools in the U.S. where students can pursue an undergraduate degree in biblical archaeology . The Lynn H. Wood Archaeological Museum has a collection of nearly 600 artifacts , many of which were unearthed in Israel between 1967 and 1975 .
The current Institute Director , Professor of Near Eastern Studies and Archaeology Michael Hasel , studied for his doctorate under William G. Dever at the University of Arizona . In 2000 , Dever gave his artifact collection in loan to Hasel and Southern . This made the development of Southern 's program possible . The artifacts , valued at $ 250 @,@ 000 , date from 3200 BC to 450 AD . The collection has an almost complete set of the many strains of pottery from this period which students can study . In 2008 , Dever placed his personal library at Southern , along with 15 @,@ 000 photographic slides of archaeological excavations .
= = = School of Visual Art and Design = = =
Wayne and Maria Hazen founded the School of Visual Art and Design in 1998 . The film department produced Angel in Chains in 2003 , a film " based on a true story about acceptance and forgiveness . " In 2007 , Southern released Secret of the Cave , a feature film which was awarded a Crystal Heart Award at the Heartland Film Festival in Indiana . The family @-@ oriented feature was filmed in Ireland and was the first feature @-@ length film produced at the university . The school offers degrees in graphic design , animation , film production and fine art .
= = = McKee Library = = =
The McKee Library is located on the campus and opened in 1970 . Its collection of books and media comprises approximately 165 @,@ 000 volumes on the shelves , 25 @,@ 000 electronic books , subscriptions to more than 880 print and electronic periodicals and access to more than 19 @,@ 000 electronic journals . The library is defined by the Thomas Memorial Collection , a major Civil War collection with more than 3 @,@ 600 volumes concerning Lincoln and the Civil War , and authentic photos and newspapers . The Collection has two original copies of the only Lincoln biography ever read and approved by him , the Life of Abraham Lincoln by J. L. Scripps , and a section of his original marble sarcophagus .
= = Ideology = =
Southern is known for its religious and social conservatism , and some say is the most conservative of denominationally owned Adventist colleges in North America . In 2001 , Adventist noted theologian and scholar Raymond Cottrell , a " progressive Adventist " , wrote that Southern operated " an agency of Southern Bible belt obscurantism . "
In explaining why he placed his collection of artifacts and his personal library at Southern Adventist University , archaeologist William Dever said , " The major support for archaeology work in Israel and Jordan comes from conservative and evangelical circles where the Bible is still taken seriously and no one is more serious and committed about archaeological study in the Middle East than Adventists . "
= = Student life = =
The Princeton Review describes Southern as a " religiously loving environment . " Most forms of jewelry are not allowed on campus , including engagement rings , and students may be fined for not complying with this policy . Southern is a dry campus , as the Adventist Church opposes the use of alcohol . The university observes the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday and students are expected to refrain from secular activities during these hours .
Although Southern does not have fraternities or sororities , there are 40 clubs on campus , one of which is a chapter of the Adventist Forum , publisher of Spectrum Magazine . The Southern Accent is a weekly student @-@ run newspaper that has been the voice of Southern students since 1926 and gives information on events and outings and " hot issues that are being talked about on campus " . There are 21 student @-@ led ministries on campus and in the community and a Student Missions program .
Southern has more than 10 miles ( 16 km ) of hiking / mountain biking trails used by students and local community members alike .
There is a campus @-@ wide internet network with all classrooms accessing the wireless network and a computer lab in each building with access to printing . Wireless printing is also accessible in the dormitories .
= = = Dormitories = = =
Southern 's dormitories are single gender although students can opt out of the dormitories during summer sessions or with permission from a dean . Upperclass and married students can receive exemptions from this policy . The men 's dormitory is Talge Hall and the women 's dormitory is Thatcher Hall . An accidental fire in Thatcher Hall in April 2005 killed one student and injured two others . The dormitories have also been used to shelter storm victims who needed short @-@ term housing , such as after tornadoes in early 2011 .
= = = WSMC @-@ FM radio station = = =
Southern owns and operates FM radio station WSMC which is almost completely staffed by students and the only classical music station in the Chattanooga area . In 2003 , following technical problems that caused the station to keep dropping off the air , WSMC upgraded equipment to improve its reliability . It has been in operation since 1961 and is located on campus .
= = McKee Foods = =
McKee Foods has its headquarters beside the campus and has been an important part of school history as one of the companies which have provided jobs within walking distance for students to fund their education . It was founded by a Southern alumnus and is the headquarters for Little Debbie , Sovex and Sunbelt products . McKee Foods is one of the largest employers in Hamilton County .
= = People = =
= = = Principals , presidents = = =
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Jim Davis , state senator
Clifford Goldstein , author and editor
Dwight Nelson , pastor
Cherie Priest , novelist and blogger
Mathew Staver , founder and Chairman of Liberty Counsel
Lisa Robertson , actress and QVC host
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= Chrono Resurrection =
Chrono Resurrection , also known as Chrono Trigger : Resurrection , is an unreleased fangame developed by North American team Resurrection Games under Nathan Lazur 's direction . It is based on the critically acclaimed Super NES role @-@ playing game Chrono Trigger by the Japanese company Square . The project was initially called CT64 and was meant to be a complete remake of the original game for the Nintendo 64 , with both 2D and 3D playing modes .
After a first interruption in development , the project was redefined as a short interactive demo for Windows @-@ based personal computers . New team members , including professional artists and designers , were recruited for the demo , which would feature ten scenes from Chrono Trigger and most of its playable characters . In 2004 , the project was publicly closed after Square Enix issued a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter to Resurrection Games for trademark and copyright infringement . Despite its closure , the project has received critical and popular praises .
= = Nintendo 64 version = =
Nathan Lazur initially planned to create a Chrono Trigger remake for the Nintendo 64 , called CT64 , using GNU @-@ based homebrew tools . Lazur 's motivation for the project came in 1999 when playing Chrono Trigger and Super Mario 64 . The remake , developed by a team of four people , was Lazur 's first attempt at creating a complete title . The game was intended to have two playing modes and the same battle system as the original .
The first mode would feature 2D and pre @-@ rendered graphics enhanced with 3D spell and battle effects . Some of the effects created by Lazur would rely on software programming rather than the Nintendo 64 hardware , as the latter would not be capable of rendering them directly . The second mode would be a full 3D mode played in either regular or high display resolution , and would feature different level of detail textures depending on camera distances , to maximize clarity and performance . Both modes would be in a top @-@ down perspective , although more cinematic camera angles , similar to those from The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time , were also considered for the 3D mode .
A gallery feature was also planned and would allow players to unlock bonus material depending on their progression in the game . Fan artwork and music would be unlockable through this feature , as well as minigames , including a card game similar to Triple Triad from Final Fantasy VIII . The remake was expected to be released on the Internet for free and played on console emulators , since there would be no cartridge version due to financial constraints . Only a semi @-@ working 3D test was actually completed , and the project was discontinued in mid @-@ 2000 due to a number of factors , including the accidental loss of Lazur 's data and his desire to improve his programming skills .
= = Second version = =
= = = Development = = =
The second version of the project , tentatively called Chrono Trigger : Brink of Time then Chrono Resurrection , started development in April 2003 . Lazur has given several reasons to explain his willingness to restart the project , including his experience coding for the Dreamcast Visual Memory Unit , programming for game developer DC Studios , and playing Chrono Cross , the official sequel to Chrono Trigger for PlayStation . Unlike CT64 , the second version would be a short demo developed in a cross @-@ platform engine with a single 3D playing mode . The Windows version was planned for a free Internet release , while Nintendo GameCube and Xbox ports would be reserved for official developers with access to development kits of either of the two consoles .
The new development team was mostly recruited on the game developers website Gamasutra and worked in a small studio in Lazur 's apartment , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The team included up to nine members , most of which had about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of experiences in the industry . Lazur has admitted that he began to seriously focus on the quality of the demo only after art director Luis Martins joined the project . Other professional designers in the team included Moise Breton , a 3D artist who had worked on character models for the commercially successful movie The Matrix Reloaded , and Michel Cadieux , an animator who had worked for game company Microïds . Difficulties were encountered in the game engine development as Lazur was the unique programmer and worked from scratch .
The score for the demo was composed by Mathew Valente , who had been with the project since its Nintendo 64 version . The score was to consist in arrangements of the official Chrono Trigger soundtrack written by Yasunori Mitsuda , Nobuo Uematsu and Noriko Matsueda . Valente 's goal was to retain the feeling of the original music while enhancing it for a modern platform . Most of the arrangements were created in the Impulse Tracker format , then converted to MIDI and enhanced with a number of tools .
= = = Content = = =
The team tried to capture the feel of the original game with updated graphics and sounds in the demo . It was to feature ten short interactive scenes from Chrono Trigger . Despite receiving requests from fans , the development team did not intend to create a complete remake of the original game since they would not have the necessary resources , and because they thought the result would not have been on par with Square Enix @-@ developed titles . The story of the game was altered slightly to allow for the ten scenes to better flow from one to the other .
The demo was meant to be played using a " default party " of characters , with other party members unlockable for additional replay value . Due to time constraints , the development team expected that two of the seven characters of the original game , Robo and Ayla , would have 50 % chances of not being featured . While the team tried to capture the feel of the original game with updated graphics and sounds , the artists and animators faced difficulty in reproducing the characters due to the differences of style between the sprites , artwork and PlayStation version anime sequences . They noted , however , that they overcame the issues and managed to add a bit of their own art style into the game .
= = Closure and aftermath = =
Chrono Resurrection was originally set for a Christmas 2004 release . However , Square Enix issued a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter to Resurrection Games before the release for trademark and copyright infringement . Faced with a threat of legal action , the project was publicly closed on September 6 , 2004 . According to the development team , the website of the project had received significant hits from Square Enix Japanese IP addresses for a period of three months before the letter issuing . They assumed these visits were mostly from employees rather than top executives , and hoped the company would see the demo as how the team sees it , a tribute to Chrono Trigger rather than a replacement .
Gaming websites 1UP.com and GameSpot called the project 's second version " ambitious " and praised its graphics , noting that the art style is mostly faithful to that of the original game 's character designer Akira Toriyama . Website Nintendo World Report praised the game 's graphics and music , and called the quality of the artwork " professional " . 1UP.com judged the project 's closure " unfortunate " but deduced that Square Enix could not leave the possibility of a " competing " Chrono Trigger remake open . GameSpot also expressed their disappointment in Square Enix 's decision to shut down the " furthest along " of Chrono Trigger fan remakes , pointing at the fact that with no news of another official sequel , fans of the Chrono series " have been left in the cold " . Website GamePro Australia called the project " possibly the greatest fan remake to get crushed under the huge shoe of a big @-@ time developer " .
Several Internet petitions were created by fans to pressure Square Enix into green @-@ lighting Chrono Resurrection ; none have had any effect , however . Nathan Lazur , though disappointed , holds no ill will towards Square Enix for protecting its intellectual property , and he has stated that he " felt honoured to even be recognized " by the company . He added that to avoid legal issues , developers of fangames should present their polished demos directly to the original publishers so that the products can be handled in a " more traditional business procedure " . Before the closure of Chrono Resurrection , Lazur had stated that his team had no plans to remake other games after the project 's completion and would have liked to develop an original concept based in feudal Japan .
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= Halo ( megastructure ) =
Halo rings are eponymous fictional megastructures and superweapons in the Halo science fiction franchise . They are referred to as " Installations " by their AI monitors , and are collectively referred to as " the Array " by the installations ' creators , the Forerunners . The series ' alien antagonists , the Covenant , refer to the structures as the " Sacred Rings " , believing them to form part of a greater religious prophecy known as " The Great Journey " . According to Halo 's fiction , the Forerunners built the rings to contain and study the Flood , an infectious alien parasite . The rings act together as a weapon of last resort ; when fired , the rings kill any sentient life capable of falling prey to the Flood , starving the parasite of its food . The installations are at the crux of the plot progression for the Halo series .
The Halos are massive ringworlds , which feature their own wildlife and weather . The constructs resemble Iain M. Banks ' Orbital concept in shape and design . The structure that Halo : Combat Evolved takes place on was initially to be a hollowed @-@ out planet , but was changed to its ring design later in development ; a staff member provided " Halo " as the name for both the ring and the video game after names such as Red Shift were suggested .
= = Overview = =
= = = Design and development = = =
The term " megastructure " refers to artificial structures where one of three dimensions is 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) or larger . The first use of a ring @-@ shaped megastructure in fiction was Larry Niven 's novel Ringworld ( 1970 ) . Niven described his design as an intermediate step between Dyson spheres and planets - a ring with a radius of more than 93 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) and a width of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km ) ; these are dimensions far exceeding the ringworlds found in the Halo series , which feature radii of 5 @,@ 000 miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ) The Halos are closer in proportion to the Bishop Ring ( habitat ) , an actual proposed space habitat first explained by Forrest Bishop , though the proportions of the Halos do not exactly match up with Bishop 's idea . As seen in the games , Halo installations feature a metallic exterior , with the interior of the ring filled with an atmosphere , water , plant life , and animal life . What appear to be docking ports and windows dot the exterior surface , suggesting that a fraction of the ring structure itself is hollow and used for maintenance , living , and power generation .
Before the title for game developer Bungie 's next project was announced and development of the game that would become Halo was in its early stages , the megastructure that Halo : Combat Evolved took place on was a massive , hollowed @-@ out planet called " Solipsis " . The planet became a Dyson Sphere , and then a Dyson Ring . Some Bungie staffers felt the change to a ringworld was " ripping off Larry Niven " , according to Bungie artist Paul Russel . Bungie employee Frank O 'Connor wrote in a post on Bungie.net that " the specific accusation that we swiped the idea of a ring @-@ shaped planet wholesale is not accurate , " explaining that Bungie used a ringworld because " it 's cool and therefore the type of thing a Forerunner civilization would build . "
At the time , the game was known as Blam ! , but Bungie had always expected to replace the working title with something better ( Blam ! was only used after studio co @-@ founder Jason Jones could not bring himself to tell his mother their next project was dubbed Monkey Nuts . ) Titles such as The Crystal Palace , Hard Vacuum , Star Maker , Star Shield , and The Santa Machine were suggested . Russel suggested calling it Project : Halo because of the ring . Despite concerns that the title seemed too religious or lacked action , the name stuck . In turn , " Halo " became the ring 's name as well .
Combat Evolved 's Halo was intended to be populated with large animal life , collectively known as Fauna . The Fauna included " pseudo @-@ dinosaurs " and mammals , as well as a Chocobo @-@ like creature — the " Blind Wolf " — that players could ride . The animals were removed for technical and conceptual reasons ; there were difficulties in getting herd and behavior action to work , and under pressure to complete the game 's more central aspects , the animals were dropped . Bungie also felt that the desolate ring heightened the sense of Halo 's mystery , and made the appearance of the parasitic Flood more terrifying and unexpected .
= = = Scientific analysis = = =
Physicist Kevin Grazier posited in a 2006 essay the composition and problems associated with a Halo installation . The complete Halos seen in Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 orbit gas giants similar to Jupiter , though much larger ; the bodies exhibit characteristics of both a jovian planet and a small star . In each system , there are five points where a body of negligible mass would remain stationary to the two much larger bodies in the system , the gas giant and its moon . These areas , known as Lagrange points , are classified by stability ; while bodies at 60 ° angles to the gas giant would remain in the same location relative to the other objects in the system , the other three Lagrange points are meta @-@ stable , having the tendency to be unstable in one direction . As the Halos are located at point L1 , the installations must actively correct its orbit . The apparent gravity of the Halo installations is close to Earth normal . A Halo would have to spin with a tangental speed of 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) per second to match Earth 's gravity , translating to 19 @.@ 25 rotations in a day .
Aside from its unstable position , Halos would have to contend with thousands of meteor and micrometeor impacts which would destabilize or destroy the ring ; there is no evidence in the games that the installations project an energy shield to prevent this occurrence . Because of the magnetic environment around the gas giant , a Halo would be exposed to high levels of radiation . Earth is protected from such radiation by charged particles created by the planet 's magnetic field . Grazier posits that huge conductive cables could run the circumference of a Halo ; when an electric current was run through these cables , a protective magnetic environment could be created to sustain life .
In the games , spectroscopic analysis of the ring 's composition proved " inconclusive " , implying that the Halos are constructed of an unknown material ( unobtainium ) . Were a Halo to be constructed using conventional materials a light steel alloy would be most feasible . Assuming that the ring structure is 50 % empty space , a 5000 km ring composed of steel alloy at an average density of 7 @.@ 7 grams ( 0 @.@ 27 oz ) per 1 cubic centimeter ( 0 @.@ 061 cu in ) would result in a total mass of 1.7x1017 kg . The amount of material required to build such a ring would be akin to the total material available in the asteroid belt .
= = Installations = =
= = = Installation 03 = = =
Installation 03 , also referred to as Gamma Halo , appears in Halo 4 . It is monitored by 049 Abject Testament and is located in the Khaphrae system , orbiting a damaged planet . Whilst no gameplay takes place on the installation , an extremely dense asteroid field surrounding the installation is the site of the UNSC scientific research base Ivanoff . It is here that UNSC scientists are conducting experiments on the Forerunner artifact called the Composer , which has the ability to convert biological forms , specifically humans , into AIs . Once the game 's antagonist , the Didact , activates the device , the UNSC base is left uninhabited . In Halo : Escalation , a series of comics which follows many events after Halo 4 , establishes that 049 Abject Testament has long disappeared from the ring , leading a monitor to arrive at the Installation , just to be ambushed by a still living Didact , using the Installation to use the Composer .
= = = Installation 04 = = =
Installation 04 , also referred to as Alpha Halo , appears in Halo : Combat Evolved . The majority of gameplay takes place in areas on this installation , and its exploration drives the story . The ring was managed by an artificial intelligence known as 343 Guilty Spark , and is located in the Soell system , dominated by a gas giant known as Threshold . Halo orbits Threshold 's only satellite , an extremely large moon known as Basis . A group of humans aboard the ship Pillar of Autumn crash @-@ land on the ring after being pursued by the alien Covenant . The ring holds religious significance to the aliens , while the humans believe it is a weapon that could turn the tide of the war against the Covenant in their favor . In reality , the ring is home to a virulent parasite called the Flood , which is accidentally released by the Covenant and threaten to infest the galaxy . The human soldier Master Chief eventually detonates the Pillar of Autumn 's reactors in order to destabilize the ring and cause it to break up , preventing the spread of the Flood and the activation of the Halo network , which would kill all sentient life as a fail @-@ safe to starve the Flood . The Ark was alerted to its destruction and proceeded to create Installation 04B , which , too , was destroyed by Master Chief . During the game 's events , Guilty Spark alludes to a previous firing of the network , which Bungie 's director of cinematics Joseph Staten said occurred around 100 @,@ 000 years previous to the events of the game in the year 2552 .
= = = Installation 05 = = =
During the events of Halo 2 , the Covenant and humans discover a second ringworld , Installation 05 , or Delta Halo . It was monitored by 2401 Penitent Tangent , who completely ignored Flood warnings and was captured by their leader , the Gravemind . The Covenant leadership wants to activate the installation , believing it is the key to their salvation . At the same time , the Flood , led by an intelligence known as the Gravemind , lay siege to the Covenant 's city @-@ ship , High Charity . After 343 Guilty Spark informs Halo 's true purpose to the Arbiter , a Covenant holy warrior , of the danger that the Halos truly represent , a group of humans and Covenant Elites prevent the firing of the ring . The unexpected shutdown activates a fail @-@ safe protocol , priming the remaining Halo installations for remote activation from a location known as The Ark . In Halo 4 , it is revealed that the UNSC has created an oversight base on the Installation ( or around it ) , as they did with Installation 03 .
= = = The Ark = = =
The Ark , also referred to as Installation 00 , is located outside the Milky Way galaxy and serves as the construction and control station for the Halo weapon system . It does not share the ringworld geometry of the other installations . During Halo 3 , the Covenant discover a portal on Earth that leads to the Ark and are pursued by the humans and a breakaway faction of Covenant opposed to activating the rings . Gravemind , having hijacked High Charity , crash @-@ lands on the installation . The remote firing of the rings is halted by Master Chief and the Arbiter . In order to end the threat of the Flood , Master Chief decides to activate Installation 04B under construction in The Ark , the replacement for the Halo that he destroyed in Halo : Combat Evolved . Unknown to everyone but 343 Guilty Spark , a premature firing would destroy the installation ; the monitor attempted to defend ' his ' ring but was destroyed by Master Chief , who proceeded to fire the weapon . The firing tears apart the incomplete Halo and severely damages The Ark as Master Chief , Cortana , and the Arbiter try to escape through the Portal , which closes as they enter , leaving Master Chief and Cortana drifting in space while the Arbiter returns to Earth successfully , forming the setting of Halo 4 .
According to Greg Bear 's Forerunner Trilogy , a " Greater Ark " served as the location for the construction of larger 30 @,@ 000 km rings .
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= It Girl ( Jason Derulo song ) =
" It Girl " is a song by American recording artist Jason Derulo , released as the second single from his second studio album , Future History on August 9 , 2011 . The song was written by Derulo , E. Kidd Bogart , Lindy Robbins and Emanuel " Eman " Kiriakou , who also handled the song 's production . Musically , " It Girl " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B love song , that features a whistling intro and an acoustic guitar melody . Lyrically , it revolves around Derulo singing the praises of the perfect girl he found after searching all over . The lyrics reference the title in the opening chorus phrase , " You could be my it girl " .
The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its catchy production and radio @-@ friendly lyrics . They also added that it has the potential to overshadow the commercial success of Derulo 's debut single , " Whatcha Say " ( 2009 ) . " It Girl " attained worldwide success , reaching the top @-@ ten on the singles charts in Australia , Denmark , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and the top @-@ twenty in Hungary , Japan , the Netherlands and Norway . The song peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , number six on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and at number 10 on the US Pop Songs chart .
The accompanying music video of " It Girl " was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed at a mansion in Malibu , California . It portrays a fictional relationship between Derulo and his love interest played by actress Tika Sumpter . To promote the song , Derulo performed the song live on televised shows , including America 's Got Talent , The Wendy Williams Show , The Ellen DeGeneres Show and The X Factor Australia . The official remix of the song premiered online in February 2012 , and features Derulo 's former girlfriend Jordin Sparks .
= = Background and development = =
" It Girl " was written by Jason Derulo , E. Kidd Bogart , Lindy Robbins and Emanuel " Eman " Kiriakou , who also produced the track . The engineering process was handled by Jens Koerkmeier . It was mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . The song 's keyboards , whistle , guitars , bass , percussion and drum programming were provided by Eman , with additional keyboards and drum programming by Koerkmeier and Andrew Goldstein . On July 29 , 2011 , the audio of " It Girl " was uploaded to Derulo 's official YouTube account . When speaking of the song , Derulo told The Daily Telegraph , " I wanted to put myself in a position as if I 'd found my It Girl , to make myself feel like if I found that one true love . I 've basically described what it would be like if I found her . " Derulo further elaborated about the concept of the song in another interview with Matt Elias of MTV News :
An ' It Girl ' to me is someone who is selfless , someone who 's always thinking about others before she thinks about herself . You know , my mom is a very charitable woman , so I 'd want someone who is in line with that kind of thought process . I also like a girl who 's polite . I feel like that 's a lost art , and just saying ' please ' and ' thank you ' goes a very long way with me . That 's just so lost these days . So , ladies , it 's OK to say ' thank you.'
Derulo explained that he did not believe in the possibility of " It Girl " to be the next single from Future History . However , his peers believed that it was very distinct from the lead single , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and that response motivated him to pick it as the second single . He believed that showing the difference in the new album was important in picking the single . He did not want to put another dance song so that his fans do not assume that the entire album consisted of uptempo songs . He concluded that " growing up has definitely taken place . My music has always been a representation of who I am and I guess I speak differently , my demeanour is different . "
= = Composition = =
" It Girl " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B love song , built on a finger @-@ clicking beat . The song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major with Derulo 's vocal range spanning from the note of E4 to the note of B5 . According to Rap @-@ Up , the song 's lyrics find Derulo as the male protagonist singing praises of " a lovely lady " , comparing her to his " greatest hit " . " It Girl " opens with a whistling intro and an acoustic guitar melody . In the first verse , he chants about how he searched all over and finally found the girl of his dreams . He also affirms that the girl means much more than a Grammy Award to him . Its hook , which forms part of the chorus , contains the lyrics : " You could be my it girl / Baby , you 're the shit girl / Lovin ; you could be a crime / Crazy how we fit , girl / This is it , girl / Gimme 25 to life / I just wanna rock all night long and put you in the middle of my spotlight / You could be my it girl / You 're my biggest hit , girl / Let me play it loud . " Scott Shelter from Pop Crush noted that the song uses the " oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocal chants after the chorus .
= = Release = =
" It Girl " was added to the B @-@ playlist of urban radio station BBC Radio 1Xtra in the United Kingdom on August 5 , 2011 . The song was released as a digital download on iTunes Stores worldwide from May 6 , 2011 . " It Girl " impacted contemporary hit radio in the United States on August 16 , 2011 , and mainstream radio in the UK on August 24 , 2011 . A digital extended play with four remixes of the song , was released in Denmark , Ireland , Switzerland and the United Kingdom on September 16 , 2011 . " It Girl " was made available as a CD single in Germany on November 25 , 2011 . On February 29 , 2012 , the official remix of " It Girl " premiered online , which features Derulo 's former girlfriend Jordin Sparks . The remix has a slower tempo than the original and features a new verse by Sparks . Cristin Maher of PopCrush noted that both singers " harmonize together on the chorus , with their voices matching up beautifully " . The remix was accompanied by a video that displays behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Derulo and Sparks spending time together .
= = Critical reception = =
" It Girl " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Describing it as " a catchy pop song with major hit potential " , Scott Shetler of Pop Crush awarded " It Girl " four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , writing that " even though Derulo 's debut produced hits like ' Whatcha Say ' and ' In My Head ' , ' It Girl ' could be his best single to date . " Shetler concluded that " every element of the song works , from the sweet whistling intro to the acoustic guitar melody to the ' oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh ' vocal chants after the chorus . " Similarly , Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV , who viewed " It Girl " as Derulo 's " valiant attempt to trump his monstrous [ ... ] hit ' Whatcha Say ' , gave the song a positive review , writing that it is catchy and it is " perfectly crafted for radio success " . Jess Holton of The Music Network noted that the song " delivers with catchy whistling and tender lyrics " and that it " will appeal to the lady fans of Derulo who like to see the romantic side of the crooner " . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the song " comes dangerously close to being just another bland , cookie cutter R & B @-@ pop experience , but lucky for him , that whistle gimmick in the chorus makes it a somewhat enjoyable three minutes . "
Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly awarded the song a B- rating and wrote that " perhaps [ Derulo ] should have pitched woo with something hotter than a flat midtempo beat , some acoustic flourishes , and a whistle garnish . " Shahryar Rizvi of Dallas Observer gave the song a mixed review , criticizing its lyrics : " [ ... ] if you read between the lines in ' It Girl ' , it becomes clear that Derulo has some really weird taste in women . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the song a negative review , " with the charts now welcoming the return of the organic singer @-@ songwriter " , Derulo may not have equipped enough himself with " his own gut @-@ wrenching ballad . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the issue dated August 27 , 2011 , " It Girl " debuted at number 39 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and fell to number 68 the following week . After descending the Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks , " It Girl " moved from number 61 to number 38 in its fifth week . It peaked at number 17 on the issue dated October 29 , 2011 . On the US Pop Songs chart , " It Girl " debuted at number 34 on the issue dated September 10 , 2011 . The song peaked at number 10 on the issue dated November 10 , 2011 , becoming Derulo 's fourth top @-@ ten single on the chart . " It Girl " peaked at number six on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , giving Derulo his second top @-@ ten single on the chart . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies. the Canadian Hot 100 it debuted at number 73 and peaked at 37 .
In Australia , " It Girl " debuted at number 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 22 , 2011 , becoming the highest debuting single of that week . The following week , the song peaked at number three , and at number one on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . " It Girl " was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 420 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted and peaked at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart , becoming Derulo 's highest debut in that country to date . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies . On the Danish Singles Chart , " It Girl " peaked at number nine , giving Derulo his second top @-@ ten single in that country . In Ireland , " It Girl " debuted and peaked at number three for the week ending September 22 , 2011 . " It Girl " debuted and peaked at number four in the United Kingdom for the week ending October 1 , 2011 , giving Derulo his fifth top @-@ five single in that country . It peaked at number two on the UK R & B Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The accompanying music video for " It Girl " was directed by Colin Tilley and shot at a mansion in Malibu , sitting on a cliff overlooking the Pacific Ocean . On July 19 , 2011 , several stills from the video were released online , and showed Derulo at the oceanside mansion dressed in a white suit . Gossip Girl actress , Tika Sumpter , also appeared in the photos , and plays Derulo 's " It Girl " in the video . Derulo told MTV News that he wanted the video to look like an open book . He said ,
I wanted it to be almost like a photo album , so every single scene is kind of like a picture that you 're kind of looking into our relationship . So it is a 1920s vibe , it 's black and white , very high fashion — you know , you 'll see me very dapper in 1920s , Frank Sinatra @-@ ish . So you 'll see the cars from that era , you 'll definitely feel the vibe of the house having that 1920s vibe as well . So it 's very different and very intimate , and it 's not a lot of dancing — it 's more personal .
A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the video shoot showed Derulo wearing different outfits , including a dark pinstripe suit with a pair of sunglasses , a rose @-@ colored button @-@ down shirt and white pants . The footage also showed Derulo and Sumpter shooting a scene in a silver corvette , as well as a kissing scene between the two . A 37 @-@ second preview of the video was released on August 12 , 2011 . The completed video premiered online on August 15 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The beginning of the video is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , and shows Derulo sitting on the hood of a corvette outside a Malibu mansion dressed in 1920s attire . In another scene , Derulo is seen dancing at an area of the mansion which is surrounded by trees . The video then shows intercut scenes in full color of Derulo at the beach , on the mansion 's balcony , and in the bedroom with his love interest ( played by Tika Sumpter ) . More scenes in full color , show Derulo on the balcony interacting with her , and also shows him singing to her in the bedroom using a microphone . During another scene , Derulo is seen dressed in all white . The video ends with a kissing scene between the two which then fades away .
Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the concept of the video , writing : " [ ... ] when [ Derulo is not ] busy showing off his dance moves , he is living the high life with his lady in their palatial estate . He sings to her , she wraps her legs around him , they pose in some awesome topiary gardens . It is not the most thrilling of videos , and he may want to think twice about moonwalking in a video-- someone did it before him and better-- but it is a nice change of pace from some of his more hectic , gruffer clips . " Cameron Matthews of AOL Music commented that the video gives " a kaleidoscopic view " between Derulo 's beachfront paradise , an assortment of " edgy suits " and " a little bit of pillow talk with his new ' It Girl ' . " According to Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV , " the romance factor in Jason 's full @-@ length ' It Girl ' video is very , very high . "
= = Live performances = =
On August 4 , 2011 , Derulo performed a medley of " It Girl " and " Don 't Wanna Go Home " on America 's Got Talent . Robbie Daw of Idolator compared his performance to Michael Jackson , writing " we 're used to the 21 @-@ year @-@ old [ copying ] MJ 's legendary moves , especially on AGT . But why not stage some original shuffling of your own at some point , Jason ? " . He later sang the song on The Wendy Williams Show on September 30 , 2011 . During an Australian promotional tour for Future History , Derulo performed " It Girl " at the Westfield shopping mall in Parramatta , New South Wales , as part of a set list which included " In My Head " and " Don 't Wanna Go Home " . On October 18 , 2011 , he performed " It Girl " on The X Factor Australia . Derulo later performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on October 25 , 2011 .
On November 6 , 2011 , Derulo performed " It Girl " at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song was part of a set list which also included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " Breathing " . Holly Thomas of the Daily Mail praised his set , writing that " Jason Derulo gave a steamy performance " . On December 3 , 2011 , he performed " It Girl " at radio station KDWB @-@ FM 's annual Jingle Ball , which took place at the Target Center in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The song was part of a set list which included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Ridin ' Solo " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " Fight for You " . According to Jon Bream of Star Tribune Derulo " turned it out with sweet vocals and smooth dancing " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Naroda Patiya massacre =
The Naroda Patiya massacre took place on 28 February 2002 at Naroda , in Ahmedabad , India , during the 2002 Gujarat riots . 97 Muslims were killed by a mob of approximately 5 @,@ 000 people , organised by the Bajrang Dal , a militant wing of the Vishva Hindu Parishad , and supported by the Bharatiya Janata Party which was in power in the Gujarat State Government . The massacre at Naroda occurred during the bandh ( strike protest ) called by Vishwa Hindu Parishad ; a day after the Godhra train burning . During the post @-@ Godhra rioting , which lasted over 10 hours , during which the mob looted , stabbed , sexually assaulted , gang @-@ raped and burnt people individually and in groups . After the conflict , a curfew was imposed in the state and army troops were called in to contain further violence .
The communal violence at Naroda was deemed " the largest single case of mass murder " during the 2002 Gujarat riots ; it accounted for the greatest number of deaths during a single event . Survivors faced socio @-@ economic problems ; many were left homeless , orphaned and injured . A number of shrines were destroyed and many schools were adversely affected , cancelled exams or closed entirely . The surviving victims were given shelter in relief camps provided by both the state and central government , and efforts were begun to restore destroyed properties and shrines . The state government formed a " Gujarat state commission of inquiry " for citizens to have a forum in which to make recommendations and suggest reforms . Mainstream media criticised the Gujarat government 's handling of the riots ; it was remarked that a number of reports were exaggerated , and " inflammatory headlines , stories and pictures " were published , resulting in anti @-@ Muslim prejudice among the Hindu readership .
Allegations were made against the state police , state government and the chief minister Narendra Modi , citing that government authorities were involved and various police personnel played a role in the massacre : a number of eyewitnesses reported police officers favouring the mob by allegedly injuring or killing Muslims and damaging public and private property . All allegations were proved to be false and the government and police were cleared of wrongdoing by a Special Investigation Team . The initial report on the case was filed by the Gujarat police , accusing 46 people , all of whom the Special Court deemed unreliable . In 2008 , the Supreme Court of India formed a Special Investigation Team to investigate the case . In 2009 , the team submitted its report , which accused 70 people of wrongdoing , 61 of whom were charged . On 29 August 2012 , the Special Court convicted 32 people and acquitted 29 due to insufficient evidence . Among those convicted were Maya Kodnani – former Cabinet Minister for Women and Child Development of Gujarat and former Bharatiya Janata Party MLA from Naroda – who was sentenced to 28 years imprisonment , and Bajrang Dal 's Babu Bajrangi , who received a life sentence .
= = Background = =
On 27 February 2002 , the Godhra train burning incident initiated a series of riots in Gujarat . Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya on the Sabarmati Express train were attacked and the train , which had stopped at Godhra station , was set on fire causing the death of 58 Hindus including 25 women and 15 children – activists of Vishva Hindu Parishad and Kar Sevaks . Following the attack , false rumours were spread by a senior Vishwa Hindu Parishad leader that Muslims had kidnapped three Hindu girls during the incident . Retaliatory attacks on Muslims began the same evening ; a number of incidents in which Muslims were attacked and killed were reported in various cities in Gujarat before the Naroda incident . The first attacks on the Muslim community occurred at Ahmedabad , where Hindu mobs began throwing stones and later burnt Gulbarg Society , a Muslim housing complex . The initial violence was believed to be instigated by the unsubstantiated rumours about Muslims kidnapping three Hindu girls . Violence spread to the largely rural districts of Panchmahal , Mehsana , Kheda , Junagadh , Banaskantha , Patan , Anand and Narmada the next day .
= = The massacre = =
At the time of the riots Naroda Patiya and Naroda Gam – a suburb 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Naroda Patiya ; both of which constitute the municipality of Naroda – located in Gujarat 's largest city , Ahmedabad , had around 2 @,@ 000 daily wage @-@ earning Muslim inhabitants , and many immigrants from Karnataka and Maharashtra . On the evening of 27 February 2002 , Vishwa Hindu Parishad declared a statewide strike in response to the Godhra train burning incident , starting from 28 February . On the first day of the strike , a mob of approximately 5 @,@ 000 people , allegedly led by the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Bajrang Dal , attacked and attempted to burn the entire Muslim community of Naroda Patiya . The rioting began at 9 am when the Noorani Mosque was destroyed by exploding liquified petroleum gas ( LPG ) cylinders .
Cases of hacking , looting , stabbing and sexual assaults including public gang @-@ rapes in which the victims were burnt , were reported . Many people were burnt alive , individually or in groups by " chasing them into huge pits " and setting fire to them using LPG cylinders . Burnt bodies were also thrown in a dry well . Women and girls were sexually assaulted , raped and killed by burning or by stabbing . Maya Kodnani , Babu Bajrangi and a few others supplied weapons to the crowd , and Suresh Chara and others raped and killed women . LPG cylinders were used to destroy a number of buildings in the residential and working areas . The massacre lasted for over 10 hours and finally a curfew was imposed in 27 towns and cities across Gujarat .
Most of the homes of Muslims in Naroda were burnt while Hindu homes remained undamaged . As the riots ended , it was estimated that around 125 people had been killed in the violence . After the rioting , 94 bodies were recovered ; three more people were reported missing and were later declared dead . More than 30 people were found injured . The dead – all Muslims – comprised 36 women , 35 children and 26 men . The incident is considered to be the " most gruesome of all post @-@ Godhra violent incidents " and " the largest single case of mass murders " , and claimed the highest number of lives of all the events during the Gujarat riots .
= = Aftermath = =
By the evening of 28 February , a curfew was imposed in 27 towns and cities of the state in an attempt to curb the violence . Over the next two days , Bharuch , Rajkot and later Surat were hit . Approximately 151 towns and 993 villages in 16 of the state 's 25 districts were affected by the post @-@ Godhra violence , which was particularly severe in six districts . The violence raged heavily between 28 February and 3 March 2002 , slowed briefly , then restarted on 15 March and continued until mid @-@ June . Northern and central Gujarat and the north @-@ eastern tribal belt – which are closer to Godhra City – were the worst affected while Saurashtra and Kutch remained relatively peaceful . 1 @,@ 000 army troops were flown in by the evening of 1 March to restore order . Intelligence officials alleged that the state government deliberately delayed the deployment . On 3 May , former Punjab police chief Kanwar Pal Singh Gill was appointed as security adviser to Modi . The Gujarat government transferred several senior police officers , who had taken steps to contain and investigate violent attacks , to administrative positions .
According to an official estimate , 1 @,@ 044 people were killed during the 2002 Gujarat riots – 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus . Another 223 people were reported missing , 2 @,@ 548 were injured , 919 women were widowed and 606 children were orphaned . When people missing after the riots were declared dead after seven years , total deaths rose from 1 @,@ 044 to 1 @,@ 267 Unofficial estimates put the death toll closer to 5 @,@ 000 , with Muslims forming the majority . Police records say that 298 dargahs , 205 mosques , 17 temples and three churches were damaged during the riots .
Opposition parties and three coalition partners of the Bharatiya Janata Party @-@ led central government demanded the dismissal of Gujarat chief minister Narendra Modi for failing to contain the violence , with some calling for the removal of Union Home Minister L. K. Advani as well . On 18 July 2002 , Modi asked the governor of Gujarat , Sunder Singh Bhandari , to dissolve the state assembly and call fresh elections . The Indian Election Commission ruled out early elections , citing the prevailing law and order situation , a decision the union government unsuccessfully appealed against in the Supreme Court . Elections were held in December and Modi returned to power .
= = = Rehabilitation of victims = = =
Residents left homeless by the massacre were given shelter in relief camps constructed by the state government . On 16 March 2002 , the state government formed an all @-@ party committee consisting of 13 member and chaired by Bhandari to provide relief and rehabilitation to the victims of the riots . Modi proposed to close the camps by the end of March but later decided not to close them . Under pressure from the opposition party , the Indian National Congress , the all @-@ party committee reached a consensus to implement rehabilitation measures suggested by various non @-@ governmental organisations which were to aid people to build houses .
= = = Effects on children and education = = =
A number of children were killed , injured or orphaned by the violence . Organisations such as Citizens ' Initiative reported that the violence resulted in the disturbance of children 's studies and that there was a lack of counselling . Students at Gujarat University were unable to take examinations , which were cancelled due to the chances of disruption . While other schools in the state had to postpone or cancel exams , it was reported that some schools held examinations under police protection . It was also reported that many students were forced to leave their studies due to lack of funds or to earn a livelihood because they had lost income @-@ earning members of their families .
= = = Restoration of shrines = = =
A number of darghas , including a 500 @-@ year @-@ old heritage masjid in Isanpur , and many mosques in Naroda were destroyed in the rioting . In 2003 , a petition was filed in Gujarat High Court by advocate Yusuf Muchhala on behalf of the Islamic Relief Committee , asking the court to direct the state to restore the religious shrines destroyed during the violence . In response to the petition , the Gujarat government stated that , " as a secular state , they cannot aid any community to re @-@ build shrines " . On 8 February 2012 , the High Court directed the state government to rebuild the shrines , and said it was the state 's " constitutional responsibility to restore the shrines " . The matter went to the Supreme Court , which refused to stay the order .
= = Response by the government of Gujarat = =
The state government stated that the massacre was " a spontaneous reaction to the Godhra train carnage and the state government and ruling party had nothing to do with it " . On 1 March 2002 , Modi , talking about the violence , said that he tried everything to control the " riots resulting from the natural and justified anger of people " , " . Referring to the massacre , Modi said , " The five crore ( 50 million ) people of Gujarat have shown remarkable restraint under grave provocation " .
The state government appointed a " Gujarat state commission of inquiry " to investigate the case and give recommendations . The committee was chaired by retired Gujarat High Court judge K.G. Shah . The formation of the committee raised concerns about delays in implementing recommendations because two similar reports about reforms , by the Reddy and Dave commissions , had been pending implementation since 1969 and 1985 respectively . The government of Gujarat presented its report to National Human Rights Commission of India , justifying its role and stating its findings about the massacre . The state government 's report did not mention the involvement of Vishwa Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal activists , despite statements by numerous eyewitnesses . The report also included , according to Human Rights Watch , a " grossly under @-@ counted " total of the shrines destroyed in the violence .
= = Role played by media = =
Television and newspaper reports , particularly local Gujarati @-@ language media , carried graphic and at times sensationalised images and accounts of the Godhra train fire and Naroda Patiya massacre . This was the first major communal violence after the advent of satellite television in India . Television news channels identified the community of those involved in the violence , breaking a long @-@ standing practice and setting a precedent . Critical reporting on the Gujarat government 's handling of the situation helped bring about the Indian government 's intervention in controlling the violence . The Gujarat government banned television news channels that were critical of its response ; STAR News , Zee News , Aaj Tak , CNN and local stations were blocked . The Editorial Guild of India rejected the charge that graphic news coverage aggravated the situation , saying that the coverage exposed the horrors of the riots and the " supine if not complicit " attitude of the state , helping propel remedial action . The team also faulted Gujarati @-@ language newspapers Gujarat Samachar and the pro @-@ Hindutva Sandesh for distorted and provocative reporting . Rather than Naroda Patiya , the Godhra train fire was extensively covered until the subsequent violence and the presentation of the Union budget overtook it .
Modi said that the media had exaggerated while covering the extent of violence and criticised the media for " provoking the violence by naming the religion of victims " . Newspapers , particularly Sandesh , were reported by various organisations to have published " inflammatory headlines , stories and pictures " . A headline in Sandesh on 28 February 2002 read , " Avenge Blood With Blood " . After the massacre , when Muslims had returned from Hajj , Sandesh had published the headline , " Hindus Beware : Hajj pilgrims return with deadly conspiracy " , which caused terror among the returning Muslim community , and they were escorted by Army officials to their homes and were given protection to avoid attacks . A report by the People 's Union for Civil Liberties stated , " Major effect of media under long period has been to feed on the prevalent anti @-@ Muslim prejudices of its Hindu readership and provoke it further by sensationalizing , twisting , mangling and distorting news or what passes for it . "
In its 2007 expose The Truth : Gujarat 2002 - Tehelka report , the political weekly Tehelka released hidden camera footage of several members of the Bharatiya Janata Party , Vishwa Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal admitting their role in the riots . While the report was criticised for being politically motivated , some newspapers said the revelations simply reinforced what was common knowledge . Several inaccuracies in the statements cast doubt on the sting operation . Bajrangi and Suresh Richard said that Narendra Modi visited Naroda Patiya a day after the massacre to thank them , but the official record shows that Modi did not visit Naroda Patiya . The Gujarat government blocked cable news channels from broadcasting the expose , an action which was criticised by the Editors Guild of India .
= = Attacks against women = =
A number of women and girls were raped , sexually assaulted and killed during the incident . Reports presented by Citizen 's Initiative , and Human Rights Watch stated that out of the 36 women killed in the Naroda Patiya massacre , most were sexually assaulted before their deaths ; surviving women also reported being assaulted . According to Human Rights Watch , women and girls were " brutally raped before being killed " . Most of the rapes took place in public , and the victims were then killed and their bodies burnt . Among the women surviving in the relief camp , many suffered the most bestial forms of sexual violence – including rape , gang rape , mass rape , stripping , insertion of objects into their bodies and molestation . Citizens ' initiative 's report stated that " A majority of rape victims have been burnt alive . There is evidence of State and Police complicity in perpetuating crimes against women . No effort was made to protect women . No Mahila women police was deployed . State and Police complicity is continuing as , women survivors continue to be denied the right to file FIRs . There is no existing institutional mechanism in Gujarat through which women can seek justice " .
According to Human Rights Watch , the abdomens of three pregnant women were cut open and the foetus removed and thrown into a fire . In an incident that came to light in 2007 , Suresh Dedawala ( Richard ) alias Langado was caught on camera in a Tehelka sting operation talking to Bajarangi about slitting the belly of pregnant Muslim Kausar Banu , removing her foetus and killing it with a sword .
= = Alleged involvement of police and SRP in the massacre = =
It was alleged that the police helped the mob against the Muslim community on the day of massacre . Evidence included complaints filed by victims ' family members which state that police officials fired bullets and helped the mob , resulting in the killings . It was also alleged that police guided the mob of rioters to residents ' hiding places . According to Human Rights Watch , the police did nothing as houses and people were burnt and , on the day of the violence , did not respond to telephone calls until the massacre ended . Numerous eyewitnesses saw police aiming tear gas shells at , and firing upon , Muslim youths who tried to defend themselves or others . There also have been allegations that police themselves burnt houses and looted . In the violence , the extensive use of liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) was reported , which was cited as evidence of the involvement of officials because of easy access to it .
A report based on eyewitness statements submitted by the Citizens ' Initiative to the National Human Rights Commission of India states that the State Reserve Police ( SRP ) , a force of specially trained emergency police , were seen chasing the victims and helping the rioters rather than calming the situation . According to Human Rights Watch , some victims said that they were able to handle the crowd but when police and SRP joined in , it became difficult as the police sided with the rioters and fired on Muslim residents . The state government denied these allegations ; Modi said that police fired to " contain outbreaks of violence " and added that they had " mowed down people to quell the violence " . The Special Investigation Team also defended the role played by officials and said that everything was done to stop the violence .
= = Allegations against the state government and Narendra Modi = =
Human Rights Watch and other Indian human rights groups alleged that the Gujarat government authorities and police helped the mob on the day of violence in Naroda . Human Rights Watch found evidence that the state government helped the mob in the attacks because action by police and other officials was delayed and " less effective " . A Bharatiya Janata Party insider alleged to Human Rights Watch that Narendra Modi and state government were involved in the riots , stating ; " Insiders in the Bharatiya Janta Party admit that the police were under instructions of Narendra Modi administration not to act firmly " . Celia Dugger of the New York Times reported that witnesses were " dismayed by the lack of intervention from local police " , who often " watched the events taking place and took no action against the attacks on Muslims and their property " .
Babu Bajrangi , the Bajrang Dal leader that was one of the main organisers of the massacre , has stated that he called the State 's Home minister Gordhan Zadaphia at the end of the day and told him everything that had happened . Zadaphia is said to have advised him to leave the State and go into hiding . He also stated that a State Reserve Police officer that made a statement against him was promoted by Narendra Modi , which " silenced him . " Maya Kodnani , a BJP legislator described as the " kingpin of the violence " by Judge Yagnik , was later appointed as a Minister for Women and Child Welfare in Narendra Modi 's government . Cell phone records showed that she was in touch with the Chief Minister 's Office , the Home Minister as well as top police officials during the massacres . The Chief Minister 's office was also in touch with other rioters Tanmay Mehta , Sanjay Bhavsar and Anil Mukim .
Modi and the state government denied any involvement in the riots . On 10 April 2012 , the Special Investigation Team cleared Modi and the government in the riot cases , stating that , " Law and order review meetings were held by Modi and all the things was done to control the situation ... the Army was called on time to contain the communal violence . Modi was busy with steps to control the situation , establishment of relief camps for riot victims and also with efforts to restore peace and normalcy . "
An affidavit was filed in the Supreme Court on the basis of a report on testimony of suspended IPS officer Sanjiv Bhatt that Modi ordered top police officers not to take active actions in the riots . Bhatt said that on the night of 27 February 2002 , Modi said that " Hindus must be allowed to carry out retaliatory violence against Muslims . " The report filed by Raju Ramachandran , a Supreme Court lawyer and an amicus curiae , alleged that Modi " gave instructions to top police officers to go slow on rioters " . On 7 May 2012 , Ramachandran said that Modi can be prosecuted under sections 153 A ( 1 ) ( a ) & ( b ) , 153 B ( 1 ) , 166 and 505 ( 2 ) of the Indian Penal Code for promoting enmity among different groups during the 2002 Gujarat riots , including the Naroda incident . The Special Investigation Team criticised the amicus report for relying heavily on Bhatt 's testimony , who according to the Special Investigation Team ( SIT ) was an " unreliable witness " as he remained silent for nine years . The report was rejected by the team and according to the SIT , " No case can be made out against Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi in connection with the 2002 communal riots under any of the Sections of the Indian Penal Code mentioned by him [ Ramachandran ] " .
= = Investigations = =
= = = Initial investigation = = =
As the investigations began , some victims reported that the Gujarat Police " didn 't cooperate well " and declined to lodge a First Information Report against some people . Later the police filed all complaints and presented their first report . The police accused and arrested 46 persons in the case ; however , the investigation was criticised by the special court and was considered " unreliable as the investigator 's propriety in recording the statements had itself been rebutted . "
= = = Special Investigation Team report = = =
In 2008 , the Supreme Court of India directed that the case be transferred from police investigation to a committee appointed by the court , the Special Investigation Team , because the police had become one of the riot cases . The team was led by ex @-@ Central Bureau of Investigation director R. K. Raghavan , and the case was the sixth Gujarat riots case assigned to them for investigation . Taking into account the findings about telephone records of various activists , Kodnani and other major leaders were included in the report for the first time . The Special Investigation Team 's findings added 24 more names to the 46 people arrested by the police . Before the trial began , 6 of the accused died . In 2009 the trial started , during which three of the accused died , thus the final report covered 61 people .
The report said that Kodnani , Bajrangi and other leaders had led violence as well as " instigating the mob " . Kodnani 's telephone records revealed that she had made calls to the Chief Minister 's Office ( CMO ) on the day of the massacre and that her telephone was located at places where the violence occurred . She had also contacted numerous police officials , especially K.K. Mysorewala , the police inspector in charge of Naroda at the time of the massacre . Her logs also revealed that she had received calls from the CMO and other police officers , the reasons for which are unknown .
= = Trial = =
The court examined 327 witnesses , including eyewitnesses , victims , doctors , police personnel , government officials , and forensic experts . The special public case was prosecuted by Akhil Desai and Gaurang Vyas .
= = = The judgement = = =
The first verdict in the case was handed down on 29 August 2012 by Judge Jyotsna Yagnik . The special trial court convicted Maya Kodnani , the sitting Bharatiya Janata Party MLA from Naroda and former Minister for Women and Child Development of Gujarat , and Bajrang Dal politician Babu Bajrangi under Indian Penal Code Section 120 B ( criminal conspiracy ) and 302 ( murder ) . It also convicted 30 other people of murder , criminal conspiracy and other criminal charges , and acquitted 29 accused , giving them the benefit of the doubt as there was lack of evidence against them . Kodnai was the first woman , MLA and minister to be convicted in the Gujarat riot case . Suresh Dedawala ( Richard ) alias Langado and accomplices were convicted of rape and murder along with accomplices .
The prosecution requested the death penalty for all the convicts . Sentencing took place on 31 August : Kodani was given a 28 @-@ year prison term , and received two sentences ; the first for 10 years under Indian Penal Code Section 326 ( voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapons or means ) and the second for 18 years under Section 302 ( murder ) and others . Her sentences are set to run consecutively , making a total of 28 years . Bajrangi received life imprisonment . Of the rest of the 30 convicted , 22 were sentenced to a minimum of 14 years and 7 to a minimum of 21 years in prison ; they included Naresh Chara , Morli Sindhi , Haresh Rathod , Suresh Langado , Premchand Tiwari , Manojbhai Sindhi Kukrani and Bipin Panchal . One of the convicted , Suresh alias Shahjad Nekalkar , absconded and his sentencing was deferred .
= = = Comments about Kodnani and the initial investigation = = =
Kodnani said that she had never been to Naroda and had become a " victim of politics " . Judge Yagnik described her as the " kingpin of the violence " , and as the 37 months of trials ended , the court said in a statement that Kodnani had received help from the state government , and efforts had been made to avoid her name appearing on the list of accused . The statement said , " Kodnani was tremendously favoured by the then investigating agencies ( before the Supreme Court @-@ appointed Special Investigation Team took over ) . All care , at the cost of the duty of the investigating officer and even the interest of the victims , was taken to see to it that Kodnani 's involvement does not come on the books . This , in fact , comes in the way to believe that Kodnani was ever a victim of any politics . "
In the verdict , the special court criticised the initial investigation and the police for " not doing any policing during the 2002 riots and then deliberately conducting poor investigations . " The verdict said that statements of witnesses recorded by the Gujarat police were " unreliable as the investigator 's propriety in recording the statements had itself been rebutted . " The special court judge also criticised Mysorewala 's actions in investigation , and said that " Mysorewala and his force were totally inactive on all fronts and in every aspect . " The court added that : " No doubt , it was an elephantine task to investigate the kind of crimes , but then it cannot be believed that the senior Investigating Officers , having experience , do not know what should be the priorities in such kind of investigation . But , it seems that they must have been over @-@ shadowed by some element "
= = = Responses to verdict = = =
Residents in the city , including the victims , appreciated the judgement and celebrated . Digvijay Singh of the Indian National Indian National Congress welcomed the verdict and statement of Modi 's role in the riots and said , " Now it is proved that ministers and officials of BJP were involved in Gujarat riots and all this happened under the guidance of Modi ... can any minister ( take part in riots ) do this without the support of the Chief Minister ? " The president of the Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee , Arjun Modhwadia , said on Twitter : " Naroda Patiya : justice delayed not denied. thousands behind the bars , more awaiting. but will the law be able to touch the ' beneficiary ' ? " Modi , in response to the sentencing of Kodnani – who was a minister in his cabinet – refused to apologise . Modi said his government had played no role in the riots , and that , " If Modi has sinned , then Modi should be hanged . But even after trying sincerely to save many lives , some people want to bad @-@ mouth me due to political reasons , then I can 't answer them . " Jaynarayan Vyas , spokesman for the cabinet of the Gujarat government , said that it was not involved and was not responsible for the actions of Kodnani : " Ms. Kodnani , a practising gynaecologist , was not a Minister at the time of the massacre and was only an MLA , and her individual action could not be construed as a ' cumulative responsibility of the Cabinet ' . "
= = Citation = =
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= Kepler @-@ 8 =
Kepler @-@ 8 is a star located in the constellation Lyra in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ led operation tasked with discovering terrestrial planets . The star , which is slightly hotter , larger , and more massive than the Sun , has one gas giant in its orbit , Kepler @-@ 8b . This gas giant is larger than Jupiter , but is less massive , and thus more diffuse . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 along with four other planets . As the fifth confirmed planetary system verified by Kepler , it helped demonstrate the capabilities of the Kepler spacecraft .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 8 was named the way it was because it is home to the eighth planetary system confirmed during the course of the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ directed program tasked with searching a region of the sky for terrestrial planets that transit , or cross in front of ( and thereby , for a while , make dimmer ) the stars that they orbit with respect to Earth . The planet in orbit around Kepler @-@ 8 , Kepler @-@ 8b , was the fifth of the first five planets discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets confirmed by Kepler had been previously discovered , and were only used to verify the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements . Kepler @-@ 8b 's discovery was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. , alongside planets in orbit around Kepler @-@ 4 , Kepler @-@ 5 , Kepler @-@ 6 , and Kepler @-@ 7 .
The data that was used to identify Kepler @-@ 8b 's existence was re @-@ examined and verified by observatories in Hawaii , Arizona , Texas , California , and the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 8 is situated some 1330 ( ± 180 ) pc ( or 4 @,@ 338 ± 587 light years ) from Earth . With a mass of 1 @.@ 213 Msun and a radius of 1 @.@ 486 Rsun , Kepler @-@ 8 is more massive than the Sun by about a fifth of the Sun 's mass , and is nearly three halves its size . The star is predicted to be 3 @.@ 84 ( ± 1 @.@ 5 ) billion years old , compared to the Sun 's age at 4 @.@ 6 billion years . Kepler @-@ 8 has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = -0.055 ( ± 0 @.@ 03 ) , making it 12 % less metal @-@ rich than the metal @-@ rich Sun ; metallicity is important in stars because stars richer in metal are more likely to harbor planets . The star also has an effective temperature of 6213 ( ± 150 ) K , meaning that it is hotter than the Sun , which has an effective temperature of 5778 K.
Kepler @-@ 8 has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 9 ; in other words , as seen from Earth , Kepler @-@ 8 is an extremely dim star . It cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 8b is the only planet that has been discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 8 . With a mass of .603 MJ and a radius of 1 @.@ 419 RJ , the planet is 60 % the mass of , but 42 % larger than planet Jupiter . The planet is diffuse , with a density of .261 grams / cc , especially in comparison to Jupiter and its density of 5 @.@ 515 grams / cc . At a distance of .0483 AU , Kepler @-@ 8b orbits its star every 3 @.@ 5225 days . The eccentricity of Kepler @-@ 8 is assumed to be 0 , which would give the planet a circular orbit . In comparison , planet Mercury orbits the Sun at .3871 AU every 87 @.@ 97 days . Mercury also has an elliptical orbit , with an eccentricity of .2056 .
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= Dave Gallaher =
Dave Gallaher ( born David Gallagher , 30 October 1873 – 4 October 1917 ) was a New Zealand rugby union footballer best remembered as the captain of the " Original All Blacks " — the 1905 – 06 New Zealand national team , the first representative New Zealand side to tour the British Isles . Under Gallaher 's leadership the Originals won 34 out of 35 matches over the course of tour , including legs in France and North America ; the New Zealanders scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . Before returning home he co @-@ wrote the classic rugby text The Complete Rugby Footballer with his vice @-@ captain Billy Stead . Gallaher retired as a player after the 1905 – 06 tour and took up coaching and selecting ; he was a selector for both Auckland and New Zealand for most of the following decade .
Born in Ramelton , Ireland , Gallaher migrated to New Zealand with his family as a small child . After moving to Auckland , in 1895 he joined Ponsonby RFC and was selected for his province in 1896 . In 1901 – 02 he served with the New Zealand Contingent in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . He first appeared on the New Zealand national team for their unbeaten tour of Australia in 1903 , and played in New Zealand 's first ever Test match , against Australia in Sydney . The Originals Gallaher captained during 1905 – 06 helped to cement rugby as New Zealand 's national sport , but he was relentlessly pilloried by the British press for his role as wing @-@ forward . The use of a wing @-@ forward , which critics felt was a tactic to deliberately obstruct opponents , contributed to decades of strain between the rugby authorities of New Zealand and the Home Nations ; the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) effectively outlawed the position in 1931 .
During the First World War , Gallaher enlisted in the New Zealand Division to fight in Europe . He was killed in 1917 at the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium . He has since been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame , International Rugby Hall of Fame , and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame . A number of memorials exist in Gallaher 's honour , including the Gallaher Shield for the winner of Auckland 's club championship , and the Dave Gallaher Trophy contested between the national teams of France and New Zealand .
= = Early life = =
Dave Gallaher was born as David Gallagher on 30 October 1873 at Ramelton , County Donegal , Ireland , the third son of James Henry Gallagher , a 69 @-@ year @-@ old shopkeeper , and his 29 @-@ year @-@ old wife , Maria Hardy Gallagher ( née McCloskie ) . James was a widower who had married Maria in 1866 , a year after the death of his first wife . James had two children from his first marriage , and David was the seventh from his marriage to Maria . The couple had three more children after David , but of their ten offspring , three died in infancy . The couple 's other offspring were : Joseph ( born 1867 ) , Isabella ( 1868 ) , James ( 1869 ) , Maria ( called Molly , 1870 ) , Jane ( 1871 ) , Thomas ( 1872 ) , William ( 1875 ) , Oswald ( 1876 ) , and James Patrick ( 1878 ) . David was baptised as a Presbyterian in the First Ramelton Meeting House on 8 January 1874 .
After the struggling in his drapery business in Ramelton , James decided to emigrate with his family to New Zealand as part of George Vesey Stewart 's Katikati Special Settlement scheme . In May 1878 the Gallaghers – minus the sick James Patrick who at eight weeks old was too weak to make the trip – sailed from Belfast on the Lady Jocelyn for Katikati in the Bay of Plenty . On arriving in New Zealand , the family altered their surname to " Gallaher " in an effort to reduce confusion over its spelling and pronunciation .
The Gallaher couple and their six children arrived in Auckland after a three @-@ month voyage , and from there sailed to Tauranga in the Bay of Plenty , before their final voyage to Katikati . On arrival they found the settlement scheme was not what they had envisaged or been promised : the land allocated to the family required enormous work to be broken in before being suitable for farming , there was no easy access to water , and the settlement was very hilly . It had been hoped that James would be employed as the agent for the Donegal Knitting Company in New Zealand , which was to be established by Lord George Augusta Hill . But Hill died unexpectedly and his successor did not support the initiative . As the family 's poor quality land was insufficient to make a living , the children 's mother Maria soon became the chief breadwinner after she obtained a position teaching for £ 2 a week at the new No. 2 School .
In January 1886 David spent a week in Auckland hospital undergoing surgery to treat stunted muscles in his left leg which had led to curvature of his spine . His mother became sick that same year , and in 1887 lost her teaching position . His mother 's condition worsened and she died of cancer on 9 September 1887 . With a father in his seventies , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old David was compelled to leave school so he could help his brothers to support the family . He took a job with a local stock and station agent .
The older Gallaher children had to work to prevent the local authorities from putting their younger siblings up for adoption . In 1889 , with the exception of William who remained in Katikati , the family joined Joseph in Auckland , where he had found work . David – who was by now 17 years old – was able to obtain work at the Northern Roller Mills Company , and was soon a member of the firm 's junior cricket team . In the late 1890s Gallaher took employment at the Auckland Farmers ' Freezing Company as a labourer ; by the time of his deployment for the First World War two decades later he had risen to the position of foreman . His work required the constant handling of heavy animal carcasses , which helped him build upper body strength and kept him fit .
= = Early rugby career = =
Gallaher first gained attention for his talents as a rugby player while living in Katikati . After moving to Auckland , he played junior rugby for the Parnell club from 1890 . He joined the Ponsonby District Rugby Football Club in 1895 , after the family moved to Freemans Bay following Joseph 's marriage to Nell Burchell . Gallaher , who played at hooker , was selected for an Auckland " B " side that year , and made his debut for the Auckland provincial side against the touring Queensland team on 8 August 1896 . The Aucklanders won 15 – 6 . Gallaher was retained for Auckland 's remaining fixtures that season : defeats to Wellington , Taranaki and Otago .
In 1897 , Gallaher 's Ponsonby club won eight of their nine matches en route to the Auckland club championship . He was selected to play for Auckland against the New Zealand representative side that had just completed a tour of Australia . The Aucklanders won 11 – 10 after scoring a late try ; it was only New Zealand 's second loss of their eleven @-@ match tour . Later that year Gallaher was selected for Auckland 's three @-@ match tour where they defeated Taranaki , Wellington and Wanganui . Wellington 's defeat was their first loss at home since the formation of the Wellington Rugby Football Union in 1879 . The following season was less eventful for Gallaher – he played much of the season for Ponsonby , but injury prevented his selection for Auckland .
After missing the 1898 season for Auckland , Gallaher continued to be selected for the province throughout 1899 and 1900 . The side was undefeated over this time ; he played for them twice in 1899 , and in all four matches in 1900 . He represented Auckland province a total of 26 times over his career .
= = Anglo @-@ Boer War = =
In January 1901 Gallaher joined the Sixth New Zealand Contingent of Mounted Rifles for service in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . When enlisting he gave his date of birth as 31 October 1876 , three years later than the actual date . It is unknown why he did this but the later date continued to be used in official records for the rest of his life . Gallaher was given a send @-@ off dinner by his Ponsonby club before the contingent departed from Auckland on 31 January . After disembarking in South Africa at East London on 14 March 1901 , Gallaher 's contingent immediately embarked for Pretoria , and it was there that , as part of forces under the command of General Herbert Plumer , they set about their task of " rid [ ding ] the Northern Transvaal of Boer guerrillas and sympathizers . "
A member of the contingent 's 16th ( Auckland ) Company , he served in the advanced guard , who scouted ahead of the main force . In October 1901 Gallaher contracted malaria , and was hospitalised in Charlestown , Natal . In a letter he composed to his sister while recovering he wrote :
.. we have been all over S [ outh ] Africa pretty well I believe , on the trek the whole time and it looks as if we will be trekking till the end of the Chapter . We have a fair share of the fighting all the time and I am still alive and kicking although I have had a couple of pretty close calls , one day I thought I would have to say good bye to old New Zealand but I had my usual luck and so came out all right
Between late December 1901 and early January 1902 Gallaher and his contingent were involved in a number of skirmishes . He described one incident where he had several Boer fighters in his sights , but did not have " the heart " to fire at them while they rescued one of their comrades . Describing a later encounter to his sister , Gallaher wrote : " We had a total of 22 killed and 36 injured and a few taken prisoners [ ; ] it was a pretty mournful sight to see the Red Cross bearers cruising around the field fetching all the dead and wounded who were laying all over the place " . By March 1902 Gallaher had reached the rank of squadron sergeant @-@ major , and his contingent was on its way to Durban . There the unit boarded ship for New Zealand , but Gallaher stayed behind , transferring to the Tenth New Zealand Contingent . His new unit did not see active service in South Africa , and he returned with them to New Zealand in August 1902 . For his service Gallaher received the Queen 's South Africa Medal ( Cape Colony , Orange Free State , and Transvaal Clasps ) , and King 's South Africa Medal ( South Africa 1901 and South Africa 1902 Clasps ) .
= = Resumption of his rugby career = =
During his time in South Africa Gallaher did play some rugby , including captaining the New Zealand military team that played ten games and won the rugby championship among the British forces . But he was not fit enough to play immediately upon his return to New Zealand , and so did not resume playing rugby for Ponsonby until the 1903 season . When he did return for his club , for the first match of the year , he was described as " the outstanding forward " in a comprehensive defeat of Parnell .
Despite having missed two seasons of provincial rugby , Gallaher was included in the 22 @-@ man New Zealand representative squad to tour Australia during 1903 . He was the first Ponsonby player ever to play for the New Zealand team , commonly known as the " All Blacks " . The 1903 team to Australia was , according to Winston McCarthy 's 1968 history of the All Blacks , " still regarded by old @-@ timers as the greatest team to ever leave New Zealand . " The tour did not start well – a preliminary match in New Zealand , against Wellington , was lost 14 – 5 , though Gallaher did score his first try for his country .
Gallaher played eight matches – the first four as hooker and the remainder as wing @-@ forward – out of eleven during the six @-@ week tour . The party was captained by the veteran Otago player Jimmy Duncan , who was widely recognised as a master tactician . The first match in Australia , against New South Wales , was won 12 – 0 by the New Zealanders , despite their having a man sent off . After playing a Combined Western Districts side , New Zealand played a second match against New South Wales . New Zealand won again , but only 3 – 0 on a flooded pitch at Sydney Cricket Ground . The side continued touring the state before making their way north to Queensland , where they twice played the state side . The New Zealanders then returned to New South Wales , where the first @-@ ever Australia – New Zealand rugby union Test match took place in Sydney .
Since the selection of the first New Zealand team in 1884 , inter @-@ colonial games had been played against New South Wales ( ten New Zealand wins from thirteen matches ) , and Queensland ( seven New Zealand wins from seven ) , but none had been contested against a combined Australian side . The match – won 22 – 3 by the New Zealanders , who scored three tries to nil – marked Gallaher 's first international cap . The last match of the tour was against New South Wales Country ; New Zealand won 32 – 0 . On their ten @-@ match tour of Australia , New Zealand had scored 276 points and conceded only 13 .
Back in New Zealand , Gallaher was selected for the North Island in his first ever Inter @-@ Island match ; the South won 12 – 5 . He then continued playing for Auckland , who were conducting a tour of both islands . Gallaher appeared in six of their seven matches , against Taranaki , Wellington , Southland , Otago , Canterbury , and South Canterbury . Auckland lost the first two matches , but won the others .
In 1904 the first Ranfurly Shield match was played . The shield , a provincial challenge trophy won by defeating the holder , was to become the most prestigious trophy in domestic New Zealand rugby . Due to their unmatched provincial record at the time Auckland were awarded the shield . The first shield challenge was played against Wellington , who were not expected to pose much of a threat . Auckland had not lost at home in six years , but , with Gallaher in the side , were upset 6 – 3 by the Wellingtonians . Gallaher was then selected for the New Zealand team that faced the touring British Isles in what was New Zealand 's first Test match on home soil . The British team were conducting a tour of Australia and New Zealand , and had finished their Australian leg unbeaten .
Jimmy Duncan , who was coaching New Zealand after retiring as a player , said before the historic match : " I have given them directions . It 's man for man all the time , and I have bet Gallaher a new hat that he can 't catch [ Percy ] Bush . Bush has never been collared in Australia but he 'll get it today . " The match was tied 3 – 3 at half @-@ time , but New Zealand were the stronger side in the second half and eventually won 9 – 3 . Gallaher was praised by press for his all @-@ round display at wing @-@ forward , but in particular for his successful harassment of the British Isles ' half @-@ back Tommy Vile .
The New Zealand defeat was the first tour loss for the British side , who then drew with a combined Taranaki @-@ Wanganui @-@ Manawatu side before travelling to Auckland . Gallaher played for Auckland against the tourists and scored one of the tries in their 13 – 0 victory . He was part of a forward pack that dominated their opponents , and again he troubled Vile ; his tackling of Vile and Bush killed many British attacks . The rugby historian Terry McLean would write in 1987 that " his display could be ranked with the finest exhibitions of wing @-@ forward play " . Gallaher represented Auckland once in 1904 , a 3 – 0 loss to Taranaki .
= = 1905 tour = =
= = = Background and preparations = = =
At the end of the 1904 season the New Zealand Rugby Football Union ( NZRFU ) suspended Gallaher from playing after a disagreement over a claim for expenses he had submitted to the Auckland Rugby Football Union for travel to play in the match against the British Isles . Eventually the matter was resolved when , under protest , Gallaher repaid the disputed amount . This settlement , coupled with his performance in 26 – 0 North Island win over the South Island in the pre @-@ tour trial , allowed Gallaher to be considered for selection for New Zealand 's 1905 – 06 tour of Europe and North America . The NZRFU had been trying to secure an invitation to send a team to Britain for some time , and were finally able to secure satisfactory financial guarantees to proceed in 1905 . This was the first representative New Zealand team to undertake such a tour , though a privately organised team , the New Zealand Natives , had preceded them in 1888 – 89 .
The NZRFU named Gallaher captain for the tour , with Billy Stead as vice @-@ captain . A week into the voyage to Britain aboard the SS Rumutaka , rumours circulated that some of the southern players were unhappy with the appointment of Gallaher , and with what they perceived as an Auckland bias in the squad . The dissidents contended that the captain and vice @-@ captain should have been elected by the players , as they had been on the 1897 and 1903 tours to Australia . Gallaher recognised the damage factionalism might do to the team and offered to resign , as did the vice @-@ captain Stead . Although the teams ' manager refused to accept the resignations , the players still took a vote — 17 out of 29 endorsed the NZRFU 's selections .
During the voyage to England the team conducted training drills on the ship 's deck ; for this the forwards were coached by Gallaher and fellow player Bill Cunningham , while Stead was in charge of the backs . Consequently , the services of the NZRFU @-@ appointed coach Jimmy Duncan were not used ; his appointment had caused opposition from many in the squad who believed his expertise was not required , and that an extra player should have been taken on tour instead . After a six @-@ week voyage , the team arrived in Plymouth , England on 8 September 1905 .
= = = Early tour matches = = =
The New Zealanders ' first match was against the Devon county side at Exeter . A close contest was expected , but New Zealand ran out 55 – 4 winners , scoring twelve tries and conceding only a drop @-@ goal . Reaction to the match was mixed – the team were accompanied by a cheering crowd and marching band following the win , but Gallaher 's play at wing @-@ forward provoked some criticism in the press .
The use of a wing @-@ forward was a distinctive feature of New Zealand play . Instead of having eight men in the scrum as was normal elsewhere , seven men were used – the missing man , the wing @-@ forward , instead fed the ball into the scrum then held onto one of their hookers while the ball progressed through the scrum to their half @-@ back . With the wing @-@ forward bound to the side of the scrum , the opposing half @-@ back would then have to manoeuvre past him to tackle the player with the ball . This increased the amount of time the half @-@ back would have in possession of the ball before his opposite could tackle him .
The use of this new tactic by New Zealand meant that Gallaher , the team 's wing @-@ forward , was repeatedly accused by the English of obstruction , though the referee Percy Coles , an official of the English Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , rarely penalised him in the Devon match . The Originals ' fullback Billy Wallace posited that New Zealand 's superior scrum made Gallaher 's style of play more prominent . Unlike British and Irish teams of the time , New Zealand employed specialist positions for their forwards . Despite often facing an extra man in the scrum , the New Zealanders " drove like a cleaver through British forward packs " . Gallaher later said : " I think my play is fair – I sincerely trust so – and surely the fact that both Mr Percy Coles and Mr D. H. Bowen – two of the referees of our matches , and fairly representative of English and Welsh ideas , have taken no exception so it ought to have some weight . " The British press , looking to find fault in New Zealand 's play , continued to criticise Gallaher throughout the tour . Gallaher believed the key to his side 's success was a difference in playing styles , while Winston McCarthy believed the unique backline formation to be a major factor .
Following the opening match the " All Blacks " – as the New Zealand team came to be known – defeated Cornwall and then Bristol , both 41 – 0 . They then defeated Northampton 32 – 0 . The tour continued in much the same way , with the All Blacks defeating Leicester , Middlesex , Durham , Hartlepool Clubs and Northumberland ; in nearly all cases the defeats were inflicted without conceding any points ( the one exception being Durham , who scored a try against New Zealand ) . The New Zealanders then comfortably defeated Gloucester and Somerset before facing Devonport Albion , the incumbent English club champions , who had not lost at home in 18 months . New Zealand beat them 21 – 3 in front of a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 . Gallaher scored the All Blacks ' final try , an effort described by the Plymouth Herald as , " ... a gem . It was a tearing rush for about fifty yards with clockwork @-@ like passing all the way . "
New Zealand won their next seven matches , including victories over Blackheath , Oxford University and Cambridge University . Billy Wallace contended that the New Zealanders ' form peaked with the win over Blackheath ; he recalled that " after this game injuries began to take their toll and prevented us ever putting in so fine a team again on the tour . " By the time the All Blacks played their first Test match , against Scotland , the team had played and won nineteen matches , and scored 612 points while conceding only 15 .
= = = Scotland , Ireland and England internationals = = =
The Scottish Football Union ( SFU ) , the governing body for rugby union in Scotland , did not give the New Zealanders an official welcome , and sent only one official to greet them on their arrival in Edinburgh . In addition , the SFU refused a financial guarantee for the match , promising the gate receipts to the New Zealanders instead ; this meant that the NZRFU had to take on all monetary responsibilities for the match . One reason for the cold reception from the SFU may have been because of negative reports from David Bedell @-@ Sivright , who was Scotland 's captain and had also captained the British Isles team on their 1904 tour of New Zealand . Bedell @-@ Sivright had reported unfavourably on his experiences in New Zealand the previous year , especially regarding the wing @-@ forward play of Gallaher .
When time for the Scotland Test did arrive , it was discovered that as the ground had not been covered for protection from the elements , and had frozen over . The SFU wanted to abandon the match , but Gallaher and the tour manager George Dixon contended that the weather would improve enough for the pitch to thaw , and the match was eventually allowed to proceed . The Test was closely contested , with Scotland leading 7 – 6 at half @-@ time , but the All Blacks scored two late tries to win 12 – 7 ; despite the close score @-@ line , the New Zealanders were clearly the better of the two sides .
Four days later the tourists played a West of Scotland selection , where they received a much warmer reception than for the Scotland match , then travelled via Belfast to Dublin where they faced Ireland . Gallaher did not play in either match due to a leg injury suffered during the Scotland Test . New Zealand won the Ireland match 15 – 0 , then defeated a team representing Munster province .
By the time of New Zealand 's next game , against England in London , Gallaher had recovered from his injury enough to play . Between 40 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 saw the match . The All Blacks scored five tries ( four by Duncan McGregor , playing at wing ) to win 15 – 0 . According to the England player Dai Gent , the victory would have been even greater had the match conditions been dry . " One cannot help thinking that England might have picked a stronger side , " said Gallaher . " From our experience , we did not think that this side was fully representative of the best men to be found in the country . " Observers noted that Gallaher still seemed to be suffering from his leg injury during the match . New Zealand played three more matches in England – wins over Cheltenham , Cheshire , and Yorkshire – before travelling on to Wales .
= = = Wales = = =
Wales were the dominant rugby country of the four Home Nations , and in the middle of a " golden age " at the time . Gallaher and his team faced them three days after the Yorkshire match . The All Blacks had thus far played 27 matches on tour , scoring 801 points while conceding only 22 , and all in only 88 days . They were struggling to field fifteen fit players ; a number of their best players , including Stead , were unavailable due to injury .
The match was preceded by an All Black haka , to which the crowd responded with the Welsh national song " Land of my Fathers " . Wales had developed tactics to negate the seven @-@ man New Zealand scrum , and removed a man from their scrum to play as a " rover " , equivalent to Gallaher 's wing @-@ forward position . Gallaher was consistently penalised by the Scottish referee , John Dallas , who held that the New Zealander was feeding the ball into the scrum incorrectly . This eventually compelled Gallaher to instruct his team not to contest the scrums , and therefore give Wales possession following each scrum . Bob Deans , playing at wing for New Zealand that day , later said that Dallas had gone " out to penalise Gallaher – there is no doubt about that " . Teddy Morgan scored an unconverted try for Wales shortly before half @-@ time to give the home side a 3 – 0 lead .
The New Zealand backs had been poor in the first half , and the side 's general form was well below that of earlier in the tour . However New Zealand were generally perceived to be the better side in the second half , with the performance of the Welsh fullback Bert Winfield keeping his team in the game . The most controversial moment of the tour happened late in the second half . Wallace recovered a Welsh kick and cut across the field , and with only Winfield to beat , passed to the New Zealand wing Deans . What happened next has provoked intense debate : Deans was tackled by the Welsh and either fell short of the try @-@ line , or placed the ball over it before being dragged back . Dallas , who had dressed in heavy clothing and was struggling to keep up with the pace of the game , was 30 yards ( 27 m ) behind play . When he arrived he ruled that Deans was short of the try @-@ line , and so did not award New Zealand a try . Play continued , but the All Blacks could not score , and Wales won 3 – 0 . This was New Zealand 's first loss of the tour .
Following the match Gallaher was asked if he was unhappy with any aspect of the game ; he replied that " the better team won and I am content . " When asked about Dallas 's refereeing , he said : " I have always made it a point never to express a view regarding the referee in any match in which I have played " . Gallaher was gracious in defeat , but Dixon was highly critical of both Dallas and the Welsh newspapers , who he accused of " violently and unjustly " attacking New Zealand 's captain . Gallaher would later admit that he had been annoyed by this criticism , which he found unfair ; he also pointed out that though the Welsh condemned the wing @-@ forward position , they had themselves adopted some elements of it . Later during the tour , when discussing the issue of his feeding the ball into the scrum , he said :
No referee could accuse me throughout the tour of putting the ball in unfairly or of putting ‘ bias ’ on it . I would be quite content to accept the verdict on such referees as Mr. Gil Evans or Mr. Percy Coles on the point . There were times when the scrum work was done so neatly that as soon as the ball had left my hands the forwards shoved over the top of it , and it was heeled out , and Roberts was off with it before you could say ‘ knife ’ . It was all over so quickly that almost everyone – the referee sometimes included – thought there was something unfair about it , some ‘ trickery ’ and that the ball had not only been put in but passed out unfairly . People here have been accustomed when the ball was put into the scrum to see it wobbling about and frequently never coming out in a proper way . How can a man possibly put ‘ bias ’ on a ball if he rolls it into the scrum ? The only way to put my screw on a ball would be , I would say , to throw it straight down , shoulder high , on to its end , so that it may possibly bounce in the desired direction . I have never done that – in fact , it can ’ t be done in the scrum and if I had ever attempted it I should have expected to be penalised immediately .
Four more matches were contested in Wales , with Gallaher appearing in three . He played in the match against Glamorgan , won by New Zealand 9 – 0 , but had his finger bitten , which was serious enough for him to miss the fixture against Newport . He returned to face Cardiff , the Welsh champions , on Boxing Day . Gallaher was again booed by the Welsh crowd , and once more the All Blacks were troubled in the scrum , this time after losing a player to injury . The New Zealanders won , but narrowly ; Gallaher asserted after the match that Cardiff were the strongest club side they had met during the tour . New Zealand then faced Swansea in their last match in the British Isles . Gallaher again struggled to field a fit side , and at 3 – 0 down late in the match they were heading for their second defeat on tour . Wallace kicked a drop @-@ goal – then worth four points – late in the game to give the All Blacks a narrow 4 – 3 victory .
= = = France , North America , and return = = =
The side departed Wales and travelled to Paris , where they faced France on 1 January 1906 , in the home side 's first ever Test match . The All Blacks led 18 – 3 at half time . After the French scored their second try , giving them 8 points – the most any team had scored against the All Blacks – the New Zealanders responded with six unanswered tries to win 38 – 8 . They then returned to London , where they learned that New Zealand 's Prime Minister , Richard Seddon , had arranged for them to return home via North America . Not all of the players were keen on the idea , and four did not make the trip , but the new plans did give the team over two weeks to spend in England before their departure .
Before the New Zealand squad left Britain for North America , the English publisher Henry Leach asked Stead and Gallaher to author a book on rugby tactics and play . They finished the task in under a fortnight and were each paid £ 50 . Entitled The Complete Rugby Footballer , the book was 322 pages long and included chapters on tactics and play , as well as a summary of rugby 's history in New Zealand including the 1905 tour . It was mainly authored by Stead , a bootmaker , with Gallaher contributing most of the diagrams . Gallaher almost certainly made some contributions to the text , including sections on Auckland club rugby , and on forward play . The book showed the All Blacks ' tactics and planning to be superior to others of the time , and according to Matt Elliott is " marvellously astute " ; it received universal acclaim on its publication . According to a 2011 assessment by ESPN 's Graham Jenkins , it " remains one of the most influential books produced in the realms of rugby literature " .
The New Zealanders travelled to New York , where they played an exhibition game , then on to San Francisco . There they played two official matches against British Columbia , and won both easily . The tour programme thus ended ; New Zealand had played 35 games and lost only once . Gallaher had played in 26 of those matches , including four Tests . Over their 32 matches in the British Isles New Zealand scored 830 points and conceded 39 ; overall they scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . On their arrival back in New Zealand on 6 March 1906 , the All Blacks were welcomed by a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 before being hosted at a civic reception in Auckland . Invited to speak at the reception , Gallaher said : " We did not go behind our back to talk about the Welshman , but candidly said that on that day the better team had won . I have one recommendation to make to the New Zealand [ Rugby ] Union , if it was to undertake such a tour again , and that is to play the Welsh matches first . "
= = = Aftermath and impact = = =
The 1905 – 06 Originals are remembered as perhaps the greatest of All Black sides , and set the standard for all their successors . They introduced a number of innovations to Britain and Ireland , including specialised forward positions and unfamiliar variations in attacking plays . But while their success helped establish rugby as New Zealand 's national sport and fed a growing sporting nationalism , the controversial wing @-@ forward position contributed to strained ties with the Home Nations ' rugby authorities . British and Irish administrators were also wary of New Zealand 's commitment to the amateur ethos , and questioned their sportsmanship . According to the historian Geoffrey Vincent , many in the traditional rugby establishment believed that : " Excessive striving for victory introduced an unhealthy spirit of competition , transforming a character @-@ building ' mock fight ' into ' serious fighting ' . Training and specialization degraded sport to the level of work . "
The success of the Originals provoked plans for a professional team of players to tour England and play Northern Union clubs in what is now known as rugby league . Unlike rugby league , which was professional , rugby union was strictly amateur at the time , and in 1907 a professional team from New Zealand known as the " All Golds " ( originally a play on " All Blacks " ) toured England and Wales before introducing rugby league to both New Zealand and Australia . According to historian Greg Ryan , the All Golds tour " confirmed many British suspicions about the rugby culture that had shaped the 1905 team . "
These factors may have contributed to the gap between All Black tours of the British Isles – they next toured in 1924 . The NZRFU was denied representation on the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) – composed exclusively of English , Irish , Scottish and Welsh members – until 1948 . After complaining about the wing @-@ forward for years , the Home Nations @-@ administered IRFB made a series of law changes that effectively outlawed the position in 1931 .
= = Auckland and All Black selector = =
Gallaher retired from playing after the All Blacks ' tour , but remained involved in the sport as a coach and selector . He coached at age group level for Ponsonby and in 1906 succeeded Fred Murray as sole selector of the Auckland provincial team . He was Auckland selector until 1916 ; over this time Auckland played 65 games , won 48 , lost 11 and drew 6 . Gallaher did make a brief comeback as a player – travelling as the selector of an injury depleted Auckland team , he turned out against Marlborough at Blenheim in 1909 ; Marlborough won 8 – 3 . He also played against the Maniapoto sub @-@ union just over a week later . Auckland held the Ranfurly Shield from 1905 to 1913 , successfully defending it 23 times . The team struggled to retain the shield during 1912 and 1913 and eventually lost it to Taranaki in a 14 – 11 defeat . During Gallaher 's tenure as selector Auckland inflicted a 11 – 0 defeat of the touring 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh side , defeated the New Zealand Māori in 1910 , and beat Australia 15 – 11 in 1913 .
Gallaher was also a national selector from 1907 to 1914 , and with George Nicholson co @-@ coached the All Blacks against the 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh team . A number of Gallaher 's team @-@ mates from the 1905 – 06 tour were included in the New Zealand squad for the series ; of three Tests , the All Blacks won two and drew the other . During Gallaher 's incumbency as a national selector , New Zealand played 50 matches , won 44 , lost four and drew two . This included 16 Tests , of which only one was lost and two drawn .
= = First World War = =
Although exempt from conscription due to his age , Gallaher enlisted in May 1916 . While awaiting for his call @-@ up to begin training he learnt that his younger brother Company Sergeant @-@ Major Douglas Wallace Gallaher had been killed while serving with the 11th Australian Battalion at Laventie near Fromelles on 3 June 1916 . Douglas had been living in Perth , Australia prior to the war and had previously been wounded at Gallipoli . Biographer Matt Elliott describes it as a " myth " that Gallaher enlisted to avenge his younger brother ; rather he claims that it was most likely due to " loyalty and duty " .
After enlisting and completing his basic training at Trentham he was posted to 22nd Reinforcements , 2nd Battalion , Auckland Regiment within the New Zealand Division . Gallaher left New Zealand aboard the Aparima in February 1917 and reached Britain on 2 May . Gallaher was a member of the ship 's Sports Committee and spent time organising and practising for a planned rugby match at the Cape of Good Hope – it is unknown if the match ever took place . After arriving in England he was promoted to the rank of temporary sergeant and dispatched to Sling Camp for further training . His rank was confirmed as sergeant on 6 June 1917 .
Gallaher 's unit fought in the Battle of Messines , near La Basse Ville , and in August and September 1917 they trained for the upcoming Passchendaele offensive . In the attack on Gravenstafel Spur on 4 October 1917 Gallaher was wounded by a piece of shrapnel that penetrated through his helmet , and he died later that day at the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station , Gravenstafel Spur . He was 43 years old .
Dave Gallaher is buried in grave No. 32513 at Nine Elms British Cemetery , which is west of Poperinge on the Helleketelweg , a road leading from the R33 Poperinge ring road in Belgium . His regulation gravestone , bearing the silver fern of New Zealand , incorrectly gives his age as 41 . New Zealand sides touring Europe have since regularly visited his grave site . For his war service Gallaher was posthumously awarded the British War Medal and the Victory Medal . His brother Henry , who was a miner , served with the Australian 51st Battalion and was killed on 24 April 1917 . Henry 's twin brother , Charles , also served in the war and survived being badly wounded at Gallipoli .
= = Personal life = =
On 10 October 1906 Gallaher married " Nellie " Ellen Ivy May Francis at All Saints Anglican Church , Ponsonby , Auckland . Eleven years younger than Gallaher , Nellie was the daughter of Nora Francis and the sister of Arthur ( ' Bolla ' ) Francis – a fellow rugby player . For many years prior to the marriage Gallaher had boarded at the Francis family home where he had come to know Nellie . Both had also attended the All Saints Anglican Church where Nellie sang in the choir . With his limited income , and frequent absences from work playing rugby , Gallaher found boarding his best accommodation option . On 28 September 1908 their daughter Nora Tahatu ( later Nora Simpson ) was born . Nellie Gallaher died in January 1969 .
Gallaher 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Bolla Francis played for Ponsonby , Auckland and New Zealand sides for a number of years , including when Gallaher was a selector . In 1911 , at age 29 , and in the twilight of his All Blacks ' career , he decided to switch to the professional sport of rugby league . Francis went on to represent New Zealand in rugby league , making him a dual @-@ code international . It is unlikely his switch to rugby league was done without Gallaher 's knowledge . Francis did eventually return to rugby union as a coach .
Gallaher was also a member of the fraternal organisation the United Ancient Order of the Druids , and attended meetings fortnightly in Newton , not far from Ponsonby . He also played several sports in addition to rugby , including cricket , yachting and athletics .
= = Memorial and legacy = =
In 1922 the Auckland Rugby Football Union introduced the Gallaher Shield in his honour ; it has since been awarded to the winner of the union 's premier men 's club competition . Ponsonby – Gallaher 's old club – have won the title more than any other club . At international level New Zealand and France contest the Dave Gallaher Trophy , which was first awarded when New Zealand defeated France on Armistice Day in 2000 . In 2011 New Zealand 's then oldest living All Black , Sir Fred Allen , unveiled a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 8 ft 10 in ) high bronze statue of Gallaher beside one of the entrances at Eden Park in Auckland . The statue was created by Malcolm Evans . Gallaher has been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame , the World Rugby Hall of Fame , and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame .
In 2005 members of the All Blacks witnessed the unveiling of a plaque at Gallaher 's birthplace in Ramelton , which was presented in conjunction with the renaming of Letterkenny RFC 's home ground to Dave Gallaher Memorial Park . Gallaher 's name is also incorporated into the club 's crest . The ground was upgraded following its renaming , and in 2012 the Letterkenny section of the ground was opened by former All Black , and Ponsonby stalwart , Bryan Williams . An Ireland @-@ produced documentary about Gallaher 's life , The Donegal All Black , was aired in 2015 . Later that year , a jersey worn by Gallaher during the 1905 British Isles tour was sold at auction in Cardiff for £ 180 @,@ 000 — nearly 10 times the previous record auction price for a rugby jersey .
= = Leadership and personality = =
" Gallaher played many dashing games , " the British newspaper The Sportsman reported after his death , " and led his side from one success to another until they were deemed invincible . He was a veritable artist , who never deserved all the hard things said about him , especially in South Wales . A great player , a great judge of the game " . Gallaher 's military experience gave him an appreciation for " discipline , cohesion and steadiness under pressure . " He was however quiet , even dour , and preferred to lead by example . He insisted players spend an hour " contemplating the game ahead " on match days , and also that they pay attention to detail . Original All Black Ernie Booth wrote of Gallaher : " To us All Blacks his words would often be , ‘ Give nothing away ; take no chance . ’ As a skipper he was somewhat a disciplinarian , doubtless imbibed from his previous military experience in South Africa . Still , he treated us all like men , not kids , who were out to ‘ play the game ’ for good old New Zealand . " Another contemporary said he was " perhaps not the greatest of wing @-@ forwards , as such ; but he was acutely skilled as a judge of men and moves " .
Paul Verdon , in his history of All Black captains , Born to Lead , writes : " The overwhelming evidence suggests Gallaher 's leadership style , honed from time spent in the Boer War , was very effective . " Gallaher 's biographer Matt Elliott asserts that in the century since his playing retirement " his reputation as a player and leader have only enhanced " . According to historian Terry McLean : " In a long experience of reading and hearing about the man , one has never encountered , from the New Zealand angle , or from his fellow players , criticism of his qualities as a leader . " In the view of the English rugby journalist E. H. D. Sewell , writing soon after Gallaher 's death , the New Zealand captain was " a very quiet , taciturn sort of cove , who spoke rarely about football or his own achievements ... I never heard a soul who met him on that famous trip , say a disparaging word about him . "
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= Don 't Forget ( song ) =
" Don 't Forget " is a song performed by American singer Demi Lovato , from her debut album of the same name . It was written by Lovato and the Jonas Brothers , who co @-@ produced the song with John Fields . The inspiration of the song came from Lovato falling in love with someone who later left her . According to Lovato , it is one of the songs on the album that she most relates to . Musically , " Don 't Forget " is a midtempo glam rock ballad that features Lovato singing with breathy falsetto vocals .
Upon the release of the album , " Don 't Forget " was well @-@ received from music critics , who noted the transition from her " tween sound " to more mature material . The song achieved moderate commercial success , reaching number forty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also reached number seventy @-@ six on the Canadian Hot 100 . To promote the song , Lovato has performed the song numerous times including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
= = Background and composition = =
" Don 't Forget " was written by Lovato along with the Jonas Brothers , who produced it with John Fields . The song features Dorian Crozier and Michael Bland on drums , and Fields on bass , guitars and keyboards . Nick Jonas also played the guitar and percussion on the song . The song is registered as " Did You Forget " with the Broadcast Music , Inc . Lovato has stated that " Don 't Forget " is one of the songs on Don 't Forget that she relates to the most , and that she felt " a lot of emotion while recording it " . In an interview with PopEater , she elaborated , " Everyone goes through the experience of falling in love , but then the other person just walks away , and goes somewhere else . I went through an experience like that and wanted to write about it . I got over it , and now a year later I don 't have those feelings about that person anymore . " The song and " La La Land " were included as bonus tracks on European editions of her sophomore album Here We Go Again .
" Don 't Forget " is a midtempo glam rock ballad sung with vulnerable and breathy vocals in a falsetto tone . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a metronome of 92 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major and Lovato 's vocal range spans from the note of C ♯ 4 to the note of E5 . The song includes a " rocking " instrumental and a heavy guitar break . Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic compared the track to songs by Green Day . Lyrically , " Don 't Forget " is about one of Lovato 's old love interests who left her just as she was falling in love with him . The theme is demonstrated in lyrical lines such as , " Did you forget that I was even alive ? Did you forget everything we ever had ? "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song was well @-@ received from music critics . Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic included " Don 't Forget " on his " Top 10 from the Disney girls " list at number two , and wrote , " She really sells this epic glam @-@ rock ballad with her choked @-@ up vocals , [ ... ] She wrote it with the Jonas Brothers , one of whom has clearly been enjoying Green Day 's latest work . But truthfully , this would have been among the more compelling anthems on ' 21st Century Breakdown ' . " Judy Coleman of The Boston Globe wrote , " Lovato has already mastered the limited range of skills required of today 's pop starlets : the vulnerable @-@ kitten verse , the banshee @-@ shriek chorus , the stiffly sexy whispered asides . She rhymes “ we used to be so strong ” and “ our love is like a song ” without irony . " Michael Menachem of Billboard wrote that Lovato , like Miley Cyrus before her , " has also stepped away briefly from the tween sound with her album 's title track , ' Don 't Forget ' . " Menachem wrote , " She may be reaching a new level with a poised vocal performance , as she too is looking to be taken seriously . " Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle called the track an " age @-@ appropriate blueprint laid out by Hilary Duff and [ Miley ] Cyrus " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Due to strong digital sales when the album was released , " Don 't Forget " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ eight on October 11 , 2008 and fell off the chart the following week . On April 4 , 2009 , it re @-@ entered the chart at number eighty @-@ four . The song steadily ascended the chart for three weeks , before eventually reaching a peak of number forty @-@ one on its fifth week on the chart . It was Lovato 's best performing solo song on the chart until " Here We Go Again " reached number fifteen on August 8 , 2009 . In Canada , " Don 't Forget " debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ two on May 2 , 2009 . The next week , it reached seventy @-@ six , which became its peak . The song also reached number sixty @-@ two on the now defunct Pop 100 chart .
= = Music video = =
" Don 't Forget " was directed by Robert Hales . According to Lovato , different video treatments had been written , but she rejected them as she wanted to come up with the idea herself . She said , " They had treatments [ for the video ] , but I was just like , ' No , scratch them . ' I want to come up with the idea . I want to show you the colors , I want to show you everything . This is art to me and I don 't want it to be somebody else 's decision . " The video premiered on March 16 , 2009 on Lovato 's MySpace account and was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on April 7 , 2009 . In an interview with PopEater , Lovato said of the video ,
" It was actually really freezing cold [ in the rain ] . You could see your breath . And I was in the rain for only a short time – my whole band was out there for an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . It was one of the hardest things I 've ever had to do on a shoot . But it went by so quickly . I had a body suit on underneath my clothes , so there 's a little fun fact for you . I was trying not to break my focus pretty much the entire shoot , because I was really in that zone – thinking a lot about the position I was in a year ago ... thinking about the situation and how much I wanted to get all that emotion off my chest . "
Steve Helling of People magazine wrote that Lovato shows her mature side in the video , saying that " it 's hard not to notice that the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Camp Rock star is growing up . " The video begins in a tour bus with Lovato 's band . She is seen sitting next to a window in the back of the bus , where she precedes to sing the first lines . As the song progresses , she walks out of the bus in the rain , holding an umbrella . She walks out of the parking lot and into an amusement park , where she stands in front of a carousel in the rain as she continues to sing . After the second chorus , Lovato and her band perform in the rain with the water altering colors in the background . As the last verse approaches , she is back on the tour bus . A single tear rolls down her cheek and the video ends .
= = Live performances = =
Lovato performed " Don 't Forget " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on April 14 , 2009 . Also in April 2009 , the song was performed as part of the iTunes Live from London series . The full performances were released as an iTunes Store @-@ exclusive extended play featuring recorded live versions of the tracks . In May 2009 , Lovato performed the song at a Walmart concert , which was later released as part of a live album entitled Demi Lovato : Live : Walmart Soundcheck ( 2009 ) . The release featured recorded live versions of the performers on a CD , and the full performances on a DVD .
During the summer of 2008 , Lovato performed the song on the Jonas Brothers ' Burnin ' Up Tour , for which she served as the opening act . Later in 2009 , the song was performed during her first headlining tour , Summer Tour 2009 . While reviewing a show in Glendale , Arizona , Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic wrote that the song " survived the transformation to an unplugged ballad , making the most of Lovato 's most vulnerable vocal performance of the night . " In 2010 , she performed the song during her South American tour . Lovato also performed the song during her set at the Jonas Brothers Live in Concert World Tour 2010 . Scott Mervis of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that Lovato performed a " high @-@ energy , high @-@ volume " version of the song . In September 2011 , Lovato performed the song during the revue concert An Evening with Demi Lovato . Lovato also performed an acoustic medley of " Don 't Forget " and " Catch Me " at the Vevo Certified SuperFanFest in 2014 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Demi Lovato – writer , lead vocals
Kevin Jonas – writer
Nick Jonas – writer , guitars , percussion
Dorian Crozier – drums
Michael Bland – drums
John Fields – bass , guitars , keyboards , programming , producer
Joe Jonas – writer
Jonas Brothers – producers
Source : Album notes .
= = Charts and sales = =
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= Carnivàle =
Carnivàle / kɑːrnɪˈvæl / is an American television series set in the United States during the Great Depression and Dust Bowl . In tracing the lives of two disparate groups of people , its story depicts the battle between good and evil and the struggle between free will and destiny ; the storyline mixes Christian theology with gnosticism and Masonic lore , particularly that of the Knights Templar . The show was filmed in Santa Clarita , California , and other Southern Californian locations .
Carnivàle was produced by HBO and ran for two seasons between September 14 , 2003 and March 27 , 2005 . The show was created by Daniel Knauf , who also served as executive producer with Ronald D. Moore and Howard Klein . The incidental music was composed by Jeff Beal . Nick Stahl and Clancy Brown starred as Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe , respectively .
Early reviews praised the style of Carnivàle but questioned the approach and execution of the story . Carnivàle 's first episode set a new audience record for an HBO original series , but the show was unable to retain its ratings in its second season . Carnivàle was canceled after 24 episodes , cutting its intended six @-@ season run short by four seasons . The show won five Emmys in 2004 , was nominated for 10 further Emmy awards , and received numerous other nominations and industry awards between 2004 and 2006 .
= = Plot introduction = =
The two seasons of Carnivàle take place in the Depression @-@ era Dust Bowl between 1934 and 1935 , and consist of two main plotlines that slowly converge . The first involves a young man with strange healing powers named Ben Hawkins ( Nick Stahl ) , who joins a traveling carnival when it passes near his home in Milfay , Oklahoma . Soon thereafter , Ben begins having surrealistic dreams and visions , which set him on the trail of a man named Henry Scudder , a drifter who crossed paths with the carnival many years before , and who apparently possessed unusual abilities similar to Ben 's own .
The second plotline revolves around a Father Coughlin @-@ esque Methodist preacher , Brother Justin Crowe ( Clancy Brown ) , who lives with his sister Iris in California . He shares Ben 's prophetic dreams and slowly discovers the extent of his own unearthly powers , which include bending human beings to his will and making their sins and greatest evils manifest as terrifying visions . Certain that he is doing God 's work , Brother Justin fully devotes himself to his religious duties , not realizing that his ultimate nemesis Ben Hawkins and the carnival are inexorably drawing closer .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Daniel Knauf conceived the initial script for the show between 1990 and 1992 when he was unsatisfied with his job as a Californian health insurance broker and hoped to become a screenwriter . He had always been interested in carnivals and noted that this subject had rarely been dramatized on film . The resulting story and its treatment of freaks was strongly informed by Knauf 's experiences of growing up with a disabled father who was not commonly accepted as a normal human being .
Knauf named the intended feature film script Carnivàle , using an unusual spelling for a more outlandish look . Knauf had plotted the story 's broad strokes as well as several plot details from early on and knew the story destination until the final scene . However , the resulting 180 @-@ page long script was twice the length of a typical feature film script , and Knauf still felt that it was too short to do his story justice . He therefore shelved the screenplay as a learning experience . In the meantime , all but one of Knauf 's other scripts were rejected by Hollywood studios , often for being " too weird . "
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Knauf met a few Writers Guild TV writers who encouraged him to revise Carnivàle as a TV series . Knauf turned the script 's first act into a pilot episode , but , having no contacts in the television business , he was forced to shelve the project again and return to his regular job . A few years later , after realizing that his insurance career was not working out , he decided to give his screenwriting efforts a last chance by offering the Carnivàle pilot on his website . The script was subsequently forwarded to Howard Klein by Scott Winant , a mutual friend of the two men . After several meetings and conversations , Klein felt confident that Carnivàle would make a good episodic television series that could last for many years . Klein brought it to the attention of Chris Albrecht and Carolyn Strauss of HBO , who were immediately receptive . The network deemed Knauf too inexperienced in the television business to give him full control over the budget , and appointed Ronald D. Moore as showrunner . ( Knauf would replace Moore after one season when Moore left for the reimagined Battlestar Galactica . )
The pilot episode , which was filmed over a period of 21 days , served as the basis for additional tweaking of intended story lines . Long creative discussions took place among the writers and the network , leading to the postponement of the filming of the second episode for fourteen months . One major change was the addition of extra material for Brother Justin 's side of the story . Brother Justin was originally conceived as a well @-@ established preacher , and as a recurring character rather than a regular one . However , after perusing the preliminary version of the pilot , Knauf and the producers realized that there was no room for Justin to grow in a television series . Hence , it was decided to make Brother Justin an ordinary Methodist minister in a small town , setting him back in his career by about one or two years . Expanding Brother Justin 's role opened new possibilities , and his sister Iris was created as a supporting character . Little was changed on Ben Hawkins ' side except for the addition of the cootch ( striptease ) family ; a Carnivàle consultant had elated the producers by calling attention to his research about families managing cootch shows in the 1930s .
= = = Format = = =
The Carnivàle story was originally intended to be a trilogy of " books " , consisting of two seasons each . This plan did not come to fruition , as HBO canceled the show after the first two seasons . Each season consists of twelve episodes .
Airing on HBO benefited Carnivàle in several ways . Because HBO does not rely on commercial breaks , Carnivàle had the artistic freedom to vary in episode length . Although the episodes averaged a runtime of 54 minutes , the episodes " Insomnia " and " Old Cherry Blossom Road " were 46 minutes and 59 minutes , respectively . HBO budgeted approximately US $ 4 million for each episode , considerably more than most television series receive .
= = = Historical production design = = =
Carnivàle 's 1930s ' Dust Bowl setting required significant research and historical consultants to be convincing , which was made possible with HBO 's strong financial backing . As a result , reviews praised the look and production design of the show as " impeccable , " " spectacular " and as " an absolute visual stunner . " In 2004 , Carnivàle won four Emmys for art direction , cinematography , costumes , and hairstyling .
To give a sense of the dry and dusty environment of the Dust Bowl , smoke and dirt were constantly blown through tubes onto the set . The actors ' clothes were ragged and drenched in dirt , and Carnivàle had approximately 5 @,@ 000 people costumed in the show 's first season alone . The creative team listened to 1930s ' music and radio and read old Hollywood magazines to get the period 's sound , language , and slang right . The art department had an extensive research library of old catalogs , among them an original 1934 Sears Catalog , which were purchased at flea markets and antique stores . The East European background of some characters and Asian themes in Brother Justin 's story were incorporated into the show . Aside from the show 's supernatural elements , a historical consultant deemed Carnivàle 's historic accuracy to be excellent regarding the characters ' lives and clothes , their food and accommodations , their cars and all the material culture .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Carnivàle 's interiors were filmed at Santa Clarita Studios in Santa Clarita , California , while the show 's many exterior scenes were filmed on Southern California locations . The scenes of fictional California town of Mintern , where the stories about Brother Justin and Iris in Season 1 were based , were shot at Paramount Ranch in Agoura Hills . The carnival set itself was moved around the greater Southern California area , to movie ranches and to Lancaster , which were to replicate the states of Oklahoma , Texas , and New Mexico . The permanent filming location of the carnival in Season 2 was Big Sky Ranch , which was also used for Brother Justin 's new home in fictional New Canaan .
= = = Opening title sequence = = =
Carnivàle 's opening title sequence was created by A52 , a visual effects and design company based in Los Angeles , and featured music composed by Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman . The opening title sequence won an Emmy for " Outstanding Main Title Design " in 2004 .
The production team of A52 had intended to " create a title sequence that grounded viewers in the mid @-@ 1930s , but that also allowed people to feel a larger presence of good and evil over all of time . " A52 then pitched their idea to Carnivàle executives in early 2003 , who felt that the company 's proposal was the most creative for the series ' concept . The actual production included scanned transparencies of famous pieces of artwork , each scanned transparency being up to 300 MB in size . The resulting images were photoshopped and digitally rendered . A last step involved stock footage clips being compiled and digitally incorporated into the sequence .
The opening title sequence itself begins with a deck of Tarot cards falling into the sand , while the camera moves in and enters one card into a separate world presenting layers of artwork and footage from iconic moments of the American Depression era ; the camera then moves back out of a different card and repeats the procedure several times . The sequence ends with the camera shifting from the " Judgement " Tarot card to the " Moon " and the " Sun " , identifying the Devil and God respectively , until the wind blows away all cards and the underlying sand to reveal the Carnivàle title artwork .
= = = Music = = =
Carnivàle features instrumental music composed by Jeff Beal , as well as many popular and obscure songs from the 1920s and 1930s , the time when Carnivàle 's story takes place . The main title was written by Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman , and was released with selected themes by Jeff Beal on a Carnivàle television soundtrack by the record label Varèse Sarabande on December 7 , 2004 . Beal released tracks of Season 2 on his personal website . A complete list of music credits is available on the official HBO website .
Jeff Beal 's score is primarily acoustic sounding electronics , but mixes themes of bluegrass as well as atmospheric rhythmic sounds . Bigger groups of strings support smaller ensembles of guitars , pianos , violins , cellos , and trumpets . The music sometimes uses ethnic instruments such as banjos , harmonicas , ukuleles , and duduks .
Because HBO does not break individual episodes with commercials , Carnivàle 's music is paced similar to a movie , with character @-@ specific leitmotifs from as early as the first episode . Characters get musically identified by solo instruments chosen for the character 's ethnic background or nature . Some characters whose connections would only be disclosed later in the series have intentionally similar themes .
Different music is consciously used to represent the two different worlds of the story . Brother Justin 's world features music of constructed orchestral sound with religious music and instruments . On the other hand , the score of the carnival side is more deconstructed and mystical , especially when the carnival travels through the Dust Bowl and remote towns . For carnival scenes taking place in the cootch ( striptease ) show or in cities , however , contemporary pop music , blues , folk , and ethnic music is played . One of the most defining songs of Carnivàle is the 1920s song " Love Me or Leave Me " sung by Ruth Etting , which is used in several episodes to tie characters in the two worlds thematically .
= = Cast = =
The plot of Carnivàle takes place in the 1930s Dust Bowl and revolves around the slowly converging storylines of a traveling carnival and a Californian preacher . Out of the 17 actors receiving star billing in the first season , 15 were part of the carnival storyline . The second season amounted to 13 main cast members , supplemented by several actors in recurring roles . Although such large casts make shows more expensive to produce , the writers are benefited with more flexibility in story decisions . The backgrounds of most characters were fully developed before the filming of Carnivàle began but were not part of the show 's visible structure . The audience would therefore only learn more about the characters as a natural aspect in the story .
Season 1 's first storyline is led by Nick Stahl portraying the protagonist Ben Hawkins , a young Okie farmer who joins a traveling carnival . Michael J. Anderson played Samson , the diminutive manager of the carnival . Tim DeKay portrayed Clayton " Jonesy " Jones , the crippled chief roustabout . Patrick Bauchau acted as the carnival 's blind mentalist Lodz , while Debra Christofferson played his lover , Lila the Bearded Lady . Diane Salinger portrayed the catatonic fortune teller Apollonia , and Clea DuVall acted as her tarot @-@ card @-@ reading daughter , Sofie . Adrienne Barbeau portrayed the snake charmer Ruthie , with Brian Turk as her son Gabriel , a strongman . John Fleck played Gecko the Lizard Man , and Karyne and Sarah Steben appeared as the conjoined twins Alexandria and Caladonia . The cootch show Dreifuss family was played by Toby Huss and Cynthia Ettinger as Felix " Stumpy " and Rita Sue , and Carla Gallo as their daughter Libby . Amanda Aday portrayed their other daughter , Dora Mae Dreifuss , in a recurring role . John Savage played the mysterious Henry Scudder in several episodes , while Linda Hunt lent her voice to the mysterious Management . The second storyline is led by Clancy Brown portraying the primary antagonist , the Methodist minister Brother Justin Crowe . Amy Madigan played his sister Iris . Robert Knepper supported them as the successful radio host Tommy Dolan later in the first season , while Ralph Waite had a recurring role as Reverend Norman Balthus , Brother Justin 's mentor . K Callan performed in a recurring role as Eleanor McGill , a parishioner who became devoted to Brother Justin after seeing his power firsthand .
Several cast changes took place in Season 2 , some of them planned from the beginning . John Fleck , Karyne Steben and her sister Sarah had made their last appearance in the first season 's finale , while Patrick Bauchau 's and Diane Salinger 's status was reduced to guest @-@ starring . Ralph Waite joined the regular cast . Several new characters were introduced in recurring roles , most notably John Carroll Lynch as the escaped convict Varlyn Stroud and Bree Walker as Sabina the Scorpion Lady .
= = = Casting = = =
The casting approach for Carnivàle was to cast the best available actors and to show the characters ' realness as opposed to depending on freak illusions too much . Carnivàle 's casting directors John Papsodera and Wendy O 'Brien already had experience in casting freaks from previous projects . The producers generally preferred actors who were not strongly identified with other projects , but were willing to make exceptions such as for Adrienne Barbeau as Ruthie .
The script for the pilot episode was the basis for the casting procedure , with little indication where the show would go afterwards . This resulted in some preliminary casting disagreements between the creators and producers , especially for leading characters such as Ben , Brother Justin and Sofie . The character of Ben was always intended to be the leading man and hero of the series , yet he was also desired to display a youthful , innocent and anti @-@ hero quality ; Nick Stahl had the strongest consensus among the producers . The character of Sofie was originally written as more of an exotic gypsy girl , but Clea DuVall , a movie actor like Stahl , got the part after four auditions . Tim DeKay was cast as Jonesy because the producers felt he best portrayed a " very American " looking baseball player of that period . One of the few actors who never had any real competition was Michael J. Anderson as Samson , whom Daniel Knauf had wanted as early as the initial meeting .
= = Mythology = =
Although almost every Carnivàle episode has a distinctive story with a new carnival setting , all episodes are part of an overarching good @-@ versus @-@ evil story that only culminates and resolves very late in Season 2 . The pilot episode begins with a prologue talking of " a creature of light and a creature of darkness " ( also known as Avatars ) being born " to each generation " preparing for a final battle . Carnivàle does not reveal its characters as Avatars beyond insinuation , and makes the nature of suggested Avatars a central question . Reviewers believed Ben to be a Creature of Light and Brother Justin a Creature of Darkness .
Other than through the characters , the show 's good @-@ and @-@ evil theme manifests in the series ' contemporary religion , the Christian military order Knights Templar , tarot divination , and in historical events like the Dust Bowl and humankind 's first nuclear test . The writers had established a groundwork for story arcs , character biographies and genealogical character links before filming of the seasons began , but many of the intended clues remained unnoticed by viewers . While Ronald D. Moore was confident that Carnivàle was one of the most complicated shows on television , Daniel Knauf reassured critics that Carnivàle was intended to be a demanding show with a lot of subtext and admitted that " you may not understand everything that goes on but it does make a certain sense " . Knauf provided hints about the show 's mythological structure to online fandom both during and after the two @-@ season run of Carnivàle , and left fans a production summary of Carnivàle 's first season two years after cancellation .
Matt Roush of TV Guide called Carnivàle " the perfect show for those who thought Twin Peaks was too accessible " . The Australian stated that Carnivàle " seems to have been conceived in essentially literary terms " which " can sometimes work on the page but is deadly on the large screen , let alone a small one . It 's almost like a biblical injunction against pretension on television . " A reviewer admitted his temptation to dismiss the first season of Carnivàle as " too artsy and esoteric " because his lack of involvement prevented him from understanding " what the heck was going on , [ which ] can be a problem for a dramatic television series . " TV Zone however considered Carnivàle " a series like no other and [ ... ] the fact that it is so open to interpretation surprisingly proves to be one of its greatest strengths . " Carnivàle was lauded for bringing " the hopelessness of the Great Depression to life " and for being among the first TV shows to show " unmitigated pain and disappointment " , but reviewers were not confident that viewers would find the " slowly unfolding sadness " appealing over long or would have the patience or endurance to find out the meaning of the show .
= = Cancellation and future = =
At the time , HBO made their commitments for only one year at a time , a third season would have meant opening up a new two @-@ season book in Daniel Knauf 's six @-@ year plan , including the introduction of new storylines for current and new characters , and further clarification and elaboration on the show 's mythology . HBO announced that the show had been cancelled on May 11 , 2005 . HBO 's president Chris Albrecht stated that the network would have considered otherwise if the producers had been willing to lower the price of an episode to US $ 2 million ; but the running costs for the sizable cast , the all @-@ on @-@ location shooting and the number of episodes per season were too enormous for them .
The cancellation resulted in several story plot lines being unfinished , and outraged loyal viewers organized petitions and mailing drives to get the show renewed . This generated more than 50 @,@ 000 emails to the network in a single weekend . Show creator Daniel Knauf was unconvinced of the success of such measures , but explained that proposed alternatives like selling Carnivàle to a competing network or spinning off the story were not possible because of HBO owning Carnivàle 's plot and characters . At the same time , Knauf was hopeful that , given a strong enough fan base , HBO might reconsider the show 's future and allow the continuation of the show in another medium ; but because of the amount of unused story material he still had , Knauf did not favor finishing the Carnivàle story with a three @-@ hour movie .
Knauf would not release a detailed run @-@ down of intended future plots to fans , explaining that his stories are a collaboration of writers , directors and actors alike . He and the producers did , however , answer a few basic details about the immediate fate of major characters who were left in near @-@ fatal situations in the final episode of Season 2 . Knauf additionally provided in @-@ depth information regarding the underlying fictional laws of nature that the writers had not been able to fully explore in the first two seasons . June 2007 however marked the first time that a comprehensive work of detailed character backgrounds was made public . Following a fundraising auction , Knauf offered fans a so @-@ called " Pitch Document , " a summary of Carnivàle 's first season . This document was originally written in 2002 and 2003 to give the writers and the studio an idea about the series ' intended plot , and answered many of the show 's mysteries .
= = Marketing and merchandise = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast marketing = = =
HBO reportedly invested in Carnivàle 's promotion as much as for any of its primetime series launches . The series ' unconventional and complex narrative made the network deviate from its traditional marketing strategies . Teaser trailers were inserted on CD @-@ ROMs into Entertainment Weekly issues to draw attention to the show 's visual quality . 30 @-@ second TV spots were aired in national syndication , cable and local avails for four weeks before the show 's premiere instead of the usual seven days . The historical context of Carnivàle was deliberately emphasized in the show 's print art , which depicted the 17 @-@ member cast surrounding a carnival truck . This image was accompanied by a tagline of the show 's good versus evil theme : " Into each generation is born a creature of light and a creature of darkness . " These measures were hoped to be backed up by positive critical reviews . To give ratings an initial boost , HBO placed the premiere of Carnivàle directly after the series finale of the successful Sex and the City . The series continued to receive extensive online advertisement for almost its entire run .
= = = Games = = =
Personalized and interactive online games inspired by tarot divination were created for Carnivàle 's internet presence . The official HBO website collaborated with RealNetworks to offer FATE : The Carnivàle Game , a downloadable game made available for trial and for purchase .
= = = DVDs = = =
Carnivàle : The Complete First Season was released as a widescreen six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set on December 7 , 2004 , one month before the premiere of the second season . It was distributed by HBO Home Video and contained three audio commentaries and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette . The outer slipcover of the Region 1 set was made of a thick cardboard to mimic a bound book . The same set was released with less elaborate packaging in Region 2 on March 7 , 2005 , and in Region 4 on May 11 , 2005 .
Carnivàle : The Complete Second Season was released as a widescreen six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set on July 18 , 2006 , in Region 2 on August 7 , 2006 , and in Region 4 on October 4 , 2006 . Each of these releases was distributed by HBO Home Video and contained three audio commentaries , on @-@ stage interviews of the cast and producers , a featurette about the mythology of the series , and four short " Creating the Scene " segments about the concept , inspiration and execution process .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Carnivàle aired on HBO on a Sunday 9 : 00 pm timeslot during its two @-@ season run between 2003 and 2005 . " Milfay " , Carnivàle 's pilot episode , drew 5 @.@ 3 million viewers for its premiere on September 14 , 2003 . This marked the best ever debut for an HBO original series at the time , caused in part by the established HBO series Sex and the City being Carnivàle 's lead @-@ in . This record was broken on March 21 , 2004 by HBO series Deadwood , which debuted with 5 @.@ 8 million viewers as the lead @-@ out of The Sopranos .
Viewership dropped to 3 @.@ 49 million for Carnivàle 's second episode but remained stable for the remainder of the season . The final episode of season one finished with 3 @.@ 5 million viewers on November 30 , 2003 . Season one averaged 3 @.@ 54 million viewers and a household rating of 2 @.@ 41 .
Viewership for the second season premiere on January 9 , 2005 was down by two @-@ thirds to 1 @.@ 81 million . The ratings never recovered to their first @-@ season highs , although the season two finale experienced an upswing with 2 @.@ 40 million viewers on March 27 , 2005 . Season 2 averaged 1 @.@ 7 million viewers , not enough to avert an imminent cancellation .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Many early reviews gave Carnivàle good marks but also stated that its unique characters and story might prevent it from becoming a huge mainstream audience success . Daily Variety TV editor Joseph Adalian predicted that " it will get mostly positive reviews but some people will be put off by the general weirdness of the show . " Phil Gallo of Variety described Carnivàle as " an absolute visual stunner with compelling freak show characters — but the series unfortunately takes a leisurely approach toward getting to a point , " and Eric Deggans of the St. Petersburg Times suggested that " it 's as if executives at the premium cable network want to see how far they can slow a narrative before viewers start tossing their remotes through the screen " . James Poniewozik of Time called the first three episodes " frustrating " as well as " spellbinding . " Amanda Murray of BBC said " With so little revealed , it 's almost impossible to pass judgment on the show — it 's hard to tell if this is just good , or going to be great . "
Later reviews were able to judge the series based on full seasons . While the acting , set design , costuming , art direction and cinematography continued to be praised , some reviewers disfavored the writing , especially of Season 1 , saying " the plot momentum is often virtually non @-@ existent " or as " sometimes gripping but mostly boring . " Other reviewers pointed out that Carnivàle may " demand more from its audience than many are willing to invest . [ ... ] Without paying close attention , it 's tempting to assume that the show is unnecessarily cryptic and misleading . " Carnivàle 's story was surveyed as long and complex , " and if you don 't start from the beginning , you 'll be completely lost . " IGN DVD 's Matt Casamassina , however , praised the show in two reviews , writing that the " gorgeously surreal " first season " dazzles with unpredictable plot twists and scares " , and that the " extraordinary " second season was " better fantasy – better entertainment , period – than any show that dares to call itself a competitor . "
A significant portion of reviews drew parallels between Carnivàle and David Lynch 's 1990s mystery TV series Twin Peaks , a show in which Carnivàle actor Michael J. Anderson had previously appeared . Knauf did not deny a stylistic link and made comparisons to John Steinbeck 's novel The Grapes of Wrath . When Lost began to receive major critical attention , Carnivàle and its type of mythological storytelling were compared to Lost 's story approach in several instances .
Critical opinion remained divided about Carnivàle in the years after the show 's cancellation . Alessandra Stanley of the Australian newspaper The Age remembers Carnivàle as a " smart , ambitious series that move [ s ] unusual characters around an unfamiliar setting imaginatively and even with grace , but that never quite quit the surly bonds of serial drama . " Variety 's Brian Lowry remembers the show as " largely a macabre fantasy " that eventually suffered from " its own bleakness and eccentricities " . The A.V. Club dwelled on Carnivàle 's cliffhanger ending in a piece on unanswered TV questions and called the show " a fantastically rich series with a frustratingly dense mythology " .
= = = Fandom = = =
Like other cult television shows , Carnivàle gained a respectable following of dedicated viewers . Carnivàle fans referred to themselves as " Carnies " or " Rousties " ( roustabouts ) , terms adopted from the show . Carnivàle 's complexity and subliminal mythology spawned dedicated fansites , although most discussion took place on independent internet forums . Show creator Daniel Knauf actively participated in online fandom and offered story- and mythology @-@ related clues . He also gave insight into reasons for Carnivàle 's cancellation on a messageboard before speaking to the press .
One year after Carnivàle 's cancellation , a major Carnivàle convention called CarnyCon 2006 Live ! was organized by fans . It took place in Woodland Hills , California on August 21 – 23 , 2006 . Many of the show 's cast and crew attended the event and participated in discussion panels , which were recorded and made available on DVD afterwards .
= = = Awards = = =
Despite its short two @-@ season run , Carnivàle received numerous awards and nominations . The show 's inaugural season received nominations for seven Emmy Awards in 2004 , winning five including " Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ camera Series " and " Outstanding Costumes For A Series " for the pilot episode " Milfay " , " Outstanding Cinematography For A Single @-@ Camera Series " for the episode " Pick A Number " , " Outstanding Hairstyling For A Series " for the episode " After the Ball Is Over " , and " Outstanding Main Title Design " . In 2005 , the second season received eight further Emmy nominations without a win .
Other awards include but are not limited to :
Win – Artios Award : " Best Casting for TV , Dramatic Pilot " , 2004
Win – VES Award : " Outstanding Special Effects in Service to Visual Effects in a Televised Program , Music Video or Commercial " , 2004
Win – Costume Designers Guild Award : " Excellence in Costume Design for Television – Period / Fantasy " , 2005
Nominated – two Golden Reel Awards , 2003
Nominated – two Saturn Awards , 2004
Nominated – two VES Awards , 2004
Nominated – Costume Designers Guild Award , 2005
= = = International reception and broadcasters = = =
HBO president Chris Albrecht stated that Carnivàle was " not a big show for foreign [ distribution ] , " but did not go into more detail . Reviews however indicate that the show 's cryptic mythology and inaccessibility to the casual viewer were major factors . Nevertheless , Carnivàle was sold to several foreign networks and was distributed to HBO channels abroad . The DVD releases of Carnivàle extended the availability of the show further .
= = Lawsuit = =
On June 9 , 2005 , a lawsuit was filed in United States district court by Los Angeles writer Jeff Bergquist . He claimed that the creators of Carnivàle did not originate the idea for the show , but rather stole it from his unpublished novel Beulah , a quirky drama set amid a traveling carnival during the Depression that Bergquist had been working on since the 1980s . Bergquist sought both recognition and punitive damages by arguing that HBO and Carnivàle creator Daniel Knauf violated his copyright on Beulah , but HBO and Knauf denied any claims as having " absolutely no merit . "
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= Lafayette dollar =
The Lafayette dollar was a silver coin issued as part of the United States participation in the Paris World 's Fair of 1900 . Depicting Lafayette with George Washington and designed by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , it was the only U.S. silver dollar commemorative prior to 1983 , and the first U.S. coin to depict American citizens .
Beginning in 1898 , prominent Americans sought to erect in Paris a monument to Lafayette , a Frenchman who fought in the American Revolutionary War . Among these supporters was Chicago businessman Ferdinand Peck , whom President William McKinley chose as commissioner @-@ general to the exposition . Peck made the monument proposal a part of the American plans for Paris , and appointed the Lafayette Memorial Commission to raise funds for it . A part of this fundraising was the one @-@ dollar commemorative coin , approved by Congress on March 3 , 1899 .
Conjoined busts of Washington and Lafayette appear on the obverse . Barber stated that the bases for his work were a sculpture of Washington by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , and an 1824 medal of Lafayette by François @-@ Augustin Caunois . For the reverse , he used an early sketch of the planned monument , designed by Paul Wayland Bartlett , whose last name appears on the base of the statue on the reverse . The coins did not sell out , and 14 @,@ 000 were later melted by the United States Treasury . The Lafayette dollar is valued from several hundred dollars to tens of thousands , depending on condition .
= = Background = =
Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette was born on September 6 , 1757 to a noble French family . When the boy was less than two years old , his father was killed at the Battle of Minden , making the toddler a wealthy nobleman . The young marquis married in 1774 .
In 1775 , while on military duty in Metz , Lafayette heard of the rebellion against British rule in North America . The young officer quickly came to believe that the American cause was noble . On learning that the Second Continental Congress lacked funds , Lafayette hired a ship at his own expense and in 1777 sailed for America , though he initially received a cold reception from the Congress . So many foreign officers had sought to be a part of the Continental Army that its commanding general , George Washington , asked that no more be engaged . Lafayette 's application , which sought no pay , met with eventual success . Congress had received a letter from the American envoy to France , Benjamin Franklin , stating that Lafayette 's family was wealthy and influential . Franklin urged Congress to accommodate Lafayette , and also keep him safe and out of the action lest his death harm the American cause .
Congress dutifully voted in July 1777 to commission Lafayette as a major general , and sent him to meet Washington . The two men formed a very close relationship despite a quarter @-@ century difference in age . Franklin 's wish to keep Lafayette safe was frustrated by the young man 's desire to be where battles raged , and he was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777 . France soon entered the war on the American side , and was instrumental in the victory . Lafayette helped lead the decisive Yorktown campaign , leading to the surrender of British Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis .
Lafayette returned to France after 1781 , a national hero in both countries . He returned to the United States in 1784 , his last visit for 40 years . In France , he involved himself in politics , favoring a constitutional monarchy . He was given office and commands after the French Revolution , but was captured by the Austrians in 1792 , remaining in captivity for five years . After Napoleon arranged his release , Lafayette remained on his estates and away from politics during the Emperor 's rule . After the restoration of the monarchy in 1815 , he again engaged himself in politics , sitting in the Chamber of Deputies .
In 1824 , the American Congress voted unanimously to have President James Monroe invite Lafayette to return as the guest of the nation . The marquis and his son , George Washington Lafayette , arrived in New York City to mammoth celebrations . Over the next year and a half , Lafayette visited all 24 states . He was given innumerable honors and gifts , including land in Florida . The marquis returned to France in 1825 , and died in 1834 . One of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States , according to Arnie Slabaugh in his book on commemorative coins , " Lafayette became so popular and respected in both countries that the friendship he helped cement between the two nations has extended to this day " .
= = Inception = =
In March 1898 , a resolution was introduced in Congress for a commission to erect a monument to Lafayette in Paris on behalf of the United States . The bill passed the Senate , and hearings were held before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs . Chicago businessman and philanthropist Ferdinand Peck testified in support of the bill , which though favored by the committee was not considered by the House due to higher priorities during the Spanish – American War .
Later in 1898 , President William McKinley appointed Peck as United States Commissioner @-@ General to the 1900 Exposition Universelle , a World 's Fair to be held in Paris , France . Peck revived the Lafayette proposal as part of the American participation in the fair , and created a Lafayette Memorial Commission to supervise the monument project . The commission was to ensure that the monument was unveiled on July 4 , 1900 — both Independence Day and also United States Day at the exposition . On September 1 , 1898 , Peck appointed a number of prominent Americans to the commission , including Iowa Senator William B. Allison , Secretary of State William R. Day , Archbishop John Ireland , and Reverend Edward Everett Hale . The commission 's officers included the treasurer , Comptroller of the Currency ( and future Vice President of the United States ) Charles G. Dawes , and the secretary , Robert J. Thompson .
Fundraising to build the Lafayette monument was a major component of the commission 's work , and it sought to involve American schools and schoolchildren in the project . October 19 , 1898 — the 117th anniversary of Cornwallis 's surrender at Yorktown — was proclaimed the first " Lafayette Day " by 42 governors or commissioners of education of the states or territories . Although President McKinley did not issue a similar proclamation , he did praise the plan in a letter printed in the press . Special ceremonies in honor of Lafayette ( along with appropriate lesson plans ) were observed in many schools , and pupils were called upon to donate cents in honor of the French patriot . A total of $ 45 @,@ 858 @.@ 30 was obtained from the events at the schools ; those institutions were furnished , on the next Lafayette Day ( intended to be annual ) , with ornate receipts , signed by Dawes and meant as momentos to descend to posterity .
Another proposed means of paying for the statue was a commemorative coin . In early 1899 , the commission sought enactment of legislation granting it an appropriation of $ 50 @,@ 000 in the form of 100 @,@ 000 commemorative half dollars , that could be sold to the public at a premium . Such a method had helped to finance ( though with mixed success ) the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . Instead , Congress passed and McKinley signed on March 3 , 1899 , a civil appropriations bill that included provision for 50 @,@ 000 silver one @-@ dollar pieces to be granted to the commission . The bullion for the striking was to be purchased on the open market and was not to come from the Mint 's remaining stocks acquired pursuant to the repealed Sherman Silver Purchase Act , though the Mint would not exhaust its inventory from that legislation until 1904 . Congress placed a ceiling on the cost of the silver at $ 25 @,@ 000 . In the event , the United States Treasury bought 38 @,@ 675 @.@ 875 troy ounces of silver for $ 23 @,@ 032 @.@ 80 . The designs were to be selected by the Mint Director , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury .
= = Preparation = =
Once the bill passed , Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber took personal charge of the project , seeking to avoid the delays and disputes that had marked the two previous commemoratives , the Columbian half dollar and the Isabella quarter . On March 24 , 1899 , Mint Director George E. Roberts wrote in a letter that the Lafayette Memorial Commission was contemplating having , on one side of the coin , a representation of the new monument . Barber responded the following day to Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Henry Boyer , referencing that letter and asking for a sketch of the monument .
By April 12 , 1899 , the chief engraver had obtained from commission secretary Thompson a preliminary sketch of the monument — an equestrian statue by Paul Bartlett . Barber sketched other designs , including one with Lafayette 's 1784 prayer for the prosperity of the United States . He also created one showing a standing figure of Lafayette , based on a statement by Thompson that they might omit the horse . Barber 's concepts showing an equestrian statue for one side , and jugate heads of Lafayette and Washington for the other , would form the basis for the eventual coin . Roberts quickly approved Barber 's sketch of the two heads , and without consulting the commission leaked the information to the American Journal of Numismatics , which printed it in its April 1899 issue .
On May 23 , 1899 , Barber wrote to Roberts that he planned to base the Washington bust ( on the obverse ) on the well @-@ known 1785 bust of the first president by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , and upon an early medallic use of the Houdon bust , the 1786 " Washington Before Boston " medal by Pierre @-@ Simon @-@ Benjamin Duvivier . The Lafayette bust ( also on the obverse ) was to be based on a 1824 medal of Lafayette by François @-@ Augustin Caunois .
Peck and other commission members were not satisfied with the design proposals , and suggested some of their own . Barber denigrated these in a letter to Roberts on June 8 . Peck had proposed that only the faces of Washington and Lafayette be shown , with no depiction of the rest of the head . Barber stated , " I am of the opinion that the heads of Washington and Lafayette should be treated from the sculptor 's standpoint , and every effort be made to represent them with a grandeur and dignity commensurate with the position they fill in the Nation 's history , which certainly could not be done if they are to be shown peeping out of a half moon . " At the instructions of Roberts , Barber went to New York and met with Peck over two days on June 14 and 15 . Afterwards , Barber reported to the Mint Director , " I think we will hear no more of the Lafayette prayer " and that Peck now appreciated that the space available for a design , even on a silver dollar ( the largest US coin ) was limited , " and as it is the desire of the Committee [ commission ] to have the monument displayed , the prayer will have to find some other place " . Although Barber indicated that the decision of the commission to represent the statue without its pedestal represented progress toward the point where he might engrave dies , " I learned in New York that the work of the sculptor must be submitted to a committee in Paris who will have entire charge of the monument , and the sculptor 's work has to be changed in any and every detail until it meets the approval of this Committee of Frenchmen ... to me it looks as if it might be sometime in 1900 . "
On June 20 , 1899 , Barber submitted the final designs for the coin . They were approved by Director Roberts on July 1 . This did not put an end to the wrangles over what should be on the coin : the commission wished to have the coins dated 1900 , but have them to sell as early as possible in 1899 . Secretary of the Treasury Lyman Gage insisted on the provision of the Coinage Act of 1873 that required the date of production to appear on the coins . In the end , the matter was compromised : the pieces were struck in December 1899 , not distributed until the following month , and the inscription " Paris 1900 " appears on the coins .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the Lafayette dollar features jugate , or conjoined , heads of Washington and Lafayette . Slabaugh noted Barber 's account that the busts were based on the sculpture by Houdon and the medal by Caunois , but , " possibly these did have some effect on the design but it has always been my belief that the immediate source or idea for the design was the Yorktown Centennial medal of 1881 . " Swiatek and Breen contended that although the ultimate ancestor of Barber 's depiction of Washington was the Houdon bust , the source of the Lafayette bust and the format of the obverse " was beyond doubt Peter L. Krider 's Yorktown Centennial Medal ( 1881 ) " . Krider , a Philadelphia engraver not employed by the Mint , issued a number of tokens and medals in the 1870s and 1880s . " United States of America " and " Lafayette Dollar " appear at the top and bottom of the obverse of the coin .
The reverse is based on an early sketch of the statue of Lafayette by Bartlett . It depicts a mounted statue of Lafayette , riding left . Barber 's monogram does not appear on the coin , but the name " Bartlett " is inscribed on the base of the statue . Also on the base , and extending below it , is a palm branch . The reverse inscription , " Erected by the youth of the United States in honor of Gen Lafayette / Paris 1900 " is a tribute to the school fundraising efforts that took place in 1898 . Swiatek and Breen pointed out that even if one grants that the 1900 date was intended to be that of the exposition and the erection of the statue , the coins would still violate the 1873 act , that required the date of mintage to appear on the coins , and thus " the Lafayette dollars are technically undated and therefore illegal ! "
On the reverse , Lafayette holds a sword , extended upwards . Bartlett described the version of the statue that Barber worked from : " Lafayette is represented in the statue as a fact and a symbol , offering his sword and services to the American colonists in the cause of liberty . He appears as the emblem of the aristocratic and enthusiastic sympathy shown by France to our forefathers . " Swiatek and Breen noted , " We may take Lafayette 's pose on the statue , as depicted on the coin , to represent him in triumphal procession rather than charging against the enemy — note his sheathed sword , like a Highland pipe major 's baton , serving as a standard rather than brandished unsheathed as a weapon . "
Barber 's design for the Lafayette dollar has often been criticized . Swiatek and Breen complained about the " lifeless head of the President [ Washington ] " . Q. David Bowers stated that " the shallow relief of Barber 's work is but a travesty of Krider 's extremely detailed high @-@ relief artistry " . According to Don Taxay , " When one compares Barber 's portraits to those by Du Vivier [ sic ] and Caunois , it is clear why [ sculptor and Barber enemy ] Saint @-@ Gaudens used to refer contemptuously to the " commercial medalists of the Mint " . The difference here is not merely in the relief , but in elementary modeling skill . " Art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that , " the Lafayette dollar lacks the quaint , dated appeal of the Isabella quarter or the amusing originality of the Columbian half @-@ dollar . Despite the necessity for low relief the jugate busts are too linear . The reverse suffers from too much lettering of uniform size . The words ' Paris 1900 ' might have been enough ; at most , the addition of ' From the Youth of the United States ' would have conveyed the matter . "
= = Production and aftermath = =
All Lafayette dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on December 14 , 1899 , the centennial of the death of George Washington . The Philadelphia Public Ledger reported ,
Present at this small Lafayette dollar ceremony were several Mint officials , members of the Lafayette Memorial Commission and a few members of the press . After Miss Gleary [ the coining press operator ] removed the first Lafayette dollar struck , she presented it to Mint Superintendent Henry Boyer . Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber then inspected it . It was then shown to Robert J. Thompson , secretary of the Memorial Commission , and then given to Director of the Mint George E. Roberts . It was placed in a coin or medal case and brought back to Washington , D.C. , by Mr. Roberts , to be given to President William McKinley . The coin was then to be sent in an elaborate $ 1 @,@ 000 presentation case , to be given to the president of the French Republic .
Once the ceremony at the Philadelphia Mint had concluded , striking of the Lafayette dollar continued on an older coinage press capable of minting eighty pieces per minute , or 4 @,@ 800 per hour . A total of 50 @,@ 026 pieces were struck , including 26 coins laid aside for inspection and testing at the 1900 meeting of the United States Assay Commission .
The first Columbian half dollar had been sold for $ 10 @,@ 000 . An offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 was made but declined for the first Lafayette dollar to be struck , which was designated for presentation to the French president . Thompson , designated a special commissioner of the United States for the purpose , took the casket to France aboard the S.S. La Champagne . The ceremony was originally scheduled for February 22 , 1900 ( Washington 's Birthday ) , but was not held until March 3 , when Thompson presented the casket and coin to French President Émile Loubet . The two objects are now in the Louvre .
The commission was plagued by a number of financial difficulties . In January 1900 , sculptor Charles Henry Niehaus questioned why $ 150 @,@ 000 was the fundraising target of the commission , as no equestrian statue had ever cost more than half that . The commission was sued by architect Henry Hornbostel , demanding fees for designing a pedestal for Bartlett 's statue . The out @-@ of @-@ court settlement reimbursed him for his expenses .
The commission was tardy in giving the final order for the statue to Bartlett , so late that it was impossible to have the final bronze piece ready in time ; a one @-@ third model was only completed in May . According to Q. David Bowers , " the French are at home in such problems . " The commission was able to have a full @-@ sized plaster model ready by July 4 by sawing the scale model in pieces and distributing them to various workshops , that made enlargements in plaster . Brought together , the plaster pieces fitted perfectly . This assembly was ceremoniously dedicated in the Place du Carrousel on July 4 , 1900 . Afterwards , Bartlett was dissatisfied with certain aspects of the design , and changed them . His bronze statue erected there in 1908 differs considerably from the statue depicted on the coin . Changes made included the elimination of Lafayette 's three @-@ cornered hat , and the position of the raised arm and sword . The statue stood there for almost eighty years , but was displaced in the 1980s during the excavations for I. M. Pei 's glass pyramid at the Louvre . It now stands on Cours @-@ la @-@ Reine in Paris , along the River Seine .
Once the coins were minted , the commission began sales at $ 2 each . After February 1900 , when the commission moved its offices from Chicago to Paris , sales were handled by the American Trust & Savings Bank of Chicago . Only small numbers were sold to coin collectors . Sales , conducted through the bank , continued for several years . Prices initially dropped on the secondary market — the pieces could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 10 in 1903 — and thousands may have been released into circulation , or were spent by purchasers in hard times . By 1920 , the market price passed the original issue price , and thereafter prices rose steadily , reaching $ 3 @.@ 50 by 1930 , $ 5 at the height of the commemorative coin boom in July 1936 , $ 13 by 1950 , $ 55 by 1960 , and $ 650 by 1975 .
Fourteen thousand pieces were returned to the Treasury , and were held in $ 1 @,@ 000 sacks . This followed poor sales of the new coin in Paris — only 1 @,@ 800 sold there ; some 10 @,@ 000 were returned to the United States . They were held for many years . In 1945 , Omaha coin dealer Aubrey Beebe learned about the coins from government records and enquired , only to be told that the coins had been recently melted .
The Lafayette dollar is the first American coin to depict a US citizen . After the Lafayette piece , the Mint did not again strike a commemorative silver dollar until the 1983 @-@ S Los Angeles Olympics dollar .
= = Collecting = =
In 1925 , numismatist George H. Clapp discovered a Lafayette dollar that slightly differed from published descriptions . He researched the matter further over the following decade , and discovered two additional varieties . These exist because multiple dies , for both obverse and reverse , were used in striking the Lafayette piece , and the dies were not identical . Swiatek , writing in 2012 , noted a fifth die combination he had discovered , and examined images of hundreds of Lafayette dollars he owned or that were on the Internet . He reported that two varieties combined for more than 90 % of the specimens , with the remaining ones much rarer . Because of this , he speculated that the dollars were struck on at least two machines , not one as usually reported , with the rarer varieties the result of replacement dies being inserted as the original ones wore out . The differences are minor ( for example , whether the M in " America " is raised or even with the A that precedes it on the obverse , and details of the palm branch on the reverse ) and the coin is rarely collected by die type , meaning that little premium value attaches to the less common varieties .
R.S. Yeoman 's 2014 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the Lafayette dollar at $ 650 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) ranging upwards to $ 19 @,@ 000 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . One in MS @-@ 67 condition , tied with multiple others for the best condition known , sold in 2004 for $ 66 @,@ 700 . Most Lafayette dollars display contact marks from other coins as the pieces were mechanically ejected from the press into a hopper and no attempt was made to preserve their appearance for collectors . Although whether the specimen is well @-@ struck or not rarely affects value , clearly struck specimens will show the engraving line separating Lafayette 's boot from the rest of his uniform , and details of the lower part of his clothing will also be distinct . The highest points on the coin , at which wear should be most apparent , are Washington 's cheekbone on the obverse and the face of Lafayette on the reverse .
The coin has been counterfeited from time to time . Various techniques have also been used to make genuine specimens shinier to deceive collectors , including polishing , a process that damages their surfaces and patina .
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= Solaris ( 1972 film ) =
Solaris ( Russian : Солярис , tr . Solyaris ) is a 1972 Soviet science fiction art film adaptation of Polish author Stanisław Lem 's novel Solaris ( 1961 ) . The film was co @-@ written and directed by Andrei Tarkovsky . The film is a meditative psychological drama occurring mostly aboard a space station orbiting the fictional planet Solaris . The scientific mission has stalled because the skeleton crew of three scientists have fallen into separate emotional crises . Psychologist Kris Kelvin travels to the Solaris space station to evaluate the situation only to encounter the same mysterious phenomena as the others .
The original science fiction novel is about the ultimate inadequacy of communication between humans and other species . Tarkovsky 's adaptation is a " drama of grief and partial recovery " concentrated upon the thoughts and the consciences of the cosmonaut scientists studying Solaris ' mysterious ocean . In loyalty to the novel 's complex and slow @-@ paced narrative , Tarkovsky wanted to bring a new emotional and intellectual depth to the genre , viewing most of western science fiction as shallow . The ideas which Tarkovsky tried to express in this film are further developed in Stalker ( 1979 ) .
The critically successful Solaris features Natalya Bondarchuk ( Hari ) , Donatas Banionis ( Kris Kelvin ) , Jüri Järvet ( Dr Snaut ) , Vladislav Dvorzhetsky ( Henri Berton ) , Nikolai Grinko ( Kris Kelvin 's Father ) , Olga Barnet ( Kris Kelvin 's Mother ) , Anatoli Solonitsyn ( Dr Sartorius ) , and Sos Sargsyan ( Dr Gibarian ) ; the music is by Johann Sebastian Bach and Eduard Artemyev . At the 1972 Cannes Film Festival , it won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury , the FIPRESCI prize and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . The film is often cited as one of the greatest science fiction films in the history of cinema .
= = Plot = =
Psychologist Kris Kelvin ( Donatas Banionis ) spends his last day on Earth reflecting on his life while walking by a lake near his childhood home where his elderly father still resides . Kelvin is about to embark on an interstellar journey to a space station orbiting the remote oceanic planet Solaris . After decades of study , the scientific mission at the space station has barely progressed . The crew is sending confusing messages . Kelvin is dispatched to evaluate the situation aboard the ship and determine whether the venture should continue .
Henri Berton ( Vladislav Dvorzhetsky ) , a former space pilot , visits Kelvin . They watch film footage of Berton 's own testimony years before of seeing a four @-@ meter @-@ tall child on the ocean surface of Solaris while searching for two lost scientists . However , the cameras of his craft recorded only clouds and the flat ocean surface ; Berton 's report was dismissed as hallucinations . After failing to convince Kelvin of the reality of his experience , Berton angrily departs , only to contact Kelvin later via videophone from his private car . He explains that he met the child of a scientist lost on that mission , and the child was like a much smaller version of the one he had seen on Solaris .
Before departing Earth for Solaris , Kelvin destroys most of his personal mementos in a bonfire , noting the volume of keepsakes he has accumulated . In Kelvin 's last conversation with his father ( Nikolai Grinko ) , they realize that the father will probably not live to see Kelvin return . Although he readily accepted the mission , it is a choice that weighs heavily upon Kelvin 's conscience .
Upon his arrival at Solaris Station , a scientific research station hovering above the oceanic surface of the planet Solaris , none of the three remaining scientists bother to greet Kelvin , who finds the disarrayed space station dangerously neglected . He soon learns that his friend among the scientists , Dr. Gibarian ( Sos Sargsyan ) , had killed himself . The two surviving crewmen are uncooperative and evasive . Kelvin soon glimpses other people aboard the station , not supposed to be there . Upon entering the late Gibarian 's room , Kelvin finds a rambling cryptic farewell video message from Gibarian addressed to him .
Waking exhausted from a restless sleep , Kelvin finds a woman with him in his quarters despite the barricaded door . To his surprise , it is Hari ( Natalya Bondarchuk ) , his late wife who committed suicide some years before . She is unaware of what has happened or how she got there . Terrified by her presence , he lures her into a space capsule and launches the replica of his wife into outer space . In his haste to be rid of her he is scorched by the rocket 's blast . Dr. Snaut tends to his burns and explains that the " visitors " began appearing after the scientists attracted the attention of Solaris , seemingly a sentient entity .
That evening , Hari reappears in his quarters . This time Kelvin calmly accepts her presence and embraces Hari throughout the night . Kelvin later causes her to panic by suddenly leaving the room and shutting the door behind him . She hysterically tears her way through the room 's metal door , severely cutting herself . Before he can give first aid , her injuries heal before his eyes . Dr. Sartorius ( Anatoli Solonitsyn ) calls for a meeting , and Kelvin introduces Hari as his wife . In their symposium , the scientists begin to understand that Solaris created Hari from Kelvin 's memories of his dead wife . The Hari present among them , though not human , thinks and feels as though she were . Sartorius theorizes that the visitors are composed of " neutrino systems " but that it might still be possible to destroy them through use of an offscreen device known as " the annihilator " .
Kelvin shows Hari films of himself and his parents when he was a boy and , later , of his wife . While she is asleep , Snaut proposes beaming Kelvin 's brainwave patterns at Solaris in hopes that it will understand them and stop the disturbing apparitions as communication . However , Sartorius suggests a radical attack of heavy radiation bombardment . In time , Hari becomes independent and is able to exist away from Kelvin 's presence . She learns from Sartorius that the original Hari had committed suicide ten years earlier , and Kelvin is forced to tell her the entire story . Sartorius , Snaut , Kelvin and Hari gather together for a birthday party which turns into a philosophical argument during which Sartorius tells Hari that she is not human , but a mere copy . Distressed , Hari kills herself again by drinking liquid oxygen , only to painfully , spasmodically resurrect a few minutes later . On the surface of Solaris , the ocean is moving even faster .
Kelvin goes to sleep only to wake up agitated and running a fever and gives a monologue to Snaut on the subject of suffering and universal love , then falls asleep again . He dreams of his mother as a young woman , caring for him and expressing her worry concerning Kelvin 's emotional state . When he awakens , Hari is gone , and Snaut reads him the farewell note she left behind . The note indicates that Hari petitioned the two scientists to destroy her . Snaut tells Kelvin that since they broadcast Kelvin 's brainwaves at Solaris , the visitors stopped appearing and islands began forming on the planet 's surface . Kelvin debates whether or not to return to Earth or to descend to Solaris in hopes of reconnecting with everything he has loved and lost .
Again at the shore of the frozen lake , Kelvin finds himself at his father 's house . His dog runs to him , and he happily walks towards it . He realizes something is peculiar , however , when he sees that his father seems oblivious to the fact that it 's raining inside the house . Father and son embrace on the front step of the lakeside house which the camera zooms out to reveal is located on an island in the middle of an ocean on the planet Solaris .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
In 1968 , the director Andrei Tarkovsky had two motives for cinematically adapting the Polish science fiction novel , Solaris ( 1961 ) , by Stanisław Lem : firstly , he admired Lem 's work . Secondly , he needed work and money , because his previous film , Andrei Rublev ( 1966 ) had gone unreleased , and his screenplay , A White , White Day , had been rejected ( even though in 1975 it would be realised as The Mirror ) . A film of a novel by Stanisław Lem , a popular and critically respected writer in the USSR , was a logical commercial and artistic choice . Tarkovsky and Lem collaborated and remained in communication about the cinematic adaptation of the novel Solaris . With Fridrikh Gorenshtein , Tarkovsky co @-@ wrote the first screenplay in the Summer of 1969 ; two @-@ thirds of it occurred on Earth . The Mosfilm committee disliked it and Lem got furious over this unacceptably drastic alteration of his novel . The final screenplay yielded the shooting script which has less action on Earth , and Kelvin 's marriage to his second wife , Maria , was deleted from the story .
In the literary Solaris , Lem describes science 's inadequacy in allowing humans to communicate with an alien life form , because certain forms , at least , of sentient extra @-@ terrestrial life may operate well outside of human experience and understanding . In the cinematic Solaris , Tarkovsky concentrates upon Kelvin 's feelings for his wife , Hari , and the impact of outer space exploration upon the human condition . Dr. Gibarian 's monologue [ from the novel 's sixth chapter ] is the highlight of the final library scene , wherein Snaut says , " We don 't need other worlds . We need mirrors " . Unlike the novel , which begins with psychologist Kris Kelvin 's spaceflight , and occurs entirely on Solaris , the film shows Kelvin 's visit to his parents ' house in the country before leaving Earth for Solaris . The contrast establishes the worlds in which he lives – a vibrantly living Earth versus an austere , closed @-@ in space station orbiting the planet Solaris – demonstrating and questioning space exploration 's impact upon the human psyche .
The set design of Solaris features paintings by the Old Masters . The interior of the space station is decorated with full reproductions of the 1565 painting cycle of The Months ( The Hunters in the Snow , The Gloomy Day , The Hay Harvest , The Harvesters , and The Return of the Herd ) , by Pieter Brueghel the Elder , and details of Landscape with the Fall of Icarus and The Hunters in the Snow ( 1565 ) . The scene of Kelvin kneeling before his father and the father embracing him alludes to The Return of the Prodigal Son ( 1669 ) , by Rembrandt . The references and allusions are Tarkovsky 's efforts to give the young art of cinema a historic perspective of centuries , to evoke the viewer 's feeling that cinema is a mature art .
The film references Tarkovsky 's earlier 1966 film Andrei Rublev by having an icon by Andrei Rublev being placed in Kelvin 's room . It thus forms the second part , together with Tarkovsky 's next film The Mirror which was made in 1975 and which references Andrei Rublev by having a poster of the film being hanged on a wall , in a series of three films by Tarkovsky referencing Andrei Rublev .
= = = The cast = = =
Initially , Tarkovsky wanted his ex @-@ wife , Irma Raush , as Hari . After meeting Swedish actress Bibi Andersson in June 1970 , however , he decided that she was a better actress for the role . Wishing to work with Tarkovsky , Andersson accepted her salary in rubles . Nevertheless , Natalya Bondarchuk was ultimately cast as Hari . Tarkovsky had met her when they were students at the State Institute of Cinematography . It was she who had introduced the novel , Solaris to him . Tarkovsky auditioned her in 1970 but decided she was too young for the part . He instead recommended her to director Larisa Shepitko who cast her in You and I. Half @-@ a @-@ year later , Tarkovsky screened that film and was so pleasantly surprised by her performance that he decided to cast Natalya Bondarchuk as Hari after all .
Tarkovsky cast Lithuanian actor Donatas Banionis as Kris Kelvin , the Estonian actor Jüri Järvet as Dr. Snaut , the Russian actor Anatoly Solonitsyn as Dr. Sartorius , the Ukrainian actor Nikolai Grinko as Kelvin 's father , and Olga Barnet as Kelvin 's mother . Earlier , the director had worked with Solonitsyn , who had played Andrei Rublev ( 1966 ) , and with Nikolai Grinko , who appeared in Andrei Rublev and Ivan 's Childhood ( 1962 ) . Tarkovsky thought Solonitsyn and Grinko would need extra directorial assistance . After filming was almost completed , Tarkovsky rated actors and performances thus : Bondarchuk , Järvet , Solonitsyn , Banionis , Dvorzhetsky , and Grinko ; yet wrote in his diary that “ Natalya B. has outshone everybody ” .
= = = Filming = = =
In the summer of 1970 , the USSR State Committee for Cinematography ( Goskino SSSR ) authorized the production of Solaris , with a length of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) , equivalent to a two @-@ hour @-@ twenty @-@ minute running time . The exteriors were photographed at Zvenigorod , near Moscow ; the interiors were photographed at the Mosfilm studios . The scenes of space pilot Berton driving through a city were photographed in Japan , in September and October 1971 , at Akasaka and Iikura in Tokyo . The original plan was to film futuristic structures at the World Expo ' 70 but the trip was delayed . The shooting began in March 1971 with cinematographer Vadim Yusov who also photographed Tarkovky 's previous films . They quarreled so much on this film that they ended up never working together again . The first version of Solaris was completed in December 1971 .
The Earth , the sensual source of life , and the sterile space station orbiting the planet Solaris , are contrasted with lively images of underwater plants , fire , snow , rain and other natural phenomena . A similar contrast appears at story 's end on Solaris with Kelvin 's " Winter " visit to his father 's house , featuring a frozen pond surrounded by bare trees . The dead scenery of this island on Solaris contrasts with the earlier , Summer pond scenes of long @-@ bladed green grasses or ferns gently floating in the water current underneath blooming trees . The Solaris ocean was created with acetone , aluminium powder , and dyes . Mikhail Romadin designed the space station as lived @-@ in , beat @-@ up and decrepit rather than shiny , neat and futuristic . The designer and director consulted with scientist and aerospace engineer Lupichev , who lent them a 1960s @-@ era mainframe computer for set decoration . For some of the sequences , Romadin designed a mirror room which enabled the cameraman , Yusov , to hide within a mirrored sphere so as to be invisible in the finished film . Akira Kurosawa , who was visiting the Mosfilm studios just then , expressed admiration for the space station design .
In January 1972 , the State Committee for Cinematography requested editorial changes before releasing Solaris . These included a more realistic film with a clearer image of the future and deletion of allusions to God and Christianity . Tarkovsky successfully resisted such major changes , and after a few minor edits Solaris was approved for release in March 1972 .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack of Solaris features the chorale prelude for organ , Ich ruf ' zu dir , Herr Jesu Christ ( BWV 639 ) , by Johann Sebastian Bach , and an electronic score by Eduard Artemyev . The prelude is the central musical theme of Solaris . Tarkovsky initially wanted the film to be devoid of music and asked composer Artemyev to orchestrate ambient sounds as a musical score . The latter proposed subtly introducing orchestral music . In counterpoint to classical music as Earth 's theme is fluid electronic music as the theme for the planet Solaris . The character of Hari has her own subtheme , a cantus firmus based upon J. S. Bach 's music featuring Artemyev 's composition atop it ; it is heard at Hari 's death and at story 's end .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Solaris premiered at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival and won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . In the USSR , the film premiered in the Mir film theater in Moscow on February 5 , 1973 . Tarkovsky did not consider the Mir cinema the best projection venue . Despite the film 's narrow release in only five film theaters in the USSR , the film nevertheless sold 10 @.@ 5 million tickets . Unlike the vast majority of commercial and ideological films in the 1970s , Solaris was screened in the USSR in limited runs for 15 years without any breaks , giving it cult status . In the Eastern Bloc and in the West , Solaris premiered later . In the United States , a version of Solaris that was truncated by 30 minutes premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on October 6 , 1976 .
Although Stanisław Lem worked with Tarkovsky and Friedrich Gorenstein in developing the screenplay , Lem maintained that he " never really liked Tarkovsky 's version " of his novel . Tarkovsky wanted a film story based on the novel but artistically independent of its origin . However , Lem opposed any divergence of the screenplay from the novel . Lem went as far as to say that Tarkovsky made Crime and Punishment rather than Solaris , omitting epistemological and cognitive aspects of his book . Tarkovsky claimed that Lem did not fully appreciate cinema and that he expected the film to merely illustrate the novel without creating an original cinematic piece . Tarkovsky 's film is about the inner lives of its scientists as human beings . Lem 's novel is about the conflicts of man 's condition in nature and the nature of man in the universe . For Tarkovsky , Lem 's exposition of that existential conflict was the starting point for describing the inner lives of the characters .
In the autobiographical documentary Voyage in Time ( 1983 ) , Tarkovsky says he viewed Solaris as an artistic failure because his film did not transcend genre as he believed his film Stalker ( 1979 ) did due to the required technological dialogue and special effects . M. Galina in the 1997 article Identifying Fears called this film " one of the biggest events in the Soviet science fiction cinema " and one of the few works that does not seem anachronistic nowadays .
A list of " The 100 Best Films of World Cinema " compiled by Empire magazine in 2010 ranked Tarkovsky 's Solaris at No. 68 . In 2002 , Steven Soderbergh wrote and directed an American adaptation of Solaris , which starred George Clooney .
Salman Rushdie calls Solaris " a sci @-@ fi masterpiece " , and has urged that : " This exploration of the unreliability of reality and the power of the human unconscious , this great examination of the limits of rationalism and the perverse power of even the most ill @-@ fated love , needs to be seen as widely as possible before it 's transformed by Steven Soderbergh and James Cameron into what they ludicrously threaten will be 2001 meets Last Tango in Paris . ' What , sex in space with floating butter ? Tarkovsky must be turning over in his grave . "
Film critic Roger Ebert compared the 2011 film Another Earth with Solaris by noting that Another Earth " is as thought @-@ provoking , in a less profound way , than Tarkovsky 's Solaris , another film about a sort of parallel Earth . "
In an example of life imitating art , Natalya Bondarchuk ( Hari ) revealed in a 2010 interview that she fell in love with Tarkovsky during the filming of Solaris and , after their relationship ended , became suicidal . She claims her decision was partly influenced by her role as such a woman in the film " Solaris " .
The film was selected for screening as part of the Cannes Classics section at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival .
= = Home media = =
Solaris was released on LaserDisc in Japan 1986 , in the U.S in 1998 , and again in Japan in 1999 . All three editions were in widescreen .
On May 24 , 2011 , The Criterion Collection released Solaris on Blu @-@ ray Disc . The most noticeable difference from the previous 2002 Criterion DVD release was that the blue and white tinted monochrome scenes from the film were restored .
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= Leonard W. Murray =
Rear Admiral Leonard Warren Murray , CB , CBE ( 22 June 1896 – 25 November 1971 ) was an officer of the Royal Canadian Navy who played a significant role in the Battle of the Atlantic . He commanded the Newfoundland Escort Force from 1941 – 1943 , and from 1943 to the end of the war was Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Canadian Northwest Atlantic . He was the only Canadian to command an Allied theatre of operations during World War I or World War II .
= = Early years to the end of World War I = =
Leonard Warren Murray was born at Granton , Nova Scotia on 22 June 1896 . His father Simon Dickson Murray ( 1859 – 1936 ) was a direct descendant of the Scottish immigrants who travelled to Pictou County on the Hector in 1773 , and his mother was Jane Falconer ( 1868 – 1968 ) . Simon was mid @-@ level manager in various enterprises in Pictou Landing , and Leonard grew up close to the water . At 14 years of age , Murray left Pictou Academy to join the first intake of 21 recruits into the Royal Naval College of Canada in Halifax , which had just been created by the Naval Service Act of 4 May 1910 .
" The first winter at the naval college was absolute hell , we had no uniforms , we arrived in what we stood up in and had to send home for further clothing . A case of measles broke out very shortly and we were quarantined , and the only time we got out of the college was when we went to the skating rink to play hockey ; and that was a great relief . " - Admiral Murray .
Immediately after graduating in January 1913 , he served as a Midshipman on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Berwick on duty protecting British interests in the Mexican Revolution , and then aboard HMS Essex . At the outbreak of World War I he was assigned to the protected cruiser HMCS Niobe , the largest ship in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War I. Four of his classmates were sent to the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Good Hope and were killed off the coast of South America on 1 November 1914 at the Battle of Coronel – thereby becoming the first Canadian @-@ service casualties of World War I. Murray served briefly as Flotilla Gunnery Officer on HMCS Margaret and then in February 1916 was promoted to Sub @-@ Lieutenant while aboard HMCS Rainbow . He spent the last two years of World War I as Assistant Navigating Officer on HMS Leviathan from January 1917 as Lieutenant , where he set up troop convoys across the Atlantic to outwit German U @-@ boats – invaluable experience for the Battle of the Atlantic more than 20 years later . Murray ended the war in the North Sea aboard HMS Agincourt , and witnessed the surrender of the German fleet at Scapa Flow .
= = Between the wars = =
After World War I , Murray served briefly on HMS Ithuriel , and then on the newly commissioned HMS Calcutta under the distinguished British Captain Percy Noble , from whom Murray learned the basic skills of command , and who eighteen years later served opposite Murray on the receiving end of the convoys as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Western Approaches Command . Following a short tour aboard HMS Crescent , Murray was assigned to HMS Aurora as Navigation Officer , until Aurora was paid off in 1921 due to naval budget cuts . Leonard married Jean Chaplin Scott in Westmount , Quebec on 10 October 1921 , and with the Royal Canadian Navy depleted of ships on which he could serve , at this point he considered a civilian career , in 1924 qualifying as master of a foreign @-@ going vessel . Deciding to remain with the armed forces , Murray joined many of his colleagues and spent the inter @-@ war years alternating between shore assignments as a training officer with the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve , and serving aboard Royal Navy vessels , which in Murray 's case included HMS Revenge ( during a tour in 1923 in Turkey where he befriended Lord Louis Mountbatten ) , and HMS Queen Elizabeth . Understandably , this provided Murray and his peers , including Percy W. Nelles , with a distinct anglophile and , in matters military , Royal Navy bias . In January 1925 , Murray was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ Commander and spent two years at the Royal Canadian Navy 's main training base at HMCS Stadacona . In 1927 , Murray returned to the UK where he did a tour aboard HMS Tiger and then spent 1928 studying at the Royal Naval Staff College at Greenwich . During a simulation exercise at the College , Murray broke new ground by planning large convoys - convoys that were regarded at the time as " almost suicidal " , but which had become normal by the time of the Battle of the Atlantic . Upon return to Canada in January 1929 , Murray was promoted to Commander and became the senior naval officer at CFB Esquimalt . In notes for a lecture to RMC Kingston in 1932 , his continuing interest in the offensive merit of convoys over patrols is evident :
" The institution of a system of convoy requires a reorientation of the protective forces . Instead of patrolling the focal areas [ where vessels congregate near ports or narrow passages ] , the group of ships forming the convoy is escorted by an armed escort capable of dealing with any possible scale of attack . This may mean that an increase in the protective force is necessary , but ... the protective force is more definite and concrete than in the patrolling method . In the convoy method ... it is not possible for an enemy to attack without laying herself open to attack and possible destruction " - Admiral Murray .
From June 1932 Murray was assigned for a year to Naval Service Headquarters in Ottawa as a Naval Staff Officer before setting back to sea for two years , leading the small fleet of East Coast destroyers from the bridge of his first operational command HMCS Saguenay . At this point , in mid @-@ 1934 , Murray was appointed to a new position of Senior Naval Officer , Halifax , a position that combined the Commander of the East Coast with the Command of the Naval Dockyard in Halifax . In June 1936 Murray was sent back to the UK to work in the Admiralty Operations Division , and in December 1936 he started his final tour with the Royal Navy serving as Executive Officer aboard the former battleship HMS Iron Duke , where he participated in the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review . In August 1938 , in the middle of a final year at the Imperial Defence College , Murray was promoted to Captain , and so it was that , on the eve of World War II when the Royal Navy was mobilized , Murray returned to Ottawa as a Captain , and Director Naval Operations and Training .
= = World War II and the Battle of the Atlantic = =
= = = 1939 @-@ 42 = = =
At the outbreak of World War II , he was appointed Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff . From this HQs position Murray played a key role in the build @-@ up of the Navy to its eventual wartime strength of approximately 332 vessels , including crossing Canada to recruit retired Royal Navy officers back into the Royal Canadian Navy , and advocating for the " small @-@ ship anti @-@ submarine " investment strategy that was eventually so successful . In March 1940 he made a secret visit to the UK to negotiate the construction of destroyers in the UK for the Royal Canadian Navy , and subsequently was a founding member of the Permanent Joint Board on Defence . It was while he was working for the PJBD that he renewed his friendship with Commander James " Chummy " Prentice , who was shortly thereafter assigned the position of Senior Officer , Canadian Corvettes under Murray . Both men would work closely together until the spring of 1944 . In October 1940 , he went back to sea briefly as Captain of HMCS Assiniboine and Commodore Commanding Halifax Force , effectively in command of the five Canadian warships that were dispatched to the UK in January 1941 to serve convoy duty . Back ashore in the UK , Murray was given the unusual title of Commodore Commanding Canadian Ships , and liaised closely with the Admiralty in the planning of an Atlantic strategy , including the resolution of jurisdictional matters relating to the Dominion of Newfoundland .
On return to Canada he was promoted to full Commodore on 31 May 1941 , and on 13 June 1941 he was put in charge of the Newfoundland Escort Force ( NEF ) based out of St John 's . This was the most important operational mandate given to a Royal Canadian Navy officer until that point , in full command of 6 Canadian destroyers , 7 British destroyers , and 21 corvettes , and with responsibility for convoy escort from New York out as far as the transfer point to UK escorts south of Iceland . In recognition of this increased role , Murray was subsequently appointed Rear Admiral on 2 December 1941 .
" Conditions were terrible that winter . Groups worked on a 35 day cycle which entailed 29 days away from St John ’ s , 27 days away from fresh bread , 25 days away from fresh meat , added to which at the northern end of their beat there was no sunlight to speak of in the winter . We had to revert to the old rations of Nelson ’ s time , barreled salt beef with lime juice or tomato juice to scare away scurvy " - Admiral Murray .
= = = The Saint Pierre and Miquelon " incident " = = =
While based in Newfoundland , Admiral Murray hosted a visit from the Free French Admiral Muselier . Acting on orders from the Admiralty , Murray gave Muselier temporary command of three French corvettes and a submarine that were assigned to Murray 's fleet , for passage to Halifax . On return from Halifax , Muselier took the vessels to Vichy @-@ controlled Saint Pierre and Miquelon , and on 24 December 1941 raised the Free French flag on the islands . This was interpreted as a territorial claim on behalf of General Charles de Gaulle , thereby creating a diplomatic incident between France , Canada and the United States . De Gaulle 's seizure of the archipelago was over the opposition of Canada , Great Britain , and the United States , which were concerned about pushing the Vichy government into an openly pro @-@ German stance .
Murray was later asked to account for his role in this adventure - but steadfastly claimed ( as did Muselier ) that he had no part in it . Nevertheless , in 1946 Murray was awarded the Legion d 'Honneur by the Government of France , for " eminent services rendered to the cause of Free France at the time of the rallying of the inhabitants of St Pierre and Miquelon " .
= = = 1942 @-@ 45 = = =
The NEF was reorganized in February 1942 as the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force ( MOEF ) . On 9 September 1942 , Murray was appointed to Commanding Officer Atlantic Coast , with his Headquarters in Halifax , and effective command over 322 armed ships . As a direct result of the Atlantic Convoy Conference of 1 – 12 March 1943 , where it was agreed that the US Navy would concentrate on the South Atlantic leaving Canada and the UK to cover the North Atlantic , on 1 April 1943 Murray was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Canadian Northwest Atlantic . Still headquartered in Halifax , thereafter he commanded all Allied air and naval forces involved in convoy protection between Canada and the coast of Ireland until the end of the war with Germany in 1945 .
In order to encourage the captains of the merchant ships of all countries which carry the lifeblood of the U.K. , I made it a point to attend the briefing conference of all captains and chief engineers before their departure . During the winter of ' 42- ' 43 , when sinkings were at their worst , I could see when I told them of the measures by escort and air cover that were being taken for their protection and safety ; I could see that they knew very well and that they knew I knew in spite of my brave words , that anything up to 25 per cent of them would probably not arrive in the U.K. in their own ships , and that probably half of that number would not arrive in the U.K. at all . But there was never a waver in their resolve - Admiral Murray .
A personal highlight of this period occurred on 14 September 1943 , when Murray gave an impromptu guided tour of Halifax to the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Churchill and his family , together with the First Sea Lord , boarded HMS Renown in Halifax harbour for their return voyage to the United Kingdom following consultations with US President Roosevelt . Murray was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1943 King 's Birthday Honours , and Companion of the Order of the Bath the following year .
As the Allies gained the upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic throughout 1943 and 1944 , attacks on convoys diminished and the amount of escort cover was reduced , but the hard work of planning and organizing convoys never ceased . By May 1944 , British participation in convoy escorts was withdrawn entirely , and Canada was left with sole responsibility until September 1944 . Murray 's moment of singular pride came in this period , when the largest convoy of World War II , HX 300 sailed for the UK via New York on 17 July 1944 , with 167 merchant ships ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 t ) ) . It arrived in the UK , without incident , on 3 August 1944 .
= = VE Day and early retirement = =
Admiral Murray was controversially blamed for allowing sailors shore leave in Halifax on VE Day , a decision that is generally considered to have contributed to the Halifax Riot of 7 – 8 May 1945 . James Lorimer Ilsley , the Acting Prime Minister of Canada , responded quickly to the situation and on 10 May appointed Justice Kellock to chair a Royal Commission into the disorders . On 12 May , Murray was abruptly removed from his command ; and the next day a separate Naval Board of Inquiry under Admiral Brodeur was appointed to investigate naval participation in the disorders . The Kellock Commission placed considerable blame upon the Navy and in particular upon the Admiral , for not having exercised better control over the sailors ' celebrations ashore . The Naval Inquiry 's findings were more balanced , finding that the riot was caused by several factors , including a failure in the naval command . Murray himself felt that responsibility lay mainly with the civil authorities of Halifax , and he was frustrated that the Kellock Commission effectively placed the Navy on trial without providing him or his officers with an opportunity to defend themselves . He asked for a court martial to clear his name , but this was never agreed . The Government made an attempt to leave the Admiral with his honour intact :
" It would be a regrettable thing if , resultant upon the Halifax disturbances , the truly great services of this officer and those under his command were to be forgotten by the people of Canada . "
But the Admiral was never assigned another command . Concluding that he was being held up as a scapegoat , and feeling bitter that the country and the Navy had abandoned him suddenly at the moment of the Navy 's greatest accomplishment , Murray left Canada for the United Kingdom in September 1945 , and officially retired from the Navy on 14 March 1946 .
= = Later years = =
Murray remained active in his retirement , qualifying as a lawyer on 17 November 1949 , and with his specialty in maritime law he represented the British government at the 1950 enquiry into the accidental sinking of SS Hopestar . He was involved with his local church , and served as a rural councillor as well as on school boards . His love of the sea was kept alive by keen membership in the Bar Yacht Club where he was racing Captain for ten years , and a leadership role with the Sea Scouts — coincidentally carried back to Canada where a Canadian Sea Cadet Corps in New Glasgow , near his home town , is named in his honour ( RCSCC 87 Admiral Murray ) . Murray stopped practising law in 1960 to care better for his ailing wife , who died in 1962 . Following a chance meeting on a Greek cruise , Leonard remarried on 23 August 1963 , in Buxton to an ophthalmic surgeon Antonina Schcheyteenin — who quickly came to be known as Nina Murray . He dabbled in British politics , becoming a member of the Conservative Party and ran unsuccessfully as a candidate in municipal council elections in Buxton in 1965 , before turning his attention to a spirited debate with the Canadian military establishment , the media and Prime Minister Pearson wherein he opposed the 1966 integration of the Canadian Armed Forces . Although clearly feeling that Canada had abandoned him following the Halifax Riot , Murray maintained his ties to Canada and last visited in 1970 , when he participated in the 25th anniversary celebrations of the Battle of the Atlantic .
= = Legacy = =
Leonard died peacefully in Buxton on 25 November 1971 , and his ashes were placed in St Paul 's Church in Halifax on 17 September 1972 . His memory lived on in the Royal Canadian Navy , where the Admiral L.W. Murray Trophy for Gunnery Proficiency was awarded annually at least until the early 1970s . Since his death , a number of commemorative steps have been taken , including the placing of a memorial in his honour in Pictou , a collection of his medals and related naval artifacts in the Canadian Naval Operations School ( CFNOS ) in Halifax , the naming of a Maritimes Branch of the Royal Canadian Naval Association , the renaming of Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps NEW GLASGOW in New Glasgow , Nova Scotia to Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps ADMIRAL MURRAY , and the naming of several naval buildings , including CFNOS building at CFB Halifax .
= = Quote = =
" Except for the few months at sea in Assiniboine , my war work was a solid slog , mostly at a desk , averaging 15 hours a day with frequently a full 24 . My job was to obtain the greatest possible result from relatively inexperienced personnel . There was little opportunity for anyone to step on another ’ s toes . They were spread too thinly and there was a more responsible job for each as soon as he felt confident of his ability to take it on . In the autumn of 1941 young volunteer reserve officers who had never seen salt water before the war took command of corvettes manned by 88 men — the number of white and black keys on a piano and each with his own peculiar note — and took their full part in the Battle of the Atlantic . Experience had taught me this : to find out what you ’ re capable of , it is only necessary to get a chance to do it — and someone else must have enough confidence in you to provide that chance . In my dealings with the young RCNVR captains I did my best to give them the opportunity to find their own feet and they did it . Once having tasted success they never looked back . What a blessing that we had the bright young peoples to accept this kind of responsibility " - Admiral Murray .
= = Honours and decorations = =
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= Lunar : The Silver Star =
Lunar : The Silver Star ( ルナ ザ ・ シルバースター , Runa Za Shirubā Sutā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Game Arts and Studio Alex for the Sega / Mega @-@ CD , originally published by Game Arts and released in Japan in 1992 . After a successful release , the game was translated and localized by Working Designs for release in North America the following year .
Designed as a " different kind of RPG " , Lunar : The Silver Star made use of the up @-@ and @-@ coming CD @-@ ROM format by featuring high quality audio , full motion video , and voice acting to narrate a fantasy story set in a magical world . The game centers on the exploits of Alex , a young boy from a small town who dreams of one day becoming a great hero like his idol , Dragonmaster Dyne . When a childish adventure later turns to discovering an ancient dragon , Alex and his friends must journey across the world to gather the necessary power to become the next Dragonmaster , and save the world in the process .
Lunar : The Silver Star was critically and commercially successful , becoming the number one selling Mega @-@ CD title in Japan and the second highest @-@ selling Mega @-@ CD title of all time . As the first game in the Lunar series , it set the standard for other follow @-@ up titles including the direct sequel Lunar : Eternal Blue in 1994 . Since the game 's original release , three enhanced remakes have been produced for various systems : Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete in 1996 , Lunar Legend in 2002 , and Lunar : Silver Star Harmony in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
Lunar : The Silver Star is a traditional , top @-@ down role @-@ playing video game featuring two @-@ dimensional characters and environments . The player must navigate towns , fields , and harsh environments to complete story @-@ based objectives that move the plot forward , as well as interact with non @-@ player characters to expand the script and gain various rewards . Making use of the Sega CD 's disc hardware capabilities , short video and audio interludes accompany the game 's narrative , including full or quarter @-@ screen animated images and CD @-@ DA sound files . Players record their progress by saving to either the Sega CD 's internal RAM , or a separately purchased RAM cartridge that fit into the accompanying Mega Drive / Genesis .
While traveling in the game 's world , players randomly encounter enemy monsters that must be defeated or avoided to progress . Battle sequences utilize a turn @-@ based approach , with the player and enemies acting in accordance with their " speed " rating . The player issues commands to each controlled character in their party , which are then carried out in sequence until the battle ends . While on the battlefield , players may choose to move their characters to attack the enemy , retreat into a corner , stand their ground , or flee the battle entirely , with characters only able to strike enemies if they are close enough to their target or use a ranged attack . Nall , a supporting character not directly involved in combat , is present throughout the game to analyze enemies before battles begin , gauging their relative strength to the player 's group . Players may find weapons , equipment , and assorted items during gameplay that increase the effectiveness of characters in battle , such as causing more damage to opponents and increasing their stamina . Winning battles grant experience points that go towards making characters stronger and able to battle progressively more difficult enemies . Upon defeat , a player may choose to load a previous save file , or restart their game at an automatically saved checkpoint .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game takes place in the fantasy land of Lunar , a small habitable world orbiting the massive , barren blue planet ( known as the Blue Star ) , forming a loose parallel between the game 's world and the Earth and its moon . Centuries before the start of the game , the Blue Star was rendered unlivable by years of war .. The powerful and benevolent goddess Althena relocated humanity to the Silver Star , the world of Lunar , and entrusted four dragons to safeguard the elements of the new world . From this point on , those who would use the power of the dragons to serve the goddess and protect the world were known as " Dragonmasters " , and no such Dragonmaster was more revered than Dyne , a legendary hero who defended the goddess and succumbed to an unknown fate . The stories surrounding Dyne 's exploits would form the life model for a young boy named Alex , the game 's protagonist and central character , who also aspires to become a Dragonmaster himself . Many of the locations of Lunar : The Silver Star were given a deliberate " northern " feel to present an environment that was cooler than the settings of most role @-@ playing games , if only to allow the characters to wear more clothing . Many towns and locations were based on areas of Russia and Medieval Europe .
= = = Characters = = =
The characters of Lunar : The Silver Star were designed by anime and manga artist Toshiyuki Kubooka . The main characters include Alex and his companions , each of which have their own reasons for joining his quest :
Alex - a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy from a small town with dreams of becoming an adventurer . Alex is a silent protagonist , typical for a Japanese RPG he never speaks in the game .
Nall - a small , winged creature resembling a white cat who has been with him since birth .
Luna - Alex 's childhood friend and love interest who has the unique ability to heal with music .
Ramus - son of the town mayor who dreams of one day opening his own shop , and begins Alex 's adventuring career by having him fetch a priceless diamond from a dragon 's cave .
Nash - a junior premier of the floating city of Vane , often prone to rash decisions and occasionally despair .
Mia - another junior premier of Vane , though much more reserved than Nash .
Kyle - a headstrong and womanizing bandit .
Jessica - a tomboyish daughter of a famous hero who is training to be a priestess .
Major supporting characters include the three surviving members of the Four Heroes , a legendary band of adventurers who aided Dragonmaster Dyne in protecting the Goddess Althena years before the game 's story , whose ranks include :
" Deadly " Mel D 'Alkirk , father of Jessica and mayor of the bustling city of Meribia .
Lemia Ausa , mother of Mia and head of Vane .
Ghaleon , powerful sorcerer and teacher of Nash who becomes the primary antagonist after assuming his alter ego , the Magic Emperor .
The party is aided by :
Laike , a powerful swordsman and expert adventurer who acts as a mentor to Alex and is later revealed to be Dragonmaster Dyne after losing his powers .
Tempest and Fresca , plains @-@ dwelling fighters who have their own reasons for helping Alex and his group .
Many of the character 's original Japanese names were altered for the game 's North American release , such as Killy to Kyle , Faidy to Quark , Temzin to Tempest , and Pilya to Fresca ; Mel 's original epithet , " Hell " Mel , was changed to " Deadly " for censorship reasons . A witch named Xenobia serves as a secondary antagonist and Ghaleon 's right hand servant .
= = = Story = = =
Much of the plot of Lunar : The Silver Star was written by novelist Kei Shigema , and involves a world of high fantasy and with emphasis on folklore and legend . The game begins in the small mountain town of Burg , where a young Alex frequently visits the monument to the fallen hero Dyne , his idol . At the behest of Ramus , eager son of the town mayor , Ramus and Alex embark on their first real adventure , with Alex 's adopted sister Luna and their talking flying pet Nall , to the mysterious Dragon 's Cave in search of a valuable diamond . Making their way through the cavern , the group meets Quark , an aged dragon who senses great potential in Alex , and urges him to complete the trials of other dragons to become the next Dragonmaster , champion of the Goddess Althena , and protector of the world . Quark shows an interest in Luna as well , remarking that she has a familiar aura about her . Obtaining the diamond from Quark , Ramus finds he cannot sell it in Burg , and must travel to the major trade city of Meribia to claim his fortune . The group then makes their way to Saith , a small port town to the south , where Luna leaves the group to stay with Alex 's family .
Across the ocean , Alex , Nall , and Ramus enter Meribia , where they meet one of the legendary Four Heroes , Mel . Attempting to sell his diamond , Ramus is swindled by a jewel dealer who flees into the sewers . After reclaiming it , Ramus slyly bargains the owner 's life for his entire shop , and leaves the group to pursue his dream of becoming rich . Alex and Nash depart for the city of Vane where they meet Mia , daughter of the city 's ruler and Nash 's love interest , who informs them of Ghaleon , head of the guild and former great hero who fought with Dyne years ago . Seemingly intrigued by Alex 's quest , Ghaleon sends Alex on a mission to investigate the appearance of a false Dragonmaster in a faraway town . Upon arrival , Alex meets Jessica , daughter of Mel and aspiring priestess , who helps him locate the imposter before returning to Vane . Pleased with his success , Ghaleon accompanies Alex back to his hometown to meet Quark and discuss Alex 's future , when he suddenly attacks , revealing himself as the Magic Emperor and seemingly kills Quark in a fit of rage . Citing the loss of his friend Dyne , who died protecting the Goddess , Ghaleon swears revenge on both she and her dragons and departs after kidnapping Luna . Distraught , Alex and Nall return to Meribia to find it under attack by a band of monsters under Ghaleon 's command . Regrouping with Jessica , the group fights back a wave of invaders before witnessing Mel turn to stone from a dark spell of Xenobia , Ghaleon 's top general . Wanting revenge , Jessica accompanies Alex to Vane , also under siege , and assists Nash and Mia with a similar invasion before they too join the group .
Realizing they must make Alex a Dragonmaster to confront Ghaleon and save Luna , the team heads to the border town of Nanza to enlist Kyle , Jessica 's boyfriend , in letting them cross into foreign land . After traveling to a town of inventors , the group obtains a floating device that leads them to the lair of the Red Dragon , who is seemingly destroyed by Ghaleon just before they arrive . The dragon 's spirit grants Alex her power before disappearing , and the group departs for the Blue Dragon 's cave behind a musical town . Again , the dragon is defeated before their arrival , and the team must travel to the distant and barren Frontier to seek the final trial . The party finds the black dragon , which attacks the team in a mad rage induced by Ghaleon but is defeated . With the final dragon 's blessing , Alex and his companions approach the construction site of Ghaleon 's mobile mechanical castle , the Grindery , but are unable to stop its advance before it destroys Vane using the power of Luna , who is revealed to be the human form of the Goddess Althena and who is under the Magic Emperor 's control . After obtaining Althena 's Sword and learning the truth about Luna , the party attacks the Grindery defeats both Xenobia and the Magic Emperor . Knowing what he must do to bring Luna back , Alex climbs the path to Luna , who , as Althena , continuously blasts him with lightning ; he plays his harp as he advances , and hearing their song allows Luna 's personality to return . She awakens in Alex 's arms , surrounded by their friends .
= = Development = =
Lunar : The Silver Star was developed by Game Arts in an attempt to create a role @-@ playing game that would both primarily focus on animation and storytelling . The team turned to scenario writer and novelist Kei Shigema to craft a story that would break away from " hum @-@ drum ' model ' " games that " had stories , but had no story @-@ telling " . Using the Sega CD 's video playback capabilities , animator and artist Toshiyuki Kubooka oversaw the planning of several video sequences that would be coupled with voice @-@ overs to better tell the story of the Lunar world . Settling on an overall fantasy approach as opposed to the popular role @-@ playing alternative of science fiction , the team wanted to explore the mythos and history of a fictional world that would gradually reveal itself to the player over time . Having mostly developed side @-@ scrollers and scrolling shooters for the Mega Drive and PC Engine , Game Arts formed its subsidiary company , Studio Alex , named for the main character of this title , to oversee most of the game 's development . Due to time constraints , nearly one @-@ third of the Lunar project was scrapped by the game 's release .
Lunar 's English version was handled by Working Designs , a small California @-@ based publisher who had previously localized smaller games for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 and TurboDuo . Their biggest project yet , the team , headed by company vice president and chief writer Victor Ireland , took to the project seriously , often collaborating with the original Japanese team themselves . New gameplay elements were often added at Ireland 's request , including new sequences such as playing Alex 's harp to awaken Luna near the end of the game . Working Designs also put extra effort into the game 's packaging , giving the instruction booklet embossed lettering , and having seven separate stamps , each with different artwork , produced for the front of the game discs to increase collection value .
The English script was nearly four megabytes in size , yet Working Designs completed the translation in only eight weeks after a marathon programming session . During translation , the developers did find time to inject some of their own humor in to the game 's text , dropping in sentences such as Have you ever tried swimming in lemon jello ? , and numerous light @-@ hearted pop culture references not seen in the original version , including allusions to American commercials , celebrities , colloquialisms , products , and role @-@ playing game clichés .
= = Audio = =
The music for Lunar : The Silver Star was composed by Noriyuki Iwadare , Hiroshi Fujioka , Isao Mizoguchi , and Yoshiaki Kubodera , who utilized the Sega CD 's sound capabilities to create CD @-@ quality CD @-@ DA . The game features the opening theme " Lunar " , performed by Mayumi Sudou in the original Japanese version . The untitled English version is a slightly arranged piece performed by vocalist Shiya Almeda which features new lyrics by Victor Ireland , who intended the song to sound less " lovey @-@ dovie " with a greater " sense of urgency " .
The Lunar : The Silver Star Original Soundtrack was released exclusively in Japan by Toshiba @-@ EMI Records on April 22 , 1992 , two months before the actual release of the game . The album features full versions of the Japanese opening and ending themes , as well as karaoke arrangements . Most of the game 's background themes are presented as multi @-@ song medleys rather than separate tracks . Although an official North American version was never released , many of the songs present on the album were featured as special arrangements on the bonus soundtrack found in the Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete collector 's edition , including the English opening theme .
= = = Voice = = =
Both the Japanese and English adaptations of Lunar : The Silver Star contain roughly fifteen minutes of spoken dialogue from a number of prominent voice actors . Though the game has a number of main and supporting characters , only five are actually voiced during specific story sequences . The Japanese version features Kikuko Inoue as both Alex and Luna , Rei Sakuma as Nall , Kōichi Kitamura as the white dragon Quark , and Rokurō Naya as Ghaleon . The English version comprised mostly new talent and associates of Working Designs ' staff , such as a young Ashley Parker Angel as Alex , Rhonda Gibson as Luna , Jackie Powers as Nall , Hal Delahousse as Quark , and John Truitt as Ghaleon . While the entire Japanese cast was replaced for the game 's remake on the PlayStation , all of the original English cast would return to reprise their roles .
= = Reception = =
Lunar : The Silver Star was well received in Japan , selling an estimated 100 @,@ 000 copies , its entire production run , in its first year after release , nearly as much as the Mega CD itself . It is considered the Mega @-@ CD 's first hit game , which Sega credits solely for pushing the system 's sales in that region . The game remains the best @-@ selling Sega CD title of all time in Japan , and second highest selling worldwide behind Sonic the Hedgehog CD . Readers of Japanese magazine Megadrive Beep voted it the number one Mega Drive role @-@ playing game for 17 straight months before being trumped by Shining Force II .
The English version released the following year met with a similar response , with Skid of GameFan magazine calling it " far and away the best RPG I have ever played in English " , praising the game 's graphics , sound , and story as " well conceived and executed " . The magazine 's editors would later name it as the greatest role @-@ playing game of 1993 . GamePro similarly reviewed it as " not just the best Sega CD RPG ever , but one of the best on any Sega system " , giving particular merit to the game 's translation . Game Players described it as a " solid RPG , and well worth your time " but found fault in the game 's small character graphics that " look like every other RPG " and the virtually non @-@ existent replay value . Electronic Gaming Monthly had five reviewers , Ed , Dano , Al , Sushi @-@ X , and Mike , give the game scores of 9 , 8 , 7 , 7 , and 7 , respectively , ranging from " worthy " to " virtually flawless " ratings . The magazine commended the game 's background music soundtrack but described its battle sequences as " a bit dull . " EGM 's 1999 Video Game Buyer 's Guide listed four of these scores , 9 , 8 , 7 , and 7 , averaging out to 7 @.@ 75 out of 10 overall , and described the game as " one of the best RPGs ever . "
As the number one selling Sega CD title in Japan , the game sold nearly as many copies as the system itself , and remains the second highest @-@ selling Mega @-@ CD title of all time . Mega placed the game at # 8 in their top Mega CD games of all time . In 2006 , Lunar ranked 113th in EGM and 1UP.com 's list of the greatest " videogames of their time , " celebrating the games that were considered the best during their original release . Retro Gamer included The Silver Star among top ten Mega CD games , noting its " astounding soundtrack " and " fantastic " localization .
= = Legacy = =
As the first game in the Lunar series , The Silver Star established many of the themes and characters that would be seen in later installments . The game was followed by Lunar : Eternal Blue in 1994 , a direct sequel that takes place one thousand years in The Silver Star 's future , and contains many references to the original title . Other follow @-@ ups , including Lunar : Walking School in 1996 and Lunar : Dragon Song in 2005 would act as the game 's prequels , taking place many hundred years before the game 's story .
= = = Remakes = = =
Lunar : The Silver Star has been re @-@ made several times by different developers and publishers for a number of consoles between 1996 and 2009 . These games feature graphic and sound enhancements as well as an expanded script .
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= 1999 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1999 Pacific hurricane season was one of the least active Pacific hurricane seasons on record . The season officially began on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific , and on June 1 in the Central Pacific ; in both basins , it ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Hurricane Adrian , developed on June 18 , while the final storm of the season , Tropical Storm Irwin , dissipated on October 11 . No storms developed in the Central Pacific during the season . However , two storms from the Eastern Pacific , Dora and Eugene , entered the basin , with the former entering as a hurricane .
The season produced fourteen tropical cyclones and nine named storms , which was well below the average of sixteen named storms per season ; this was largely due to a strong La Niña taking over much of the Pacific . However , the total of six hurricanes and two major hurricanes during the season was near the averages of eight and three , respectively . Although it remained offshore , Hurricane Adrian caused 6 deaths from flooding and rough surf in Mexico . Hurricane Dora was a long @-@ lived and intense cyclone , which had the second longest track of a Pacific hurricane on record . The storm brought minor impacts to the island of Hawaii ; however , no deaths or damage was reported . The deadliest tropical cyclone , Hurricane Greg , killed 10 people from flooding in Mexico .
= = Season summary = =
The 1999 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1999 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1999 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1999 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The 1999 Pacific hurricane season was well below average , due to the strong La Niña that was occurring at the time , which causes wind shear to be increased and water temperatures to decrease , resulting in conditions less conductive for tropical cyclones in the East Pacific . There were 14 cyclones in total , including 5 unnamed tropical depressions . Of these , 9 became a tropical storm , while 6 reached hurricane status . Further , 2 of these became major hurricanes , which is Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale .
Tropical cyclogenesis began with Hurricane Adrian , which developed on June 18 . Although it remained offshore , Adrian brought rough surf and flooding to Mexico , which resulted in 6 fatalities . The storm peaked as a Category 2 before dissipating on June 22 . No other tropical cyclones formed in June . Activity halted until July 9 , when Hurricane Beatriz developed . Though it peaked as a Category 3 hurricane before dissipating on July 17 , the storm caused no damage on land because it remained well offshore . The next system , a short @-@ lived Tropical Depression Three @-@ E , did not result in impact as a tropical cyclone , though the precursor brought heavy rainfall and gusty winds to Central America . Tropical Depression Four @-@ E , was the first of three cyclones to cross into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , which is between 140 ° W and the International Date Line . Two other short @-@ lived system in July , Tropical Storm Calvin and Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , caused no damage .
In August , Hurricane Dora , the strongest storm of the 1999 Pacific hurricane season , produced gusty winds and large waves on Johnston Atoll and the island of Hawaii , though minimal damage was left in its wake . After crossing the International Date Line on August 20 , Dora became the first tropical cyclones to exist in all three basins of the North Pacific – Eastern , Central , and Western – since Hurricane John in 1994 . Hurricane Eugene also existed in the Eastern and Central Pacific , but dissipated on August 15 while south of the main Hawaiian Islands , well before reaching the International Date Line . Nonetheless , it produced up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rainfall on the Big Island of Hawaii . In the remainder of August , there was a series of short @-@ lived tropical cyclones that did not effect land , including Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E , Tropical Storm Fernanda , and Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
During the month of September , the deadliest tropical cyclone of the season , Hurricane Greg , was spawned near the Pacific coast of Mexico . Greg which killed 10 people when it made landfall on southern Baja California . The hurricane and its precursor produced heavy rainfall across much of Mexico , with the highest total reaching 22 @.@ 23 in ( 566 @.@ 9 mm ) . The heavy rains damaged or destroyed more than 2 @,@ 000 homes . The remnant moisture from the system , combined with an area of low pressure , resulted in strong thunderstorms across California , which led to numerous power outages , damage to homes and vehicles , and started many wildfires . The other in the month of September was Hurricane Hilary , a storm that approached Baja California , but dissipated offshore on September 21 , resulting in no impact . The final system , Tropical Storm Irwin , produced scattered areas of heavy rainfall over Mexico in October , but caused no significant flooding . It dissipated on October 11 , over a month and a half before the official end of the season on November 30 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Adrian = = =
A broad area of low pressure developed into Tropical Depression One at 0600 UTC on June 18 , while situated 290 miles ( 465 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Guerrero . Moving towards west @-@ northwestward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Adrian about 12 hours later . Favorable levels of wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) caused the storm to strengthen further . Early on June 20 Adrian intensified into a hurricane , while located about 420 miles ( 680 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of Baja California . About 24 hours later , Adrian reached its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity on June 21 , Adrian began weakening due to colder SST 's and higher wind shear . Adrian fell to tropical storm status late on June 21 , and further weakened to a tropical depression on June 22 . Six hours later at 1800 UTC , Adrian degenerated into a swirl of low clouds while situated 300 mi ( 480 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . Heavy rainfall produced from the storm caused minor flooding throughout Mexico . Two fatalities were directly attributed to the floods , while another person was listed as missing . Four other people were killed when they drowned in rough seas produced offshore the Mexican coastline . There is no damage estimate from the heavy rainfall or rough seas associated with the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Beatriz = = =
A tropical wave developed into by 0600 UTC on July 9 , while situated roughly 300 mi ( 480 km ) south of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . At this time , the depression was in an environment of strong upper @-@ tropospheric outflow , resulting in gradual intensification . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Beatriz at 1200 UTC on July 9 . Steady strengthened continued and about 48 hours later , Beatriz became a Category 1 while situated roughly 560 miles ( 900 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Moving westward around the southern periphery of a ridge to the north , it continued to intensify . A well @-@ defined eye became visible on satellite imagery early on July 12 . Microwave imagery a few hours later revealed that Beatriz was likely undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle and was complete by 1700 UTC .
Further intensification occurred , and Beatriz became the first major hurricane of the season at 1800 UTC on July 12 . At 0600 UTC the following day , the hurricane attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) while situated roughly 800 miles ( 1300 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Curving towards the west @-@ northwest , Beatriz began to encounter an area of cooler sea surface temperatures , which led to gradual weakening . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 16 , and further to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC that day . At 0600 UTC on July 17 , Beatriz degenerated into a swirl of clouds .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave moved across the Atlantic and Caribbean in early July . While crossing Central America on July 11 and July 12 , the system produced gusty winds and heavy rainfall , especially in Honduras , Nicaragua , and Mexico , where precipitation reached 15 @.@ 75 inches ( 400 mm ) in Coyutla , Veracruz . By July 13 , the wave and associated low pressure area emerged into the Pacific Ocean . The system organized further and developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E at 1200 UTC on July 14 , while located about 290 miles ( 470 km ) west @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . It initially headed west @-@ northwestward until July 15 , when it curved west @-@ southwestward . The depression failed to strengthen further and dissipated at 1800 UTC on July 15 , while located about 460 miles ( 740 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
On July 15 , a tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Over the following days , slow organization occurred , and it is estimated that the system became developed into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E at 0000 UTC on July 23 . Later that day , the depression reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) , having failed to reach tropical storm status . While moving westward , the depression entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on July 24 . By this time , however , the depression was already becoming disorganized and dissipated early on the following day .
= = = Tropical Storm Calvin = = =
A tropical wave crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea between early and mid @-@ July . Later in the month , the wave acquired a low @-@ level circulation . Thus , Tropical Depression Five @-@ E developed at 0600 UTC on July 25 , while situated about 645 miles ( 1 @,@ 038 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Due to further organization on satellite imagery , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Calvin six hours later . However , wind shear exposed the low @-@ level circulation and halted intensification . Calvin continued west @-@ northwestward as a sheared cyclone .
According to satellite classifications , it is estimated that Calvin weakened back to a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on July 26 . There was a convective burst late on July 26 , though the storm did not re @-@ strengthen . Around that time , Calvin turned northwestward in response to a mid @-@ tropospheric trough . The burst in convection did not persist and the depression dissipated by 1200 UTC on July 27 , while located well west @-@ southwest of Baja California . A low @-@ cloud swirl remained and subsequently continued on a west @-@ northwesterly course for a few days .
= = = Tropical Depression Six @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave that previously crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea reached the eastern Pacific basin until late July . The system developed a surface circulation on July 26 , while microwave imagery data indicated wind speeds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Six @-@ E developed at 1800 UTC , while located nearly 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California and about 415 miles ( 668 km ) southwest of Tropical Depression Calvin . The depression moved toward the west @-@ northwest and encountered strong vertical wind @-@ shear . Despite a few convective bursts , the depression remained weak and degenerated into a swirl of low clouds at 0000 UTC on July 28 .
= = = Hurricane Dora = = =
A tropical wave moved off Africa on July 23 and crossed the Atlantic Ocean without development . However , the wave quickly increased in organization after entering the Eastern Pacific Ocean on August 4 , and was designated Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E on August 6 . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Dora later that day . Dora continued to intensify despite upper @-@ level wind shear , and became a hurricane on August 8 . Shortly after , the hurricane moved westward into a more favorable environment and began to intensify more quickly , reaching Category 4 strength on August 10 . It maintained that intensity for three days as it moved almost due west .
Dora weakened to Category 1 strength as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on August 14 . However , it briefly restrengthened into a Category 3 as it passed south of Hawaii on August 16 . Dora then began weakening for the final time as it passed south of Johnston Atoll on August 18 . At the atoll , Dora produced large waves and wind gusts between 40 and 45 mph ( 75 and 85 km / h ) . In Hawaii , heavy surf on the Big Island forced the closure of beaches , campsites , and hiking trails in the districts of Kau and Puna . On August 20 , Dora crossed the International Date Line , shortly before weakening to a tropical storm . Due to vertical wind shear , it did not re @-@ strengthen in the western Pacific basin . The storm weakened and fell to tropical depression intensity early on August 22 . Dora dissipated late on the following day , while situated several hundred miles east of Wake Island .
= = = Hurricane Eugene = = =
A tropical wave crossed Central America between July 28 and July 29 , before entering the Pacific Ocean and slowly organizing . After the cloud pattern consolidated , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E developed at 0600 UTC on August 6 , while located about 975 miles ( 1 @,@ 569 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . Twelve hours later , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Eugene . It continued to deepen , reaching hurricane status late on August 8 . About 24 hours later , Eugene peaked as a strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The storm began to weaken and was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane early on August 11 .
Eugene continued westward , and on August 11 , it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility . It continued to weaken and was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 13 . Eugene passed south of the Hawaiian Islands on August 14 , with minimal impact noted . Minor surf occurred along the east and southeast shores of the Big Island . Additionally , 24 ‑ hour rainfall totals over windward sections of Maui and the Big Island were near 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The storm weakened to a tropical depression by late on August 14 . At 0000 UTC on August 16 , Eugene dissipated while located about 550 miles ( 890 km ) southeast of Johnston Atoll .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave moved off the African coast on July 27 and entered the Pacific Ocean on August 6 . The system continued westward without development until August 11 , when convection began to increase . By 1200 UTC on August 13 , the National Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E. Due easterly wind shear , the depression did not further intensify as it moved on a generally west @-@ northwesterly track . The depression had dissipated by August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Fernanda = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E at 0600 UTC on August 17 , while located about 460 miles ( 740 km ) in south @-@ southwest of Socorro Island , Mexico . The depression intensified gradually due to favorable conditions . At 0000 UTC on August 18 , the cyclone was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fernanda while centered about 520 miles ( 840 km ) southwest of Socorro Island . The storm continued to slowly strengthened and 1200 UTC on August 19 , Fernanda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) .
Around the time of peak intensity on August 19 , Fernanda curved west @-@ southwest track , a motion which persisted for the remainder of its duration . While this track carried the storm over warmer SST 's , increasing easterly wind shear caused Fernanda to weaken . By early on August 21 , Fernanda weakened to a tropical depression . After weakening slightly further , the storm degenerated into a remnant low cloud swirl at 0000 UTC on August 23 . The remnants of Fernanda persisted until finally losing its identity about 290 miles ( 470 km ) west @-@ southwest of Socorro Island on August 28 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific on August 15 and formed a surface low pressure area south of Mexico on August 19 . After consolidating and organizing somewhat , the system became Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E late on August 23 . However , colder SST 's caused convection to diminish almost immediately , while moving parallel to the southern coast of Baja California. as thunderstorm activity slowly decreased due to cool SST 's . By 1200 UTC on August 24 , the depression dissipated just west of the tip of Baja California , having lasted for less than 24 hours . The highest rainfall total reported in Mexico was 8 @.@ 27 inches ( 210 mm ) at Los Cabos , Baja California Sur .
= = = Hurricane Greg = = =
The northern portion of a tropical wave in the Atlantic spawned Tropical Storm Emily , while the southern portion headed westward and crossed Central America between August 31 and September 1 . Thereafter , the system emerged into the Pacific Ocean and began to organize . By 1200 UTC on September 5 , Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E developed near Manzanillo , Mexico . Six hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Greg . Further intensification occurred , and late on September 6 , Greg was upgraded to a hurricane as winds reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . However , Greg weakened to a tropical storm on September 7 , while approaching Baja California . At 2100 UTC that day , it made landfall near Cabo San Lucas . The storm then curved westward and weakened over colder SST 's , until dissipating on late September 9 .
Both Gerg and its predecessor disturbance brought heavy rain to much of Mexico . The highest report was of 22 @.@ 23 inches ( 566 @.@ 9 mm ) in Tecomán , Colima . Precipitation from Greg caused flooding in the states of Colima , Michoacán , Sinaloa , Nayarit , and Jalisco . It was most severe along the Los Mezcales River . The flooding killed ten people . In addition , 2 @,@ 000 people were rendered homeless and 2 @,@ 000 others were affected in some way . The remnants of Greg produced thunderstorms in California , particularly the San Francisco Bay Area . As a result , there was widespread power outages and isolated damage to houses and vehicles , as well as causing several small wildfires . Overall damage was relatively limited , however .
= = = Hurricane Hilary = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of western Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on August 29 . It continued to move westward through the tropical waters of the Atlantic into the Caribbean . It still remained a tropical wave as it moved over Central America and began to acquire more convection and organization , from September 10 through September 11 . Visible satellite imagery showed low level circulation and more organized deep convection as it became a tropical depression on September 17 , while located about 475 miles ( 764 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
The system strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hilary at 1200 UTC on September 18 . Due to the development of an eye feature and large increase in deep convection , Hilary was upgraded to hurricane on September 20 , while located about 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of the Baja California Peninsula . However , later that day , Hilary weakened back to a tropical storm . The storm fell further to tropical depression status on September 21 . Hours later , the storm degenerated into a swirl of low @-@ level clouds , as it bypassed Baja California on September 21 .
= = = Tropical Storm Irwin = = =
The southern portion of the tropical wave that previously spawned Tropical Depression Eleven in the Gulf of Mexico entered the Pacific Ocean in early October . After becoming better organized , the system developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E at 1200 UTC on October 8 , while situated about 145 miles ( 233 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . The depression initially moved slowly north @-@ northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Irwin about six hours later . After a strong mid @-@ tropospheric ridge developed over northern Mexico , Irwin moved northwestward and remained offshore Mexico .
Early on October 9 , the center of the storm passed within about 85 miles ( 137 km ) of the coastline between Manzanillo and Cabo Corrientes . The storm then curved west @-@ northwestward and at 1800 UTC on October 9 , Irwin attained peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Stable air and increasing wind shear caused Irwin to weaken and fall to tropical depression intensity early on October 11 . About 12 hours later , the storm dissipated while located about 405 miles ( 652 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . While passing offshore , Irwin brought patches of heavy rainfall to some areas of Mexico , peaking at 9 @.@ 92 inches ( 252 mm ) in Coahuayutla de Guerrero , Guerrero .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Tanya = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on August 19 a tropical depression formed east of the International Dateline , and soon it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the Pacific in 1999 . This is the same list used in the 1993 season . No new names were used for the first time in the Pacific Basin . No storms were retired during the season , thus this same list was used again in the 2005 season .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 ° W and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1999 are shown below , however none of them were used .
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= Indonesian occupation of East Timor =
Indonesia occupied East Timor from December 1975 to October 1999 . After centuries of Portuguese colonial rule in East Timor , a 1974 coup in Portugal led to decolonisation among its former colonies , creating instability in East Timor and leaving its future uncertain . After a small @-@ scale civil war , the pro @-@ independence FRETILIN declared victory in the capital city of Dili and declared an independent East Timor on 28 November 1975 .
Claiming its assistance had been requested by East Timorese leaders , Indonesian military forces invaded on 7 December and by 1979 had all but destroyed armed resistance to the occupation . Following a controversial " Popular Assembly " which many said was not a genuine act of self @-@ determination , Indonesia declared the territory a province of Indonesia ( Timor Timur ) .
For twenty @-@ four years the Indonesian government subjected the people of East Timor to extrajudicial executions , routine and systematic torture , massacres and deliberate starvation . The 1991 Santa Cruz Massacre caused outrage around the world , and reports of other such killings were numerous . Resistance to Indonesian rule remained strong ; in 1996 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to two men from East Timor , Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos @-@ Horta , for their ongoing efforts to peacefully end the occupation . A 1999 vote to determine East Timor 's future resulted in an overwhelming majority in favour of independence , and in 2002 East Timor became an independent nation . The Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor estimated the number of deaths during the occupation from famine and violence to be between 90 @,@ 800 and 202 @,@ 600 including between 17 @,@ 600 and 19 @,@ 600 violent deaths or disappearances , out of a 1999 population of approximately 823 @,@ 386 . The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70 % of the violent killings .
Immediately after the invasion , the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council passed resolutions condemning Indonesia 's actions and calling for immediate withdrawal . Australia and Indonesia were the only nations in the world to recognise East Timor as a province of Indonesia , and soon afterwards began negotiations to divide resources found in the Timor Gap . Other governments , including Japan , Canada and Malaysia , also supported the Indonesian government . The invasion and suppression of East Timor 's independence movement , however , caused great harm to Indonesia 's reputation and international credibility .
After the 1999 vote for independence , paramilitary groups working with the Indonesian military undertook a final wave of violence during which most of the country 's infrastructure was destroyed . The Australian led International Force for East Timor restored order and following the departure of Indonesian forces from East Timor , the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor administered the territory for two years , establishing a Serious Crimes Unit to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during 1999 . Its limited scope and the small number of sentences delivered by Indonesian courts have caused numerous observers to call for an international tribunal for East Timor .
= = Background = =
The Portuguese first arrived in Timor in the 16th century , and in 1702 East Timor came under Portuguese colonial administration . Portuguese rule was tenuous until the island was divided with the Dutch Empire in 1860 . A significant battleground during the Pacific War , East Timor was occupied by 20 @,@ 000 Japanese troops . The fighting helped prevent a Japanese occupation of Australia , but resulted in 60 @,@ 000 East Timorese deaths .
When Indonesia secured its independence after World War II under the leadership of Sukarno , it did not claim control of East Timor , and aside from general anti @-@ colonial rhetoric it did not oppose Portuguese control of the territory . A 1959 revolt in East Timor against the Portuguese was not endorsed by the Indonesian government . A 1962 United Nations document notes : " the government of Indonesia has declared that it maintains friendly relations with Portugal and has no claim to Portuguese Timor ... " . These assurances continued after Suharto took power in 1965 . An Indonesian official declared in December 1974 : " Indonesia has no territorial ambition ... Thus there is no question of Indonesia wishing to annex Portuguese Timor . "
In 1974 , a coup in Lisbon caused significant changes in Portugal 's relationship to its colony in Timor . The power shift in Europe invigorated movements for independence in colonies like Mozambique and Angola , and the new Portuguese government began a decolonisation process for East Timor . The first of these was an opening of the political process .
= = = FRETILIN , UDT , and APODETI = = =
When East Timorese political parties were first legalised in April 1974 , three groupings emerged as major players in the postcolonial landscape . The União Democrática Timorense ( Timorese Democratic Union , or UDT ) , was formed in May by a group of wealthy landowners . Initially dedicated to preserving East Timor as a protectorate of Portugal , in September UDT announced its support for independence . A week later , the Frente Revolucionária de Timor @-@ Leste Independente ( Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor , or FRETILIN ) appeared . Initially organised as the ASDT ( Associacão Social Democrata Timorense ) , the group endorsed " the universal doctrines of socialism " , as well as " the right to independence " . As the political process grew more tense , however , the group changed its name and declared itself " the only legitimate representative of the people " . The end of May saw the creation of a third party , Associacão Popular Democratica Timorense ( Timorese Popular Democratic Association , or APODETI ) . Advocating East Timor 's integration with Indonesia and originally named Associacão Integraciacao de Timor Indonesia ( Association for the Integration of Timor into Indonesia ) , APODETI expressed concerns that an independent East Timor would then be economically weak and vulnerable .
Indonesian nationalist and military hardliners , particularly leaders of the intelligence agency Kopkamtib and special operations unit , Opsus , saw the Portuguese coup as an opportunity for East Timor 's integration with Indonesia . The central government and military feared that an East Timor governed by leftists could be used as a base for incursions by unfriendly powers into Indonesia , and also that an independent East Timor within the archipelago could inspire secessionist sentiments within Indonesian provinces . The fear of national disintegration were played upon military leaders close to Suharto and remained as one of Indonesia 's strongest justifications for refusing to entertain the prospect of East Timorese independence or even autonomy until the late 1990s . The military intelligence organisations initially sought a non @-@ military annexation strategy , intending to use APODETI as its integration vehicle .
In January 1975 , UDT and FRETILIN established a tentative coalition dedicated to achieving independence for East Timor . At the same time , the Australian government reported that the Indonesian military had conducted a " pre @-@ invasion " exercise at Lampung . For months , the Indonesian Special Operations command , OPSUS , had been covertly supporting APODETI through Operasi Komodo ( Operation Komodo , named after the lizard ) . By broadcasting accusations of communism among FRETILIN leaders and sowing discord in the UDT coalition , the Indonesian government fostered instability in East Timor and , observers said , created a pretext for invading . By May tensions between the two groups caused UDT to withdraw from the coalition .
In an attempt to negotiate a settlement to the dispute over East Timor 's future , the Portuguese Decolonization Commission convened a conference in June 1975 in Macau . FRETILIN boycotted the meeting in protest of APODETI 's presence ; representatives of UDT and APODETI complained that this was an effort to obstruct the decolonisation process . In his 1987 memoir Funu : The Unfinished Saga of East Timor , FRETILIN leader José Ramos @-@ Horta recalls his " vehement protests " against his party 's refusal to attend the meeting . " This " , he writes , " was one of our tactical political errors for which I could never find an intelligent explanation . "
= = = Coup , civil war , and independence declaration = = =
The tension reached a boiling point in mid @-@ 1975 , when rumours began circulating of possible power seizures from both independence parties . In August 1975 , UDT staged a coup in the capital city Dili and a small @-@ scale civil war broke out . Ramos @-@ Horta describes the fighting as " bloody " , and details violence committed by both UDT and FRETILIN . He cites the International Committee of the Red Cross , which counted 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 people dead after the war . The fighting forced the Portuguese government onto the nearby island of Atauro . FRETILIN defeated UDT 's forces after two weeks , much to the surprise of Portugal and Indonesia . UDT leaders fled to Indonesian @-@ controlled West Timor . There they signed a petition on 7 September calling for East Timor 's integration with Indonesia ; most accounts indicate that UDT 's support for this position was forced by Indonesia .
Once they had gained control of East Timor , FRETILIN faced attacks from the west , by Indonesian military forces — then known as Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia ( ABRI ) — and by a small group of UDT troops . Indonesia captured the border city of Batugadé on 8 October 1975 ; nearby Balibó and Maliana were taken eight days later . During the Balibó raid , members of an Australian television news crew — later dubbed the " Balibo Five " — were killed by Indonesian soldiers . Indonesian military officials say the deaths were accidental , and East Timorese witnesses say the journalists were deliberately killed . The deaths , and subsequent campaigns and investigations , attracted international attention and rallied support for East Timorese independence .
At the start of November , the foreign ministers from Indonesia and Portugal met in Rome to discuss a resolution of the conflict . Although no Timorese leaders were invited to the talks , FRETILIN sent a message expressing their desire to work with Portugal . The meeting ended with both parties agreeing that Portugal would meet with political leaders in East Timor , but the talks never took place . In mid @-@ November , Indonesian forces began shelling the city of Atabae from the sea , and captured it by the end of the month .
Frustrated by Portugal 's inaction , FRETILIN leaders believed they could ward off Indonesian advances more effectively if they declared an independent East Timor . National Political Commissioner Mari Alkatiri conducted a diplomatic tour of Africa , gathering support from governments there and elsewhere . According to FRETILIN , this effort yielded assurances from twenty @-@ five countries — including the People 's Republic of China , the Soviet Union , Mozambique , Sweden , and Cuba — to recognise the new nation . Cuba currently shares close relations with East Timor today . On 28 November 1975 , FRETILIN unilaterally declared independence for the Democratic Republic of East Timor . Indonesia announced , UDT and APODETI leaders in and around Balibó would respond the next day by declaring that region independent from East Timor and officially part of Indonesia . But this Balibo Declaration was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed on Bali . Later this was described as the ' Balibohong Declaration ' , a pun on the Indonesian word for ' lie ' . Portugal rejected both declarations , and the Indonesian government approved military action to begin its annexation of East Timor .
= = Invasion = =
On 7 December 1975 , Indonesian forces invaded East Timor . Operasi Seroja ( Operation Lotus ) was the largest military operation ever carried out by that nation . Troops from FRETILIN 's military organisation FALINTIL engaged ABRI forces in the streets of Dili , and reported 400 Indonesian paratroopers were killed as they descended into the city . Angkasa Magazine reports 35 dead Indonesian troops , and 122 from the Fretilin side . By the end of the year , 10 @,@ 000 troops occupied Dili and another 20 @,@ 000 had been deployed throughout East Timor . Massively outnumbered , FALINTIL troops fled to the mountains and continued guerrilla combat operations .
= = = Indonesian atrocities = = =
From the start of the invasion onward , TNI forces engaged in the wholesale massacre of Timorese civilians . At the start of the occupation , FRETILIN radio sent the following broadcast : " The Indonesian forces are killing indiscriminately . Women and children are being shot in the streets . We are all going to be killed .... This is an appeal for international help . Please do something to stop this invasion . " One Timorese refugee told later of " rape [ and ] cold @-@ blooded assassinations of women and children and Chinese shop owners " . Dili 's bishop at the time , Martinho da Costa Lopes , said later : " The soldiers who landed started killing everyone they could find . There were many dead bodies in the streets – all we could see were the soldiers killing , killing , killing . " In one incident , a group of fifty men , women , and children – including Australian freelance reporter Roger East – were lined up on a cliff outside of Dili and shot , their bodies falling into the sea . Many such massacres took place in Dili , where onlookers were ordered to observe and count aloud as each person was executed . It is estimated that at least 2 @,@ 000 Timorese were massacred in the first two days of the invasion in Dili alone . In addition to FRETILIN supporters , Chinese migrants were also singled out for execution ; five hundred were killed in the first day alone .
The mass killings continued unabated as Indonesian forces advanced on the Fretilin @-@ held mountain regions of East Timor . A Timorese guide for a senior Indonesian officer told former Australian consul to Portuguese Timor James Dunn that during the early months of the fighting TNI troops " killed most Timorese they encountered . " In February 1976 after capturing the village of Aileu - to the south of Dili - and driving out the remaining Fretilin forces , Indonesian troops machine gunned most of the town 's population , allegedly shooting everyone over the age of three . The young children who were spared were taken back to Dili in trucks . At the time Aileu fell to Indonesian forces , the population was around 5 @,@ 000 ; by the time Indonesian relief workers visited the village in September 1976 only 1 @,@ 000 remained . In June 1976 , TNI troops badly battered by a Fretilin attack exacted retribution against a large refugee camp housing 5 @-@ 6 @,@ 000 Timorese at Lamaknan near the West Timor border . After setting several houses on fire , Indonesian soldiers massacred as many as 2 @,@ 000 men , women and children .
In March 1977 ex @-@ Australian consul James Dunn published a report detailing charges that since December 1975 Indonesian forces had killed between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 civilians in East Timor . This is consistent with a statement made on 13 February 1976 by UDT leader Lopez da Cruz that 60 @,@ 000 Timorese had been killed during the previous six months of civil war , suggesting a death toll of at least 55 @,@ 000 in the first two months of the invasion . A delegation of Indonesian relief workers agreed with this statistic . A late 1976 report by the Catholic Church also estimated the death toll at between 60 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 . These figures were also corroborated by those in the Indonesian government itself . In an interview on 5 April 1977 with the Sydney Morning Herald , Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik said the number of dead was " 50 @,@ 000 people or perhaps 80 @,@ 000 " .
The Indonesian government presented its annexation of East Timor as a matter of anticolonial unity . A 1977 booklet from the Indonesian Department of Foreign Affairs , entitled Decolonization in East Timor , paid tribute to the " sacred right of self @-@ determination " and recognised APODETI as the true representatives of the East Timorese majority . It claimed that FRETILIN 's popularity was the result of a " policy of threats , blackmail and terror " . Later , Indonesian Foreign Minister Ali Alatas reiterated this position in his 2006 memoir The Pebble in the Shoe : The Diplomatic Struggle for East Timor . The island 's original division into east and west , Indonesia argued after the invasion , was " the result of colonial oppression " enforced by the Portuguese and Dutch imperial powers . Thus , according to the Indonesian government , its annexation of the 27th province was merely another step in the unification of the archipelago which had begun in the 1940s .
= = = UN response and international law = = =
On the day following the invasion , a committee of the United Nations General Assembly convened to debate the situation . Nations allied with Indonesia — including India , Japan , and Malaysia — wrote a resolution blaming Portugal and the Timorese political parties for the bloodshed ; it was rejected in favour of a draft prepared by Algeria , Cuba , Senegal , and Guyana , among others . This was adopted as GA Resolution 3485 ( XXX ) on 12 December , calling on Indonesia to " withdraw without delay " . Ten days later the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 384 ( 1975 ) , which echoes the GA resolution 's call for an immediate Indonesian withdrawal . One year later the Security Council expressed the same sentiment in Resolution 389 ( 1976 ) , and the General Assembly passed resolutions every year between 1976 and 1982 calling for self @-@ determination in East Timor . Governments of large countries like China and the United States opposed further action ; smaller countries like Costa Rica , Guinea @-@ Bissau , and Iceland were the only delegations calling for strong enforcement of the resolutions . The 1982 resolution calls on the UN Secretary @-@ General to " initiate consultations with all parties directly concerned , with a view to exploring avenues for achieving a comprehensive settlement of the problem " .
Legal expert Roger S. Clark notes that Indonesia 's invasion and occupation violated two key elements of international law : the right to self @-@ determination and the prohibition on aggression . Neither the petition of 7 September 1975 calling for integration , nor the later resolution of the " People 's Assembly " in May 1976 , qualify as " informed and democratic processes impartially conducted and based on universal adult suffrage " , as required by UN General Assembly Resolution 1541 ( XV ) , which establishes the guidelines for the norms of self @-@ determination . Other inadequacies existed in the petitions as well .
Indonesia 's use of military force in East Timor is cited as a violation of Chapter I of the United Nations Charter , which states : " All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state .... " Some observers have argued that East Timor was not a state at the time of the invasion , and is thus not protected by the UN Charter . This claim mirrors those made against Indonesia by the Dutch during the Indonesian National Revolution . As legal scholar Susan Marks points out , if East Timor was considered a Portuguese colony , then although " there may be some doubt about the application of this provision [ of UN Charter Chapter I ] in the context of an armed conflict between a colonial power and its own colony , there can hardly be doubt that it applies to force by one sovereign state against another state 's colony " .
= = Indonesian hegemony = =
On 17 December , Indonesia formed the Provisional Government of East Timor ( PGET ) which was headed by Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo of APODETI as president and Lopez da Cruz of UDT . Most sources describe this institution as a creation of the Indonesian military . One of PGET 's first activities was the formation of a " Popular Assembly " consisting of elected representatives and leaders " from various walks of Timorese life " . Like the PGET itself , the Popular Assembly is usually characterised as an instrument of propaganda created by the Indonesian military ; although international journalists were invited to witness the group 's meeting in May 1976 , their movement was tightly constrained . The Assembly drafted a request for formal integration into Indonesia , which Jakarta described as " the act of self @-@ determination " in East Timor .
Indonesia kept East Timor shut off from the rest of the world , except for a few years in the late 1980s and early 1990s , claiming that the vast majority of East Timorese supported integration . This position was followed closely by the Indonesian media such that an East Timorese acceptance of their integration with Indonesia was taken for granted by , and was a non @-@ issue for , the majority of Indonesians . East Timor came to be seen as a training ground for the officer corps in tactics of suppression for Aceh and Papua , and was pivotal in ensuring military sector dominance of Indonesia .
= = = Indonesian campaigns against the resistance = = =
Leaders of Indonesian intelligence influential with Suharto had initially envisaged that invasion , subdual of Fretilin resistance , and integration with Indonesia would be quick and relatively painless . The ensuing Indonesian campaigns up through 1976 were devastating for the East Timorese , an enormous drain on Indonesian resources , were severely damaging to Indonesia internationally , and ultimately a failure . The wanton , wholesale killings by the TNI near the coastal regions during the opening months of the invasion had driven a large portion of the population and most of the remaining FALINTIL into the central regions . This proved counterproductive as it left Indonesian troops fighting against an enemy which was well equipped and had access to agricultural resources and population . The civilian population came to see the FALINTIL as a buffer against the excesses of the Indonesian forces , which led to heightened support for the resistance . From 1975 to 1977 , the FRETILIN protected at least 40 % of the population who had fled the coastal regions , in inhospitable conditions , with the active support of rallied communities . Schwarz suggests the fact that Indonesian military 's power base remained barely dented by the mid @-@ 1970s intelligence miscalculations and ongoing failures , was a measure of the military 's dominance of Indonesian affairs .
By the end of 1976 , a stalemate existed between the FALINTIL and the Indonesian army . Unable to overcome heavy resistance and drained of its resources , the TNI began rearming . Indonesian navy ordered missile @-@ firing patrol @-@ boats from the United States , Australia , the Netherlands , South Korea , and Taiwan , as well as submarines from West Germany . In February 1977 , Indonesia also received thirteen OV @-@ 10 Bronco aircraft from the Rockwell International Corporation with the aid of an official US government foreign military aid sales credit . The Bronco was ideal for the East Timor invasion , as it was specifically designed for counter @-@ insurgency operations in difficult terrain . By the beginning of February 1977 , at least six of the 13 Broncos were operating in East Timor , and helped the Indonesian military pinpoint Fretilin positions . The OV @-@ 10 Broncos dealt a heavy blow to the FALINTIL when the aircraft attacked their forces with conventional weapons and Soviet @-@ supplied Napalm known as ' Opalm . ' Along with the new weaponry , an additional 10 @,@ 000 troops were sent in to begin new campaigns that would become known as the ' final solution ' .
TNI strategists implemented a strategy of attrition against the FALINTIL beginning in September 1977 . This was accomplished by rendering the central regions of East Timor unable to sustain human life through napalm attacks , chemical warfare and destruction of crops . This was to be done in order to force the population to surrender into the custody of Indonesian forces and deprive the FALINTIL of food and population . Catholic officials in East Timor called this strategy an " encirclement and annihilation " campaign . 35 @,@ 000 ABRI troops surrounded areas of FRETILIN support and killed of men , women , and children . Air and naval bombardments were followed by ground troops , who destroyed villages and agricultural infrastructure . Thousands of people may have been killed during this period . In early 1978 , the entire civilian population of Arsaibai village , near the Indonesian border , was killed for supporting Fretilin after being bombarded and starved . The success of the ' encirclement and annihilation ' campaign led to the ' final cleansing campaign ' , in which children and men would be forced to hold hands and march in front of Indonesian units searching for Fretilin members . When Fretilin members were found , the members would be forced to surrender or to fire on their own people .
During this period , allegations of Indonesian use of chemical weapons arose , as villagers reported maggots appearing on crops after bombing attacks . FRETILIN radio claimed Indonesian planes dropped chemical agents , and several observers — including the Bishop of Dili — reported seeing napalm dropped on the countryside . The UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor , based on interviews with over 8 @,@ 000 witnesses , as well as Indonesian military papers and intelligence from international sources , confirmed that the Indonesians used chemical weapons and napalm to poison food and water supplies in FRETILIN controlled areas during the " encirclement and annihilation " campaign .
While brutal , the Indonesian ' encirclement and annihilation ' campaign of 1977 – 1978 was effective in that it broke the back of the main Fretilin militia . The capable Timorese President and military commander , Nicolau Lobato , was shot and killed by helicopter @-@ borne Indonesian troops on 31 December 1978 .
= = = Resettlement and enforced starvation = = =
As a result of the destruction of food crops , many civilians were forced to leave the hills and surrender to the TNI . Often , when surviving villagers came down to lower @-@ lying regions to surrender , the military would execute them . Those who were not killed outright by TNI troops were sent to receiving centers which were prepared in advance . These camps were located in close proximity to local military bases where Indonesian forces " screened " the population in order to single out members of the resistance , often with the aid of Timorese collaborators . In these transit camps , the surrendered civilians were registered and interrogated . Those who were suspected of being members of the resistance were detained and killed .
These centers were often constructed of thatch huts with no toilets . Additionally , the Indonesian military barred the Red Cross from distributing humanitarian aid and no medical care was provided to the detainees . As a result , many of the Timorese - weakened by starvation and surviving on small rations given by their captors - died of malnutrition , cholera , diarrhea and tuberculosis . By late 1979 , between 300 @,@ 000 and 370 @,@ 000 Timorese had passed through these camps . After a period of three months , the detainees were resettled in " strategic hamlets " where they were imprisoned and subjected to enforced starvation . Those in the camps were prevented from traveling and cultivating farmland and were subjected to a curfew . The UN truth commission report confirmed the Indonesian military 's use of enforced starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese civilian population , and that large numbers of people were " positively denied access to food and its sources " . The report cited testimony from individuals who were denied food , and detailed destruction of crops and livestock by Indonesian soldiers . It concluded that this policy of deliberate starvation resulted in the deaths of 84 @,@ 200 to 183 @,@ 000 Timorese . One church worker reported five hundred East Timorese dying of starvation every month in one district .
World Vision Indonesia visited East Timor in October 1978 and claimed that 70 @,@ 000 East Timorese were at risk of starvation . An envoy from the International Committee of the Red Cross reported in 1979 that 80 percent of one camp 's population was malnourished , in a situation that was " as bad as Biafra " . The ICRC warned that " tens of thousands " were at risk of starvation . Indonesia announced that it was working through the government @-@ run Indonesian Red Cross to alleviate the crisis , but the NGO Action for World Development charged that organisation with selling donated aid supplies .
= = = Operasi Keamanan : 1981 – 82 = = =
In 1981 the Indonesian military launched Operasi Keamanan ( Operation Security ) , which some have named the " fence of legs " program . During this operation , Indonesian forces conscripted 50 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Timorese men and boys to march through the mountains ahead of advancing TNI troops as human shields to foreclose a FRETILIN counterattack . The objective was to sweep the guerillas into the central part of the region where they could be eradicated . Many of those conscripted into the " fence of legs " died of starvation , exhaustion or were shot by Indonesian forces for allowing guerillas to slip through . As the " fence " converged on villages , Indonesian forces massacred an unknown number of civilians . At least 400 villagers were massacred in Lacluta by Battalion 744 of the Indonesian Army in September 1981 . An eyewitness who testified before the Australian Senate stated that soldiers deliberately killed small children by smashing their heads against a rock . The operation failed to crush the resistance , and popular resentment toward the occupation grew stronger than ever . As FRETILIN troops in the mountains continued their sporadic attacks , Indonesian forces carried out numerous operations to destroy them over the next ten years . In the cities and villages , meanwhile , a non @-@ violent resistance movement began to take shape .
= = = ' Operation Clean @-@ Sweep ' : 1983 = = =
The failure of successive Indonesian counterinsurgency campaigns led the Indonesian military elite to instruct the commander of the Dili @-@ based Sub regional Military Resort Command , Colonel Purwanto to initiate peace talks with FRETILIN commander Xanana Gusmão in a FRETILIN @-@ controlled area in March 1983 . When Xanana sought to invoke Portugal and the UN in the negotiations , ABRI Commander Benny Moerdani broke the ceasefire by announcing a new counterinsurgency offensive called " Operational Clean @-@ Sweep " in August 1983 , declairing , " This time no fooling around . This time we are going to hit them without mercy . "
The breakdown of the ceasefire agreement was followed by a renewed wave of massacres , summary executions and " disappearences " at the hands of Indonesian forces . In August 1983 , 200 people were burned alive in the village of Creras , with 500 others killed at a nearby river . Between August and December 1983 , Amnesty International documented the arrests and " disappearances " of over 600 people in the capital city alone . Relatives were told by Indonesian forces that the " disappeared " were sent to Bali .
Those suspected of opposing integration were often arrested and tortured . In 1983 Amnesty International published an Indonesian manual it had received from East Timor instructing military personnel on how to inflict physical and mental anguish , and cautioning troops to " Avoid taking photographs showing torture ( of someone being given electric shocks , stripped naked and so on ) " . In his 1997 memoir East Timor 's Unfinished Struggle : Inside the Timorese Resistance , Constâncio Pinto describes being tortured by Indonesian soldiers : " With each question , I would get two or three punches in the face . When someone punches you so much and so hard , it feels as if your face is broken . People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me .... [ In another location ] they psychologically tortured me ; they didn 't hit me , but they made strong threats to kill me . They even put a gun on the table . " In Michele Turner 's book Telling East Timor : Personal Testimonies 1942 – 1992 , a woman named Fátima describes watching torture take place in a Dili prison : " They make people sit on a chair with the front of the chair on their own toes . It is mad , yes . The soldiers urinate in the food then mix it up for the person to eat . They use electric shock and they use an electric machine .... "
= = = Violence against women = = =
Indonesian military abuses against women in East Timor were numerous and well @-@ documented . In addition to suffering arbitrary detainment , torture , and extrajudicial execution , women faced rape and sexual abuse — sometimes for the crime of being related to an independence activist . The scope of the problem is difficult to ascertain , owing to the intense military control imposed during the occupation , compounded by the shame felt by victims . In a 1995 report on violence against women in Indonesia and East Timor , Amnesty International USA wrote : " Women are reluctant to pass on information to non @-@ governmental organizations about rape and sexual abuse , let alone to report violations to the military or police authorities . "
Other forms of violence against women took the form of harassment , intimidation , and enforced marriage . The Amnesty report cites the case of a woman forced to live with a commander in Baucau , then harassed daily by troops after her release . Such " marriages " took place regularly during the occupation . Women were also encouraged to accept sterilisation procedures , and some were pressured to take the contraceptive Depo Provera , sometimes without full knowledge of its effects .
In 1999 researcher Rebecca Winters released the book Buibere : Voice of East Timorese Women , which chronicles many personal stories of violence and abuse dating to the earliest days of the occupation . One woman tells of being interrogated while stripped half @-@ naked , tortured , molested , and threatened with death . Another describes being chained at the hands and feet , raped repeatedly , and interrogated for weeks . A woman who had prepared food for FRETILIN guerrillas was arrested , burned with cigarettes , tortured with electricity , and forced to walk naked past a row of soldiers into a tank filled with urine and feces .
= = = Abuses by FRETILIN = = =
The Indonesian government reported in 1977 that several mass graves containing " scores " of people killed by FRETILIN had been found near Ailieu and Samé . Amnesty International confirmed these reports in 1985 , and also expressed concern about several extrajudicial killings for which FRETILIN had claimed responsibility . In 1997 Human Rights Watch condemned a series of attacks carried out by FRETILIN , which led to the deaths of nine civilians .
= = = Demography and economy = = =
The Portuguese language was banned in East Timor and Indonesian was made the language of government , education and public commerce , and the Indonesian school curriculum was implemented . The official Indonesian national ideology , Pancasila , was applied to East Timor and government jobs were restricted to those holding certification in Pancasila training . East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia 's constitutional monotheism , resulting in mass conversions to Christianity . Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass . Before the invasion , less than 30 percent of East Timorese were Roman Catholics , and by the 1980s , 80 percent were registered as Catholics . With a 90 percent Catholic population , East Timor is currently one of the most densely Catholic countries in the world .
East Timor was a particular focus for the Indonesian government 's transmigration program , which aimed to resettle Indonesians from densely to less populated regions . Media censorship under the " New Order " meant that the state of conflict in East Timor was unknown to the transmigrants , predominantly poor Javanese and Balinese wet @-@ rice farmers . On arrival they found themselves under ongoing threat of attack by East Timorese resistance fighters , and became the object of local resentment , since large tracts of land belonging to East Timorese had been compulsorily appropriated by the Indonesian government for transmigrant settlement . Although many gave up and returned to their island of origin , those migrants that stayed in East Timor contributed to the " Indonesianisation " of East Timor 's integration . 662 transmigrant families ( 2 @,@ 208 people ) settled in East Timor in 1993 , whereas an estimated 150 @,@ 000 free Indonesian settlers lived in East Timor by the mid @-@ 1990s , including those offered jobs in education and administration . Migration increased resentment amongst Timorese who were overtaken by more business savvy immigrants .
Following the invasion , Portuguese commercial interests were taken over by Indonesians . The border with West Timor was opened resulting in an influx of West Timorese farmers , and in January 1989 the territory was open to private investment . Economic life in the towns was subsequently brought under the control of entrepreneurial Bugis , Makassarese , and Butonese immigrants from South Sulawesi , while East Timor products were exported under partnerships between army officials and Indonesian businessmen . Denok , a military @-@ controlled firm , monopolised some of East Timor 's most lucrative commercial activities , including sandal wood export , hotels , and the import of consumer products . The group 's most profitable business , however , was its monopoly on the export of coffee , which was the territory 's most valuable cash crop . Indonesian entrepreneurs came to dominate non @-@ Denok / military enterprises , and local manufactures from the Portuguese period made way for Indonesian imports .
The Indonesian government 's primary response to criticism of its policies was to highlight its funding of development in East Timor 's health , education , communications , transportation , and agriculture . East Timor , however , remained poor following centuries of Portuguese colonial neglect and Indonesian critic George Aditjondro points out that conflict in the early years of occupation lead to sharp drops in rice and coffee production , and livestock populations . Other critics argue that infrastructure development , such as road construction , is often designed to facilitate Indonesian military and corporate interests . While the military controlled key businesses , private investors , both Indonesian and international , avoided the territory . Despite improvements since 1976 , a 1993 Indonesian government report estimated that in three @-@ quarters of East Timor 's 61 districts , more than half lived in poverty .
= = 1990s = =
= = = Changing resistance and integration campaigns = = =
Major investment by the Indonesian government to improve East Timor 's infrastructure , and health and education facilities since 1975 , did not end East Timorese resistance to Indonesian rule . Although by the 1980s Fretilin forces had dropped to a few hundred armed men , Fretilin increased its contacts with young Timorese especially in Dili , and an un @-@ armed civil resistance seeking self @-@ determination took shape . Many of those in the protest movements were young children at the time of the invasion and had been educated under the Indonesian system . They resented the repression of Timorese cultural and political life at the expense of the Indonesian , were ambivalent of Indonesian economic development , and spoke Portuguese amongst themselves , stressing their Portuguese heritage . Seeking help from Portugal for self @-@ determination , they considered Indonesia an occupying force . Abroad , Fretilin 's members — most notably former journalist José Ramos @-@ Horta ( later to be Prime Minister and President ) — pushed their cause in diplomatic forums .
The reduced armed resistance prompted the Indonesian government in 1988 to open up East Timor to improve its commercial prospects , including a lifting of the travel ban on journalists . The new policy came from foreign minister Ali Alatas against the advice of the military leadership who feared it would lead to loss of control . Alatas and diplomats swayed Suharto of the policy as a response to international concerns . In late 1989 , hardline military commander Brigadier General Mulyadi was replaced by Brigadier General Rudolph Warouw who promised a more " persuasive " approach to anti @-@ integrationists . Restrictions on travel within the territory were reduced , groups of political prisoners were released , and the use of torture in interrogation became less common . Warouw attempted to increase military discipline ; in February 1990 an Indonesian soldier was prosecuted for unlawful conduct in East Timor , the first such action since the invasion .
A reduced fear of persecution encouraged the resistance movements ; anti @-@ integration protests accompanied high @-@ profile visits to East Timor including that of Pope John Paul II in 1989 . The end of the Cold War removed much of the justification for western support of Indonesia 's occupation . The resulting increase in international attention to self @-@ determination and human rights put further pressure on Indonesia . Subsequent events within East Timor in the 1990s helped to dramatically raise the international profile of East Timor , which in turn significantly boosted the momentum of the resistance groups .
= = = Santa Cruz massacre = = =
During a memorial mass on 12 November 1991 for a pro @-@ independence youth shot by Indonesian troops , demonstrators among the 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong crowd unfurled the Fretlin flag and banners with pro @-@ independence slogans , and chanted boisterously but peacefully . Following a brief confrontation between Indonesian troops and protesters , 200 Indonesian soldiers opened fire on the crowd killing at least 250 Timorese .
The testimonies of foreigners at the cemetery were quickly reported to international news organisations , and video footage of the massacre was widely broadcast internationally causing outrage . In response to the massacre , activists around the world organised in solidarity with the East Timorese , and a new urgency was brought to calls for self @-@ determination . TAPOL , a British organisation formed in 1973 to advocate for democracy in Indonesia , increased its work around East Timor . In the United States , the East Timor Action Network ( now the East Timor and Indonesia Action Network ) was founded and soon had chapters in ten cities around the country . Other solidarity groups appeared in Portugal , Australia , Japan , Germany , Malaysia , Ireland , and Brazil . Coverage of the massacre was a vivid example of how growth of new media in Indonesia was making it increasingly difficult for the " New Order " to control information flow in and out of Indonesia , and that in the post @-@ Cold War 1990s , the government was coming under increasing international scrutiny . A number of pro @-@ democracy student groups and their magazines began to openly and critically discuss not just East Timor , but also the " New Order " and the broader history and future of Indonesia .
Sharp condemnation of the military came not just from the international community , but from within parts of the Indonesian elite . The massacre ended the governments 1989 opening of the territory and a new period of repression began . Warouw was removed from his position and his more accommodating approach to Timorese resistance rebuked by his superiors . Suspected Fretilin sympathisers were arrested , human rights abuses rose , and the ban on foreign journalists was reimposed . Hatred intensified amongst Timorese of the Indonesian military presence . Major General Prabowo 's , Kopassus Group 3 trained militias gangs dressed in black hoods to crush the remaining resistance .
= = = Arrest of Xanana Gusmão = = =
On 20 November 1992 FRETILIN leader Xanana Gusmão was arrested by Indonesian troops . In May 1993 he was sentenced to life imprisonment for " rebellion " , but his sentence was later commuted to 20 years . The arrest of the universally acknowledged leader of the resistance was a major frustration to the anti @-@ integration movement in East Timor , but Gusmão continued to serve as a symbol of hope from inside the Cipinang prison . Nonviolent resistance by East Timorese , meanwhile , continued to show itself . When President Bill Clinton visited Jakarta in 1994 , twenty @-@ nine East Timorese students occupied the US embassy to protest US support for Indonesia .
At the same time , human rights observers called attention to continued violations by Indonesian troops and police . A 1995 report by Human Rights Watch noted that " abuses in the territory continue to mount " , including torture , disappearances , and limitations on basic rights . After a series of riots in September and October 1995 , Amnesty International criticised Indonesian authorities for a wave of arbitrary arrests and torture . The report indicates detainees were beaten with iron bars , kicked , lacerated , and threatened with death .
= = = Nobel Peace Prize = = =
In 1996 East Timor was suddenly brought to world attention when the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos @-@ Horta " for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor " . The Nobel Committee indicated in its press release that it hoped the award would " spur efforts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict in East Timor based on the people 's right to self @-@ determination " . As Nobel scholar Irwin Abrams notes :
For Indonesia the prize was a great embarrassment .... In public statements the government tried to put distance between the two laureates , grudgingly recognising the prize for Bishop Belo , over whom it thought it could exercise some control , but accusing Ramos @-@ Horta of responsibility for atrocities during the civil strife in East Timor and declaring that he was a political opportunist .
At the award ceremony Chairman Sejersted answered these charges , pointing out that during the civil conflict Ramos @-@ Horta was not even in the country and on his return he tried to reconcile the two parties .
Diplomats from Indonesia and Portugal , meanwhile , continued the consultations required by the 1982 General Assembly resolution , in a series of meetings intended to resolve the problem of what Foreign Minister Ali Alatas called the " pebble in the Indonesian shoe " .
= = End of Indonesian control = =
Renewed United Nations @-@ brokered mediation efforts between Indonesia and Portugal began in early 1997 .
= = = Transition in Indonesia = = =
Independence for East Timor , or even limited regional autonomy , was never going to be allowed under Suharto 's New Order . Notwithstanding Indonesian public opinion in the 1990s occasionally showing begrudging appreciation of the Timorese position , it was widely feared that an independent East Timor would destabilise Indonesian unity . The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis , however , caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suharto 's resignation in May 1998 , ending his thirty @-@ year presidency . Prabowo , by then in command of the powerful Indonesian Strategic Reserve , went into exile in Jordan and military operations in East Timor were costing the bankrupt Indonesian government a million dollars a day . The subsequent " reformasi " period of relative political openness and transition , included unprecedented debate about Indonesia 's relationship with East Timor . For the remainder of 1998 , discussion forums took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum . Foreign Minister Alatas , described plans for phased autonomy leading to possible independence as " all pain , no gain " for Indonesia . On 8 June 1998 , three weeks after taking office , Suharto 's successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy .
In late 1998 , the Australian Government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy , and advocating for the staging of referendum on independence within a decade . President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying " colonial rule " by Indonesia and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue .
Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that it had agreed to hold a vote allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence . The vote , to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor ( UNAMET ) , was originally scheduled for 8 August but later postponed until 30 August . Indonesia also took responsibility for security ; this arrangement caused worry in East Timor , but many observers believe that Indonesia would have refused to allow foreign peacekeepers during the vote .
= = = 1999 referendum = = =
As groups supporting autonomy and independence began campaigning , a series of pro @-@ integration paramilitary groups of East Timorese began threatening violence — and indeed committing violence — around the country . Alleging pro @-@ independence bias on the part of UNAMET , the groups were seen working with and receiving training from Indonesian soldiers . Before the May agreement was announced , an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead . On 16 May 1999 , a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara ; in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana . Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese , but Ramos @-@ Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions . In February 1999 he said : " Before [ Indonesia ] withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization , as it has always promised . We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor . "
As militia leaders warned of a " bloodbath " , Indonesian " roving ambassador " Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared : " If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor . " One paramilitary announced that a vote for independence would result in a " sea of fire " , an expression referring to the Bandung Sea of Fire during Indonesia 's own war of independence from the Dutch . As the date of the vote drew near , reports of anti @-@ independence violence continued to accumulate .
The day of the vote , 30 August 1999 , was generally calm and orderly . 98 @.@ 6 percent of registered voters cast ballots , and on 4 September UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan announced that 78 @.@ 5 percent of the votes had been cast for independence . Brought up on the " New Order " ' s insistence that the East Timorese supported integration , Indonesians were either shocked by , or disbelieved that the East Timorese had voted against being part of Indonesia . Many accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution .
Within hours of the results , paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili . Foreign journalists and election observers fled , and tens of thousands of East Timorese took to the mountains . Islamic gangs attacked Dili 's Catholic Diocese building , killing two dozen people ; the next day , the headquarters of the ICRC was attacked and burned to the ground . Almost one hundred people were killed later in Suai , and reports of similar massacres poured in from around East Timor . The UN withdrew most of its personnel , but the Dili compound had been flooded with refugees . Four UN workers refused to evacuate unless the refugees were withdrawn as well , insisting they would rather die at the hands of the paramilitary groups . At the same time , Indonesian troops and paramilitary gangs forced over 200 @,@ 000 people into West Timor , into camps described by Human Rights Watch as " deplorable conditions " .
When a UN delegation arrived in Jakarta on 8 September , they were told by Indonesian President Habibie that reports of bloodshed in East Timor were " fantasies " and " lies " . General Wiranto of the Indonesian military insisted that his soldiers had the situation under control , and later expressed his emotion for East Timor by singing the 1975 hit song " Feelings " at an event for military wives .
= = = Indonesian withdrawal and peacekeeping force = = =
The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia , Portugal and elsewhere and activists in Portugal , Australia , the United States and other nations pressured their governments to take action . Australian Prime Minister John Howard consulted United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and lobbied US President Bill Clinton to support an Australian led international peace keeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence . The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an " over @-@ horizon " deterrent presence , but did not commit forces to the operation . Finally , on 11 September , Bill Clinton announced :
Indonesia , in dire economic straits relented . President BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that Indonesia would withdraw Indonesian soldiers and allow an Australian @-@ led international peacekeeping force to enter East Timor .
On 15 September 1999 , the United Nations Security Council expressed concern at the deteriorating situation in East Timor , and issued UNSC Resolution 1264 calling for a multinational force to restore peace and security to East Timor , to protect and support the United Nations mission there , and to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations until such time as a United Nations peacekeeping force could be approved and deployed in the area .
The International Force for East Timor , or INTERFET , under the command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove , entered Dili on 20 September and by 31 October the last Indonesian troops had left East Timor . The arrival of thousands of international troops in East Timor caused the militia to flee across the border into Indonesia , from whence sporadic cross @-@ border raids by the militia against INTERFET forces were conducted .
The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) was established at the end of October and administered the region for two years . Control of the nation was turned over to the Government of East Timor and independence was declared on 20 May 2002 . On 27 September of the same year , East Timor joined the United Nations as its 191st member state .
The bulk of the military forces of INTERFET were Australian — more than 5 @,@ 500 troops at its peak , including an infantry brigade , with armoured and aviation support — while eventually 22 nations contributed to the force which at its height numbered over 11 @,@ 000 troops . The United States provided crucial logistic and diplomatic support throughout the crisis , while the cruiser USS Mobile Bay protected the INTERFET naval fleet and a US Marine infantry battalion of 1 @,@ 000 men — plus organic armour and artillery — was also stationed off the coast aboard the USS Belleau Wood to provide a strategic reserve in the event of significant armed opposition .
= = International response = =
Indonesia used fear of communism to garner varying degrees of support among western countries , including the United States and Australia , for its East Timor invasion and occupation . The invasion and suppression of East Timor 's independence movement caused great harm to Indonesia 's reputation and international credibility . Criticism from the developing world undermined efforts in the 1980s to secure the Non @-@ Aligned Movement chair which Suharto strongly desired for Indonesia and condemnation of Indonesia continued through the 1990s .
= = = Australia = = =
See main article Australian Involvement in the East Timor Invasion
In September 1974 , Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam met with Suharto and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor . On 11 November 1975 , the Whitlam government was dismissed . This placed restrictions on the caretaker government of Fraser . Until the results of the 13 December election were known any action required approval from both political parties and the Governor General . On 4 December 1975 Australia unsuccessfully sought a UN resolution to determine the independence of East Timor , the Australian Government evacuated Australians and other foreign nationals from Dili . José Ramos @-@ Horta arrived in Darwin on 5 December saying that aid agencies the Australian Red Cross and Australian Society for Intercountry Aid Timor ( ASIAT ) had been banned from East Timor . In the same news conference Horta said that East Timor , Fretlin Government would not accept any UN assistance that included Australia .
After winning the December elections , the Fraser government took the approach that trade with Southeast Asia and political ties with Southeast Asia were too important to be put at risk for what was seen as a lost cause . Australia abstained from the 1976 and 1977 UN General Assembly Resolutions , and by 1978 became the only government to officially recognise East Timor as a province of Indonesia .
One year later , Australia and Indonesia began drafting a treaty to share resources in the Timor Gap . The treaty was signed in December 1989 , with estimates ranging from one to seven billion barrels of oil to be secured . This agreement , along with general economic partnership with Indonesia , is frequently cited as a crucial factor for the Australian government 's position . And yet given that nearly 60 @,@ 000 East Timorese had died during the fighting between Australian and Japanese forces that followed the invasion of Timor by the Japanese during the Pacific War some Australians believed their government owed a special debt to the former Portuguese colony . James Dunn , a senior Foreign Affairs adviser to the Australian Parliament before and during the occupation , condemned the government 's position , saying later : " What had been of vital strategic value in 1941 was , in 1974 , irrelevant and dispensable . " Some Australian World War II veterans protested the occupation for similar reasons .
Successive Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia ( Australia 's largest neighbour ) as providing an important security buffer to Australia 's north , but the East Timor issue complicated co @-@ operation between the two nations . Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos @-@ Horta ( who based himself in Australia during his exile ) . Australia 's trade with Indonesia grew through the 1980s and the Keating Labor Government signed a security pact with Indonesia in 1995 and gave relations with Jakarta a high priority . The fall of Indonesian President Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the Howard Government in 1998 helped precipitate a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence for East Timor . In late 1998 , Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer drafted a letter to Indonesia setting out a change in Australian policy , suggesting that East Timor be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade . The letter upset Indonesian President B. J. Habibie , who saw it as implying Indonesia was a " colonial power " and he decided to announce a snap referendum . A UN sponsored referendum held in 1999 showed overwhelming approval for independence , but was followed by violent clashes and a security crisis , instigated by anti @-@ independence militia . Australia then led a United Nations backed International Force for East Timor to end the violence and order was restored . While the intervention was ultimately successful , Australian @-@ Indonesian relations would take several years to recover .
The Australian Labor Party altered its East Timor policy in 1999 and adopted a policy of support for East Timorese independence and opposition to the Indonesian presence there , through its Foreign Affairs spokesperson Laurie Brereton . Breretons ' credibility was attacked by the governing Liberal @-@ National Coalition government and its Foreign Affairs Minister Alexander Downer , and Prime Minister Howard . They were assisted in their campaign by the then @-@ Labor @-@ backbencher Kevin Rudd ( who would later lead the Labor Party to victory in the 2007 Australian federal election ) .
= = = Philippines = = =
Owing to its strong relation with Indonesia , the Philippines initially was cold on the issue . In fact , not only that it denied José Ramos @-@ Horta entry in 1997 ( when he was supposed to give a lecture to the University of the Philippines Diliman ) , then President @-@ Fidel V. Ramos even included him in the immigration blacklist .
However , with the widespread support from various countries , the Philippines finally changed its policy . After Timorese Independence , the Philippines contributed medical and logistics personnel to Interfet , rather than ground troops . The UN named a Filipino , Lieutenant General Jaime delos Santos , to command the full @-@ fledged UN peacekeeping force which takes over from Interfet on Tuesday .
Sharing the same Roman Catholic heritage , the Philippines became a natural ally and has maintained a good relationship with East Timor until now . It has since removed José Ramos @-@ Horta from the blacklist ; he frequently gives lectures in various universities in the Philippines , most notably in the University of the Philippines Diliman , Polytechnic University of the Philippines , De La Salle University and Ateneo de Davao University .
= = = Portugal = = =
The day after the invasion , Portugal cut diplomatic ties with Indonesia and went on to support UN resolutions condemning the invasion . However , in the late 1970s and early 1980s , the Portuguese government appeared reluctant to push the issue ; American Indonesia specialist , Benedict Anderson suggests this stemmed from uncertainty at the time over its application to the European Community . Portugal 's criticism mounted sharply from the mid @-@ 1980s , and due to public pressure , the country became one of the highest profile campaigners in international forums for East Timorese self @-@ determination . Throughout the 1990s , Portugal took part in UN @-@ brokered mediations with Indonesia .
= = = United States = = =
In 1975 , the United States was completing a retreat from Vietnam . A staunchly anti @-@ communist Indonesia was considered by the United States to be an essential counterweight , and friendly relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than a decolonisation process in East Timor . The United States also wanted to maintain its access to deep water straits running through Indonesia for undetectable submarine passage between the Indian and Pacific oceans .
On the day before the invasion , US President Gerald R. Ford and US Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger met with Indonesian president Suharto and reportedly gave their approval for the invasion . In response to Suharto saying " We want your understanding if it was deemed necessary to take rapid or drastic action [ in East Timor ] . " Ford replied , " We will understand and not press you on the issue . We understand the problem and the intentions you have . " Kissinger similarly agreed , though he had fears that the use of US @-@ made arms in the invasion would be exposed to public scrutiny , talking of their desire to " influence the reaction in America " so that " there would be less chance of people talking in an unauthorised way . " The US also hoped the invasion would be swift and not involve protracted resistance . " It is important that whatever you do succeeds quickly , " Kissinger said to Suharto . Kissinger 's main fear appears to have been that a violent take @-@ over by the partly communist FRETILIN party might inspire similar Communist victories throughout Asia and possibly even lead to secessionist revolts threatening the very survival of Indonesia as a state .
The US supplied weapons to Indonesia during the invasion and the subsequent occupation . A week after the invasion of East Timor , the National Security Council prepared a detailed analysis which found that the vast majority of the military equipment was US supplied . While the US government said they had suspended military assistance from December 1975 to June 1976 , military aid was actually above what the US Department of State proposed and the US Congress continued to increase it , nearly doubling it . Between 1975 and 1980 , when the violence in East Timor was at its climax , the United States furnished approximately $ 340 million in weaponry to the Indonesian government . US military aid and arms sales to Indonesia increased from 1974 and continued through to the Bush and Clinton years until it was stopped in 1999 . US arms provisions to Indonesia between 1975 and 1995 amounted to approximately $ 1 @.@ 1 billion .
The UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor ( CAVR ) stated in the " Responsibility " chapter of its final report that US " political and military support were fundamental to the Indonesian invasion and occupation " of East Timor between 1975 and 1999 . The report ( p . 92 ) also stated that " U.S. supplied weaponry was crucial to Indonesia 's capacity to intensify military operations from 1977 in its massive campaigns to destroy the Resistance in which aircraft supplied by the United States played a crucial role . "
Fretilin has claimed that the degree of US support for the Indonesian government 's efforts in East Timor may have extended beyond that of diplomatic support and material assistance . A UPI report from Sydney , Australia dated 19 June 1978 , quoted a Fretilin press release , which stated : " American military advisers and mercenaries fought alongside Indonesian soldiers against FRETILIN in two battles ... In the meantime , American pilots are flying OV @-@ 10 Bronco aircraft for the Indonesian Air Force in bombing raids against the liberated areas under FRETILIN control . "
The United States abstained from most of the UN resolutions censuring the Indonesian invasion . Daniel Patrick Moynihan , the US Ambassador to the UN at the time , wrote later in his memoirs : " The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook . This task was given to me , and I carried it forward with no inconsiderable success . "
= = = Other countries = = =
Britain , Canada , Japan , and other nations supported Indonesia during the occupation of East Timor . Britain abstained from all of the UN General Assembly resolutions relating to East Timor , and sold arms throughout the occupation . In 1978 Indonesia purchased eight BAE Hawk jet trainers , which were used during the " encirclement and annihilation " campaign . Britain sold dozens of additional jets to Indonesia in the 1990s . Canada abstained from early General Assembly resolutions about East Timor , and opposed three . The Canadian government regularly sold weapons to Indonesia during the occupation , and in the 1990s approved over CDN $ 400 million in exports for spare weapons parts . Japan voted against all eight General Assembly resolutions regarding East Timor .
The Indian government also supported Indonesia , likening the occupation to its own seizure of Goa in 1961 . Some analysts remarked that Indonesia 's delayed action also prevented peaceful transfer of East Timor to it , similar to the manner in which the French transferred Pondicherry to India in 1962 .
Member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) , consistently voted against the General Assembly resolutions calling for self @-@ determination in East Timor .
= = Impacts = =
= = = Number of deaths = = =
Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine . The 2005 report of the UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor ( CAVR ) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict @-@ related deaths of 102 @,@ 800 ( + / - 12 @,@ 000 ) . Of these , the report says that approximately 18 @,@ 600 ( + / -1,000 ) were either killed or disappeared , and that approximately 84 @,@ 000 ( + / -11,000 ) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality . These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically @-@ based principal finding . The report did not provide an upper bound , however , CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict @-@ related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183 @,@ 000 . The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70 % of the violent killings .
Researcher Ben Kiernan says that " a toll of 150 @,@ 000 is likely close to the truth , " although one can throw out an estimate of 200 @,@ 000 or higher . The Center for Defense Information also estimated a total close to 150 @,@ 000 . A 1974 Catholic church estimate of the population of East Timor was 688 @,@ 711 people ; in 1982 the church reported only 425 @,@ 000 . This led to an estimate of 200 @,@ 000 people killed during the occupation , which was widely reported around the world . Other sources such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch also support an estimate of over 200 @,@ 000 killed .
According to specialist Gabriel Defert on the basis of statistical data available from the Portuguese and Indonesian authorities , and from the Catholic Church , between December 1975 and December 1981 , approximately 308 @,@ 000 Timorese lost their lives ; this constituted about 44 % of the pre @-@ invasion population . Similarly Indonesian Professor George Aditjondro , formerly of Salatiga University in Java , concluded from his study of Indonesian Army data that in fact 300 @,@ 000 Timorese had been killed in the early years of the occupation .
Robert Cribb of the Australian National University argues that the toll was significantly exaggerated . He argues that the 1980 census that counted 555 @,@ 350 Timorese , although " the most reliable source of all , " was probably a minimum rather than a maximum estimate for the total population . " It is worth recalling that hundreds of thousands of East Timorese disappeared during the violence of September 1999 , only to reappear later , " he writes . The 1980 census becomes more improbable in the face of the 1987 census that counted 657 @,@ 411 Timorese – this would require a growth rate of 2 @.@ 5 % per year , nearly identical to the very high growth rate in East Timor from 1970 to 1975 , and a highly unlikely one given the conditions of the brutal occupation , including Indonesian efforts to discourage reproduction . Noting the relative lack of personal accounts of atrocities or of traumatised Indonesian soldiers , he further adds that East Timor " does not appear — on the basis of news reports and academic accounts — to be a society traumatized by mass death ... the circumstance leading up to the Dili massacre of 1991 ... indicate a society which retained its vigor and indignation in a way which would probably not have been possible if it had been treated as Cambodia was treated under Pol Pot . " Even Indonesian military strategy was based on winning the " hearts and minds " of the population , a fact that does not support charges of mass killing .
Kiernan , starting from a base population of 700 @,@ 000 Timorese in 1975 ( based on the 1974 Catholic Church census ) calculated an expected 1980 population of 735 @,@ 000 Timorese ( assuming a growth rate of only 1 % per year as a result of the occupation ) . Accepting the 1980 count that Cribb regards as at least 10 % ( 55 @,@ 000 ) too low , Kiernan concluded that as many as 180 @,@ 000 may have died in the war . Cribb argued that the 3 % growth rate suggested by the 1974 census was too high , citing the fact that the church had previously postulated a growth rate of 1 @.@ 8 % , which would have produced a figure in line with the Portuguese population estimate of 635 @,@ 000 for 1974 .
Although Cribb maintained that the Portuguese census was almost certainly an underestimate , he believed it to be more likely correct than the church census , due to the fact that any church attempt to extrapolate the size of the total population " must be seen in light of its incomplete access to society " ( less than half of Timorese were Catholic ) . Assuming a growth rate in line with the other nations of South East Asia , then , would yield a more accurate figure of 680 @,@ 000 for 1975 , and an expected 1980 population of slightly over 775 @,@ 000 ( without accounting for the decline in the birth rate resulting from the Indonesian occupation ) . The deficit remaining would be almost exactly 200 @,@ 000 . According to Cribb , Indonesian policies restricted the birth rate by up to 50 % or more , thus around 45 @,@ 000 of these were not born rather than killed ; another 55 @,@ 000 were " missing " as a result of the Timorese evading the Indonesian authorities who conducted the 1980 census . A variety of factors — the exodus of tens of thousands from their homes to escape FRETELIN in 1974 @-@ 5 ; the deaths of thousands in the civil war ; the deaths of combatants during the occupation ; killings by FRETELIN ; and natural disasters — diminish further still the civilian toll attributable to Indonesian forces during this time . Considering all this data , Cribb argues for a much lower toll of 100 @,@ 000 or less , with an absolute minimum of 60 @,@ 000 , and a mere tenth of the civilian population dying unnaturally , for the years 1975 – 80 .
Kiernan responded , however , by asserting that the influx of migrant workers during the occupation and the increase in the population growth rate typical of a mortality crisis justifies accepting the 1980 census as valid despite the 1987 estimate , and that the 1974 church census — though a " possible maximum " — cannot be discounted because the church 's lack of access to society might well have resulted in an undercount . He concluded that at least 116 @,@ 000 combatants and civilians were killed by all sides or died " unnatural " deaths from 1975 – 80 ( if true , this would yield the result that about 15 % of the civilian population of East Timor was killed from 1975 – 80 ) . F. Hiorth separately estimated that 13 % ( 95 @,@ 000 out of an expected 730 @,@ 000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates ) of the civilian population died during this period . Kiernan believes that the deficit was most probably around 145 @,@ 000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates , or 20 % of East Timor 's population . The mid @-@ value of the UN report is 146 @,@ 000 deaths ; R.J. Rummel , an analyst of political killings , estimates 150 @,@ 000 .
Many observers have called the Indonesian military action in East Timor an example of genocide . In a study of the word 's legal meaning and applicability to the occupation of East Timor , legal scholar Ben Saul concludes that because no group recognised under international law was targeted by the Indonesian authorities , a charge of genocide cannot be applied . However , he also notes : " The conflict in East Timor most accurately qualifies as genocide against a ‘ political group ’ , or alternatively as ‘ cultural genocide ’ , yet neither of these concepts are explicitly recognised in international law . " The occupation has been compared to the killings of the Khmer Rouge , the Yugoslav wars , and the Rwandan Genocide .
Accurate numbers of Indonesian casualties are well @-@ documented . The complete names of around 2 @,@ 300 Indonesian soldiers and pro @-@ Indonesian militias who died in action as well as from illness and accidents during the entire occupation is engraved into the Seroja Monument located in Armed Forces Headquarters in Cilangkap , south of Jakarta . < http : / / www.pelita.or.id / baca.php ? id = 3551 >
= = = Justice = = =
Saul goes on to discuss prosecutions of responsible parties for " crimes against humanity , war crimes , and other gross violations of human rights " . In the years after the end of the occupation , a number of proceedings have been carried out to such an end . The 1999 UN Security Council resolution authorising UNTAET described the history of " systematic , widespread and flagrant violations of international and human rights law " and demanded " that those responsible for such violence be brought to justice " . To achieve these ends , UNTAET established a Serious Crimes Unit ( SCU ) , which has attempted to investigate and prosecute individuals responsible for such violence . However , the SCU has been criticised for accomplishing relatively little , presumably because it is funded inadequately , limited in mandate to crimes committed only in 1999 , and for other reasons . Indonesian trials purporting to punish those responsible for the violence were described as " manifestly inadequate " by a UN commission .
Deficiencies in these processes have led a number of organisations to call for an international tribunal to prosecute individuals responsible for killings in East Timor , similar to those established in Yugoslavia and Rwanda . A 2001 editorial by the East Timor NGO La 'o Hamutuk said :
An uncountable number of Crimes Against Humanity were committed during the 1975 – 1999 period in East Timor . Although an international court could not pursue all of them , it ... [ would ] confirm that the invasion , occupation and destruction of East Timor by Indonesia was a long @-@ standing , systematic , criminal conspiracy , planned and ordered at the highest levels of government . Many of the perpetrators continue to wield authority and influence in East Timor ’ s nearest neighbour . The future of peace , justice and democracy in both East Timor and Indonesia depends on holding the highest @-@ level perpetrators accountable .
In 2005 , the Indonesia @-@ Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship was set up with the goal of establishing the truth relating to crimes under the occupation , and healing divisions between the countries . It has received criticism from NGOs and was rejected by the United Nations for offering impunity .
= = Indonesian governors of East Timor = =
President of the Provisional Government :
17 December 1975 – 17 July 1976 : Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo
Governors :
1976 – 1978 : Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo
1978 – 1982 : Guilherme Maria Gonçalves
18 September 1982 – 18 September 1992 : Mário Viegas Carrascalão
18 September 1992 – 25 October 1999 : José Abílio Osório Soares
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= London Road Fire Station , Manchester =
London Road Fire Station is a former fire station in Manchester , England . It was opened in 1906 , on a site bounded by London Road , Whitworth Street , Minshull Street South and Fairfield Street . Designed in the Edwardian Baroque style by Woodhouse , Willoughby and Langham in red brick and terracotta , it cost £ 142 @,@ 000 to build . It has been a Grade II * listed building since 1974 .
In addition to a fire station , the building housed a police station , an ambulance station , a bank , a coroner 's court , and a gas @-@ meter testing station . The fire station operated for eighty years , housing the firemen , their families , and the horse @-@ drawn appliances that were replaced by motorised vehicles a few years after its opening . It was visited by royalty in 1942 , in recognition of the brigade 's wartime efforts . After the war it became a training centre and in 1952 became the first centre equipped to record emergency calls . However , the fire station became expensive to maintain and after council reorganisation decline set in .
The building was the headquarters of the Manchester Fire Brigade until the brigade was replaced by the Greater Manchester Fire Service in 1974 . The fire station closed in 1986 , since when it has been largely unused despite several redevelopment proposals . It was placed on English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register in 2001 and in 2010 Manchester City Council served a compulsory purchase order on the fire station 's owner , Britannia Hotels . Britannia announced in 2015 their intention to sell the building opening up the possibility of redevelopment after nearly 30 years of dereliction .
= = Construction = =
In 1897 the Manchester Watch Committee was considering a replacement for its fire station on Jackson 's Row . A five @-@ man sub @-@ committee was set up and recommended a site on Newton Street . In 1899 , George William Parker who had designed fire stations in Bootle and Belfast , and been referred to as the " architect of the world 's fire service " was appointed Chief of the Manchester Fire Brigade and asked his opinion on the proposal . Parker reported that the site on Newton Street was unsuitable and submitted plans for a fire station on a site bounded by London Road , Whitworth Street , Minshull Street South and Fairfield Street .
Parker 's proposal was for a 7 @-@ bay fire station on a site more than double the size of the one proposed on Newton Street . The choice of London Road was influenced by its proximity to a development of warehouses on Whitworth Street and Princess Street . Parker convinced the city council to choose his proposals rather than those on Newton Street .
A competition , with prizes of £ 300 , £ 200 and £ 100 ( equivalent to £ 29 @,@ 000 , £ 19 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) was organised to design the new fire station . The competition drew interest from across the country , attracting 25 entries . The winning entry was by John Henry Woodhouse , George Harry Willoughby and John Langham , a team of local architects . Their design was based closely on Parker 's initial plans . The fire station was described by Fire Call magazine as " the finest fire station in this round world " before construction started .
The fire station was built between 1904 and 1906 at a cost of £ 142 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 13 @.@ 8 million in 2016 ) . The building 's substructure and foundations were built by C. H. Normanton of Manchester . The superstructure was built by Gerrard 's of Swinton at a cost of £ 75 @,@ 360 . It was faced with red brick and terracotta by Burmantofts , a common choice for early 20th @-@ century buildings in Manchester as it was cleanable and resisted the pollution and acid rain caused by local industry . Other notable Manchester buildings from this era making use of terracotta include the Midland Hotel , the Refuge Assurance Building , the University 's The Sackville Street Building ( formerly known as UMIST main building ) and the Victoria Baths . The building 's exterior featured sculptural models by John Jarvis Millson representing the functions of the building such as justice , fire and water .
The building had stained glass windows and the interior was decorated with glazed bricks , similar to other public buildings of this era in the city , such as the Victoria Baths . The similarities suggest the influence and adoption of a standard design by Henry Price 's newly created City Architect 's Department .
= = Operation = =
The building was opened on 27 September 1906 by the Lord Mayor of Manchester James Herbert Thewlis . In addition to the fire station , the building housed a police station on Whitworth Street , an ambulance station on Minshull Street South , a branch of Williams Deacon 's Bank at the corner of London Road and Fairfield Street , < a coroner 's court , and a gas @-@ meter testing station on London Road . The coroner 's court and gas @-@ meter testing station replaced the proposed public library and gym .
The fire station contained flats for 32 firemen and their families and 6 single firemen . Facilities included a laundry , gym , billiards room and children 's play @-@ areas . The complex contained stables for the horses that pulled the fire appliances , and a blacksmith 's workshop . There were electric bells and lights to alert firemen to an alarm , poles to expedite the firemen 's response , suspended harnesses to allow the horses to be harnessed quickly , and electric doors . The fire station was also designed with foresight ; the appliance bays were made wide enough to take motorised fire appliances . The station 's first motorised fire appliance arrived in 1911 , five years after it opened .
The building featured a 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) hose tower and a ventilation system designed by Musgrave and Company to prevent the odour from the horses ' stalls entering the firemens ' living quarters . Fresh air was drawn in through the top of the fire station 's tower , purified and circulated around the building . When the air reached the end of the circuit , in the stalls , it was extracted from the building . The system meant that the air in the building was replaced every 10 minutes .
During the Second World War the basement was converted into an air @-@ raid shelter and an extension built in the yard to provide more space in the control room . The fire services were nationalised in 1941 , and London Road became the headquarters of Division C. In recognition of the fire fighters ' efforts King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited the fire station in 1942 .
After the war the Manchester Fire Brigade was again municipalised , and reorganised . London Road Fire Station was restored as the headquarters of the brigade and became the only fire station serving the city centre . A fire service training centre was established in 1948 . At about the same time , the ambulance station closed and was converted into the fire brigade 's workshops . The control room was modernised in 1952 , becoming the first in the country with equipment to record emergency calls .
The interior of the building was refurbished in 1955 . The exterior had been cleaned every year since the fire station opened , and as a result was still in pristine condition when the building celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 6 October 1956 .
= = Decline = =
By the end of the 1960s maintenance was becoming increasingly expensive , and the building 's design ill @-@ suited to modern fire appliances . Plans to replace the fire station were put on hold pending the formation of the Greater Manchester Fire Service .
The building has been Grade II * listed since 1974 , the same year that the replacement of the Manchester Fire Brigade by the Greater Manchester Fire Service precipitated the relocation of the brigade 's headquarters to a new facility in Swinton . As part of the reorganisation , London Road became the headquarters of the brigade 's " E Division " , with the station 's control room responsible for two divisions covering the City of Manchester , the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport and Tameside .
The reorganisation meant the number of appliances was reduced , until only three remained at the station . The control room at London Road closed in 1979 , replaced by a single computerised control room at brigade headquarters in Swinton .
In the same year , following the establishment of Greater Manchester Police and a reorganisation of policing in the city , the police station in the building also closed . The closure left the ground floor on the Whitworth Street side empty . The last tenants of the bank section , a firm of solicitors , and the fire brigade 's workshops , also vacated the building at about the same time .
In 1984 construction work began on a £ 2 @.@ 4 million , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) replacement in Thompson Street and in 1985 the old London Road Fire Station was brought within the Whitworth Street Conservation Area . In 1986 the fire service left London Road for its new fire station , London Road Fire Station closed and the building was sold .
= = Dereliction and redevelopment = =
After the sale the building was mainly used for storage whilst planning applications to convert it into a hotel were made in 1986 , 1993 , and 2001 , with varying degrees of success . The coroner 's court was the last to vacate the premises , in 1998 . In 2001 , the building was placed on English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register . By 2004 it was in steep decline , and momentum was building for the fire station 's owner , Britannia Hotels , to act .
In February 2006 , Argent , developers proposed leasing the building from Britannia Hotels to transform it into a music and arts venue . Manchester City Council backed the plans and refused to rule out a compulsory purchase order ( CPO ) if the owner did not act to redevelop the building . Britannia Hotels branded Argent 's plans " unworkable " and proposed turning the building into a company headquarters , 200 @-@ bed hotel , and fire station museum . A planning application was promised by March 2006 , but by May none had been made . Work was carried out by February 2007 to make the building watertight and in autumn 2007 a proposal was made by Britannia to convert the building into a hotel .
Britannia Hotels appointed Purcell Miller Tritton to draw up plans to convert the building into a hotel in 2008 but none were produced by May 2009 and the city council lost faith in Britannia Hotels ' commitment to its redevelopment . The city council was concerned that the state of the fire station was limiting regeneration in the area , including a proposed government complex on the former Mayfield Railway Station site . The city council set a deadline of July 2009 for progress on redevelopment . Britannia Hotels ' proposal in July 2009 was to convert the fire station into a hotel with a 15 @-@ storey tower in its courtyard and promised a planning application by October 2009 , but none was made and the city council 's Chief Executive recommended issuing a CPO . A meeting of the city council in January 2010 approved a request for up to £ 5 @.@ 25 million to cover the costs associated with the fire station 's acquisition . Britannia Hotels responded by pledging to make a new proposal by February 2010 , rendering the CPO unnecessary .
Britannia submitted an application to turn the fire station into a 227 @-@ bed 4 @-@ star hotel in June 2010 . The Victorian Society praised the proposed conversion . Manchester City Council decided to continue with the CPO . The city council issued a CPO on 5 August 2010 . Despite the plans being approved 16 September 2010 , the council continued to pursue a CPO and solicited bids for a development partner in January 2011 . Britannia 's objection to the CPO led to a public inquiry in April 2011 . On 29 November 2011 , the Department for Communities and Local Government confirmed the CPO had been rejected . Despite Britannia 's guarantee at the inquiry to proceed with the development it reconsidered its plans . In a letter to English Heritage , Britannia said the proposed scheme was unsustainable for the foreseeable future . Britannia wanted to return to the rejected tower plan . English Heritage and the city council expressed disappointment . The city council offered to buy the building at market value .
In February 2013 after a public meeting the Friends of London Road Fire Station ( FoLRFS ) was formed to pressurise Britannia Hotels and persuade the council to attempt a second CPO . The group organised an online petition , fundraising events , public meetings , an online survey to discover locals ' views , an art exhibition and public engagement with its history , and published the outcome of a Freedom of Information Act request on what the council had done regarding surveying the building and issuing urgent @-@ works notices . In November 2013 , Britannia applied to extend the 2010 planning permissions but despite objections the applications were approved on technical grounds in December 2013 . The council considered applying for a CPO for the second time in September 2014 and confirmed its intention to do so in December 2014 and meet with FoLRFS in early 2015 . FoLRFS received a grant from Locality 's Community Assets in Difficult Ownership ( CADO ) programme to pay for public outreach work . On 30 April 2015 , FoLRFS met Pat Bartoli , head of the council 's urban regeneration team and Howard Bernstein who praised their campaign . It was announced immediately after the meeting that Britannia Hotels had decided to sell the building .
London Road Fire Station was put on the market on 1 May 2015 and expected offers of around £ 10 million while restoration is expected to cost £ 20 – 30 million . Allied London acquired the firestation on 16 November 2015 .
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= Ann Bishop ( biologist ) =
Ann Bishop ( 19 December 1899 – 7 May 1990 ) was a biologist from Girton College at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of the Royal Society , one of the few female Fellows of the Royal Society . She was born in Manchester but stayed at Cambridge for the vast majority of her professional life . Her specialties were protozoology and parasitology ; early work with ciliate parasites , including the one responsible for blackhead disease in the domesticated turkey , lay the groundwork for her later research . While working towards her doctorate , Bishop studied parasitic amoebae and examined potential chemotherapies for the treatment of amoebic diseases including amoebic dysentery .
Her best known work was a comprehensive study of Plasmodium , the malaria parasite , and investigation of various chemotherapies for the disease . Later she studied drug resistance in this parasite , research that proved valuable to the British military in World War II . She discovered the potential for cross @-@ resistance in these parasites during that same period . Bishop also discovered the protozoan Pseudotrichomonas keilini and worked with Aedes aegypti , a malaria vector , as part of her research on the disease . Elected to the Royal Society in 1959 , Bishop was the founder of the British Society for Parasitology and served on the World Health Organization 's Malaria Committee .
= = Life = =
Bishop was born in Manchester , England on 19 December 1899 . Her father , James Kimberly Bishop , was a furniture @-@ maker who owned a cotton factory inherited from his father . Her mother , Ellen Bishop ( née Ginger ) , was from nearby Bedfordshire . Bishop had one brother , born when she was 13 . At an early age , Bishop wished to continue the family business , though her interests quickly turned to the sciences after her father encouraged her to go to university . Appreciative of music from a young age , Bishop regularly attended performances of the Halle Orchestra in Manchester . As a researcher , she was introverted and meticulous , preferring to work alone or with other scientists whom she considered to have high standards . She was a fixture at Girton College for most of her life ; The Guardian dubbed her " Girtonian of Girtonians " in her obituary . A keen cook , she was also known for her annoyance at the lack of scientific measures in recipes she found .
Bishop was recognized at the College for her distinctive hats , which she would wear to breakfast every day before walking to the Molteno Institute , a distance of 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) . She was skilled in needlework and appreciated the arts , though she did not like modern art . Her pastimes included walking and travelling , especially in the Lake District : however , she rarely left Britain . She also spent time in London at the beginning of each year , attending the opera and ballet and visiting galleries . Towards the end of her life , when her mobility was limited by arthritis , Bishop developed a fascination with the history of biology and medicine , although she never published in that field . Ann Bishop died of pneumonia at the age of 90 after a short illness . Her memorial service was conducted in the College 's chapel and was filled with her wide circle of friends .
= = Education = =
Educated at home until she was seven , Bishop then went to a private elementary school until the age of nine . In 1909 , then ten years old , she entered the progressive Fielden School in her hometown of Manchester , where she studied for three years . She completed her high school education at the Manchester High School for Girls . Though Bishop intended to study chemistry , her lack of education in physics meant that she could not pursue her preferred course in the Honours School of Chemistry . Instead , she matriculated at Manchester University in October 1918 to study botany , chemistry , and zoology . That first @-@ year course in zoology sparked her lifelong interest in and commitment to the field . She graduated with honours from the School of Zoology , receiving her Bachelor of Science degree in 1921 ; she received her master 's degree in 1922 . During her undergraduate years , under the tutelage of the helminthologist R.A. Wardle and the protozoologist Geoffrey Lapage , Bishop studied ciliates acquired from local ponds .
Two years into her undergraduate career , after winning the John Dalton Natural History Prize awarded by the University , she began work for another protozoologist , a Fellow of the Royal Society , Sydney J. Hickson . In 1932 , she received her D.Sc. from Manchester University , for her work with the blackhead parasite . She received her Sc.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1941 , though it was in title only : women were not granted full degrees from Cambridge at this time .
= = Scientific career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Bishop 's undergraduate work with Hickson was her first major research effort , concerning the reproduction of Spirostomum ambiguum , a large ciliate that has been described as " wormlike " . In 1923 , while working at Manchester University , Bishop was appointed an honorary research fellow . In 1924 , she became a part @-@ time instructor for the Department of Zoology at Cambridge , one of only two women , both of whom were sometimes marginalised . For example , she was not allowed to sit at the table with the men of the department at tea : instead , she sat on a first @-@ aid kit . There , Bishop continued her work with Spirostomum as the only protozoologist on the faculty .
She left that position in 1926 , to work for Clifford Dobell at the National Institute for Medical Research where she stayed there for three years . Under Dobell , Bishop studied parasitic amoebae found in the human gastrointestinal tract , focusing on the species responsible for amoebic dysentery , Entamoeba histolytica . Dobell , Bishop , and Patrick Laidlaw studied the effects of amoebicides like emetine for the purpose of treating amoebal diseases . Later in her career , she named the amoeba genus Dobellina after her mentor .
= = = Molteno Institute = = =
The majority of her career was spent at Cambridge 's Molteno Institute for Parasite Biology , where she returned in 1929 . Her work there was an extension of her research with Dobell , as she studied nuclear division in parasitic flagellates and amoebae of diverse species , including both vertebrates and invertebrates . She isolated one type of protozoan , aerotolerant anaerobes , from the digestive tract of Haemopis sanguisuga during this period . Bishop also discovered a new species , Pseudotrichomonas keilini , which she named to acknowledge her colleague David Keilin , as well as the parasite 's resemblance to the genus Trichomonas . Her research at Manchester with H.P. Baynon concerned the identification , isolation , and study of the turkey blackhead parasite ( Histomonas meleagridis ) ; this study pioneered a technique for isolating and growing parasites from lesions on the liver . Bishop and Baynon were the first scientists to isolate Histomonas and then prove its role in blackhead . Bishop 's expertise with parasitic protozoa translated into her best @-@ known work , a comprehensive study of the malaria parasite ( Plasmodium ) and potential chemotherapies for the disease .
Between 1937 and 1938 , Bishop studied the effects of various factors , including different substances in blood and different temperatures , on the feeding behaviour of the chicken malaria ( Plasmodium gallinaceum ) vector , Aedes aegypti . She also examined factors that contributed to Plasmodium reproduction . This work became the basis for subsequent ongoing research into a malaria vaccine . Her subsequent work was spurred by the outbreak of the Second World War . During the war , she investigated alternative chemotherapies for malaria . Her research aided the British war effort because the most prevalent antimalarial , quinine , was difficult to obtain due to the Japanese occupation of the Dutch West Indies . From 1947 to 1964 , she was in charge of the Institute 's Chemotherapy Research Institute , associated with the Medical Research Council .
Bishop 's work evolved to include studies of drug resistance in both the parasites and the host organisms , the studies that would earn her a place in the Royal Society . Significant work from this period of Bishop 's life included a study showing that the parasite itself did not develop resistance to quinine , but that host organisms could develop resistance to the drug proguanil . Her in vitro research was proven accurate when the drugs she studied were used to treat patients suffering from tertian malaria , a form of the illness in which the paroxysm of fever occurs every third day . She also investigated the drugs pamaquine and atebrin , along with proguanil , though proguanil was the only one shown to cause the development of drug resistance . Other studies showed that malaria parasites could develop cross @-@ resistance to other antimalarial drugs . Bishop worked at Molteno until 1967 . Her research and experimental protocols were later used in rodent and human studies , albeit with modifications .
= = = Honours and legacy = = =
Bishop received several honorary titles and fellowships during her career . In 1932 , she was appointed a Yallow Fellow of Girton College , an honour she held until her death in 1990 . Bishop was also a Beit Fellow from 1929 – 1932 . The Medical Research Council awarded her a grant in 1937 that sparked her study of Plasmodium . In 1945 and 1947 , she was involved in organising Girton College 's Working Women 's Summer School , an institution designed to provide intellectual fulfilment for women whose formal education ended at the age of 14 . She was elected to the Royal Society in 1959 , and at one point was a member of the Malaria Committee of the World Health Organization .
The British Society for Parasitology was founded in the 1950s , largely due to Bishop 's efforts . She was initially given only five pounds and a secretary to start the Society ; in order to raise funds Bishop passed around a pudding basin at the Society 's meetings . The society was originally a subgroup of the Institute of Biology at Cambridge , but it became an independent group in 1960 and was headed by Bishop . She was the president of the group , called the Institute of Biology Parasitology Group , from 1960 @-@ 1962 , the third overall leader of the group . Later that decade , the Department of Biology asked her to be the department head , but she declined because of the public nature of the role . For 20 years , the scientific journal Parasitology had Bishop on staff as an editor . Her lifelong association with Girton College prompted the placement of a plaque commemorating her life , whose inscription , quoted from Virgil , reads " Felix , qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas " , Latin for " Happy is the one who has been able to get to know the causes of things " . In 1992 , the British Society for Parasitology created a grant in Bishop 's name , the Ann Bishop Travelling Award , to aid young parasitologists in travelling for field work where their parasites of interest are endemic .
= = Selected publications = =
Bishop , Ann ( 1923 ) . " Some observations upon Spirostomum ambiguum ( Ehrenberg ) " ( PDF ) . Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Society 67 : 391 – 434 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1927 ) . " The cytoplasmic structures of Spirostomum ambiguum ( Ehrenberg ) " ( PDF ) . Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Society 71 : 147 – 172 .
Laidlaw , P. P. ; Dobell , Clifford ; Bishop , Ann ( 1928 ) . " Further experiments on the action of emetine in cultures of Entamoeba histolytica " . Parasitology 20 ( 2 ) : 207 – 220 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000011604 .
Bishop , Ann ; Dobell , Clifford ( 1929 ) . " Researches on the intestinal protozoa of monkeys and man . III : The action of emetine on natural amoebic infections in Macaques " . Parasitology 21 ( 4 ) : 446 – 468 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000029334 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1929 ) . " Experiments on the action of emetine in cultures of Entamoeba coli " . Parasitology 21 ( 4 ) : 481 – 486 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S003118200002936X .
Bishop , Ann ( 1931 ) . " The morphology and division of Trichomonas " . Parasitology 23 ( 2 ) : 129 – 156 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000013524 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1938 ) . " Histomonas meleagridis in domestic fowls ( Gallus gallus ) . Cultivation and experimental infection " . Parasitology 30 ( 2 ) : 181 – 194 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000025749 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1942 ) . " Chemotherapy and avian malaria " . Parasitology 34 ( 1 ) : 1 – 54 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000015985 .
Bishop , Ann ; Gilchrist , Barbara M. ( 1946 ) . " Experiments upon the feeding of Aëdes aegypti through animal membranes with a view to applying this method to the chemotherapy of malaria " . Parasitology 37 ( 1 – 2 ) : 85 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000013202 .
Bishop , Ann ; Birkett , Betty ( 1947 ) . " Acquired resistance to paludrine in Plasmodium gallinaceum " . Nature 159 ( 4052 ) : 884 – 885 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 159884a0 .
Bishop , Ann ; Birkett , Betty ( 1948 ) . " Drug @-@ resistance in Plasmodium gallinaceum , and the persistence of paludrine @-@ resistance after mosquito transmission " . Parasitology 39 ( 1 – 2 ) : 125 – 137 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000083657 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1948 ) . " Resistance to sulphadiazine and ‘ paludrine ’ in the malaria parasite of the fowl ( p . Gallinaceum ) " . Nature 162 ( 4118 ) : 541 – 543 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 162541a0 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1950 ) . " Sulphadiazine @-@ resistance in Plasmodium gallinaceum and its relation to other antimalarial compounds " . Parasitology 40 ( 1 – 2 ) : 163 – 174 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000017996 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1955 ) . " Problems concerned with gametogenesis in Haemosporidiidea , with particular reference to the genus Plasmodium " . Parasitology 45 ( 1 – 2 ) : 163 – 185 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000027542 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1956 ) . " A study of the factors affecting the emergence of the gametocytes of Plasmodium gallinaceum from the erythrocytes and the exflagellation of the male gametocytes " . Parasitology 46 ( 1 – 2 ) : 192 – 215 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000026433 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1959 ) . " Drug resistance in protozoa " . Biological Reviews 34 ( 4 ) : 334 – 500 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1469 @-@ 185X.1959.tb01317.x.
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= Slash 's Snakepit =
Slash 's Snakepit was an American rock supergroup from Los Angeles , California , formed by then @-@ Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash in 1993 . Though often described as a solo or side project , Slash stated that Snakepit was a band with equal contributions by all members . The first lineup of the band consisted of Slash , two of his Guns N ' Roses band mates — drummer Matt Sorum and guitarist Gilby Clarke — as well as Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez and former Jellyfish live guitarist Eric Dover on lead vocals .
Their debut album , It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere , was released in 1995 . For the supporting tour , Slash enlisted James LoMenzo and Brian Tichy , of Pride and Glory , in place of Inez and Sorum who had other commitments . They played shows in the US , Europe , Japan and Australia before Geffen Records pulled their financial support for the tour , with Slash returning to Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit disbanding .
Following his departure from Guns N ' Roses in 1996 , Slash formed the cover band Slash 's Blues Ball . After a tour in 1997 , Slash approached Blues Ball bassist Johnny Griparic about forming a new lineup of Slash 's Snakepit . The new lineup consisted of Slash , Griparic , singer Rod Jackson , guitarist Ryan Roxie and drummer Matt Laug ( Roxie and Laug were both former members of Alice Cooper 's solo band ) . They recorded and released their second album entitled Ain 't Life Grand in 2000 , which was preceded by a tour supporting AC / DC and followed by their own headlining tour . For the tour , Keri Kelli joined the group in place of Ryan Roxie , who departed following the completion of the album . However , after the final show , Slash disbanded Slash 's Snakepit due to a lack of commitment from his band members .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = =
Following the two and a half year world tour in support of the albums Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II , Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash returned to Los Angeles . He soon sold his home , the Walnut House , and moved to Mulholland Drive . He built a small home studio , nicknamed The Snakepit , over his garage and began working on demos for songs he had written during the tour . Slash worked on the demos with Guns N ' Roses band mate and drummer Matt Sorum . They were later joined by guitarist Gilby Clarke and Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez , jamming and recording most nights . Slash played the demos for Guns N ' Roses singer Axl Rose who rejected the material , though he would later want to use them for the next Guns N ' Roses album . They had recorded twelve songs by 1994 , the same year that Guns N ' Roses went on hiatus .
Slash decided to record the Snakepit demos with Sorum , Clarke and Inez , later adding former Jellyfish live guitarist Eric Dover as lead vocalist . The decision to record with Dover led to a disagreement between Slash and Sorum , due to Slash not seeking Sorum 's approval before hiring Dover .
= = = It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere and breakup ( 1994 – 1996 ) = = =
Slash and Dover wrote the lyrics to all twelve songs with Slash using the songwriting to vent his frustrations at Guns N ' Roses singer Rose . Clarke contributed the song " Monkey Chow " to the album while " Jizz da Pit " is an instrumental by Slash and Inez . They recorded the album at Conway Recording Studios and The Record Plant with Mike Clink and Slash co @-@ producing and Steven Thompson and Michael Barbiero mixing , all of whom had worked with Guns N ' Roses on their debut album Appetite for Destruction . The album featured contributions by Duff McKagan ( who co @-@ wrote " Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " ) , Dizzy Reed on keyboards , Teddy Andreadis on harmonica , and Paulinho da Costa on percussion . Slash 's brother , Ash Hudson , designed the album 's cover .
The resulting album , titled It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere , was released in February 1995 through Geffen Records . The album 's title was taken from a phrase Slash overheard at an airport . At the insistence of the record label , the album was released under the name Slash 's Snakepit , instead of The Snakepit , despite Slash not wanting his name used . Upon release , the album charted at number 70 on the Billboard 200 and number 15 on the UK Albums Chart . It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere went on to sell over a million copies and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . " Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " was released as the first , and only , single from the album ; while a music video was also shot for " Good to Be Alive " , directed by August Jakobsson .
Critically , the album received mainly positive reviews . Metal Hammer stated that " the sleazy , downtrodden blues hard rock [ ... ] breaks new ground . " AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine called Slash 's contributions " quite amazing " , though criticised the song @-@ writing , stating " it 's too bad that nobody in the band bothered to write any songs . " Devon Jackson of Entertainment Weekly described the album as " relaxed headbanging and Southern @-@ tinged blues @-@ rock " while Classic Rock reviewer Malcolm Dome stated " musically , it 's a loose @-@ limbed record that has a lot of heavy guitar @-@ led punk @-@ style pop @-@ rock . " Slash 's Snakepit toured in support of the album , with bassist James LoMenzo and drummer Brian Tichy , of Pride and Glory , replacing Inez and Sorum , who had opted out of touring , with Sorum returning to Guns N ' Roses . They toured the US , Europe , Japan and Australia with Slash stating that " for the first time in years , touring was easy , [ his ] band mates were loads of fun and low on drama , and every gig was about playing rock and roll . " While booking another leg of the tour , Slash was informed by Geffen that Rose was ready to begin work on the new Guns N ' Roses album and that he was to return to Los Angeles . Geffen pulled financial support for the band 's tour with Slash 's Snakepit disbanding soon after .
= = = Slash 's Blues Ball and reformation ( 1996 – 1999 ) = = =
Slash departed Guns N ' Roses in 1996 , due to musical differences between himself and singer Axl Rose . Following his departure , Slash toured Japan for two weeks with Chic , and worked on the soundtrack to the film Curdled . He later began touring in a cover band that eventually became Slash 's Blues Ball . Aside from Slash , the band consisted of Teddy Andreadis , guitarist Bobby Schneck , bassist Johnny Griparic , saxophonist Dave McClarem and drummer Alvino Bennett . The band toured on and off until 1998 , which included a headline slot at a jazz festival in Budapest . They covered various artists and bands such as B.B. King , Steppenwolf , Otis Redding , as well as Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit material .
Following a tour in 1997 , Slash approached Griparic about forming a new lineup of Slash 's Snakepit They began looking for a singer , receiving over 300 audition tapes from mostly unknown singers . Jon Stevens of Noiseworks , who had been recording with Slash , was seen as a potential singer in early 1998 . However , he returned to Australia to continue his solo career . They eventually added singer Rod Jackson to the group after Griparic played a tape of him for Slash . Completing the lineup were guitarist Ryan Roxie , formerly of Alice Cooper , and drummer Matt Laug , also from Alice Cooper and the band Venice . They began rehearsing at Mates Studio before rehearsing and recording in Slash 's new home studio in Beverly Hills .
= = = Ain 't Life Grand and second breakup ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
The band began recording material with producer Jack Douglas at Slash 's home studio as well as Ocean Way Studios . The recording featured contributions by Teddy Andreadis , Jimmy Zavala and Lee Thornburg , amongst others . Initially , the label was positive about the album , setting a release date for February 22 , 2000 . However , when Slash was informed by Geffen , who had folded into Interscope Records , that the album was not the type of music the label produced , he bought the album back and signed a deal with Koch Records . Following the completion of the album , Roxie departed the band with former Big Bang Babies , Warrant and Ratt guitarist Keri Kelli joining in his place .
Ain 't Life Grand was released on October 20 , 2000 through Koch with " Mean Bone " released as the first single . The album did not sell as well as its predecessor , and critical reception to it was mixed . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Tony Scherman stated that " Slash 's playing is as flashily incendiary as ever , but the songs and arrangements recycle hard @-@ rock cliches worthier of Ratt than of a bona fide guitar god " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone noted that " great guitarists need great bands , and the Snakepit dudes are barely functional backup peons " . Steve Huey of Allmusic noted that " the new Snakepit does kick up a lot of noise as the album rushes by , and the strong chemistry between the members is immediately obvious " . However , he stated that songwriting was the main problem , and that " it never rises above the level of solid , and too many tracks are by @-@ the @-@ numbers hard rock at best ( and pedestrian at worst ) " . The band were dropped by Koch two months following the album 's release .
Prior to the album 's release , Slash 's Snakepit supported AC / DC on their Stiff Upper Lip tour from August to September , followed by their own headlining tour of theatres . They played only the first two shows on the winter leg of AC / DC 's tour . After falling ill and checking into a hospital in Pittsburgh , Slash was ordered by his doctor to stay at home to recuperate , reportedly from pneumonia . Due to this , Slash 's Snakepit pulled out of supporting AC / DC in early 2001 . Slash later revealed in his self @-@ titled biography that he had actually suffered cardiac myopathy caused by years of alcohol and drug abuse , with his heart swelling to the point of rupture . After being fitted with a defibrillator and undergoing physical therapy , Slash returned to the group to continue touring . They later rescheduled their US tour , performing shows from June 16 – July 6 , co @-@ headlining three shows with Billy Idol . Following the tour , feeling that his band was unprofessional and his band mates were not fully committed , Slash disbanded Slash 's Snakepit in an announcement made in early 2002 .
= = = Post – breakup activities = = =
Following the breakup of Slash 's Snakepit , Slash announced he was to begin working on a solo album . Instead he later worked with The Black Crowes drummer Steve Gorman and an unnamed bassist on a new project . Together with his former Guns N ' Roses band mates Duff McKagan and Matt Sorum , they formed The Project , that eventually became the hard rock supergroup Velvet Revolver following the addition of former Wasted Youth guitarist Dave Kushner , and then @-@ former Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland . They released their debut album Contraband , in 2004 , followed by Libertad in 2007 , before they parted ways with Weiland and went on hiatus in 2008 . With Velvet Revolver on hiatus , Slash began work on his debut solo album . Slash was released on March 31 , 2010 , and featured a number of guests such as Andrew Stockdale of Wolfmother , M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold , Kid Rock , Ozzy Osbourne , Myles Kennedy of Alter Bridge , and Fergie . His band for the tour in support of the album consisted of Kennedy , bassist Todd Kerns , and drummer Brent Fitz . It also included guitarist Bobby Schneck , formerly of Slash 's Blues Ball .
= = Musical style = =
Slash 's Snakepit 's music was often described as hard rock and blues rock with elements of southern rock . The band were also often described as Slash 's solo or side project though Slash maintained that they were a band , stating " everybody wrote , everybody had equal input even though I had my name on it . " Rolling Stone reviewer J.D. Considine noted the differences between Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit on their first album , stating that " Guns [ N ] ' Roses typically treat the melody as the most important part of the song , most of what slithers out of the Snakepit emphasizes the playing . " He noted that singer Eric Dover " conveys the raw @-@ throated intensity of a hard @-@ rock frontman " and " he avoids the genre 's most obvious excesses . " The riff to " Good to Be Alive " drew a comparison to Chuck Berry while the musicianship on the album was praised . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic stated that " there 's little argument that Slash is a great guitarist " who is " capable of making rock and blues clichés sound fresh " . Reviewing Ain 't Life Grand for Allmusic , Steve Huey described second singer Rod Jackson as " a combination of ' 80s pop @-@ metal bluster and Faces @-@ era Rod Stewart " with a " touch of Aerosmith " , a description that he felt also fitted the band as a whole . He noted , though , that Slash 's guitar playing was " tame " and stated that the main problem of the album was the songwriting , though it was " still a passable , workmanlike record that will definitely appeal to fans of grimy , old @-@ school hard rock . " Malcolm Dome of Classic Rock stated that " from the moment that " Been There Lately " opens , there 's a vibe here that was missing before " and that Ain 't Life Grand showed " purpose , direction and individuality . "
= = Personnel = =
Slash – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 , 1998 – 2002 )
Gilby Clarke – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Eric Dover – vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Mike Inez – bass , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Matt Sorum – drums , percussion ( 1994 – 1995 )
James LoMenzo – bass ( 1995 )
Brian Tichy – drums ( 1995 )
Johnny Griparic – bass ( 1998 – 2002 )
Rod Jackson – vocals ( 1999 – 2002 )
Matt Laug – drums , percussion ( 1999 – 2002 )
Ryan Roxie – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1999 – 2000 )
Keri Kelli – rhythm guitar ( 2000 – 2002 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere ( 1995 )
Ain 't Life Grand ( 2000 )
Singles
" Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " ( 1995 )
" Mean Bone " ( 2001 )
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= John Marburger =
John Harmen Marburger III ( February 8 , 1941 – July 28 , 2011 ) was an American physicist who directed the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the administration of President George W. Bush , serving as the Science Advisor to the President . His tenure was marked by controversy regarding his defense of the administration against allegations from over two dozen Nobel Laureates , amongst others , that scientific evidence was being suppressed or ignored in policy decisions , including those relating to stem cell research and global warming . However , he has also been credited with keeping the political effects of the September 11 attacks from harming science research — by ensuring that tighter visa controls did not hinder the movement of those engaged in scientific research — and with increasing awareness of the relationship between science and government . He also served as the President of Stony Brook University from 1980 until 1994 , and director of Brookhaven National Laboratory from 1998 until 2001 .
= = Early life = =
Marburger was born on Staten Island , New York , to Virginia Smith and John H. Marburger Jr . , and grew up in Severna Park , Maryland . He attended Princeton University , graduating in 1962 with a B.A. in Physics , followed by a Ph.D. in Applied Physics from Stanford University in 1967 .
After completing his education , he served as a professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the University of Southern California in 1966 , specializing in the theoretical physics of nonlinear optics and quantum optics , and co @-@ founded the Center for Laser Studies at that institution . He rose to become chairman of the physics department in 1972 , and then Dean of the College of Letters , Arts and Sciences in 1976 . He was engaged as a public speaker on science , including hosting a series of educational television programs on CBS . He was also outspoken on campus issues , and was designated the university 's spokesperson during a scandal over preferential treatment of athletes .
= = Stony Brook University = =
In 1980 , Marburger left USC to become the third president of the State University of New York at Stony Brook on Long Island , New York . At the time , state budget cuts were afflicting the university : he returned it to growth with increases in the university 's science research funding from the federal government . He also presided over the founding of Stony Brook University Medical Center .
From 1988 to 1994 , Marburger chaired Universities Research Association , the organization that operated Fermilab and oversaw construction of the ill @-@ fated Superconducting Super Collider , an experience that is credited with convincing him of the influence government had in how science is carried out . During this time he also served as a trustee of Princeton University . He stepped down as President of Stony Brook University in 1994 , and began doing research again as a member of the faculty .
= = = Chair of Shoreham commission = = =
In 1983 , he was picked by New York Governor Mario Cuomo to chair a scientific fact @-@ finding commission on the Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant , a job that required him to find common ground between the many viewpoints represented on the commission . The commission eventually recommended the closure of the plant , a course he personally disagreed with . Cuomo had formed the commission in mid @-@ May 1983 to provide him with recommendations regarding the plant 's safety , the adequacy of emergency plans , and the economics of operating the plant . The commission 's consensus recommendations included unanimous findings that no emergency evacuation of the plant could be conducted without the cooperation of Suffolk County , which was refusing to approve an evacuation plan ; that the construction of the plant would have been prevented if it had been started after new Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations were put into effect after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 ; and that operating the plant would not reduce utility costs . Marburger himself at the time emphasized that the governor had not been seeking a consensus but rather encouraged multiple viewpoints to be reflected , and characterized the consensus conclusions as not the only important section of the report .
Marburger characterized his participation as a learning experience , and the experience was credited with profoundly changing his view on the relationship between the scientific community and the public . He had never been to a public hearing prior to his participation in the Shoreham commission , and he said that he had initially expected that the issues could be resolved by examining scientific data and establishing failure probabilities . However , he quickly became aware of the importance of the public participation process itself , stating that it was " one of the rare opportunities for the public to feel they were being heard and taken seriously " . Marburger 's conduct on the committee was praised by activists on both sides of the debate , with his focus on listening to all viewpoints and ability to not take disagreements personally being especially noted .
= = Brookhaven National Laboratory = =
In January 1998 , Marburger became president of Brookhaven Science Associates , which subsequently won a bid to operate Brookhaven National Laboratory for the federal government , and he became the director of the lab . He took office after a highly publicized scandal in which tritium leaked from the lab 's High Flux Beam Reactor , leading to calls by activists to shut down the lab . Rather than directly oppose the activists , Marburger created policies that improved the environmental management of the lab as well as community involvement and transparency . Marburger also presided over the commissioning of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider , expanded the lab 's program in medical imaging and neuroscience , and placed more emphasis on its technology transfer program .
The tritium leak , combined with other disclosures about improper handling and disposal of hazardous waste , had caused Secretary of Energy Federico Peña to fire the lab 's previous manager , Associated Universities , Inc . Upon starting as the laboratory 's director , Marburger noted the increased importance of health and environmental concerns since the beginning of the Cold War , stating that " getting the people at Brookhaven to understand that won 't be simple , and there may be some disagreement on how we should do it , but that 's my job . " Marburger set up a permanent community advisory council and met with local environmental groups to increase communication between them and the laboratory 's management . By 2001 , when Marburger left to join the Bush administration , local environmental groups credited him with having largely dissipated the distrust that had existed between the groups when he started .
= = Bush administration = =
In September 2001 , Marburger became Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy under George W. Bush . Marburger was a noted Democrat , a fact that Nature magazine stated was relevant to the decision by the administration to take the unusual step of withholding from Marburger the title of " special assistant " to the President that previous science advisors had been granted .
His tenure was marked by controversy as he defended the Bush Administration from accusations that political influence on science was distorting scientific research in federal agencies and that scientific evidence was being suppressed or ignored in policy decisions , especially on the topics of abstinence @-@ only birth control education , climate change policy , and stem cell research . Marburger defended the Bush Administration from these accusations , saying they were inaccurate or motivated by partisanship , especially on the issue of science funding levels . Marburger continued to be personally respected by many of his academic colleagues .
Marburger 's tenure as Director was the longest in the history of that post . After the September 11 attacks , he helped to establish the DHS Directorate for Science and Technology within the new Department of Homeland Security . He has been called a central player opposing new restrictions of international scientific exchanges of people and ideas after the attacks . He later was responsible for reorienting the nation 's space policy after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , and played an important part in the nation 's re @-@ entry into the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor program . Marburger was also known for his support of the emerging field of science of science policy , which seeks to analyze how science policy decisions affects a nation 's ability to produce and benefit from innovation .
In February 2004 , the Union of Concerned Scientists published a report accusing the Bush administration of manipulating science for political purposes , listing more than 20 alleged incidents of censoring scientific results or applying a litmus test in the appointment of supposedly scientific advisory panel members . In April 2004 , Marburger published a statement rebutting the report and exposing errors and incomplete explanations in it , and stating that " even when the science is clear — and often it is not — it is but one input into the policy process , " but " in this Administration , science strongly informs policy . " The Union of Concerned Scientists issued a revised version of their report after Marburger 's statement was published . Marburger also called the report 's conclusions illusory and the result of focusing on unrelated incidents within a vast government apparatus , and attributed the controversy as being related to the upcoming elections . It was noted that Marburger enjoyed a close personal relationship with President Bush , with White House Chief of Staff Andrew Card and Office of Management and Budget Director Joshua Bolten attesting to his active involvement within the administration .
Marburger responded to criticism of his support for Bush Administration policies in 2004 , stating " No one will know my personal positions on issues as long as I am in this job . I am here to make sure that the science input to policy making is sound and that the executive branch functions properly with respect to its science and technology missions " . On the topic of stem cell research , he in 2004 said that stem cells " offer great promise for addressing incurable diseases and afflictions . But I can ’ t tell you when a fertilized egg becomes sacred . That ’ s not my job . That ’ s not a science issue . And so whatever I think about reproductive technology or choice , or whatever , is irrelevant to my job as a science adviser " . However , in February 2005 , in a speech at the annual conference of the National Association of Science Writers , he stated , " Intelligent design is not a scientific theory .... I don 't regard intelligent design as a scientific topic " . Also In 2005 , he told The New York Times that " global warming exists , and we have to do something about it . "
Sherwood Boehlert , the Republican chair of the House Committee on Science during most of Marburger 's tenure , said that " the challenge he faced was serving a president who didn 't really want much scientific advice , and who let politics dictate the direction of his science policy ... and he was in the unenviable position of being someone who had earned the respect of his scientific colleagues while having to be identified with policies that were not science @-@ based " . On the other hand , Robert P. Crease , a colleague of Marburger at Stony Brook University , characterized him as someone who " [ went ] to the White House as a scientist , not an advocate . He refused to weigh in on high @-@ profile , politically controversial issues , but instead set about fixing broken connections in the unwieldy machinery by which the government approves and funds scientific projects .... Some bitterly criticized him for collaborating with the Bush administration . But he left the office running better than when he entered . "
= = Later life = =
Marburger returned to Stony Brook University as a faculty member in 2009 , and co @-@ edited the book The Science of Science Policy : A Handbook , which was published in 2011 . He also served as Vice President for Research but stepped down on July 1 , 2011 . Marburger died Thursday , July 28 , 2011 , at his home in Port Jefferson , New York , after four years of treatment for non @-@ Hodgkins lymphoma . He was survived by his wife , two sons , and a grandson . His final publication , a book on quantum physics for laypeople called Constructing Reality : Quantum Theory and Particle Physics , was published shortly after his death .
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= Whitton Bridge Pasture =
Whitton Bridge Pasture is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in the unitary authority of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees , England . At 3 @.@ 18 hectares ( 7 @.@ 9 acres ) it lies to the south of Whitton village and north west of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees . SSSIs are chosen by Natural England , and Whitton Bridge Pasture was designated in 2004 because of its biological interest . It is one of 18 SSSIs in the Cleveland area of search .
The biological interest is focused on the species @-@ rich mesotrophic grassland found across the site , which is actively maintained by grazing . The species present are predominantly grasses , although herbs and orchids are also found . The area has been classified as MG5 under the British National Vegetation Classification because of the species composition . The site is small and isolated , and therefore requires careful management to avoid damage caused by activity on neighbouring land .
= = Reason for notification = =
SSSIs are designated by Natural England , previously English Nature , which uses the 1974 – 1996 county system . This means there is no grouping of SSSIs by Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees unitary authority , or County Durham which is the relevant ceremonial county . As such Whitton Bridge Pasture is one of 18 SSSIs in the Cleveland area of search .
Whitton Bridge Pasture is nationally important for its species @-@ rich grassland which is unimproved by fertilisers . This type of grassland — once common in the Tees lowland — is becoming increasingly rare with its associated species also becoming scarce . Whitton Bridge Pasture is one of only two remaining examples of this habitat in the Tees lowland area . The other example is Briarcroft Pasture , an SSSI about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south , which was designated at the same time but is significantly smaller .
Under the British National Vegetation Classification ( NVC ) Whitton Bridge Pasture is considered as mesotrophic grassland because it represents well @-@ drained and permanent pasture . In particular it is considered to be an MG5 community because of the species present . MG5 is widespread in many lowland areas in England , Wales , and Scotland , particularly in the Midlands . Whitton Bridge Pasture is predominantly subcommunity MG5c ( Danthonia decumbens ) , however subcommunity MG5a ( Lathyrus pratensis ) is present with a substantially different species composition .
= = Site description = =
= = = Abiotic = = =
Located north @-@ west of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees and 500 metres ( 550 yd ) south of the village of Whitton , it is a small site of 3 @.@ 18 hectares ( 7 @.@ 9 acres ) between a sewage works and Whitton Beck . Topographically the site slopes north towards the stream from a height of 40 metres ( 130 ft ) to less than 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . The underlying geology of Whitton Bridge Pasture is responsible for shaping the species @-@ rich community found on the surface . Glacial tills and sands are the prominent geological features resulting in a relatively base @-@ poor soil , characteristic of glacial drift geology . The soils of MG5c ( Danthonia decumbens ) subcommunity are typically acidic .
Because Whitton Bridge Pasture is located in North East England it experiences a climate that is different from the UK average . The North East receives on average 370 millimetres ( 15 in ) less rainfall than the UK over a year . Similarly the North East has roughly 129 days each year with more than 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) of rainfall , more than 25 days fewer than UK average . Despite these differences the temperature is similar for both the North East and the UK , although the North East does have fewer days with air frost and more hours of sunshine per year .
= = = Biotic = = =
The majority of the site is made up of species @-@ rich grassland ( subcommunity MG5c ) , which comprises three dominant species of grass and several other grass species at lower abundances . The dominant species are Red Fescue ( Festuca rubra ) , Common Bent ( Agrostis capillaris ) and Yorkshire Fog ( Holcus lanatus ) . The less abundant species of grass include , Crested Dog 's @-@ tail ( Cynosurus cristatus ) , Heath @-@ grass ( Danthonia decumbens ) and Cocksfoot ( Dactylis glomerata ) . The subcommunity also has many broad @-@ leaved herbs including Common Knapweed ( Centaurea nigra ) , Tormentil ( Potentilla erecta ) , Devils @-@ bit scabious ( Succisa pratensis ) and Betony ( Stachys officinalis ) .
A second subcommunity ( MG5a ) is present and is characterised by the legume Meadow vetchling ( Lathyrus pratensis ) . Other species present in this subcommunity include Salad burnet ( Sanguisorba minor ) , Quaking grass ( Briza media ) , Pignut ( Conopodium majus ) and the Orchid species : Common Twayblade ( Neottia ovata ) and Early Purple Orchid ( Orchis mascula ) . The subcommunity also contains Meadow barley ( Hordeum secalinum ) , a perennial grass , which is a characteristic species of the Tees Lowland .
The two subcommunities of MG5 , characterised by species rich grassland form a belt across the site , but they do not cover the whole site . Towards the north there is a community dominated by False oat @-@ grass ( Arrhenatherum elatius ) , a constant species in the MG1 and MG2 communities of the British NVC and therefore not typical of an MG5 community . At Whitton Bridge Pasture it is growing on alluvial soils located at the northern edge of the site , which have most likely been formed by Whitton Beck just to the north . A number of springs at the site are associated with flushes of the Pale sedge ( Carex pallescens ) , which form small populations .
= = Management = =
Natural England 's role is to advise and help the owners manage Whitton Bridge Pasture effectively . To achieve this Natural England provides guidelines for each SSSI . Species @-@ rich grassland , such as that found at Whitton Bridge , requires careful management for it to retain its high species diversity . This means many activities are not allowed at the site including : ploughing , drainage and the use of fertilisers , pesticides or herbicides .
Management of the site requires moderate grazing during the summer and autumn to help maintain the species diversity . This is because grazing removes each year 's new growth which helps stop the site becoming dominated by vigorously growing grasses . Such grasses would allow a buildup of dead organic matter , which together with the increased growth , would reduce the growth of less vigorous species . The overall effect would be a reduction in species diversity , which was one of the reasons for the SSSI designation . Trampling can be of benefit because it breaks up accumulated dead organic matter .
The small and isolated nature of the site makes it susceptible to damage from the surrounding area . For example , herbicides , thought to be generally damaging for the species richness , could get onto the site from the drift of spray from surrounding fields . To help combat this the maintenance of mature hedgerows around the perimeter is encouraged . As of 2006 the condition of Whitton Bridge Pasture is described as favourable , which means that the land is being adequately conserved and any conservation objectives are being met , but that there is scope for enhancement of the site . The condition of the site was also described as favourable in 2004 and 2005 assessments . In the future it is hoped that the grazing regime will become more regularised and will be of high priority .
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= No worries =
No worries is an expression seen in Australian , British and New Zealand English meaning " do not worry about that " , " that 's all right " , or " sure thing " . It is similar to the American English no problem . The phrase is widely used in Australian speech and represents a feeling of friendliness , good humour , optimism and " mateship " in Australian culture . The phrase has been referred to as the national motto of Australia .
The phrase has influenced a similar phrase used in the Tok Pisin language in Papua New Guinea . No worries utilization migrated to New Zealand after origination in Australia . Its usage became more common in British English after increased usage in Australian soap operas that aired on television in the United Kingdom . Linguistics experts are uncertain how the phrase became utilized in American English ; theories include use by Steve Irwin on the television program The Crocodile Hunter and usage by the United States media during the 2000 Sydney Olympics . It has also gained usage in Canadian English .
= = Definition = =
" No worries " is an Australian English expression , meaning " do not worry about that " , or " that 's all right " . It can also mean " sure thing " and " you 're welcome " . Other colloquial Australian terms which mean the same thing include " she 'll be right " . The expression has been compared to the American English equivalent " no problem " . In their book Australian Language & Culture : No Worries ! , authors Vanessa Battersby , Paul Smitz and Barry Blake note : " No worries is a popular Australian response akin to ' no problems ' , ' that 's OK ' or ' sure thing ' . "
= = Cultural origins = =
Early documentation dates the phrase back to 1966 . According to author of When Cultures Collide : Leading Across Cultures , Richard D. Lewis , the phrase is a form of expression of the relaxed attitude in Australian culture . Anna Wierzbicka comments that the expression illustrates important parts of Australian culture , including : " amiability , friendliness , an expectation of shared attitudes ( a proneness to easy ' mateship ' ) , jocular toughness , good humour , and , above all , casual optimism " . She concludes that along with " good on you " , the expressions reflect the " national character " and " prevailing ethos " of Australia . Though initially utilized in Australia , the phrase migrated to New Zealand as well .
= = Usage = =
Wierzbicka writes in her book Cross @-@ cultural Pragmatics that the expression " permeates Australian speech " , " serves a wide range of illocutionary forces " and displays a " casual optimism " . In her 1992 book Semantics , Culture , and Cognition , Wierzbicka classifies the phrase as " among the most characteristic Australian expressions " , along with " good on you " .
The term can also be used in the context of an apology . The phrase has been used widely in British English since the late 1980s , a development partly attributed to the success of Australian soap operas such as Neighbours in the United Kingdom .
The phrase " no wucking forries " has the same meaning in Australia ; as a spoonerism of " no fucking worries " , and is contracted to the phrases " no wuckers " and " no wucks " .
= = Influence = =
" No worries " was referred to as " the national motto " of Australia in 1978 , and in their 2006 work , Diving the World , Beth and Shaun Tierney call " no worries , mate " the national motto of the country . Writing in The New York Times Book Review , Annette Kobak calls the expression a " ritual incantation " which has " particular charm " . The phrase " no waris " in the Papua New Guinea language Tok Pisin is derived from the Australian English term .
According to The Sunday Mail a 2004 newspaper report notes that " no worries " has begun to be used in American English . Writing in a 2004 article for The Advertiser , Samela Harris comments : " The Americans have no idea of the etymology of ' no worries ' . So , while they may cheerily adopt our ' no worries ' mantra , ' no worries ' will never catch on as an attitude . " According to Tom Dalzell , author of two books on slang usage in the United States , linguistics experts are not certain how the expression became popular in that country . Usage of the term by Steve Irwin on The Crocodile Hunter , as well as attempts by members of the American press to imitate the expression during the 2000 Sydney Olympics , have been put forth as theories explaining the pervasiveness of the expression in the United States . Linguistics professor Kate Burridge writes in her 2004 book Weeds In the Garden Of Words that expressions including " no worries " , " absolutely " , and " bottom line " have become less prevalent in favor of newer sayings . The phrase has had some usage in Canadian English .
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= Mrs. Donaghy =
" Mrs. Donaghy " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 91st overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Tricia Brock . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on January 20 , 2011 . Guest stars in this episode include Meng Ai , Jean Brassard , Todd Buonopane , Tituss Burgess , Cheyenne Jackson , Chris Parnell and Sherri Shepherd .
In the episode , the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) staff are affected by budget cuts at NBC . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) married his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) but following the wedding he learns that the minister ( Brassard ) did not marry the two of them . At the same time , TGS star Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) shares a dressing room with her co @-@ star Danny Baker ( Jackson ) , and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) has a health scare .
Before the airing , NBC moved the program to a new timeslot at 10 : 00 p.m. , moving it from its 8 : 30 p.m. slot that began in the beginning of the fifth season . This episode of 30 Rock was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Mrs. Donaghy " was watched by 5 @.@ 338 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) married his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) over New Year 's . However , when he returns to New York following the nuptials he discovers that he is instead married to his employee and friend Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) . At the wedding , Liz was Jack 's best man and wore a white shirt with a head net while Avery wore a black dress . As a result of what Liz was wearing , the minister ( Jean Brassard ) instead married Jack and Liz . He informs Liz that the minister married the two of them instead of him and Avery . The two set out for a divorce , however , TGS with Tracy Jordan producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) tells Liz not to sign the divorce papers as she can use their marriage to her advantage as TGS — a show she is the head writer for — is affected by budget cuts at NBC as part of the merger with the fictional network company Kabletown . She demands that Jack , an executive at NBC , give the show its lost budget but he denies the request , as a result Liz will not sign the divorce papers unless her conditions are met .
Meanwhile , TGS star Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) dressing room is now a temporary room for a technician ( Meng Ai ) as Jack is renting space on the TGS floor in the 30 Rock building to keep the budget down , as a result Jenna is forced to share a dressing room with her TGS co @-@ star Danny Baker ( Cheyenne Jackson ) . Immediately , the two start behaving like an old married couple . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) gets upset about Jenna and Danny fighting and decides to stop their bickering . Kenneth interrupts one of their arguments by showing them a childish picture he drew of the two . This works to no avail as Jenna and Danny continue arguing . To put a stop to this , Danny moves out from his dressing room and into the Y.
At the same time , TGS star Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is informed by Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) that he has health problems as Tracy has a weakened system only found on dead people . Tracy and his wife Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) meet with Jack and Tracy reveals what Dr. Spaceman told him . Angie becomes concerned on whether or not their family will be taken care of after Tracy dies . Jack offers Angie a job in the entertainment business , and takes the opportunity to get even with Liz by assigning Angie as Liz 's intern . Liz realizes that Angie 's new job is Jack 's way of messing with her , and explains to Angie that as her intern she is not getting paid and fires her . Angie gets upset with Jack and Liz but Jack offers her a reality show during TGS 's time slot unless Liz signs the divorce papers . Liz , however , still refuses — even admitting she likes the concept of a reality show starring Angie and would watch it . To get back at Jack , Liz holds a press conference and announces that she and Jack have decided to donate $ 5 million to The Jack and Elizabeth Donaghy High School for Teen Drama , The Arts , and Feelings . The next day , Jack and Liz have a sit down meeting with NBC Human resource mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav ( Todd Buonopane ) to discuss their marriage as NBC has strict anti @-@ nepotism guidelines . During the meeting , the two realize that they have had the longest and most meaningful relationship either of them has ever had , and apologize to each other with Liz agreeing to sign the divorce papers and Jack promising to restore TGS 's budget .
= = Production = =
This episode of 30 Rock was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt , his second episode for the fifth season , and his fourteenth writing credit after " Jack Meets Dennis " , " The Baby Show " , " The Fighting Irish " , " Cleveland " , " Rosemary 's Baby " , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " , " St. Valentine 's Day " , " The Ones " , " Kidney Now ! " , " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , and " Let 's Stay Together " . The episode was directed by Tricia Brock , making it her second for the series after directing the March 19 , 2009 , episode " The Bubble " from the show 's third season . " Mrs. Donaghy " originally aired in the United States on January 20 , 2011 , on NBC as the eleventh episode of the show 's fifth season and the 91st overall episode of the series .
The episode featured several appearances by several frequent guest stars , including Todd Buonopane as NBC Human resource mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav , Cheyenne Jackson as TGS cast member Danny Baker , Chris Parnell as Dr. Leo Spaceman , and Sherri Shepherd as Angie Jordan the wife of Tracy Jordan . Buonopane , Jackson , Parnell , and Shepherd made their fifth , eighth , sixteenth , and sixth appearances on the show , respectively . In an interview with TV Guide in November 2010 , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that Shepherd 's character " will be getting her own Real Housewives @-@ type reality show . Having the cameras around forces Tracy to act on better behavior . " This is evident in the following episode " Operation Righteous Cowboy Lightning " . Tina Fey , the series creator , executive producer and lead actress on 30 Rock , told Entertainment Weekly , in regards to Angie 's reality show , " We 're hoping to , maybe , if we can get away with it , do an entire episode that 's just an episode of Queen of Jordan . Now I 'm just superimposing my own TV viewing habits onto 30 Rock . " In the episode , Dr. Spaceman informs Tracy Jordan — played by Tracy Morgan — that he is dying , television columnist Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times wondered if this subplot was written as a way to deal with Tracy Morgan 's recent kidney transplant as he is expected to miss several episodes to recover from the procedure .
In the episode , it is revealed that Jack Donaghy accidentally married Liz Lemon instead of his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) . At the wedding , Liz was Jack 's best man and wore a white shirt with a head net , while Avery wore a black cocktail dress . As a result of what Liz was wearing , the minister ( Jean Brassard ) instead married Jack and Liz . The two decide to get a divorce , however , they use their marriage to get the upper hand over one another . Ultimately , Jack and Liz decide to stop their feud and get a divorce . Since beginning , the series has occasionally hinted at a romantic relationship between the two characters . In one episode , Jack passes Liz off as his live @-@ in girlfriend to his ex @-@ wife Bianca ( Isabella Rossellini ) to make her jealous . In another episode , Jack 's mother Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) tells him that Liz is a perfect match for him , and in the same episode he has Liz listed as his emergency contact . In an April 2010 Esquire interview , Fey said that one of the plots that 30 Rock will never do is have Liz and Jack get together . " Let me put the Internet at ease : Liz and Jack will never be together . " Alec Baldwin was asked if the two characters will ever hook @-@ up , he responded " I sincerely doubt it , and I think the show is better off that way . Once they cross that line , all the tension goes out of those relationships . And I think the lesson we learned about both those characters is that they are married to their jobs and they are married to their work . "
= = Cultural references = =
Dr. Spaceman tells Tracy that he is dating Squeaky Fromme and says that she is a handful . Fromme is a member of the Manson Family , and was sentenced to life imprisonment for attempting to assassinate United States President Gerald Ford in 1975 . Jenna and Danny begin arguing after the two are forced to share a dressing room . She takes down Danny 's poster of the Montreal Alouettes , a Canadian Football League team based in Montreal , Quebec , which was signed by Marc Trestman , the head coach of the Alouettes . Jenna says that she took down the poster because it was tacky , as are his mother 's chain e @-@ mails ( a message that attempts to induce the recipient to make a number of copies of the letter and then pass them on to as many recipients as possible ) .
Later , Jack gives Angie a reality show that will feature her friends and family . The show is a parody of the reality show The Real Housewives of ... which airs on the cable network Bravo and follows the lives of relatively affluent , bourgeois housewives and professional women in the suburban or urban areas of several American cities . During the press conference , in which Liz announces that she and Jack have decided to donate $ 5 million to " a high school for drama , the arts , and feelings " , Liz spoke as socialite Edith Bouvier Beale . Later , Jack asks Liz what that voice was with Liz responding that that was " Drew Barrymore 's impression of that crazy lady " , a reference to actress Drew Barrymore who portrayed Beale in the 2009 HBO film Grey Gardens .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Before the airing of this episode , NBC unveiled its 2010 – 11 primetime schedule in May 2010 with the network moving 30 Rock from the 9 : 30 p.m. time to the 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot for the show 's fifth season . In November 2010 , it was announced that the program would move from 8 : 30 to the 10 : 00 timeslot . The network moved 30 Rock to the 10 : 00 time in order to " make room " for the return of the comedy show Parks and Recreation and the debut of the new comedy Perfect Couples . Many questioned whether or not it was a good decision to move the show to 10 : 00 as it is a low rated show . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Mrs. Donaghy " was watched by 5 @.@ 338 million households in its original American broadcast . According to New York magazine the staff were most worried about how 30 Rock and Community — another program that airs on NBC 's Thursday lineup — would do in the new time change but said that both shows " did great . " The episode earned a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Mrs. Donaghy " was up nearly 30 percent against the previous episode , " Christmas Attack Zone " , that aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on December 9 , 2010 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen noted that the Jack and Liz being married plot " was strong enough to carry the episode overall , as watching Liz drive Jack crazy is almost always entertaining . " Handlen did not enjoy the other two stories from the episode , citing that Jenna and Danny 's " had some good lines " and that it was good to see these two characters play off each other but " this really needed to get a lot crazier , or else have some sort of character development " , and that the third plot was only worth towards the opening credits to Angie 's reality show . " This was hilarious ... but everything else was like watching echoes of old gags . [ ... ] There wasn 't a lot of connective tissue to hold any of this together , so it came across as haphazard . " Juli Weiner of Vanity Fair wrote that this was a " fine episode about marriage and mistranslation . " Weiner , however , opined that the portrayal of Angie Jordan here , played by Sherri Shepherd , " was less than ideal . " Alan Sepinwall from HitFix wrote that the show is having a strong season with its fifth season but wrote that this episode was not a particularly strong one nonetheless " the writers can almost always rely on the Jack / Liz relationship for both heart ... and comedy . It was the first part of the episode that made me consistently laugh , and it also worked because I like Jack and Liz – and like that the show remains committed to a complete lack of romantic tension between them " . TV Guide 's Matt Roush was glad that Chris Parnell returned as his 30 Rock character in this episode . Ian McDonald of Zap2it wrote that the Jeffrey character " made one of the best in @-@ jokes of the episode , recapping ( and misinterpreting ) Liz and Jack 's ' will they / won 't they chemistry . ' The kicker , though , was we 're meant to realize that Liz and Jack are perfect for each other in a completely platonic way . " McDonald was positive about Jane Krakowski and Cheyenne Jackson 's subplot , saying it was nice to see them share a story , and that their characters " have great , toxic chemistry . " Bob Sassone of TV Squad said that the ending in which the Jeffrey character summarized Jack and Liz 's friendship " was a perfect summation of the heart of 30 Rock itself . "
IGN contributor Matt Fowler commented that the Jenna and Danny story " felt weak " but that Angie getting her own show " more than made up for it . " Fowler gave the episode an 8 out of 10 rating . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student commented that " Mrs. Donaghy " had a " solid comeback " , while Entertainment Weekly 's Breia Brissey was glad that the show returned . " The strength of [ ' Mrs. Donaghy ' ] was that , however silly , all of the illogical circumstances of the show can be explained with a bit of reason " , reported Caitlin Smith of The Atlantic . Smith said her favorite scene was when Jack and Liz have a sit down meeting with Jeffrey , and " [ h ] e 's counseling the newly married couple to avoid bringing their personal relationship into work and reads off a lengthy checklist of things to avoid . " Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times explained that the reason the series is having a strong season is due to it returning to the basics with the Jack and Liz friendship ; " Somehow , Liz and Jack are such a perfect , if unexpected , pair that this theme manages not to wear thin . Their accidental marriage ... was almost inevitable , the logical end to which the writers could stretch the relationship . It does make you wonder what the writers can possibly do next , but I have faith . " New York magazine 's Willa Paskin enjoyed Tina Fey 's impression of Edith Bouvier Beale during her press conference . Elliott Hammer of The Collegian wrote that Angie 's tagline for her reality show " I 'm Angie and I think elegance and attitude are the same thing " was brilliant .
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic commented that " [ t ] here were moments when I laughed " but that " Mrs. Donaghy " did not come together to make a great episode . He noted that Jack and Liz discovering that they were married " didn 't bring much new to the table . Jack and Liz arguing like this is standard for 30 Rock , and I got bored of their story rather quickly . " Further in his recap , Forcella said that the ending scene , with Jeffrey explaining all of the things Jack and Liz have done together as close friends , " was almost as if they expected us to predict one of them was going to think it was something more than a friendship , and then flip it on the audience . " Kelsea Stahler of the New York Post noted that when it was revealed that Jack accidentally married Liz that it " fell a little flat " , reasoning " I mean , Jack accidentally married [ Liz ] , this scene could have reached so many levels of insanity , but instead they settled for Jonathan 's ( Maulik Pancholy ) piercing squeal before moving onto the rest of the show . " Johnny Firecloud of CraveOnline did not enjoy the Jenna , Danny , and Kenneth plot explaining that it unfolded " very strangely , and eventually saps a good deal of energy out of the show . It 's a dead @-@ end sub @-@ plot that 's simply useless . " Firecloud gave this episode a 7 out of 10 rating .
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= Karthi =
Karthik Sivakumar ( born 25 May 1977 ) , better known by his stage name Karthi , is an Indian film actor who works in the Tamil and Telugu film industries . The younger son of actor Sivakumar , Karthi holds a Bachelor 's degree in Mechanical Engineering and master of business administration in Industrial Engineering . Since he had always wanted to become a film director , he returned to India and joined Mani Ratnam as an assistant director . He was offered acting roles and made his acting debut in Paruthiveeran in 2007 as the title character , a careless village ruffian , winning critical acclaim and several accolades including the Filmfare Award for Best Actor and a Tamil Nadu State Film Award . His next role was that of a coolie in Aayirathil Oruvan ( 2010 ) , an adventure film directed by Selvaraghavan . He achieved consecutive commercial successes with his subsequent releases – Paiyaa ( 2010 ) , Naan Mahaan Alla ( 2010 ) and Siruthai ( 2011 ) . After appearing in a series of box office flops , he starred in successful films such as Biriyani ( 2013 ) , Madras ( 2014 ) and Oopiri ( 2016 ) which established him in the Tamil film industry .
Apart from his film career , Karthi has also been involved in social welfare activities , encouraging fans to do likewise through the " Makkal Nala Mandram " , a social welfare club that he inaugurated . In 2011 , he became a cause ambassador to promote awareness of lysosomal storage disease . As of 2015 , he is the treasurer of the Nadigar Sangam .
= = Early life = =
Karthi was born on 25 May 1977 in Madras ( now Chennai ) , Tamil Nadu , India . He had his schooling at Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan and St. Bede 's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School , Chennai . He gained a bachelor 's degree in Mechanical Engineering from Crescent Engineering College , Chennai . After graduation , he worked as an Engineering consultant in Chennai and considered higher studies abroad . " I was earning about ₹ 5000 , per month and found the work monotonous . That was when I thought , I should do something more " , he recalled in an interview . Karthi got a scholarship for his higher studies in the United States , and enrolled at Binghamton University , New York , where he earned his Master of Science in Industrial Engineering . While pursuing his masters , he also attended lectures on filmmaking .
During his stay in New York , Karthi worked as a part @-@ time graphic designer . He then decided to pursue a career in film @-@ making ; he attended two courses in basic film @-@ making at State University of New York . He stated , " I always knew I wanted to be in films but I did not know exactly what I wanted to do . I loved movies and watched a lot of them . But my father insisted that I get a good education before I joined the film industry " .
= = Career = =
= = = 2007 : Debut success = = =
When Karthi returned to India , he met director Mani Ratnam , who offered him the role of Arjun ( later played by Siddharth ) in the film Aayutha Ezhuthu . He declined the offer and worked as an assistant director on the same film and its Hindi version Yuva because he wanted to become a film director and preferred directing to acting , though he did appear as an extra in Aaytha Ezhuthu . He continued to receive acting offers and his father convinced him to take up acting , telling him " ... one can always direct films but one will not get a chance to act once you grow older " . He accepted his first acting assignment in April 2005 . When director Ameer approached him to play the titular character in the film Paruthiveeran , he accepted the offer because the film was " ... so compelling " . The film was released in July 2005 and experienced financial difficulties , and was almost abandoned by mid – 2006 . It was released in January 2007 , to critical acclaim and became commercially successful .
Critics unanimously praised Karthi 's portrayal of a careless village ruffian . Behindwoods said : " He has done away with every trace of sophistication in his body language and even handles the sickle with consummate ease . He looks every inch a hot blooded youngster from some rural part of Tamil Nadu [ and ] appears seasoned in the romantic scenes ... Uninformed people might not believe that this is the young man ’ s big screen debut . Look out for this guy ... " . Sify said : " It ’ s hard to believe that it is Karthi ’ s debut film as he is just spectacular . His expressions , anger , laughter and anguish are all so realistic that you can feel the fire in him . " Rediff called his performance " excellent " , and " ... one of the top performances of 2007 " . Karthi received several accolades for his performance , including the Filmfare Award for Best Actor in Tamil .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Break after Paruthiveeran = = =
In October 2006 , Karthi signed his second project under Selvaraghavan 's direction , Idhu Maalai Nerathu Mayakkam , which was supposed to be a romance film , featuring Sandhya as the female lead . Karthi 's character was a " ... sophisticated upmarket stylish guy ... " . Selvaraghavan abandoned that project and in July 2007 , he announced the production of an adventure film titled Aayirathil Oruvan with Karthi in the lead role . Filming began later that year and was expected to be completed by February 2008 . The producers planned to release it in mid @-@ 2008 , but production was delayed and filming continued until early 2009 . He had agreed to play the lead character in Linguswamy 's next film , Paiyaa , in September 2007 . Because of the slow progress of Aayirathil Oruvan , Paiyaa was postponed several times . He later said that he became anxious because he received several film offers but could not work on them because he needed to maintain the continuity of his looks . During the filming of Aayirathil Oruvan , producer Ravindran complained that Karthi was trying to change his look and move on to Paiyaa before finishing his commitments .
Aayirathil Oruvan was released in early 2010 . Karthi 's portrayal of a chief coolie was often compared to that in his debut film . Sify called Karthi 's performance " ... a scream . " , and said , " Right from his introduction scene till the end , he is lovable and provides humour . " , and that he had " ... made a sensational comeback ... " .
In April 2010 , Linguswamy 's Paiyaa released . A romantic road @-@ trip film , featuring a blockbuster album by Yuvan Shankar Raja , it was very successful . For the first time , he enacted a character that lives in an urban area . He said that he accepted the film because he desperately wanted to play a cool dude on screen . Karthi 's performances in Aayirathil Oruvan and Paiyaa earned him further nominations at the 58th Filmfare Awards South in the Best Actor category . Both films were dubbed into Telugu as Yuganiki Okkadu and Aawara , respectively , and were successful .
Karthi 's third film in 2010 was Suseenthiran 's thriller Naan Mahaan Alla , in which he played a middle class youth from Chennai whose life is disrupted when his father is killed . It received good reviews , was very popular , and Karthi 's performances was praised by critics . Sreedhar Pillai wrote for Sify : " [ Karthi ] nails the character to perfection " ... He is one good reason to see the film . " Bhama Devi Ravi of Times of India wrote : " ... what a pleasure to see Karthi deliver his best performance to date ... " . Rediff wrote that " Karthi has simply had a ball ... " and " It 's been a long time since you saw an actor who can be as convincing in sadness and rage , as in happiness . " Naan Mahaan Alla was dubbed into Telugu and released as Naa Peru Shiva in 2011 ; it was very successful and earned Karthi some Telugu film offers .
Karthi 's next film was the action – masala Siruthai ( 2011 ) , a remake of the 2006 Telugu film Vikramarkudu . He played two roles ; a thief and a police officer . Karthi 's performances received favourable reviews . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu wrote : " Karthi looks and performs better with every film . Siruthai exemplifies the observation " . Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff wrote : " But the film belongs to Rocket Raja ( Karthi ) , the sort of adorable ruffian Tamil cinema has been missing for a while . He picks pockets , slices off handbags , charms women and even bashes ( ! ) them up without a single jolt to his conscience . " Despite gaining mixed critical response , the film achieved financial success , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing Tamil films of 2011 . In 2011 , Siruthai became Karthi 's biggest commercial success , cementing his position in the Tamil film industry . Sify said that Karthi had become " ... one of the hottest stars in Kollywood " . He made a special appearance in a song in K. V. Anand 's Ko ( 2011 ) , alongside other prominent actors from Tamil cinema .
= = = 2012 – present : Career slump and resurgence = = =
In May 2011 , Karthi began working on a political comedy film , Saguni , directed by Shankar Dayal and featuring him amongst an ensemble cast of supporting actors . He played Kamalakannan in the film , a villager who comes to the city to save his palatial house in Karaikudi from being destroyed for a politician 's personal gain and unknowingly transforms to become a kingmaker in Tamil Nadu politics . The film opened to negative reviews from critics , and became a box @-@ office failure . He later appeared in the 2013 Pongal release Alex Pandian , opposite Anushka Shetty , which also opened to negative critical response upon release .
Karthi 's next release was Rajesh M 's All in All Azhagu Raja , which featured him opposite Kajal Aggarwal and Santhanam . The film was released on Diwali 2013 , and received mostly negative reviews from critics , with Behindwoods saying " Though the laughs are spread across a few moments , when [ All in All Azhagu Raja ] is pitted against Rajesh 's other wholesome ' laughathons ' such as OKOK and Boss [ Engira Bhaskaran ] , it falls way short " and Sify saying " The trouble with [ All in All Azhagu Raja ] is that it lacks basic storyline and took the audiences for granted . The film has no real script to speak of , at best a skeletal plot . " His next film was Venkat Prabhu 's Biriyani , which was released in December 2013 , opening to positive reviews and became a box office success . He also sang the song " Mississippi " under Yuvan Shankar Raja 's direction for both the Tamil and Telugu versions of the film . In 2014 , Karthi appeared in Pa . Ranjith 's Madras , a critical and commercial success . His next release was the 2015 action drama Komban . His first release in 2016 was the Tamil @-@ Telugu bilingual film Oopiri . The film received positive reviews . Karthi 's performance was also praised , with Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu stating ( in his review of the Tamil version Thozha ) , " At a time every leading man ( including Karthi ) seems to be participating in a game @-@ show titled Who Wants To Be The Next Rajinikanth ? , here ’ s a simple “ buddy movie ” ( in the Hollywoodian sense ) , with no punch dialogues , no action sequences , with just one duet ( with Tamannaah , who plays Vikram ’ s secretary ; her romance with Seenu is strangely unresolved ) . We see , all the time , character actors striving to become larger @-@ than @-@ life heroes . For a change , here ’ s a hero scaling himself down to play a life @-@ sized character . " Karthi has signed on for director Gokul 's Kaashmora in which he plays three characters . Karthi is an actor who is never tired of trying different roles and stories .
= = Personal life = =
Karthi is the second son of actor Sivakumar and his wife Lakshmi . He has two siblings ; an elder brother , Suriya , also an actor in the Tamil film industry , and a younger sister named Brindha . Tamil film actress Jyothika is Karthi 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . On 3 July 2011 , Karthi married Ranjani , who graduated with a master 's degree in English literature from Stella Maris College , Chennai . They were engaged on 29 April 2011 at Ranjani 's native village , Goundampalayam in Erode District , and the wedding was held at the CODISSIA trade fair complex in Coimbatore . The wedding was arranged by the elders of the family . They have a daughter named Umayaal , born on 11 January 2013 .
= = Other work = =
Karthi has been involved in several charities and social service activities . On his 31st birthday , he inaugurated the Makkal Nala Mandram , in order to encourage his fans to become involved in welfare activities . During the event , Karthi donated blood , donated bicycles to handicapped people , sewing machines to women and schoolbags to children . He presented a cheque of ₹ 50 @,@ 000 to YRG Care Centre , which helps AIDS affected children . In 2011 , Karthi became a cause ambassador for promoting awareness of lysosomal storage disease . He had also adopted a white tiger cub at Vandalur Zoo and contributed ₹ 72 @,@ 000 to protect and preserve the animal . On his birthdays , Karthi visits orphanages and donates funds to them . He told Indiaglitz ; " When I see people in need , I make sure I go and help . If I am going on birthdays to reach out to kids in orphanages , it is for my own satisfaction . I feel happier to be with them and it 's nice to make them smile on that particular day . "
On September 2010 , Karthi signed a contract with Bharti Airtel to become its brand ambassador in South India and appear in its " Indraikku enna plan " advertising campaign . He has also appeared in advertisements for Bru Instant Coffee along with Kajal Aggarwal , who had earlier acted opposite him in Naan Mahaan Alla and All in All Azhagu Raja .
In 2015 , Karthi joined fellow actors Vishal , Nassar , Karunas , and Ponvannan to campaign against the concurrent office bearers of the Nadigar Sangam , led by R. Sarathkumar and Radha Ravi . He was successful in the election , becoming the association 's treasurer .
= = Filmography = =
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= French destroyer Panthère =
The French destroyer Panthère was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer built for the French Navy during the 1920s . Aside from cruises to the English Channel and the French West Indies , she spent her entire career in the Mediterranean Sea . The ship was assigned to the Torpedo School at Toulon in 1932 and remained there until World War II began in September 1939 . She was then assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic and was being refitted when the Battle of France began in May 1940 . After the surrender of France a month later , Panthère was reduced to reserve . When the Germans attempted to seize the French fleet there in November 1942 , she was one of the few ships that was not scuttled and was captured virtually intact .
The Germans later turned her over to the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) who renamed her FR 22 when they recommissioned her in early 1943 . The ship was scuttled when Italy surrendered in September and scrapped after the war .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 20 April 1927 , Panthère 's turbines provided 56 @,@ 900 metric horsepower ( 41 @,@ 800 kW ; 56 @,@ 100 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 7 knots ( 66 @.@ 1 km / h ; 41 @.@ 1 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Panthère , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from Arsenal de Lorient . She was laid down on 23 December 1923 , once the slipway was vacated by her sister ship Jaguar . Launched on 27 October 1924 , commissioned on 1 November 1926 , completed on 4 January 1927 and entered service a month later . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . The ship was assigned to the 1st Large Destroyer Division ( 1ère division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) of the Mediterranean Squadron ( renamed 5th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the First Squadron ( 1ère Escadre ) on 1 February 1927 ) based at Toulon upon completion , together with her sisters Jaguar and Chacal . On 27 April 1927 , Panthère participated in a naval review by Gaston Doumergue , President of France , off Marseilles . The ship was also present when he next reviewed the fleet on 3 July 1928 off Le Havre .
Together with Guépard , Panthère escorted the light cruisers Lamotte @-@ Picquet and Primauguet to the French West Indies between 17 January and 30 April 1930 . Two months later , the ship participated in the naval review at Algiers on 10 May 1930 commemorating the centenary of the first French landing in Algeria on 13 June 1830 . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 and the ship was assigned to the 9th DL of the Torpedo Training School ( Ecole d 'application du lancement à la mer ) at Toulon on 1 October 1932 . About two years later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns .
When the war started in September 1939 , Panthère was still assigned to the 4th DCT with her sisters Tigre and Lynx . She was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In October – December , two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability .
In May 1940 , Panthère began a refit at Toulon that included the addition of piping between the forecastle and forward fuel tank to allow the ship to refuel at sea and the removal of the mainmast in favor of a platform with a twin @-@ gun mount for the 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 light AA gun . When France surrendered on 22 June , she was still being worked on and only one propeller shaft was available . Shortly afterwards , the ship was reduced to reserve with only a skeleton crew aboard and her anti @-@ aircraft guns were transferred to more modern ships .
On 27 November 1942 , the ship was captured almost intact by the Germans when they occupied Toulon and was turned over to the Italians on 14 December . The Regia Marina redesignated her as FR 22 and she recommissioned on 19 January 1943 after Pierre Laval , head of Vichy France , agreed to transfer her on 11 January ; she sailed to Taranto on 23 March where the Italians used her as a transport in Italian waters . The ship 's most notable mission was when she transported former Italian Premier Benito Mussolini from Ponza Island to La Maddalena , Sardinia on 6 August . The ship was scuttled at La Spezia on 9 September 1943 following the Italian armistice and broken up after the war .
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= Typhoon Abe ( 1990 ) =
Typhoon Abe , known as Typhoon Heling in the Philippines , was the fourteenth named storm of 1990 Pacific typhoon season . Forming on August 23 from a tropical disturbance , the depression which would eventually develop into Typhoon Abe initially tracked in a steady west @-@ northwestward direction . As a result of an intense monsoon surge , Abe 's trajectory briefly changed to an eastward then northward path before returning to its original track . Abe only intensified by a small amount between 00 : 00 UTC August 24 and 06 : 00 UTC August 27 due to the disruptive effects of the surge , and on August 30 , Abe peaked in intensity as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . After peaking in intensity , Abe crossed the Ryukyu Islands and the East China Sea , making landfall in China where it affected the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu before entering the Yellow Sea , crossing South Korea , and finally transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
Typhoon Abe killed 108 – 195 people after it caused flooding and landslides in the Philippines and Taiwan , ravaged coastal areas of China , and brought high waves to Japan . Abe , which is responsible for killing 108 in China , affected half of Zhejiang 's land area and a fourth of its population , leaving thousands homeless and causing ¥ 3 @.@ 5 billion yuan ( RMB , $ 741 @.@ 5 – 743 million USD ) to be lost in damages . Additional damage and one fatality occurred in Okinawa Prefecture in Japan , where at least ¥ 890 million yen ( JPY , $ 6 million USD ) in damage was caused .
= = Meteorological history = =
The tropical disturbance which would eventually intensify to become Typhoon Abe was first noted by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) in a Significant Tropical Weather Advisory as an area of persistent atmospheric convection on August 23 at 01 : 00 UTC . Located near the end of what the JTWC considered to be " an active monsoon trough " , the initial minimum sea @-@ level pressure was estimated to be approximately 1 @,@ 007 millibars ( 1 @,@ 007 hPa ; 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) . Following this mention , the disturbance tracked in a mostly west @-@ northwestward direction , traveling beneath a subtropical ridge , with a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert being issued at 06 : 00 UTC based on the improving state of the low .
Following an increase in the storm 's central convection , the JTWC determined at 00 : 00 UTC August 24 that it had intensified into a tropical storm which it assigned the designation 15W , and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began to monitor the system six hours later . The JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm on its scale at 00 : 00 UTC August 25 , and by the time twelve hours had passed , a strong surge in the monsoon westerlies had started to develop to the south of the storm 's convective area , slowing its westward movement . After enhanced convection associated with the surge on the east side of Abe 's main convective cloud mass wrapped around the north , the storm 's center of circulation reorganized to the north between the competing convective masses . At 06 : 00 UTC August 27 , the JMA upgraded Abe to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and as a ragged eye developed in the storm , the JTWC upgraded Abe to typhoon status six hours later . Late on August 28 , the JMA upgraded Abe to a typhoon on its scale , with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
Following the monsoon surge , Abe returned to its original west @-@ northwestward track , further intensifying to become a Category 2 @-@ equivalent typhoon at 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 . A weakness appeared in the subtropical ridge in association with a short @-@ wave trough , and Typhoon Abe recurved through this weakness , taking it along the coast of China . Prior to making landfall , Abe attained a minimum atmospheric pressure of 955 millibars ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) on August 29 at 18 : 00 UTC as determined by the JMA . It was found by the JTWC that Abe 's one @-@ minute sustained winds peaked at 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) at 00 : 00 UTC August 30 , and the JMA determined that its ten @-@ minute sustained winds peaked at 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 18 : 00 UTC on August 29 . As a direct result of this interaction with land , Abe weakened to a tropical storm at 12 : 00 UTC on August 31 , entering the Yellow Sea and crossing South Korea in the 30 hours that followed . It was determined at 18 : 00 UTC on September 1 that the storm had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The JTWC ceased tracking the system at 06 : 00 UTC September 2 , and the JMA followed suit 36 hours later .
= = Impacts = =
In the Philippines where Abe was known by the PAGASA name " Heling " , as a result of flooding and landslides caused by Abe , about 150 homes were washed away along Dalton Pass , leaving 1 @,@ 500 people without homes and an additional 85 people dead . Rainfall @-@ induced landslides ravaged areas previously damaged by an earthquake a month earlier , with landslide @-@ caused fatalities totaling 32 in the Philippine provinces of Benguet , Nueva Ecija , and Nueva Vizcaya , Significant flooding in Luzon resulted in the deaths of 12 people in Manila , and Philippine Airlines responded by suspending domestic air services . In response to flooding caused by Typhoon Abe and Typhoon Becky in the Philippines , President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino issued a proclamation declaring the existence of a state of public calamity for affected areas of the country .
Parts of Okinawa Prefecture in Japan experienced high winds and heavy rainfall as Typhoon Abe passed nearby . Precipitation totals as high as 306 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) and winds of 115 km / h ( 72 mph ) were recorded in Ohara , and total forestry losses for Ishigaki totaled ¥ 500 @,@ 000 yen ( JPY , $ 3 @,@ 000 USD ) . Some parts of Ishigaki experienced a suspension of their water supply , and about 800 households experienced power failures . Hundreds of millions of yen in agricultural losses , especially to sugar cane , occurred due to the typhoon , totaling ¥ 878 @.@ 53 million yen ( JPY , $ 6 @.@ 0882 million USD ) , and losses in the water industry totaled an additional ¥ 12 @.@ 02 million yen ( JPY , $ 8 @,@ 330 USD ) . The area also experienced airline flight cancellations , leaving thousands stranded while the storm passed . One person was drawn out to sea after winds of up to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and high waves affected the coast .
In Taiwan , one person was killed and six others were injured as Typhoon Abe traveled across the East China Sea . Approximately 70 @,@ 000 households had their supply of electricity cut off , and floods and landslides occurred as a result of heavy rainfall .
Early on August 31 , Typhoon Abe made landfall over Zhejiang Province in China approximately 250 – 270 km ( 160 – 170 mi ) south of Shanghai . In Zhejiang , where Abe was reportedly " the worst typhoon to hit the province in 34 years " , casualties of the storm numbered in the hundreds , with 65 people rendered dead , 839 wounded , and an additional 45 reported missing . Significant flooding affected vast swaths of farmland and stranded about 660 @,@ 000 people . Approximately a quarter of the province 's population , about ten million people , was affected by the storm , which left 41 @,@ 000 people without their homes and brought about the collapse of 21 @,@ 800 houses . Additionally , about 1 @,@ 000 ships at sea were destroyed , and the combined direct economic losses which resulted from Abe were about ¥ 3 @.@ 5 billion yuan ( RMB , 741 @.@ 5 – 743 million USD ) . The adjacent province of Jiangsu also experienced significant impacts ; 23 people died and hundreds of others were injured as a result of the storm . Houses suffered serious impacts , with 80 @,@ 000 destroyed and 120 @,@ 000 damaged . Over 1 @.@ 34 million hectares of fields were flooded . Three people were killed and 46 were injured in Shanghai , and a suburban area experienced a tornado . Altogether , an estimated 108 people were killed in China .
Abe brought heavy rain and gale @-@ force winds to South Korea prior to transitioning to an extratropical cyclone near the east coast of the peninsula .
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= Kamiya Kaoru =
Kamiya Kaoru ( 神谷 薫 ) , known as Kaoru Kamiya in the Media Blasters English @-@ language dub and Kori Kamiya in the English Sony Samurai X dub , is a fictional character in the Rurouni Kenshin manga created by Nobuhiro Watsuki . In the story Kaoru is the instructor of a kendo school in Tokyo , Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū ( 神谷活心流 ) . The students leave when many people are killed by someone claiming to be the Hitokiri Battōsai ( 人斬り抜刀斎 ) from the Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū " , damaging the school 's reputation . Kaoru is saved from the murderous impostor by the real Battōsai , Himura Kenshin , now a wanderer who has sworn to stop killing . During the series , Kaoru grows fond of Kenshin due to his good actions to society and becomes his ally .
Kaoru also appears in the film version of the series and other media of the franchise , including electronic games and a series of original video animations ( OVAs ) . Although Watsuki wanted to design Kaoru " more cutely " and to be " more fashionable " , he toned down those qualities and made her poor and " down @-@ to @-@ earth " . There was concern that Watsuki might kill her off , and critical reception of the character has been mixed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Kaoru is the instructor of the Kamiya Kasshin martial @-@ arts school . She inherited her fighting style and a small dojo from her father , who was drafted by a police swordsmen unit and died defending a comrade during the Seinan War . At the beginning of the story , Kaoru has no students and runs the dojo alone ; she seems likely to lose it when Kenshin helps her . Despite occasional mood swings and a reputation for bad cooking , she is independent , compassionate , courageous and a good fighter . In her first appearance Kaoru searches for the assassin Hitokiri Battosai , who claims to be from Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryu . Kaoru is saved by the real Battosai , Himura Kenshin , and invites him to her dojo . One of her greatest fears is that Kenshin might return to wandering , leaving her alone again , and she is jealous if another girl ( such as Takani Megumi ) is interested in him . In the series ' first story arc , Kaoru gains a student ( Myojin Yahiko ) and loses one ( Tsukayama Yutaro ) .
When the Meiji government requests Kenshin 's aid to kill the former Hitokiri Shishio Makoto , he bids Kaoru an emotional farewell and leaves for Kyoto . Kaoru falls into a depression before she follows him to Kyoto after a pep talk from Megumi . With the Oniwabanshu 's Makimachi Misao , she defeats one of Shishio 's Juppongatana : Honjō Kamatari .
In Tokyo , after Kaoru learns about Yukishiro Enishi 's plans to kill everyone connected to Kenshin she teaches Yahiko the ougi of the Kamiya Kasshin . Enishi says that his goal is not to kill Kenshin , but to make him suffer by killing the person most important to him : Kaoru . He kidnaps her , leaving a replica of her dead body . Convinced that he again failed to save the one who was most important to him , Kenshin flees to the Fallen Village and falls into a catatonic depression . When he learns that Kaoru is alive , he and the group rescue her from Enishi . They marry and have a son , Himura Kenji .
= = = Other media = = =
In Samurai X : Reflection , although Kenshin and Kaoru are married he begins wandering again because he needs to help others ; he returns every couple of years . Kaoru lets him go , promising to welcome him home with a smile and their child . Kenshin develops a mysterious disease , and Kaoru convinces him to transmit it to her . He leaves to help people in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War , as he had promised the Meiji government . When he returns to Japan , Kenshin collapses in Kaoru 's arms and dies .
In the pilot issue of Rurouni : Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story , first published in 1992 , Kaoru is the sister of Megumi and Yahiko . Many of the character 's details changed in her transition to mainstream manga .
Kaoru appears in all Rurouni Kenshin video games ( including Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars ) , primarily as a supporting character . In the manga reboot Rurouni Kenshin : Restoration , Kaoru works for Takeda Kanryū to regain her dojo . After Kenshin defeats Takeda , she continues living in the dojo with Kenshin and his friends . Kaoru was played by Emi Takei in 2012 's Rurouni Kenshin and its two sequels .
= = Concept = =
Watsuki said that he used " no specific model " and " no specific motif " in designing Kaoru , saying that if he had to name one model it would be Chiba Sanako of Ryōma no Koibito . He wanted to include the " commanding " qualities of Sasaki Mifuyu ( 佐々木 三冬 ) from Shōtarō Ikenami 's Kenkaku Shōbai . According to Watsuki , Kaoru is a " plain , regular girl " despite her commanding qualities . By the first Japanese compilation , he thought that the character worked and many female Rurouni Kenshin readers identified with Kaoru . At the time , Watsuki had not decided if Kaoru would be Kenshin 's love interest . Although he wanted to design Kaoru " more cutely " and to be " more fashionable " , he toned down those qualities and made her poor and " down @-@ to @-@ earth " . The artist described her ponytail as " de rigueur " for a girl practicing kendo . According to Watsuki , he enjoys drawing Kaoru but filling in her hair is " sometimes a pain . " At the end of Rurouni Kenshin , Kaoru received a new hairstyle . Watsuki felt that Kaoru would look odd without her ponytail , but her original hairstyle did not look maternal and he changed it for the ending . When female readers asked Watsuki if Kaoru was a strong fighter , he called the character " quite independent for her age " who could " hold her own " against the local dojo masters and compete at the national level ( although she is weaker than Kenshin and Sagara Sanosuke ) .
Watsuki said that in volume seven the series took on a more adult tone , influenced by the shōjo manga he was reading at the time . During the series he considered killing Kaoru off , deciding against it in favor of a happy ending for a manga aimed at young readers and influenced by the previous story arc 's upbeat ending . However , he thought the storyline then lost its main theme ( revenge ) ; readers praised and criticized the twist . Watsuki apologized to his young audience for the dark chapters suggesting that Kaoru was dead .
= = Reception = =
Kaoru has been popular with Rurouni Kenshin readers , placing fourth or fifth in every popularity poll . Watsuki described Tomo Sakurai 's CD @-@ drama voice as " not too airhead @-@ y , " " not too high " and " not too low . " Kaoru merchandise includes plushes , keychains and sweatbands . Miki Fujitani ( who voices the character ) said in an interview that in the OVA series Kaoru is brave and very different from her original version whose characterization has been felt closer to the calm Yukishiro Tomoe .
Manga , anime and video @-@ game publications have responded positively to Kaoru ; in T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews , Carlos Ross called her a " spirited girl " . According to Megan Lavey of Mania Entertainment , the manga Kaoru is " a lot wiser " than her anime version . Kaoru and Kenshin 's relationship ranked eighth in About.com 's " Top 8 Anime Love Stories " , with Katherine Luther calling it a " classic romance . "
Kaoru 's Reflection OVA series version was criticized ; Efrain Diaz , Jr. of IGN wrote that although some of Kenshin and Kaoru 's private moments are touching , others are depressing . According to Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol , Kaoru is the least visually successful character redesign in the Reflection OVA . Citing the manga version 's " distinctive girlish charm " , Crandol said that the staff members tried too hard to make her look like Yukishiro Tomoe . Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network was disappointed by Kaoru 's lack of development in the series Rurouni Kenshin Restoration .
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= Attack on German Flatts ( 1778 ) =
The Attack on German Flatts ( September 17 , 1778 ) was a raid on the frontier settlement of German Flatts , New York ( which then also encompassed what is now Herkimer ) during the American Revolutionary War . The attack was made by a mixed force of Loyalists and Iroquois under the overall command of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant , and resulted in the destruction of houses , barns , and crops , and the taking of livestock for the raiders ' use . The settlers , warned by the heroic run of Adam Helmer , took refuge in local forts but were too militarily weak to stop the raiders .
Brant 's attack was one of a series executed under his command or that of Loyalist and Seneca leaders against communities on what was then the frontier of western New York and northern Pennsylvania . New York authorities responded by ordering an expedition that destroyed Brant 's forward operating bases in Iroquois territory .
= = Background = =
With the failure of British General John Burgoyne 's campaign to the Hudson after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , the American Revolutionary War in upstate New York became a frontier war . British leaders in the Province of Quebec supported Loyalist and Native American partisan fighters with supplies and armaments . During the winter of 1777 – 78 Brant and other British @-@ allied Indians developed plans to attack frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania . In February 1778 Brant established a base of operations at Onaquaga ( present @-@ day Windsor , New York ) . He recruited a mix of Iroquois and Loyalists estimated to number between two and three hundred by the time he began his campaign in late May . One of his objectives was to acquire provisions for his forces and those of John Butler , who was planning operations in the Susquehanna River valley . His first expedition was a raid on Cobleskill , and he raided other frontier communities throughout the summer .
When he raided settlements at Springfield and Andrustown ( present @-@ day Jordanville ) in July , Brant left the survivors with warnings that German Flatts would soon also be attacked . The settlement of German Flatts ( now known as Herkimer due to a survey error in 1788 that reversed the names of Herkimer and what is now German Flatts on the south bank of the Mohawk River ) was founded in 1723 by Palatine German immigrants . The district was defended by a local militia regiment under the command of Colonel Peter Bellinger . There were two main forts , Fort Dayton and Fort Herkimer , on either side of the Mohawk .
= = Prelude = =
Although Brant had planned on raiding German Flatts sooner than September , the absence of John Butler delayed his plans . Butler had returned to Fort Niagara after his attack on the Wyoming Valley communities in July , sending Captain William Caldwell to Unaquaga to recruit men for the unit known as Butler 's Rangers . By early September it was clear that Butler was not returning to the area , so Brant and Caldwell launched the expedition with the men they had . The exact composition of the force that left Unadilla is unclear . Sources generally agree that 152 Iroquois , principally Mohawk , were in the force , but that the Loyalists ( in either Caldwell 's Ranger company or in Brant 's company of volunteers ) numbered between 200 and 300 .
Because of warnings received earlier that Brant was planning an attack , Colonel Bellinger had been sending out scouts in the direction of Unadilla to gather intelligence . On September 16 Brant 's company overwhelmed a scouting party of nine , killing a few and scattering the rest . One of the survivors was Adam Helmer , who ran 26 miles ( 42 km ) ahead of the advancing force to warn German Flatts . Colonel Bellinger sounded the call to arms of his regiment and sent an urgent request to Colonel Jacob Klock for the assistance of his regiment , while the settlers took refuge in the forts .
= = Raid = =
Caldwell , Brant , and their men arrived at German Flatts not long after Helmer 's warning , on the evening of September 16 , and began their attack the next morning . Because the settlers had taken refuge in the forts , there was no significant opportunity for the raiders to take prisoners or scalps . They demonstrated before the forts , but lacked heavy weapons with which to properly assault them . They instead rampaged through the communities on both sides of the Mohawk , destroying 63 homes , a similar number of barns , three grist mills , and one saw mill . They drove off a large number of horses , cattle , and sheep , killing those they could not take with them . The only buildings left standing were the forts , a barn , the church , and the homes of the minister and a few Loyalists . More than 700 people were made homeless by their destruction . Because of Helmer 's warning only three Americans were killed . Captain Caldwell wrote that his men " would have in all probability killed most of the inhabitants of German Flatts had they not been apprised of our coming by one of the scouts getting in and warning of our approach , and perhaps got to their forts " .
= = Aftermath = =
Klock 's regiment did not arrive until after the raiders had left . The militia pursued the raiders , but were unable to catch up with them . Some friendly Oneidas and Tuscaroras , however , capitalized on Brant 's absence from Unadilla to raid that town , freeing prisoners that Brant had taken while en route to German Flatts .
The Americans launched retaliatory raids in early October that destroyed Unadilla and Onaquaga . Brant and John Butler 's son Walter organized a retaliatory expedition against Cherry Valley , which was the scene of a massacre in November . This action and others by Brant and Butler contributed to the decision by the Continental Congress to authorize a major Continental Army expedition into Iroquois territory . Commanded by Generals John Sullivan and James Clinton , the 1779 expedition systematically destroyed the villages of Iroquois tribes fighting for the British , but did little to stop the frontier war . The German Flatts area in particular was the subject of repeated raids .
Walter D. Edmonds ' 1936 novel Drums Along the Mohawk recounts the story of Adam Helmer 's run and gives an overview of the German settlements along the river . It was adapted as a film by the same name , directed by John Ford and released in 1939 .
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= Headstrong ( Ashley Tisdale album ) =
Headstrong is the debut studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Ashley Tisdale , released on February 6 , 2007 , by Warner Bros. Records . Tisdale began working on the project after the first installment of High School Musical ( 2006 ) , and after she had achieved the feat of being the first female artist to debut with two songs on the Billboard Hot 100 . The singer worked with a variety of established writers and producers on the album , including Diane Warren , J.R. Rotem , Ryan Tedder , Evan " Kidd " Bogart , and Kara DioGuardi , among others . Commenting that the album garnered its title from her personality , Tisdale said she wanted to use her first album to formally introduce herself personally , and as not one of the characters she portrays .
Headstrong 's music derives mainly from the genres of dance @-@ pop and R & B , provided by electronica . Meanwhile , it incorporates hip hop beats and some tracks infuse dancehall and other world music . The album also lyrically explores themes in teen pop . Many critics compared her first effort to the first works of fellow Disney @-@ alums Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Carrying primarily an urban tone , the " hip pop " of Gwen Stefani is also said to be an influence on the album . Headstrong itself was given mixed reviews by critics , who while complimenting it overall , called it ordinary and panned the ballads . Critics were also ambivalent towards Tisdale 's vocal performance . Whereas , the album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling over 64 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week , it also charted in numerous international markets . It was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and Irish Recorded Music Association .
The album 's lead single , " Be Good to Me , " charted moderately in the United States and select European markets . Tisdale 's breakthrough hit , " He Said She Said " peaked at 58 in the US , and appeared on several international charts , peaking in the top 20 in Germany and Austria . The last two singles were released in certain countries in Europe exclusively . The third single , " Not Like That " charted in the top half of several European charts , while the fourth and final single " Suddenly " charted in Germany . Tisdale supported the album with promotional appearances , High School Musical : The Concert , and her tour , Headstrong Tour Across America . The album was voted as the sixth best album of 2007 by the readers of Billboard .
= = Background and development = =
Tisdale got her first start on Billboard when she became the first female artist in history to debut with two songs on the Billboard Hot 100 , from the soundtrack of High School Musical . Tisdale called the feat " crazy , " stating , " When I think about artists like Madonna and Beyoncé ... it ’ s surreal . I seriously can ’ t comprehend it . " Soon after the completion of High School Musical , Tisdale began work on her debut album . In December 2006 , producer J.R. Rotem confirmed he was producing and writing with Tisdale for the album .
Tisdale said that the album was an opportunity for her fans to get to know her better , commenting , " People know my characters , but they don ’ t know me . " Noting that she never spills much information about her life in interviews , she also said that the album talks about life and things personal to her . Regarding the previous statement , the singer said she wanted people to understand that she was normal , and how they could relate to her . Tisdale titled the album Headstrong , because she calls her self a " headstrong " type of person , commenting that she was the term in the sense of knowing how she wants to look , sing , and come across . In addition to wanting to record songs that " touched " her and those that she could personally identify with , she co @-@ wrote three songs on the album , " Over It , " " Not Like That , " and " Suddenly . "
" Don 't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) " is a cover song , performed originally performed by Tata Young . Tisdale collaborated with Rotem , Ryan Tedder , and Evan " Kidd " Bogart on " He Said She Said . " Tisdale also worked heavily with production teams The Matrix and Twin . Additionally , Diane Warren , David Jassy , Guy Roche , Shelly Peiken , Sarah Hudson , Samantha Jade , and Bryan Todd were the other remaining music veterans that worked on the project , with the rest being relatively unknown writers . While the album does not contain credited featured artists , Jassy , Jack D. Elliot , Keely Pressly , Lauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Kara DioGuardi , Victoria Sandstorm , Windy Wagner , Bryan Todd , Tata Young , and Marissa Pontecorvo provide background vocals on tracks . Jassy performed rap interludes on " Be Good to Me , " which he co @-@ wrote . The album was released in the United States on February 6 , 2007 .
= = Composition = =
Headstrong derives mainly from the genres of dance @-@ pop , electropop , and R & B while incorporating teen pop themes and hip hop and dancehall elements . It carries many elements of hip pop itself , and has been compared to the music of Gwen Stefani . The title track " Headstrong " mixes " slinky " verses with cheerleader chants like Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl . " The album begins with a " futuristic " introduction which contains excerpts of other songs on the set . " So Much For You " is a dance song about a confident girl who wants true love . " He Said She Said " has been described as " steamy dancefloor seduction . " " Be Good to Me " contains an urban beat . " Not Like That , " which contains influences of Middle Eastern music , covers the topic of the " familiar misunderstood @-@ celebrity , " but was referred to as more " worked up " than " whiny . " Containing rap interludes by Tisdale and clap along beats , according to Gary Graff of Billboard , the song is also liking to Stefani . " Positivity " makes use of syncopated beats and " old @-@ school " synths . " Over It " has " boingy " effects . " Goin ' Crazy " has similarities to Britney Spears ' " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy , " while " Suddenly " seems to cover Tisdale discovering her stardom . Jon Dolan of Blender coined the song " The Little Mermaid @-@ worthy . " Spears is also said to be an influence of Tisdale 's " husky , alto " voice in " Over It , " and " So Much For You . " The dance song " Don 't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) " has an ' 80 's style beat .
= = Critical reception = =
Heather Phares of Allmusic rated the album 3 out of 5 stars and commented , " her voice is pleasant enough , but it 's not especially distinctive , and she 's not helped by a batch of songs that aren 't nearly as charming as High School Musical 's tunes . " Phares also said that although the album wasn 't winning considering the high @-@ profile songwriters and producers involved , " it 's fine for anyone who just wants to hear more of Ashley Tisdale 's -- and not Sharpay Evans ' -- singing . " Jon Dolan of Blender said Tisdale did not import her " spunky " High School Musical character in the album , and that even with the quality of producers , " no stylistic slipper fits right . " Gary Graff of Billboard said Tisdale went , " the contemporary CHR school of fellow Mouse products Britney Spears and first @-@ album Christina Aguilera — lots of synthesizer @-@ laden , beat @-@ heavy , layered @-@ vocal dance tracks " that varied between " come @-@ hithers " and " self @-@ affirming anthems . " Graff commented , " she 'll have to develop a more defined identity before she can truly win our affections . " James Ross of The Arizona Daily Wildcat commended the album 's uptempo songs but critiqued the ballads , commenting she hits the right notes on uptempo numbers , while on ballads , " Any ' Musical ' fan knows that Tisdale can belt one out , but this is not apparent on the album . " Overall , Ross said , " Although the album fails in places , it is ll [ sic ] a worthy attempt by an up @-@ and @-@ coming pop artist to please her audience . "
= = Chart performance = =
The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 in the US , selling over 64 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On June 3 , 2008 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units . The album sold over 471 @,@ 000 copies in United States as of July 13 , 2009 and 1 million copies worldwide as of February 2010 . The album debuted on the Austrian Albums Chart at number 33 , and after its fifth week on the chart , it peaked at 21 . In its opening week on New Zealand Albums Chart and the Swiss Albums Chart , it peaked at 22 and 98 , respectively . On the Australian Albums Chart , it peaked at 80 , while spending 33 weeks on the German Albums Chart , peaking at 23 . Headstrong also peaked at 155 on the UK Albums Chart and 16 on the Irish Albums Chart , and was later certified Gold in the latter region by the Irish Recorded Music Association .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " Be Good to Me " was released to mainstream airplay as the album 's lead single on March 6 , 2007 . It was originally released as a B @-@ side for the promo release of " He Said She Said . " The single peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching 67 in Austria and 57 in Germany . The second single , " He Said She Said , " originally released as a promo single for the album , was sent to mainstream radio on November 6 , 2007 . The single peaked at 58 in the United States , 21 in Austria , 17 in Germany , and 62 in Canada . It was later certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . " Not Like That " served as the third single in several European countries , first released on January 25 , 2008 . It peaked in the top 20 of Germany , top 30 in Switzterland , and at number 31 in Austria . The fourth and final single from Headstrong was " Suddenly , " which select European markets also received . It was released on May 2 , 2008 , and peaked at 45 in Germany .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the album , Tisdale appeared in several live and televised appearances , performing the singles , " Be Good to Me " and " He Said She Said . " On February 6 , 2007 , she appeared and performed on Good Morning America , and appeared at a signing at FYE in West Nyack , New York . The following day when the album was released , she performed on Live With Regis and Kelly . On February 8 , 2007 , she appeared in the studios of WPIX and KTLA for their respective morning news shows . Tisdale also appeared at a Verizon Wireless store in Pasadena , California on February 10 , 2007 , to promote the set . She also performed " He Said She Said " on The Early Show . Additionally , Tisdale performed cuts from the album during her solo set list on High School Musical : The Concert . On October 22 , 2007 , Tisdale co @-@ hosted MTV 's TRL . During the winter , she performed at Christmas at Rockefeller Center , Z100 's Jingle Ball , Y100 's Jingle Ball , and Q102 's Jingle Ball .
= = = Headstrong Tour Across America = = =
Headstrong Tour Across America was a 2007 mall tour in which Tisdale promote the album , as well as her DVD , There 's Something About Ashley , and Eckō red .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Headstrong at Allmusic .
Lead vocals – Ashley Tisdale , David Jassy
Background vocals – David Jassy , Jack D. Elliot , Keely Pressly , Britney Jean SpearsLauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Kara DioGuardi , Victoria Sandstorm , Windy Wagner , Bryan Todd , Tata Young , Marissa Pontecorvo
Keyboards - Rasmus Billie Bähncke
Bass – Adam Anders
Guitar – Adam Anders , Emanuel Kiriakou and Joacim Persson
Production
Executive Producers : Lori Feldman and Tom Whalley
Vocal Producers : Adam Anders and Nikki Hassman
Mastering : Chris Gehringer
Mastering Assistant : Will Quinnell
Engineers : Adam Anders , Rasmus Billie Bähncke , Dushyant Bhakta , Stuart Brawley , Steve Churchyard , Joe Corcoran , Dave Dillbeck , Kara DioGuardi , Chris Holmes , Emanuel Kiriakou , Alan Mason , The Matrix , Greg Ogan and Twin
String Arranger : David Campbell
Assistant Engineers : Tom Bender and Cliff Lin
A & R : Tommy Page
Photography : Mark Liddell & Brian Bowen Smith
Art Direction : Ellen Wakayama
Design : Julian Peploe
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Pittsburgh mayoral election , 2013 =
The 2013 Pittsburgh mayoral election took place on November 5 , 2013 . Democrat Bill Peduto was elected the 60th Mayor of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The primary election was held on May 21 , 2013 . Incumbent Democratic Mayor Luke Ravenstahl , although eligible for a second full term , did not seek reelection as Mayor of Pittsburgh .
Initially , Luke Ravenstahl had indicated an intention to seek reelection in the 2013 election and had led early Democratic primary polling . Following Ravenstahl 's withdrawal in early March 2013 , several candidates not previously considering a campaign joined the race and others became speculated candidates . As of the primary election petition filing deadline on March 12 , 2013 , seven Democratic candidates and one Republican candidate , Joshua Wander , had filed to run . One Democratic candidate , Bill Robinson , stated he would run despite missing the petition deadline . After the field settled , there were four candidates seeking the Democratic nomination who were listed on the ballot and one seeking the Republican nomination . In addition , the sole Republican candidate also expressed an intention to run for the Democratic nomination as a write @-@ in candidate .
On May 21 , 2013 , Bill Peduto won the Democratic primary and Josh Wander , who had run unopposed in the Republican primary , won his party 's nomination . Peduto defeated Wander and independent Lester Ludwig in the November general election . He was inaugurated as Pittsburgh 's 60th mayor upon the expiration of incumbent Mayor Luke Ravenstahl 's term in January 2014 . The next regular quadrennial mayoral election following the 2013 election is scheduled for November 2017 .
= = Background = =
In the 2005 election , Democrat Bob O 'Connor was elected Mayor of Pittsburgh and assumed office in January 2006 . In July 2006 , O 'Connor was diagnosed with a rare form of lymphoma , which was initially believed to be manageable . His health deteriorated , however , and he died on September 1 , 2006 . Luke Ravenstahl , as President of the Pittsburgh City Council , was subsequently sworn @-@ in and assumed office as Mayor . At the time , at age 26 , Ravenstahl was the youngest mayor of a major U.S. city .
A special election was scheduled for November 2007 , which pitted Ravenstahl and Republican businessman Mark DeSantis . DeSantis mounted a serious campaign despite a heavy Democratic voter registration advantage in Pittsburgh . Nonetheless , Ravenstahl won the election by a wide margin to serve out the remainder of O 'Connor 's term , ending in 2010 . Ravenstahl was again a candidate for re @-@ election , this time for a full term , in the regularly scheduled November 2009 election . In the primary , he defeated City Councilman Patrick Dowd and attorney Carmen Robinson . Both candidates were able to tap into Democratic support ; however , neither were able to overcome Ravenstahl 's name recognition throughout the city . In the general election , the cross @-@ filed Ravenstahl faced and ultimately defeated independent candidates Franco " Dok " Harris , son of former Pittsburgh Steelers player Franco Harris , and Kevin Acklin , who would eventually become Bill Peduto 's Mayoral Chief of Staff after the 2013 election .
Ravenstahl had an unstable relationship with the Pittsburgh City Council throughout his term as Mayor , which included disagreements over the city budget . City Councilman Bill Peduto emerged as a political opponent of Ravenstahl 's , with Peduto mounting a primary election challenge against Ravenstahl in 2007 before dropping out a short time later . Prior to the 2013 election , Ravenstahl had not held a fundraiser since 2009 and it was uncertain whether or not he would seek another term ; however , an undisclosed source indicated to local news outlet KDKA in September 2011 that Ravenstahl would run for re @-@ election in 2013 .
= = Democratic primary = =
= = = Early developments = = =
Several candidates expressed interest in running in the May 21 , 2013 , Democratic primary election . Incumbent Luke Ravenstahl officially announced in November 2012 that he would seek re @-@ election to a second full term . In addition , Bill Peduto , who had run for Mayor of Pittsburgh in 2005 ( losing in the primary to fellow Democratic City Councilman and eventual winner Bob O 'Connor ) and again for a short time in the 2007 special election before dropping out prior to the primary , announced his candidacy in December 2012 and was immediately endorsed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald . City Controller Michael Lamb , who stated that he had " every intention " of running for Mayor , declared his candidacy in mid @-@ January 2013 . Jack Wagner , former Auditor General of Pennsylvania , also publicly expressed interest in the race and filed a petition to run in March . Wagner also reportedly considered an independent general election campaign .
Polling conducted between late December 2012 to mid @-@ January 2013 by Civic Science found that a race between Luke Ravenstahl and Bill Peduto would be within single digit percentage points . The polling firm , however , emphasized that the poll was not intended to provide two @-@ way race numbers and that the polling ( which was completed on January 16 ) did not include Michael Lamb , who had entered the race the next day . According to the poll , blue @-@ collar primary voters were more apt to support Ravenstahl while white @-@ collar primary voters were more apt to support Peduto .
On March 1 , 2013 , Ravenstahl announced that he would not seek reelection , reversing a prior decision to run for another term . The announcement came amid an investigation of fund use at the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police , although Ravenstahl did not make any indication that this had contributed to his decision to withdraw . In addition , Ravenstahl alluded in his announcement to the medical condition of his mother , who had been suffering " medical issues , " but did not indicate that this had contributed to the decision either . Ravenstahl stated that he would serve out the remainder of his term , ending in January 2014 . Shortly thereafter , City Council President Darlene Harris confirmed her intention to run . In addition , Jake Wheatley , Jim Ferlo , and Ricky Burgess became speculated candidates .
= = = After Ravenstahl 's withdrawal = = =
In early March 2013 , following the withdrawal of incumbent mayor Luke Ravenstahl , a poll conducted by Keystone Analytics found that Bill Peduto was leading the race , garnering the support of 30 percent of respondents . Jack Wagner was second with 20 percent of respondents voicing support . Nearly a quarter of respondents , 22 percent , remained undecided .
The filing deadline to appear on the Democratic primary ballot was March 12 , 2013 , at 5 : 00 PM EDT . At this point , seven candidates had formally filed petitions to run for Mayor of Pittsburgh : Jim Ferlo , Darlene Harris , Michael Lamb , Bill Peduto , A. J. Richardson , Jake Wheatley and Jack Wagner . Allegheny County Councilman Bill Robinson stated that he would run for Mayor despite not meeting the deadline for petitions to appear on the ballot . Jim Ferlo , despite filing to run , dropped out of the race three days later , on March 15 . On March 27 , Darlene Harris dropped out of the race . On the same day , Jack Wagner received endorsements from Pittsburgh police and firefighter unions , as well as former candidate and State Senator Jim Ferlo . Also on March 27 , Bill Peduto was endorsed by State Representative Ed Gainey .
Michael Lamb ended his campaign on April 1 , 2013 and endorsed Jack Wagner . Shortly thereafter , on April 3 , a judge ruled that Wagner could use the approximately US $ 300 @,@ 000 in his statewide campaign account , leftover from his campaigns for State Auditor and Governor of Pennsylvania , after the usage of these funds was challenged by fellow candidate Bill Peduto . Also on April 3 , local media reported that candidate A. J. Richardson was arrested for allegedly driving under the influence after having been found by police passed out in his vehicle . Following his release from jail , Richardson dismissed the allegation as an attempt to sabotage his candidacy for Mayor and expressed an intention to continue his campaign . However , Richardson stated at a Mayoral candidates debate that evening that he would plead guilty to the charges .
Another poll released by Keystone Analytics in early April found that the Democratic primary had become largely a two @-@ way race between Bill Peduto and Jack Wagner , with Wagner taking the lead following Michael Lamb 's withdrawal and endorsement . Wagner garnered 38 percent in the poll , with Peduto receiving the support of 31 percent of respondents . Candidates Jake Wheatley and A. J. Richardson garnered 4 and 1 percent , respectively .
Two additional polls , released in late April and mid @-@ May by Keystone Analytics , showed Peduto regaining the lead in the primary race . In the April poll , Peduto 's lead was within the plus or minus 4 @.@ 38 percent margin of error ; he led Jack Wagner 38 to 36 percent . Jake Wheatley received 5 percent support and A. J. Richardson received less than 1 percent . A poll released in mid @-@ May , with a plus or minus 4 @.@ 9 percent margin of error , suggested that Peduto had expanded his lead over Wagner . Peduto was supported by 39 percent of respondents , while Wagner had 36 percent . Wheatley and Richardson garnered 8 and 1 percent , respectively . An additional poll , commissioned by the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review and conducted by Susquehanna Polling & Research and released in the final week before the primary , also showed Peduto leading Wagner , 42 to 33 percent . The same poll showed Wheatley with 6 percent and Richardson with 1 percent .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Bill Peduto , Pittsburgh City Councilman
A. J. Richardson , school bus monitor
Jack Wagner , former Pennsylvania Auditor General
Joshua Wander , Republican candidate , also write @-@ in candidate for Democratic nomination
Jake Wheatley , State Representative
= = = = Withdrew = = = =
Jim Ferlo , State Senator ( withdrew March 15 , 2013 )
Darlene Harris , Pittsburgh City Council President ( withdrew March 27 , 2013 )
Michael Lamb , Pittsburgh City Controller ( withdrew April 1 , 2013 )
Luke Ravenstahl , incumbent Mayor of Pittsburgh ( withdrew March 1 , 2013 )
= = = = Declined = = = =
Wayne D. Fontana , State Senator
Dan Onorato , former Allegheny County Executive
Chelsa Wagner , Allegheny County Controller and niece of candidate Jack Wagner
= = = Polling = = =
^ Internal poll for the Bill Peduto Campaign
= = = Results = = =
In the end , Bill Peduto defeated Jack Wagner , Jake Wheatley and A. J. Richardson . Peduto gained a majority of the vote , with about 52 percent . Wagner , Wheatley and Richardson finished with about 40 , 8 and 1 percent , respectively . Peduto carried much of the vote in wards in and around Downtown and to the east , with the exception of one ward carried by Wheatley in the uptown section . Wagner was most successful in the South Side and portions of the North Side .
= = Republican primary = =
Only one Republican candidate for Mayor , Squirrel Hill resident Joshua Wander , filed a petition prior to the March 12 filing deadline to run as a Republican . In addition , Wander had stated an intention to run as a write @-@ in candidate for the Democratic nomination . Wander had previously run as a write @-@ in candidate for the Republican Mayoral nomination in the 2009 election , but was defeated by incumbent Mayor Luke Ravenstahl , also a write @-@ in candidate in the Republican primary . The Republican primary took place alongside the Democratic primary on May 21 , 2013 . Wander , having run unopposed , won the nomination .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Joshua Wander
= = = Results = = =
= = General election = =
Bill Peduto and Josh Wander won the Democratic and Republican primaries , respectively , on May 21 , 2013 . In addition , City Council President Darlene Harris switched her party registration to " independent " on April 22 , 2013 , less than an hour prior to the deadline to be eligible as a third party candidate in the general election . August 1 was the deadline for third @-@ party candidates to file to appear on the ballot . Harris did not file to run prior to the deadline , however , and thus was not an official candidate . Independent activist Lester Ludwig was the only officially declared independent running .
As such , three candidates appeared on the general election ballot : Peduto , Wander and Ludwig . From the outset , Peduto was heavily favored by local media and political observers to win the election owing to the Democratic Party 's voter registration advantage in Pittsburgh , although Wander stated that it was not his sole intention to win the race , but rather to " convey a message that there is a choice . " Two debates had been scheduled in October 2013 , but Wander — who had been running his campaign from Israel , where he was working as a security consultant — and Ludwig did not attend . As a result , Peduto was the only candidate to attend the events , reformatting them as town hall events , and local television station WTAE @-@ TV cancelled an October 29 debate as Wander did not confirm that he would be able to attend . Ultimately , Bill Peduto defeated both Wander and Ludwig to be elected as the 60th Mayor of Pittsburgh and was inaugurated to succeed Luke Ravenstahl in January 2014 .
= = = Candidates = = =
Bill Peduto ( Democratic ) , Pittsburgh City Councilman
Joshua Wander ( Republican ) , Squirrel Hill resident
Lester Ludwig ( Independent ) , activist
= = = = Declined = = = =
Darlene Harris ( Independent ) , Pittsburgh City Council President
= = = Results = = =
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= Hurricane Carrie =
Hurricane Carrie was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 1957 Atlantic hurricane season . The third named storm and second hurricane of the year , Carrie formed from an easterly tropical wave off the western coast of Africa on September 2 , a type of tropical cyclogenesis typical of Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes . Moving to the west , the storm gradually intensified , reaching hurricane strength on September 5 . Carrie intensified further , before reaching peak intensity on September 8 as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) in the open Atlantic Ocean . The hurricane curved northwards and fluctuated intensity before recurving to the west and restrengthening , attaining Category 4 intensity for a second time as it neared Bermuda on September 14 . However , Carrie passed well north of the island and turned to the northeast towards Europe . Weakening as it reached higher latitudes , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 23 , prior to affecting areas of the British Isles .
Due to its distance away from any major land masses , Carrie caused relatively minor damage along its path . On September 16 , the hurricane passed well north of Bermuda , causing minimal damage despite its intensity at the time , though hurricane reconnaissance flights in the area were postponed due to damage sustained by one of the aircraft . As it was transitioning to an extratropical cyclone southwest of the Azores , the German ship Pamir encountered the storm and capsized on September 21 , resulting in the deaths of 80 crew members on board . As an extratropical storm , Carrie brought strong storm surge and heavy rain to the British Isles , which claimed three lives . The hurricane 's long duration and path in open water also helped it attain a number of Atlantic hurricane records .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early September , a trough was identified along the western coast of Africa . Moving towards the west as a result of a strong Azores High , the disturbance passed over Cape Verde on September 2 . Observations from weather stations evidenced cyclonic rotation in the region . An airplane belonging to Panair do Brasil passed within the vicinity of the vorticity and as a result reported the formation of a tropical storm . In HURDAT — the official database listing all known Atlantic tropical cyclones since 1851 — the system was listed to have reached tropical depression intensity at 0600 UTC that day .
The depression continued to steadily intensify as it moved westwards , later reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane by 0600 UTC on September 5 . On September 6 , the ship African Star encountered the hurricane 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) west of Cape Verde . Reported winds of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) confirmed the existence of the tropical cyclone . A Weather Bureau forecaster remarked that the hurricane was in a " blind spot " at the time due to its location outside of shipping lanes and Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance missions . Throughout the day , the hurricane intensified , reaching major hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on September 7 . Shortly after , a United States Air Force reconnaissance flight headed for Bermuda was diverted to observe the hurricane . The flight reported a well @-@ defined eye measuring 20 mi ( 32 km ) across and a minimum pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) , the lowest measured in relation to the hurricane . At the time , Carrie had maximum sustained winds of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 4 hurricane . Further strengthening ensued , and the hurricane peaked in intensity on September 8 with winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) .
After reaching peak intensity on September 8 , Carrie began to gradually weaken due to a decreasing pressure gradient caused by a trough that had cut through the Azores High . By September 11 , the hurricane had degenerated into a Category 1 hurricane . A reconnaissance flight reported a minimum pressure of 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) . At the same time , Carrie began to slowly curve towards the north in response to the trough . The storm later began to slowly reintensify , reattaining major hurricane strength by 1200 UTC on September 13 . The restrengthening of the subtropical ridge on September 14 caused the hurricane to quickly curve towards the northwest . This was accompanied by additional strengthening , and Carrie reached Category 4 hurricane intensity for a second time by 1800 UTC that day , later reaching a secondary peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . National Hurricane Research Project ( NHRP ) observers described the hurricane as " one of the most perfectly formed hurricanes they had seen . " Carrie began to steadily weaken again beginning on September 15 . As it passed north of Bermuda the following day , weather radar imagery from the island indicated that the hurricane had an ill @-@ defined structure , with its eye having expanded to 40 – 70 mi ( 64 – 113 km ) in diameter . However , as it curved and accelerated eastward in response to a second trough of low pressure , Carrie maintained hurricane intensity up until September 23 , when it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system continued eastwards until it dissipated over Ireland by 1800 UTC on September 28 .
= = Preparations , impact , and records = =
= = = Preparations and impact = = =
After reports confirmed the existence of a hurricane in the eastern Atlantic , the Weather Bureau warned shipping lanes in the storm 's path . Small craft warnings were issued for offshore areas from Block Island , Rhode Island south to Savannah , Georgia on September 7 due to the threat of rough seas . After Carrie stalled on September 11 , the Weather Bureau gave Florida a slight chance of being affected by the storm , but the possibilities of the storm affecting the peninsula decreased after the hurricane curved northwards . After the storm was forecast to potentially impact Bermuda , schools were closed in preparation for Carrie , while vessels were warned of the oncoming hurricane . Most planes in Kindley Air Force Base on the island were evacuated , with the remaining planes weighted down by sandbags . After passing Bermuda , the storm was forecast to strike Nova Scotia , but instead Carrie curved towards the northeast .
As the U.S. Air Force was maintaining continuous reconnaissance of the hurricane using converted Boeing B @-@ 50 Superfortresses , one of the planes lost an engine and was forced to fly back to West Palm Beach , Florida for repairs . Four other undamaged aircraft were called back to West Palm Beach , including a crippled ship , while two other B @-@ 50s were held at Bermuda . Passing well north of the island on September 16 , effects of Carrie on Bermuda were minimal , with peak gusts reaching only 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) .
The German barque Pamir , en route from Buenos Aires to Hamburg , Germany , encountered the hurricane southwest of the Azores on September 21 while carrying barley cargo . The ship sunk due to the effects of Carrie , and 80 people out of the 86 crew members on board the ship perished . The final message received from the Pamir was a distress call and indicated that the ship had lost all of its sails and had been listing at a 45 ° angle . A search and rescue operation ensued after the loss of the ship was reported , involving the U.S. Air Force and Navy , as well as the British Air Force and Navy . Other ships from Canada and Portugal were also involved in the search . All associated groups were inconclusive in their findings , with no sign of debris left from the ship . However , two lifeboats and a raft were found , but they were empty . As an extratropical storm , Carrie impacted the Azores , though damages , if any , remain unknown . The extratropical remnants of Carrie later struck the British Isles on September 24 and 25 , causing strong winds , waves , and severe flooding . Winds from the system were estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The strong waves caused extensive property damage and killed three .
= = = Records = = =
Lasting as a hurricane for 20 @.@ 75 days , Carrie was at the time tied for second in terms of longest @-@ existing Atlantic tropical cyclones , alongside the ninth hurricane of the 1893 Atlantic hurricane season and behind the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane . Due to the hurricane 's long duration , the Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico issued 62 advisories on the storm , which was at the time the most ever issued in association with an Atlantic hurricane . Carrie 's long duration and distance from any land masses also contributed to its record travel distance of 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) . Hurricane Faith of 1966 surpassed this record after it traveled 6 @,@ 850 mi ( 11 @,@ 020 km ) . Hurricane reconnaissance flights throughout Carrie 's existence traveled further east than any previous flight due to the storm 's location far from any land masses . The initial flight on September 7 covered 3 @,@ 700 mi ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) and lasted for nearly 17 hours .
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= Malkin Tower =
Malkin Tower ( or the Malking Tower or Mocking Tower ) was the home of Elizabeth Southerns , also known as Demdike , and her granddaughter Alizon Device , two of the chief protagonists in the Lancashire witch trials of 1612 .
Perhaps the best @-@ known alleged witches ' coven in English legal history took place in Malkin Tower on 10 April 1612 . Eight of those attending were subsequently arrested and tried for causing harm by witchcraft , seven of whom were found guilty and executed . The house may have been demolished shortly after the trials . The only firm evidence for its location comes from the official account by the clerk of the court , Thomas Potts , who places it somewhere in the Forest of Pendle . Archaeological excavations in the area have failed to discover any confirmed remains of the building .
Several explanations have been suggested for the origins of the word Malkin . Despite its name , Malkin Tower is likely to have been a simple cottage .
= = Toponymy = =
The name Malkin has several possible derivations : it was a familiar form of the female names Mary or Maud , and a term for a poor or shabby woman ; the similar mawkin was a word used to describe a lower @-@ class woman or slut . Malkin was also used as a term for a cat , particularly an old cat , as in grimalkin or grey malkin , and was an old northern English name for a hare , into which witches were said to be able to transfigure . It has also been suggested that the name was a combination of mal and kin as a slight to the residents of Malkin Tower , which local historian Arthur Douglas considers unlikely owing to the poor education of people in the area at that time . Another possibility is a corruption of malt kiln , which is supported by a claim made by Alizon Device that the family of Anne Whittle , also known as Chattox , had broken into their fire house .
Authors have speculated on a range of buildings that could account for the Tower appellation . Malkin Tower may have incorporated a Norman peel tower , built as a defence against Scottish raiders or might have been a disused poacher 's lookout , but it is more likely that despite its name Malkin Tower was a simple cottage . Historian W. R. Mitchell suggests that it was originally a small farm building , perhaps a shelter for fodder or livestock , which was converted into poor @-@ quality living accommodation . Poverty was not uncommon among the residents of the Forest of Pendle , hence the building may have been no more than a hovel , and tower may have been a sarcastic name given by local residents . It is almost certain that Southerns and Device did not own Malkin Tower but were tenants .
Malkin Tower is sometimes alternatively referred to as Malking Tower , or Mocking Tower .
= = Association with witches = =
On Good Friday , 10 April 1612 , Malkin Tower was the venue for perhaps the best @-@ known alleged witches ' coven in English legal history . The house was home to Elizabeth Southerns , also known as Demdike , and her granddaughter Alizon Device , two of the alleged Pendle witches .
On 21 March 1612 Alizon had a chance encounter with John Law , a pedlar from Halifax , who refused to sell her some pins . Law collapsed shortly afterwards and his son accused Alizon of being responsible . She and her grandmother were summoned to the home of local magistrate , Roger Nowell , on suspicion of causing harm by witchcraft . Both were arrested and detained in Lancaster Gaol , along with two other women . Friends of the Demdike family met at Malkin Tower on 10 April 1612 , allegedly to plot the escape of the four gaoled women by blowing up Lancaster Castle . Nowell learned of the meeting and , after interrogating Alizon Device 's " mentally sub @-@ normal " brother , James , concluded that Malkin Tower had been the scene of a witches ' coven , and that all who had attended were witches . Eight were subsequently accused of causing harm by witchcraft and committed for trial , seven at Lancaster Assizes and one at York .
= = Location = =
The location of Malkin Tower is uncertain . It may have been demolished shortly after the 1612 trials , as it was common at the time to dismantle empty buildings and recycle the materials . The building may also have been destroyed to eradicate the " melancholy associations " of the place . The official account of the trials written by Thomas Potts , clerk to the court , in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster mentions Malking Tower many times , but only describes it as being in the Forest of Pendle , a former royal forest that covered a considerable area south and east of Pendle Hill , extending almost to the towns of Burnley , Colne and Padiham .
One contender is in the civil parish of Blacko , on the site of present @-@ day Malkin Tower Farm ; since the 1840s claims have been made that old masonry found in a field wall is from the remains of the building . In The Lancashire Witch @-@ Craze , Jonathan Lumby conjectures that the building was situated on the moors surrounding Blacko Hill , near to an old road between Colne and Gisburn . Local folklore in the parish holds that the remains of Malkin Tower are buried in a field behind the nearby Cross Gaits Inn public house ; the tower used to be featured on the inn 's sign . The primary evidence supporting this location seems to be that a hollow in the hillside east of the farm is known as Mawkin Hole . It has been suggested that this is the same place mentioned in the 16th @-@ century halmote court records for the manor of Colne as Mawkin Yarde , described as being " in the north of Colne " , but anywhere inside the manor of Colne would have been outside the Forest of Pendle , and the first Ordnance Survey map of the area , created in the 1840s , identifies the farm as Blacko Tower . The site is also several miles from any of the traceable locations mentioned at the trial .
In 1891 local grocer Jonathan Stansfield constructed a solitary tower on the nearby summit of Blacko Hill . Today this is also commonly known as Blacko Tower , and is often confused with Malkin Tower . Although he claimed at the time that he wished to see into neighbouring valleys , historian John Clayton suggests that , aware of the story , he may have wished to provide the area with his own version .
Another possible location is somewhere near the village of Newchurch in Pendle . Douglas claims there is " persuasive " evidence that an area near Sadler 's Farm ( now known as Shekinah Christian Centre ) was the site of Malkin Tower ; there were numerous reports of alleged witchcraft in the area , and it was in the vicinity of other locations named during the trial such as Greenhead , Barley and Roughlee . Others involved in the trials were known to have lived in the area ; alleged witches Jane and John Bulcock resided at Moss End Farm in Newchurch , and John Nutter , whose cows were claimed to have been bewitched , lived at the neighbouring Bull Hole Farm . Southerns ' son Christopher Holgate also lived nearby . But neither the deeds of Sadler 's Farm , which date back to the 17th century , nor contemporary maps of the region mention Malkin Tower or any fields in which it may have stood .
Archaeological excavations have been undertaken in several locations in the Pendle Forest area , including Newchurch , but nothing has been found . A potential candidate for the lost Malkin Tower was announced in December 2011 , after water engineers unearthed a 17th @-@ century cottage with a mummified cat sealed in the walls , close to Lower Black Moss reservoir near Barley .
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= 1988 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1988 Giro d 'Italia was the 71st running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tour races . The Giro started in Urbino , on 23 May , with a 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) individual time trial and concluded in Vittorio Veneto , on 12 June , with a 43 km ( 26 @.@ 7 mi ) individual time trial . A total of 180 riders from 20 teams entered the 21 @-@ stage race , which was won by American Andrew Hampsten of the 7 @-@ Eleven – Hoonved team . The second and third places were taken by Dutchman Erik Breukink and Swiss Urs Zimmermann , respectively . It was the third time – and second successive year – in the history of the Giro that the podium was occupied solely by non @-@ Italian riders .
In the first half of the race , the overall classification had been headed for several days by Massimo Podenzana . He had participated in a breakaway during stage 4a , which won him sufficient time to hold the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) for more than a week . Franco Chioccioli then wore the pink jersey for two stages before Hampsten took the general classification lead after the fourteenth stage . The fourteenth stage of the 1988 Giro , conducted in adverse weather including a snowstorm , has been recognized as an iconic event in the history of the Giro . After this stage , Hampsten began to build up a solid two @-@ minute barrier against the second @-@ placed rider , Breukink . This gap was sufficient to win Hampsten the race , despite losing around twenty seconds in the final two stages .
Hampsten became the first American , and non @-@ European , to win the Giro . He also won the secondary mountains and combination classifications , as well as the special sprints classification . In the other classifications , Fanini @-@ Seven Up rider Stefano Tomasini of Italy placed ninth overall to finish as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification ; Johan van der Velde of the Gisgelati @-@ Ecoflam team was the winner of the points classification , and Carrera Jeans – Vagabond finished as the winners of the team classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1988 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , twelve of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 22 May , in the courtyard of the Ducal Palace in Urbino . From the riders that began the race , 125 made it to the finish in Vittorio Veneto .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did not include the 1987 winner , Stephen Roche , who was sidelined for the majority of the 1988 season with a knee injury. l 'Unità writer Gino Sala , author Bill McGann and an El Mundo Deportivo writer named several riders as contenders for the overall classification , including Andrew Hampsten , Urs Zimmermann , Erik Breukink , Franco Chioccioli , and Pedro Delgado . Sala believed Jean @-@ François Bernard came into the Giro in great shape and that the French rider could win the race if he could do well in the time trials and the mountains . In addition , Bernard Hinault told Sala that if Jean Francois could do well in this edition of the Giro , he could one day lead a team in the Tour de France . Former Giro champion Gianni Motta thought Hampsten would win because of the effort he was expected to make on the Gavia Pass stage . Motta believed that Hampsten would excel there , while the Italian riders – the majority of the peloton – would not because they did not realize its difficulty and thought the Gavia was " just another climb . "
The 1986 Tour de France winner Greg LeMond entered the race with his PDM – Ultima – Concorde squad , after a break from cycling due to injuries sustained in a hunting accident . Due to this , Sala did not see him as a front @-@ runner for the overall victory . Swiss rider Tony Rominger also partook in the race and was considered by McGann and Sala as a dark @-@ horse candidate for the victory after experiencing success at the beginning of his season . Guido Bontempi was seen by Sala as a favorite to win a couple of stages . Before he injured his right knee earlier in the season during the Tour de Romandie , many newspapers also believed Moreno Argentin to be a favorite to take several stages . Stampa Sera writer Curzio Maltese believed that Flavio Giupponi could take one of the stages containing many categorized climbs which award mountains classification points , if properly supported by his team Del Tongo @-@ Colnago .
During the presentation of the teams , the riders were asked to choose their top picks for the overall victory . Roberto Visentini garnered the most votes from his fellow riders , but Delgado , Hampsten and LeMond also received many votes . Many media outlets felt that the overall victory would likely go to a non @-@ Italian rider due to the lack of Italian general classification competitors , but that Visentini had the best chance of winning out of competing Italians .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1988 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani , on 5 March 1988 . It contained four time trial events , three of which were individual and one a team event . The race organizers hoped that the number of time trials , including one on the last day , would keep the race hotly contested to the end . There were fifteen stages containing thirty categorized climbs , of which four had summit finishes : stage 6 , to Campitello Matese ; stage 12 , to Selvino ; stage 13 , to Chiesa in Valmalenco ; and stage 15 , to the Merano 2000 mountain . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 18 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to Valico del Vetriolo . The organizers chose to not include any rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 336 km ( 209 mi ) shorter , contained one fewer rest day and individual time trial , and lacked a prologue . In addition , this race contained one fewer stage , but one more set of half stages . The race was televised in parts of Europe by the Italy 's national public broadcasting service , RAI .
The eleventh stage between Parma and Colle Don Bosco was cancelled due to protests near the finish line . The fifteenth stage was originally intended to be 132 km ( 82 @.@ 0 mi ) and to start in Bormio . However , due to very poor weather conditions , the start was moved to Spondigna and the stage was shortened to 83 km ( 51 @.@ 6 mi ) . The route originally had the riders crossing the Stelvio Pass , but it was skipped due to snowdrifts that had developed on the roads . Excluding the finish on the Merano 2000 , the stage was relatively flat after the adjustments .
In previous years , the organizers had made the race easier for the Italian favorites by including fewer hard climbs . With the absence of Italian Francesco Moser from this edition , the race organizers included many famous and difficult climbs , such as the Gavia Pass . Moser himself stated that the route contained many difficult climbs and was not helping Italian cycling to prosper at a time when he believed it to be ailing . When asked about the route for the 1988 edition , 7 @-@ Eleven – Hoonved rider Bob Roll said " Those sons of bitches put every mountain they could find in the race that year . " Three @-@ time winner Gino Bartali also believed the route to be very difficult and in favor of non @-@ Italian competitors . Gino Sala also felt the route was harsher than in years past and that the team time trial could influence the overall classification greatly . La Stampa writer Gian Paolo Ormezzano praised the route saying it was beautiful and well crafted but contained one flaw , in that the race did not finish in any major Italian city . He also expressed his delight with the uphill time trial to Valico del Vetriolo as well as the inclusion of the Stelvio , Rombo and Gavia mountain passes .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) time trial in the city of Urbino , which was won by Jean @-@ François Bernard with a three @-@ second margin over Tony Rominger . Guido Bontempi won the second stage and moved to third overall , while Bernard gained a five @-@ second buffer over the second @-@ placed rider , Rominger . In stage 4a , Massimo Podenzana soloed to victory in Rodi Garganico , five minutes ahead of the second @-@ place finisher . This victory and the respective time bonus allowed Podenzana to gain the maglia rosa , which he held until stage 12 . Stage 4b was a 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) team time trial won by Del Tongo @-@ Colnago , eleven seconds ahead of Carrera Jeans – Vagabond . Podenzana 's lead shrunk to a little over two minutes after his team , Atala @-@ Ofmega , finished two minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds behind Del Tongo @-@ Colnago .
The eleventh stage was run without problems until the final mile , when environmentalist protestors occupied the finish line and forced the annulment of the stage . The protestors were upset with a nearby factory , owned by chemical manufacturer Montedison , which the protestors claimed had been polluting the Bormida river . The next stage was marked by the appearance of the major mountains and by Pondenzana conceding the maglia rosa to Franco Chioccioli . The ensuing stages saw the general classification shift more frequently due to the intensity of the mountains and fatigue .
The fourteenth stage was memorable for its extreme weather , most notably on the final climb of the Gavia Pass . Overnight , a large amount of snow had accumulated on the Gavia , but the roads were cleared in time for the riders . Despite the cold and adverse weather forecast , the patron , Vincenzo Torriani , decided to go ahead with the stage . As snow fell on the riders climbing the muddy roads of the Gavia , Hampsten attacked at the base of the mountain but was chased by Erik Breukink , who eventually caught up and passed the American with seven kilometers to go . Although Breukink won the stage , Hampsten made the bigger story by becoming the first American to don the maglia rosa in the history of the Giro d 'Italia .
The start of the fifteenth stage was moved ahead from Bormio to Spondigna , because of snow covering the Stevio Pass , but the summit finish in Merano was maintained . As soon as the climb started , Bernard , Urs Zimmermann and Chioccioli attacked . Bernard eventually shook off the two riders and won the stage , but with minimal time gain . The sixteenth stage was marked by rain – which turned into snow as the peloton rose higher – and by two protests while climbing the Rombo Pass . Near the summit of the last climb , Hampsten and a few others formed an escape group that was eventually caught in the final kilometers . The group raced into Innsbruck , where Franco Vona made a last minute attack that won him the stage . Bernard – who was in sixth place overall at the start of the seventeenth stage – crashed in a tunnel but managed to finish the stage ; however , the following day he did not start the leg and withdrew from the race .
The eighteenth stage , an 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) individual time trial , would prove critical in deciding the overall winner of the Giro . The route started off with 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of flat roads , before the climb to the finish at the Vetriolo Terme ski station in Valico del Vetriolo . Going into the stage , Hampsten led the race by 42 seconds over Breukink , a margin that was increased by a further 32 seconds after the time trial . The nineteenth stage featured three categorized climbs . Zimmermann attacked on the first , the Duran Pass , but was caught later by Stefano Giuliani who bridged the gap on the descent of the Duran . The two riders rode to the finish together in Arta Terme . Although Giuliani won the stage , Zimmermann moved into second place overall , after gaining over three minutes on the general classification contenders .
The twentieth stage came down to a sprint finish , won by Paolo Rosola , who was later disqualified as his teammate , Roberto Pagnin , was found to have pushed him during the sprint . As a result , the second @-@ place finisher , Alessio Di Basco , was awarded the stage victory . The penultimate stage was completely flat and culminated in a bunch sprint , won by Urs Freuler . Hours later , the final stage – a hilly 43 km ( 26 @.@ 7 mi ) individual time trial – took place . The weather conditions were fine for the majority of the riders , but as the general classification contenders were on the course , it began to lightning and rain heavily . There was a tricky descent about 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) into the stage , which became more dangerous with the rain and ultimately resulted in the crashes of Giupponi and Zimmerman . The time lost by Zimmermann cost him his second place overall . Lech Piasecki , who rode the course when dry , won the stage by a wide margin . Hampsten lost twenty seconds to Breukink , but it did not prevent him from becoming the first American to win the Giro d 'Italia . The other podium positions were filled by non @-@ Italian riders for the second year in a row and the third time in the history of the race . Breukink had been part of the non @-@ Italian podium in 1987 , behind Ireland 's Stephen Roche and Great Britain 's Robert Millar .
Stage success was limited to eleven of the competing teams , seven of which achieved multiple victories . Four individual riders won multiple stages : Bernard ( stages 1 , 8 and 15 ) , Bontempi ( stages 2 and 5 ) , Hampsten ( stages 12 and 18 ) , and Di Basco ( stages 9 and 20 ) . Toshiba – Look won three stages with Bernard and stage 7 with Andreas Kappes . Panasonic – Isostar – Colnago – Agu won two stages , with Breukink in stage 14 , and Freuler in stage 21a . Chateau d 'Ax won three stages , with a solo breakaway by Rominger in stage 13 ; Vona in stage 16 , and Giuliani in stage 19 . Del Tongo @-@ Colnago also won multiple stages , with Chioccioli in stage 6 , Piasecki in stage 21b , and the team time trial in stage 4b . Selca @-@ Ciclolinea , Ceramiche Ariostea , Gewiss @-@ Bianchi and Atala @-@ Ofmega won one stage apiece . Ceramiche Ariostea rider Stephan Joho took stage 3 in a sprint finish , as did Gewiss @-@ Bianchi rider Rosola in stage 10 , and Selca @-@ Ciclolinea ' s Patrizio Gambirasio in stage 17 . Atala @-@ Ofmega 's Podenzana won stage 4a after a solo breakaway .
= = = Doping = = =
The race organizers performed anti @-@ doping controls throughout the race . Riders would be selected after a stage and have thirty minutes to get tested . The results generally would be returned between thirty and sixty minutes later . No rider tested positive in this edition of the Giro , but had this happened , the following penalties would have been applied : the rider would be demoted to last place of the stage , given a ten @-@ minute penalty in the general classification , a lengthy suspension , and a fine of one thousand francs . Although no riders tested positive , Roberto Visentini , Flavio Giuppioni and Urs Zimmermann – who placed second , third and fourth , respectively , in the eighteenth stage – showed up too late for their control tests and were given the penalties corresponding to riders testing positive ; after complaints and threats to leave the race from their team leaders , the jury later reverted their decision , and no penalty was given .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1988 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1988 Giro were fifteen seconds for first , ten seconds for second , and five seconds for third place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , carried more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this edition of the Giro was supposed to be the Stelvio Pass , however the day the peloton was supposed to climb it , heavy snow cover forced the organization to omit it from the stage . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) .
The combination classification , represented by a blue jersey , was calculated by summing up the points obtained by each rider in the other classifications ; the leader was the rider with the lowest total of points . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
After the race , Andrew Hampsten told El Mundo Deportivo that he believed this was the biggest win of his career so far and thought he could win the upcoming Tour de France . Hampsten stated that Jean @-@ François Bernard and Pedro Delgado both lacked awareness when attacking in the mountains and did not make the most of the time trials , but believed they would be more active in the Tour de France . In addition , Hampsten thought Bernard and Roberto Visentini did not perform to their expectations . He did not go on to win the Tour de France , but placed fifteenth overall . Runner @-@ up Erik Breukink stated he was satisfied with his second @-@ place finish and that he came to the race in order to prepare for the Tour de France in July . At the Tour , he finished in twelfth overall and won the young rider classification for being the highest ranked rider in the general classification under the age of 25 . Third place finisher Urs Zimmermann reflected on the race and stated that his chance of winning the overall race were gone after the Gavia stage. l 'Unita writer Gino Sala looked back on the race and believed Delgado did not perform well and was not a serious threat to win the race . Luis Gómez , a writer for El País , thought Delgado did not prepare properly for the Giro .
In 2012 , the organizer of the Giro d 'Italia , RCS Sport , did a survey on the greatest moments in the history of the Giro by interviewing over 100 journalists . The 1988 race was mentioned several times as one of the most memorable , with the journalists citing the fourteenth stage that traversed the Gavia Pass as the highlight . Several writers have referred to the fourteenth stage as being " epic " or " iconic " due to the weather conditions the riders battled over difficult climbs and unpaved roads to finish the stage . According to CyclingNews writer Jason Sumner , a photo from the fourteenth stage depicting the future winner Andrew Hampsten climbing the Gavia while a snowstorm blows in the foreground has become a widely known image even non @-@ cycling fans would recognize . After the stage , La Gazzetta dello Sport called the stage " The Day the Big Men Cried , " with the stage still being commonly referred to as such .
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= M @-@ 57 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 57 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The 105 @.@ 377 @-@ mile ( 169 @.@ 588 km ) highway connects US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) near Rockford on the west end to M @-@ 15 near Otisville in the Lower Peninsula . In between , the mostly rural highway passes through farmland and connects several highways and smaller towns together . Three of these highways are freeways : US 131 , US 127 and Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) . Along the way , between 3 @,@ 700 and 22 @,@ 300 vehicles use the highway daily .
The current highway that bears the M @-@ 57 moniker is the second to do so . The first is now M @-@ 75 in the Northern Lower Peninsula . This second highway was designated in the 1930s along a different , but parallel , routing . The first major changes shifted that routing southward to the current corridor in stages . Through additional extensions and truncations , the modern routing was formed by the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 57 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway crossing the south central Lower Peninsula . The western terminus is at US 131 , 14 miles ( 23 km ) north of Grand Rapids near Rockford in northern Kent County . East of the terminus is Rosie 's Diner , which is the original shooting location for the Bounty Paper Towel commercials of the 1970s featuring Rosie the Waitress . The diner was moved from Little Ferry , New Jersey to its current location in 1990 . From Rockford , M @-@ 57 runs east through rural farmland on 14 Mile Road into southern Montcalm County . East of the county line , the highway follows Carson City Road into the outskirts of Greenville . M @-@ 57 runs through a retail corridor before becoming Washington Street in town where it meets M @-@ 91 . Washington Street crosses the Flat River and exits Greenville . Continuing eastward , the trunkline passes through more farmland on Carson City Road . It meets M @-@ 66 at a rural four @-@ way intersection before passing into Carson City near the Gratiot county line . M @-@ 57 follows Cleveland Road , passing to the south of the communities of Middleton and Perrinton . Near Pompeii , M @-@ 57 meets US 127 at a folded diamond interchange along the expressway portion of the latter highway .
Cleveland Road continues east running near Ashley and into Saginaw County . In between Ashley and the county line , the highway crosses a branch of the Great Lakes Central Railroad . M @-@ 57 follows Brady Road and crosses M @-@ 52 just west of Chesaning . Further east , the trunkline crosses another line of the Great Lakes Central . The highway follows Broad Street into town and over the Shiawassee River . On the east banks , M @-@ 57 runs along Main Street south along the river to a junction with Peet Road where it then turns east along the latter road out of town . The highway passes through more farm fields and through Layton Corners on the way to a junction with M @-@ 13 on the Saginaw – Genesee county line . At Montrose , M @-@ 57 crosses the Flint River , and a line of the Huron and Eastern Railway . Now running along Vienna Road , the trunkline meets I @-@ 75 / US 23 west of Clio . As it enters town , it crosses a line of the Saginaw Bay Southern Railway . This segment of the highway passes through the northernmost suburbs of Flint , and this section is where the heaviest traffic levels along the whole highway are found . As part of its maintenance duties , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks these traffic levels using a metric known as average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This figure is a calculation of the average traffic volume for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that an average of 22 @,@ 280 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 57 through Clio daily . East of this area , the highway once again passes through rural agricultural lands on the way to its eastern terminus at M @-@ 15 , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Otisville . This terminal section of the trunkline had the lowest traffic levels in 2009 at 3 @,@ 737 vehicles AADT . No section of M @-@ 57 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department signposted the highway system in the state for the first time . At that time , M @-@ 57 designation was originally used in Charlevoix County from Boyne Falls at M @-@ 13 ( now US 131 ) through Boyne City and back to then M @-@ 13 . That highway 's number was changed to M @-@ 75 in 1926 . By the next year , the number was then assigned to a state trunkline that connected between Quinnesec and the Wisconsin state line in the Upper Peninsula . This second iteration was short @-@ lived as it was replaced by an extension of US 141 into Michigan .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1930 , M @-@ 57 was designated from M @-@ 66 ( now M @-@ 91 ) near Langston to M @-@ 47 ( now M @-@ 52 ) in St. Charles . By the mid 1936 , the section between Ithaca and St. Charles was removed from the state highway system when the designation was shifted south to run between Ashley and Chesaning . In the process , M @-@ 57 was run concurrently along US 27 between Ithaca and Ashley . The western section was similarly shifting by May 1938 . The new routing started at a junction with US 131 between Rockford and Cedar Springs and continued through Greenville and Carson City to Ashley . The eastern end was also extended from Chesaning to the Clio area . It was extended a second time by early 1941 to a junction with Belsay Road . By the middle of 1946 , the eastern end was extended a third time to end in Otisville . M @-@ 57 was lengthened after a western extension in late 1948 or early 1949 . The highway was routed concurrently with US 131 to Cedar Springs and then west to M @-@ 37 at Kent City .
A new routing on the eastern end was designated in late 1956 or early 1957 ; this routing shifted the eastern terminus out of Otisville to its current location . The last gravel section of highway was paved near Fenmore by the Gratiot – Saginaw county line in the late 1950s . The last change to M @-@ 57 's routing came in 1973 . Then @-@ Congressman Gerald R. Ford opened a section of US 131 freeway on September 21 . The freeway ran between the two M @-@ 57 junctions along US 131 near Rockford and Cedar Springs . Afterwards , M @-@ 57 was truncated to the Rockford area , and the segment previously part of M @-@ 57 between Kent City and Cedar Springs was made part of M @-@ 46 afterwards .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Six moments musicaux ( Rachmaninoff ) =
Six moments musicaux ( French for " Six Musical Moments " ; Russian : Шесть музыкальных моментов , Shest ’ muzykál ’ nykh moméntov ) , Op. 16 , is a set of solo piano pieces composed by the Russian composer Sergei Rachmaninoff between October and December , 1896 . Each Moment musical reproduces a musical form characteristic of a previous musical era . The forms that appear in Rachmaninoff 's incarnation are the nocturne , song without words , barcarolle , virtuoso étude , and theme and variations .
The individual pieces have been described as " true concert works , being best served on a stage and with a concert grand . " Although composed as part of a set , each piece stands on its own as a concert solo with individual themes and moods . The pieces span a variety of themes ranging from the somber funeral march of number three to the majestic canon of number six , the Moments musicaux are both Rachmaninoff 's return to and revolution of solo piano composition . A typical performance lasts 30 minutes .
In an interview in 1941 , Rachmaninoff said , " What I try to do , when writing down my music , is to make it say simply and directly that which is in my heart when I am composing . " Even though Moments musicaux were written because he was short of money , the pieces summarize his knowledge of piano composition up to that point . Andantino opens the set with a long , reflective melody that develops into a rapid climax . The second piece , Allegretto , is the first of the few in the set that reveal his mastery of piano technique . Andante cantabile is a contrast to its two surrounding pieces , explicitly named " funeral march " and " lament . " Presto draws inspiration from several sources , including the Preludes of Frédéric Chopin , to synthesize an explosion of melodic intensity . The fifth , Adagio sostenuto is a respite in barcarolle form , before the finale Maestoso , which closes the set in a thick three @-@ part texture . In six musical moments , Rachmaninoff illustrates completely , " that which is in my heart . "
= = Background = =
By the fall of 1896 , 23 @-@ year old Rachmaninoff 's financial status was precarious , not helped by his being robbed of money on an earlier train trip . Pressed for time , both financially and by those expecting a symphony , he " rushed into production . " On December 7 , he wrote to Aleksandr Zatayevich , a Russian composer he had met before he had composed the work , saying , " I hurry in order to get money I need by a certain date ... This perpetual financial pressure is , on the one hand , quite beneficial ... by the 20th of this month I have to write six piano pieces . " Rachmaninoff completed all six during October and December 1896 , and dedicated all to Zatayevich . Despite the hasty circumstances , the work evidences his early virtuosity , and sets an example for the quality of his future works .
Six moments musicaux is a sophisticated work that is of longer duration , thicker textures , and greater virtuosic demands on the performer than any of Rachmaninoff 's previous solo piano works . It is similar to Alexander Scriabin 's momentous Étude in D @-@ sharp minor ( Op. 8 , No. 12 ) — in both compositions , detail is more functional than ornamentative in their musical argument . It is here , rather than in Morceaux de fantaisie ( Op. 3 , 1892 ) or Morceaux de salon ( Op. 10 , 1894 ) , that Rachmaninoff places specific qualities of his own playing into his music . There is passionate lyricism in numbers three and five , but the others require a pianist with virtuoso technique and musical perception . These were composed during the middle of Rachmaninoff 's career , and created a foundation of inner voices that he would elaborate on in his Preludes ( Op. 23 ) and Études @-@ Tableaux ( Op. 33 ) . Although he usually gave the première of his own piano works , he was not the first to perform these , and the date of the first public performance has not yet been determined .
The set 's name is inspired by Franz Schubert 's piano cycle , also called Six moments musicaux ( Op. 94 , 1828 ) , which are written on a much more intimate scale .
= = Composition = =
= = = 1 . Andantino , B @-@ flat minor = = =
The first piece has an andantino ( moderate ) tempo , is 113 measures long , and is marked at 72 quarter notes per minute . It is divided into three distinct sections . The first presents a theme in common time ( 4 / 4 ) with a typical nocturne figure for the left hand . A mid @-@ piece pause at roughly the same area in Schubert 's first Moments musicaux further emphasizes the influence of Schubert . The second part is marked con moto ( with motion ) , at 76 quarter notes per minute , and is a variation of the first theme in the unusual configuration of seven quarter notes per measure ( 7 / 4 ) . This part ends in a cadenza . The third section presents the last variation of the theme , again in common time , but in the fastest tempo yet , Andantino con moto , at 84 quarter notes per minute . The piece ends in a coda that returns to the first tempo , and repeats portions of the previous three parts . It ends with a perfect authentic cadence into B @-@ flat minor .
Andantino is the longest in the set by playing time ( about 8 : 30 ) . It is described as a " generic @-@ hybrid , " combining elements of the nocturne and theme and variation genres . The melody is chromatic , syncopated , and long , all idiosyncratic elements Rachmaninoff often includes in his works . Because of this , the Andantino is sometimes called an extension of his Nocturne in A minor of the Morceaux de Salon set ( Op. 10 , No. 1 , 1894 ) . However , Andantino stands on its own with difficulties , such as the sections with multiple phrases in a single hand .
= = = 2 . Allegretto , E @-@ flat minor = = =
The second piece , referred to as a " glittering showpiece " , is positioned in contrast to the lyrical and " atmospheric " melody of the first piece . The piece is in the quick tempo allegretto ( quickly ) , at 92 quarter notes per minute . It is 131 measures long , the most of all six pieces , but the second shortest in terms of playing time , usually no longer than three and a half minutes ( the shortest is number four ) . This piece represents a typical nineteenth @-@ century étude , similar in style to Frédéric Chopin 's Études ( Opp . 10 , 25 ) , with a melody interspersed between rapid sextuplet figures . It is in strict ternary form with a coda : identical beginning and ending sections beginning on measures 1 and 85 , and a contrasting middle section starting on measure 45 . The second section radically changes dynamics , constantly changing from piano to fortissimo and even sforzando . It is , throughout , a relentless torrent of descending half steps and a cascading left hand figure reminiscent of Chopin 's Revolutionary Étude ( Op. 10 , No. 12 , 1831 ) . Ending the piece is a slow coda in Adagio ( at ease ) which closes with a perfect authentic cadence in E @-@ flat Minor .
Rachmaninoff revised this piece in March 1940 , changing the melody but leaving the constant sextuplets , proving that the rushing figures are not simple bravura or flair .
= = = 3 . Andante cantabile , B minor = = =
The continual gauntlets of number two are relieved by the third piece in the set , an " introspective rêverie [ daydream ] . " Drawing on the previous illustration of a " generic hybrid , " this piece is described as a mixture between the song without words and funeral march genres , to create what is called the " most Russian " piece of the set , containing both sonorous bass and a solid melody , characteristics of Russian music .
Comprising only 55 measures , this piece is one of the shortest but has one of the longer playing times of about seven minutes . The piece is structured as a three @-@ part form . The theme of the first section is played entirely in minor thirds , accompanied by a left hand figure of open fifths and octaves . The middle section has the melody in minor sixths , alongside a staccato octave bass . The lament of the opening theme transforms into an explicit funeral march as the left @-@ hand octaves become regular .
= = = 4 . Presto , E minor = = =
The fourth piece is similar to the second in the quality of its performance . The fourth piece reveals resemblance to Chopin 's Revolutionary étude in the taxing left hand figure place throughout . The piece is 67 measures long , with a duration of about three minutes , and has the fastest tempo of the set , Presto ( quick ) at 104 quarter notes per minute , and is the shortest work in terms of playing time .
Presto is in ternary form with a coda . The piece begins with a fortissimo introduction with a thick texture in the left hand consisting of chromatic sextuplets . The melody is a " rising quasi @-@ military " idea , interspersed between replications of the left hand figure , the mostly two @-@ note melody being a strong unifying element . The middle section is a brief period of pianississimo falling figures in the right hand and rising scales in the left . The third section is marked Più vivo ( more life ) and is played even faster than the intro , 112 quarter notes per minute . At this point the piece develops a very thick texture , with the original left hand figure played in both hands in varying registers . The technique of rapidly changing the octave in which a melody is played , sometimes called " registral displacement " , is used to present the figure in a more dramatic form that increases the intensity of the ending . The ending , a coda in Prestissimo ( very quick ) , 116 quarter notes per minute , is a final , sweeping reiteration of the theme that closes in a heavy E minor chord , which revisits Rachmaninoff 's preoccupation with bell sounds , prominent in his Piano Concerto No. 2 and Prelude in C @-@ sharp minor ( Op. 3 , No. 2 ) .
The piece is a major exercise in endurance and accuracy : the introduction opens in a left hand figure requiring span of a tenth interval . Additionally , octave intervals invariably appear before fast sextuplet runs , making quick wrists and arm action necessary . The double melodies Rachmaninoff uses in this work exists purposely to " keep both hands occupied , " obscuring the melody and making it difficult for the right hand to project . This is the only piece in the set with indicated pedal markings .
= = = 5 . Adagio sostenuto , D @-@ flat major = = =
The piece is similar to the form of a barcarolle , a folk song with a rhythmic tuplet accompaniment . Playing it takes approximately five minutes , and it is 53 measures long , the shortest in terms of measures . It is an adagio sostenuto ( sustained at ease ) at 54 quarter notes per minute , with a simple melody presented in ternary form .
Lacking any prodigious figures or difficult runs , the piece displays Rachmaninoff 's capability for musical lyricism . Although the piece seems simple , the mood must be sustained by playing simultaneously restrained but dynamic triplet figures in the left hand . The melody , a chordal texture with frequent suspended tones , creates a difficult task in voicing , and placing the correct emphasis on the correct notes . Its relatively short melody lines are a direct contrast to Rachmaninoff 's characteristically long lines , giving a shorter time to bring out the phrases .
= = = 6 . Maestoso , C major = = =
The last piece in the set is a quintessential nineteenth @-@ century work , and has been described as an " apotheosis or completion of struggle . " The piece was once summarized as :
The final piece or movement of a cycle that is virtuosic and brilliant , employing the entire range of dynamics and sonorities available to the piano , bringing a set of pieces to a glorious conclusion .
This " stormy , agitated " work contains a " vehemently triple @-@ dotted main theme and only some brief midsection hazy sunshine [ that lightens ] the storm before fortississimo thunders return and finally dominate . " Despite the dark imagery presented to describe the piece , the work is in C major , and the end result is more light @-@ hearted than dark , but not as triumphal as the Maestoso would make it sound .
Like the second and fourth pieces , number six is written in the form of an étude , with a repetitive but technically challenging chordal melody that is doubled in both hands . In all , the work has three distinct elements played simultaneously : the main melody , the continuous thirty @-@ second note broken chord figures , and a descending eighth note motif . Dynamics play a large part in this piece : the fortissimo marked at the beginning is maintained all throughout the first section , with only brief respites to mezzo forte . The middle section is wholly softer , and contains two areas with significant mounting tension , creating the aforementioned " apotheosis effect " with dramatic " false starts . " Here , Rachmaninoff manipulates the theme contrapuntally to develop a canonic effect . This " triple counterpoint . . . is titanic both in size and impact , and in potential for disaster , " referring to the tension , waiting for the final climax , in this " continuing explosion . " Immediately before the coda , the thick texture and canon suddenly disappear and the piece becomes piano . Upon entering the coda , the work resumes the forte theme and amalgamates to a majestic ending played fortississimo .
Maestoso is one of the most difficult pieces in the set . Stamina and strength are required to sustain a full resonant sound , while the continuous thirty @-@ second figure can be tiring for the pianist . Consistent tempo is a problem for this piece , due to the melody being interspersed with two other elements . Additionally , the dynamics , mostly " loud " and " very loud , " indicate that an accurate vision of relative volume is necessary . Maintaining this accuracy while managing every other element of the piece and successfully presenting a musically solid performance continues to be the ultimate challenge of all .
= = Reception = =
The Six moments musicaux were well received by critics . During the writing of his Symphony No. 1 , Rachmaninoff was distracted from solo piano work , and the Moments were regarded as his return to mature composition . Although revolutionary and grand in style , they retain the charm of his early works , as mentioned by pianist Elizabeth Wolff : " They are typical of his early works , dense , rich in counterpoint , highly chromatic , poignantly nationalistic , deeply felt , and of course , exceptionally challenging to the pianist . " Later performances of this work would reveal that Rachmaninoff had hidden a subtle rhythm and vitality that emerged under the long , melodic phrases , furthering his acclaim as an incredibly complex musician . The Moments go as far as to " confirm the inexplicable inherent in genius " , with " exquisite melody , wondrous harmonic changes , ' heavenly brevity ' , " while maintaining " a sense of contrast and variety that allows each miniature to stand alone while complementing the work on either side of it . " Although it is unknown whether the financial reaction of this composition recouped his stolen money , the emotional reaction to it would be overshadowed for the following years by the catastrophic premiere in 1897 of his two @-@ years ' labor : the Symphony No. 1 , Op. 13 , 1895 .
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= Abraham Lincoln =
Abraham Lincoln ( / ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən / ; February 12 , 1809 – April 15 , 1865 ) was the 16th President of the United States , serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865 . Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War — its bloodiest war and its greatest moral , constitutional , and political crisis . In doing so , he preserved the Union , abolished slavery , strengthened the federal government , and modernized the economy .
Born in Hodgenville , Kentucky , Lincoln grew up on the western frontier in Kentucky and Indiana . Largely self @-@ educated , he became a lawyer in Illinois , a Whig Party leader , and a member of the Illinois House of Representatives , in which he served for twelve years . Elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846 , Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks , tariffs , and railroads . Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term in Congress , and because his opposition to the Mexican – American War was unpopular among Illinois voters , Lincoln returned to Springfield and resumed his successful law practice . Reentering politics in 1854 , he became a leader in building the new Republican Party , which had a statewide majority in Illinois . In 1858 , while taking part in a series of highly publicized debates with his opponent and rival , Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery , but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas .
In 1860 , Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state . Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the South , he swept the North and was elected president in 1860 . Lincoln 's victory prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America before he moved into the White House - no compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery and secession . Subsequently , on April 12 , 1861 , a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union in a declaration of war . As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party , Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans , who demanded harsher treatment of the South , War Democrats , who called for more compromise , anti @-@ war Democrats ( called Copperheads ) , who despised him , and irreconcilable secessionists , who plotted his assassination . Politically , Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other , by carefully planned political patronage , and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory . His Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism , republicanism , equal rights , liberty , and democracy .
Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war . His primary goal was to reunite the nation . He suspended habeas corpus , leading to the controversial ex parte Merryman decision , and he averted potential British intervention in the war by defusing the Trent Affair in late 1861 . Lincoln closely supervised the war effort , especially the selection of top generals , including his most successful general , Ulysses S. Grant . He also made major decisions on Union war strategy , including a naval blockade that shut down the South 's normal trade , moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee , and using gunboats to gain control of the southern river system . Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond ; each time a general failed , Lincoln substituted another , until finally Grant succeeded . As the war progressed , his complex moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 ; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves , encouraged the border states to outlaw slavery , and pushed through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which permanently outlawed slavery .
An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state , Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re @-@ election campaign in the 1864 presidential election . Anticipating the war 's conclusion , Lincoln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction , seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness . On April 14 , 1865 , five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee , Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth , a Confederate sympathizer .
Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents .
= = Family and childhood = =
= = = Early life and family ancestry = = =
Abraham Lincoln was born February 12 , 1809 , the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln , in a one @-@ room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County , Kentucky ( now LaRue County ) . He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln , who migrated from Norfolk , England to Hingham , Massachusetts , in 1638 . Samuel 's grandson and great @-@ grandson began the family 's western migration , which passed through New Jersey , Pennsylvania , and Virginia . Lincoln 's paternal grandfather and namesake , Captain Abraham Lincoln , moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County , Kentucky in the 1780s . Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786 . His children , including six @-@ year @-@ old Thomas , the future president 's father , witnessed the attack . After his father 's murder , Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier , working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee , before settling with members of his family in Hardin County , Kentucky , in the early 1800s .
Lincoln 's mother , Nancy , is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks , although no record of Nancy Hanks ' birth has ever been found . According to William Ensign Lincoln 's book The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln , Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks ; however , the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock . Still another researcher , Adin Baber , claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia .
Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12 , 1806 , in Washington County , and moved to Elizabethtown , Kentucky , following their marriage . They became the parents of three children : Sarah , born on February 10 , 1807 ; Abraham , on February 12 , 1809 ; and another son , Thomas , who died in infancy . Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky , including the Sinking Spring farm , where Abraham was born ; however , a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move . In 1811 the family moved eight miles north , to Knob Creek Farm , where Thomas acquired title to 230 acres ( 93 ha ) of land . In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm . Of the 816 @.@ 5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky , he lost all but 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of his land in court disputes over property titles . Frustrated over the lack of security provided by Kentucky courts , Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814 , and began planning a move to Indiana , where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure .
In 1816 the family moved north across the Ohio River to Indiana , a free , non @-@ slaveholding territory , where they settled in an " unbroken forest " in Hurricane Township , Perry County . ( Their land in southern Indiana became part of Spencer County , Indiana , when the county was established in 1818 . ) The farm is preserved as part of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial . In 1860 Lincoln noted that the family 's move to Indiana was " partly on account of slavery " ; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky . During the family 's years in Kentucky and Indiana , Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer , cabinetmaker , and carpenter . He owned farms , several town lots and livestock , paid taxes , sat on juries , appraised estates , served on country slave patrols , and guarded prisoners . Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a Separate Baptists church , which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol , dancing , and slavery . Within a year of the family 's arrival in Indiana , Thomas claimed title to 160 acres ( 65 ha ) of Indiana land . Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to 80 acres ( 32 ha ) of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community in Spencer County . Prior to the family 's move to Illinois in 1830 , Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property .
Several significant family events took place during Lincoln 's youth in Indiana . On October 5 , 1818 , Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness , leaving eleven @-@ year @-@ old Sarah in charge of a household that included her father , nine @-@ year @-@ old Abraham , and Dennis Hanks , Nancy 's nineteen @-@ year @-@ old orphaned cousin . On December 2 , 1819 , Lincoln 's father married Sarah " Sally " Bush Johnston , a widow from Elizabethtown , Kentucky , with three children of her own . Abraham became very close to his stepmother , whom he referred to as " Mother " . Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah 's death on January 20 , 1828 , while giving birth to a stillborn son .
As a youth , Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life . Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his " reading , scribbling , writing , ciphering , writing Poetry , etc . " , and must have done it to avoid manual labor . His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy " physical labor " , but loved to read . Lincoln was largely self @-@ educated . His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent , the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year ; however , he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning . Family , neighbors , and schoolmates of Lincoln 's youth recalled that he read and reread the King James Bible , Aesop 's Fables , Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress , Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe , Weems 's The Life of Washington , and Franklin 's Autobiography , among others .
As he grew into his teens , Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household . He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty @-@ one . Abraham became adept at using an axe . Tall for his age , Lincoln was also strong and athletic . He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as " the Clary 's Grove boys " .
In early March 1830 , fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River , the Lincoln family moved west to Illinois , a non @-@ slaveholding state . They settled on a site in Macon County , Illinois , 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Decatur . Historians disagree on who initiated the move . After the family relocated to Illinois , Abraham became increasingly distant from his father , in part because of his father 's lack of education , and occasionally lent him money . In 1831 , as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County , Illinois , Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own . Traveling down the Sangamon River , he ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County . Later that spring , Denton Offutt , a New Salem merchant , hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon , Illinois , and Mississippi rivers . After arriving in New Orleans — and witnessing slavery firsthand — Lincoln returned to New Salem , where he remained for the next six years .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
Lincoln 's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge , whom he met when he first moved to New Salem ; by 1835 , they were in a relationship but not formally engaged . She died at the age of 22 on August 25 , 1835 , most likely of typhoid fever . In the early 1830s , he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister .
Late in 1836 , Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem . Mary did return in November 1836 , and Lincoln courted her for a time ; however , they both had second thoughts about their relationship . On August 16 , 1837 , Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship . She never replied and the courtship ended .
In 1840 , Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd , who was from a wealthy slave @-@ holding family in Lexington , Kentucky . They met in Springfield , Illinois , in December 1839 and were engaged the following December . A wedding set for January 1 , 1841 , was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln 's initiative . They later met again at a party and married on November 4 , 1842 , in the Springfield mansion of Mary 's married sister . While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again , Lincoln , when asked where he was going , replied , " To hell , I suppose . " In 1844 , the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln 's law office . Mary Todd Lincoln kept house , often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl .
He was an affectionate , though often absent , husband and father of four children . Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln ( Eddie ) in 1846 . Edward died on February 1 , 1850 , in Springfield , probably of tuberculosis . " Willie " Lincoln was born on December 21 , 1850 , and died of a fever on February 20 , 1862 . The Lincolns ' fourth son , Thomas " Tad " Lincoln , was born on April 4 , 1853 , and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16 , 1871 . Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children . His last descendant , great @-@ grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith , died in 1985 . Lincoln " was remarkably fond of children " , and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own .
The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents . Later in life , Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons , and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875 . Abraham Lincoln suffered from " melancholy " , a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression .
Lincoln 's father @-@ in @-@ law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders . Lincoln was close to the Todds , and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington .
During his term as President of the United States of America , Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often . Since she was raised by a wealthy family , her cooking abilities were simple , but satisfied Lincoln 's tastes , which included , particularly , imported oysters .
= = Early career and militia service = =
In 1832 , at age 23 , Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in New Salem , Illinois . Although the economy was booming in the region , the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share . That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly . He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in New Salem , though he lacked an education , powerful friends , and money , which may be why he lost . He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River .
Before the election , Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War . Following his return , Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly . At 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) , he was tall and " strong enough to intimidate any rival " . At his first speech , when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked , Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his " neck and the seat of his trousers " and threw him . Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates ( the top four were elected ) , though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct .
Lincoln served as New Salem 's postmaster and later as county surveyor , all the while reading voraciously . He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England and other law books . Of his learning method , Lincoln stated : " I studied with nobody " . His second campaign in 1834 was successful . He won election to the state legislature ; though he ran as a Whig , many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent .
Admitted to the bar in 1836 , he moved to Springfield , Illinois , and began to practice law under John T. Stuart , Mary Todd 's cousin . Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross @-@ examinations and closing arguments . He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844 . Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon , whom Lincoln thought " a studious young man " .
Successful on his second run for office , Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County . He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal , which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner . In the 1835 – 36 legislative session , he voted to expand suffrage to white males , whether landowners or not . He was known for his " free soil " stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism . He first articulated this in 1837 , saying , " [ The ] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy , but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils . " His stance closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa .
= = U.S. House of Representatives , 1847 – 49 = =
From the early 1830s , Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be " an old line Whig , a disciple of Henry Clay " . The party , including Lincoln , favored economic modernization in banking , protective tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads , and espoused urbanization as well .
In 1846 , Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , where he served one two @-@ year term . He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation , but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line . Lincoln , in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings , wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners , enforcement to capture fugitive slaves , and a popular vote on the matter . He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters .
On foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican – American War , which he attributed to President Polk 's desire for " military glory — that attractive rainbow , that rises in showers of blood " . Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso , which , if it had been adopted , would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico .
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions . The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had " invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow @-@ citizens on our own soil " . Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil .
Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it , the national papers ignored it , and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district . One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him " spotty Lincoln " . Lincoln later regretted some of his statements , especially his attack on the presidential war @-@ making powers .
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency , Lincoln , who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House , supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election . Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office , but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival , Justin Butterfield , considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer , but in Lincoln 's view , an " old fossil " . The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory . This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold , and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois , so he declined and resumed his law practice .
= = Prairie lawyer = =
Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield , handling " every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer " . Twice a year for 16 years , 10 weeks at a time , he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session . Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation 's western expansion , particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges . As a riverboat man , Lincoln initially favored those interests , but ultimately represented whoever hired him . In fact , he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge . In 1849 , he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water . The idea was never commercialized , but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent .
In 1851 , he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders , James A. Barret , who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route . Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret 's pledge ; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer , superior , and less expensive route , and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret 's payment . The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation . Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases , in 51 as sole counsel , of which 31 were decided in his favor . From 1853 to 1860 , another of Lincoln 's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad . Lincoln 's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname " Honest Abe . "
Lincoln 's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William " Duff " Armstrong , who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker . The case is famous for Lincoln 's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness . After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight , Lincoln produced a Farmers ' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle , drastically reducing visibility . Based on this evidence , Armstrong was acquitted .
Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom ; but in an 1859 case , where he defended a cousin , Peachy Harrison , who was accused of stabbing another to death , Lincoln angrily protested the judge 's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client . Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected , the judge , a Democrat , reversed his ruling , allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison .
= = Republican politics 1854 – 60 = =
= = = Slavery and a " House Divided " = = =
By the 1850s , slavery was still legal in the southern United States , but had been generally outlawed in the northern states , including Illinois , whose original 1818 Constitution forbade slavery , as required by the Northwest Ordinance . Lincoln disapproved of slavery , and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west . He returned to politics to oppose the pro @-@ slavery Kansas – Nebraska Act ( 1854 ) ; this law repealed the slavery @-@ restricting Missouri Compromise ( 1820 ) . Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act . Douglas ' provision , which Lincoln opposed , specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory , rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress .
Eric Foner ( 2010 ) contrasts the abolitionists and anti @-@ slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin , with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress . Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle , opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers , especially the equality of all men and democratic self @-@ government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence .
On October 16 , 1854 , in his " Peoria Speech " , Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery , which he repeated en route to the presidency . Speaking in his Kentucky accent , with a very powerful voice , he said the Kansas Act had a " declared indifference , but as I must think , a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery . I cannot but hate it . I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself . I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ... "
In late 1854 , Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate . At that time , senators were elected by the state legislature . After leading in the first six rounds of voting , but unable to obtain a majority , Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull . Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat , and had received few votes in the earlier ballots ; his supporters , also antislavery Democrats , had vowed not to support any Whig . Lincoln 's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull 's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate , Joel Aldrich Matteson .
Nationally , the Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas – Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue . Lincoln wrote , " I think I am a Whig , but others say there are no Whigs , and that I am an abolitionist [ ... ] I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery . " Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party , and combining Free Soil , Liberty , and antislavery Democratic Party members , the new Republican Party formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery . Lincoln was one of those instrumental in forging the shape of the new party ; at the 1856 Republican National Convention , he placed second in the contest to become its candidate for vice president .
In 1857 – 1858 , Douglas broke with President James Buchanan , leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party . Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858 , since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution , which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state . In March 1857 , the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens , and derived no rights from the Constitution . Lincoln denounced the decision , alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power . Lincoln argued , " The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended ' to say all were equal in color , size , intellect , moral developments , or social capacity ' , but they ' did consider all men created equal — equal in certain inalienable rights , among which are life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness ' . "
After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858 , Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech , drawing on Mark 3 : 25 , " A house divided against itself cannot stand . I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free . I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided . It will become all one thing , or all the other . " The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate , and rallied Republicans across the North . The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would , in turn , select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator .
= = = Lincoln – Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech = = =
The Senate campaign featured the seven Lincoln – Douglas debates of 1858 , the most famous political debates in American history . The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically . Lincoln warned that " The Slave Power " was threatening the values of republicanism , and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal , while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine , that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not , and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists . The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands . Lincoln stated Douglas ' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation 's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states . Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the Dred Scott decision .
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes , the Democrats won more seats , and the legislature re @-@ elected Douglas to the Senate . Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln , his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation . In May 1859 , Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats @-@ Anzeiger , a German @-@ language newspaper which was consistently supportive ; most of the state 's 130 @,@ 000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German @-@ language paper could mobilize .
On February 27 , 1860 , New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans . Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery . Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery , and rejected any " groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong " . Despite his inelegant appearance — many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly — Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination . Journalist Noah Brooks reported , " No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience . "
Historian Donald described the speech as a " superb political move for an unannounced candidate , to appear in one rival 's ( William H. Seward ) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival 's ( Salmon P. Chase ) loyalists , while not mentioning either by name during its delivery " . In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions , Lincoln said , " The taste is in my mouth a little . "
= = = 1860 Presidential nomination and campaign = = =
On May 9 – 10 , 1860 , the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur . Lincoln 's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis , Norman Judd , Leonard Swett , and Jesse DuBois , and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency . Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father ( clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax ) , Lincoln 's supporters adopted the label of " The Rail Candidate " . In 1860 Lincoln described himself : " I am in height , six feet , four inches , nearly ; lean in flesh , weighing , on an average , one hundred and eighty pounds ; dark complexion , with coarse black hair , and gray eyes . " His biographers added that he had a :
Large head , with high crown of skull ; thick , bushy hair ; large and deep eye @-@ caverns ; heavy eyebrows ; a large nose ; large ears ; large mouth ; thin upper and somewhat thick under lip ; very high and prominent cheek @-@ bones ; cheeks thin and sunken ; strongly developed jawbone ; chin slightly upturned ; a thin but sinewy neck , rather long ; long arms ; large hands ; chest thin and narrow as compared with his great height ; legs of more than proportionate length , and large feet .
On May 18 , at the Republican National Convention in Chicago , Lincoln 's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot , beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase . A former Democrat , Hannibal Hamlin of Maine , was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket . Lincoln 's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue , and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff .
On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top . Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs . Lincoln 's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others , while following Lincoln 's strong dictate to " Make no contracts that bind me " .
Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party , as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Scott decision and the presidency of James Buchanan . Throughout the 1850s , Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war , and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession . Meanwhile , Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats . Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention , disagreeing with Douglas ' position on popular sovereignty , and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their candidate .
The Wide Awake Parade was formed in 1860 by Republicans in the Northern states to help nominate Abraham Lincoln as the President of the United States . As Lincoln 's ideas of abolishing slavery grew , so did his supporters . People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of his ideas of anti @-@ slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln .
As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns , Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches . Instead , he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party . The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North , and produced an abundance of campaign posters , leaflets , and newspaper editorials . There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform , and second on Lincoln 's life story , emphasizing his childhood poverty . The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of " free labor " , whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts . The Republican Party 's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition ; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln 's life , and sold 100 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Presidency = =
= = = 1860 election and secession = = =
On November 6 , 1860 , Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States , beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats , and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party . He was the first president from the Republican Party . His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West ; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states , and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states .
Lincoln received 1 @,@ 866 @,@ 452 votes , Douglas 1 @,@ 376 @,@ 957 votes , Breckinridge 849 @,@ 781 votes , and Bell 588 @,@ 789 votes . Turnout was 82 @.@ 2 percent , with Lincoln winning the free Northern states , as well as California and Oregon . Douglas won Missouri , and split New Jersey with Lincoln . Bell won Virginia , Tennessee , and Kentucky , and Breckinridge won the rest of the South .
Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote , his victory in the electoral college was decisive : Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123 . There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln 's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York , New Jersey , and Rhode Island , but even if the anti @-@ Lincoln vote had been combined in every state , Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College .
As Lincoln 's election became evident , secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March . On December 20 , 1860 , South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession ; by February 1 , 1861 , Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas followed . Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation , the Confederate States of America . The upper South and border states ( Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , Tennessee , Kentucky , Missouri , and Arkansas ) listened to , but initially rejected , the secessionist appeal . President Buchanan and President @-@ elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy , declaring secession illegal . The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9 , 1861 .
There were attempts at compromise . The Crittenden Compromise would have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820 , dividing the territories into slave and free , contrary to the Republican Party 's free @-@ soil platform . Lincoln rejected the idea , saying , " I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right . "
Lincoln , however , did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution , which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states . That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent . A few weeks before the war , Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution . Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution .
En route to his inauguration by train , Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North . The president @-@ elect then evaded possible assassins in Baltimore , who were uncovered by Lincoln 's head of security , Allan Pinkerton . On February 23 , 1861 , he arrived in disguise in Washington , D.C. , which was placed under substantial military guard . Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South , proclaiming once again that he had no intention , or inclination , to abolish slavery in the Southern states :
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered . There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension . Indeed , the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection . It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you . I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that " I have no purpose , directly or indirectly , to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists . I believe I have no lawful right to do so , and I have no inclination to do so . "
The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South : " We are not enemies , but friends . We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory , stretching from every battlefield , and patriot grave , to every living heart and hearthstone , all over this broad land , will yet swell the chorus of the Union , when again touched , as surely they will be , by the better angels of our nature . " The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible . By March 1861 , no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms . Meanwhile , Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated . Lincoln said as the war was ending :
Both parties deprecated war , but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive , and the other would accept war rather than let it perish , and the war came .
= = = Beginning of the war = = =
The commander of Fort Sumter , South Carolina , Major Robert Anderson , sent a request for provisions to Washington , and the execution of Lincoln 's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war . On April 12 , 1861 , Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter , forcing them to surrender , and began the war . Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations : underestimating the gravity of the crisis , exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South , and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion .
William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was " sadly disappointed " at his failure to realize that " the country was sleeping on a volcano " and that the South was preparing for war . Historian Donald concludes that , " His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft . Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood . But he also vowed not to surrender the forts . The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot ; they did just that . "
On April 15 , Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75 @,@ 000 troops to recapture forts , protect Washington , and " preserve the Union " , which , in his view , still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states . This call forced the states to choose sides . Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital , despite the exposed position of Richmond so close to Union lines . North Carolina , Tennessee , and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months . Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland , but did not prevail ; Kentucky tried to be neutral . The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the Mason @-@ Dixon line to the defense of the American nation . Historian Allan Nevins says :
The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment ... Anger swept the land . From every side came news of mass meetings , speeches , resolutions , tenders of business support , the muster of companies and regiments , the determined action of governors and legislatures . "
States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln 's call to save the capital and confront the rebellion . On April 19 , mobs in Baltimore , which controlled the rail links , attacked Union troops who were changing trains , and local leaders ' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital . The Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials . Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington . John Merryman , a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements , petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander , Roger B. Taney , author of the controversial pro @-@ slavery Dred Scott opinion , to issue a writ of habeas corpus , and in June Taney , acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court , issued the writ , because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ . Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the Ex parte Merryman ruling .
= = = Assuming command for the Union in the war = = =
After the Battle of Fort Sumter , Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion . Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis , and he responded as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , using unprecedented powers . He expanded his war powers , and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports , disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress , and after suspending habeas corpus , arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers . Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions . In addition , Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict .
The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln , and dominated his time and attention . From the start , it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort , and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle , such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army . Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue . Conversely , the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery . On August 6 , 1861 , Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort . In practice , the law had little effect , but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy .
In late August 1861 , General John C. Frémont , the 1856 Republican presidential nominee , issued , without consulting his superiors in Washington , a proclamation of martial law in Missouri . He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court @-@ martialed and shot , and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed . Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption . Lincoln overruled Frémont 's proclamation . Lincoln believed that Fremont 's emancipation was political ; neither militarily necessary nor legal . After Lincoln acted , Union enlistments from Maryland , Kentucky , and Missouri increased by over 40 @,@ 000 troops .
Lincoln left most diplomatic matters to his Secretary of State , William Seward . At times Seward was too bellicose , so for balance Lincoln stuck a close working relationship with Senator Charles Sumner , the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain . The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British mail ship , the Trent , on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys ; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered . Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats . Biographer James G. Randall has dissected Lincoln 's successful techniques :
his restraint , his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence , his early softening of State Department 's attitude toward Britain , his deference toward Seward and Sumner , his withholding of his own paper prepared for the occasion , his readiness to arbitrate , his golden silence in addressing Congress , his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted , and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America 's true position at the same time that full satisfaction was given to a friendly country .
Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Department headquarters . He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort , consulted with governors , and selected generals based on their past success ( as well as their state and party ) . In January 1862 , after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department , Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary . Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro @-@ business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction . Nevertheless , he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official . " Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together , " say Thomas and Hyman .
In terms of war strategy , Lincoln articulated two priorities : to ensure that Washington was well @-@ defended , and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt , decisive victory ; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days . Twice a week , Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon , and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard . Lincoln learned from reading the theoretical book of his chief of staff General Henry Halleck , a disciple of the European strategist Jomini ; he began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points , such as the Mississippi River ; . Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy 's army , rather than simply capturing territory .
= = = General McClellan = = =
After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the aged Winfield Scott in late 1861 , Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general @-@ in @-@ chief of all the Union armies . McClellan , a young West Point graduate , railroad executive , and Pennsylvania Democrat , took several months to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign , longer than Lincoln wanted . The campaign 's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital . McClellan 's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress , as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington . Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan 's troops in defense of the capital ; McClellan , who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops , blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign .
Lincoln removed McClellan as general @-@ in @-@ chief in March 1862 , after McClellan 's " Harrison 's Landing Letter " , in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort . The office remained empty until July , when Henry Halleck was selected for it . McClellan 's letter incensed Radical Republicans , who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope , a Republican , as head of the new Army of Virginia . Pope complied with Lincoln 's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north , thus protecting the capital from attack .
However , lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan , now commanding the Army of the Potomac , Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862 , forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time . The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CSS Virginia , formerly the USS Merrimack , damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk , Virginia , before being engaged and damaged by the USS Monitor . Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads .
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan 's failure to reinforce Pope , Lincoln was desperate , and restored him to command of all forces around Washington , to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward . Two days after McClellan 's return to command , General Robert E. Lee 's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland , leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862 . The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history , but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January . Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier , Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation .
McClellan then resisted the President 's demand that he pursue Lee 's retreating and exposed army , while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee . As a result , Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans ; and , after the 1862 midterm elections , he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside . Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Burnside , against the advice of the president , prematurely launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December . Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield , but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined . Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg . Lincoln brought in Joseph Hooker , despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship .
The mid @-@ term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war , as well as rising inflation , new high taxes , rumors of corruption , the suspension of habeas corpus , the military draft law , and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market . The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest , but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest .
While Republicans were discouraged , Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania , Ohio , Indiana , and New York . The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states , except New York . The Cincinnati Gazette contended that the voters were " depressed by the interminable nature of this war , as so far conducted , and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress " .
In the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together ; these plans included Hooker 's attack on Lee north of Richmond , Rosecrans ' on Chattanooga , Grant 's on Vicksburg , and a naval assault on Charleston .
Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May , but continued to command his troops for some weeks . He ignored Lincoln 's order to divide his troops , and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper 's Ferry , and tendered his resignation , which Lincoln accepted . He was replaced by George Meade , who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign , which was a victory for the Union , though Lee 's army avoided capture . At the same time , after initial setbacks , Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor . After the Battle of Gettysburg , Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general @-@ in @-@ chief on to his generals , who resented his civilian interference with their own plans . Even so , he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = Emancipation Proclamation = = =
Lincoln understood that the Federal government 's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution , which before 1865 , committed the issue to individual states . He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory . At the beginning of the war , he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery . Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it , as envisioned by the Founding Fathers , under the constitution . President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862 , on the grounds that it was not within their power , and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union .
On June 19 , 1862 , endorsed by Lincoln , Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory . In July , the Confiscation Act of 1862 was passed , which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion . Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress 's power to free the slaves within the states , he approved the bill in deference to the legislature . He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution , and Lincoln was planning to take that action . In that month , Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet . In it , he stated that " as a fit and necessary military measure , on January 1 , 1863 , all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward , and forever , be free " .
Privately , Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated . However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification . Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential New York Tribune fell for the ploy , and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22 , 1862 . Although he said he personally wished all men could be free , Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president ( he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his " official duty " ) was that of preserving the Union :
My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union , and is not either to save or to destroy slavery . If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it , and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that . What I do about slavery , and the colored race , I do because I believe it helps to save the Union ; and what I forbear , I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... [ ¶ ] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty ; and I intend no modification of my oft @-@ expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free .
The Emancipation Proclamation , issued on September 22 , 1862 , and put into effect on January 1 , 1863 , declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control , with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states . Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation , while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off @-@ year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites .
Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective , as Union armies advanced south , more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed . Lincoln 's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was : " I never , in my life , felt more certain that I was doing right , than I do in signing this paper . " For some time , Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves . He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation , but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed . A few days after Emancipation was announced , 13 Republican governors met at the War Governors ' Conference ; they supported the president 's Proclamation , but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army .
Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation . By the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers . In a letter to Andrew Johnson , the military governor of Tennessee , encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops , Lincoln wrote , " The bare sight of 50 @,@ 000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once " . By the end of 1863 , at Lincoln 's direction , General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley . Frederick Douglass once observed of Lincoln : " In his company , I was never reminded of my humble origin , or of my unpopular color " .
= = = Gettysburg Address ( 1863 ) = = =
With the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 , and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall , Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort , despite the New York City draft riots . The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19 , 1863 . Defying Lincoln 's prediction that " the world will little note , nor long remember what we say here " , the Address became the most quoted speech in American history .
In 272 words , and three minutes , Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789 , but in 1776 , " conceived in Liberty , and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal " . He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all . The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort . He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain , that slavery would end as a result of the losses , and the future of democracy in the world would be assured , that " government of the people , by the people , for the people , shall not perish from the earth " . Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective : a new birth of freedom in the nation .
= = = General Grant = = =
Meade 's failure to capture Lee 's army as it retreated from Gettysburg , and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac , persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed . General Ulysses S. Grant 's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army . Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh , Lincoln had said , " I can 't spare this man . He fights . " With Grant in command , Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters , and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops .
Nevertheless , Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864 , as McClellan was . Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant 's political intentions , and being assured that he had none , submitted to the Senate Grant 's promotion to commander of the Union Army . He obtained Congress 's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General , which no officer had held since George Washington .
Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864 . This is often characterized as a war of attrition , given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor . Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive , the Confederate forces had " almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces " . The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North ; Grant had lost a third of his army , and Lincoln asked what Grant 's plans were , to which the general replied , " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer . "
The Confederacy lacked reinforcements , so Lee 's army shrank with every costly battle . Grant 's army moved south , crossed the James River , forcing a siege and trench warfare outside Petersburg , Virginia . Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant 's headquarters at City Point , Virginia . This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities , as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina . Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North , and replaced the Union losses .
Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure — such as plantations , railroads , and bridges — hoping to destroy the South 's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting . Grant 's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South . This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia 's Shenandoah Valley . The damage caused by Sherman 's March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) swath , but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal , but rather defeat of the Confederate armies . Mark E. Neely Jr. has argued that there was no effort to engage in " total war " against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II .
Confederate general Jubal Anderson Early began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital . During Early 's raid on Washington , D.C. in 1864 , Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position ; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him , " Get down , you damn fool , before you get shot ! " After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington , Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched .
As Grant continued to wear down Lee 's forces , efforts to discuss peace began . Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln , Seward , and others at Hampton Roads . Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal ; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results . On April 1 , 1865 , Grant successfully outflanked Lee 's forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg , and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond . Days later , when that city fell , Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital ; as he walked through the city , white Southerners were stone @-@ faced , but freedmen greeted him as a hero . On April 9 , Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively over .
= = = 1864 re @-@ election = = =
While the war was still being waged , Lincoln faced reelection in 1864 . Lincoln was a master politician , bringing together — and holding together — all the main factions of the Republican Party , and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson as well . Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers — greatly expanded over peacetime — to hold the factions of his party together , build support for his own policies , and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket . At its 1864 convention , the Republican Party selected Johnson , a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee , as his running mate . To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans , Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party .
When Grant 's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted , the lack of military success wore heavily on the President 's re @-@ election prospects , and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated . Sharing this fear , Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that , if he should lose the election , he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House :
This morning , as for some days past , it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re @-@ elected . Then it will be my duty to so co @-@ operate with the President elect , as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration ; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward .
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet , but asked them to sign the sealed envelope .
While the Democratic platform followed the " Peace wing " of the party and called the war a " failure " , their candidate , General George B. McClellan , supported the war and repudiated the platform . Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort . Sherman 's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut 's capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters ; the Democratic Party was deeply split , with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln . By contrast , the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue , and state Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads . On November 8 , Lincoln was re @-@ elected in a landslide , carrying all but three states , and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers ' vote .
On March 4 , 1865 , Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address . In it , he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God 's will . Historian Mark Noll concludes it ranks " among the small handful of semi @-@ sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world " . Lincoln said :
Fondly do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away . Yet , if God wills that it continue , until all the wealth piled by the bond @-@ man 's 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk , and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash , shall be paid by another drawn with the sword , as was said 3 @,@ 000 years ago , so still it must be said , " the judgments of the Lord , are true and righteous altogether " . With malice toward none ; with charity for all ; with firmness in the right , as God gives us to see the right , let us strive on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation 's wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle , and for his widow , and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace , among ourselves , and with all nations .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Reconstruction began during the war , as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states , and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves . Shortly after Lee 's surrender , a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated , and Lincoln replied , " Let ' em up easy . " In keeping with that sentiment , Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy , and was opposed by the Radical Republicans , under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens , Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade , political allies of the president on other issues . Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South , Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war . His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8 , 1863 , offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office , had not mistreated Union prisoners , and would sign an oath of allegiance .
As Southern states were subdued , critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re @-@ formed . Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas , where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors , respectively . In Louisiana , Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it . Lincoln 's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans ' political aspirations . On the other hand , the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient , and passed their own plan , the Wade @-@ Davis Bill , in 1864 . When Lincoln vetoed the bill , the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana , Arkansas , and Tennessee .
Lincoln 's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness . To fill Chief Justice Taney 's seat on the Supreme Court , he named the choice of the Radicals , Salmon P. Chase , who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies .
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation , which did not apply to every state , Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment . Lincoln declared that such an amendment would " clinch the whole matter " . By December 1863 , a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage . This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass , falling short of the required two @-@ thirds majority on June 15 , 1864 , in the House of Representatives . Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican / Unionist platform in the election of 1864 . After a long debate in the House , a second attempt passed Congress on January 31 , 1865 , and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification . Upon ratification , it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6 , 1865 .
As the war drew to a close , Lincoln 's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux ; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen . He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner 's Freedmen 's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves . The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen . Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction . Shortly before his assassination , Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction . Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short @-@ term military control over southern states , until readmission under the control of southern Unionists .
Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived , but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen . Lincoln biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current , according to David Lincove , argue that :
It is likely that had he lived , Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson 's , that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals , that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred , and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson 's mistakes .
Eric Foner argues that :
Unlike Sumner and other Radicals , Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation . He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land . He believed , as most Republicans did in April 1865 , that the voting requirements should be determined by the states . He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists , reluctant secessionists , and forward @-@ looking former Confederates . But time and again during the war , Lincoln , after initial opposition , had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans . ... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves ... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage , along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death . "
= = = Redefining the republic and republicanism = = =
The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country . The term " the United States " has historically been used , sometimes in the plural ( " these United States " ) , and other times in the singular , without any particular grammatical consistency . The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century .
In recent years , historians such as Harry Jaffa , Herman Belz , John Diggins , Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln 's redefinition of republican values . As early as the 1850s , a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution , Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values — what he called the " sheet anchor " of republicanism . The Declaration 's emphasis on freedom and equality for all , in contrast to the Constitution 's tolerance of slavery , shifted the debate . As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860 , " Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself . " His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism , rather than its legalisms . Nevertheless , in 1861 , Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms ( the Constitution was a contract , and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree ) , and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state . Burton ( 2008 ) argues that Lincoln 's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated .
In March 1861 , in Lincoln 's first inaugural address , he explored the nature of democracy . He denounced secession as anarchy , and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system . He said " A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations , and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments , is the only true sovereign of a free people . "
= = = Other enactments = = =
Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency , which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them . Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress ; the only important one was the Wade @-@ Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction . He signed the Homestead Act in 1862 , making millions of acres of government @-@ held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost . The Morrill Land @-@ Grant Colleges Act , also signed in 1862 , provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state . The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States ' First Transcontinental Railroad , which was completed in 1869 . The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s .
Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government : tariffs ( a policy with long precedent ) , and a new Federal income tax . In 1861 , Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff , the first having become law under James Buchanan . Also in 1861 , Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861 , creating the first U.S. income tax . This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $ 800 ( $ 21 @,@ 100 in current dollar terms ) , which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure .
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government 's economic influence in several other areas . The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country . It also established a national currency . In 1862 , Congress created , with Lincoln 's approval , the Department of Agriculture . In 1862 , Lincoln sent a senior general , John Pope , to put down the " Sioux Uprising " in Minnesota . Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers , Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants , eventually approving 39 for execution ( one was later reprieved ) . President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy .
In the wake of Grant 's casualties in his campaign against Lee , Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft , but it was never issued . In response to rumors of one , however , the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market . Lincoln 's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior ; he ordered the military to seize the two papers . The seizure lasted for two days .
Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States . Before Lincoln 's presidency , Thanksgiving , while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century , had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates . The last such proclamation had been during James Madison 's presidency 50 years before . In 1863 , Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving . In June 1864 , Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress , which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court appointments = = = =
Noah Haynes Swayne – 1862
Samuel Freeman Miller – 1862
David Davis – 1862
Stephen Johnson Field – 1863
Salmon Portland Chase – 1864 ( Chief Justice )
Lincoln 's declared philosophy on court nominations was that " we cannot ask a man what he will do , and if we should , and he should answer us , we should despise him for it . Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known . " Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court . Noah Haynes Swayne , nominated January 21 , 1862 and appointed January 24 , 1862 , was chosen as an anti @-@ slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union . Samuel Freeman Miller , nominated and appointed on July 16 , 1862 , supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist . David Davis , Lincoln 's campaign manager in 1860 , nominated December 1 , 1862 and appointed December 8 , 1862 , had also served as a judge in Lincoln 's Illinois court circuit . Stephen Johnson Field , a previous California Supreme Court justice , was nominated March 6 , 1863 and appointed March 10 , 1863 , and provided geographic balance , as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat . Finally , Lincoln 's Treasury Secretary , Salmon P. Chase , was nominated as Chief Justice , and appointed the same day , on December 6 , 1864 . Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist , would support Reconstruction legislation , and that his appointment united the Republican Party .
= = = = Other judicial appointments = = = =
Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges , including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States , and 27 judges to the United States district courts . Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office .
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
West Virginia , admitted to the Union June 20 , 1863 , contained the former north @-@ westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union . As a condition for its admission , West Virginia 's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery . Nevada , which became the third State in the far @-@ west of the continent , was admitted as a free state on October 31 , 1864 .
= = Assassination and funeral = =
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on Good Friday , April 14 , 1865 , while attending a play at Ford 's Theatre as the American Civil War was drawing to a close . The assassination occurred five days after the surrender of Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia . Booth was a well @-@ known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland ; though he never joined the Confederate army , he had contacts with the Confederate secret service . In 1864 , Booth formulated a plan ( very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy ) to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners . After attending an April 11 , 1865 , speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks , an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president . Learning that the President and Grant would be attending Ford 's Theatre , Booth formulated a plan with co @-@ conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater , as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their homes . Without his main bodyguard , Ward Hill Lamon , Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14 . At the last minute , Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play .
Lincoln 's bodyguard , John Parker , left Ford 's Theater during intermission to drink at the saloon next door . The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony . Seizing the opportunity , Booth crept up from behind and at about 10 : 13 pm , aimed at the back of Lincoln 's head and fired at point @-@ blank range , mortally wounding the President . Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth , but Booth stabbed him and escaped .
After being on the run for 12 days , Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia , some 70 miles ( 110 km ) south of Washington . After refusing to surrender to Union troops , Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26 .
Doctor Charles Leale , an Army surgeon , found the President unresponsive , barely breathing and with no detectable pulse . Having determined that the President had been shot in the head , and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought , he made an attempt to clear the blood clot , after which the President began to breathe more naturally . The dying President was taken across the street to Petersen House . After remaining in a coma for nine hours , Lincoln died at 7 : 22 am on April 15 . Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said , " Now he belongs to the ages . "
Lincoln 's flag @-@ enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers , while the city 's church bells rang . President Johnson was sworn in at 10 : 00 am , less than 3 hours after Lincoln 's death . The late President lay in state in the East Room , and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21 . For his final journey with his son Willie , both caskets were transported in the executive coach " United States " and for three weeks the Lincoln Special funeral train decorated in black bunting bore Lincoln 's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield , Illinois , stopping at many cities across the North for large @-@ scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands , as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands , bonfires , and hymn singing or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by . Poet Walt Whitman composed When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom 'd to eulogize Lincoln , one of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president . Historians have emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow , but also noted that some Lincoln haters cheered when they heard the news . African @-@ Americans were especially moved ; they had lost ' their Moses ' . In a larger sense , the outpouring of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war that had just ended .
= = Religious and philosophical beliefs = =
As a young man , Lincoln was a religious skeptic , or , in the words of a biographer , an iconoclast . Later in life , Lincoln 's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences , who were mostly evangelical Protestants . He never joined a church , although he frequently attended with his wife . However , he was deeply familiar with the Bible , and he both quoted and praised it . He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others . Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs . However he did believe in an all @-@ powerful God that shaped events and , by 1865 , was expressing those beliefs in major speeches .
In the 1840s , Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity , a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power . In the 1850s , Lincoln believed in " providence " in a general way , and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals ; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence . When he suffered the death of his son Edward , Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God . The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace . After Willie 's death , Lincoln considered why , from a divine standpoint , the severity of the war was necessary . He wrote at this time that God " could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest . Yet the contest began . And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day . Yet the contest proceeds . " On the day Lincoln was assassinated , he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land .
= = Health = =
Several claims abound that Lincoln 's health was declining before the assassination . These are often based on photographs appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting . One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder , MEN2b , which manifests with a medullary thyroid carcinoma , mucosal neuromas and a Marfanoid appearance . Others simply claim he had Marfan syndrome , based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers , and the association of possible aortic regurgitation , which can cause bobbing of the head ( DeMusset 's sign ) — based on blurring of Lincoln 's head in photographs , which back then had a long exposure time . As of 2009 , DNA analysis was being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum in Philadelphia .
= = Historical reputation = =
In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since the 1940s , Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three , often as number one . A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one , while legal scholars placed him second after Washington . In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948 , Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls : Schlesinger 1948 , Schlesinger 1962 , 1982 Murray Blessing Survey , Chicago Tribune 1982 poll , Schlesinger 1996 , CSPAN 1996 , Ridings @-@ McIver 1996 , Time 2008 , and CSPAN 2009 . Generally , the top three presidents are rated as 1 . Lincoln ; 2 . George Washington ; and 3 . Franklin D. Roosevelt , although Lincoln and Washington , and Washington and Roosevelt , are occasionally reversed .
President Lincoln 's assassination increased his status to the point of making him a national martyr . Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty . Republicans linked Lincoln 's name to their party . Many , though not all , in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability .
Schwartz argues that Lincoln 's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the Progressive Era ( 1900 – 1920s ) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history , with even white Southerners in agreement . The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self @-@ made man or the great war president , but as the advocate of the common man who they believe would have supported the welfare state . In the Cold War years , Lincoln 's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes .
By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives for his intense nationalism , support for business , his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage , his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition , and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers . As a Whig activist , Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests , favoring high tariffs , banks , internal improvements , and railroads in opposition to the agrarian Democrats . William C. Harris found that Lincoln 's " reverence for the Founding Fathers , the Constitution , the laws under it , and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism " . James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation " in his preference for orderly progress , his distrust of dangerous agitation , and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform " . Randall concludes that , " he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so @-@ called ' radicalism ' which involved abuse of the South , hatred for the slaveholder , thirst for vengeance , partisan plotting , and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders . "
By the late 1960s , liberals , such as historian Lerone Bennett , were having second thoughts , especially regarding Lincoln 's views on racial issues . Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968 . He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs , told jokes that ridiculed blacks , insisted he opposed social equality , and proposed sending freed slaves to another country . Defenders , such as authors Dirck and Cashin , retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day ; and that he was a " moral visionary " who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause , as fast as politically possible . The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln @-@ the @-@ emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery , or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation . Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln 's image suffered " erosion , fading prestige , benign ridicule " in the late 20th century . On the other hand , Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability , defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were " content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts , and not compelled toward fact or reason " .
Today 's U.S. President , however , seems to be promoting a sympathetic resurgence for his predecessor , Lincoln . Indeed , President Obama , has insisted on using Lincoln 's Bible for his swearing in of office at both his inaugurations .
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood , almost always in a flattering light .
= = Memory and memorials = =
Lincoln 's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency , the penny and the $ 5 bill . His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and he has been memorialized in many town , city , and county names , including the capital of Nebraska .
The most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln 's sculpture on Mount Rushmore ; Lincoln Memorial , Ford 's Theatre , and Petersen House ( where he died ) in Washington , D.C. ; and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield , Illinois , not far from Lincoln 's home , as well as his tomb .
There was also the Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln exhibit in Disneyland , and the Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World , which had to do with Walt Disney admiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy .
Barry Schwartz , a sociologist who has examined America 's cultural memory , argues that in the 1930s and 1940s , the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with " a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life " . During the Great Depression , he argues , Lincoln served " as a means for seeing the world 's disappointments , for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful " . Franklin D. Roosevelt , preparing America for war , used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan . Americans asked , " What would Lincoln do ? " However , Schwartz also finds that since World War II , Lincoln 's symbolic power has lost relevance , and this " fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness " . He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept .
= = = Cited in footnotes = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Burkhimer , Michael ( 2003 ) . One Hundred Essential Lincoln Books . Cumberland House . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58182 @-@ 369 @-@ 1 .
Foner , Eric ( 2008 ) . Our Lincoln : New Perspectives on Lincoln and His World . W.W. Norton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 06756 @-@ 9 .
Holzer , Harold and Craig L. Symonds , eds . Exploring Lincoln : Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President ( 2015 ) , essays by 16 scholars
Manning , Chandra , " The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation " , Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association , 34 ( Winter 2013 ) , 18 – 39 .
Smith , Adam I.P. " The ' Cult ' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars " , Twentieth Century British History , ( Dec 2010 ) 21 # 4 pp. 486 – 509
Spielberg , Steven ; Goodwin , Doris Kearns ; Kushner , Tony . " Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood " , Smithsonian ( 2012 ) 43 # 7 pp. 46 – 53 .
= = = Additional references = = =
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= Government of Singapore =
The Government of Singapore is defined by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore to mean the Executive branch of government , which is made up of the President and the Cabinet of Singapore . Although the President acts in his personal discretion in the exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore , his role is largely ceremonial . It is the Cabinet , composed of the Prime Minister and other Ministers appointed on his advice by the President , that generally directs and controls the Government . The Cabinet is formed by the political party that gains a simple majority in each general election .
A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of Parliament and overseen by a government ministry . Unlike ministries and government departments that are subdivisions of ministries , statutory boards are not staffed by civil servants and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations .
There are five Community Development Councils ( CDCs ) appointed by the board of management of the People 's Association ( PA ) for districts in Singapore . Where there are not less than 150 @,@ 000 residents in a district , the PA 's board of management may designate the Chairman of a CDC to be the Mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for . As it is the practice for MPs to be appointed as Chairmen of CDCs , these MPs have also been designated as Mayors .
From the founding of modern Singapore in 1819 until 1826 , Singapore was headed by two Residents in succession . Following Singapore 's amalgamation into the Straits Settlements in 1826 , it was governed by a Governor together with a Legislative Council . An Executive Council of the Straits Settlements was introduced in 1877 to advise the Governor but wielded no executive power . In 1955 , a Council of Ministers was created , appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Leader of the House . Constitutional talks between Legislative Assembly representatives and the Colonial Office were held from 1956 to 1958 , and Singapore gained full internal self @-@ government in 1959 . The Governor was replaced by the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara , who had power to appoint to the post of Prime Minister the person most likely to command the authority of the Assembly , and other Ministers of the Cabinet on the Prime Minister 's advice . In the 1959 general elections , the People 's Action Party ( PAP ) swept to power with 43 out of the 51 seats in the Assembly , and Lee Kuan Yew became the first Prime Minister of Singapore . The executive branch of the Singapore Government remained unchanged following Singapore 's merger with Malaysia in 1963 , and subsequent independence in 1965 . The PAP has been returned to power in every general election and has thus formed the Cabinet since 1959 . The Government is generally perceived to be competent in managing the country 's economy and largely free from political corruption . On the other hand , it has been criticized for using unfair election tactics and violating freedom of speech .
= = Terminology = =
The term Government of Singapore can have a number of different meanings . At its widest , it can refer collectively to the three traditional branches of government – the Executive branch , Legislative branch ( the President and Parliament of Singapore ) and Judicial branch ( the Supreme Court and Subordinate Courts of Singapore ) . The term is also used colloquially to mean the Executive and Legislature together , as these are the branches of government responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day governance of the nation and lawmaking . At its narrowest , the term is used to refer to the Members of Parliament ( MPs ) belonging to a particular political party ( or coalition of parties ) holding a majority of seats in Parliament sufficient to enable the party ( or coalition ) to form the Cabinet of Singapore – this is the sense intended when it is said that a political party " forms the Government " .
The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore uses the word Government to mean the Executive branch , made up of the President and the Cabinet . This article describes the Government of Singapore in this technical sense , as well as selected aspects of the Executive branch of the Government .
= = History = =
On 30 January 1819 Sir Stamford Raffles , an Englishman who was the Governor of Bencoolen ( now Bengkulu , Indonesia ) , entered into a preliminary agreement with the Temenggung of Johor , Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah , for the British East India Company to establish a " factory " or trading post on the island of Singapore . This was confirmed by another agreement signed by Raffles , the Temenggung and Sultan Hussein Shah on 6 February . In June 1823 Singapore ceased to be a dependency of Bencoolen and was placed under the control of the Presidency City of Calcutta ( Kolkata ) in the Bengal Presidency . On 24 June 1824 , Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company , with the result that they came under the control of Fort William . Full cession of Singapore to the Company by the Sultan and Temenggung was effected by a treaty of 19 November 1824 , which was ratified by Calcutta on 4 March 1825 . Between 1819 and 1826 , Singapore was headed by two Residents of Singapore in succession , Maj.-Gen. William Farquhar and Dr. John Crawfurd .
In 1826 , Malacca , Penang and Singapore were amalgamated into the Straits Settlements , which were made a Crown colony with effect from 1 April 1867 . The Colony was governed by a Governor together with a Legislative Council . An Executive Council was introduced in 1877 by letters patent issued by the Crown , Composed of " such persons and constituted in such manner as may be directed " by royal instructions , it existed to advise the Governor and wielded no executive power . The Governor was required to consult the Executive Council on all affairs of importance unless they were too urgent to be laid before it , or if reference to it would prejudice the public service . In such urgent cases , the Governor had to inform the Council of the measures he had taken .
Following the Second World War , the Straits Settlements were disbanded and Singapore became a Crown colony in its own right . The reconstituted Executive Council consisted of six officials and four nominated " unofficials " . In February 1954 , the Rendel Constitutional Commission under the chairmanship of Sir George William Rendel , which had been appointed to comprehensively review the constitution of the Colony of Singapore , rendered its report . Among other things , it recommended that a Council of Ministers be created , composed of three ex officio Official Members and six Elected Members of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Leader of the House , who would be the leader of the largest political party or coalition of parties having majority support in the legislature . The recommendation was implemented in 1955 . In the general election held that year , the Labour Front took a majority of the seats in the Assembly , and David Saul Marshall became the first Chief Minister of Singapore . Major problems with the Rendel Constitution were that the Chief Minister and Ministers ' powers were ill defined , and that the Official Members retained control of the finance , administration , and internal security and law portfolios . This led to confrontation between Marshall , who saw himself as a Prime Minister governing the country , and the Governor , Sir John Fearns Nicoll , who felt that important decisions and policies should remain with himself and the Official Members .
In 1956 , members of the Legislative Assembly held constitutional talks with the Colonial Office in London . The talks broke down as Marshall did not agree to the British Government 's proposal for the casting vote on a proposed Defence Council to be held by the British High Commissioner to Singapore , who would only exercise it in an emergency . Marshall resigned as Chief Minister in June 1956 , and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock . The following year , Lim led another delegation to the UK for further talks on self @-@ government . This time , agreement was reached on the composition of an Internal Security Council . Other constitutional arrangements were swiftly settled in 1958 , and on 1 August the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the State of Singapore Act 1958 , granting the colony full internal self @-@ government . Under Singapore 's new constitution which came into force on 3 June 1959 , the Governor was replaced by the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara ( Head of State ) , who had power to appoint as Prime Minister the person most likely to command the authority of the Legislative Assembly , and other Ministers of the Cabinet on the Prime Minister 's advice . The Constitution also created the post of the British High Commissioner , who was entitled to receive the agenda of each Cabinet meeting and to see all Cabinet papers . In the 1959 general elections , the People 's Action Party ( PAP ) swept to power with 43 out of the 51 seats in the Assembly , and Lee Kuan Yew became the first Prime Minister of Singapore . Nine other Ministers were appointed to the Cabinet .
The British High Commissioner 's role became that of an ambassador following Singapore 's independence from Britain and merger with Malaysia in 1963 . Apart from that , the executive branch of the Singapore Government remained largely unchanged , although now it governed a state within a larger federation . However , with effect from 9 August 1965 , Singapore left the Federation of Malaysia and became a fully independent republic . On separation from Malaysia , the Singapore Government retained the executive authority it held , and took on additional executive authority over Singapore that the Parliament of Malaysia relinquished . The Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong , the Supreme Head of State of Malaysia , also ceased to be the Supreme Head of Singapore and relinquished his sovereignty , jurisdiction , power and authority , executive or otherwise in respect of Singapore , which was revested in the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara of Singapore . The Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965 then vested the executive authority of Singapore in the newly created post of President , and made it exercisable by him or by the Cabinet or by any Minister authorized by the Cabinet .
The PAP has been repeatedly returned to power by voters and has thus formed the Cabinet since Singapore 's 1959 general election . The Government is generally perceived to be competent in managing the country 's economy , and largely free from political corruption . Transparency International 's 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index , which compares countries according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians , ranked Singapore in joint first place with Denmark and New Zealand out of 178 countries . In addition , Singapore was second only to New Zealand in the Asia @-@ Pacific region . On the other hand , the Government has been criticized for using unfair election tactics , such as discouraging voting for opposition parties in the 2006 general election by stating that wards that elect opposition candidates will receive state @-@ subsidized improvements to public housing only after all PAP @-@ held wards have been attended to . It has also been accused of violating freedom of speech through Ministers bringing defamation suits against opposition politicians , and by restricting the circulation of foreign newspapers deemed to have engaged in domestic politics .
= = Composition = =
The Constitution defines the Government of Singapore as the President and the Cabinet of Singapore . The executive authority of Singapore is vested in the President and is exercisable by him or by the Cabinet of Singapore or any Minister authorized by the Cabinet . However , the President normally plays a nominal and largely ceremonial role in the executive branch of government . Although the President acts in his personal discretion in the exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore , he is otherwise required to act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet . It is the Cabinet that has the general direction and control of the Government . As Singapore follows the Westminster system of government , the legislative agenda of Parliament is determined by the Cabinet . At the start of each new Parliamentary session , the President gives an address prepared by the Cabinet that outlines what the Cabinet intends to achieve in the session .
Each parliament lasts for a maximum of five years from the date of its first sitting , and once a parliament has been dissolved a general election must be held within three months . Following a general election , the President appoints as Prime Minister an MP who , in his judgment , is likely to command the confidence of the majority of the MPs . In practice , the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the political party holding the majority of the seats in Parliament . The President also appoints other Ministers from among the MPs , acting in accordance with the Prime Minister 's advice .
= = = Ministries and responsibilities of Ministers = = =
The Prime Minister may , by giving written directions , charge any Minister with responsibility for any department or subject . In practice , this is done by issuing notifications that are published in the Government Gazette . For instance , the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Responsibility of Senior Minister and Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security , Prime Minister 's Office ) Notification 2009 states :
It is hereby notified for general information that , pursuant to Article 30 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore , the Prime Minister has directed that Mr S. Jayakumar shall , with effect from 1st April 2009 , be charged with the responsibility for the following matters :
( a ) national security issues involving or affecting more than one Ministry ;
( b ) Chairmanship of the Security Policy Review Committee ;
( c ) foreign policy issues involving or affecting more than one Ministry ; and
( d ) foreign policy issues which involve legal negotiation or international adjudication ,
and that he shall be designated as Senior Minister and Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security .
Ministers may be designated by the Prime Minister to be in charge of particular ministries , or as Ministers in the Prime Minister 's Office . Such Ministers were formerly known as Ministers without portfolio . The Prime Minister may retain any department or subject in his charge . Some Ministers are appointed as Second Ministers for portfolios other than their own to assist the primary Minister in his or her duties . For instance , with effect from 1 April 2009 during the 11th Parliament , Lim Hwee Hua , who was a Minister in the Prime Minister 's Office , also held the posts of Second Minister for Finance and Second Minister for Transport .
On 31 July 2012 , the Prime Minister announced that , as of 1 November 2012 , the Ministry of Community Development , Youth and Sports ( MCYS ) and the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ( MICA ) would be reorganized into three ministries : the Ministry of Communications and Information ( MCI ) ; the Ministry of Culture , Community and Youth ( MCCY ) ; and the Ministry of Social and Family Development ( MSF ) . Thus , the ministries of the Government as of that date are the following :
Prime Minister 's Office ( PMO )
Ministry of Communications and Information ( MCI )
Ministry of Culture , Community and Youth ( MCCY )
Ministry of Defence ( MINDEF )
Ministry of Education ( MOE )
Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources ( MEWR )
Ministry of Finance ( MOF )
Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( MFA )
Ministry of Health ( MOH )
Ministry of Home Affairs ( MHA )
Ministry of Law ( MinLaw )
Ministry of Manpower ( MOM )
Ministry of National Development ( MND )
Ministry of Social and Family Development ( MSF )
Ministry of Trade and Industry ( MTI )
Ministry of Transport ( MOT )
A ministry is usually composed of a headquarters and a number of departments , boards or other subordinate entities , and statutory boards . For instance , as of May 2007 the Ministry of Law had three departments ( the Chief Information Officer 's Office , Insolvency and Public Trustee 's Office and Legal Aid Bureau ) , three boards and tribunals ( the Appeals Board for Land Acquisitions , Copyright Tribunal and Land Surveyors Board ) , and two statutory boards ( the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore and Singapore Land Authority ) .
The names in bold are the surnames of Chinese persons , and the personal names of Indian and Malay persons ( except for Vivian Balakrishnan and Tharman Shanmugaratnam , where they indicate surnames as well ) .
Sources : Transcript of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong 's Statement at the Press Conference on the new Cabinet Line @-@ Up on 28 September 2015 , Prime Minister 's Office , 29 September 2015 , archived from the original on 29 September 2015 ; Rachel Chang ( 29 September 2015 ) , " PM names Cabinet aimed at leadership succession : Coordinating ministers will help tackle complex matters , mentor younger ministers " , The Straits Times , p . A1 ; Laura Elizabeth Philomin ( 29 September 2015 ) , " Five new faces to become office @-@ holders " , Today , archived from the original on 29 September 2015 .
= = Other aspects of the Government = =
= = = Ministers of State and Parliamentary Secretaries = = =
As in the United Kingdom and in a number of Commonwealth countries , Members of Parliament ( MPs ) may be appointed as Ministers of State to aid Ministers in the performance of their functions . In addition , the Constitution provides that the President , acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister , may appoint Parliamentary Secretaries from among the MPs to assist Ministers in the discharge of their duties and functions . Such office holders are not regarded as members of the Cabinet .
Where in any written law a Minister is empowered to exercise any power or perform any duty , he may , in the absence of any provision of law to the contrary , with the approval of the President and by notification in the Government Gazette , depute any person by name or the person for the time being discharging the duties of an office designated by him to exercise that power or perform that duty on behalf of the Minister subject to such conditions , exceptions and qualifications as the President may determine . For instance , under the Delegation of Powers ( Ministry of Law ) ( Consolidation ) Notification , the Senior Minister of State for Law is deputed to exercise certain powers of the Minister for Law under the Copyright Act , Criminal Procedure Code , Land Acquisition Act , Land Surveyors Act , and Pawnbrokers Act ; while the Parliamentary Secretary for Home Affairs is deputed the powers of the Minister for Home Affairs under regulation 157 of the Prisons Regulations pursuant to the Delegation of Powers ( Ministry of Home Affairs ) ( Consolidation ) Notification .
Template : Fourth Lee Hsien Loong Cabinet / Current Ministers of State and Parliamentary Secretaries
= = = Statutory boards = = =
A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of Parliament and overseen by a government ministry . The Act sets out the purposes , powers and rights of the agency . Unlike ministries and government departments that are subdivisions of ministries , statutory boards may not be staffed by civil servants and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations . They are managed by boards of directors whose members usually include businessmen , professionals , senior civil servants and officials of trade unions . The Agency for Science , Technology and Research ( A * STAR ) , the Central Provident Fund Board ( CPF ) , the Housing and Development Board ( HDB ) , the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore ( IPOS ) , the Land Transport Authority ( LTA ) , the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore ( MPA ) , the National Heritage Board ( NHB ) , and the Urban Redevelopment Authority ( URA ) are all statutory boards .
The National Heritage Board is an example of a typical statutory board . It was established on 1 August 1993 with the enactment of the National Heritage Board Act . Section 3 of the Act states : " There shall be established a body to be known as the National Heritage Board which shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and shall , by that name , be capable of — ( a ) suing and being sued ; ( b ) acquiring , owning , holding , developing and disposing of property , both movable and immovable ; and ( c ) doing and suffering all such acts or things as bodies corporate may lawfully do or suffer . " The functions of the Board are :
to explore and present the heritage and nationhood of the people of Singapore in the context of their ancestral cultures , their links with South @-@ East Asia , Asia and the world through the collection , preservation , interpretation and display of objects and records ;
to promote public awareness , appreciation and understanding of the arts , culture and heritage , both by means of the Board ’ s collections and by such other means as it considers appropriate ;
to promote the establishment and development of organizations concerned with the national heritage of Singapore ;
to provide a permanent repository of records of national or historical significance and to facilitate access thereto ;
to conduct records management programmes for the Government ;
to record , preserve and disseminate the history of Singapore through oral history methodology or other means ; and
to advise the Government in respect of matters relating to the national heritage of Singapore .
The Board is empowered to " do all things necessary or convenient to be done for or in connection with the performance of its functions " . Without prejudice to the generality of that provision , the Board also has power to , for example , develop and manage museums , archives , oral history centres and other facilities related to its functions ; to advise and facilitate the preservation of historic sites ; and to establish liaison with other museums , archives , oral history centres , universities and other institutions to secure maximum collaboration of all activities relevant to its functions .
The Board consists of a Chairman , a Deputy Chairman , and not less than 10 nor more than 25 other members as the Minister for Information , Communications and the Arts may from time to time determine . The members of the Board are appointed by the Minister , and hold office for such term as the Minister may determine unless they resign during their term of office or their appointment is revoked by the Minister . The Minister is not required to provide any reason for revoking the appointment of a board member . The Minister may , in consultation with the Board or otherwise , give the Board directions as he thinks fit that are not inconsistent with the provisions of the Act concerning the exercise and performance by the Board of its functions , and the Board is required to give effect to such directions .
With the approval of the Minister , the Board is required to appoint a chief executive officer who is responsible to the Board for the proper administration and management of the Board 's affairs in accordance with the policy laid down by the Board . The Board is entitled to appoint employees and officers on such terms as to remuneration or otherwise as it may determine , and to engage other persons and pay for their services as it considers necessary for carrying out its functions and duties .
= = = Community Development Councils and Mayors of districts = = =
The People 's Association ( PA ) is a statutory board , the objects of which include the organisation and the promotion of group participation in social , cultural , educational and athletic activities for the people of Singapore in order that they may realize that they belong to a multiracial community , the interests of which transcend sectional loyalties ; and the establishment of institutions for the purpose of leadership training in order to instill in leaders a sense of national identity and a spirit of dedicated service to a multiracial community .
There are five Community Development Councils ( CDCs ) appointed by the board of management of the PA for districts in Singapore , namely , the Central Singapore CDC , North East CDC , North West CDC , South East CDC and South West CDC . The functions of a CDC include fostering community bonding and strengthening social cohesion amongst the people of Singapore ; and advising the PA on matters affecting the well @-@ being of residents in districts , the provision and use of public facilities and services within districts , and the use of public funds allocated to districts for community activities .
Each CDC consists of a Chairman and between 12 and 80 other members . Where the number of residents in a district is not less than 150 @,@ 000 , the PA 's board of management is empowered to designate the Chairman of a CDC to be the Mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for . As it is the practice for MPs to be appointed as Chairmen of CDCs , these MPs have also been designated as Mayors . As of 1 October 2015 , the Mayors are :
The names in bold are the surnames of Chinese persons , and the personal names of Indian and Malay persons .
Even if Mayors are required to vacate their seats in Parliament because Parliament has been dissolved or otherwise , they continue to hold office until their terms of office expire or they are directed to vacate their office by the PA 's board of management .
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= Aries ( album ) =
Aries is the ninth studio album by Mexican recording artist Luis Miguel . It was released by WEA Latina on 22 June 1993 . After attaining success in 1991 with his previous album , Romance , Miguel decided to record an album of original recordings rather than a follow @-@ up to Romance . Aries , which is similar to his earlier work prior to Romance , features pop ballads and dance numbers with R & B influences . The record was produced by Miguel , who was assisted by Kiko Cibrian , Rudy Pérez , David Foster , and Juan Luis Guerra .
Three singles were released to promote the album . Its first two singles , " Ayer " and " Hasta Que Me Olvides " , topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart while " Suave " peaked at number nine on the chart . " Hasta el Fin " and " Tu y Yo " both peaked at number four on the Hot Latin Songs chart , and " Pensar en Ti " received airplay in Mexico . To further promote the record , Miguel launched the 1993 Aries Tour to some Latin American countries and the United States .
Aries peaked at number one on the US Billboard Latin Pop Albums , where it stayed for 19 weeks . Internationally , the album was certified triple platinum in Mexico , where it sold over one million copies . It was also certified diamond in Argentina . Aries has sold over two million copies worldwide as of 2000 . Upon its release , the album received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from music critics ; they were divided on the dance tunes and ballads , although Miguel 's vocals and the album 's arrangements garnered positive reactions . Miguel received several accolades , including a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1991 Miguel released his eighth studio album , Romance , a collection of classic boleros , the oldest of which originated in the 1940s . The album , which was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , was a success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide . It revived interest in the bolero genre and was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil , Taiwan , and the United States . In spite of Romance 's success , Miguel did not want to release an immediate follow @-@ up to the album . When asked why he chose not to record more boleros , he replied " I wanted to try my music , just forgetting a little bit about those boleros that everyone knows " . He began working with the composers for the album a year before recording in a studio in 1992 ; in Miguel 's words , he wanted to " discuss the works , the themes , and melodies ; ... The creation of an album has to part of me or else I would not be able to interpret it , or in it " .
On 24 August 1992 , Mexican newspaper El Siglo de Torreón reported that Miguel had begun collaborating with David Foster and Juan Carlos Calderón for their compositions , along with English @-@ speaking composers , and selecting cover versions for the album . He also received assistance from Cuban composer Rudy Pérez and Dominican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Luis Guerra with the songwriting . Recording began on 4 July 1992 . Miguel had difficulty finding a suitable producer for the record ; he initially worked with American audio engineer Bruce Swedien , but decided to re @-@ record the whole album after disagreements with Swedien 's direction . Unable to find a producer , he decided to co @-@ produce the album with his long @-@ time associate Kiko Cibrian . Recording the album took almost a year and was affected by several complications , including its high budget of over US $ 1 @.@ 5 million , his father 's death , and an appendectomy . Miguel announced the name of the album would be Aries during a presentation at the 1993 Festival Acapulco . About the naming of the album he said , " This album expresses my personal self . I had a lot to do . I produced everything and wanted to have a lot of fun , take what I like , and what better than the zodiacal sign representing what one is . "
= = Composition = =
Aries is composed of ten tracks , six of which are " romance @-@ themed " ballads . The rest of the album consists of four dance numbers which San Antonio Express @-@ News editor Ramiro Burr describes as " pop groove " and R & B influences , and compared them to Miguel 's earlier recordings before Romance . Miguel said the mixture of ballads and uptempo music was done to " keep a steady musical line " because he did not want his music to be unrecognizable . The dance tunes " Suave " , " Dame Tu Amor " , and " Que Nivel de Mujer " are " upbeat , brass @-@ heavy , attitudinal numbers " while " Luz Verde " incorporates Latin hip hop and R & B. " Suave " features a saxophone solo with American musician Kirk Whalum and " Que Nivel de Mujer " is a Spanish @-@ language adaptation of " Attitude Dance " by American band Tower of Power . The band members assisted with the horn section in the song , which was led by one of its lead members Emilio Castillo . Miguel said he included the band 's song on the album because of his fondness for R & B in the 1970s , citing the group as one of his musical influences .
" Ayer " is a Spanish @-@ language cover of David Foster 's instrumental " All That My Heart Can Hold " with additional lyrics by Rudy Pérez . Burr characterized the song as a " lush ballad sung by Miguel in his stylistic romantic swagger that simultaneously conveys pride and pain " . Similarly , John Lannert wrote for the Sun @-@ Sentinel that the track was comparable to Romance 's " sparse lyrical muse and smooth musical backdrop " . Lannert also called Juan Luis Guerra 's composition " Hasta Que Me Olvides " an " emotion @-@ drenched love ode " and referred " Me Niego Estar Solo " and " Hasta El Fin " as " desperate confessionals about being out of love " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune labeled the ballads " Hasta El Fin " and " Tu y Yo " as " luxuriantly slow narratives of love lost " .
= = Singles and promotion = =
" Ayer " was released as the lead single from Aries on 17 May 1993 . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States the week of 17 July 1993 , and stayed there for three weeks . The three music videos for " Ayer " were directed by Benny Corral , Rubén Galindo , and Gustavo Garzón respectively . The music videos were filmed in a mansion in Mexico City . " Ayer " ended 1993 as the sixth @-@ best @-@ performing Latin song of the year in the United States . The album 's second single , " Hasta Que Me Olvides " , was released in August 1993 and reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart the week of October 23 , and remained there for three weeks . The album 's third single , " Suave " , was released in September 1993 and peaked at number nine on the Hot Latin Songs chart ; its music video was directed by Kiko Guerrero and features Miguel dancing with several women on a beach . In the United States , " Hasta el Fin " and " Tu y Yo " both peaked at number four on the Hot Latin Songs chart . " Pensar en Ti " received airplay in Mexico .
To promote the album , Miguel began his Aries Tour on May 22 at the 1993 Acapulco Festival in Mexico . After his performances in Mexico , he toured several countries in Latin America beginning with Argentina and later performed in the United States . His set list consisted mainly of pop songs and ballads from Aries and his earlier career , as well as boleros from Romance , which he performed during the second half of the concerts .
= = Commercial reception = =
Aries was released internationally on 22 June 1993 . However , pirated cassettes of the album were being sold for $ 1 in Mexico ten days before Aries was officially released . WEA Latina prepared 500 @,@ 000 copies to be distributed on release date , but after finding legitimate copies of the compact disc were already being sold on the pirate market , they recounted the copies stored in their warehouse and found only 300 @,@ 000 units . WEA Latina responded to the piracy by having a Mexican radio station play the whole album a few days before its release . In Mexico , the album was certified triple platinum and has sold over one million copies in the country . In the United States , it debuted and peaked at the number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart ; it was held off the number one position by Gloria Estefan 's album Mi Tierra . Aries remained at this position until it was replaced by the Gipsy Kings 's album Love and Liberté 20 weeks later .
Aries peaked at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and stayed at the top for 19 weeks . Aries ended 1993 as the second best @-@ selling Latin pop album in the United States after Romance . In Argentina , the album peaked at number two on the album chart and was certified diamond by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers for sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere in South America , the album peaked at number one on the Chilean albums chart and was certified platinum in Colombia . Aries has sold over two million copies worldwide as of 2000 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Aries received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reactions from music critics . AllMusic editor Jose F. Promis gave the album 2 @.@ 5 stars out of five who found the ballads to be " sometimes a little too syrupy " . He complimented some of the dance tunes such as " Suave " and " Dame Tu Amor " , but said " Luz Verde " was a " somewhat dated attempt at early- ' 90s Latin hip @-@ hop R & B " . An editor for Billboard magazine wrote a favorable review of Aries , stating that Miguel " trades in nostalgic boleros for a stylish , up @-@ to @-@ date package " and called " Ayer " a " perfect transition track from Romance " . Chicago Tribune editor Achy Obejas gave the record 2 @.@ 5 stars out of four , calling it " a kind of middle ground between Romance and its lush ballads , and the bouncy pop of 20 Años , its immediate antecedent " . She praised Miguel 's vocals as " wonderfully nuanced and dramatic " , and said the ballads mostly " work " , but that " the uptempo tunes fall flat most of the time " . Enrique Lopetegui of the Los Angeles Times gave the album three stars out of four ; he lauded Miguel 's inclusion of " healthy elements of jazz and funk into his polished sound " and said he " returns to familiar territory accompanied by his usual superb arrangements and musicianship " .
At the 36th Annual Grammy Awards in 1994 , Miguel won the Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album for Aries . At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards in the same year , the album won the award for Pop Album of the Year and Miguel was named Pop Male Artist of the Year . He also received two nominations in the category of Pop Song of the Year for " Hasta Que Me Olvides " and " Ayer " ; the latter track was also nominated Video of the Year . At the inaugural Billboard Latin Music Awards in 1994 , Miguel received two awards including Pop Album of the Year and Pop Male Artist of the Year . Miguel was awarded Best Male Singer , Best Male Show for the tour , and Best Disc for the album at the 1994 Eres awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Treehouse of Horror ( series ) =
The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episodes , also known as The Simpsons Halloween specials , is a series of Halloween specials in the animated series The Simpsons , each consisting of three separate , self @-@ contained segments . These segments usually involve the Simpson family in some horror , science fiction , or supernatural setting . They take place outside the show 's normal continuity and completely abandon any pretense of being realistic . The first , entitled " Treehouse of Horror " , aired on October 25 , 1990 , as part of the second season and was inspired by EC Comics horror tales . The episodes are known for being far more violent and much darker than an average Simpsons episode . As of 2015 , there are 26 Treehouse of Horror episodes , with one airing every year .
Episodes contain several trademarks , including the alien characters Kang and Kodos , " scary names " in the credits , a special version of the opening sequence , and parodies of horror , science fiction and fantasy films . The show 's staff regard the Treehouse of Horror as being particularly difficult to produce , as the scripts often go through many rewrites , and the animators typically have to design new characters and backgrounds .
Many of the episodes are popular among fans and critics of the show and have inspired a whole offshoot of Simpsons merchandise , including action figures , playsets , video games , books , DVDs , comic books and a special version of Monopoly . Several of the episodes have won awards for animation and sound editing . In 1996 and 2013 , " Treehouse of Horror VI " and " Treehouse of Horror XXIII " were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) " category .
= = Segments = =
Treehouse of Horror episodes typically consist of four parts : an opening and Halloween @-@ themed version of the credits , followed by three segments . These segments usually have a horror , science fiction or fantasy theme and quite often are parodies of films , novels , plays , television shows , Twilight Zone episodes , or old issues of EC Comics . Although they are sometimes connected by " wraparounds " , the three segments rarely have any kind of continuing connection within the episode . The exception is " Treehouse of Horror V " , in which Groundskeeper Willie is killed by an axe in a similar fashion in all three segments . The episodes are considered to be non @-@ canon and always take place outside the normal continuity of the show .
From " Treehouse of Horror " to " Treehouse of Horror XIII " , all three segments were written by different writers . In some cases there was a fourth writer who wrote the opening and wraparound segments . For the original " Treehouse of Horror " , there were three different directors for the episode . Starting with season 15 's " Treehouse of Horror XIV " , however , only one writer has been credited with writing each Treehouse of Horror episode .
On occasion , the episodes will be used to showcase special animation , such as the " Treehouse of Horror VI " segment " Homer3 " , in which a computer @-@ animated Homer is shown in a non @-@ animated setting . At the time ( 1995 ) , it was groundbreaking , as it was unusual for a television show to use such animation . The segment was executive producer Bill Oakley 's idea and included live action directed by David Mirkin . " Treehouse of Horror XX " included the segment " There 's No Business Like Moe Business " , which was the first to be musically @-@ themed .
= = Traditions = =
= = = Opening sequence = = =
Every Treehouse of Horror episode opens with a special introductory segment . The first , second and fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes open with Marge standing on a stage and warning parents about the content of the episode , advising them to put their children to bed . The warning in the first episode was put in as a sincere effort to warn young viewers , as the producers felt it was somewhat scary . The entire segment was a parody of the opening of the 1931 film Frankenstein . Marge 's warnings quickly became a burden to write . After " Treehouse of Horror V " , they were permanently dropped and the writers did not make any attempts at reviving them .
Other Treehouse of Horror episodes have opened with parodies ; for example , " Treehouse of Horror III " had Homer introduce the episode in a manner similar to Alfred Hitchcock in Alfred Hitchcock Presents , " Treehouse of Horror IV " had Bart introduce the episode and segments in a manner similar to Night Gallery , and " Treehouse of Horror V " featured a parody of The Outer Limits . The sixth and seventh episodes featured short clips with no lines because the episodes had run long and longer segments were cut . Following " Treehouse of Horror VII " , the opening has been upwards of a minute long and sometimes featured an introduction by a character , such as Mr. Burns in " Treehouse of Horror XVII " or included over @-@ the @-@ top violence , such as " Treehouse of Horror VIII " ( which showed a Fox Network censor being brutally murdered ) and " Treehouse of Horror XIV " ( which showed the Simpson family killing each other ) .
In the opening segment of the first five episodes , the camera zooms through a cemetery where tombstones with humorous epitaphs can be seen . These messages include the names of canceled shows from the previous season , deceased celebrities such as Walt Disney and Jim Morrison and a tombstone with an inscription that read " TV violence " that was riddled with bullets as the camera panned on it . They were last used in " Treehouse of Horror V " , which included a solitary tombstone with the words " Amusing Tombstones " to signal this . The tombstone gags were easy for the writers in the first episode , but like Marge 's warnings , they eventually got more difficult to write , so they were abandoned . Another reason they were dropped was that the tombstones would list television shows that had been canceled the previous season ; after a few years , several of the shows that were canceled were produced by former Simpsons writers .
While the early Treehouse of Horror episodes featured a Halloween themed opening sequence , the later ones only included the title and the " created by " and " developed by " credits . Every episode between " Treehouse of Horror II " and " Treehouse of Horror X " featured a couch gag with a Halloween theme , including the Simpson family dressed as skeletons , zombies and characters from previous Halloween episodes .
= = = Wraparounds = = =
The first four Treehouse of Horror episodes had brief wraparounds that occurred before each segment and loosely tied together all three stories . " Treehouse of Horror " was the only one that actually included a treehouse as a setting . In that episode , Bart and Lisa sat in it telling stories to each other . " Treehouse of Horror II " presented all of the segments as being nightmares of Lisa , Bart and Homer ; " Treehouse of Horror III " had Lisa , Bart and Grampa telling stories at a Halloween party ; and " Treehouse of Horror IV " is presented by Bart in a parody of Rod Serling 's Night Gallery . After a few years , the amount of broadcast time for an episode was shortened , allowing less time to tell a proper story . There were no wraparounds for " Treehouse of Horror V " because they had been cut to make more time for the segments . Following that , the writers permanently dropped them .
= = = Kang and Kodos = = =
Two characters that are virtually exclusive to the Treehouse of Horror series are Kang and Kodos , a pair of large green space aliens who were introduced in the " Hungry are the Damned " segment of " Treehouse of Horror " . Kang and Kodos have since appeared in every Treehouse of Horror episode , sometimes as important parts of a story , but often just for brief cameos . In some episodes , they only appear in the opening segment , but often they will make a cameo appearance in the middle of a different story . For example , a story about zombies attacking the town briefly cuts to them in their space ship , watching the events and laughing maniacally at the Earthlings ' suffering . The action then switches back to the actual story . The unofficial rule is that they must be in every episode , although quite often they will be forgotten and are added at the last moment , resulting in only a brief appearance . Their scene in " Treehouse of Horror VIII " nearly did not make the final cut of the episode , but David X. Cohen managed to persuade the producers to leave the scene in .
= = = Scary names = = =
Beginning with " Treehouse of Horror II " , the producers decided to give the cast and crew of the show " scary names " in the opening and closing credits . Although the names quickly became more silly than scary , there have been a wide variety of special credits , from simple names like " Bat Groening " to complex ones like " David ² + S. ² = Cohen ² " . Sam Simon , who left the show during the fourth season but still receives " developed by " and " executive producer " credits , has ever since been listed in Treehouse of Horror episodes as " Sam ' Sayonara ' Simon " . Since his death in 2015 he has been credited simply by his real name .
The idea for " scary names " came from executive producer Al Jean , who was inspired by EC Comics because some of the issues also used " scary " alternate names . The " scary names " became such a burden to write that they were cut for " Treehouse of Horror XII " and " Treehouse of Horror XIII " , but after hearing complaints from the fans , Jean decided to bring them back . Matt Groening 's rule for the " scary names " is that they cannot be longer than a person 's real name , but this is rarely followed by anyone else .
= = = Cultural references = = =
References to films , novels , plays , television shows and other media are commonly featured , and many segments have been parodies of a specific work in the horror , science fiction or fantasy genre . Many segments are spoofs of episodes of The Twilight Zone and entire segments will be based on a single episode . Some of the Twilight Zone episodes parodied include " A Kind of a Stopwatch " , " To Serve Man " , " A Small Talent for War " , " Living Doll " , " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , " Little Girl Lost " , and " The Little People " . The " Bart 's Nightmare " segment of " Treehouse of Horror II " parodies the episode " It 's a Good Life " and is even presented in a format similar to an episode of The Twilight Zone . The Halloween episodes also regularly parody horror and thriller films such as The Exorcist , The Amityville Horror , King Kong , Night of the Living Dead , The Shining , A Nightmare on Elm Street , The Fly , Psycho , Paranormal Activity , and Dead Calm . Robert Englund , who portrays Freddy Krueger in the Nightmare on Elmstreet franchise , had a cameo appearance in " Treehouse of Horror IX " as the character . Science fiction films have also occasionally been used as inspiration for segments , and in later episodes many of the segments were based more on science fiction than horror . Science fiction works parodied include The Omega Man , the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial and Orson Welles 's The War of the Worlds radio broadcast . In " Treehouse of Horror " , Edgar Allan Poe 's poem " The Raven " is read by James Earl Jones while the parts are acted by various characters . Recent parodies have included films and television specials in more varied genres , including Mr. & Mrs. Smith , It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown , Transformers , Sweeney Todd , the Twilight film series , and Jumanji .
= = Production = =
The first Treehouse of Horror episode aired in 1990 as part of the second season , and its on @-@ screen title was " The Simpsons Halloween Special . " It was inspired by EC Comics Horror tales . Although every episode is entitled " Treehouse of Horror " , the first one was the only episode that actually used the treehouse motif . During production of the first episode , Matt Groening was nervous about " The Raven " segment , and felt it would be " the worst , most pretentious thing [ they had ] ever done . "
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are difficult for both the writers and the animators . The episodes were originally written at the beginning of the production run , but in later seasons they were written at the end and aired at the beginning of the next season as holdovers , giving the animators more time to work . Part of the difficulty for the animators is that the episodes always involve many complex backgrounds , new characters , and new designs . They are difficult for the writers because they must produce three stories , an opening and , in the early episodes , a wraparound . They would have to try to fit all of this into a 20 – 22 minute episode . The episodes often go through many last minute changes , with rewrites requiring new lines to be recorded . " Treehouse of Horror III " in particular underwent somewhere between 80 and 100 line changes in the six @-@ week period between the arrival of the animation from Korea and the airing of the episode . By the fourth season , executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss were less enamored of Treehouse of Horror episodes and considered dropping them , but the other writers insisted that they be kept .
Part of the attraction for the writers is that they are able to break the rules and include violence that would not make a regular episode . In some cases , the writers will have an idea that is too violent and far @-@ fetched or too short for a normal episode , but can be used as a segment in the seasonal special . Several of the writers , former executive producer David Mirkin among them , believe that the episodes should be scary and not just funny . " Treehouse of Horror V " has been described by Mirkin as being one of " the most intense , disturbing Halloween show ever " as it was filled with violence and gore in response to new censorship rules . Earlier " Treehouse of Horror " episodes began with Marge issuing a disclaimer that " if you have sensitive children , maybe you should tuck them into bed early tonight instead of writing us angry letters tomorrow . " However , these episodes seem mild compared to the carnage that followed in later episodes , according to Jean , who calls it " a societal thing " . He points out that his 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter loves films like Coraline , and that , " [ in ] the age of scary stories [ ... ] appropriateness has gotten lower . "
Although gruesome for the most part , some segments , such as " Citizen Kang " in " Treehouse of Horror VII " , satirize political issues . The opening segment of " Treehouse of Horror XIX " featured Homer attempting to vote for Barack Obama but a rigged electronic voting machine instead registers a vote for John McCain . Rather than taking sides in the election , Al Jean says it is " mostly a comment on what many people to believe to be the irregularities in our voting system . [ sic ] " In " Treehouse of Horror XVII " , a segment called " The Day the Earth Looked Stupid " ends with Kang and Kodos taking over Springfield as part of a mission called " Operation : Enduring occupation " . The script originally called for Kodos and Kang to look over the smoking ruins of Springfield and say " This sure is a lot like Iraq will be . " The Fox network did not have any objection to the line , but it was rejected by some of the writers as too obvious and was cut from broadcast . While cut from the aired version , the line does appear in the " review " version sent to newspapers and magazines .
The first " Treehouse of Horror " episode was the first time that an alternate version of the theme that airs over the end credits was used . Originally it was supposed to use a theremin , but one could not be found that could hit all the necessary notes . Usually when the producers submit an episode for the Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " , they submit a Treehouse of Horror episode , and to date , seven episodes have been nominated . The closing of " Treehouse of Horror IV " features a version of the theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpiscord and clicking from the Addams Family theme song .
Although Treehouse of Horror episodes are Halloween @-@ themed , for several years new episodes have premiered in November . This is due to Fox 's current contract with Major League Baseball 's World Series . Season 12 's " Treehouse of Horror XI " was the first episode to air in November . There have been several references to this in the show , such as in " Treehouse of Horror XIV " where Kang looks at a TV Guide and says , " Pathetic humans . They 're showing a Halloween episode ... in November ! " and Kodos replies " Who 's still thinking about Halloween ? We 've already got our Christmas decoration up . " The camera then cuts to a shot of the fireplace with Christmas decorations , and festive Christmas music plays over the opening credits . Season 21 's " Treehouse of Horror XX " aired October 18 , before the World Series , but the following year 's episode , " Treehouse of Horror XXI " , aired in November . Season 23 's " Treehouse of Horror XXII aired on October 30 , however , as the World Series ( which went the maximum of seven games ) had concluded on October 28 . As of 2011 each Treehouse of Horror episode has aired in the month of October .
= = Merchandise = =
There has been a variety of merchandise based on the Treehouse of Horror episodes , including books , action figures , comic books , video games , DVDs and a " Treehouse of Horror " version of Hasbro 's board game Monopoly . Although every Treehouse of Horror episode until " Treehouse of Horror XVI " has been released along with its season in a boxset , in 2003 , The Simpsons : Treehouse of Horror DVD was released . It includes Treehouse of Horrors V , VI , VII and XII . A Treehouse of Horror comic book has been published annually since 1995 , and collected into several books , including The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Fun @-@ Filled Frightfest , Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror Spine @-@ Tingling Spooktacular , Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror Heebie @-@ Jeebie Hullabaloo and The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Hoodoo Voodoo Brouhaha . Several video games based on The Simpsons include levels with a Halloween theme , including The Simpsons : Hit & Run and The Simpsons Game . In 2001 , Fox Interactive and THQ released The Simpsons : Night of the Living Treehouse of Horror on Game Boy Color . The entire game has a Halloween theme as the player tries to save the Simpson family from the Treehouse of Horror .
Many of the special character designs featured in the episodes have become action figures . Four different playsets have been made by Playmates Toys and released as Toys " R " Us exclusives . The sets are :
The " Treehouse of Horror I " set was released in 2000 and included a cemetery playset as well as " Devil Flanders " , " Bart the Fly " , " Vampire Burns " , and " King Homer " . It also came with an " Evil Krusty Doll " and Gremlin as accessories .
The " Treehouse of Horror 2 " set was released in 2001 and included an interior alien spaceship playset as well as Kang , Kodos and " Alien Ship Homer " . The entire set was based on " Treehouse of Horror " .
The " Treehouse of Horror 3 " set was released in 2002 and included a playset based on the " Ironic Punishment Division " of Hell in " Treehouse of Horror IV " . It came with " Donuthead Homer " , " Witch Marge " , Hugo Simpson and " Dream Invader Willie " .
The final " Treehouse of Horror 4 " set was released in 2003 and included a playset based on Comic Book Guy 's " Collector 's all @-@ plastic lair " . It came with " The Collector " , " Clobber Girl Lisa " , " Stretch Dude Bart " and Lucy Lawless . All the designs were based on " Treehouse of Horror X " .
After the Playmates Toys sets were finished , McFarlane Toys produced four Treehouse of Horror themed playsets including the " Ironic Punishment Box Set " released in 2004 , the " In the Belly of the Boss — Homer & Marge Action Figures " released in 2005 , " The Island of Dr. Hibbert Box Set " released in 2006 , and a " Lard Lad Box Set " released in 2007 .
= = Reception = =
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are often among the top @-@ rated episodes of their seasons and many of the Treehouse of Horrors have generally been well @-@ received by fans . However , like The Simpsons itself , critics have noted a decline in the quality of the later episodes . In its first airing , " Treehouse of Horror " finished with a 15 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and a 25 % audience share and would lose to The Cosby Show . It was said that it " set a level of excellence that viewers never expected creator Matt Groening to repeat " , although it was also described as " kind of stupid and unsatisfying " . " Treehouse of Horror V " is considered the best episode by several critics : it finished ninth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list , fifth on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , and was named best episode of the sixth season by IGN.com. In 2006 , James Earl Jones , who guest starred in " Treehouse of Horror " and " Treehouse of Horror V " was named seventh on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list .
In 2006 , IGN.com published a list of the top ten Treehouse of Horror segments , and they placed " The Shinning " from " Treehouse of Horror V " at the top , saying it was " not only a standout installment of the annual Halloween episode , but of The Simpsons , period . " Rounding out the list were " Dial " Z " for Zombies " , " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , " Time and Punishment " , " Hungry Are the Damned " , " Clown Without Pity " , " Citizen Kang " , " If I Only Had a Brain " , " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " and " Starship Poopers " . The third , fourth and fifth episodes were each represented by two segments . The most recent episode on the list was " Treehouse of Horror IX " , which first aired in 1998 .
" Treehouse of Horror VII " is Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's seventh favorite episode , and the line he likes best is " We have reached the limit of what rectal probing can teach us . " " King Homer " of " Treehouse of Horror III " is one of Matt Groening 's favorite segments . " Treehouse of Horror III " is also noted for the moment where Homer shoots Ned Flanders and Bart says " Dad , you killed the Zombie Flanders ! " only for Homer to reply , " He was a zombie ? " It is also one of Groening 's favorite lines .
= = = Awards = = =
In 1996 , the " Homer ³ " segment of " Treehouse of Horror VI " was awarded the Ottawa International Animation Festival grand prize . In 1998 , " Treehouse of Horror VIII " won a Golden Reel Award for " Best Sound Editing – Television Animated Specials " ; the recipients were Robert Mackston , Travis Powers , Norm MacLeod and Terry Greene . Bob Beecher also received a nomination for " Best Sound Editing in Television Animation – Music " for " Treehouse of Horror X " .
The second , third , fifth , eighth , ninth , fourteenth and fifteenth and eighteenth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " at the Primetime Emmy Awards . The second and third " Treehouse of Horror " episodes were also nominated for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " . In 1996 , " Treehouse of Horror VI " was submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) " category because it had a 3D animation sequence , which the staff felt would have given it the edge . The episode failed to win and Bill Oakley later expressed regret about submitting the episode . The twenty @-@ third and twenty @-@ fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for the same award in 2013 and 2015 respectively .
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= Coast Veddas =
The Coast Veddas or Vedar , by self @-@ designation , form a social group within the minority Sri Lankan Tamil ethnic group of the Eastern province of Sri Lanka . They are primarily found in small coastal villages from the eastern township of Trincomalee to Batticalao . Nevertheless , they also inhabit a few villages south of Batticalao as well . They make a living by fishing , slash and burn agriculture , paddy cultivation of rice , basket weaving for market and occasional wage labor . Anthropologists consider them to be partly descended from the indigenous Vedda people , as well as local Tamils . Residents of the Eastern province consider their Vedar ( Tamil for " hunter " ) neighbors to have been part of the local social structure from earliest times , whereas some Vedar elders believe that their ancestors may have migrated from the interior at some time in the past .
They speak a dialect of Sri Lankan Tamil that is used in the region . During religious festivals , people who enter a trance or spirit possession sometimes use a mixed language that contains words from the Vedda language . Most Vedar are Hindu Saivites and worship a plethora of folk deities , as well as the main Hindu deities such as Murugan , Pillaiyar and Amman . They also maintain the ancestor worship tradition of the interior Veddas . Clan divisions , if they still exist , do not play an important role in choosing of marriage partners or place of domicile . Most identify themselves as a caste among the Tamils as opposed to a separate ethnic group . Their economic conditions have been impacted by the Sri Lankan civil war .
= = Identity = =
Western observers such as James Emerson Tennent ( 1858 ) and Charles Gabriel Seligman ( 1911 ) have termed the social group Coast Veddahs , Coast Verdas or East Coast Veddas . Anthropologists have considered them to be at least partly descended from the Veddas of the interior of the island who had migrated at some unknown period in the past to the east coast , intermarrying with the local Tamils . Interior Veddas clans themselves have a number of divisions , each claiming either Sinhalese , Tamil , mixed , or pure Vedda lineages . Vedda identity also depends on whether these clans are hunter @-@ gatherers or settled agriculturalists . Settled Veddas have tended over a period of time to assume Sinhalese or Tamil identity based on the area of residence . If considered a subdivision of Veddas , then they are by far the largest sub @-@ group amongst the Vedda people . Residents of Eastern Province consider those who maintain a primitive life style , or are partly dependent on hunting and gathering , as Vedar without any connotations of ethnic origins .
Vedar are not designated as an indigenous community of Sri Lanka . They are placed within the Sri Lankan caste system . Vedar sometimes refer to themselves as " Veda Vellalar " , thus claiming a high caste ranking ( the Vellalar are given the highest ritual position within the caste structure of Sri Lankan Tamils in many regions ) . They also claim to marry into the higher castes of the neighboring region , such as Karaiyar . But some higher ranked castes did not consider Vedar quite their equals , although still placing them above the lower castes . Members of the Karaiyar caste sometimes downplayed their connections to Vedar as there was stigma attached to such unions . Field studies have indicated that mixed marriages across all caste groups of the eastern littoral was possible with Vedar . Vedar themselves claimed that they would not marry into lower Tamil castes such as Ambattar ( barbers ) , Vannar ( washerman ) and Pallar ( agricultural workers ) , but field studies indicated that such unions did sometimes take place .
Once a non @-@ Vedar married into a Vedar family , he or she was assimilated as part of the Vedar village . Almost all Vedar families had an ancestor who was Tamil or a family member who was married to a Tamil from a neighboring village .
Some Vedar have gradually lost most aspects of their aboriginal identity and culture and no longer identify themselves as Vedar . During the 1980s and 1990s , most Vedar families were displaced from their native villages due to the effects of the Sri Lankan civil war and were placed in refugee camps along with other Tamil refugees .
= = History = =
Ancestors of Vedar migrated to Sri Lanka via the Indian sub continent during the pre @-@ historic period . A number of Mesolithic sites have been excavated containing human remains dated to 35 @,@ 000 BCE . Anthropologists consider these skeletal remains to belong to a group ancestral to some of the surviving Vedar groups . Sri Lanka has also yielded Megalithic burial sites , one of which was excavated close to a present Vedar settlement , Kathiraveli . The precise time in which some of the Vedar lineage founders migrated to the east coast of Sri Lanka is unknown . The earliest written reference to Vedar is a Tamil chronicle , Nadukadu paraveni kalvettu , which is maintained amongst the custodians of a prominent Hindu temple in the town of Tirukovil in the Ampara District . It is a Tamil 14th to 16th @-@ century original text . The chronicle documents the presence of a people who practiced hunting and gathering for survival , exercising jurisdiction over vast jungle tracts close to the Akkaraipattu township . It names a number of Vedar chiefs , such as Kadariyan and Puliyan . These Vedars were not just hunter @-@ gatherers , but were also accepted as the rightful owners of the forest lands .
Emerson ( 1858 ) documented the presence of Vedar north of Eravur who subsisted by fishing or helping the traditional fisherfolk , as well by cutting wood for Muslim traders . He speculated that there were then at least 400 to 500 individuals in the group . He also recorded that it was the British colonial officers , as well as Weslyan missionaries who provided land for them to start cultivating yams and other vegetables .
Neville ( 1890 ) and Seligman ( 1911 ) also documented the presence of a subdivision of Vedar called Kovil Vanam ( " Temple precincts " in Tamil ) within the southern edges of the Batticalo District ; their name suggests they had originally lived in the jungles close to the Kataragama temple in the Hambantota District in the Southern Province . By the early 1900s these Vedar had mingled with the local Tamils and Sinhalese and were not encountered as a separate group any more . Local legends attribute the origins of some Hindu temples in the eastern province to the presence of Vedar . Important Hindu temples in villages such as Kokkadichcholai and Mandur have such Vedar creation legends . But Vedar are no longer associated with either the ownership or maintenance of these regionally important temples .
= = Culture = =
= = = Clans and family organization = = =
Clans of the interior Veddas
Interior Veddas have clans called Waruge or Variga that were named after trees , animals or places of origin . Seligman speculated that these clans were territorial , thus hunting territory was divided amongst the clan , not to be violated by members of other clans . These clans were :
Morana ( after Mora tree )
Unapana ( Water )
Namudana ( Namuda tree )
Ura ( Wild boar )
Ambilo ( Ant )
Tala ( Plains )
Rugam ( Village name )
Kovil Vannam ( Temple precincts )
Among these , the Morana and Unapana clans claimed superior status to Namudana , Ambilo and Ura clans . Seligman reported that Morana and Unapana clans considered the other three as their servile groups , a classification strongly denied by the others . This also led to so @-@ called servile groups denying such clan association when questioned and claiming Morana or Unapana clan origins .
Retention of Clan system amongst Vedar
When Seligman inquired about the Waruge divisions of the Vedar , most of them did not remember their clan origins . Of those who remembered , most self @-@ identified as Ura Waruge . Others mentioned clans such as Ogatam , Kavatam , Umatam , Aembalaneduwe and Aembale . They also had memories of other clans such as Morana and Unapana . By the 1980s the Vedar had no knowledge of any word Waruge , although they vaguely used the Tamil term Vamisam ( family origin ) to indicate some division amongst them . Some had come up with a two @-@ fold division of the Vedars based on the Kuti or matrilineal descent system popular in the East coast . These Kutis were supposed to have descended from former local chiefs called Vanniyar , who had ruled feudal divisions called Vannimai . But these clan divisions and related rules of endogamy were not totally followed by all Vedar , and there no practical prohibitions from marrying from each Kuti .
As with local Tamils , the preferred marriage pattern is based on cross cousin preference . Parallel cousins are considered brothers and sisters and are ineligible as partners . As most marriages take place between first and second cousins , clan endogamy even it is present is of no value . Within a village , most of the residents are related and this carries on over to villages that are three to five miles away as well . The longer the distance the more distantly are the villagers related to each other . Related lineages also maintain places of worship that are the private property of the family group .
= = = Religion = = =
Vedar are nominally Hindus ; they were known to wear the marks of Saivite Hinduism such as Vibuthi ( " sacred ash " ) on their forehead even in the 19th century . According to local legends , Vedars are considered to be the builders of most of the regional Hindu temples associated with Hindu high god Murugan . Although Vedars frequent regionally important Hindu temples and shrines associated with high Hindu deities such as Murugan , Pillaiyar and Siva , they propitiate local deities of folk Hinduism , who are sometimes unique to Veddars . Most of the folk deities are also commonly propitiated by other local Tamils such as Vairavar , Virapathirar , Kali and Narasingan . Seligman ( 1911 ) encountered two unique deities , Kapalpei ( “ Ship spirit ” ) and Kumara Deivam ( “ Young god ” ) who are peculiar to Vedar . The cult of Kappalpei is based on legends of foreigners coming over by ships and landing along the coast where the Vedar usually lived . They are propitiated to ward off evils and hard times . Kumara Deivam was also noted amongst the primitive Sinhalese village of Gonagolla in the Ampara District known as Kumara Devio . Jon Dart in the 1980s found that these deities were no longer worshipped , but were replaced by the Periyasami cult .
The worship pattern is a combination of Devil @-@ dancing called Sandangu ( " ceremony " in Tamil ) and orthodox Hindu Agamic rituals . The devil @-@ dancing is unique to Vedar , but the aspect of spirit possession as a part of devil dancing is not unique to Vedar . Locals Tamils also experience spirit procession and trance states during religious festivals . During devil @-@ dancing ceremonies , related family groups congregate in family @-@ owned worship centers and build platforms known as Pandals . These Pandals may have a weapon , such a lance known as a Vel , installed in their middle , a construction similar to the Kirikoroha function of the interior Veddas as well . Male family members dance throughout the night and as part of the ceremony some become possessed by spirits , sometimes those of their recently diseased family members . This pattern is similar in nature to the ancestor @-@ worshipping patterns of the interior Veddas . Most of the Sadangu locations are temporary ones without related permanent structures over them , but some have been turned into temples . In the village of Palchennai , one of these temporary structures has become a temple now identified with Hindu high god Vishnu . Vedars also participate in Tamil folk dramas called Kuttus that depict scenes from Hindu epics such as Mahabharatha and Ramayana .
= = = Language = = =
Vedar use the Sri Lankan Tamil dialect peculiar to the region , known as Batticaloa Tamil dialect , in their day to day conversations . Vedar children also study in that language in schools . During Sadangu ceremonies , those who are possessed by spirits speak in a mixed language that they call Vedar Sinkalam ( Vedar Sinhala " ) or Vedar Bhasai which is the Vedda language of the interior Vedas . This Vedar Sinkalam is mixed with many Tamil words , as people no longer know the language . There is evidence at some point in the past that the people were bilingual in Vedda language and Tamil , but that is no longer the case .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Native chronicles have documented the presence of Vedar or Vedar @-@ like people throughout the island from the beginning of the historic period . Vedar presence in the present Eastern province has been noted during the Kandyan Kingdom period ( 1469 to 1815 ) . Tennent noted that Vedars were found chiefly from Eravur to Venloos Bay . The 1946 Sri Lankan census returned 44 Vedar villages . The largest concentration of villages was close to the Vaharai peninsula ; predominantly Vedar villages there included Ammenthnaveli , Kandaladi , Komatalamadu , Palchennai , Puliyankandadi , Oddumadu , Thaddumunai , Uriyankadu , and Vammivattavan . Vedar are also found further south , in Panichankerni , Mankerni and Kayankerni . There are also Vedars close to Kalkudah , in a village called Pallanchenai , and in the Trincomalee District , between the towns of Muttur and Foul Point .
= = Economic status = =
Native chronicles such as Nadu Kadu Paraveni Kalvettu mention the socio @-@ economic status of the Vedar as that of primitive hunter gatherers . The chronicles also mention that the chiefs amongst them received gifts such as clothes from settlers and state that the Vedar in turn provided meat and honey to the settler population , indicating a system of barter trade between the groups . Vedar also seem to have provided manual labor to clear forest lands , in exchange for an annual portion of the food crops harvested . When Tennent visited the east coast in 1858 , the Vedar were living in houses that were made of mud and thatch . They were moved seasonally from place to place dependent on the availability of fish and other game . They were surviving primarily as fishermen , as well as wage laborers working for timber merchants , cutting and transporting timber from the forests . By the time Seligman visited them in 1911 , he considered the Vedar subdivision to be economically better off than the rest of the Indigenous population of the interior . He attributed this to the assimilation of Tamil economic and cultural values by the Vedar clans , as well as to absorption of non @-@ Vedar Tamils into Vedar families by intermarriage . Studies done in the 1980s by the anthropologist Jon Dart , indicated that Vedar in general were poorer than the rest of the Tamil and Muslim communities of the Eastern Province , which Dart attributed to their physical isolation in remote villages , as well as prevailing cultural norms that prevented them from fully integrating within the society . His studies did indicate that some Vedar had successfully integrated in Eastern society , with worldly possessions that did not much differ from those of their non @-@ Vedar neighbors . The marked impact of the Sri Lankan civil war was also noted , due to the proximity of the Vedar 's native villages to the theaters of operations of both rebel LTTE and government forces . ( See Vaharai bombing )
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= 1917 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team =
The 1917 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team represented the Georgia Institute of Technology ( commonly known as Georgia Tech ) in American football during the 1917 college football season as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) . The Golden Tornado , coached by John Heisman in his 14th year as head coach , compiled a 9 – 0 record ( 4 – 0 SIAA ) and outscored opponents 491 to 17 on the way to its first national championship . Heisman considered the 1917 team his best , and for many years it was considered " the greatest football team the South had ever produced " .
The backfield of Albert Hill , Everett Strupper , Joe Guyon , and Judy Harlan led the Golden Tornado , and all four rushed for more than 100 yards in a 48 – 0 victory over Tulane . During the regular season Georgia Tech defeated strong opponents by large margins , and its 41 – 0 victory over eastern Penn shocked many ; Davidson , with Buck Flowers ( a future Tech star ) , was defeated 32 – 10 . Tech 's 83 – 0 victory over Vanderbilt is the worst loss in Vanderbilt history , and its 63 – 0 defeat of Washington & Lee was the worst loss in W & L history at the time . Tech finished the season by defeating Auburn 68 – 7 , clinching the conference title . Davidson and Auburn were the only teams to score points against Georgia Tech .
= = Before the season = =
Because of the American entry into World War I in April , several SIAA schools did not field football teams . However , Georgia Tech had an increasing enrollment and bright prospects for its football team after its undefeated 1916 season . Losses from the previous season 's team included guard Bob Lang and fullback Tommy Spence .
In 1917 football used a one @-@ platoon system , in which players played both offense and defense . Fifteen of the 21 players on the 1917 roster were from the state of Georgia , and 10 of its 11 starters came from Georgia high schools . The team 's captain was tackle Walker " Big Six " Carpenter . Its renowned backfield consisted of quarterback Al Hill , halfback Everett Strupper , halfback Joe Guyon , and freshman fullback Judy Harlan .
Coach John Heisman 's swift backfield used the pre @-@ snap movement of his " jump shift " offense , and Al Hill led the team in carries . Ev Strupper , arguably the best of the four , was partially deaf ; because of his deafness , he called the signals instead of the team 's quarterback . When " Strupe " tried out for the team , he noticed that the quarterback shouted the signals every time he was to carry the ball . Realizing that the loud signals would be a tip @-@ off to the opposition , Strupper told Heisman : " Coach , those loud signals are absolutely unnecessary . You see when sickness in my kid days brought on this deafness my folks gave me the best instructors obtainable to teach me lip @-@ reading . " Heisman recalled how Strupper overcame his deafness : " He couldn 't hear anything but a regular shout . But he could read your lips like a flash . No lad that ever stepped on a football field had keener eyes than Everett had . The enemy found this out the minute he began looking for openings through which to run the ball . "
Joe Guyon , the team 's best passer , was a Chippewa Indian who was born on the White Earth Indian Reservation ; his brother , Charles " Wahoo " Guyon , was the assistant coach . Guyon had played for Pop Warner at Carlisle , and had to sit out the 1916 season in accordance with conference transfer rules . He ran through ( and over ) opponents , in contrast to Strupper 's dodging style . Judy Harlan said about Guyon , " Once in a while the Indian would come out in Joe , such as the nights Heisman gave us a white football and had us working out under the lights . That 's when Guyon would give out the blood curdling war whoops . "
= = Schedule = =
= = Game notes = =
= = = Week 1 : Furman and Wake Forest = = =
The Golden Tornado opened its season on September 29 with a doubleheader in three inches of mud .
= = = = Furman = = = =
In the first game Georgia Tech defeated Furman 25 – 0 , playing mainly substitutes . Hay was spread on the field in an attempt to counteract the steady downpour . Tech quarterback Al Hill scored two touchdowns , and Dan Whelchel ( called Walthall ) scored a third when he recovered a fumble by Theodore Shaver after crossing the goal line . Although Furman 's lineup included future South Carolina Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Speedy Speer , there was little Speer could do to affect the outcome . Tech 's starting lineup was Ulrich ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Johnson ( center ) , Wright ( right guard ) , Doyle ( right tackle ) , Colcord ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Smith ( left halfback ) , Shaver ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = = Wake Forest = = = =
After the Furman game , the rain subsided and Tech defeated the Wake Forest Demon Deacons 33 – 0 . Ev Strupper and Joe Guyon had sat out the previous game . The first touchdown was on the play after Strupper dashed around end for a 17 @-@ yard gain ; Guyon 's first carry from scrimmage for Tech was a 75 @-@ yard run .
Strupper scored the second touchdown on a short drive set up by his 40 @-@ yard punt return . Early in the second quarter , Strupper shot through the line for 70 yards and the third touchdown . Tech 's fourth touchdown required considerable effort and a methodical drive , ending in a 15 @-@ yard dive for a touchdown by Strupper . End runs by Guyon and Simpson 's line plunging set up the fifth ( and final ) touchdown with Guyon 's 6 @-@ yard run . Strupper ran for 198 yards and three touchdowns on nine carries . Tech 's starting lineup was Bell ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Thweatt ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Rogers ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Armsley ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 2 : Penn = = =
In the second week of play , Georgia Tech beat Penn 41 – 0 . Bernie McCarty called it " Strupper 's finest hour , coming through against powerful Penn in the contest that shocked the East . " In comparison , Pop Warner 's undefeated Pittsburgh defeated Penn 14 – 6 . Penn was the first northeastern powerhouse to lose to a team from the South . Both Strupper and Hill rushed for more than 100 yards . Tech outgained Penn 276 yards to 11 at halftime . According to the Florida Times @-@ Union , " The result ... demonstrates that the large Eastern colleges will have to reckon with some of those of Dixieland in future . "
Tech baffled Penn by playing conventionally instead of using its regular shift . On its second play from scrimmage less than two minutes into the game Strupper ran around his end , " winding and twisting out of a mass of Red and Blue players " for a 68 @-@ yard touchdown . Walker Carpenter brushed two tacklers out of the way , side @-@ stepping Penn safety Joe Berry before running the last 30 yards . Tech " scored again in this period before Pennsylvania had recovered from its bewilderment " , a touchdown by Hill . For the last score of the half , Strupper made a short run behind guard .
Penn did not have a first down in the first half , as the Tech defense played well . Hill scored a touchdown in the third quarter on a 27 @-@ yard run through the line . Penn 's only scoring opportunity was in the third quarter . After another Al Hill touchdown and the kickoff return , Penn worked five complete forward passes in quick succession ( one 23 yards ) to reach Tech 's 6 @-@ yard line . The Tech defense responded , and Penn turned the ball over on downs . On first down , Carpenter threw Penn back for a 6 @-@ yard loss and a pass was incomplete on second down . On third down , Penn 's quarterback dropped back to pass Carpenter and William Higgins tackled him on the 25 @-@ yard line . On fourth down , Penn came out in a " freak formation " and its pass was incomplete . In the fourth quarter , Judy Harlan had a 65 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown . Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Whelchel ( left tackle ) , Fincher ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Thweatt ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 3 : Davidson = = =
The Davidson Wildcats , which scored the most points against Tech ( 10 ) , included future Tech running back Buck Flowers in his freshman year . Unlike Tech 's other 1917 opponents , Davidson held its backs to less than 100 yards rushing . Writer Bernie McCarty considered Davidson the second @-@ best southern team that year .
The game 's first score of the game was in the second quarter , when Davidson 's Buck Flowers converted a 28 @-@ yard drop kick field goal for a 3 – 0 lead . Set up by a 27 @-@ yard run around end by Davidson fullback R. C. Burns , Al Hill prevented Burns from scoring a touchdown by tackling him from behind . Strupper and Guyon then worked the ball close to the goal ; Strupper was forced out of bounds , and Hill scored a touchdown .
Tech led 6 – 3 when Strupper broke the game open in the second half . After a fumble by Strupper , Hill caught a pass from the 22 @-@ yard line and ran in for a touchdown . Strupper made the next touchdown after Tech ran through Davidson 's right guard . Strupper then recovered a punt fumbled by Flowers on Davidson 's 30 @-@ yard line , leading to a score by Hill from 18 yards out on a criss @-@ cross run . Davidson scored its only touchdown on a forward pass . From midfield , quarterback Henry Spann hit end Georgie King on a 50 @-@ yard touchdown pass that went 30 yards in the air , catching Tech by surprise . For Tech 's last score , Judy Harlan returned an interception 40 yards for a touchdown .
The defense of Walker Carpenter and William Thweatt was the game 's highlight . Tech made 16 first downs and Davidson 13 . Neither Pup Phillips nor Ham Dowling played in this game , with Bill Fincher replacing Phillips at center . The umpire was F. F. Wood , and Boozer Pitts was the head linesman . Davidson captain George King said , " I consider Georgia Tech the best football team I have ever played against or ever expect to play against . " Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Whelchel ( left tackle ) , Higgins ( left guard ) , Fincher ( center ) , Rogers ( right guard ) , Thweatt ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 4 : Washington & Lee = = =
In a 63 – 0 victory against the Washington & Lee Generals , Tech made 35 first downs to Washington & Lee 's five . At the time , it was the Generals ' worst loss . According to Judy Harlan , Joe Guyon knocked a Washington & Lee player out of the game by " wearing an old horse collar shaped into a shoulder pad but reinforced with a little steel " . The player may have been Turner Bethel , who was knocked out of the game and taken to a local hospital .
" The game was never in doubt after ' Strup ' got away for his first long run " , a 35 @-@ yarder followed a few minutes later by his 16 @-@ yard touchdown run . Although Strupper only played in the first half because of a leg injury , he gained 128 yards in addition to scoring the touchdown . Al Hill scored four touchdowns , Guyon three , and Pup Phillips also had one with a 30 @-@ yard interception return . Tech 's starting lineup was Ulrich ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 5 : Vanderbilt = = =
Tech 's 83 – 0 defeat of the Vanderbilt Commodores was the worst in Vanderbilt history . " It was not until 1917 that a Southern team really avenged long @-@ time torment at McGugin 's hands . And it took one of history 's top backfields – Joe Guyon , Ev Strupper , Al Hill , and Judy Harlan of Georgia Tech – to do it , " writes Edwin Pope . The team was not the Commodores ' worst , and had defeated Alabama . Joe Guyon was the game 's star ; according to Morgan Blake , " Guyon has been great in all games this year . But Saturday he was the superman " . Guyon ran nine times for 124 yards , with kick returns for 95 yards and 80 yards passing . He scored on 48- and one @-@ yard runs , had a 75 @-@ yard kick return to set up a touchdown , and threw a pass to Shorty Guill for a score . Ev Strupper ran for four touchdowns and 147 yards in 14 carries , returning five punts for 111 yards . Al Hill ran 169 yards in 25 carries , scoring three touchdowns , and Judy Harlan carried 15 times for 132 yards and two touchdowns .
Vanderbilt captain Alf Adams praised the Tech team : " Tech 's magnificent machine won easily over Vanderbilt . It was simply the matter of a splendid eleven winning over an unseasoned , inexperienced team . Tech played hard , clean football , and we were somewhat surprised to meet such a fair , aggressive team , after the reports we had heard . I think that Vanderbilt could have broken that Tech shift if we had had last year 's eleven . Being outweighed , Vanderbilt could not check the heavy forwards , or open up the line . Thereby hangs the tale . " Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 6 : at Tulane = = =
Tech played coach Clark Shaughnessy 's Tulane Olive and Blue for its only road game , winning 48 – 0 . Against a solid foe with a 5 – 3 record , all four Tech backs ran over 100 yards . According to the Times @-@ Picayune , " Strupper , Guyon , Hill , and Harlan form a backfield with no superiors and few equals in football history " . Joe Guyon threw two touchdowns and ran for one , passing 91 yards and running 112 : " Guyon 's passing was so accurate it suggest possibilities yet undeveloped in the Tech offense " . Al Hill ran for 140 yards on 24 carries , including a 48 @-@ yard touchdown . Ev Strupper scored twice ( one on a 33 @-@ yard pass from Guyon ) and ran for 118 yards ; Harlan ran for 111 . Missing an extra point in the third quarter , Bill Fincher ended his streak at 31 . The game was called with six minutes left because of darkness . Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Thweatt ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 7 : Carlisle = = =
In a 98 – 0 win against the Carlisle Indians , Strupper 's performance was praised . Morgan Blake of the Atlanta Journal wrote , " Everett Strupper played like a veritable demon . At one time four Carlisle men pounced on him from all directions , and yet through some superhuman witchery he broke loose and dashed 10 yards further . On another occasion he attempted a wide end run , found that he was completely blocked , then suddenly whirled and ran the other way , gaining something like 25 yards before he was downed . "
Hill and Strupper each scored five touchdowns ; Shorty Guill had two touchdowns and 108 yards rushing . Billy Sunday wrote , " That jump shift is about the slickest offense I ever saw . " One of Strupper 's touchdowns was a 32 @-@ yard fumble return . This was Carlisle 's last season before the school closed . Guyon asked to be substituted midway through the game against his former school , perhaps for sentimental reasons . Tech 's starting lineup was Fincher ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Guill ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 8 : Auburn = = =
In the season 's final game , Tech defeated the Auburn Tigers 68 – 7 . Coach Mike Donahue 's Tigers had lost only to Davidson in an upset , and held undefeated Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie less than a week before the Tech game . Ohio State , led by Chic Harley , had been favored 4 or 5 to 1 . Coach Heisman ( who previously coached at Auburn ) and his players were at the game , rooting for the Tigers .
In the game with Auburn , Tech piled up 472 yards on the ground in 84 rushes and 145 yards in the air . Guyon scored four touchdowns , and Strupper had a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run . According to the Atlanta Journal ,
It was not the length of the run that featured it was the brilliance of it . After getting through the first line , Stroop was tackled squarely by two secondary men , and yet he squirmed and jerked loosed from them , only to face the safety man and another Tiger , coming at him from different angles . Without checking his speed Everett knifed the two men completely , running between them and dashing on to a touchdown .
In the second quarter , Auburn 's Moon Ducote broke through the line toward the goal with blocking by Pete Bonner and William Donahue . After Guyon dove at Ducote and missed , Guyon gave chase and tackled him at the 26 @-@ yard line . For Auburn 's only score Ducote circled around end for 17 yards and lateraled to Donahue , who ran down the sideline for a six @-@ yard touchdown . Guyon was the star of the game , accounting for four touchdowns and having his best day passing . Strupper had touchdown runs of 62 and 50 yards . Auburn was considered a strong team , despite the lopsided score ; Ducote and Bonner were the only non @-@ Tech , unanimous All @-@ Southern selections . Tech 's starting lineup was Fincher ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Mathes ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Guill ( fullback ) .
= = After the season = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
The Golden Tornado led the nation in scoring , with 491 points . Quarterback Al Hill led the nation in touchdowns with 23 , and tackle Bill Fincher kicked 49 extra points .
A number of Georgia Tech players received post @-@ season honors . Walker Carpenter , Everett Strupper , and Joe Guyon were All @-@ America selections , with Carpenter and Strupper the first two players from the Deep South selected for a first @-@ team . In addition to Carpenter , Strupper , and Guyon , Bill Fincher , Pup Phillips , Si Bell , Shorty Guill , and Al Hill were selected to the All @-@ Southern Team by sportswriters . Phillips also received the Hal Nowell trophy for the most efficient play during the season .
= = = = National champions = = = =
On December 8 , the Golden Tornado celebrated its national @-@ championship season at a team dinner at the Druid Hills Golf Club in Atlanta . Each member was presented with a gold football inscribed with the words , " National Champions " . Clarke Mathes , William Thweatt , Dan Whelchel , Theodore Shaver , and William Higgins had already enlisted in the U. S. Marines for the First World War ; a week later , Si Bell , Jim Fellers , Pup Phillips , and Charles Johnson also left for the Marines .
Heisman challenged Pop Warner 's Pittsburgh team to a postseason game to determine a national champion , but since they did not play until the following season , Tech was named national champion . Although the Golden Tornado was invited to play the 4 – 3 Oregon team in the Rose Bowl , by then many players had joined the war effort .
= = = Legacy = = =
" I consider the 1917 Tech team the best football I have ever coached " , Heisman said . " It 's the best team I have seen in my long career as a coach . I was lucky in having under me a team whose members possessed much natural ability and who played the game intelligently . I have never seen a team that , as a whole , was so fast in the composite . " For many years , it was considered " the greatest football team the South had ever produced " . According to a contemporary New York Sun account , " Georgia Tech looms up as one of the truly great teams of all time . "
= = Personnel = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
The following chart provides a visual depiction of Tech 's lineup during the 1917 season with games started at the position reflected in parenthesis . The chart mimics the offense after the jump shift has taken place .
= = = Varsity letterwinners = = =
= = = = Line = = = =
= = = = Backfield = = = =
= = = Other players = = =
= = = Stats and scoring leaders = = =
The following is an incomplete list of statistics and scores , largely dependent on newspaper summaries .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Noctilucent cloud =
Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are tenuous cloud @-@ like phenomena that are the " ragged edge " of a much brighter and pervasive polar cloud layer called polar mesospheric clouds in the upper atmosphere , visible in a deep twilight . They are made of ice crystals . Noctilucent roughly means night shining in Latin . They are most commonly observed in the summer months at latitudes between 50 ° and 70 ° north and south of the equator . These clouds can be observed only when the Sun is below the horizon for the observer , but while the clouds are still in sunlight .
They are the highest clouds in Earth 's atmosphere , located in the mesosphere at altitudes of around 76 to 85 kilometres ( 47 to 53 mi ) . They are normally too faint to be seen , and are visible only when illuminated by sunlight from below the horizon while the lower layers of the atmosphere are in the Earth 's shadow . Noctilucent clouds are not fully understood and are a recently discovered meteorological phenomenon ; there is no record of their observation before 1885 .
Noctilucent clouds can form only under very restricted conditions ; their occurrence can be used as a sensitive guide to changes in the upper atmosphere . They are a relatively recent classification . The occurrence of noctilucent clouds appears to be increasing in frequency , brightness and extent .
= = Formation = =
Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about 76 to 85 km ( 47 to 53 mi ) , higher than any other clouds in Earth 's atmosphere . Clouds in the Earth 's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles , but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles .
Data from the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour , dust , and very cold temperatures to form . The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty . The dust is believed to come from micrometeors , although particulates from volcanoes and dust from the troposphere are also possibilities . The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the tropopause , as well as forming from the reaction of methane with hydroxyl radicals in the stratosphere .
The exhaust from Space Shuttles , which was almost entirely water vapour after the detachment of the Solid Rocket Booster at a height of about 46 km , was found to generate minuscule individual clouds . About half of the vapour was released into the thermosphere , usually at altitudes of 103 to 114 km ( 64 to 71 mi ) . In August 2014 , a SpaceX Falcon 9 also caused noctilucent clouds over Orlando , FL after a launch .
The exhaust can be transported to the Arctic region in little over a day , although the exact mechanism of this very high @-@ speed transport is unknown . As the water migrates northward , it falls from the thermosphere down into the colder mesosphere , which occupies the region of the atmosphere just below . Although this mechanism is the cause of individual noctilucent clouds , it is not thought to be a major contributor to the phenomenon as a whole .
As the mesosphere contains very little moisture , approximately one hundred millionth that of air from the Sahara desert , and is extremely thin , the ice crystals can form only at temperatures below about − 120 ° C ( − 184 ° F ) . This means that noctilucent clouds form predominantly during summer when , counterintuitively , the mesosphere is coldest , therefore they can 't be observed ( even if they are present ) inside the Polar circles because the Sun is never low enough under the horizon at this season at these latitudes . Noctilucent clouds form mostly near the polar regions , because the mesosphere is coldest there . Clouds in the southern hemisphere are about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) higher than those in the northern hemisphere .
Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun breaks water molecules apart , reducing the amount of water available to form noctilucent clouds . The radiation is known to vary cyclically with the solar cycle and satellites have been tracking the decrease in brightness of the clouds with the increase of ultraviolet radiation for the last two solar cycles . It has been found that changes in the clouds follow changes in the intensity of ultraviolet rays by about a year , but the reason for this long lag is not yet known .
Noctilucent clouds are known to exhibit high radar reflectivity , in a frequency range of 50 MHz to 1 @.@ 3 GHz . This behaviour is not well understood but a possible explanation is that the ice grains become coated with a thin metal film composed of sodium and iron , which makes the cloud far more reflective to radar , although this explanation remains controversial . Sodium and iron atoms are stripped from incoming micrometeors and settle into a layer just above the altitude of noctilucent clouds , and measurements have shown that these elements are severely depleted when the clouds are present . Other experiments have demonstrated that , at the extremely cold temperatures of a noctilucent cloud , sodium vapour can rapidly be deposited onto an ice surface .
= = Discovery and investigation = =
Noctilucent clouds are first known to have been observed in 1885 , two years after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa . It remains unclear whether their appearance had anything to do with the volcano eruption , or whether their discovery was due to more people observing the spectacular sunsets caused by the volcanic debris in the atmosphere . Studies have shown that noctilucent clouds are not caused solely by volcanic activity , although dust and water vapour could be injected into the upper atmosphere by eruptions and contribute to their formation . Scientists at the time assumed the clouds were another manifestation of volcanic ash , but after the ash had settled out of the atmosphere , the noctilucent clouds persisted . Finally , the theory that the clouds were composed of volcanic dust was disproved by Malzev in 1926 . In the years following their discovery , the clouds were studied extensively by Otto Jesse of Germany , who was the first to photograph them , in 1887 , and seems to have been the one to coin the term " noctilucent cloud " , which means " night @-@ shining cloud " . His notes provide evidence that noctilucent clouds first appeared in 1885 . He had been doing detailed observations of the unusual sunsets caused by the Krakatoa eruption the previous year and firmly believed that , if the clouds had been visible then , he would undoubtedly have noticed them . Systematic photographic observations of the clouds were organized in 1887 by Jesse , Foerster , and Stolze and , after that year , continuous observations were carried out at the Berlin Observatory . During this research , the height of the clouds was first determined , via triangulation . The project was discontinued in 1896 .
In the decades after Otto Jesse 's death in 1901 , there were few new insights into the nature of noctilucent clouds . Wegener 's conjecture , that they were composed of water ice , was later shown to be correct . Study was limited to ground @-@ based observations and scientists had very little knowledge of the mesosphere until the 1960s , when direct rocket measurements began . These showed for the first time that the occurrence of the clouds coincided with very low temperatures in the mesosphere .
Noctilucent clouds were first detected from space by an instrument on the OGO @-@ 6 satellite in 1972 . The OGO @-@ 6 observations of a bright scattering layer over the polar caps were identified as poleward extensions of these clouds . A later satellite , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer , mapped the distribution of the clouds between 1981 and 1986 with its ultraviolet spectrometer . The clouds were detected with a lidar in 1995 at Utah State University , even when they were not visible to the naked eye . The first physical confirmation that water ice is indeed the primary component of noctilucent clouds came from the HALOE instrument on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite in 2001 .
In 2001 , the Swedish Odin satellite performed spectral analyses on the clouds , and produced daily global maps that revealed large patterns in their distribution .
On April 25 , 2007 , the AIM satellite ( Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere ) was launched . It is the first satellite dedicated to studying noctilucent clouds , and made its first observations on May 25 , 2007 . Images taken by the satellite show shapes in the clouds that are similar to shapes in tropospheric clouds , hinting at similarities in their dynamics .
On August 28 , 2006 , scientists with the Mars Express mission announced that they found clouds of carbon dioxide crystals over Mars that extended up to 100 km ( 62 mi ) above the surface of the planet . They are the highest clouds discovered over the surface of a planet . Like noctilucent clouds on Earth , they can be observed only when the Sun is below the horizon .
Research published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters in June 2009 suggests that noctilucent clouds observed following the Tunguska Event are evidence that the impact was caused by a comet .
The United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) and the United States Department of Defense Space Test Program ( STP ) conducted the Charged Aerosol Release Experiment ( CARE ) on September 19 , 2009 , using exhaust particles from a Black Brant XII suborbital sounding rocket launched from NASA 's Wallops Flight Facility to create an artificial noctilucent cloud . The cloud was to be observed over a period of weeks or months by ground instruments and the Spatial Heterodyne IMager for MEsospheric Radicals ( SHIMMER ) instrument on the NRL / STP STPSat @-@ 1 spacecraft . The rocket 's exhaust plume was observed and reported to news organizations in the United States from New Jersey to Massachusetts .
= = Observation = =
Noctilucent clouds are generally colourless or pale blue , although occasionally other colours including red and green occur . The characteristic blue colour comes from absorption by ozone in the path of the sunlight illuminating the noctilucent cloud . They can appear as featureless bands , but frequently show distinctive patterns such as streaks , wave @-@ like undulations , and whirls . They are considered a " beautiful natural phenomenon " . Noctilucent clouds may be confused with cirrus clouds , but appear sharper under magnification . Those caused by rocket exhausts tend to show colours other than silver or blue , because of iridescence caused by the uniform size of the water droplets produced .
Noctilucent clouds may be seen by observers at a latitude of 50 ° to 65 ° . They seldom occur at lower latitudes ( although there have been sightings as far south as Paris , Utah , Italy , Turkey and Spain ) , and closer to the poles it does not get dark enough for the clouds to become visible . They occur during summer , from mid @-@ May to mid @-@ August in the northern hemisphere and between mid @-@ November and mid @-@ February in the southern hemisphere . They are very faint and tenuous , and may be observed only in twilight around sunrise and sunset when the clouds of the lower atmosphere are in shadow , but the noctilucent cloud is illuminated by the Sun . They are best seen when the Sun is between 6 ° and 16 ° below the horizon . Although noctilucent clouds occur in both hemispheres , they have been observed thousands of times in the northern hemisphere , but fewer than 100 times in the southern . Southern hemisphere noctilucent clouds are fainter and occur less frequently ; additionally the southern hemisphere has a lower population and less land area from which to make observations .
The clouds may show a large variety of different patterns and forms . An identification scheme was developed by Fogle in 1970 that classified five different forms . These classifications have since been modified and subdivided .
They may be studied from the ground , from space , and directly by sounding rocket . Also , some noctilucent clouds are made of smaller crystals , 30 nm or less , which are invisible to observers on the ground because they do not scatter enough light .
= = Connection to climate change = =
It has been proposed that the relatively recent appearance of noctilucent clouds , and their gradual increase , may be linked to climate change . The author of this study , atmospheric scientist Gary Thomas of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado has pointed out that the first sightings coincide with both Krakatoa and the nascent Industrial Revolution , and they have become more widespread and frequent throughout the twentieth century , including an uptick between 1964 and 1986 . The connecting of global warming and noctilucent clouds however , remains controversial . Gary Thomas may have penned his paper after Wilfried Schröder , who might hold the distinction of being the first to explain noctilucent clouds as " indicators " for atmospheric processes ( Gerlands Beiträge zur Geophysik , 1971 , Meteorologische Rundschau 1968 – 1970 ) . Most recently in 2012 Lonnie Cumberland 's physics PhD work supported viewing noctilucent clouds as a possible Miner 's Canary for climate change as her third conclusion as a sign of increasing the presence of water in the high atmosphere . NASA scientists speculate that methane may be driven higher into the mesophere where noctilucent clouds form by climate change and through reactions that end up producing water at such altitudes .
Climate models predict that increased greenhouse gas emissions cause a cooling of the mesosphere , which would lead to more frequent and widespread occurrences of noctilucent clouds . A complementing theory is that larger methane emissions from intensive farming activities produce more water vapour in the upper atmosphere . Methane concentrations have more than doubled in the past 100 years .
Tromp et al. also controversially suggest that a transition to a hydrogen economy would result in an increase in the free hydrogen concentration of the atmosphere by 1 ppm , which would increase the number of noctilucent clouds .
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= Yasss Bish =
" Yasss Bish " is a song recorded by Trinidadian @-@ American rapper Nicki Minaj for her third studio album The Pinkprint ( 2014 ) , which did not make the final cut . It was written by Minaj along with the song 's producer Soulja Boy , who is also credited as a guest vocalist . The track was released through her official SoundCloud account as the album 's third promotional single on May 3 , 2014 following " Lookin Ass " and " Chi @-@ Raq " .
Musically , " Yasss Bish " is a bounce and drill song with a trap beat . Its stripped back hip hop production encompasses intense Roland TR @-@ 808 drum hits , a " sinister , echo @-@ y " vocal loop , " eerie " shimmering synthesizers , foreboding snares , and the sound of church bells ringing in an ominous tone . Lyrically , Minaj addresses her detractors , and references several celebrities including Donald Sterling and Will and Jada Smith .
Minaj performed the song live for the first time along with Soulja Boy on May 18 , 2014 at the Power 106 's Powerhouse , Minaj performed the song again on June 2 at Hot 97 Summer Jam 2014 .
= = Background = =
In September 2013 , Minaj began working on her third studio album , The Pinkprint ( 2014 ) . For the album , Minaj desired to return to her hip @-@ hop roots , calling the album 's sound " a continuation of The Re @-@ Up with a lot more " . Minaj told MTV News that the sound of The Pinkprint would be " next level " and will have " so much to talk about " , saying : " I 'm really excited and the people that have been working with me now , have been people that I haven 't worked with before so it 's like they 're bringing a new sound to the album that I 've never experimented with . "
In April 2014 , Minaj posted a picture on Instagram of herself with Soulja Boy in a studio . Later that month , he posted a Vine of him singing the song 's chorus . Originally , Soulja Boy created the song 's beat but according to him , it lacked a hook . However , he later came up with the idea for the hook while making a Vine , and added it into the song . He then brought the unfinished version of " Yasss Bish " to Minaj , who was impressed by the song and recorded her vocals . After Minaj sent the track back to him , it took " about a day " for Soulja Boy to finish mixing the record . In May 2014 , Minaj spoke of the meaning behind the word " yasss " : " When I watch ' RuPaul 's Drag Race , ' I live for the way they speak . Females , we adopted it and it makes us feel like very cocky and very just like sexy and feminine . So saying ' yass ' as opposed to ' yes , ' it 's just putting on a billion times more attitude to the word ' yes ' . " On May 3 , 2014 , Minaj posted the song on her official SoundCloud shortly after midnight .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Yasss Bish " has been described as a " bouncy drill anthem " with a trap beat . It features a stripped back hip hop production that encompasses intense Roland TR @-@ 808 drum hits , a " sinister , echo @-@ y " vocal loop , " eerie " shimmering synthesizers , foreboding snares , and the sound of church bells ringing in an ominous tone . Minaj 's vocals in " Yasss Bish " have been described as " melodic " with a " fierce " message , while her rapping has been compared to the works of Southern hip hop group Migos . Several critics including Kyle Harvey of The Grio and Emma Goddard of Bustle noted the change in sound to be the beginning of a new image for Minaj . Harvey said the song continued her goal of shedding her image of a pop act , while Goddard said : " Although this song is definitely NSFW and it 's completely improbable that we 'll hear British sisters Sophia Grace and Rosie rapping her song anytime soon , Minaj has come back strong with a new image . "
Lyrically , she addresses her detractors and all those who don 't believe in her . The song opens with Soulja Boy singing " yasss bish " repeatedly for thirty seconds before Minaj begins her rap with " Me I 'm just me / Me I 'm just real / Me I 'm that bitch that be footing the bill . " In the line " I don 't fuck with you niggas / I own the Clippers / I own some homes / I own my own liquor " Minaj references ex @-@ Clippers owner Donald Sterling , who was banned from the NBA after leaked recordings of him making racist comments were made public . She also mentions Will and Jada Smith in the lyrics : " Bitches can 't beat me they ain 't got the skill / Eye of the tiger they ain 't got the kill / Look up to Jada / I love her and Will . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , " Yasss Bish " received positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy named " Yasss Bish " one of the " 10 tracks you need to hear " , praising Minaj 's vocal delivery , the inclusion of Soulja Boy , and the line " Fix it , Jesus . " Colin Joyce of Spin called the song an " unbridled joy " , and noted that while it may not be included on The Pink Print , the album would be " lucky , however , to feature any track half as exuberant as this one . " A writer for MTV News UK praised both the production and vocals on " Yasss Bish " , saying that Minaj 's " melodic " vocals and " fierce " rap delivery were the best part of the song . Several critics noted a musical departure from the pop and dance @-@ pop stylings of her second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) . MTV News writer Emilee Lindner said " Yasss Bish " found Minaj going back to her original sound , saying : " Nicki Minaj is letting her rapping speak for itself . She 's left her colorful wigs , fancy robes and tutus behind — along with the hyper @-@ pop production of some of her biggest hits — and now she 's getting back to her roots . " Emma Goddard of Bustle praised the chemistry between the two rappers and saw the song as a change from the more upbeat sound found in Minaj 's catalogue , which she credited with " show [ ing ] her rapping prowess much more " . Writing for The Source , Khari said of " Yasss Bish " : " [ Minaj ] sheds the wig and the excessive make @-@ up , we get the most gorgeous Nicki we 've seen in her career . Now , she grabs Soulja Boy for the hook and the beat . You guessed it , score again . "
= = Release history = =
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= Common toad =
The common toad , European toad or in Anglophone parts of Europe , simply the toad ( Bufo bufo , from Latin bufo " toad " ) , is an amphibian found throughout most of Europe ( with the exception of Ireland , Iceland , and some Mediterranean islands ) , in the western part of North Asia , and in a small portion of Northwest Africa . It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of toads and which form a species complex . The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day . It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the invertebrates on which it feeds . It moves with a slow ungainly walk or short jumps and has greyish brown skin covered with wart @-@ like lumps .
Although toads are usually solitary animals , in the breeding season , large numbers of toads converge on certain breeding ponds , where the males compete to mate with the females . Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings in the water and later hatch out into tadpoles . After several months of growth and development , these sprout limbs and undergo metamorphosis into tiny toads . The juveniles emerge from the water and remain largely terrestrial for the rest of their lives .
The common toad seems to be in decline in part of its range but overall is listed as being of " least concern " in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . It is threatened by habitat loss , especially by drainage of its breeding sites , and some toads get killed on the roads as they make their annual migrations . It has long been associated in popular culture and literature with witchcraft .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common toad was first given the name Rana bufo by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 . In this work , he placed all the frogs and toads in the single genus Rana . It later became apparent that this genus should be subdivided , and in 1768 , the Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti placed the common toad in the genus Bufo , naming it Bufo bufo . The toads in this genus are included in the family Bufonidae , the true toads .
Various subspecies of Bufo bufo have been recognized over the years . The Caucasian toad is found in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and was at one time classified as Bufo bufo verrucosissima . It has a larger genome and differs from Bufo bufo morphologically and is now accepted as Bufo verrucosissimus . The spiny toad was classified as Bufo bufo spinosus . It is found in the Mediterranean area and grows to a larger size and has a spinier skin than its more northern counterparts with which it intergrades . It is now accepted as Bufo spinosus . The Gredos toad , Bufo bufo gredosicola , is restricted to the Sierra de Gredos , a mountain range in central Spain . It has exceptionally large paratoid glands and its colour tends to be blotched rather than uniform . It is now considered to be a synonym of Bufo spinosus .
Bufo bufo is part of a species complex , a group of closely related species which cannot be clearly demarcated . Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related taxa from preglacial times . These are the spiny toad ( Bufo spinosus ) , the Caucasian toad ( Bufo verrucosissimus ) and the Japanese common toad ( Bufo japonicus ) . The European common toad ( Bufo bufo ) seems to have arisen more recently . It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the Middle Miocene . The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear . A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of Bufo verrucosissimus and Bufo spinosus . It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter .
A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Eurasian and North African species in the Bufo bufo group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group . Nine to thirteen million years ago , Bufo eichwaldi , a recently described species from south Azerbaijan and Iran , split from the main lineage . Further divisions occurred with Bufo spinosus splitting off about five million years ago when the Pyrenees were being uplifted , an event which isolated the populations in the Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe . The remaining European lineage split into Bufo bufo and Bufo verrucosissimus less than three million years ago during the Pleistocene . Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the natterjack toad ( Bufo calamita ) or the European green toad ( Bufo viridis ) .
= = Description = =
The common toad can reach about 15 cm ( 6 in ) in length . Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones . The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils . There are no teeth . The bulbous , protruding eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit @-@ shaped pupils . Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions , the paratoid glands , which are positioned obliquely . They contain a noxious substance , bufotoxin , which is used to deter potential predators . The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac . The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground . The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards . At breeding time , the male develops nuptial pads on the first three fingers . He uses these to grasp the female when mating . The hind legs are short relative to other frogs ' legs and the hind feet have long , unwebbed toes . There is no tail . The skin is dry and covered with small wart @-@ like lumps . The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown , olive @-@ brown or greyish @-@ brown , sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade . The common toad tends to be sexually dimorphic with the females being browner and the males greyer . The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches .
Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the natterjack toad ( Bufo calamita ) and the European green toad ( Bufo viridis ) . The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern . The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad . The common frog ( Rana temporaria ) is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout , damp smooth skin , and usually moves by leaping .
Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity . In the wild , common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years . Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their phalanges .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
After the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) , the edible frog ( Pelophylax esculentus ) and the smooth newt ( Lissotriton vulgaris ) , the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe . It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland , the cold northern parts of Scandinavia , Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands . These include Malta , Crete , Corsica , Sardinia and the Balearic Islands . Its easterly range extends to Irkutsk in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern Africa in the northern mountain ranges of Morocco , Algeria and Tunisia . A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including Japan . The common toad is found at altitudes of up to 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) in the southern part of its range . It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous , deciduous and mixed woodland , especially in wet locations . It also inhabits open countryside , fields , copses , parks and gardens , and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water .
= = Behaviour and lifecycle = =
The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs . It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous . It emerges at dusk and may travel some distance in the dark while hunting . It is most active in wet weather . By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months . It is voracious and eats woodlice , slugs , beetles , caterpillars , flies , earthworms and even small mice . Small , fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws . Having no teeth , it swallows food whole in a series of gulps . It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small , dark coloured , moving object it encounters at night . A research study showed that it would snap at a moving 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece . Toads seem to use visual cues for feeding and can see their prey at very low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything . Periodically , the common toad sheds its skin . This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed .
When attacked , the common toad adopts a characteristic stance , inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered . Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin . This contains a toxin called bufagin and is enough to deter many predators although grass snakes seem to be unaffected by it . Other predators of adult toads include hedgehogs , rats and mink , and even domestic cats . Birds that feed on toads include herons , crows and birds of prey . Crows have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the animal 's liver , thus avoiding the toxin . The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fishes from eating them but not the great crested newt . Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include dragonfly larvae , diving beetles and water boatmen . These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole 's skin and sucking out its juices .
A parasitic fly , Lucilia bufonivora , attacks adult common toads . It lays its eggs on the toad 's skin and when these hatch , the larvae crawl into the toad 's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences . The European fingernail clam ( Sphaerium corneum ) is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot . It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations .
In 2007 , researchers using a remotely operated underwater vehicle to survey Loch Ness , Scotland , observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of 324 feet ( 99 m ) . They were surprised to find that an air @-@ breathing animal could survive in such a location .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The common toad emerges from hibernation in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites . The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable . Adults use the same location year after year and over 80 % of males marked as juveniles have been found to return to the pond at which they were spawned . They find their way to these mainly by using olfactory and magnetic cues . Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres ( two miles ) .
The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn . Rather than fighting for the right to mate with a female , male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice . Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size and hence of prowess . Nevertheless , fights occur in some instances . In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one , it was found that 38 % of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females . Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds . A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41 % of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again .
The males mount the females ' backs , grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as amplexus . The males are very enthusiastic , will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males . Sometimes several toads form a heap , each male trying to grasp the female at the base . It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads . A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and , as the female lays a long , double string of small black eggs , he fertilises them with his sperm . As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond , the gelatinous egg strings , which may contain 3000 to 6000 eggs and be 3 to 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 10 to 15 ft ) in length , get tangled in plant stalks .
The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size , and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks . At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly . They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming . The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) but they are a darker colour , being blackish above and dark grey below . They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes , and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils . Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed . By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and ready to leave the pond .
= = = Development and growth = = =
The common toad reaches maturity at three to seven years old but there is great variability between populations . Juveniles are often parasitised by the lung nematode Rhabdias bufonis . This slows growth rates and reduces stamina and fitness . Larger juveniles at metamorphosis always outgrow smaller ones that have been reared in more crowded ponds . Even when they have heavy worm burdens , large juveniles grow faster than smaller individuals with light worm burdens . After several months of heavy worm infection , some juveniles in a study were only half as heavy as control juveniles . Their parasite @-@ induced anorexia caused a decrease in food intake and some died . Another study investigated whether the use of nitrogenous fertilisers affects the development of common toad tadpoles . The toadlets were kept in very dilute solutions of ammonium nitrate of various strengths . It was found that at certain concentrations , which were well above any normally found in the field , growth was increased and metamorphosis accelerated , but at others , there was no significant difference between the experimental tadpoles and controls . Nevertheless , certain unusual swimming patterns and a few deformities were found among the experimental animals .
A comparison was made between the growth rate of newly metamorphosed juveniles from different altitudes and latitudes , the specimens studied being from Norway , Germany , Switzerland , the Netherlands and France . At first the growth rates for males and females was identical . By the time they became mature their growth rate had slowed down to about 21 % of the initial rate and they had reached 95 % of their expected adult size . Some females that were on a biennial breeding cycle carried on growing rapidly for a longer time . Adjusting for differences in temperature and the length of the growing season , the toads grew and matured at much the same rate from the four colder localities . These juveniles reached maturity after 1 @.@ 09 years for males and 1 @.@ 55 years for females . However , the young toads from lowland France grew faster and longer to a much greater size taking an average 1 @.@ 77 years for males and 2 @.@ 49 years for females before reaching maturity .
= = Conservation = =
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species considers the common toad as being of " least concern " . This is because it has a wide distribution and is , over most of its range , a common species . It is not particularly threatened by habitat loss because it is adaptable and is found in deciduous and coniferous forests , scrubland , meadows , parks and gardens . It prefers damp areas with dense foliage . The major threats it faces include loss of habitat locally , the drainage of wetlands where it breeds , agricultural activities , pollution and mortality on roads . Chytridiomycosis , an infectious disease of amphibians , has been reported in common toads in Spain and the United Kingdom and may affect some populations .
There are parts of its range where the common toad seems to be in decline . In Spain , increased aridity and habitat loss have led to a diminution in numbers and it is regarded as " near threatened " . A population in the Sierra de Gredos mountain range is facing predation by otters and increased competition from the frog Pelophylax perezi . Both otter and frog seem to be extending their ranges to higher altitudes . The common toad cannot be legally sold or traded in the United Kingdom but there is a slow decline in toad numbers and it has therefore been declared a Biodiversity Action Plan priority species . In Russia , it is considered to be a " Rare Species " in the provinces of Bashkiria , Tataria , Yamal @-@ Nenets Autonomous County and Irkutsk , but during the 1990s , it became more abundant in Moscow Province .
It has been found that urban populations of common toad occupying small areas and isolated by development show a lower level of genetic diversity and reduced fitness as compared to nearby rural populations . The researchers demonstrated this by genetic analysis and by noting the greater number of physical abnormalities among urban as against rural tadpoles when raised in a controlled environment . It was considered that long term depletion in numbers and habitat fragmentation can reduce population persistence in such urban environments .
= = = Roadkill = = =
Many toads are killed by traffic while migrating to their breeding grounds . In Europe they have the highest rate of mortality from roadkill among amphibians . Many of the deaths take place on stretches of road where streams flow underneath showing that migration routes often follow water courses . In some places in Germany , Belgium , Great Britain , Northern Italy and Poland , special tunnels have been constructed so that toads can cross under roads in safety . In other places , local wildlife groups run " toad patrols " , carrying the amphibians across roads at busy crossing points in buckets . The toads start moving at dusk and for them to travel far , the temperature needs to remain above 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . On a warm wet night they may continue moving all night but if it cools down , they may stop earlier . An estimate was made of the significance of roadkill in toad populations in the Netherlands . The number of females killed in the spring migration on a quiet country road ( ten vehicles per hour ) was compared with the number of strings of eggs laid in nearby fens . A 30 % mortality rate was found , with the rate for deaths among males likely to be of a similar order .
= = Bufotoxin = =
The main toxic substance found in the parotoid gland and skin of the common toad is called bufotoxin . It was first isolated by Heinrich Wieland and his colleagues in 1922 and they succeeded in identifying its structure about 20 years later . Meanwhile , other workers succeeded in isolating the same compound and its parent steroid bufotalin from the Japanese toad ( Bufo japonicus ) . By 1986 , researchers at the Arizona State University had succeeded in synthesizing the toad venom constituents bufotalin , bufalitoxin and bufotoxin . The chemical formula of bufotoxin is C40H60N4O10 . Its physical effects resemble those of digitalis which in small doses increases the strength with which the heart muscle contracts and which is used in the treatment of congestive heart failure . The skin of one toad contains enough toxin to cause serious symptoms or even death in animals and man . Clinical effects include severe irritation and pain to eyes , mouth , nose and throat , cardiovascular and respiratory symptoms , paralysis and seizures , increased salivation , vomiting , hyperkalemia , cyanosis and hallucinations . There is no known anti @-@ venom . Treatment consists of supporting respiratory and cardiovascular functions , prevention of absorption and electrocardiography to monitor the condition . Atropine , phenytoin , cholestyramine and lidocaine may prove useful in its management .
= = Cultural significance = =
The toad has long been considered to be an animal of ill omen or a connection to a spirit world . This may have its origins in the fact that it is at home both on land and in the water . It may cause repugnance because of its blackish , wart @-@ like skin , its slow movements and the way it emerges from some dark hole . In Europe in the Middle Ages , the toad was associated with the Devil , for whom a coat @-@ of @-@ arms was invented emblazoned with three toads . It was known that the toad could poison people and , as the witch 's familiar , it was thought to possess magical powers . Even ordinary people made use of dried toads , their bile , faeces and blood . In some areas , the finding of a toad in a house was considered evidence that a witch was present . In the Basque Country , the familiars were believed to be toads wearing elegant robes . These were herded by children who were being trained as witches . Between 1610 and 1612 , the Spanish inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías investigated witchcraft in the region and searched the houses of suspected witches for dressed toads . He found none . These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews .
An English folk tale tells how an old woman , a supposed witch , cursed her landlord and all his possessions when he demanded the unpaid rent for her cottage . Soon afterwards , a large toad fell on his wife and caused her to collapse . The toad was thrown into the fire but escaped with severe burns . Meanwhile , the old witch 's cottage had caught fire and she was badly burnt . By next day , both toad and witch had died , and it was found that the woman 's burns exactly mirrored those of the toad .
The saliva of the toad was considered poisonous and was known as " sweltered venom " and it was believed that it could spit or vomit poisonous fire . Toads were associated with devils and demons and in Paradise Lost , John Milton depicted Satan as a toad when he poured poison into Eve 's ear . The First Witch in Shakespeare 's Macbeth gave instructions on using a toad in the concoction of spells :
It was also believed that there was a jewel inside a toad 's head , a " toadstone " , that when worn as a necklace or ring would warn the wearer of attempts to poison them . Shakespeare mentioned this in As You Like It :
Mr. Toad Esq. is one of the main characters in the children 's novel The Wind in the Willows , by Kenneth Grahame . This has been dramatized by several authors including A. A. Milne who called his play Toad of Toad Hall . Mr. Toad is a very conceited , anthropomorphic toad and in the book he composes a ditty in his own praise which starts like this :
George Orwell in his essay Some Thoughts on the Common Toad described the emergence of the common toad from hibernation as one of the most moving signs of spring .
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= Amateur Station Operator 's Certificate =
Amateur Station Operator 's Certificate or ASOC is the examination that needs to be passed to receive an amateur radio licence in India . The exam is conducted by the Wireless and Planning and Coordination Wing ( WPC ) of the Ministry of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology . The examination is held in various cities in India on monthly or quarterly basis depending on the size of the city . The licence may be awarded to an individual or a club station operated by a group of licensed amateur radio operators .
The first amateur radio operator was licensed in 1921 during the British rule . Partly due to low awareness among the general population and prohibitive equipment costs , the number of licensed amateur radio operators remained low for several decades . In 1970 , there were less than a thousand operators ; by 1980 , the number had risen to 1 @,@ 500 . In 2000 , there were 10 @,@ 000 operators and as of 2007 , there are more than 17 @,@ 000 licensed users in India .
= = History = =
= = Licence categories = =
= = Examination and syllabus = =
The exam consists of two parts :
Part I – Written Test
Section I : Radio Theory and Practice
Section 2 : Regulations
Part II – Morse
Section 1 : Morse Receiving and Sending : ( Speed : 5 words per minute )
Section 2 : Morse Receiving and Sending : ( Speed : 12 words per minute )
The maximum number of marks that a candidate can secure is 100 . To pass the examination , a candidate must score a minimum of 40 ( 50 for Grade I ) in each written section , and 50 ( 55 for Grade I ) in aggregate for a pass .
= = = Radio theory and practice = = =
The Radio theory and practice syllabus includes eight subtopics :
The first subtopic is the elementary theory of electricity that covers topics on conductors , resistors , Ohm 's Law , power , energy , electromagnets , inductance , capacitance , types of capacitors and inductors , series and parallel connections for radio circuits . The second topic is the elementary theory of alternating currents . Portions include sinusoidal alternating quantities such as peak values , instantaneous values , RMS average values , phase ; electrical resonance , and quality factor for radio circuits . The syllabus then moves on to semiconductors , specifically the construction and operation of valves , also known as vacuum tubes . Included in this portion of the syllabus are thermionic emissions with their characteristic curves , diodes , triodes and multi @-@ electrode valves ; and the use of valves as rectifiers , oscillators , amplifiers , detectors and frequency changers , stabilisation and smoothing .
Radio receivers is the fourth topic that covers the principles and operation of TRF receivers and Superheterodyne receivers , CW reception ; with receiver characteristics such as sensitivity , selectivity and fidelity ; Adjacent @-@ channel interference and image interference ; AGC and squelch ; and signal to noise ratio ( S / R ) . Similarly , the next topic on transmitters covers the principles and operation of low power transmitters ; oscillators such as the Colpitts oscillator , Hartley oscillator , crystal oscillators , and stability of oscillators .
The last three topics deal with radio propagation , aerials , and frequency measurement . Covered are topic such as wavelength , frequency , nature and propagation of radio waves ; ground and sky waves ; skip distance ; and fading . Common types of transmitting and receiving aerials such as Yagi antennas , and radiation patterns , measurement of frequency and use of simple frequency meters conclude the topic .
= = = Regulations = = =
Knowledge of the Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules and the Indian Wireless Telegraphs ( Amateur Service ) Rules are essential and always tested . The syllabus also includes international radio regulations related to the operation of amateur stations with emphasis on provisions of radio regulation nomenclature of the frequency and wavelength , frequency allocation to amateur radio service , measures to prevent harmful interference , standard frequency and time signals services across the world , identification of stations , distress and urgency transmissions , amateur stations , phonetic alphabets , and figure code are the other topics included in the portion .
Also included in the syllabus are Q codes such as QRA , QRG , QRH , QRI , QRK , QRL , QRM , QRN , QRQ , QRS , QRT , QRU , QRV , QRW , QRX , QRZ , QSA , QSB , QSL , QSO , QSU , QSV , QSW , QSX , QSY , QSZ , QTC , QTH , QTR , and QUM ; and CW abbreviations and prosigns such as AA , AB , AR , AS , C , CFM , CL , CQ , DE , K , NIL , OK , R , TU , VA , WA , and WB .
= = = Morse = = =
The syllabus includes the following Morse code characters : all alphabets , numbers , prosigns , and punctuations such as the full @-@ stop ; comma ; semi @-@ colon ; break sign ; hyphen and question mark .
Receiving
For Grade II , the test piece consists of a passage of 125 letters , five letters counting as one word . Candidates are required to copy for five minutes at the speed of five words per minute , international Morse signals from an audio oscillator keyed either manually or automatically . A short practice piece is sent at the prescribed speed before the start of the test . More than five errors disqualifies a candidate . For Grade I , the test piece consists of a passage of 300 characters : letters , figures , and punctuations . The average words contain five characters and each figure and punctuation is counted as two characters . Candidates have to receive for five consecutive minutes at a speed of 12 words per minute .
Sending
For Grade II , the test piece consists of 125 letters , with five letters forming one word . Candidates are required to transmit by using a Morse key for five consecutive minutes at the minimum speed of five words per minute . A short practice piece is allowed before the test . Candidates are not allowed more than one attempt in the test . More than five uncorrected errors disqualifies a candidate . For Grade I , the speed sent is 12 words per minute .
= = Fees = =
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= Tryvandshøiden ( station ) =
Tryvandshøiden ( also Tryvannshøgda , Tryvann and Øvreseter ) was a planned station on the Holmenkollen Line in Oslo , Norway . It was planned by the company Tryvandsbanen in the early 1910s and partly constructed in 1916 at the end of a single @-@ tracked line from Frognerseteren . A red signalman 's house named " Norden " was the station 's only facility . Passenger trains never served the station , and the tracks from Frognerseteren to Tryvandshøiden were removed in 1939 . The signalman 's house was not demolished . In 1993 , 2004 and 2008 , proposals were made to re @-@ open the station so that it would be more convenient for Oslo residents to use the Tryvann Ski Resort . However , these proposals were all rejected by the operator Oslo Sporveier on the grounds that the extension would be too expensive .
= = History = =
In 1898 , Holmenkolbanen opened the Holmenkollen Line from Majorstuen to Besserud station ( then Holmenkollen ) . In 1910 – 11 , a recently established company named Tryvandsbanen planned to extend the line towards Frognerseteren and Tryvannshøyden . The company extended the line from Besserud to Tryvandshøiden station on 15 May 1916 . The line was double @-@ tracked to Frognerseteren and single @-@ tracked from there to Tryvandshøiden , as only the first section had passenger traffic . The single @-@ tracked line from Frognerseteren to Tryvandshøiden was 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long and ran in a curve east of Øvresetertjern . The extension was financed partly by Tryvandsbanen 's equity , and partly by loans from the Municipality of Oslo .
In the 1930s , the Municipality of Oslo made plans for making Tryvann the " Davos of the North " , following the opening of Tryvann stadion in the winter of 1936 . The Holmenkollen Line was planned to be extended even further , from Tryvandshøiden station to a proposed hotel with 200 beds . This never happened , since the skating rinks at Øvresetertjern were too cold and windy to become popular among Oslo residents .
Even though Tryvandsbanen had prepared the Frognerseteren – Tryvandshøiden Line for an upgrade to double tracks , no action was taken due to a shortage of money . The line was therefore unsuitable for regular passenger service , and Tryvandsbanen considered it to be useless . The tracks from Tryvandshøiden station to a point some 200 metres ( 660 ft ) ahead of Frognerseteren station were removed in 1939 . In the 1960s , the right @-@ of @-@ way was gravelled over and converted into a rail trail .
= = = Reopening = = =
In 1993 , proposals were made to re @-@ open the line to Tryvandshøiden Station , so that the Tryvann Ski Resort would be more accessible to Oslo residents . Oslo Sporveier , the operator , turned down the proposals , arguing that it would cost about 3 billion NOK to lay the tracks and put up overhead line equipment , and that it would not attract enough passengers .
In 2004 , the writer Erling Fossen gathered 356 signatures in favor of extending the line to the ski resort , which were given to the Oslo City Council . Even though the proposal was supported by the prominent council members Peter N. Myhre , Ola Elvestuen and Rune Gerhardsen , Oslo Sporveier declined , stating that the extension of the line would not be profitable enough .
Peter N. Myhre stated in 2008 that the line would be extended to the ski resort before the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 , but no action was taken as neither Ruter nor the city council wanted to allocate the required 150 million NOK .
= = Facilities and services = =
A red @-@ painted house for the signalman was put up close to the station . Tryvandsbanen also developed plans for building a station house with a waiting shed , but these never materialised . The name of the red @-@ painted house was changed from Nordpolen ( " The North Pole " ) to Norden ( " The North " ) and it was modernised after the removal of the tracks . The station was included on the Nordmarka maps published in 1913 and 1938 .
The station was never served by passenger trains , but between 1914 and 1918 Norway Telecom ( now Telenor ) used the line for transporting steel when Tryvannstårnet was being constructed . Occasionally charter trips to Øvresetertjern for passengers were also arranged .
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= Fred Tenney =
Frederick Tenney ( November 26 , 1871 – July 3 , 1952 ) was an American professional baseball player whose career spanned 20 seasons , 17 of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Boston Beaneaters / Doves / Rustlers ( 1894 – 1907 , 1911 ) and the New York Giants ( 1908 – 1909 ) . Described as " one of the best defensive first basemen of all time " , Tenney is credited with originating the 3 @-@ 6 @-@ 3 double play and originating the style of playing off the first base foul line and deep , as modern first basemen do . Over his career , Tenney compiled a batting average of .294 , 1 @,@ 278 runs scored , 2 @,@ 231 hits , 22 home runs , and 688 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1 @,@ 994 games played .
Born in Georgetown , Massachusetts , Tenney was one of the first players to enter the league after graduating college , where he served as a left @-@ handed catcher for Brown University . Signing with the Beaneaters , Tenney spent the next 14 seasons with the team , including a three @-@ year managerial stint from 1905 – 1907 . In December 1907 Tenney was traded to the Giants as a part of an eight @-@ man deal ; after two years playing for New York , he re @-@ signed with the Boston club , where he played for and managed the team in 1911 . After retiring from baseball , Tenney worked for the Equitable Life Insurance Society before his death in Boston on July 3 , 1952 .
= = Early life = =
Tenney was born in Georgetown , Massachusetts , the third of five children to Charles William and Sarah Lambert ( née DeBacon ) Tenney . Charles Tenney attended Dummer Academy from 1850 to 1853 , and served for the 50th Massachusetts Regiment in the Civil War , where he nearly died due to " intense suffering " . Growing up , Fred led his class in drawing and sketching . He reportedly started playing baseball around 1880 .
= = Career = =
= = = Brown University = = =
In 1892 , Tenney played his first professional game for the Binghamton Bingos of the Eastern League , going 1 for 4 with a single . He played as Brown University 's catcher for the 1893 and 1894 seasons . In 1894 , the team had a 23 – 8 record and were selected as national champions by Harper 's Weekly . The night of his senior dinner , Tenney received a telephone message from Frank Selee , the manager of the Beaneaters , asking him to play a game for the team at catcher , due to the injuries of other players .
= = = Boston = = =
In his MLB debut on June 16 , 1894 , Tenney had to be removed from the game in the fifth inning due to a fractured finger on his throwing hand from a foul tip . After Tenney had his finger addressed , James Billings , an owner of the Beaneaters , offered him a contract worth US $ 300 a month from that day . Tenney , later writing about the day , stated :
I thought they were trying to have a little joke with me , and I concluded that I could do a little kidding myself . So I thought I would call their bluff by asking for some advance money . I screwed up my courage and asked Mr. Billings whether , if I signed the contract at once , I could get some advance money . He asked how much I wanted , and I thought I would mention a big sum in order to call their bluff good and strong . So I said $ 150 . He consulted with Mr. Conant , another Director , and said that I could have the money all right , and asked me how I would like to have it – cash or check . [ ... ] I replied that I would take half cash and then half in check , and immediately he wrote out a check for $ 75 , counted out $ 75 in cash , shoved the contract over to me to sign , laying the cash and check beside it .
He returned to the team a month later , and finished the year batting .395 in 27 games . The following season , Tenney moved to the outfield due to an erratic throwing arm behind the plate , according to manager Selee . For the season , he hit .272 in 49 games , while also playing minor league baseball for the New Bedford Whalers . In 1896 , Tenney again caught and played outfield ; offensively , however , Tenney hit .336 in nearly double the games from the previous year ( 88 ) despite playing in the minors for the Springfield Ponies .
In 1897 , Tenney moved to first base to replace the aging Tom Tucker . According to Alfred Henry Spink , within two weeks of the move it was evident that Tenney had become " one of the finest first sackers that the game [ had ] ever seen . " On June 14 , 1897 , in a game against the Cincinnati Reds , Tenney turned the first 3 @-@ 6 @-@ 3 double play in MLB history . Offensively , Tenney led MLB in plate appearances ( 646 ) and tied Duff Cooley , Gene DeMontreville , and George Van Haltren for the lead in at bats ( 566 ) as the Boston club became National League ( NL ) champions with a 93 – 39 record .
Boston again won the NL in 1898 while Tenney hit .328 with 62 RBIs . In 1899 he collected 209 hits , fifth most in MLB , and recorded 17 triples , good for fourth best in MLB . In 1900 Tenney , at age 28 , batted .279 over 112 games played . He began a streak of seven consecutive seasons where he led the NL in assists in 1901 ; he holds the record for most seasons leading a league in assists , with eight , including one in 1899 . He was suspended for ten games for fighting Pittsburg Pirates manager Fred Clarke in May 1902 , and finished the 1902 season with the second most sacrifice hits ( 29 ) in the majors , to go along with a .315 average . Throughout the 1901 – 1902 seasons , Tenney received contract offers worth up to $ 7 @,@ 000 ( $ 193 @,@ 172 in 2012 ) from St. Louis , Cleveland , and Detroit ; Tenney , however , decided to remain in Boston , and was named captain of the club in 1903 . For the season , he hit .313 , with 41 RBIs and three home runs , as he led his team in walks ( 70 ) and had the best on @-@ base percentage mark ( .415 ) on the squad . In 1904 , Tenney again led his team in walks and on @-@ base percentage , as he tied for the team lead in runs with Ed Abbaticchio .
He was named manager of the team in 1905 , but did not receive additional pay ; he was , however , offered a bonus if the team didn 't lose money . In 1905 , Tenney tried to sign William Clarence Matthews , an African @-@ American middle infielder from Harvard University , to a contract . Tenney later retracted his offer due to pressure from MLB players . Defensively , he led the majors in errors committed by a first baseman and finished second in most putouts for any position . Tenney led the 1906 Beaneaters to a 49 – 102 record . For the second straight year , the Boston team lost more than 100 games .
After a 158 – 295 record as manager , on December 3 , 1907 , Tenney was traded to the Giants , along with Al Bridwell and Tom Needham , for Frank Bowerman , George Browne , Bill Dahlen , Cecil Ferguson and Dan McGann ; the trade was called " one of the biggest deals in the history of National League baseball " .
= = = New York Giants = = =
In his first season with the Giants , Tenney led MLB with 684 plate appearances and finished third in runs scored , with 101 . In a game against the Chicago Cubs on September 23 , Tenney could not play due to an attack of lumbago ; it was the only game he did not play in during the season . Rookie Fred Merkle took his spot at first base . The game was at a 1 – 1 tie in the bottom of the ninth . Merkle , after hitting a single , was at first , and Moose McCormick was at third , with two outs . Al Bridwell singled to center field , but Hank O 'Day called Merkle out because Merkle had not touched second base . O 'Day ruled the game a 1 – 1 tie due to darkness . With both teams finishing the season at a 98 – 55 record , a replay game had to be played to determine who would win the National League pennant . The game was held on October 8 , with the Cubs winning , 4 – 2 .
After batting a career low .235 in 1909 , Tenney was released by the Giants . He spent the 1910 season as a player – manager for the minor league Lowell Tigers , leading the team to a 65 – 57 record , good for fourth ( out of eight teams ) in the New England League .
= = = Return to Boston = = =
On December 19 , 1910 , Tenney signed a two @-@ year contract with the Boston Rustlers . For the 1911 season , Tenney hit .263 over 102 games . He was released by the Braves on March 20 , 1912 , after 44 – 107 record in one season ; Tenney was paid not to manage for the second year on his contract .
In 1916 , he bought the Newark Indians of the International League with James R. Price for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 527 @,@ 450 in 2012 ) . Mayor Thomas Lynch Raymond declared April 27 a " half @-@ holiday " for the city of Newark for the Indians ' Opening Day . Tenney played in 16 games for the Indians , hitting .318 with seven hits over 22 at @-@ bats , and managed the team to a 52 – 87 record .
= = Personal life and death = =
Tenney married Bessie Farnham Berry on October 21 , 1895 . The couple had two children together ; Barbra , born July 4 , 1899 , and Ruth , born December 8 , 1901 . Early in his career , he refused to play baseball on Sundays due to his religion , although he later changed his mind . Tenney was known as the " Soiled Collegian " at the major league level because it was unpopular for college players to become professional . Tenney served as a journalist for The Boston Post , Baseball Magazine , and The New York Times . He painted and sketched during the winter .
After retiring from baseball , Tenney worked for the Equitable Life Insurance Society and continued writing for The New York Times . In 1912 , he was vice @-@ president of the Usher – Stoughton shoe manufacturing company in Lynn , Massachusetts ; later , he formed the Tenney – Spinney Shoe Company in partnership with Henry Spinney . He was balloted for the National Baseball Hall of Fame from 1936 – 1942 and again in 1946 , but never received more than eight votes , receiving eight ( 3 @.@ 1 % of total ballots cast ) during the Baseball Hall of Fame balloting in 1938 . Tenney died on July 3 , 1952 at Massachusetts General Hospital after a long illness . He was interred at Harmony Chapel and Cemetery in Georgetown .
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= Los Angeles Lakers =
The Los Angeles Lakers are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles , California . The Lakers compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , as a member club of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division . The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center , an arena shared with the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers , the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association , and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League . The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA , and have won 16 NBA championships , their last being in 2010 . As of 2015 , the Lakers are the second most valuable franchise in the NBA according to Forbes , having an estimated value of $ 2 @.@ 7 billion .
The franchise began with the 1947 purchase of a disbanded team , the Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) . The new team began playing in Minneapolis , Minnesota , calling themselves the Minneapolis Lakers in honor of the state 's nickname , " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " . Initially a member of the NBL , the Lakers won the 1948 NBL championship before joining the rival Basketball Association of America and winning five of the next six BAA and NBA championships in Minneapolis after the NBA formed in 1949 . The team was propelled by center George Mikan , who is described by the NBA 's official website as the league 's " first superstar " . After struggling financially in the late 1950s following Mikan 's retirement , they relocated to Los Angeles before the 1960 – 61 season .
Led by Hall of Famers Elgin Baylor and Jerry West , Los Angeles made the NBA Finals six times in the 1960s , but lost each series to the Boston Celtics , beginning their long and storied rivalry . In 1968 , the Lakers acquired four @-@ time NBA Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Wilt Chamberlain to play center , and after losing in the Finals in 1969 and 1970 , they won their sixth NBA title — and first in Los Angeles — in 1972 , led by new head coach Bill Sharman . After the retirement of West and Chamberlain , the team acquired another center , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , who had won multiple MVP awards , but was unable to make the Finals in the late 1970s . The 1980s Lakers were nicknamed " Showtime " due to their Magic Johnson @-@ led fast break @-@ offense , and won five championships in a 9 @-@ year span , including their first ever Finals championship against the Celtics in 1985 . This team featured Hall of Famers in Johnson , Abdul @-@ Jabbar , and James Worthy , and a Hall of Fame coach , Pat Riley . After Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Johnson 's retirement , the team struggled in the early 1990s before acquiring Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant in 1996 . Led by O 'Neal , Bryant , and another Hall of Fame coach , Phil Jackson , Los Angeles won three consecutive titles between 2000 to 2002 , securing the franchise its second " three @-@ peat " . After losing both the 2004 and 2008 NBA Finals , the Lakers won two more championships by defeating the Orlando Magic in 2009 and Boston in 2010 .
The Lakers hold the record for NBA 's longest winning streak , 33 straight games , set during the 1971 – 72 season . 21 Hall of Famers have played for Los Angeles , while four have coached the team . Four Lakers — Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Johnson , O 'Neal , and Bryant — have won the NBA MVP Award for a total of eight awards .
= = Team history = =
= = = 1947 – 48 & 1948 – 59 : Beginnings and Minneapolis dynasty = = =
The Lakers ' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) for $ 15 @,@ 000 from Gems owner Maury Winston . Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team . Inspired by Minnesota 's nickname , " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " , the team christened themselves the Lakers . Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas , to be their first head coach , by meeting with him and selling him on the team .
The Lakers had a solid roster which featured forward Jim Pollard , playmaker Herm Schaefer , and center George Mikan , who became the most dominant player in the NBL . In their first season , they led the league with a 43 – 17 record .
In 1948 , the Lakers moved from the NBL to the Basketball Association of America ( BAA ) , and Mikan 's 28 @.@ 3 point per game ( ppg ) scoring average set a BAA record . In the 1949 BAA Finals they won the championship , beating the Washington Capitols four games to two . The following season , the team improved to 51 – 17 , repeating as champions . In the 1950 – 51 season , Mikan won his third straight scoring title at 28 @.@ 4 ppg and the Lakers went 44 – 24 to win their second straight division title . One of those games , a 19 – 18 loss against the Fort Wayne Pistons , became infamous as the lowest scoring game in NBA history . In the playoffs , they defeated the Indianapolis Olympians in three games but lost to the Rochester Royals in the next round .
During the 1951 – 52 season , the Lakers won 40 games , finishing second in their division . They faced the New York Knicks in the NBA Finals , which they won in seven games . In the 1952 – 53 season , Mikan led the NBA in rebounding , averaging 14 @.@ 4 rebounds per game ( rpg ) , and was named MVP of the 1953 NBA All @-@ Star Game . After a 48 – 22 regular season , the Lakers defeated the Fort Wayne Pistons in the Western playoffs to advance to the NBA Finals . They then defeated the New York Knicks to win their second straight championship . Though Lakers star George Mikan suffered from knee problems throughout the 1953 – 54 season , he was still able to average 18 ppg . Clyde Lovellette , who was drafted in 1952 , helped the team win the Western Division . The team won its third straight championship in the 1950s and fifth in six seasons when it defeated the Syracuse Nationals in seven games .
Following Mikan 's retirement in the 1954 off @-@ season , the Lakers struggled but still managed to win 40 games . Although they defeated the Rochester Royals in the first round of the playoffs , they were defeated by the Fort Wayne Pistons in the semifinals . Although they had losing records the next two seasons , they made the playoffs each year . Mikan came back for the last half of the 1955 – 56 season , but struggled and retired for good after the season . Led by Lovellette 's 20 @.@ 6 points and 13 @.@ 5 rebounds , they advanced to the Conference Finals in 1956 – 57 . The Lakers had one of the worst seasons in team history in 1957 – 58 when they won a league @-@ low 19 games . They had hired Mikan , who had been the team 's general manager for the previous two seasons , as head coach to replace Kundla . Mikan was fired in January when the team was 9 – 30 , and Kundla was rehired .
The Lakers earned the top pick in the 1958 NBA draft and used it to select Elgin Baylor . Baylor , who was named NBA Rookie of the Year and co @-@ MVP of the 1959 NBA All @-@ Star Game , averaged 24 @.@ 9 ppg and 15 @.@ 0 rpg helping the Lakers improve to second in their division despite a 33 – 39 record . After upsetting the Hawks in six games in the division finals , they returned to the NBA Finals , but were swept by the Celtics , beginning their long rivalry .
= = = 1959 – 68 : Move to Los Angeles and Celtics rivalry = = =
In their last year in Minneapolis , the Lakers went 25 – 50 . On January 18 , 1960 , the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash @-@ landed . Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield . No one was hurt . Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft . The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University . During the 1960 off @-@ season , the Lakers became the NBA 's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles . Led by Baylor 's 34 @.@ 8 ppg and 19 @.@ 8 rpg , Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West 's first season . On November 15 that season , Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds . In doing so , Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points . Despite a losing record , the Lakers made the playoffs . They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis .
Led by Baylor and West at 38 @.@ 3 and 30 @.@ 8 ppg respectively , the Lakers improved to 54 – 26 in 1961 – 62 , and made the finals . In a game five victory , Baylor grabbed 22 rebounds and set the still @-@ standing NBA record for points in a finals game with 61 , despite fouling out of the game . The Lakers , however , lost to the Celtics by three points in overtime of game seven . Frank Selvy , after making two jumpers in the final 40 seconds to tie the game , missed a potential game @-@ winning 18 foot jump shot in regulation , a miss which he said in June 2010 still haunted him more than 40 years later .
Los Angeles won 53 games in 1962 – 63 , behind Baylor 's 34 @.@ 0 ppg and West 's 27 @.@ 1 ppg but lost in the NBA Finals in six games to the Celtics . After falling to 42 – 38 and losing in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs to the Hawks , the team won 49 games in 1964 – 65 . The Lakers surged past the Baltimore Bullets in the division finals , behind West 's record @-@ setting 46 @.@ 3 ppg in the series . They lost again to Celtics in the Finals however , this time in five games .
Los Angeles lost in the finals to Boston in seven games again in 1966 , this time by two points . Down by 16 entering the fourth quarter , and 10 with a minute and a half to go , the Lakers mounted a furious rally in the closing moments which fell just short . After dropping to 36 wins and losing in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs , they lost in the finals to the Celtics again in 1968 . Los Angeles moved to a brand @-@ new arena , The Forum , in 1967 , after playing seven seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena .
= = = 1968 – 73 : Wilt arrives = = =
On July 9 , 1968 , the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff , Archie Clark , and Jerry Chambers . In his first season as a Laker , Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league @-@ leading 21 @.@ 1 rpg . West , Baylor , and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points , and Los Angeles won their division . The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals , and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry . They won the first game behind Jerry West 's 53 points , and had a 3 – 2 lead after five . Boston won the series in seven games however , and earned their 11th NBA Championship in 13 seasons . West was named the first @-@ ever Finals MVP ; this remains the only time that a member of the losing team has won the award . In 1970 , West won his first scoring title at 31 @.@ 2 ppg , the team returned to the finals , and for the first time in 16 years , they did not have to face the Celtics ; instead playing the New York Knicks , who defeated them 4 – 3 . The next season the Lakers were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks , led by future Laker Lew Alcindor ( now known as Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar ) in the Western Conference Finals .
The 1971 – 72 season brought several changes . Owner Jack Kent Cooke brought in Bill Sharman as head coach , and Elgin Baylor announced his retirement early in the season after realizing that his legs were not healthy enough . Sharman increased the team 's discipline . He introduced the concept of the shootaround , where players would arrive at the arena early in the morning before a game to practice shots . They won 14 straight games in November and all 16 games played in December . They won three straight to open the year of 1972 but on January 9 , the Milwaukee Bucks ended their winning streak by defeating the Lakers , 120 – 104 . By winning 33 straight games , Los Angeles set a record for longest winning streak of any team in American professional sports . The Lakers won 69 games that season , which stood as the NBA record for 24 years until the Chicago Bulls won 72 games in 1995 – 96 . Chamberlain averaged a career @-@ low 14 @.@ 8 points but led the league in rebounding at 19 @.@ 2 a game . West 's 9 @.@ 7 assists per game ( apg ) led the league , he also averaged more than 25 points , and was named MVP of the 1972 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The team failed to score 100 points just once all year , and at the end of the season , Bill Sharman was named Coach of the Year . The Lakers went on to reach the finals against the New York Knicks where they would avenge their 1970 finals loss by defeating them 4 games to 1 . Chamberlain tallied 24 points and 29 rebounds in game five and won the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award .
The Lakers won 60 games in the 1972 – 73 NBA season , and took another Pacific Division title . Wilt Chamberlain , playing in his final season , again led the league in rebounding and set the still standing NBA record for field @-@ goal percentage at 72 @.@ 7 % . The team defeated the Chicago Bulls in seven games in the conference semifinals , then the Golden State Warriors in five in the Western Division Finals . They played the New York Knicks in the 1973 NBA Finals . Los Angeles took the first game by three points , but New York won the series in five games .
= = = 1973 – 79 : Building " Showtime " = = =
During the 1973 – 74 season , the team was hampered by the loss of West , who played only 31 games before his legs gave out . Goodrich , averaging 25 @.@ 3 points , helped the team to a late @-@ season surge . Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play , the Lakers rallied to finish 47 – 35 and win the Pacific Division . They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals . Following the season , West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke , and filed a suit for unpaid back wages .
After missing the playoffs in the 1974 – 75 season , the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , who had won three league MVP 's by that time . Abdul @-@ Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee , demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles . He was traded for Elmore Smith , Brian Winters , Junior Bridgeman , and Dave Meyers . Abdul @-@ Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975 – 76 , leading the league in rebounding , blocked shots , and minutes played . The Los Angeles struggled in January , going 3 – 10 , and finished out of the playoffs at 40 – 42 .
West and Cooke settled their differences — and the former Laker 's lawsuit — and Cooke hired him to replace Sharman as the team 's coach . West became upset , however , when Cooke refused to spend the money necessary to acquire forward Julius Erving , who the Nets were selling . Behind another MVP season from Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Los Angeles won the Pacific Division , finishing the 1976 – 77 season a league @-@ best 53 – 29 . They defeated the Warriors in a seven @-@ game series to open the postseason before being swept by Portland in the Western Conference Finals . During the offseason , Los Angeles picked up Jamaal Wilkes from Golden State and signed first @-@ round draft pick Norm Nixon . In the first two minutes of the first game of the 1977 – 78 season , Abdul @-@ Jabbar punched Bucks center Kent Benson for an overly aggressive elbow and broke his hand . Two months later , a healthy Abdul @-@ Jabbar got into an altercation with Houston Rockets center Kevin Kunnert after a rebound . The team 's starting power forward , Kermit Washington , who was averaging 11 @.@ 5 points and 11 @.@ 2 rebounds , entered the fight , and when Rudy Tomjanovich ran in from the bench to break up the action , Washington punched him in the face . Tomjanovich nearly died from the punch , suffering a fractured skull and other facial injuries which prematurely ended his playing career . Washington , who stated that he assumed Tomjanovich was a combatant , was suspended for two months by the NBA , and released by the Lakers . The team won 45 games despite being down a starter in Washington and not having Abdul @-@ Jabbar for nearly two months , but lost in the first round of the playoffs to Seattle . During the 1978 – 79 season , the team posted a 47 – 35 record but lost to the SuperSonics in the semifinal round of the playoffs .
= = = 1979 – 91 : " Showtime " = = =
In the 1979 NBA draft , Los Angeles selected 6 @-@ foot , 9 @-@ inch point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick . It took Johnson 's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability , as his " no @-@ look " passes often caught them unaware . Once they adjusted , his passing became a key part of Los Angeles ' offense . The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson 's rookie year , and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals . Johnson won the series Finals MVP award , after starting at center for the injured Abdul @-@ Jabbar in game six , and tallying 42 points , 15 rebounds , and seven assists . The team fell off in the 1980 – 81 season , though , as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury . The team turned in a 54 – 28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division . The Rockets , led by Moses Malone , defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs .
Early in the 1981 – 82 season , Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade . Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson 's criticisms , and although Lakers ' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson 's comments did not factor into the decision , Johnson was vilified by the national media and booed both on the road and at home . Buss promoted assistant coach Pat Riley to " co @-@ head coach " with Jerry West ( although West considered himself Riley 's assistant ) on November 19 and the team won 17 of its next 20 games . Nicknamed " Showtime " due to the team 's new Johnson @-@ led fast break @-@ offense , the Lakers won the Pacific Division title and swept both the Suns and Spurs . Los Angeles stretched its postseason winning streak to nine games by taking the first contest of the NBA Finals from the 76ers . The team won the Finals 4 – 2 to finish a 12 – 2 playoff run . On draft night in 1982 , the Lakers had the first overall pick and selected James Worthy from North Carolina . The Lakers won the Pacific Division at 58 – 24 , but Worthy suffered a leg injury in the last week of the season and missed the rest of the season however . Nevertheless , they advanced to play Philadelphia in the 1983 NBA Finals by defeating Portland and San Antonio in the first two rounds . The Sixers , however , won the series and the championship in four games . After the season West replaced Sharman as the team 's GM .
In the 1983 – 84 season Los Angeles went 54 – 28 , and played Boston in the Finals for the first time since 1969 . They won two of the first three games . Kevin McHale 's hard clothesline foul of Lakers forward Kurt Rambis on a fast break is credited as a turning point of the series . Boston won three of the next four to win the title and send Los Angeles 's record to 0 – 8 in Finals series against the Celtics .
Using the past year 's Finals defeat as motivation , the team won the Pacific Division for the fourth straight year and lost just twice in the Western Conference playoffs . In the NBA Finals , the Celtics were again the Lakers ' final hurdle . Los Angeles lost game one of the NBA Finals by a score of 148 – 114 , in what is remembered as the " Memorial Day Massacre " . The Lakers , behind 38 @-@ year @-@ old Finals MVP Abdul @-@ Jabbar , recovered to defeat the Celtics in six games . The team won the title in the Boston Garden , becoming the only visiting team to ever win an NBA championship there .
In the 1985 – 86 season , the Lakers started 24 – 3 . They won 62 games , and their fifth straight division title . The Rockets , however , defeated the Lakers in five games in the Western Conference Finals . Houston won the series when Ralph Sampson hit a 20 @-@ foot jumper as time expired in game five at The Forum . Prior to the 1986 – 87 season , the Lakers moved A. C. Green into the starting lineup , and acquired Mychal Thompson from the Spurs . Johnson won his first career MVP Award while leading the Lakers to a 65 – 17 record , and Michael Cooper was named NBA Defensive Player of the Year . Before the season Riley had made the decision to shift the focus of the offense to Johnson over the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Abdul @-@ Jabbar .
The Lakers advanced to the NBA Finals by sweeping the Nuggets , defeating the Warriors in five games , and sweeping the SuperSonics in the Western Conference Finals . The Lakers defeated Boston in the first two games of the Finals , and the teams split the next four games , giving Los Angeles their second championship in three seasons . The series was highlighted by Johnson 's running " baby hook " shot to win game four at Boston Garden with two seconds remaining . Johnson was named the NBA Finals MVP , in addition to regular @-@ season MVP . At the Lakers ' championship celebration in Los Angeles , coach Riley brashly declared that Los Angeles would repeat as NBA champions , which no team had done since the 1968 – 69 Boston Celtics . During the 1987 – 88 season , the Lakers took their seventh consecutive Pacific Division title , and met the Detroit Pistons in the 1988 NBA Finals . Los Angeles took the series in seven games , and James Worthy 's game seven triple double earned him a Finals MVP award . In the 1988 – 89 season , Los Angeles won 57 games . They swept the playoffs up till the NBA Finals , and faced the Detroit Pistons again . The Lakers , hampered by injuries to Byron Scott and Johnson , were swept by Detroit .
= = = 1991 – 96 : Post- " Showtime " dry spell = = =
On June 28 , 1989 , after 20 professional seasons , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar announced his retirement . A year later , 1987 Defensive Player of the Year winner Michael Cooper decided to play in Europe and was waived at his request . The Lakers went 63 – 19 in the 1989 – 90 season , but lost 4 – 1 in the second round of the playoffs . Riley left the team after the season citing burnout , and was replaced by Mike Dunleavy . Riley 's departure received a mixed reaction from the players . They respected his contributions , but some , such as Worthy and Scott , had grown tired of his intense practices and felt he tried to take too much credit for the team 's successes .
The team made another Finals appearance in 1991 , but lost in five games to a Chicago Bulls team led by Michael Jordan . On November 7 , 1991 , Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately . In their first season without Johnson , the team won 43 games , but became the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2 – 0 lead versus Phoenix . They lost the next two games at home however , then game five in Phoenix in overtime . Randy Pfund was let go as head coach in March 1994 and eventually replaced by Johnson , who coached the club with former teammate Michael Cooper as his lead assistant . Johnson decided not to take the job permanently due to what he felt was a lack of commitment from certain players , and Los Angeles ended the season with a 10 @-@ game losing streak to finish 33 – 49 and out of the playoffs .
The next two seasons , Los Angeles made the playoffs , but was eliminated in the second and first rounds respectively . The team was coached by Del Harris and led by young guards Nick Van Exel and Eddie Jones . Johnson came out of retirement in the 1995 – 96 season to lead the then 24 – 18 Lakers to a 29 – 11 finish . After some run @-@ ins with Van Exel , displeasure with Harris 's strategies , and a first round loss to the Rockets , Johnson decided to retire for the final time after the season .
= = = 1996 – 2016 : The Kobe Bryant era = = =
During the 1996 off @-@ season , the Lakers acquired 17 @-@ year @-@ old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac ; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore , Pennsylvania in that year 's draft , by Charlotte . Los Angeles also signed free @-@ agent Shaquille O 'Neal . Trading for Bryant was West 's idea , and he was influential in the team 's signing of the all @-@ star center . " Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers , " O 'Neal later said . They used their 24th pick in the draft to select Derek Fisher . During the season , the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry . O 'Neal led the team to a 56 – 26 record , their best effort since 1990 – 91 , despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury . O 'Neal averaged 26 @.@ 2 ppg and 12 @.@ 5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots ( 2 @.@ 88 bpg ) in 51 games . The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the 1997 NBA Playoffs . O 'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers , marking the highest single @-@ game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969 . In the next round , the Lakers lost four games to one to the Utah Jazz .
In the 1997 – 98 season , O 'Neal and the Lakers had the best start in franchise history , 11 – 0 . O 'Neal missed 20 games due to an abdominal injury . Los Angeles battled Seattle for the Pacific Division title most of the season . In the final two months , the Lakers won 22 of their final 25 games , finishing 61 – 21 , and second to Seattle in the standings . The Lakers defeated Portland three games to one in the first @-@ round . The following round , they faced Seattle . Although the Sonics won the first game , the Lakers responded with four straight wins , taking the series , but were swept by the Jazz in the next round .
During the 1998 – 99 season , All @-@ Star guard Eddie Jones and center Elden Campbell were traded to the Charlotte Hornets . The team also acquired J. R. Reid , B. J. Armstrong , and Glen Rice . Harris was fired in February after a three @-@ game losing streak and replaced on an interim basis by former Laker Kurt Rambis . The team finished 31 – 19 in the shortened season , which was fourth in the Western Conference . Los Angeles defeated Houston in the first round of the playoffs , but were swept by San Antonio in the next round with game 4 being the last game ever played at the Great Western Forum .
Before the 1999 – 2000 season , West was prepared to hire Rambis as the team 's full @-@ time coach before an outcry from fans and members of the organization caused him to seek out a bigger name . Los Angeles hired former Chicago Bulls coach Phil Jackson , who had coached that team to six championships , and gave him a lucrative $ 6 million a year contract . He brought along assistant Tex Winter and they installed Winter 's version of the triangle offense . They signed veterans Brian Shaw , John Salley , Ron Harper , and A. C. Green , who was a Laker during the " Showtime " era . The team also moved to a new arena , the Staples Center . After the season , starters Rice and Green left the team , and Los Angeles signed Horace Grant .
Led by league MVP O 'Neal , the Lakers won 31 of their first 36 games . Los Angeles finished 67 – 15 , their highest total since they won 65 in the 1986 – 87 season . They eliminated the Sacramento Kings and Phoenix in the first two rounds of the playoffs . After the Lakers took a three games to one lead in the Western Conference Finals , the Trail Blazers won the next two games to force a game seven . The Lakers were down by 15 points in the fourth quarter but went on a 19 – 4 run to tie the game . They won 89 – 84 to advance to the NBA Finals . They defeated Reggie Miller and the Indiana Pacers 4 – 2 in the 2000 NBA Finals to win their first title since 1988 . West retired from his spot in the team 's front office after the season after a power struggle between him and Jackson over control of the team 's operations .
The following season , Los Angeles won 11 fewer regular season games , but swept the first three rounds of the playoffs , defeating the Portland , Sacramento , and San Antonio . They met Allen Iverson and the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2001 NBA Finals . Although the Sixers took game one in overtime , the Lakers won the next four games to win their second straight title . Their 15 – 1 postseason record is the best in NBA history .
Los Angeles won 58 games in 2001 – 02 . In the playoffs , they swept the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round , and defeated the Spurs 4 – 1 in the second . They faced the rival Kings in the Western Conference Finals . The series has long been cited as one of the greatest playoff matchups in NBA history . The series extended to all seven games , and ended in a Lakers victory . In game 1 , Bryant scored 30 points as the Lakers won , 106 @-@ 99 . The series would then shift in Sacramento 's favor , with the Kings winning the next two games . Facing a 3 @-@ 1 deficit in game 4 , the Lakers had the ball with under 20 seconds to play . After misses by both Bryant and O 'Neal , Kings center Vlade Divac tapped the ball away from the rim in an attempt to wind down the clock . It went straight into Robert Horry 's hands , who drained a game @-@ winning three with under 3 seconds to play . After the Kings won game 5 on a buzzer beater by Mike Bibby , the Lakers were faced with a must @-@ win game 6 . In one of the most controversial playoff games in league history , the Lakers won by 4 points . The Lakers won game 7 in overtime , with the Kings missing numerous potentially game @-@ saving shots and free throws . The Lakers then achieved a three @-@ peat by sweeping Jason Kidd and the New Jersey Nets in the NBA Finals . O 'Neal won each of the Finals series ' MVP awards , making him the only player besides Michael Jordan to win three consecutive Finals MVPs .
The Lakers started the 2002 – 03 season 11 – 19 . They went 39 – 13 the rest of the way to finish 50 – 32 . They defeated the Minnesota Timberwolves in the first round of the 2003 NBA Playoffs , but were eliminated by San Antonio in six games in the second . During the 2003 – 04 season , the team was the subject of intense media coverage generated by the teaming of four stars and the sexual @-@ assault case involving Kobe Bryant . Before the season , Los Angeles signed two @-@ time MVP Karl Malone formerly of the Jazz , and former Seattle Defensive Player of the Year Gary Payton . Three of the " big four " , however , struggled with injuries : O 'Neal suffered from a strained calf , Malone an injured knee , and Bryant an injured shoulder . The Lakers started 18 – 3 and finished 56 – 26 . They won the Pacific Division title , and entered the playoffs as the number two seed . They defeated the Rockets , Spurs , and Timberwolves in the first three rounds of the 2004 NBA Playoffs , before succumbing to Detroit in five games in the 2004 NBA Finals . During the 2004 offseason , the team entered a rebuilding phase when O 'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom , Brian Grant , Caron Butler , and a first @-@ round draft pick . Bryant and O 'Neal had clashed in the past , and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade . Jackson did not return as head coach , and wrote a book about the team 's 2003 – 04 season , in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him " uncoachable " . The Lakers front office said that the book contained " several inaccuracies " .
= = = = 2004 – 07 : Rebuilding = = = =
The Lakers traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston , for Chris Mihm , Marcus Banks , and Chucky Atkins before the 2004 – 05 season . Derek Fisher , frustrated with losing playing time , opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors . The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson . After sitting out the first half of the 2004 – 05 season , Malone announced his retirement on February 13 , 2005 . Tomjanovich coached the team to a 22 – 19 record before resigning due to health problems . Assistant Frank Hamblen was named interim head coach to replace Tomjanovich for the remainder of the season . Bryant ( ankle ) and Odom ( shoulder ) suffered injuries , and the Lakers finished 34 – 48 , missing the playoffs for the fifth time in franchise history .
With the 10th overall pick in the draft , Los Angeles selected Andrew Bynum , a center from St. Joseph High School in Metuchen , New Jersey . The team also traded Caron Butler and Chucky Atkins to the Washington Wizards for Kwame Brown and Laron Profit . Jackson returned to coach the team after Rudy Tomjanovich resigned midway through the previous season . On January 22 , 2006 , Bryant scored 81 points against the Toronto Raptors , the second @-@ highest total in NBA history . Ending the season 45 – 37 , the team made the playoffs after a one season absence . After taking a three games to one lead in the first round , the Suns came back to take the series in seven games . In the following season , they won 26 of their first 39 games , but lost 27 of their last 43 — including seven in a row at one point — to finish 42 – 40 . They were eliminated in the first round by the Suns again , this time 4 – 1 . Frustrated by the team 's inability to advance in the playoffs , Bryant demanded to be traded in the offseason . Buss initially agreed to seek a trade , but also worked to try to change Bryant 's mind .
= = = = 2007 – 11 : Return to championship form = = = =
After re @-@ acquiring Derek Fisher , Los Angeles started the 2007 – 08 season with a 25 – 11 record , before Andrew Bynum , their center who was leading the league in field @-@ goal percentage , went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid @-@ January . They acquired power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22 – 5 to finish the season . The Lakers ' 57 – 25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference . Bryant was awarded the league 's MVP award , becoming the first Laker to win the award since O 'Neal in 2000 . In the playoffs , they defeated the Nuggets in four games , the Jazz in six , and the defending champion Spurs in five , but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals .
In the 2008 – 09 season , the Lakers finished 65 – 17 ; the best record in the Western Conference . They defeated the Jazz in five games , the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in six , to win the Western Conference title . They then won their 15th NBA championship by defeating the Orlando Magic in five games in the NBA finals . Bryant was named the NBA Finals MVP for the first time in his career .
The Lakers , who had added Ron Artest ( now Metta World Peace ) in place of Trevor Ariza in their starting lineup , finished the 2009 – 10 season with the best record in the Western Conference for the third straight time . On January 13 , 2010 , the Lakers became the first team in NBA history to win 3 @,@ 000 regular season games by defeating the Dallas Mavericks 100 – 95 . They defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder , the Utah Jazz , and the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference playoffs . In the finals , the Lakers played the Boston Celtics for the 12th time . They rallied back from a 3 – 2 disadvantage in the series and erased a 13 @-@ point deficit in the fourth quarter of the seventh game to defeat the Celtics . This series win gave them their 16th NBA title overall and 11th since they moved to Los Angeles . Bryant was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row , despite a 6 – 24 shooting performance in game seven .
After much speculation , head coach Phil Jackson returned for the 2010 – 11 season . In the playoffs , the Lakers defeated the New Orleans Hornets in the first round . But their opportunity for a three @-@ peat was denied by the Dallas Mavericks in a four @-@ game sweep of the second round . After the season , it was announced that Jackson will not be returning to coach the Lakers .
= = = = 2011 – 16 : Post @-@ Jackson era = = = =
After Jackson 's retirement , former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25 , 2011 . Before the start of the shortened 2011 – 12 season , the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded . On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill . With a 41 – 25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed , the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games .
On July 4 , 2012 , Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers ' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks , 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks , and $ 3 million . The trade was made official on July 11 , 2012 , the first day the trade moratorium was lifted . On August 10 , 2012 , in a four @-@ team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard . On November 9 , 2012 , Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1 – 4 start to the 2012 – 13 season . Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach , leading the Lakers to a 5 – 5 record . On November 12 , 2012 , the Lakers hired Mike D 'Antoni as head coach . On February 18 , 2013 , Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80 . On the court , D 'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40 – 32 record the rest of the way to finish 45 – 37 , their worst record since 2007 . The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16 , 2013 . The Lakers battled injuries all season , the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon rupture to Kobe Bryant that ended his season after 78 games . The absence of Bryant was sorely felt as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs . Nevertheless , Bryant passed Lakers legend Wilt Chamberlain to become the fourth all @-@ time leading scorer in NBA history on March 30 , 2013 against the Sacramento Kings .
On March 25 , 2014 , the Lakers scored 51 points in the third quarter against the New York Knicks , the most points scored in a quarter in the history of the franchise . The Lakers went on to miss the NBA playoffs for the first time since 2005 , for just the second time in the last two decades and for just the sixth time in franchise history . On April 30 , 2014 , Mike D 'Antoni resigned from his position as head coach after a 27 @-@ 55 season .
After spending the majority of the off @-@ season without a head coach , the Lakers named former player Byron Scott as the new head coach . After the season , he was the frontrunner to become the new Lakers head coach . Scott interviewed three times for the position , which had become vacant after Mike D 'Antoni 's resignation . On July 28 , 2014 , he signed a multi @-@ year contract to coach the Lakers .
During the first game of the 2014 – 15 season , the 7th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft , Julius Randle went down with a broken leg which ended his rookie season . The Lakers began their season losing 10 of their first 16 games . After playing only 35 games , Kobe Bryant tore a rotator cuff in his shoulder ending his season . Nick Young was also forced to end his season with a fractured kneecap , leaving the team with a record of 14 – 41 . With 27 games left in the regular season , Byron Scott gave rookie Jordan Clarkson more playing time . Clarkson , the 46th overall pick in the 2014 draft , finished his rookie season with game stats of 11 @.@ 9 ppg , 3 @.@ 2 rpg , 3 @.@ 5 apg , and shooting 44 @.@ 8 % from the field . The Lakers ' season ended with a record of 21 – 61 , the 4th worst record in the league and at the time the worst record in franchise history .
The next season , the Lakers had the second overall pick of the 2015 NBA Draft , which they used to select Ohio State freshman point guard D 'Angelo Russell . On November 30 , 2015 , Bryant announced he would retire at the end of the season after 20 seasons with the team . In Bryant 's last season the team missed the playoffs for the third straight year with a 17 – 65 record , the worst in franchise history .
= = = 2016 – present : Luke Walton era = = =
On April 24 , 2016 , the Lakers announced that they will not to exercise their option on Byron Scott contract for the following season . On April 29 , the Lakers announced another former Laker , Luke Walton , as their new head coach . At the time of his hiring , Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors , who were in the playoffs , so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors playoff run was over .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Boston Celtics = = =
The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association ( NBA ) history . It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA . The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals , starting with their first Finals meeting in 1959 . They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s , facing each other six times in the 60s and three times in the 80s .
The rivalry had been less intense since the retirements of Magic Johnson and Larry Bird in the early 1990s , but in 2008 it was renewed as the Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals for the first time since 1987 , with the Celtics winning the series 4 – 2 . They faced off once again in the 2010 NBA Finals which the Lakers won in 7 games . Since 1960 , the Lakers are 4 @-@ 2 against their fiercest rival in the Finals .
The two teams have won the two highest numbers of championships , the Celtics 17 , the Lakers 16 ; together , the 33 championships account for almost half of the 67 championships in NBA history .
= = = Los Angeles Clippers = = =
The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena , the Staples Center . It is also one of only two intra @-@ city rivalries in the NBA , the other being the new crosstown rivalry between the New York Knicks and Brooklyn Nets .
Los Angeles fans have historically favored the Lakers . Some contend that the term rivalry is inaccurate until the Clippers become more successful . However , with the addition of Chris Paul and Blake Griffin to the Clippers ' roster and their emergence as playoff contenders , the rivalry has started to develop in earnest , with a recent matchup between the teams garnering ESPN its highest ratings ever for a regular season broadcast in Los Angeles .
= = = San Antonio Spurs = = =
The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers , developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s . Since 1999 , the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times , with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals ( 1999 – 2005 ) . Additionally , the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999 – 2003 . The Spurs won the NBA championship in 1999 , 2003 , 2005 , 2007 and 2014 while the Lakers won the championship in 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2009 and 2010 . From 1999 to 2004 the clubs ' rivalry was often considered the premier rivalry in the NBA , and each time the clubs faced each other in the playoffs the winner advanced to the NBA Finals . In 2008 the teams met again in the Western Conference Finals where the Spurs were handily defeated only to beat LA when they met again in 2013 ( though against a Lakers team without an injured Kobe Bryant ) .
= = Ownerships , financial history , and fanbase = =
Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL 's disbanded Detroit Gems for $ 15 @,@ 000 in 1947 , changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota . Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years , and sold his share to Mikan in 1954 . Berger bought Mikan 's share in 1956 giving him a controlling ( ⅔ ) interest . After Mikan retired , attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons , leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957 . Marty Marion , a retired baseball player and manager , and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City , Missouri . Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota . The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however . The team was sold to Short 's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota . Short 's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens , who amassed a total of $ 200 @,@ 000 for the purchase ; $ 150 @,@ 000 to buy the team and $ 50 @,@ 000 to run it . By 1958 Short had become 80 % owner of the team by buying out his partners , but the team was floundering . Attendance remained poor , and the NBA had put the Lakers on " financial probation " , notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated . Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960 ; the club had lost $ 60 @,@ 000 in the first half of the 1959 – 60 season alone . The NBA 's owners originally voted 7 – 1 against the move . When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however , the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation ( 8 – 0 ) . Aided by Baylor 's drawing power , and the new locale , the team 's finances improved when they arrived in LA . Short sold the team to Washington Redskins owner and publisher Jack Kent Cooke in 1965 for a then league record amount of $ 5 @,@ 175 @,@ 000 . Short insisted the deal be conducted in cash as he was wary of Cooke , so guards transported the money in a cart from one New York bank to another .
Cooke was a more hands @-@ on owner than Short , and overhauled the team 's operations . He personally financed construction of the Forum in 1967 at a cost of $ 16 @.@ 5 million . He owned the team until 1979 when he sold it , the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings , the Forum , and some real estate to Jerry Buss for $ 67 million . Cooke was forced to sell the team as he was undergoing a costly divorce . Buss was a local chemical engineer and former University of Southern California professor who had become wealthy in real estate . Philip Anschutz bought a stake in the team in 1998 , and until October 2010 Magic Johnson was a minority owner as well . Buss started the trend of allowing sponsors to add their name to team 's stadiums when he renamed the Forum the Great Western Forum in 1988 . In 2009 major sponsors included Verizon Wireless , Toyota , Anheuser @-@ Busch , American Express , and Carl 's Jr . , and the team 's $ 113 average ticket price was the highest in the league . Fast food chain Jack in the Box is another major sponsor , the company gives all fans in attendance at home games a coupon for two free tacos if the Lakers hold their opponent under 100 points and win . The company also sponsors the team 's halftime shows on KCAL @-@ TV and Fox Sports West . In 2013 , Buss died at the age of 80 after being hospitalized for 18 months with cancer . His controlling ownership of the team passed to his six children via a trust , with each child receiving an equal vote . Buss ' succession plan had daughter Jeanie Buss assume his title as the Lakers ' governor as well as its team representative at NBA Board of Governors meetings .
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood , the Lakers fanbase includes numerous celebrities , many of whom can be seen at the Staples Center during home games . Jack Nicholson , for example , has held season tickets since the 1970s , and directors reportedly need to work their shooting schedules around Lakers home games . From 2002 and 2007 the team averaged just over 18 @,@ 900 fans , which placed them in the top ten in the NBA in attendance . Red Hot Chili Peppers ' song " Magic Johnson " from their 1989 album Mother 's Milk is a tribute to the former point guard , and frontman Anthony Kiedis and bassist Michael " Flea " Balzary are frequently seen attending home games . The team has sold out every home game since the 2007 – 08 season . As of 2010 , the Lakers have the most popular team merchandise among all NBA teams , and Bryant the most popular jersey .
= = Name , logo and uniforms = =
The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes . The team 's colors are purple , gold and white . The Lakers logo consists of the team name , " Los Angeles Lakers " written in purple on top of a gold basketball . Purple uniforms are used for road games and gold uniforms are used for home games . The team also wears white jerseys for Sunday and holiday home games .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season records = =
Since the Lakers were established in 1948 , the team has missed the playoffs just five times . The team has 16 NBA titles and has appeared in the NBA Finals 15 other times . These appearances include eight NBA Finals appearances in the 80s . The best record posted by the team was 69 – 13 , in 1972 ; the worst record was 17 – 65 , in 2015 – 16 .
= = Franchise and NBA records = =
Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played ( 1333 ) , and most minutes logged ( 48 @,@ 298 ) . Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists ( 10 @,@ 141 ) , assists in a game ( 24 ) , and highest assist average for a season ( 13 @.@ 1 ) . Johnson also has the most triple doubles , with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player ( Bryant ; 17 ) . Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game ( 17 ) , blocks per game for a season ( 4 @.@ 85 ) , and career blocks per game ( 3 @.@ 93 ) . The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant , with Baylor having the highest average for a career ( 27 @.@ 4 ) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game ( 81 ) . Baylor , Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring averages , with Bryant occupying the numbers one ( 35 @.@ 4 ) and four ( 31 @.@ 6 ) spots , while Baylor has the second ( 34 @.@ 8 ) , and third ( 34 @.@ 0 ) , and West the fifth ( 31 @.@ 3 ) .
The Lakers hold several NBA records as a team including most consecutive games won overall ( 33 ) and most consecutive road games won ( 16 ) both of which came during the 1971 – 72 season . Highest field @-@ goal percentage for a season at 54 @.@ 5 % ( 1984 – 85 ) , and highest road winning percentage at 0 @.@ 816 ( 1971 – 72 ) . They also hold records for having ( into the 2009 – 10 season ) the most wins ( 3 @,@ 027 ) , the highest winning percentage ( 61 @.@ 9 % ) , and the most NBA Finals appearances ( 31 ) . The 2000 – 01 team tied the NBA record for best playoff record at 15 – 1 . The 1971 – 72 team holds franchise records in wins ( 69 ) , most points scored , and largest margin of victory ; both of the latter came in the team 's 63 point win versus Golden State ( 162 – 99 ) . They also used to hold the record for most wins at home in the regular season ( going 36 @-@ 5 in 1971 @-@ 72 , then 37 @-@ 4 in both 1976 @-@ 77 and 1979 @-@ 1980 ) before the Boston Celtics set the current record of 40 @-@ 1 in the 1985 @-@ 86 season .
= = Home arenas = =
The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center , located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles . Staples Center opened in fall 1999 , and seats up to 18 @,@ 997 for Lakers games . The Staples Center is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers , the WNBA 's Los Angeles Sparks , and the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings . The arena is owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company . Before moving to the Staples Center , for 32 seasons ( 1967 – 1999 ) , the Lakers played their home games at The Forum in Inglewood , California , located approximately 10 miles southwest of the team 's current home at Staples Center . During the 1999 NBA preseason , the Lakers played their home games at the Forum before officially moving into Staples Center , and once again hosted a preseason game versus the Golden State Warriors on October 9 , 2009 , this time to commemorate the team 's 50th anniversary season in Los Angeles .
In the first seven years in Los Angeles , the team played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena , south of Downtown Los Angeles . While the team played in Minneapolis , the team played their home games at the Minneapolis Auditorium , from 1947 to 1960 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who isn 't signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA teams . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Draft picks = = =
The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history : Elgin Baylor ( selected in 1958 ) , Magic Johnson ( selected in 1979 ) and James Worthy ( selected in 1982 ) . The Lakers have also had four Lottery picks in their history : Eddie Jones ( selected 10th overall in 1994 ) , Andrew Bynum ( selected 10th overall in 2005 ) , Julius Randle ( selected 7th overall in 2014 ) and D 'Angelo Russell ( selected 2nd overall in 2015 ) . Other draft picks include Jerry West and Gail Goodrich in the 1960s , Michael Cooper and Norm Nixon in the 1970s , A. C. Green and Vlade Divac in the 1980s , Elden Campbell , Nick Van Exel , Derek Fisher , and Devean George in the 1990s , and Luke Walton , Sasha Vujačić , and Ronny Turiaf in the 2000s .
= = Head coaches = =
There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise . John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA / NBA championships , from 1949 to 1954 . Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins . Phil Jackson broke Riley 's regular season wins record in 2009 , and he passed Riley 's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010 . Jackson , Riley , Kundla , and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers . George Mikan , Jim Pollard , Jerry West , Pat Riley , Magic Johnson , Kurt Rambis and Byron Scott have all played and head coached for the Lakers . Jackson , who had two stints as head coach , was coach from 2005 – 2006 until 2010 – 2011 . Mike Brown was named his replacement for the 2011 – 2012 season in May 2011 . Brown was fired on November 9 , 2012 , after a 1 – 4 start . Assistant coach Bernie Bickerstaff served as interim head coach for five games before the Lakers selected Mike D 'Antoni as their new head coach . D 'Antoni resigned at the end of the 2013 – 2014 season . In July 2014 , Byron Scott was hired as head coach . After the 2015 – 2016 season ended , Scott was fired . On April 29 , 2016 , former Lakers player Luke Walton was named as Scott 's replacement .
= = Hall of Famers , retired and honored numbers = =
The Lakers have 28 Hall of Famers ( 21 players , 4 head coaches , 1 assistant coach , and 2 contributors ) who contributed to the organization .
On April 4 , 2016 , Beaty and O 'Neal were elected into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . They will be inducted in September 2016 .
= = = FIBA Hall of Famers = = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
The Lakers have retired nine jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster :
In addition , several other players and coaches who were instrumental to the franchise 's success during its days in Minneapolis were named Honored Minneapolis Lakers , although their numbers are not retired by the franchise :
17 Jim Pollard , F , 1948 – 1955 , head coach , 1960
19 Vern Mikkelsen , F , 1949 – 1959
22 Slater Martin , G , 1949 – 1956
34 Clyde Lovellette , F / C , 1953 – 1957
99 George Mikan , C , 1948 – 1954 ; 1955 – 1956 , head coach , 1957 – 1958
John Kundla , head coach , 1948 – 1957 ; 1958 – 1959
= = Media = =
Chick Hearn was the team 's broadcaster for 41 years until his death in 2002 . He broadcast 3 @,@ 338 consecutive games between November 21 , 1965 , and December 16 , 2001 . Hearn came up with West 's " Mr. Clutch " nickname . He was a part of the team 's " inner sanctum " when Cooke was owner , and was consulted on basketball decisions . Paul Sunderland , who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in 2001 – 02 , was named the permanent play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator . Sunderland 's contract expired in the summer of 2005 , and the team chose not to renew it . Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer , while Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio .
For the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Bill Macdonald became the new television play @-@ by @-@ play announcer , joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst . Meanwhile , John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio .
As of the 2009 – 10 season , Lakers radio broadcasts are heard on KSPN ( Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate ) in English and KWKW in Spanish . KLAC had the team 's radio broadcast rights from the 1976 – 77 season until the 2008 – 09 season . Until 2011 , telecasts had been split between KCAL @-@ TV ( road games ) and Fox Sports West ( home games ) , unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC . KCAL had been the Lakers ' over @-@ the @-@ air television broadcaster since 1977 , dating back to when the station was the RKO General @-@ owned KHJ @-@ TV , the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station . Prior to KHJ , Laker games were televised on KTLA . The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985 , dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss .
On February 14 , 2011 , Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks ( one in English , one in Spanish ) that will exclusively televise the team 's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012 – 13 NBA season . The said networks eventually became Time Warner Cable SportsNet and Time Warner Cable Deportes .
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= Ålgård Line =
The Ålgård Line ( Norwegian : Ålgårdbanen ) is a closed , but not abandoned , railway line between Ganddal and Ålgård in Rogaland , Norway . The 12 @.@ 24 @-@ kilometer ( 7 @.@ 61 mi ) line was built as a narrow gauge branch line of the Jæren Line by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and opened in 1924 . It runs through the villages of Foss @-@ Eikeland and Figgjo in Sandnes to Ålgård in Gjesdal . Several proposals were made for the Ålgård Line to become the first part of the main line from Stavanger to Oslo , but instead the Sørlandet Line was connected to the Jæren Line in 1944 . At the same time , the Ålgård Line was upgraded to standard gauge .
The line had up to ten daily round trips with diesel multiple units , until passenger traffic was terminated in 1955 . Freight traffic remained until 1988 , when most of the line was abandoned in 1988 , although 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) was used until 2001 . The line is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The station at Figgjo has been converted to a museum , and the 3 @-@ kilometer ( 2 mi ) section from there to Ålgård is used for recreational draisines . There have been proposals to reopen the line either as part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or the planned light rail for Greater Stavanger .
= = Route = =
The Ålgård Line runs 12 @.@ 24 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 61 mi ) from Ganddal to Ålgård . The whole line was built with NSB 's standard for main lines , with a maximum gradient of 1 @.@ 5 percent and minimum curve radius of 300 meters ( 980 ft ) . It branches off from the Sørlandet Line ( previously the Jæren Line ) north of Ganddal Station , 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) south of Stavanger . When the line opened , Ganddal Station was located south of the creek Stokkelandselven , but it was moved further north in 1935 to simplify operations . The line continues over Stokkelandsevlen on a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 25 ft ) long bridge , and follows the creek until it reaches Foss @-@ Eikeland , 3 @.@ 43 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 13 mi ) from Ganddal . Foss @-@ Eikeland had a 91 @-@ meter ( 299 ft ) long passing loop and a 40 @-@ metre ( 130 ft ) long platform . The station building was built in wood , had a single story and was 57 square meters ( 610 sq ft ) .
After Foss @-@ Eikeland , the line crosses Figgjo River on a 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) long truss bridge . It passes Bråstein Station and continues up the steepest gradient at 1 @.@ 5 percent to Figgjo Station . It had a 69 @-@ meter ( 226 ft ) passing loop and a 50 @-@ meter ( 160 ft ) long platform , and a 97 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 040 sq ft ) single @-@ story station building in wood . Ålgård Station was the largest on the line , with two tracks and a 120 @-@ meter ( 390 ft ) long platform , a 12 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 40 ft ) long turntable and a 66 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 710 sq ft ) depot . The station was built in wood in two stories , and included living quarters for the station master .
The line is , along with the Namsos Line , the only railway line in Norway to holistically employ Neoclassical architecture . All the original stations were designed by R. Werenskiold , who used a simplistic , wooden interpretation of the 1920s Neoclassicism . The station buildings at Figgjo and Ålgård have been preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage . The line eventually received additional stops , and in 1955 , there were stations at Holane , Vagle , Foss @-@ Eikeland , Kalberg , Bråstein , Figgjo Fajanse , Figgjo , Figgjo fabrikker and Ålgård . Some trains operated to Sandnes Station , whilst others continued all the way to Stavanger Station .
As of 1994 , the line was intact and operational from Ganddal to Foss @-@ Eigeland and the cement factory there . Here , an internal crane track has been welded across the line . From Foss @-@ Eigeland to Figgjo , the track is intact . At Figgjo , a bridge has been demolished , and it is not possible to traverse that section . Except for a number of level crossings where the tracks have been asphalted over , the line remains intact to Ålgård . At Ålgård Station the tracks have been removed , but the station building and depot remains . The station at Foss @-@ Eigeland has been converted to a church , while the station at Figgjo had been taken over by a wholesaler . The line has officially been closed , but has not been abandoned . The Norwegian National Rail Administration retains ownership and can in the future renovate the line for operation .
= = History = =
The first plans to build a railway line along the route of the Ålgård Line was as part of the main route between Stavanger and Oslo . In 1873 , County Engineer Th . Sejersted proposed a line running through Høgsfjord , Dirdal , Hunnedalen , Sirdal and Hylestad and onwards through Telemark to Kongsberg . Through Rogaland , it would run further east than the Jæren Line , which was under construction from Stavanger to Egersund . When the plans for a Sørlandet Line — which would connect Stavanger to Oslo via Kristiansand — started to be developed in 1892 , some of Sjersted 's plans were reconsidered .
On 27 September 1894 , a committee was established to plan a branch from the Jæren Line to Ålgård . The following year , the committee recommended that a line be built branching from Orstad in Klepp , which would cost 348 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Gjesdal Municipality offered NOK 60 @,@ 000 of the capital , on the condition that NSB would build and operate it . The state , on the other hand , wanted the line to be private . Private railways were often largely or entirely owned by municipalities , counties and the state , but would operate independent of NSB and the municipalities would carry the risk for operating deficits .
A new committee was established in 1910 , led by Mayor Sven Nilssen of Gjesdal , who was also director at Ålgårds Ullvarefabrikker . His company paid for traffic counting along the route , and the committee concluded that there was sufficient traffic to build a line . Two routes were proposed : one branching from Sandnes Station and one from Ganddal Station . The Ganddal alternative had lower investment costs , but would give higher operating costs ; in 1913 , investments were stipulated at NOK 787 @,@ 800 . Although NSB 's board supported the line , construction was placed on hold .
In 1919 , local politicians proposed that the line be built administratively as part of the Jæren Line , but this was rejected by the government . Instead , the ministry wanted to again consider the Ålgård Line as part of the Sørlandet Line , and proposed that the Ålgård Line be built with standard gauge — which would be used for the Sørlandet Line — instead of the narrow gauge used by the Jæren Line . However , there would be no need for standard gauge until the Sørlandet Line was extended to Rogaland , so the line was planned to be built with narrow gauge track , but all other installations would be prepared for standard gauge .
Siting of the Ålgård Line from Ganddal to Ålgård started in 1920 . The final cost estimate was NOK 2 @.@ 82 million and the plan was passed by Parliament on 20 July 1921 , with construction commencing on 21 December . The construction was organized by Just Broch and led by Olaf Bakke . Between 200 and 250 people worked on the line during construction . Because of the recession , the railway works were seen as way to create jobs . Most of the workers came from Stavanger and nearly all had families to support . The first train to operate on the line went from Stavanger on 20 December 1924 , with the official opening by Minister of Labour Lars Oftedal taking place when it reached Ålgård . The line became the last state @-@ owned railway in Norway to be opened with narrow gauge .
At the start , there were one or two daily round trips with steam locomotive @-@ hauled trains . In the first year of operation , the line transported 18 @,@ 500 passengers . The initial ticket price from Sandnes to Ålgård was NOK 1 @.@ 50 , compared to NOK 1 for a bus ticket . This was in part because NSB operated with a standard price based on the length of the line , and the line was longer than the corresponding roads . After a while NSB 's board accepted that tickets be priced as if they were the length of the road , and the price was reduced to NOK 1 @.@ 10 . Because of competition from truck drivers picking up random passengers for NOK 0 @.@ 75 , the price was then reduced to NOK 0 @.@ 80 in 1927 . The line made a profit during until the late 1940s , after which it started to operate with a deficit . In the financial year 1948 – 49 , the line transported 79 @,@ 700 passengers .
In 1923 , Parliament voted for a plan for the Sørlandet Line to run via Bjerkreim instead of the city of Egersund , and then onwards via Gjesdal . This plan meant that the section from Ganddal to Stavanger would have dual gauge . During further planning , it became clear that the Gjesdal alternative , although 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) shorter , had a greater elevation difference than that needed for connecting the Sørlandet Line to the Jæren Line . This changed the NSB board 's and Rogaland County Council 's opinion , and the Jæren alternative was chosen . The final decision to build via Jæren was made by parliament in 1937 .
An inter @-@ municipal railway committee was established in 1941 . Led by Sigval Bergesen , it considered the possibility of extending the Ålgård Line towards Hunnedalen via Setesdalsheiene to Lunde in Telemark . The line would be built with a higher standard than the Sørlandet Line and have a shorter route , allowing travel time from Stavanger to Oslo to be reduced to four to five hours . A detailed plan was made for the extension from Ålgård to the county border with Telemark . To consider the proposal , parliament established a committee in 1949 to look at the various proposals . After considering the impact and value of the various railways that had been proposed in the 1940s , it recommended not building the Inner Trunk Line , as the expansion had been christened .
In 1930 , an NSB Class Cmb1 diesel multiple unit was taken into use , and the number of daily trips increased to four . On days with heavy traffic , it hauled a trailer , which was normally stationed at Sandnes Station . On 10 November 1935 , the new Ganddal Station opened , simplifying the stopping at the station . During World War II , the multiple units were disused , and instead the trains were hauled with steam locomotives . From 1 May 1944 , the line was converted to standard gauge , and NSB Class 14 multiple units were taken into use , running on wood gas until the end of the war . In 1945 , there were four daily round trips , but at the start of 1946 , the number of daily round trips increased to six , and from mid @-@ 1946 , to ten . From 1947 to 1953 , there were eight or nine daily round trips , and from 1953 ten . Class 14 was eventually replaced with NSB Class 86 and NSB Class 87 in 1953 . By then , the driving time from Ålgård to Sandnes had been reduced from 38 to 25 minutes .
In the 1940s and 1950s , several companies started a competing bus service . There were accusations that the route was cross @-@ subsidized and that price dumping was occurring along the route from Sandnes to Ålgård . In the early 1950s , discussion started about closing the line , and on 1 November 1955 , all passenger transport was terminated , after a decision in parliament on 26 May 1955 . This is the line with the most frequent passenger traffic in Norway to have been closed .
After it was decided that passenger transport on the railway was to be terminated , both NSB 's bus division and other private companies , particularly Sverre Hage , wanted to have the concession to operate the line . Both established a bus services with a frequency as if the other operator did not exist . At the peak of the conflict , NSB 's operations were at one point stopped by the police , although in the end , the concession was granted to them . As a response , Haga applied for concession to operate passenger transport on the railway , but this was denied by the authorities . The transfer to bus operations increased the ticket prices and travel time .
Freight trains to the various industrial companies along the line remained until the 1980s , when traffic sank drastically . From 1988 , the line was closed from Foss @-@ Eigeland , although the line from there to Ganddal was kept for use for a cement factory . Until 2001 only the three first kilometers ( two first miles ) of the line were used , for transport of concrete structures , but then the Norwegian National Rail Administration stopped all traffic on the line .
= = Heritage = =
The non @-@ profit organization Friends of the Ålgård Line ( Ålgårdbanens venner ) have preserved 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) of the line and Figgjo Station . The station has been converted to a museum , while the railway between Figgjo and Ålgård is used for renting out draisines . At Figgjo , there is a railway car and a shunter on display .
= = Future = =
Several local politicians have proposed re @-@ opening the line and either making it part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or part of the planned light rail in Greater Stavanger . Additionally , the Norwegian National Rail Administration has supported a future re @-@ opening of the line . Estimates show that the line has a traffic potential for 600 @,@ 000 passengers per year . In a proposal from the National Rail Administration , the Ålgård Line is seen as a possible branch of the commuter rail , with stations at Vagle , Figgjo , Kongeparken and Ålgård . Without making any investments to the Sørlandet Line , it would be possible to extend the two hourly services that terminate at Sandnes to Ålgård . Ålgård is also a good location for a park and ride for European Route E39 . However , the Ålgård Line would need a full upgrade , including new tracks , electric system and signaling . This would give a travel time from Ganddal to Ålgård of 10 to 12 minutes . The estimated cost of re @-@ opening the line is NOK 500 million . The Center Party has proposed converting the line to a bus lane . The borough council of Figgjo has voted to convert the line to a bicycle path , but this has been rejected by the National Rail Administration .
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= Peter of Canterbury =
Peter of Canterbury or Petrus ( died c . 607 or after 614 ) was the first abbot of the monastery of SS . Peter and Paul in Canterbury ( later St Augustine 's Abbey ) and a companion of Augustine in the Gregorian mission to Kent . Augustine sent Peter as an emissary to Rome around 600 to convey news of the mission to Pope Gregory I. Peter 's death has traditionally been dated to around 607 , but evidence suggests that he was present at a church council in Paris in 614 , so he probably died after that date .
= = Life = =
It is presumed that Peter was a native of Italy , like the other members of the Gregorian mission . This mission was dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . It landed in Kent in 597 , and soon converted King Æthelberht of Kent , who gave Augustine the land on which he founded the abbey that later became St Augustine 's , Canterbury .
The medieval chronicler Bede records that sometime after the mission 's arrival in England , probably in late 600 , Peter , along with fellow @-@ missionary Laurence , was sent back to Gregory . This deputation was to relay the news of Augustine 's successes in Kent , and to request more missionaries . They also conveyed to the pope a number of inquiries from Augustine about how to proceed with the mission , and when they returned in 601 , they brought back Gregory 's replies to Augustine .
Peter became the abbot of the monastery that Æthelberht founded in Canterbury , originally dedicated to the saints Peter and Paul , but later rededicated as St Augustine 's , after the leader of the mission . Bede describes Peter as both abbot and presbyter , a word usually translated as priest .
= = Death and veneration = =
Peter drowned while crossing the English Channel on the way to Gaul , at a place called Ambleteuse , near Boulogne . At first he was buried hastily nearby , but Bede reports that after a light illuminated the grave every night , the locals realised Peter was a saint and exhumed him and re @-@ interred him in Boulogne . The actual date of death is unknown , and since his feast day was celebrated on two different days , 30 December or 6 January , that information does not clear up the mystery . The date of his death is reported to have been 1 year , 7 months and 3 weeks after Augustine 's , by Thomas of Elmham , a 15th @-@ century chronicler . If this is true , this would give a year of death between 605 and 611 . This information , however , is contradicted by the fact that Peter was present at the Council of Paris in 614 , convened by Chlothar II . It is possible that he died during his return from the Council of Paris .
Peter is a considered a saint , with a feast day on 6 January . His cult was confirmed in 1915 . A Vita Petri , or Life of Peter , written by Eadmer in the 12th century , exists in manuscript form , but it is unreliable . There is evidence that Peter was the object of veneration in Boulogne in the 15th century , and a church in that town was associated with Peter , although probably not from the start of his cult .
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= Battletoads Arcade =
Battletoads Arcade , also known as Super Battletoads or just Battletoads , is a 1994 scrolling beat ' em up arcade game in the Battletoads series developed by Rare and published by Electronic Arts . Up to three players , as the Battletoads , brawl aliens and mutant rodents through six levels to save the universe from the Dark Queen . The game also includes vertical and bonus levels . Each Toad has its own signature attack , and as customary for the series , players can knock enemies towards the screen , breaking the fourth wall .
Rare took greater liberties with violence and gore in Battletoads Arcade since the product was not destined for home consoles . It was Rare 's first game to use the 3D graphics technology that was implemented in Donkey Kong Country and Killer Instinct . Although the game playtested well and appeared financially viable , the publisher hesitated to release the game . A port for the Super NES was in production but canceled . The game received its console debut when it was emulated in the 2015 Rare Replay , a compilation of games from Rare 's history for the Xbox One .
A Rare employee reported that the game was unsuccessful in the arcades . An AllGame reviewer found that the game was true to the original 's style and had better graphics but was still a let down . Retro Gamer has stated that the game is obscure now but had all the hallmarks of a Rare release . Rare Replay reviewers were surprised by the quality of the game and some considered it a highlight of the package . Battletoads Arcade remains the last entry in the Battletoads series .
= = Gameplay = =
Battletoads Arcade is a coin @-@ operated , scrolling beat ' em up arcade video game . Up to three players , as the Battletoads ( Rash , Pimple , and Zitz ) , punch and kick oncoming enemies through six levels to save their alternate universe from the Dark Queen . Arcade was the first Battletoads game to feature three @-@ player cooperative multiplayer . Players control their characters with eight @-@ directional joysticks and two buttons ( attack and jump ) . Characters can run if the player pushes the joystick twice in the same direction . The Toads vary in fighting style : Rash is nimble , Pimple is burly , and Zitz is a balance of the two . As customary for the series , the Toads can knocked enemies offscreen such that they appear to fly towards the players , breaking the fourth wall . The Toads can also eat flies to regenerate health . Each Toad has its own signature exaggerated power and attack , in which their limbs turn into objects such as axes and drills . Enemies include aliens , mutant rodents , and snowmen .
Each level has a unique theme , such as a " Christmas grotto " , and a boss fights finale . Some bosses , such as General Slaughter , return from previous games . Some levels differ in presentation and gameplay . Some levels are Double Dragon @-@ style 2.5D brawlers , while others are strictly two @-@ dimensional . In one level , the Toads wear jetpacks and descend a tunnel , and in the final level , the Toads shoot enemies from a vehicle . Players can also destroy a spaceship in a Street Fighter II @-@ style bonus stage . Battletoads Arcade is displayed in standard definition raster graphics in horizontal orientation with either mono or stereo sound within an upright arcade cabinet .
= = Development = =
The game was developed by Rare , published by Electronic Arts , and released in 1994 as the fifth game in the Battletoads series . Rare founders Tim and Chris Stamper created the series in response to interest in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . The Battletoads series — especially the 1991 original Battletoads for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) — became popular in its own right and led to a series of sequels . Since this sequel was in development for arcades rather than consoles , Rare took greater liberties in its depiction of violence , unlike their obligations in the rest of the series . While the original NES Battletoads censored blood , Battletoads Arcade showed gore and decapitation . The Dark Queen was also depicted in a more lascivious style . Rare had begun to experiment with 3D graphics around this time , and went with PowerAnimator ( later Autodesk Maya ) . Battletoads Arcade was the first Rare game to use PowerAnimator , well before it was implemented in Killer Instinct and Donkey Kong Country . Rare 's George Andreas had worked on the game and recalled it sitting around " for ages " despite being finished . Andreas could not discern why the game was unsuccessful , as it had playtested and sold well in their market tests . A port for the Super NES was planned but canceled , likely due to the game 's mediocre reception in arcades . Rare 's Brendan Gunn had worked on the port and said that the team had nearly finished the first level before the project was scrapped . He figured that the decision may have been linked to mediocre sales but was not sure . Battletoads Arcade is also known as Super Battletoads .
Battletoads Arcade received its first console release as Battletoads Arcade when it was emulated for the Xbox One as part of the 2015 Rare Replay compilation of 30 games from Rare 's 30 @-@ year history . In the Rare Replay version , additional features include a setting for unlimited continues , the ability to " rewind " time ( and replay a section ) , and the opportunity to save game progress at any time .
= = Reception = =
In a 2013 interview , Rare 's Chris Tilson said that the company had low expectations for future arcade releases after Battletoads Arcade " bombed badly " . Sales were mediocre . Christopher Michael Baker ( AllGame ) wrote that the arcade release rode the success of its console game predecessor when the order is usually reversed . He found the two games similar in brawling style with simple controls , but felt that the arcade game had better graphics . He noted how both included the effect of knocking enemies towards the players off @-@ screen . Baker felt that the signature attacks were interesting and added replay value . Overall , he was somewhat let down by the arcade game , having expected something more , but rated Battletoads Arcade four of five stars . AllGame compared Battletoads Arcade to Turtles in Time and The Simpsons Arcade Game .
Retro Gamer retrospectively wrote that Battletoads Arcade was a " relatively obscure " game , but the best in the series . They described it as " unmistakeable " Rare : " bombastic , colorful , and well @-@ designed " . Retro Gamer put it on par with the arcade games of Konami and Sega and praised its humor , combat , and character . They added that Arcade was a swan song for the series , with numerous references to moments and levels from previous games . For example , the first stage atop the Dark Queen 's ship was similar to the opening of Battletoads & Double Dragon and the jetpack level was reminiscent of the " Wookie Hole " level in the original Battletoads . The magazine added that the level of gore set it apart from previous series entries and that the game had a mediocre reception in arcades . They called its console cancellation " a tragedy " .
Chris Carter ( Destructoid ) wrote that the game was an unexpected favorite in his Rare Replay review . Philip Kollar ( Polygon ) was also " surprised " by the game , which he found incredibly fun . Kollar ranked the game near the middle of the Rare Replay collection . Timothy Seppala ( Engadget ) was grateful to be introduced to Battletoads Arcade on Rare Replay . He considered the game among Rare 's " finest moments " and one of two retro titles worth playing . Sam Machkovech ( Ars Technica ) described the game as one of the rarest in the compilation .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2011 , Battletoads Arcade remains the last Battletoads game released . Rare had begun planning on a possible sequel in the mid @-@ 2000s but ultimately decided that there was no original direction for the game apart from its past . They did not want to repeat the failed Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles reboot . Battletoads Arcade served as an inspiration for the cooperative play mode in the 2011 Ratchet & Clank : All 4 One . Kotaku included Battletoads Arcade in its list of 16 @-@ bit era beat ' em ups with the best graphics .
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= Battle of Tsimba Ridge =
The Battle of Tsimba Ridge was an engagement of the Second World War involving Australian and Japanese forces . Part of the wider Bougainville Campaign of the Pacific theatre , the battle occurred in the northern sector of Bougainville Island between 17 January and 9 February 1945 , when the lead battalion of the Australian 11th Brigade — the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion — advanced towards the Genga River as part of a drive north to the Bonis Peninsula .
On the peninsula , an enclave of Japanese troops had established itself after withdrawing north following earlier engagements in the centre of the island throughout 1944 – 45 . Coming up against heavy resistance along Tsimba Ridge , the Australians ' advance was halted for three weeks as they fought to wrest control of the ridge from the defending Japanese from the 81st Infantry Regiment , whose strength was roughly equal to that of the Australians . The main Australian attack took place on 6 February , but it was not until 9 February that the Japanese completely withdrew from the position . Small @-@ scale fighting in the surrounding area continued until 22 February . The next stage of the campaign saw the Australians take Ratsua as they sought to establish a defensive line across the base of the Bonis Peninsula between Ratsua and Ruri Bay .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic situation = = =
Japanese forces had landed on Bougainville in early 1942 , capturing it from the small force of Australians garrisoning the island . They had subsequently developed several airbases on the island , using it to conduct operations in the northern Solomon Islands and to attack the Allied lines of communication between the United States , Australia and the Southwest Pacific Area . These bases also helped protect Rabaul , the major Japanese garrison and naval base in Papua New Guinea ; throughout 1943 , Allied planners determined that Bougainville was vital for neutralising the Japanese base around Rabaul .
US Marines conducted an amphibious landing at Cape Torokina , on the western coast of Bougainville , north of Empress Augusta Bay , in November 1943 . After an initial counter @-@ attack that was repulsed , the Marines had been replaced by a garrison of US Army troops who began consolidating their position around Torokina , establishing a strong perimeter . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched a heavy counter @-@ attack , which was turned back with many casualties . After this , the situation on Bougainville became largely static , as the Japanese focused primarily on subsistence , and the US forces chose to adopt a mostly defensive posture aimed at maintaining the perimeter around Torokina .
In November – December 1944 , the Australian II Corps — consisting of Militia troops from the 3rd Division and the 11th Brigade — under Lieutenant General Stanley Savige took over responsibility for Allied operations on Bougainville from the American XIV Corps as part of a plan to free up the US troops for the fighting in the Philippines . Mistakenly believing that the Japanese forces on the island numbered just 17 @,@ 500 men it was decided that the Australians should pursue an aggressive campaign to clear the Japanese from Bougainville . After taking over the US perimeter that had been established around Torokina , the Australian campaign developed into three separate drives : in the north , it was planned that Japanese forces would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained ; in the centre the seizure of Pearl Ridge would give the Australians control of the east – west avenues of approach , as well as affording them protection against further counter @-@ attacks , while also opening the way for a drive to the east coast ; and the main campaign in the south , where the bulk of the Japanese forces were concentrated . Allied estimates of Japanese strength were later found to be grossly inaccurate and after the war it was found that the number of Japanese alive on the island at this time was closer to 40 @,@ 000 .
= = = Preliminary moves = = =
On 31 December 1944 , Savige ordered Brigadier John Stevenson , commander of the 11th Brigade , to begin clearing operations along the northwest coast of the island towards Soraken Harbour , as the Australians attempted to drive the Japanese in the sector on to the narrow Bonis Peninsula . At the time the Australians believed there were around 390 Japanese defending the area surrounding the Genga River — considered to be the main Japanese defence line in the northern sector — but it was later determined to be closer to 900 men from the 81st Infantry Regiment , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Shinzo Nakamura .
Nakamura , who according to Peter Charlton was considered to be a " master of jungle warfare " , had been ordered to prevent the Australian advance along the coast . He had perceived the likelihood of stopping the Australians well forward of the Genga as being unlikely and had therefore decided that he would concentrate his defence around the river itself , establishing a strong position on Tsimba Ridge , about 400 metres ( 440 yd ) south of the river . Described by war correspondent Fred Aldridge as a " horseshoe volcanic feature with steep jungle @-@ clad sides ... each toe [ of the ridge ended ] close to the sea , forming a natural amphitheatre by the beach " , it was a " textbook fortress " . According to Aldridge , it was a " maze of dugouts , trenches , [ and ] foxholes " , and was well camouflaged and heavily defended by snipers , machine guns and artillery , while supporting elements had been placed to the north , in depth , behind the Genga , near Kunamatoro .
Taking over control of the northern sector from the 7th Brigade , which was subsequently transferred to the southern sector to take part in the main offensive , the 11th Brigade advanced along the coast from Kuraio Mission , sending out patrols into the interior to flush the Japanese out of their positions in the mountains as they went . The 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly and roughly 800 @-@ strong , formed the vanguard of the advance , its main body moving along the coast road towards Amun , Sipaai and Rukussia , while patrols were sent inland from Totokei towards Lalum and Soraken , both of which were considered key Japanese positions . By 16 January 1945 , the lead company of the 31st / 51st reached Rukussia , having encountered no Japanese up until that point .
= = Battle = =
The first contact came on 17 January when the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion 's advanced elements — drawn mainly from ' D ' Company , under Captain Thomas Titley — moved north from Rukussia and proceeded towards the Genga River . Reaching a clearing 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) north of Puto , a platoon @-@ sized patrol came across several huts in a cleared area and proceeded to attack it . One Japanese was killed in the initial assault , but as the Australians took the huts and pushed beyond them , they were engaged from entrenchments 100 yards ( 91 m ) in front of them . The Japanese then launched a counter @-@ attack using light and heavy machine guns . In response , the Australians brought up another platoon and over the course of two days the counter @-@ attack was repulsed , with six to eight Japanese estimated to have been killed and others wounded , while two Australians were wounded .
During the engagement the Japanese had opened up with the artillery that they had brought up in support of the main defensive position on Tsimba Ridge , firing for the first time in the sector . This barrage was largely ineffective , inflicting only one casualty , as many of the shells proved to be faulty and did not detonate . The Australians also came across a large camp , including a field hospital , which they captured intact . Another group of huts was also discovered , from where they gained intelligence identifying the Japanese troops in the area as belonging to the 81st Infantry Regiment . They also managed to capture two 70 mm guns , and ammunition for them .
On 19 January , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion 's ' A ' Company , under Captain Clyde Downs , sent a platoon @-@ sized patrol out to outflank the Japanese forward positions ; this patrol moved first to the right flank and then north along the jungle tracks around Totokei and Goton . Discovering evidence of Japanese movement in the area , they proceeded to the village of Kunamatoro , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Junapopo . Here they encountered a force of around 30 to 50 Japanese and after the initial contact , in which the Australian platoon commander was wounded , the patrol attacked the village . Within 10 minutes the battle was over : 14 Japanese had been killed , along with a further five wounded , while the Australians lost one killed , one wounded and one missing . As darkness fell , the Australian patrol withdrew from the village .
The following day — 20 January — the advanced elements of the Australian force pressed on towards Tsimba Ridge . A formation about 200 yards ( 180 m ) long and about 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height , and stretching westerly to the Genga River where a steep cliff fell to the southern bank of the river , the ridge blocked the Australian advance across the river , while its south @-@ eastern most protrusion ( later known to the Australians as the " Pimple " ) was separated by a shallow saddle . On top of the ridge , dense jungle provided good concealment , while most of the approaches to the ridge were open to observation . As the Australians approached the ridge , one of their platoons captured a 47 mm gun positioned along the coast about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) south of the ridge , while another platoon contacted a lone Japanese soldier , who was killed in the subsequent firefight as they entered a garden that curved along the southern approach to the ridge , and which became known as the " Amphitheatre " . After the initial contact , the platoon 's advance through the garden was prevented by an intense burst of fire from the ridge , but the Australians managed to scale the high ground that rose to their east and were able to occupy the south @-@ eastern tip of the Pimple , capturing two 75 mm guns in the process .
Reports had been received from locals that the Japanese had brought reinforcements down from Soraken , Taiof Island and Tarlena , and at this point the Australians realised that the Japanese were concentrated in far greater numbers than anticipated and had in fact established their line of resistance in the sector upon the ridge . This was confirmed later after the Australians moved forward once more on 21 January , moving to within 800 yards ( 730 m ) of the Genga River , where the track upon which they were advancing opened into a large garden that curved around the edge of Tsimba Ridge , from where the Japanese defenders had an excellent line of sight . Subsequent patrols determined the extent of the Japanese position , reporting that they had constructed a well @-@ fortified position with a continuous trench along the crest of ridge , weapons pits and pill boxes , all with clear fields of fire , stretching up to 150 yards ( 140 m ) .
The Australian commander , Kelly , ordered ' B ' Company to move up and take the ridge and over the course of a week between 21 – 28 January they made several attempts against various parts of the ridge , approaching from the south , southeast and the north . These proved fruitless , although one platoon managed to encircle the position from the north before being engaged with heavy machine gun fire . On 23 January , the Australians established fire support in the form of guns from the 2nd Mountain Battery . Another three unsuccessful attempts were made on 24 January , and on 25 January ' C ' Company carried out a movement to the flank in an attempt to get around behind the ridge and attack from the north . Crossing the crocodile @-@ infested waters of the Genga about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the ridge , the Australians established a bridgehead across the river with a line of communications back to the Pimple , which they kept open by constantly patrolling along it .
Over the following six days , the Japanese attacked the bridgehead , launching a series of assaults that , in the words of Robert Burla , bordered upon suicidal . These attacks were repulsed and the Australians began to launch patrols in all directions around the ridge . On 29 January , the Japanese launched a large @-@ scale attack on ' C ' Company 's positions and although the Australians resisted , the attack succeeded in breaking through one part of the perimeter and managed to roll up the position all the way to the main battalion position around Puto before it was turned back . The Australian counter @-@ attack , organised by the ' C ' Company 's commander , Captain Alwyn Shilton , and supported by accurate artillery fire , came on 1 February and resulted in over 30 Japanese killed or wounded .
Over the next few days the Japanese made further probes , which were also repulsed , and the Australians consolidated their positions prior to an assault on the ridge . Preparations included the manhandling of a mountain gun from Puto to a position 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the Pimple , from where it could fire directly upon the Japanese positions on the ridge , while aircraft from No. 5 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force , carried out reconnaissance . To maintain the secrecy of these preparations , mortar fire was brought down upon the Japanese positions to mask the sounds of digging and movement while fire from Vickers machine guns kept the Japanese defenders from being able to leave their shelter and observe .
Following a day @-@ long artillery barrage , the main assault attack finally took place on 6 February . Supported by a barrage of over 500 artillery shells and mortar bombs , and airstrikes from Australian Wirraways and New Zealand Corsairs , three platoons from Captain Millett Harris ' ' B ' Company assaulted the ridge from different points in an effort to encircle the defenders . Following the preparatory artillery fire , the attack began at 09 : 00 hours when two platoons — 10 and 11 Platoons — along with company headquarters formed up south @-@ east of the amphitheatre and began to advance to the north @-@ west 200 yards ( 180 m ) to attack the ridge from behind , while another force — 12 Platoon — attacked from the garden , moving around the Pimple before assaulting the ridge from the east . From the north @-@ west , 10 Platoon , in the centre , managed to capture its objectives by 09 : 25 hours ; however , 12 Platoon came under intense fire and after suffering several casualties stopped their advance . By 11 : 30 hours the northernmost Australian platoon , 11 Platoon , had reached the high ground on the north @-@ western side of the ridge , completing the encirclement of the Japanese . The defenders subsequently withdrew from their forward positions , but refused to give up the position , occupying the reverse slope on the western side of the ridge . The attack cost the Australians nine killed and 20 wounded .
Throughout the night , Japanese artillery was very active , firing down on the Australian positions around The Pimple , after which a " banzai attack " was launched early on 7 February . Although repulsed , it enabled the Japanese to maintain a small pocket of resistance on the western tip of the ridge . On the evening of 7 February , Captain Kawakami 's 10th Company from the III Battalion , 81st Infantry Regiment , withdrew . Nevertheless , a small Japanese force remained until 9 February when the Australians called down an airstrike upon the position and the defenders withdrew from the feature . One of the Australians , Private Colin Jorgensen , was awarded the Military Medal for charging a Japanese weapon pit and knocking it out of action during the final assault .
= = Aftermath = =
Fighting around the Genga River continued for the next couple of days , with clashes occurring until the Australians had cleared the northern and southern banks by 11 February , during which time Japanese artillery opened up on the Australians , causing several casualties . In securing the ridge , the Australians captured a large amount of Japanese equipment , including four field and six anti @-@ tank guns , nine machine guns and 86 rifles . Japanese casualties were estimated at 66 killed , while Australian casualties in the Tsimba area were 12 killed and 20 wounded . Within the context of the campaign , these losses were considered heavy by the Australians , and an Australian newspaper report from shortly after the battle described it as the " bloodiest battle of the campaign " , while another described it as " fiercest " fought on Bougainville up to that point . From documents captured after the war , it was shown that the Japanese believed that these losses would slow the Australian advance . At the time they did not perceive the loss of Tsimba Ridge to be a defeat . They had been prepared to hold the position , and had the numbers to do it ; however , Nakamura had decided to withdraw from the ridge when the morale of his troops had fallen due to lack of ammunition and food , and rising casualties from tropical diseases . The real size of the force holding Tsimba Ridge was also revealed by documents captured after the war , highlighting the gross underestimation of Japanese strength by Australian intelligence sources .
After the fall of Tsimba Ridge , fighting continued around the Genga River for the next couple of weeks . By 10 February the area south of the Genga had been cleared of Japanese and the Australians began to patrol along the northern bank . Several minor clashes occurred , the most serious of which saw three Japanese killed and three Australians wounded when the Australians managed to capture a Japanese 37 mm gun . As the Japanese were forced to withdraw from a position along the track which ran 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the river , the Japanese artillery intensified and several men from the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion became casualties .
The 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion continued operations around the Genga River until 26 February , by which time three companies had reached the Gillman River , while another had struck inland , fighting a short engagement around Kunamatoro , before pressing on towards a ridge near the Soraken Plantation . Throughout the final weeks of February , ' A ' Company of the 31st / 51st , under Downs , fought the Japanese defenders off the position , which was subsequently named " Downs ' Ridge " by the Australians . On 26 February , the 31st / 51st was relieved by Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Callinan 's 26th Infantry Battalion , who continued the advance north towards the Soraken Peninsula , while the 55th / 53rd Infantry Battalion advanced on Ratsua as the Australians sought to establish a defensive line across the base of the Bonis Peninsula between Ratsua and Ruri Bay . The 31st / 51st would later take part in the failed landing at Porton Plantation in June , where they would suffer heavy casualties , including Downs , who was killed leading his company . In total , the Australians lost 34 killed and 91 wounded in the fighting around the Genga River , while it was estimated that the Japanese lost 148 killed . For its involvement in taking Tsimba Ridge , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion was awarded the battle honour " Tsimba Ridge " .
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= Pennsylvania Route 664 =
Pennsylvania Route 664 ( designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 0664 ) is a 17 @.@ 59 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 28 @.@ 31 km ) state highway located in Clinton and Lycoming counties in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at State Route 120 in Lock Haven , while the northern terminus is at State Route 44 on the Clinton @-@ Lycoming county line in the community of Haneyville . The route passes through small communities , but does not intersect with any other legislated highways in the area .
The route was assigned in 1930 , two years after a majority of state routes were assigned , and had continuous repavings done from 1935 to 1966 . There have been no changes in road alignment since its inception .
= = Route description = =
State Route 664 begins at an intersection with State Route 120 in community of Lock Haven . The highway progresses northward , leaving the community limits of Lock Haven . After the intersection with East Water Street , State Route 664 crosses the West Branch of the Susquehanna River . The bridge over the branch of river was constructed in 1986 . At the intersection with Farrandsville Road , the highway turns eastward , paralleling the river . Nearing State Route 150 , the highway turns northward and into Dunnstown . While winding around a few curves , State Route 664 intersects with Armory Drive , an access road to a local armory . The route 's surroundings are highly developed in Dunnstown , with the highway passing along homes . At the intersection with Aikey Street , State Route 664 leaves Dunnstown and proceeds northward .
The highway passes some homes and forests north of Dunnstown , entering Woodward Township soon after . At the intersection with Township Road 406 , State Route 664 starts winding in several directions , but following a northward basis . This continues until the intersection with Arbutus Drive , where it heads straight to the northwest . At a clearing in a nearby forest , State Route 664 enters the community of Swissdale . The stay in the community is short , with the highway leaving after a few blocks . Just north of Swissdale , State Route 664 makes a long hairpin turn , curving from east to west before turning north once again . Just after the intersection with Honey Suckle Lane , State Route 664 progresses towards Haneyville .
The next stretch of State Route 664 is full of bends , and the highway continuously turns at a constant rate . At an intersection with another Honey Suckle Lane , the highway starts its northwestern progression once again . This changes again when Tedrow Lane begins paralleling the highway . Now following a steady northeastern alignment , the highway continues through the large patches of trees south of Haneyville . At Little Plum Run Road , the highway turns onto a steady northward alignment . The highway continues through the trees for a while , continuing northward on its way to Gallagher Township .
At a bend in the highway , there is a small patch of development , with a few houses near the highway . At the intersection with Township Road 529 , State Route 664 enters Gallagher Township . Eventually , the large patch of forests in the surroundings come towards a clearing , where the highway intersects with Old Dirt Road . After crossing a stream , State Route 664 gains the moniker of the Coudersport Pike . The highway passes a small patch of development , reaching another clearing in the forest . After entering another forest , State Route 664 ends at an intersection with State Route 44 in the community of Haneyville .
= = History = =
State Route 664 was assigned two years after the mass numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania in 1928 . The highway itself took several years to transition from gravel to actual pavement . The first segment , which occurred in 1935 , was from Little Plum Run Road and northward . The second segment was in 1936 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Highways paved the piece of State Route 664 from a point just south of Gallagher to the Gallagher Township line . In 1938 , the third segment , from Swissdale to Gallagher Township was paved .
In 1949 , the Department of Highways paved the piece of State Route 664 from Gallagher Township to the Lycoming County line . In 1951 , the section between Swissdale and Little Plum Run Road was paved once again . Two years after that , the section from the Lycoming County line to State Route 44 was improved in its condition . That lone section was improved in 1966 . There have been no recorded changes in alignment since its 1930 assignment .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Love Minus Zero / No Limit =
" Love Minus Zero / No Limit " ( read " Love Minus Zero over No Limit " ) is a song written by Bob Dylan for his fifth studio album Bringing It All Back Home , released in 1965 ( see 1965 in music ) . The song was originally written as a tribute to Dylan 's future wife Sara Lowndes . Its main musical hook is a series of three descending chords , while its lyrics articulate Dylan 's feelings for his lover , and how she brings a needed zen @-@ like calm to his chaotic world . The song uses surreal imagery , some of which recalls Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " and the biblical Book of Daniel . The style of the lyrics is reminiscent of William Blake 's poem , " The Sick Rose " .
Dylan has performed " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " live on several of his tours . Since its initial appearance on Bringing It All Back Home , live versions of the song have been released on a number of Dylan 's albums , including Bob Dylan at Budokan , MTV Unplugged ( European versions ) , and The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue , as well as on the reissued Concert for Bangladesh album by George Harrison & Friends . Live video performances have been included on the Concert for Bangladesh and Other Side of the Mirror : Live at Newport Folk Festival 1963 – 1965 DVD releases .
Artists who have covered " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " include Ricky Nelson , The Turtles , Joan Baez , Judy Collins , Fleetwood Mac , and Rod Stewart . Eric Clapton played it at Bob Dylan 's 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration .
= = Composition and recording = =
The version of the song that appears on Bringing It All Back Home was recorded on January 14 , 1965 and was produced by Tom Wilson . This version was recorded by the full rock band that Dylan used to accompany him on the songs that appeared on side one of the album , and features a prominent electric guitar part played by Bruce Langhorne . However , like the other love song on side one , " She Belongs to Me " , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was recorded a day earlier in various acoustic configurations , and one of these takes was a strong contender to be included on the album . The January 13 , 1965 recordings and a first take from January 14 were released on the 6 @-@ disc and 18 @-@ disc versions of The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 in 2015 .
The song is tuneful , with a prominent series of three descending diatonic chords providing the main hook . The music is soothing , so that the love expressed seems tranquil even when images such as cloaks and daggers and trembling bridges are evoked by the lyrics . The tune and rhythm have a Latin feel and the lyrical rhyming pattern varies from verse to verse . For example , in the first verse , the first and second lines rhyme , the fourth and eighth lines rhyme and the sixth and seventh lines rhyme , but the third and fifth lines are unrhymed . But in the second verse , the first three lines rhyme . Throughout the song , the rhymes are sometimes approximate ; for example " another " is rhymed with " bother " and " trembles " is rhymed with " rambles . "
= = Interpretation = =
" Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was written as a tribute to Dylan 's future wife Sara Lowndes . The lyrics reflect her Zen @-@ like detachment through a series of opposites , for example , that she " speaks like silence " and is both " like ice " and " like fire " . Another famous line from the song also captures this dichotomy : " She knows there 's no success like failure , and that failure 's no success at all . "
The first verse of the song has the singer infatuated with the woman , admiring her inner strength . The three remaining verses reflect the inauthentic chaos that the singer has to deal with in the outside world , from which the lover 's Zen @-@ like calm provides needed refuge . The final image is of the lover being like some raven at the singer 's window with a broken wing . This image recalls Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " , but is also a symbol of the lover 's vulnerability in spite of her strength . The broken wing may also be a reference to the woman 's need for shelter , or else to a flaw in her . The style of the song 's lyrics are comparable to William Blake 's poem , " The Sick Rose " , in their economy of language and use of a detached tone to express the narrator 's intense emotional experience . The song 's surreal images anticipate the psychedelic songs Dylan would later write .
Some of the song 's images evoke prophecies from the Biblical Book of Daniel . For example , the line :
Statues made of matchsticks
Crumble into one another
is reminiscent of Daniel 's prophecy that Nebuchadnezzar would build a statue of precious metals only to see it crumble like " chaff " . Another line in the song states that people " Draw conclusions on the wall . " Drawing conclusions on the wall rather than from the wall evokes the story from the Book of Daniel where a hand writes on a wall the words " MENE MENE TEKEL UPHARSIN , " warning that the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire was about to end .
One interpretation of the lover in this song , as well as that which features in " She Belongs to Me " , is that she is Dylan 's muse . In each song , the inaccessibility of the lover / muse can be interpreted as Dylan 's acknowledgment of his own limitations — limitations that he attempts to overcome in writing the songs . In this interpretation , the final raven image sitting at the window can be viewed as a symbol of the muse 's inaccessibility , and the raven 's broken wing a symbol of its wildness . A related interpretation is that the song reflects an artist 's " self @-@ awareness through isolation . " The line " She knows there 's no success like failure , and that failure 's no success at all " can be seen as a reflection of the isolation of the American writer .
The original title of the song was " Dime Store " , which originates from the line " In the dime stores and bus stations ... " The official title " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " is , according to Dylan , a fraction with " Love Minus Zero " on the top and " No Limit " on the bottom , and this is how the title appeared on early pressings of the Bringing It All Back Home LP . Therefore , the correct pronunciation of the song 's title is " Love Minus Zero over No Limit " . In theory , the resulting quotient would be equal to " absolutely unlimited love . " The title is also based on gambling terminology that would mean that all love is a risk .
= = Performances and recordings = =
Dylan has frequently performed the song in concert since the time it was written , nearly always acoustically . He performed it occasionally in concert during 1965 and 1966 , but more frequently during the Rolling Thunder Revue tours from 1974 through 1976 . Dylan also played it at The Concert for Bangladesh , during the first of the two August 1 , 1971 benefit concerts organized by George Harrison and Ravi Shankar to help provide relief for refugees in Bangladesh . Dylan has also been playing the song live throughout the Never Ending Tour that began in 1988 .
In addition to its appearance on Bringing It All Back Home , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " has been included on several Dylan live and compilation albums . In the 1970s , it was included on the compilation Masterpieces and on the live Bob Dylan at Budokan album , recorded in 1978 . Other live performances have been included on The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue ( recorded December 1975 ) , on the European versions of MTV Unplugged ( recorded November 1994 ) , and on the 2005 reissue of the Concert for Bangladesh album . Footage of Dylan playing the song is included on the 2005 DVD of the Concert for Bangladesh film and in The Other Side of the Mirror : Live at Newport Folk Festival 1963 – 1965 , a film by Murray Lerner showing Dylan 's performances at the Newport Folk Festival . A snippet from an impromptu performance of " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " is also included in the film Dont Look Back .
The song was also included on the Rhino / Starbucks compilation album This is Us : Songs from Where You Live .
= = Cover versions = =
The song was covered several times in 1965 , including a version by The Turtles on their album It Ain 't Me Babe and a version by The Walker Brothers on their album Take It Easy with The Walker Brothers . Los Angeles band The Leaves covered the song on their 1966 album Hey Joe and Joan Baez included it on her 1968 album of Dylan covers Any Day Now . A version by singer / songwriter Turley Richards became a minor hit in 1970 ( US # 84 ) . It was also covered in 1993 by Judy Collins on Judy Collins Sings Dylan ... Just Like a Woman . Eric Clapton covered the song on during Bob Dylan 's 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration . Other musicians who have covered the song include Fleetwood Mac , Rod Stewart , Jackson Browne , Ricky Nelson , Buck Owens , Bridget St. John , Eliza Gilkyson and Les Fradkin .
= = Legacy = =
In a 2005 reader 's poll for Mojo magazine , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was listed as the # 20 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song , and a similar poll of artists ranked the song # 32 . In 2002 , Uncut magazine listed it as the # 23 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song . Australian music critic Toby Creswell included the song in his book 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets Behind Them .
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= Burger King grilled chicken sandwiches =
International fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King and its Australian franchise Hungry Jack 's have had a variety of grilled chicken sandwiches in their product portfolio since 1990 . The BK Broiler was the first iteration , and was one of the most successful product introductions in the fast food industry to that point in time . However sales dropped in the following two years , and the product was reformulated and renamed to the Chicken Whopper to align the product with the company 's Whopper Sandwich . A change of ownership of Burger King in 2004 prompted another reformulation of the product into the BK Baguette product line that focused on a more health @-@ oriented product . This new formulation proved unpopular and was replaced in 2005 with the TenderGrill chicken sandwich . The TenderGrill sandwich was introduced as part of a series of sandwiches designed to expand Burger King 's menu with both more sophisticated , adult oriented fare and present a larger , meatier product that appealed to 24- to 36 @-@ year @-@ old males . Burger King was the first major fast food chain to introduce a grilled chicken sandwich to the marketplace , beating rivals Wendy 's by six months and McDonald 's by four years . These two chains also went through a series of reformulations and naming schemes for their grilled chicken products .
The company sells slightly different versions of the sandwich between international markets , using white meat chicken breast in some regions while using dark meat chicken thighs in others . To promote continuing interest in the product , Burger King occasionally releases limited @-@ time ( LTO ) variants on its grilled chicken sandwiches that have different ingredients from the standard sandwich recipe . Being one of the company 's major offerings , the grilled chicken sandwich is sometimes the center of product advertising for the company . Additionally , as a major product in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the product .
= = History = =
= = = BK Broiler = = =
Burger King 's first broiled chicken sandwich was introduced in 1990 and was called the BK Broiler . This sandwich was made with lettuce , tomato and a dill ranch sauce served on an oat dusted roll . The product came at a time of fundamental change in terms of chicken product in the restaurant industry ; more than 90 % of chicken products sold by the major chains were fried . Shortly after its introduction , the sandwich was selling more than a million units per day , and poaching sales from traditional fried chicken chains such as Kentucky Fried Chicken . Additionally , the sandwiches were part of an industry trend towards the diversification of menus with healthier products such as reformulated cooking methods and salads . At the time , the sandwich had 379 calories and 18 grams of fat , 10 of which came from the sauce .
The introduction of the BK Broiler was one of the most successful product launches in the restaurant industry at the time , encouraging the company look into introducing additional products that would match the success of the Broiler . Furthermore , the success of the product was credited by analysts from Shearson Lehman Hutton Securities as one of the main factors helping Burger King realize a 47 % increase in profit margin over the same period in 1989 . By 1992 , sales of the BK Broiler had slowed to half of what they were at the height of it introduction .
The company reformulated the BK Broiler in 1998 into a larger , more male @-@ oriented sandwich served on a Whopper bun , increasing its patty size while changing the ingredients to mayonnaise , lettuce and tomato . The idea behind the up @-@ sizing of the product was to give the customer a sense of value , with a company spokesman stating " When they [ the customer ] see a lot , it seems like they 're getting a lot for their money , and even if they don 't eat it all , they think they 're being treated fairly . " The move was part of the company 's " back to basics " movement in which it reorganized its menu , focusing on its core products and simplifying its product base .
= = = Chicken Whopper = = =
As part of the forty @-@ fifth anniversary of its Whopper sandwich in 2002 , BK introduced an updated version of the sandwich called the Chicken Whopper and added a smaller version called the Chicken Whopper Jr. sandwich along with a new Caesar salad sandwich topped with a Chicken Whopper filet . The introduction of the Chicken Whopper represented the company 's first move to extend the Whopper brand name beyond beef @-@ based sandwiches since the original Whopper 's introduction in the 1950s . The sandwiches featured a whole chicken breast filet , weighing either 4 @.@ 7 oz ( 130 g ) for the larger sandwich and a 3 @.@ 1 oz ( 88 g ) for the Jr . , mayonnaise , lettuce , and tomato on a sesame seed roll . A newly reformulated low fat mayonnaise was introduced in conjunction with the new sandwiches . Along with the company 's new BK Veggie sandwich , The Chicken Whopper Jr. version of the sandwich was lauded by the Center for Science in the Public Interest as being one of the best nutritionally sound products sold by a fast food chain . Conversely , the CSPI decried the rest of the Burger King menu as being vastly unhealthy .
Development of the sandwich began in 2001 in response to several major factors . After an overall sales decline of 17 % coupled with a profit decline of 29 % , Burger King held a series of consumer tests that showed the company 's customer base was looking for a wider variety of options when making purchases . Additional survey results revealed that a lack of newer products was discouraging consumers from visiting the chain . Furthermore , the company was seeking to counter the threat to its sales by newer fast casual restaurants that had begun to bite into sales . By July 2002 , the chain had sold nearly fifty million of the sandwiches , eventually displacing the BK Broiler 's initial launch figures as the company 's best selling product introduction . The successful introduction of the Chicken Whopper was one of the few noted positive highlights of the company during negotiations for the sale of Burger King by its owner Diageo to a group of investors led by the TPG Capital ; Chicago @-@ based consulting firm Technomic Inc. president Ron Paul was quoted that he was encouraged by recent product changes at Burger King such as the new Chicken Whopper , but he said it 's too early to tell whether the changes have been successful . Despite the Chicken Whopper 's initial success , just over a year after the Chicken Whopper 's introduction enthusiasm for the product was waning ; Burger King 's largest franchisee , Carrols Corporation , was complaining that the product line was a failure , describing the sandwich as a pedestrian product with a great name . As of November 2013 , the Chicken Whopper is the current grilled chicken sandwich sold by Burger King in the Middle East .
With its 2014 expansion in to India , Burger King introduced the Chicken Whopper as one of three versions of the Whopper . The other two variants are the Mutton Whopper and the Veggie Whopper .
= = = BK Baguette = = =
In 2004 , BK introduced its BK Baguette line of sandwiches designed to replace the Chicken Whopper . The sandwiches were introduced at the insistence of the new CEO , former Darden Restaurants executive Bradley ( Brad ) Blum , shortly after the company was acquired by TPG Capital in 2002 . The sandwiches were designed to be a lower fat alternative with 5g of fat and 350 or fewer calories . The line was a health conscious oriented product that got its taste from ingredients instead of fat . They were formally introduced in 2004 as its BK Baguette line of sandwiches , that replacing the Chicken Whopper sandwiches .
The baguette sandwiches were introduced to Europe starting in the UK in 2003 , with several new varieties designed to cater to the population mix of the country . While the baguette sandwiches were well received and continue to be sold , several red flags have been raised by the British government and private groups in regards the healthiness of these and other products sold by the fast food industry . In 2005 , British Food Standards Agency ( FSA ) cited large levels of fats and salt in the company 's beef @-@ based Monterey Melt baguette and chided BK for backing out of an agreement to help make the company 's products healthier . In 2007 the private public interest group Consensus Action on Salt and Health , abbreviated to CASH , cited Burger King and other fast food chains over the continued levels of sodium contained in these types of foods . The group specifically claimed that the Chicken BLT Baguette sandwich , when paired with fries and a Coca @-@ Cola , was one of the three saltiest fast food products in the UK .
= = = TenderGrill = = =
The Baguette sandwiches failed to catch on in the American market , and as a result they were discontinued as part of a menu reorganization . In 2005 , they were replaced by the TenderGrill sandwich . The new sandwich was one of several products that were designed to appeal to a group of customers Burger King identified as adult males , 24 – 36 years old that desired a larger , meatier product .
= = = Chicken Burger = = =
In December 2015 , Burger King introduced the Chicken Burger in the U.S. This sandwich has a patty topped with the standard Whopper toppings of mayonnaise , lettuce , tomato , pickles , ketchup and onion on a toasted brioche bun .
= = = Competitive products = = =
Similar products from other chains have also been introduced , reformulated and generally been fluid in their presences in the marketplace since 1990 . Despite the present day competitive products from multiple vendors , Burger King was the first national fast food chain to bring a broiled chicken sandwich to market , beating rival Wendy 's by a period of several months . Wendy 's introduced their first grilled chicken product , simply called a grilled chicken sandwich , in August 1990 . The sandwich originally was made with grilled chicken on 4 @-@ inch bun with lettuce , tomato and a honey mustard sauce . Wendy 's introduced a reformualted grilled chicken sandwich in 1996 that they claimed was plumper and juicier . Wendy 's reformulated their grilled chicken product in 2004 as the Ultimate Chicken Grill sandwich during an overhaul of its chicken sandwich line . As of November 2013 , the Ultimate Chicken Grill is still Wendy 's main grilled sandwich in the United States .
While McDonald 's had been trying to develop and test a similar product for several years , the company was caught off guard at the time when its mainline competitors introduced their grilled chicken products and was not able to initially deploy a similar product . This was primarily due to the fact the company 's highly specialized kitchens could not produce a high quality product without a large investment in new equipment . By early @-@ 1991 , McDonald 's grilled chicken product was still in development , and the vendor would not introduce its version , the McGrilled Chicken Classic , until 1994 . The McGrilled chicken sandwich was replaced with the Grilled Chicken Deluxe sandwich in September and October 1996 as part of McDonald 's Deluxe line of " upscale " sandwiches ; the company had hoped that a higher value product would help improve average check performance at its stores . However , by 1998 the whole Deluxe line was said to be not selling well , and the Grilled Chicken Deluxe was eliminated when McDonald 's brought back the Chicken McGrill sandwich back in 1999 . The Chicken McGrill sandwich was retired in 2005 when the company introduced its new Premium line of products , which like the TenderCrisp sandwich was targeted to a more adult audience with higher quality ingredients such as natural cheeses and whole leaf lettuce . Beginning in April 2015 , McDonald 's moved to a new grilled chicken sandwich , the Artisan Grilled Chicken ; the new chicken uses a smaller list of ingredients in the chicken filet , removing ingredients such as maltodextrin and sodium phosphates . The new sandwich is in response to consumer @-@ based market trends of food products that have simpler , more natural ingredients .
= = Product description = =
The TenderGrill is a chicken sandwich , consisting of a 5 @.@ 2 oz ( 150 g ) flame @-@ grilled chicken breast filet , mayonnaise , lettuce and tomatoes on an brioche bun . In some Asian markets , such as Singapore , the filet is made from chicken thigh meat and uses a sesame @-@ seed bun . Burger King will also add any condiment it sells upon request based on its long standing slogan " Have It Your Way " . Additionally , Burger King has sold several different promotional varieties throughout the years as limited time offerings ( LTO ) , such as Chicken Caesar Club , made with Romaine lettuce , Parmesan cheese , bacon and caesar dressing on toasted sourdough bread , or the Carolina BBQ TenderGrill made with pepper jack cheese , bacon , jalapeños , red onion and a mustard @-@ based barbecue sauce which was sold during Burger King 's 2012 and 2013 Summer BBQ Menu promotions .
= = Advertising = =
The BK Broiler was introduced as part of the company 's Sometimes you gotta break the rules campaign designed by the firms of D 'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles and Saatchi & Saatchi , a campaign that many of Burger King 's franchisees derided as ineffectual and unclear in its message . Despite the failure of the advertising campaign , the product went on to be one of the most successful fast food product launches up to that time .
The Chicken Whopper was introduced initially via an April Fools ' Day ad in several major news papers that claimed the company was changing its name to " Chicken King " . A later press release announced the joke was to introduce the public to the new product . The television advertising program used to introduce the Chicken Whopper featured animated chickens in cowboy boots marching to the " Have It Your Way " tune and was created by animation house Kurtz & Friends . Later commercials featured comedian Steve Harvey . A second series of ads called @ BK , love is guaranteed that were developed by Los Angeles @-@ based ad house Amoeba , guaranteed that customers would receive a free sandwich if they don 't " love " the chain 's Whopper and Chicken Whopper sandwiches . With the discovery of mad cow disease by the FDA in 2003 , the company instructed their advertising agency at the time , Young & Rubicam of New York , to retool a forthcoming series of ads featuring the company 's signature product , the Whopper , to include the Chicken Whopper . A Burger King spokesman stated that the change was because Burger King " decided that if there 's anybody who wants a chicken option , at this point , we wanted to remind them that the Whopper comes in chicken as well as the original beef , " noting their confidence in their beef supply .
The BK Baguettes line was introduced in the United States via an ad campaign from advertising firm Crispin , Porter + Bogusky that featured the tagline " Flavor from grilling not fat . " The American advertising campaigns for the sandwiches featured several celebrity chefs , such as Rick Bayless , visiting locations where similar style food stuffs were found , e.g. a farmers ' market , and commenting on how these ingredients make the new Baguette line better and more healthy . The advertising firm of Euro RSCG Leedex produced ads for the sandwiches in Great Britain .
The advertising campaign for the TenderGrill sandwich in Spain in 2010 featured a humor @-@ based ad in which men were asked what type of advertisement would get them to buy the sandwich . The responses , which included what men would like to see in the commercials , formed the basis for the ads . The advertisement , made entirely by women , was filmed in London and featured barbarians , ninjas and unicorns in an advertisement that poked fun at the men 's preferences . The making of the commercial was the basis of a mini @-@ documentary from UK firm Feral Films . In a 2011 Singapore campaign , Burger King presented an attack advertisement that was designed to counter the introduction of the Chicken McGrill sandwich from McDonald 's . The campaign took McDonald 's slogan , " Make it better " and changed it to " Make it even Better " and put the sandwich on sale for SGD $ 1 @.@ 00 on the same day the McDonald 's product was set to debut . Burger King called the McDonald 's menu item " fake grilled " as opposed to flame grilled .
= = = Controversies = = =
The 2012 campaign from Clemenger BBDO for the TenderGrill for the Australian Burger King franchise , Hungry Jack 's , featured a goth girl , complete with facial piercings and tattoos that loses her piercings and tattoos as she eats the sandwich . By the time she has finished her meal , her clothing and style had completely changed – much to her and her friends horror . At the end of the commercial , the announcer states the tag line " There is nothing naughty about the new Hungry Jack 's TenderGrill ... Hungry Jack 's makes it better . " The Australian Advertising Standards Bureau received several complaints from the public claiming the commercial demeaned alternative lifestyles , was discriminatory and insulting to non @-@ conformists . The Advertising Standards Board determined that the advertisement did not breach any pertinent anti @-@ discrimination codes , and dismissed the complaint .
= = Trademarks = =
The name " TenderGrill " is registered trademark of Burger King Holdings and are displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in the markets it is sold , including the United States , Canada and Great Britain . [ Notes 1 ] Other grilled chicken @-@ related trademarks owned by Burger King include " BK Broiler " . [ Notes 2 ]
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= The Jacket ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Jacket " is the third episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and the show 's eighth episode overall . In the episode , protagonist Jerry Seinfeld buys an expensive suede jacket and has dinner with the father of his ex @-@ girlfriend Elaine Benes . Elaine 's father Alton ( Lawrence Tierney ) , a war veteran and writer , makes Jerry and his friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) very uncomfortable . Elaine is delayed and Jerry and George are stuck with Alton waiting for her at the hotel .
The episode was written by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld and was directed by Tom Cherones . Most of the episode 's storyline was based on one of David 's personal experiences . For example , Elaine 's father , a published author , was inspired by Richard Yates , author of Revolutionary Road , who Larry David had met while dating his daughter . Tierney 's performance as Elaine 's father was praised by the cast and crew . However , they were taken aback by his eccentric behavior , and it was discovered that he stole a knife from the set and pulled it threateningly towards Jerry . The majority of the episode was filmed on December 4 , 1990 . " The Jacket " premiered on American television on February 6 , 1991 , on NBC , it gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 / 16 and was praised by critics .
= = Plot = =
When Jerry is shopping for clothes with Elaine , he finds a suede jacket that he likes . He has doubts about buying the jacket because it is very expensive and has a candy stripe lining . He eventually decides to buy it . While Jerry is at home in his living room looking at himself in a mirror with his jacket , Kramer comes in and likes the jacket , he is even more impressed when he discovers the price by reading the label . Kramer persuades Jerry to give him his old leather jacket as he will no longer be using it .
The following night , Jerry , Elaine , and George have dinner with Elaine 's father , writer Alton Benes . While preparing for the dinner , George arrives at Jerry 's apartment with the song " Master of the House " from the musical Les Misérables stuck in his head . George and Jerry are both very nervous to meet Alton because he is such a famous author . When they are about to leave , Jerry puts on his new jacket . George is very impressed and attempts to get Jerry to reveal its cost . Kramer enters the apartment and asks for two minutes ' help guarding his illegally parked car as he carries down some doves that he is looking after for a magician friend . However , they refuse to help because he often underestimates how long things take to do .
George is still singing as they enter Alton Benes 's hotel . Elaine has not arrived yet , so they sit down with her father and nervously order drinks . They have an awkward conversation with him ; Alton asks who is the " funny guy " ( Jerry ) , to which George says it 's Jerry . Alton then recalls about a funny guy in Korea who got his brains blown out over the Pacific and that " there 's nothing funny about that " . Jerry ( frightened ) eventually goes to the bathroom , abandoning George ( also frightened ) , who attempts to compliment Alton about his book , Fair Game . George gets uncomfortable and tells Alton he has to make a phone call . He meets Jerry in the bathroom and both mention how terrified they are because of Alton ; they decide to go home if Elaine does not show up in the next ten minutes . When they return , Alton receives a message from Elaine , who will arrive in thirty minutes , which worries them both .
When Elaine finally arrives , she explains that Kramer promised her a lift if she would wait in his car for two minutes . He returned over twenty minutes later , and the car had been towed for being illegally parked . She was eventually forced to walk to the restaurant . Alton , returning from the bathroom , greets Elaine and tells Jerry and " chorus boy " George that they are going to a Pakistani restaurant five blocks away . On their way out , they notice it is snowing . Jerry knows snow would ruin his suede jacket and asks Alton if they can take a cab , but Alton replies that it is only a few blocks away . George suggests that Jerry could turn the jacket inside out , but because of the candy stripe lining , Alton notices and tells him to turn it back , saying he looks " like a damn fool " and that he 's " not going to walk down the street with me and my daughter dressed like that . " George then reminds Jerry that the restaurant is only a few blocks away ; Jerry , reluctantly , puts his jacket back to normal .
The next day Kramer notices Jerry 's jacket hanging in the bathroom , badly damaged by the snow . Kramer takes it , chiding Jerry for not turning it inside out . Elaine arrives , and tells Jerry that her father had a good time . She explains how he usually hates everyone but liked Jerry , as he reminded him of a certain " somebody " from Korea ; she then mentions that he thinks George is gay because " he pretty much thinks everyone is gay . " Meanwhile , as Alton drives home , he finds himself singing " Master of the House " as well .
= = Cultural references = =
Throughout the episode , George sings the song " Master of the House " from the musical Les Misérables . Les Misérables ran on Broadway for sixteen years , making it one of the longest running musicals in the history of Broadway . In response to George constantly singing " Master of the House " , Jerry tells him about German composer Robert Schumann , who went insane from hearing the same note over and over in his head . George also mentions Bud Abbott , an actor and comedian during the 1940s and 1950s , who was part of the Abbott and Costello duo , with Lou Costello . When Jerry and George discuss their options in the bathroom at the hotel , George suggests that they should leave to which Jerry replies " he 'll clunk our heads together like Moe " ; this a reference to Moe Howard , one of The Three Stooges , who frequently clunked the heads of the other Stooges together .
= = Production = =
" The Jacket " was written by Seinfeld 's co @-@ creators Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld and directed by Tom Cherones . The episode 's storyline was based on one of David 's personal experiences ; when he was dating Monica Yates , she wanted him to meet her father , Richard Yates , a respected novelist . David had just bought a suede jacket , and met Richard Yates at the Algonquin Hotel . Richard was , as David stated in an interview , " ... every bit as intimidating as Alton Benes " . David 's story is similar to what happened in the episode , as , when they headed out to the restaurant , his jacket was ruined by the snow . Additional dialogue at the store where Jerry buys his jacket was cut before broadcast , it featured a reference to Gary Gilmore . The material was later included on the Seinfeld Volume 1 DVD set . " The Jacket " is the only episode in which one of Elaine 's parents appears ; Louis @-@ Dreyfus once suggested Mary Tyler Moore to portray Elaine 's mother , but the character never appeared on the show . The episode also contains the first mention to Elaine 's job as a manuscript reader for Pendant Publishing , in early drafts of the script her job was an optician . Also in early drafts , in the final scene Kramer entered Jerry 's house with a dove on his shoulder .
The episode was first read by the cast on November 28 , 1990 at 10 @.@ 30 AM . It was filmed in front of a live audience on December 4 , 1990 . The episode was filmed at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California , where , starting with the season two premiere " The Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , all filming for the second season took place . The final scene in the episode , which showed Alton Benes singing " Master of the House " in his car , was pre @-@ recorded on December 3 , 1990 , as it could not be filmed in front of an audience because it took place in a car .
= = Lawrence Tierney = =
Lawrence Tierney was cast as Alton Benes . He was known for his bad @-@ guy roles in films during the 1940s and 1950s , such as Dillinger , The Hoodlum and Born to Kill . Tierney 's appearance in the episode is one of his only comedic roles . Cast and crew members were very impressed with Tierney 's performance , and intended to make Alton Benes a recurring character . However , they were frightened of him ; during filming it was discovered that Tierney had stolen a butcher knife from the knife block in Jerry 's apartment set . Various cast members remember Seinfeld encountering Tierney and stating " Hey Lawrence , what do you got there in your jacket ? " . Tierney , realizing he had been caught , tried to make a joke about how he thought taking the knife would be funny , by reenacting a scene from Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) , holding the knife above his head and making threatening motions towards Seinfeld . Tom Cherones , Jason Alexander and Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus saw this happen , and , as Alexander recalled , it " scared the living crap out of all of us . " Cherones stated that , afterwards , Larry David would jokingly threaten to have Tierney back on the show if Cherones did his work badly .
= = Reception = =
On February 6 , 1991 , " The Jacket " was first broadcast in the United States on NBC . It gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 16 , this means that 10 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 16 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . It faced strong competition from the CBS crime drama Jake and the Fatman ; viewers would frequently tune out of Seinfeld to watch the second half of Jake and the Fatman 's . Seinfeld once jokingly stated that this was because the " Fatman " would run in the second half of the show .
The episode gained positive responses from critics . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide stated " An otherwise mediocre episode , Lawrence Tierney ’ s gruff turn as Elaine ’ s father helps redeem ' The Jacket ' " . DVD reviewer Jonathan Boudreaux considered " The Jacket " one of season two 's best episodes , along with " The Chinese Restaurant " . Critics Mary Kaye Schilling and Mike Flaherty of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode with a B- , stating " Jerry and George 's torturous hotel @-@ lobby meeting with Mr. Benes is a squirm @-@ inducing joy " .
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= Faye Morton =
Faye Lindsey Byrne ( née Morton , previously Michaels , Hewson , Wilson ) is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , portrayed by actress Patsy Kensit . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 30 January 2007 in the episode " Into the Dark " - series nine , episode 17 of the program . Kensit had made a former unrelated guest appearance on Holby City 's sister show Casualty in 2001 .
Faye is a Ward Sister at Holby General , with a mysterious past including two dead husbands and a disabled son . Her storylines have seen her marry registrar Joseph Byrne ( Luke Roberts ) , and develop feelings for consultant Linden Cullen ( Duncan Pow ) following the death of her son . Her introductory storyline , shot on location in Dubai , in which she kills her third husband and leaves for Holby , proved so popular that Kensit was shortlisted " Best Actress " in the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards for her portrayal of the character within three months of arriving on the show . However , the dramaticism of the character 's storylines and the manner in which they reflect upon real NHS nurses has attracted criticism . Kensit left the show on 28 December 2010 in the episode " Snow Queens " - series thirteen , episode 11
= = Development = =
= = = Creation = = =
Early publicity for the character gave her name as Eliza Clark . This was ultimately changed to Faye Morton , and although Faye did not first appear on @-@ screen until January 2007 , the announcement that Patsy Kensit had been cast in the role was made on 14 December 2005 . Holby City 's executive producer Richard Stokes and series producer Emma Turner spoke of their delight at Kensit 's casting , describing her as " a talented and popular actress who lights up the screen . " Kensit took the role in Holby City after two years of working on the ITV soap opera Emmerdale , commenting that she was " thrilled " to be offered the part , and was looking forward to working in London . Having formerly worked in Yorkshire to film Emmerdale , working in London reduced the actress ' daily commute to 45 minutes . Television critic Jim Shelley noted that Kensit 's casting in the role followed a trend of Holby City producers for hiring established actors , including comedian Adrian Edmondson and Jesus of Nazareth star Robert Powell .
In preparation for the role , Kensit spent three days shadowing a real nurse , and observed open heart surgery being performed as research . She commented on the experience : " I wanted to throw up . First of all I stood in the corner but in the end I couldn 't get close enough ... nurses are incredible women . They 're doing this job for next to nothing and do it with such love and care ... I couldn 't do it , I 'd get too emotionally involved , I don 't think I could cope . " In 2001 , Kensit had made a guest appearance in series 16 of Holby City 's sister show Casualty , appearing as a domestic abuse victim and giving what TV critic Ian Hyland deemed " a convincing performance " . Prior to her move into television roles , Kensit had predominantly worked in films , but explained upon joining the cast of Holby City : " Making films isn 't for me any more because I 'm an old girl in that world ... I 've been very lucky , this is something I grew up doing , in television there 's so much satisfaction ... I 'll stay as long as they want me , I feel like I 've come back home . "
= = = Personality and relationships = = =
Initial publicity for the character billed her as " a nurse who has more than a few secrets to hide and an attitude that cannot fail to ruffle the feathers of her colleagues . " The Daily Express have described her as " Gregarious ... likes a gossip , but she 's emotionally vulnerable " , while Holby City actress Tina Hobley has compared Faye to her own character , Chrissie Williams , explaining that " Faye is a quieter character all round who will do anything for an easy life , whereas Chrissie likes to stir up a bit of drama . I think she sees Faye as a goody two shoes . "
In the flashback episode " What Lies Beneath " , exploring Faye 's decision to move to Holby , she is seen to fight with her husband James , then later step over his dead body on the stairs . Kensit explained : " there 's a scuffle and he pins her against the wall and practically tries to rape her . He ends up dead . It 's the way she deals with it — she coolly steps over his body and leaves . It turns out similar things have happened before . " Shortly after arriving in Holby , the character began a relationship with cardiothoracic registrar Sam Strachan ( Tom Chambers ) . The situation soon escalated into a love triangle , with Sam reigniting his former relationship with Faye 's colleague , Matron Chrissie Williams . Kensit said of the relationship in August 2007 , as the storyline was ongoing : " For Faye , Sam is not Mr Right , simply Mr Right Now . But Faye is not as sweet as she looks - there 's a streak of toughness there ... It 's all going to get very messy ! " Upon discovering Sam 's infidelity , the character terminated their relationship , and became involved with his colleague Joseph Byrne .
In terms of friendships , Faye is close to Ward Sister Kyla Tyson ( Rakie Ayola ) . Though the BBC describe Faye and Chrissie as rivals , Hobley has commented : " I 'd like there to be more development with Chrissie and Faye 's relationship as they 've only really had Sam as a common interest up until now . I just hope its friendship that develops , because I can 't bear all that bitchy cat @-@ fighting stuff . "
= = Storylines = =
Faye arrives at Holby General in the episode " Into the Dark " , requesting that registrars Joseph Byrne and Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) help her gain employment as a Bank Nurse . During her first few months at the hospital , Faye remains close to Joseph , but does not get on well with Jac , who she speaks to sternly about her close relationship with Joseph 's father , Lord Byrne ( Ronald Pickup ) . In the episode " What Lies Beneath " , flashbacks show the trio 's first meeting in Dubai . Faye 's husband James reveals to her that he has lost her life savings . The pair fight , and James ends up dead at the bottom of their stairs . Faye leaves him , and returns to England with Joseph and Jac . Faye is questioned by the police about James ' death but is not charged .
Faye begins a friendship with Ward Sister Kyla Tyson , and supports her through her domestic abuse ordeal at the hands of her husband , his subsequent death , and the loss of her son to foster care . She resists the advances of hospital lothario Sam Strachan , and impresses general surgical consultant Dan Clifford ( Peter Wingfield ) with her approach to patient care - leading to an on the spot promotion after a clash with Thandie Abebe ( Ginny Holder ) in the episode " Leap of Faith " .
Faye begins dating Sam , unaware that he is cheating on her with Ward Sister Chrissie Williams . She ends their relationship when she discovers his infidelity and turns her attention to Joseph , who had tried to warn her about Sam 's indiscretion . She supports Joseph when he is tormented by Jac about the relationship she had had with his father prior to his death . When STI clinician Tim attacks staff members with a crossbow , Faye is shot in the back , but makes a full recovery . She reveals to Joseph that she was formerly married to a much older man named Donald , who left her a substantial amount of money after his death from cancer . She is investigated by the police , who find it suspicious that she has been twice widowed . Her stepson , Carl Hewson , blackmails her for money , but is later attacked by loan sharks and dies in theatre .
Following a fight with Joseph , Faye disappears to South Africa . Joseph and consultant Linden Cullen travel there to find her , and discover that Faye has a young son , Archie , who has Lowe syndrome . He has been kidnapped by his father , Faye 's first husband Lucas , and Joseph is forced to operate on him to save his life . Faye and Joseph go on to become engaged , and marry at his family home . When Archie 's nurse Lauren accidentally administers him the wrong drug , he dies . Faye is arrested for his murder when post @-@ mortem results prove inconclusive , and is suspended from work . She is acquitted when Lauren confesses , and fights with the nurse , who attempts suicide . Faye is able to make her peace with Lauren , but is unable to fully forgive her . In the aftermath of Archie 's death , Faye and Joseph grow apart , and she develops romantic feelings for Linden .
Faye and Joseph separate , and she and Linden begin a relationship . Faye discovers that she is pregnant with Joseph 's baby , but Linden promises to support her and they become briefly engaged . Increasingly concerned that Faye may be a pathological liar , Linden terminates their engagement . Faye is later attacked by a heroin @-@ addicted patient , and when Linden attempts to defend her , he is hit in the head with a glass bottle and dies . Faye suffers a breakdown in the aftermath of Linden 's death , and is admitted to a psychiatric unit . She self @-@ harms , and refuses to leave the unit when she goes into labour , until Jac assures her that Joseph does not intend to take their child away from her . Faye delivers a boy by Caesarean . She initially fails to bond with him , but when Joseph puts their divorce proceedings on hold , she makes an effort and names him Harry , after Joseph 's deceased younger brother . Despite Joseph 's opposition , she insists on returning to the psychiatric unit .
Faye left her job on 28 December 2010 and went to live in France , leaving her son , Harry , in the care of Joseph .
= = Reception = =
Within four months of first appearing in Holby City , Kensit was nominated for the " Best Actress " award at the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards for her portrayal of Faye . The character 's introductory episode , " Into the Dark " drew a high of 7 million viewers , while " What Lies Beneath " , the flashback episode in which the character was seen to kill her husband in Dubai drew ratings of 6 @.@ 32 million . The character 's introduction to the series was highly publicised in the media , including a front cover and inside spread featuring Kensit discussing her new role in the week 's edition of the Radio Times . The Liverpool Echo selected the character 's introductory episode as a televisual ' Pick of the Day ' , The Mirror 's TV critic Jim Shelley selected her arrival as a highlight of the week , and Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror described her debut as " sensational " .
Faye has continued to generate high publicity for the series , with the 11 August 2007 edition of Total TV Guide featuring Kensit , Hobley and Chambers on its front cover , appearing in character to promote their love triangle storyline , and the 1 September 2007 Daily Express television supplement again featuring Kensit and Hobley on its cover , with an inside feature on the same storyline . It was reported on 19 August 2007 that Kensit 's casting had " boosted the series ' appeal " to such an extent that for the first time , a Holby City calendar had been commissioned . The report quoted a series insider as stating : " Patsy has really set the show off this year , and what better way to thank the dedicated fans ? " .
The character was heavily criticised in the July 2007 edition of the Nursing and Midwifery Council magazine . The publication discussed the topic of nurses in popular culture , and the negative impression of the nursing profession conveyed by fictional nurses . With a promotional image of Kensit as Faye adorning the front cover , the magazine asserted :
This criticism was echoed by Shelley , who , commenting on an interview Kensit had given to publicise the show and her role with Jonathan Ross , suggested that " reality " was not a term that could be applied to Holby City 's portrayal of nursing .
In July 2009 , Conservative Party strategists identified " Holby City woman " as a key voter demographic who may help the party win the 2010 General Election . The " Holby City woman " archetype is modelled on Faye , a female voter in her 30s or 40s , employed in a clinical or clerical position or some other public sector job . She is a swing voter in General Elections , who has voted for the Labour Party in previous elections , though her identification with the Labour Party is not strong . Jonathan Oliver for The Times noted that " Faye Morton , the Holby City staff nurse played by Patsy Kensit is just the sort of person that Cameron might now hope to recruit " .
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= Venus =
Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224 @.@ 7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second @-@ brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4 @.@ 6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus is an inferior planet from Earth , it never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its elongation reaches a maximum of 47 @.@ 8 ° .
Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's " sister planet " because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K ( 462 ° C ; 863 ° F ) , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab @-@ like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism .
As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the " morning star " and " evening star " . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC , and was a prime target for early interplanetary exploration as the closest planet to Earth . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 ) in 1962 , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 ) in 1970 . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System , meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth . It is similar to Earth in size and mass , and is often described as Earth 's " sister " or " twin " . The diameter of Venus is 12 @,@ 092 km ( only 650 km less than Earth 's ) and its mass is 81 @.@ 5 % of Earth 's . Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because of its dense carbon dioxide atmosphere . The mass of the atmosphere of Venus is 96 @.@ 5 % carbon dioxide , with most of the remaining 3 @.@ 5 % being nitrogen .
= = = Geography = = =
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary science in the 20th century . Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks . The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990 – 91 . The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism , and the sulfur in the atmosphere may indicate that there have been some recent eruptions .
About 80 % of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth , volcanic plains , consisting of 70 % plains with wrinkle ridges and 10 % smooth or lobate plains . Two highland " continents " make up the rest of its surface area , one lying in the planet 's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator . The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra , after Ishtar the Babylonian goddess of love , and is about the size of Australia . Maxwell Montes , the highest mountain on Venus , lies on Ishtar Terra . Its peak is 11 km above the Venusian average surface elevation . The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra , after the Greek goddess of love , and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America . A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area .
The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible caldera remains an enigma . The planet has few impact craters , demonstrating that the surface is relatively young , approximately 300 – 600 million years old . Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters , mountains , and valleys commonly found on rocky planets . Among these are flat @-@ topped volcanic features called " farra " , which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km across , and from 100 to 1 @,@ 000 m high ; radial , star @-@ like fracture systems called " novae " ; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs , known as " arachnoids " ; and " coronae " , circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression . These features are volcanic in origin .
Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women . Exceptions are Maxwell Montes , named after James Clerk Maxwell , and highland regions Alpha Regio , Beta Regio , and Ovda Regio . The latter three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union , the body which oversees planetary nomenclature .
The longitudes of physical features on Venus are expressed relative to its prime meridian . The original prime meridian passed through the radar @-@ bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve , located south of Alpha Regio . After the Venera missions were completed , the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne .
= = = Surface geology = = =
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity . Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth , and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km across . The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii . This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth , but because its crust is older . Earth 's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates , and has an average age of about 100 million years , whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300 – 600 million years old .
Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus . During the Soviet Venera program , the Venera 9 orbiter obtained spectroscopic evidence of lightning on Venus , and the Venera 12 descent probe obtained additional evidence of lightning and thunder . The European Space Agency 's Venus Express in 2007 detected whistler waves further confirming the occurrence of lightning on Venus . Although rainfall drives thunderstorms on Earth , there is no rainfall on the surface of Venus ( though sulfuric acid rain falls in the upper atmosphere , then evaporates around 25 km above the surface ) . One possibility is that ash from a volcanic eruption was generating the lightning . Another piece of evidence comes from measurements of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere , which dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986 , jumped in 2006 , and again declined 10 @-@ fold . This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions .
In 2008 and 2009 , the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express , in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma , near the shield volcano Maat Mons . Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit . These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions . The actual temperatures are not known , because the size of the hot spots could not be measured , but are likely to have been in the 800 – 1100 K range , relative to a normal temperature of 740 K.
Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface . On other cratered bodies , such as Earth and the Moon , craters show a range of states of degradation . On the Moon , degradation is caused by subsequent impacts , whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion . On Venus , about 85 % of the craters are in pristine condition . The number of craters , together with their well @-@ preserved condition , indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300 – 600 million years ago , followed by a decay in volcanism . Whereas Earth 's crust is in continuous motion , Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process . Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle , Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust . Then , over a period of about 100 million years , subduction occurs on an enormous scale , completely recycling the crust .
Venusian craters range from 3 km to 280 km in diameter . No craters are smaller than 3 km , because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects . Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater . Incoming projectiles less than 50 metres in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Without seismic data or knowledge of its moment of inertia , little direct information is available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus . The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure : a core , mantle , and crust . Like that of Earth , the Venusian core is at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate . The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24 % lower in its deep interior than Earth 's . The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus , possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous . This results in reduced heat loss from the planet , preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field . Instead , Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events .
= = = Atmosphere and climate = = =
Venus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96 @.@ 5 % carbon dioxide , 3 @.@ 5 % nitrogen , and traces of other gases , most notably sulfur dioxide . The mass of its atmosphere is 93 times that of Earth 's , whereas the pressure at its surface is about 92 times that at Earth 's — a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 kilometre under Earth 's oceans . The density at the surface is 65 kg / m3 , 6 @.@ 5 % that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth 's atmosphere at 20 ° C at sea level . The CO
2 @-@ rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System , creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K ( 462 ° C ) . This makes Venus 's surface hotter than Mercury 's , which has a minimum surface temperature of 55 K ( − 220 ° C ) and maximum surface temperature of 695 K ( 420 ° C ) , even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury 's distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25 % of Mercury 's solar irradiance . This temperature is higher than that used for sterilization . The surface of Venus is often said to resemble traditional accounts of Hell .
Studies have suggested that billions of years ago Venus 's atmosphere was much more like Earth 's than it is now , and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface , but after a period of 600 million to several billion years , a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water , which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere . Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earthlike life that may have formed before this event , there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus , 50 km ( 31 mi ) up from the surface , where the temperature ranges between 30 and 80 ° C but the environment is acidic .
Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus 's surface does not vary significantly between the night and day sides , despite Venus 's extremely slow rotation . Winds at the surface are slow , moving at a few kilometres per hour , but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface , they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions , and transport dust and small stones across the surface . This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through , even if the heat , pressure , and lack of oxygen were not a problem .
Above the dense CO
2 layer are thick clouds consisting mainly of sulfuric acid droplets . The clouds also contain sulfur aerosol , about 1 % ferric chloride and some water . Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate , aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride . Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions . These clouds reflect and scatter about 90 % of the sunlight that falls on them back into space , and prevent visual observation of Venus 's surface . The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun , it receives less sunlight on the ground . Strong 85 m / s ( 300 km / h ) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days . Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation , whereas Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 – 20 % rotation speed .
The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal ; it retains a constant temperature not only between day and night but between the equator and the poles . Venus 's minute axial tilt — less than 3 ° , compared to 23 ° on Earth — also minimises seasonal temperature variation . The only appreciable variation in temperature occurs with altitude . The highest point on Venus , Maxwell Montes , is therefore the coolest point on Venus , with a temperature of about 655 K ( 380 ° C ) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4 @.@ 5 MPa ( 45 bar ) . In 1995 , the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow . This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow , albeit at a far higher temperature . Too volatile to condense on the surface , it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations , where it is cooler and could precipitate . The identity of this substance is not known with certainty , but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide ( galena ) .
The clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth . The existence of lightning had been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes . In 2006 – 07 , Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves , the signatures of lightning . Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity . The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth . In 2007 , Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric vortex exists at the south pole .
Venus Express also discovered , in 2011 , that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus . On 29 January 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to " the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . "
= = = Magnetic field and core = = =
In 1967 , Venera 4 found Venus 's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth . This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind , rather than by an internal dynamo in the core like the one inside Earth . Venus 's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against cosmic radiation . This radiation may result in cloud @-@ to @-@ cloud lightning discharges .
The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field at Venus was surprising , given that it is similar to Earth in size , and was expected also to contain a dynamo at its core . A dynamo requires three things : a conducting liquid , rotation , and convection . The core is thought to be electrically conductive and , although its rotation is often thought to be too slow , simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo . This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus 's core . On Earth , convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much hotter than the top . On Venus , a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust . This caused the mantle temperature to increase , thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core . As a result , no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field . Instead , the heat from the core is being used to reheat the crust .
One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core , or that its core is not cooling , so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature . Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified . The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur , which is unknown at present .
The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere . Here , ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of neutral molecules from ultraviolet radiation . The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus 's gravity field . This erosion process results in a steady loss of low @-@ mass hydrogen , helium , and oxygen ions , whereas higher @-@ mass molecules , such as carbon dioxide , are more likely to be retained . Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind probably led to the loss of most of Venus 's water during the first billion years after it formed . The erosion has increased the ratio of higher @-@ mass deuterium to lower @-@ mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0 @.@ 72 AU ( 108 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ; 67 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) , and completes an orbit every 224 @.@ 7 days . Although all planetary orbits are elliptical , Venus 's orbit is the closest to circular , with an eccentricity of less than 0 @.@ 01 . When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction , it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km . The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days , on average . Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years . From the year 1 to 5383 , there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km ; then there are none for about 60 @,@ 158 years .
All the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anti @-@ clockwise direction as viewed from above Earth 's north pole . Most planets also rotate on their axes in an anti @-@ clockwise direction , but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days — the slowest rotation of any planet . Because its rotation is so slow , Venus is very close to spherical . A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts longer than a Venusian year ( 243 versus 224 @.@ 7 Earth days ) . Venus 's equator rotates at 6 @.@ 5 km / h ( 4 @.@ 0 mph ) , whereas Earth 's is approximately 1 @,@ 670 km / h ( 1 @,@ 040 mph ) . Venus 's rotation has slowed down by 6 @.@ 5 min per Venusian sidereal day in the 16 years between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits . Because of the retrograde rotation , the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day , at 116 @.@ 75 Earth days ( making the Venusian solar day shorter than Mercury 's 176 Earth days ) . One Venusian year is about 1 @.@ 92 Venusian solar days . To an observer on the surface of Venus , the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east , although Venus 's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet 's surface .
Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity , reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere , a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years . The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun 's gravitation , which tends to slow rotation , and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere . The 584 @-@ day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days , but the hypothesis of a spin – orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted .
Venus has no natural satellites . It has several trojan asteroids : the quasi @-@ satellite 2002 VE68 and two other temporary trojans , 2001 CK32 and 2012 XE133 . In the 17th century , Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus , which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 200 years , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity . Alex Alemi 's and David Stevenson 's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago . About 10 million years later , according to the study , another impact reversed the planet 's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus . If later impacts created moons , these were removed in the same way . An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides , which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets .
= = Observation = =
To the naked eye , Venus appears as a white point of light brighter than any other planet or star ( apart from the Sun ) . The greatest luminosity , apparent magnitude − 4 @.@ 9 , occurs during crescent phase when it is near Earth . Venus fades to about magnitude − 3 when it is backlit by the Sun . The planet is bright enough to be seen in a midday clear sky , and it can be easy to see when the Sun is low on the horizon . As an inferior planet , it always lies within about 47 ° of the Sun .
Venus " overtakes " Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun . As it does so , it changes from the " Evening Star " , visible after sunset , to the " Morning Star " , visible before sunrise . Although Mercury , the other inferior planet , reaches a maximum elongation of only 28 ° and is often difficult to discern in twilight , Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest . Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset . As the brightest point @-@ like object in the sky , Venus is a commonly misreported " unidentified flying object " . U.S. President Jimmy Carter reported having seen a UFO in 1969 , which later analysis suggested was probably Venus .
As it moves around its orbit , Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view . The planet presents a small " full " image when it is on the opposite side of the Sun . It shows a larger " quarter phase " when it is at its maximum elongations from the Sun , and is at its brightest in the night sky , and presents a much larger " thin crescent " in telescopic views as it comes around to the near side between Earth and the Sun . Venus is at its largest and presents its " new phase " when it is between Earth and the Sun . Its atmosphere can be seen in a telescope by the halo of light refracted around it .
= = = Transits = = =
The Venusian orbit is slightly inclined relative to Earth 's orbit ; thus , when the planet passes between Earth and the Sun , it usually does not cross the face of the Sun . Transits of Venus occur when the planet 's inferior conjunction coincides with its presence in the plane of Earth 's orbit . Transits of Venus occur in cycles of 243 years with the current pattern of transits being pairs of transits separated by eight years , at intervals of about 105 @.@ 5 years or 121 @.@ 5 years — a pattern first discovered in 1639 by the English astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks .
The latest pair was June 8 , 2004 and June 5 – 6 , 2012 . The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions .
The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882 ; the following pair will occur in December 2117 and December 2125 . Historically , transits of Venus were important , because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit , and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Horrocks in 1639 . Captain Cook 's exploration of the east coast of Australia came after he had sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to observe a transit of Venus .
= = = Pentagram of Venus = = =
The pentagram of Venus is the path that Venus makes as observed from Earth . Successive inferior conjunctions of Venus repeat very near a 13 : 8 orbital resonance ( Earth orbits 8 times for every 13 orbits of Venus ) , shifting 144 ° upon sequential inferior conjunctions . The resonance 13 : 8 ratio is approximate . 8 / 13 is approximately 0 @.@ 615385 while Venus orbits the Sun in 0 @.@ 615187 years .
= = = Ashen light = = =
A long @-@ standing mystery of Venus observations is the so @-@ called ashen light — an apparent weak illumination of its dark side , seen when the planet is in the crescent phase . The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643 , but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed . Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere , but it could be illusory , resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright , crescent @-@ shaped object .
= = Habitability = =
The speculation of the existence of life on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth .
The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K ( 462 ° C ) , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water @-@ based life as we know it unlikely . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower @-@ temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .
= = Studies = =
= = = Early studies = = =
Venus was known to ancient civilizations both as the " morning star " and as the " evening star " , names that reflect the early assumption that these were two separate objects . The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , believed to have been compiled around the mid @-@ seventeenth century BCE , shows the Babylonians understood the two were a single object , referred to in the tablet as the " bright queen of the sky " , and could support this view with detailed observations . The Ancient Greeks thought of the two as separate stars , Phosphorus and Hesperus . Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BCE , while Diogenes Laertius argued that Parmenides was probably responsible . The ancient Chinese referred to the morning Venus as " the Great White " ( Tai @-@ bai 太白 ) or " the Opener of Brightness " ( Qi @-@ ming 啟明 ) , and the evening Venus as " the Excellent West One " ( Chang @-@ geng 長庚 ) . The Romans designated the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer , literally " Light @-@ Bringer " , and the evening aspect as Vesper , both literal translations of the respective Greek names .
In the second century , in his astronomical treatise Almagest , Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus are located between the Sun and the Earth . The 11th century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed the transit of Venus , which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy 's theory . In the 12th century , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed " two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun " , which were later identified as the transits of Venus and Mercury by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al @-@ Din Shirazi in the 13th century .
When the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet in the early 17th century , he found it showed phases like the Moon , varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa . When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky , it shows a half @-@ lit phase , and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky , it shows as a crescent or full phase . This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun , and this was among the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth .
The 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend , William Crabtree , at each of their respective homes , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time ) .
The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov . Venus 's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter . Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent , the cusps extended through more than 180 ° . He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere . Later , American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction , providing further evidence for an atmosphere . The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet , and observers such as Italian @-@ born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet 's apparent surface .
= = = Ground @-@ based research = = =
Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century . Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like , and it was only with the development of spectroscopic , radar and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed . The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s , when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation . He suggested this was due to a dense , yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it .
Spectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation . Vesto Slipher tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus , but found he could not detect any rotation . He surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought . Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde . Radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s , and provided the first measurements of the rotation period , which were close to the modern value .
Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time . Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m ( 980 ft ) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory , and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions , designated the Alpha and Beta regions . The observations also revealed a bright region attributed to mountains , which was called Maxwell Montes . These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names .
= = = Exploration = = =
The first robotic space probe mission to Venus , and the first to any planet , began with the Soviet Venera program in 1961 . The United States ' exploration of Venus had its first success with the Mariner 2 mission on 14 December 1962 , becoming the world 's first successful interplanetary mission , passing 34 @,@ 833 km ( 21 @,@ 644 mi ) above the surface of Venus , and gathering data on the planet 's atmosphere .
On 18 October 1967 , the Soviet Venera 4 successfully entered the atmosphere and deployed science experiments . Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated , at almost 500 ° C , determined that the atmosphere is 95 % carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) , and discovered that Venus 's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4 's designers had anticipated . The joint Venera 4 – Mariner 5 data was analysed by a combined Soviet – American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year , in an early example of space cooperation .
In 1975 the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus , which were in black and white . In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers .
NASA obtained additional data in 1978 with the Pioneer Venus project that consisted of two separate missions : Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe . The successful Soviet Venera program came to a close in October 1983 , when Venera 15 and 16 were placed in orbit to conduct detailed mapping of 25 % of Venus 's terrain ( from the north pole to 30 ° N latitude )
Several other Venus flybys took place in the 1980s and 1990s that increased the understanding of Venus , including Vega 1 ( 1985 ) , Vega 2 ( 1985 ) , Galileo ( 1990 ) , Magellan ( 1994 ) , Cassini – Huygens ( 1998 ) , and MESSENGER ( 2006 ) . Then , Venus Express by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) entered orbit around Venus in April 2006 . Equipped with seven scientific instruments , Venus Express provided unprecedented long @-@ term observation of Venus 's atmosphere . ESA concluded that mission in December 2014 .
As of 2016 , Japan 's Akatsuki is in a highly elliptical orbit around Venus since 7 December 2015 , and there are several probing proposals under study by Roscosmos , NASA , and India 's ISRO .
= = In culture = =
= = = Symbol = = =
The astronomical symbol for Venus is the same as that used in biology for the female sex : a circle with a small cross beneath . The Venus symbol also represents femininity , and in Western alchemy stood for the metal copper . Polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity , and the symbol for Venus has sometimes been understood to stand for the mirror of the goddess .
= = = In fiction = = =
Venus is a primary feature of the night sky , and so has been of remarkable importance in mythology , astrology and fiction throughout history and in different cultures . Classical poets such as Homer , Sappho , Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light . Romantic poets such as William Blake , Robert Frost , Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it . With the invention of the telescope , the idea that Venus was a physical world and possible destination began to take form .
The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere . Closer to the Sun than Earth , the planet was frequently depicted as warmer , but still habitable by humans . The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s , at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus , but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions . Findings from the first missions to Venus showed the reality to be quite different , and brought this particular genre to an end . As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced , so science fiction authors tried to keep pace , particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus .
= = Colonization and terraforming = =
Due to its extremely hostile conditions , a surface colony on Venus is not possible with current technology . The atmospheric pressure and temperature approximately fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth 's surface . In Venus 's mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere , Earth 's air ( nitrogen and oxygen ) would act as a lifting gas . This has led to proposals for " floating cities " in the Venusian atmosphere . Aerostats ( lighter @-@ than @-@ air balloons ) could be used for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent settlements . Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights .
= = = Cartographic resources = = =
Map @-@ a @-@ Planet : Venus by the U.S. Geological Survey
Gazeteer of Planetary Nomenclature : Venus by the International Astronomical Union
Venus crater database by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
Map of Venus by Eötvös Loránd University
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= Requiem ( Fauré ) =
Gabriel Fauré composed his Requiem in D minor , Op. 48 , between 1887 and 1890 . The choral @-@ orchestral setting of the shortened Catholic Mass for the Dead in Latin is the best @-@ known of his large works . Its focus is on eternal rest and consolation . Fauré 's reasons for composing the work are unclear , but do not appear to have had anything to do with the death of his parents in the mid @-@ 1880s . He composed the work in the late 1880s and revised it in the 1890s , finishing it in 1900 .
In seven movements , the work is scored for soprano and baritone soloists , mixed choir , orchestra and organ . Different from typical Requiem settings , the full sequence Dies irae is omitted , replaced by its section Pie Jesu . The final movement In Paradisum is based on a text that is not part of the liturgy of the funeral mass but of the burial .
Fauré wrote of the work , " Everything I managed to entertain by way of religious illusion I put into my Requiem , which moreover is dominated from beginning to end by a very human feeling of faith in eternal rest . "
The piece premiered in its first version in 1888 in La Madeleine in Paris for a funeral mass . A performance takes about 35 minutes .
= = History = =
Fauré 's reasons for composing his Requiem are uncertain . One possible impetus may have been the death of his father in 1885 , and his mother 's death two years later , on New Year 's Eve 1887 . However , by the time of his mother 's death he had already begun the work , about which he later declared , " My Requiem wasn 't written for anything – for pleasure , if I may call it that ! " The earliest composed music included in the Requiem is the Libera me , which Fauré wrote in 1877 as an independent work .
In 1887 – 88 , Fauré composed the first version of the work , which he called " un petit Requiem " with five movements ( Introit and Kyrie , Sanctus , Pie Jesu , Agnus Dei and In Paradisum ) , but did not include his Libera me . This version was first performed on 16 January 1888 for the funeral of Joseph Lesoufaché , an architect , at La Madeleine , Paris . The composer conducted his work ; the treble soloist was Louis Aubert .
In 1889 , Fauré added the Hostias portion of the Offertory and in 1890 he expanded the Offertory and added the 1877 Libera me . This second version was premiered on 21 January 1893 , again at the Madeleine with Fauré conducting .
In 1899 – 1900 , the score was reworked for full orchestra . This final version was premiered at the Trocadéro in Paris on 12 July 1900 , during the Exposition Universelle . Paul Taffanel conducted forces of 250 performers .
The composer said of the work , " Everything I managed to entertain by way of religious illusion I put into my Requiem , which moreover is dominated from beginning to end by a very human feeling of faith in eternal rest . " He told an interviewer ,
It has been said that my Requiem does not express the fear of death and someone has called it a lullaby of death . But it is thus that I see death : as a happy deliverance , an aspiration towards happiness above , rather than as a painful experience . The music of Gounod has been criticised for its inclination towards human tenderness . But his nature predisposed him to feel this way : religious emotion took this form inside him . Is it not necessary to accept the artist 's nature ? As to my Requiem , perhaps I have also instinctively sought to escape from what is thought right and proper , after all the years of accompanying burial services on the organ ! I know it all by heart . I wanted to write something different .
In 1924 the Requiem , in its full orchestral version , was performed at Fauré 's own funeral . It was not performed in the United States until 1931 , at a student concert at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia . It was first performed in England in 1936 .
= = Text = =
Most of the text is in Latin , except for the Kyrie which is Koine Greek . As had become customary , Fauré did not set the Gradual and Tract sections of the Mass . He followed a French Baroque tradition by not setting the Requiem sequence ( the Dies irae ) , only its section Pie Jesu . He slightly altered the texts of the Introit , the Kyrie , Pie Jesu , Agnus Dei , and In Paradisum , but substantially changed the text of the Offertory ( described below ) . He did not set the Benedictus ( an optional , but conventional , adjunct to the Sanctus ) , and added two texts from the Order of Burial , Libera me and In Paradisum .
Fauré made changes to the text of the Offertory ; at the beginning , he adds an " O " . He changed " libera animas omnium fidelium defunctorum " ( " deliver the souls of all the faithful departed " ) to simply " libera animas defunctorum " ( " deliver the souls of the departed " ) . He replaced " Libera eas " ( " Deliver them " ) at the beginning of the next verse with a repetition of " O Domine Jesu Christe , Rex gloriae , libera animas defunctorum " , and he omitted the third verse ( beginning " Sed signifer sanctus ... " ) . He concludes with an added " Amen " .
= = Structure and scoring = =
The composition is structured in seven movements :
The piece has a duration of about 35 minutes .
Fauré scored the work for two soloists , chorus and orchestra . Its movements and their sections are listed in a table for the scoring in voices , key , time signature ( using the symbol for common time , equivalent to 44 ) and tempo marking . The voices are abbreviated , S for soprano , A for alto , T for tenor , B for bass . The composer divides the choir into as many as six parts , SATTBB , but frequently uses unison of one part or several . Given the liturgical nature of the work , boy trebles are often used instead of sopranos .
= = = Details = = =
The structure of Fauré 's work bears striking similarity to that of Ein deutsches Requiem by Brahms , although Fauré set Latin liturgical texts to music , whereas Brahms chose German Bible quotations . Both works have seven movements , both employ a baritone and a soprano soloist , the baritone singing with the choir in movements 2 and 6 , the soprano in a central movement , movement 4 in Faurè , movement 5 in Brahms where she appears with the choir . In both works , the four remaining movements are sung by the choir alone , whereas Verdi , for example , has the soloists sing several arias and ensembles in his Requiem .
= = = Introit et Kyrie = = =
Similar to Mozart 's Requiem , the work begins slowly in D minor . After one measure of just D in the instruments , the choir enters pianissimo in six parts on the D minor chord and stays on it in homophony for the entire text " Requiem aeternam " ( eternal rest ) . In gradual progression of harmony and a sudden crescendo , a first climax is reached on " et lux perpetua " ( and lasting light ) , diminishing on a repeated " luceat eis " ( may shine for them ) . The tenors repeat the prayer alone for eternal rest on a simple melody . The sopranos continue similarly that praise is due in Jerusalem , then all voices exclaim " Exaudi " ( hear ) .
The Kyrie begins with the same melody that the tenor sang before , but now in unison of soprano , alto and tenor , repeated in the following four measures in four @-@ part harmony . The call " Christe " is strong and urgent the first time , repeated more softly a few more times . The final call " Kyrie " appears pianissimo .
= = = Offertoire = = =
The Offertoire begins in B minor with a canon of alto and tenor in short succession on a simple modal melody with little ambitus , in a prayer " O Domine , Jesu Christ , rex gloriae " ( O Lord , Jesus Christ , King of Glory ) to free the souls of the departed from eternal punishment and the deep lake , ending in unison . The sequence is repeated beginning one step higher for the next line , and again one step higher for the following more urgent call to Jesus , enforced by the basses . The voices add only softly , broken by rests , what the prayer is about : " ne cadant – in obscurum " ( that they may not fall into the obscure ) .
The baritone enters with " Hostias et preces " , offerings brought with praises , beginning on one repeated note , but asking with more melody " fac eas , Domine , de morte transire ad vitam " ( make them , Lord , transcend from death to life ) . The choir repeats the first line of the text on the same motif as in the beginning , but in more elaborate polyphony in four parts , concluded by an uplifting Amen in B major .
= = = Sanctus = = =
Sanctus ( Holy ) , in contrast with other compositions of mass and Requiem where it is often illustrated with great vocal and instrumental forces ( particularly Verdi 's Requiem ) , is here expressed in extremely simple form . The sopranos sing softly in a very simple rising and falling melody of only three notes , which the male voices repeat , accompanied by arpeggios on the harp and a dreamy rising melody in the violins ( sometimes just a solo violin ) . The pattern appears several times , with the melodies increasing in ambitus , and the volume reaching forte on " excelsis " ( the highest ) . The orchestra changes tone , the dreamy accompaniment is replaced by firm and powerful major chords with a horn fanfare marked forte , and the male voices declare " Hosanna in excelsis " ( praise in the highest ) . This is answered by the sopranos in diminuendo , and the music softens and reverts to the dreamy harp arpeggios that it began with as the violin melody floats upwards to the final note in E flat major and the full choir repeats , with the altos finally joining : " Sanctus " .
= = = Pie Jesu = = =
The solo soprano sings the prayer to the " good Jesus " for everlasting rest . The one line of text is repeated three times , the first two times asking for " requiem " ( rest ) , then intensified for " sempiternam requiem " ( everlasting rest ) . The first call is a modal melody in B @-@ flat major of six measures , the second call is similar but reaching up higher . The words " Dona eis , Domine , dona eis requiem " begin with more expansion , but reach alternating between only two notes on two repetitions of " sempiternam requiem " . The last call begins as the first and leads again to alternating between two notes in even lower range , until the last " requiem " has a gentle upward motion .
= = = Agnus Dei = = =
" Agnus Dei " , in many settings of Mass and Requiem set with dark expression , begins in F major with a fluent expansive melody in the orchestra . After six measures , the tenor sings a melody to it that gently rises and falls , and repeats it almost the same way . Then , while the motion in the orchestra stays the same , the key changes to the minor mode , and the Lamb of God is asked for rest in chords of daring harmonic progression . Then the tenor , without instrumental introduction , repeats the first line , leading to a peaceful " sempiternam " .
The sopranos alone begins the following section " Lux aeterna luceat eis " ( Light eternal shine for them ) with a long " Lux " , then the choir , divided in six parts , lets that light shimmer .
The choir closes with a reprise of the Introit , the opening of the mass ( " Requiem aeternam " ) , before the orchestra picks up the " Agnus Dei " melody to close the movement .
= = = Libera me = = =
The baritone soloist sings the first section alone . On a bass in an ostinato rhythm of two quarter notes , a rest and the upbeat to the next two quarters , he sings the text " Libera me ... " ( Free me , Lord , from eternal death on that terrible day when the heavens will move and the earth , when you come to judge the world with fire . ) , embarking on a melody of wide range , with some sharp leaps . The text is continued by the choir in four parts in homophony : " Tremens factus sum ego " ( I am trembling ) . In more motion , " Dies irae " ( day of wrath ) is expressed by fortissimo chords , giving way to the prayer for rest in the same motion , but piano , with a crescendo on " dona eis , Domine " , but suddenly softening on a last " et lux perpetua luceat eis " . Then the choir repeats the opening statement of the baritone fully in unison . Soloist , then choir , end the movement softly , repeating " Libera me , Domine " .
= = = In Paradisum = = =
The text of the last movement is taken from the Order of Burial . " In paradisum deducant angeli " ( May angels lead you to paradise ) rests on a continuous shimmering motion in fast broken triads in the orchestra . The soprano sings a rising expressive melody , enriched by chords of the other voices , divided in six parts , on the final " Jerusalem " . A second thought is again sung by the soprano , filled on the last words by the others : Requiem aeternam .
= = Versions = =
Fauré revised and enlarged the Requiem in the years between its first performance in 1888 and the publication of the final version in 1901 . The latter is scored for full orchestra ; since the 1970s attempts have been made by several Fauré scholars to reconstruct the composer 's earlier versions , scored for smaller orchestral forces .
= = = First version = = =
Five of the seven sections of the Requiem were completed by January 1888 and performed that month at the Madeleine for the funeral of the architect Joseph Lesoufaché . This version lacked the Offertoire and Libera me , which Fauré added at some time in the following decade . The Libera me predates the rest of the Requiem , having been composed eleven years earlier as a baritone solo . The forces required for the original 1888 version were a choir about forty in number consisting of boys and men ( the Madeleine did not admit female choristers ) , solo boy treble , harp , timpani , organ , strings ( solo violin , divided violas , divided cellos and basses ) . For a performance at the Madeleine in May 1888 Fauré added horn and trumpet parts .
= = = 1893 version = = =
Fauré continued to work intermittently on the Requiem , and by 1893 he judged the score ready to be published ( although the proposed publication fell through ) . Several attempts have been made to reconstruct the score as it was in 1893 . The Fauré specialist Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux began working on it in the 1970s , but the first edition to be published was by the English conductor John Rutter in 1989 . Nectoux 's edition , jointly edited with Roger Delage , was published in 1994 . They had the advantage of access to important source material unavailable to Rutter : a set of orchestral parts discovered in 1968 in the Madeleine and a score made in the 1890s by a bass in the Madeleine choir and annotated by Fauré . Music and Letters judged the Rutter edition , " makeshift and lacking in the standards of scholarship one expects from a university press " . The Musical Times considered the Nectoux and Delage edition " invaluable " .
Fauré 's own manuscript survives but , as the critic Andrew Thomson puts it , " the waters were muddied by his overwritings on the original MSS , adding two bassoons and two more horns and trumpets , together with modifications of the cello and bass parts . " Reviewing the Nectoux and Delage edition , Thomson wrote of " several pleasant surprises [ including ] the restoration of the urgent timpani rolls underlining ' Christe eleison ' , and the ethereal harp chords which so enhance the spiritual atmosphere of ' Lux aeterna ' " .
For the 1893 version a baritone solo , two bassoons , four horns and two trumpets are added to the original scoring . When possible Fauré employed a mixed choir and a female soprano soloist , partly because the soprano lines , particularly the solo in the Pie Jesu , are difficult to sing and demand excellent breath control , easier for adult women than for boys .
= = = Final version = = =
At the end of the 1890s Fauré 's publisher , Hamelle , suggested that the composer should rescore the Requiem for performance in concert halls . The intimate sound of the earlier versions was effective in liturgical performances , but for the large concert venues , and large choral societies of the time , a larger orchestra was required . The autograph of the resulting 1900 version does not survive , and critics have speculated whether Fauré , who was not greatly interested in orchestration , delegated some or all of the revision to one of his pupils . Many details of the augmented score differ from Fauré 's own earlier amendments to the original 1888 manuscript . The new score was published in 1901 at the same time as a vocal score edited by one of Fauré 's favourite pupils , Jean Roger @-@ Ducasse , and some critics have speculated that he reorchestrated the full score at Fauré 's instigation . Others have questioned whether so skilled an orchestrator as Roger @-@ Ducasse would have " perpetrated such pointlessly inconspicuous doublings " , or left uncorrected the many misprints in the 1901 edition . Alan Blyth speculates that the work may have been done by someone in Hamelle 's firm . The misprints have been corrected in later editions , notably those by Roger Fiske and Paul Inwood ( 1978 ) and Nectoux ( 2001 ) .
The orchestration of the final version comprises mixed choir , solo soprano , solo baritone , two flutes , two clarinets ( only in the Pie Jesu ) , two bassoons , four horns , two trumpets ( only in the Kyrie and Sanctus ) , three trombones , timpani ( only in the Libera me ) , harp , organ , strings ( with only a single section of violins , but divided violas and cellos , as before ) .
Nectoux has expressed the view that what he terms the " church " ( 1893 ) and the " concert " ( 1900 – 1901 ) versions of the Requiem should both be performed , the choice of edition being dictated by the size of the venue . It is not clear whether the composer favoured either version over the other . Blyth comments " All of his comments about the Requiem ring truer as descriptions of the 1888 and 1894 [ sic ] versions than of the published text of 1901 " . Fauré , however , complained in 1921 that the orchestra at a performance of the work had been too small , and commented to Eugène Ysaÿe on the " angelic " violins during the Sanctus in the full orchestral version .
= = Selected editions = =
Fauré : Messe de requiem , Op. 48 , ed . Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux and Reiner Zimmerman , Edition Peters
Fauré : Requiem , Op. 48 , ed . Roger Fiske and Paul Inwood , Eulenburg / Schott
Fauré : Requiem ( 1893 Version ) , ed . Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux and Roger Delage ( full score and miniature score , Hamelle )
= = Selected recordings = =
The Requiem was first recorded in 1931 , by Fanny Malnory @-@ Marseillac , soprano ; Louis Morturier , baritone ; the Choeur de la Société Bach and Orchestre Alexandre Cellier , conducted by Gustav Bret . It was first issued on the " Gramophone " label , and reissued in 1934 on HMV . That recording used the full 1900 orchestrations , as did all others except one over the next half century . The exception was a Columbia set recorded in 1938 , with Suzanne Dupont , soprano ; Maurice Didier , baritone ; Les Chanteurs de Lyon and Le Trigentuor instrumental lyonnais , conducted by Ernest Bourmauck .
Since 1984 , when John Rutter 's edition of the 1893 score was recorded for the Conifer label , there have been numerous sets of both the 1893 and 1900 versions issued on CD . Those singled out for particular mention by critics are listed below . The Requiem is often combined in recordings and concert performances with Fauré 's early Cantique de Jean Racine , an award @-@ winning composition originally for choir and organ which the composer wrote aged 19 in his last year of ten years at the school of church music École Niedermeyer de Paris .
= = = 1893 version = = =
Caroline Ashton ; Stephen Varcoe ; Cambridge Singers ; City of London Sinfonia ; John Rutter ( 1984 ) . Recommended by The Penguin Guide to the 1000 Finest Classical Recordings ( 2011 ) and The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
Sandrine Piau ; Stéphane Degout ; Maîtrise de Paris ; Orchestre National de France ; Laurence Equilbey ( 2008 ) . Recommended by The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
= = = 1900 version = = =
Victoria de los Ángeles ; Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau ; Chorale Élisabeth Brasseur ; Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire ; André Cluytens ( 1963 ) . Recommended by All Music Guide to Classical Music ( 2005 ) .
Robert Chilcott ; John Carol Case ; Choir of King 's College , Cambridge ; New Philharmonia Orchestra ; Sir David Willcocks ( 1967 ) . Recommended by The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
Kathleen Battle ; Andreas Schmidt ; Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra ; Carlo Maria Giulini ( 1986 ) . Recommended by All Music Guide to Classical Music ( 2005 ) .
Judith Blegen ; James Morris ; Atlanta Symphony Chorus and Orchestra ; Robert Shaw ( 1987 ) . Recommended by The American Record Guide ( 2000 ) .
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= 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane =
The 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane was the most severe hurricane in Georgia since 1752 , causing over 500 deaths and at least $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( 1804 USD ) in damage throughout the southeastern United States . Originating near Antigua on 3 September , it initially drifted west @-@ northwestward , soon nearing Puerto Rico . Throughout its existence in the Caribbean Sea , the hurricane damaged , destroyed , and capsized numerous ships , and at Saint Kitts , it was considered to be the worst since 1772 . By 4 September , the storm arrived at the Bahamas and turned northward before approaching the coast of northern Florida on 6 September . The hurricane eventually came ashore along the coastline of Georgia and South Carolina while producing mostly southeasterly winds . A severe gale was noted in New England later that month , on 11 and 12 September , although it was likely not the same system as that which had passed through the Caribbean and southeastern United States earlier that month .
The hurricane produced a wide swath of damage along its path , especially in Georgia and South Carolina . Maritime losses along the coastlines of both states were significant , with numerous ships damaged or destroyed . Crop damage , especially to rice , cotton , and corn , was also considerable , with impending harvests ruined by the hurricane 's arrival . Strong winds and heavy rainfall inundated streets , residences , and fields , and also toppled chimneys , fences , and cracked windows across the region . Wharves , struck by stranded boats , endured significant damage as well . Hundreds of slaves drowned , with many deaths caused by owners ' neglect . Dozens of residences and other structures were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable due to inundation or collapse . Notably , Aaron Burr , then attempting to flee authorities , visited St. Simons Island in Georgia during the hurricane , later returning to Hampton and giving a detailed account of the hurricane 's effects . Damage in Savannah , Georgia , totaled $ 500 @,@ 000 , compared to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at Charleston , South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
The 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane was first sighted on 3 September as it swept past Saint Barthélemy , Saint Kitts , and Antigua , drifting toward the west @-@ northwest and soon approaching Puerto Rico and the Turks and Caicos Islands . The storm reached the Bahamas while turning northward on 4 September , nearing the northern Floridan coast by 6 September . It remained offshore on 7 September , gradually approaching the coast throughout the day , and eventually made landfall that evening along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina . Observations in Savannah , Georgia , indicated north @-@ to @-@ northeast winds throughout 8 September , though other reports recorded northeast @-@ to @-@ easterly gusts ; at Charleston , South Carolina , however , winds , initially northeast @-@ to @-@ east , curved southeastward later in the storm . Little information exists on the hurricane 's whereabouts between North Carolina and New England , with a single report at Norfolk , Virginia of east @-@ northeasterly winds veering east @-@ to @-@ east @-@ southeast from 7 to 9 September , suggesting the disturbance 's passage west of there . A severe gale arrived in New England on 11 and 12 September , though the long pause between the departure of the hurricane from the Carolinas and its arrival in the northeastern United States evidences the possibility that the two systems may have been unrelated .
= = Impact = =
= = = Georgia = = =
The hurricane of 1804 was the first since 1752 to strike Georgia with such strength . Damage to ships was considerable , especially offshore Georgia . Betsy was stripped of its freight and somewhat damaged , the Phoebe ran aground at Tybee Island , the Liberty perished with its crew killed , the Patsy nearly sank , and the Experiment capsized . At the time the hurricane struck , Aaron Burr , hiding from federal officials , was taking refuge at St. Simons Island on the property of John Couper , though was unable to return to Hampton due to deteriorating conditions . Upon the passage of the storm 's eye , Burr fled back to the residence of Pierce Butler at Hampton . In an account of the hurricane , Burr recorded strong winds , which destroyed several outhouses and uprooted numerous trees at St. Simon 's , with the storm later cracking windows , toppling chimneys , and flooding the house ; in the town proper , he discovered many local roads were obstructed . Nineteen slaves owned by Butler drowned , while Couper suffered $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) in losses alone , with cabins housing over a hundred slaves destroyed . Many other local planters experienced similar difficulties . Seawater inundated and ruined several acres of cotton around the Horton House plantation at Jekyll Island , devaluing the year 's harvest by 20 percent ; similar losses were endured by other rice , cotton , and corn farmers along the coast .
At Broughton Island , orders were given to transfer slaves away from a rice barn upon indications of a storm 's arrival ; however , efforts to do so were not undertaken promptly , and more than seventy slaves drowned , leading the plantation owner to sell the property following financial losses . Similar events transpired at St. Catherines Island , where two slaves died . At Darien , meanwhile , a tannery was destroyed , and flood waters ruined its tanning baths . At Sunbury , intense winds and high waves uprooted trees and wrecked three houses , of which two were newly built , and five slaves died after being impaled by flying wreckage or drowning . The hurricane also ruined most boats under the possession of plantation owners , and also devastated crops , storage houses , stables , and slave residences . Meanwhile , at Cockspur Island , Fort Greene was obliterated with all its buildings destroyed and thirteen men killed . Muskets , canisters , bars of lead upward of 300 lb ( 140 kg ) , and cannons weighing 4 @,@ 800 lb ( 2 @,@ 200 kg ) littered the island , which was completely inundated during the storm . The fort was never rebuilt ; Fort Pulaski was later built in its former location . Meanwhile , at Wilmington Island , one house collapsed and swaths of farmland were flooded . North @-@ to @-@ northeast winds surrounded Hutchinson Island , producing tides 7 to 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal , submerging rice crops , sweeping away plantation buildings , and drowning nearly a hundred slaves .
The hurricane 's effects were especially severe in the city of Savannah , where winds incessantly gusted northeast @-@ to @-@ north for 17 consecutive hours . The hurricane 's storm surge overcame sand bars , sweeping into bays , rivers , wharves , and any areas below an elevation of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Droplets of sea spray mixed with rain , apparently giving it a saline taste , while particles of sand were lifted from the shore to the upper floors of 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) -tall houses . By the storm 's peak , all vessels in the city harbor were damaged to some degree by the storm , while it also inflicted damage to nearly all residences in the city 's southern sector . A gunboat was swept 7 mi ( 11 km ) from its original position and landed in a faraway field . The steeple of the Presbyterian Meeting House in the city toppled and portions of a wall of the Christ Episcopal Church caved in . The local courthouse was also damaged , shingles were torn off of a jail roof , and a tobacco house was unroofed . Two children were crushed to death in one house , one individual was killed by a falling chimney at another . Maritime losses were observed throughout the city ; the Mary struck a wharf near Fort Wayne , the Thomas Jefferson came aground at Hunter and Minis 's Wharf , the General Jackson slammed into McCradie 's Wharf , the Liberty capsized near Howard 's Wharf , and the Minevra was driven ashore at Coffee House Wharf . Numerous other wharves were damaged as a result of similar accidents , and at some wharves , vessels became stacked upon each other . Fish and poultry markets , as well as businesses along the wharves , disintegrated into the Savannah River . Timber , cotton , tobacco , liquor , sugar , and produce was also strewn along the bluff . Overall , eighteen vessels were capsized in Savannah throughout the course of the hurricane . Many smaller vessels were apparently " cracked like egg shells , " floating in waters paralleling the bluff , which itself was strewn with " serpents , turtles , [ and ] marsh @-@ birds " . Damage in the city totaled at least $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
Tides in South Carolina rose 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above normal , causing the May River to top its banks , flooding cotton and rice fields , and sweeping plantations ' cotton storage houses and slave cabins away . Inundation also occurred at various offshore locations , including Daufuskie Island , where five slaves drowned . Bridges and roadways at Beaufort , South Carolina were flooded and carried away by high tides , while high tides of up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) flooded farmland , ruining fields of cotton and produce . Strong gusts knocked down chimneys and damaged the town 's Baptist church . Cotton farmland and African slave prices fell 30 percent in the region following the storm 's passage . All residences at Bay Point Island were destroyed , having been driven out to sea . The storm 's salt water storm surge rendered thirty barrels of rice aboard the Guilelmi , which ran ashore at Saint Helena Island , worthless , while the Collector came aground at Lady 's Island . Copious rainfall caused the Pocotaligo , Stony , and Huspa creeks to overflow . From Sheldon to Motley , the storm flooded creeks and rivers , inundating rice and cotton fields , with the saline water destroying the year 's harvest . Roads and causeways inundated under flood waters were rendered unusable , and numerous animals were also killed in the flood .
The hurricane 's effects were severe in the city of Charleston , where the storm produced northeasterly winds and heavy rainfall . The bulwark of the fort at nearby James Island was destroyed , and the palisades of the fort at Castle Pinckney were wrecked at the mouth of Charleston 's harbor . The hurricane also swept vessels aground into marshes and wharves between Gadsden 's Wharf and South Bay along the Cooper River . Several wharves — Pritchard 's , Cochran 's , Beale 's , Craft 's , and William 's — were struck by vessels and consequently severely damaged . The Montserrat , Mary , Birmingham Packet , Amazon , and Orange all endured some degree of damage . Three vessels and the Mary collided with Governor 's Bridge , which was impaired as a result ; two vessels and the Favorite slammed into Faber 's Wharf , while the Concord filled with water at Prioleau 's Wharf , resulting in the loss of 50 tierces of rice . A counting and scale house was separated from its foundation after being struck by the Lydia within the vicinity of Blake 's Wharf , while the African slave boat Christopher capsized at Geyer 's Wharf , with all aboard escaping safely . Four slaves drowned after a boat overturned in the Ashley River .
High waters enveloped wharves , and neighboring stores collapsed or were washed away , with rice and cotton falling into the water . A breakwater near South Bay disintegrated and a nearby home 's chimney toppled , resulting in one death . Homes were inundated , and residents along South Bay consequently fled their dwellings . The hurricane 's storm surge also permeated locations along then @-@ new East Bay Street , as well as buildings on Lamboll and Water streets ; Meeting Street sank below 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) -high flood waters . High winds , meanwhile , tore off roofs , dislodged trees , and toppled fences . To the north of Charleston , at Sullivan 's Island , the storm rendered 15 to 20 houses uninhabitable ; although the island was mostly inundated , many residences were saved , encircled by dunes , and several men rescued women and children . Overall , only one death was recorded on the island . The Pee Dee and Black rivers gradually rose throughout the day , eventually spilling their banks . Meanwhile , at Georgetown , high tides flooded wharves and submerged streets and businesses , destroying corn , salt , and other goods . Turtles and fish were killed , and at the Sampit River , two individuals drowned attempting to cross . A rice harvest equivalent to ten thousand barrels was ruined by high tides and torrential rain within the vicinity of Georgetown . Damage in the city reached $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) , and overall , the 1804 hurricane was responsible for more than 500 deaths in the southeastern United States .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
At Saint Kitts , the hurricane destroyed approximately one hundred ships in the local harbor — all that were stationed there — while heavy rainfall drove houses to sea . An additional 56 of the 58 boats at Saint Barthélemy were lost , 58 were wrecked at Antigua , and 26 of 28 were ruined at Dominica . Damage to shipping was also severe on the Windward Islands , several vessels were lost in western Puerto Rico , and another 44 vessels were destroyed at Saint Thomas after the storm 's passage . Among these vessels included a 64 @-@ gun storeship HMS De Ruyter was washed ashore and broke apart , resulting in one death , and HMS Drake , a 16 @-@ gun sloop @-@ of @-@ war , which came aground on a shoal off of Nevis . At Saint Kitts , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since 1772 .
Although high waves and severe northeasterly gusts were noted from 6 to 7 September 1804 at St. Augustine , Florida and eight of the nine vessels in the local port were rendered unfit for use , the town proper largely escaped damage .
In North Carolina , the hurricane blew down trees as far as 100 mi ( 160 km ) inland , and copious rainfall isolated Scotland Neck . Around the mouth of the Cape Fear River , the vessel Wilmington Packet ran aground at Bald Point .
In the New England gale possibly related to the Antigua – Charleston hurricane , several ships sank in Boston 's harbor , while at Salem , the South Church 's steeple was toppled .
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= Tropical Storm Henri ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Henri was a weak tropical storm that formed in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . The eighth storm of the season , Henri was one of six tropical cyclones to hit the United States in the year . Henri formed from a tropical wave in the Gulf of Mexico in early September , and crossed over Florida as a tropical depression . Its remnants later moved into the Mid @-@ Atlantic before dissipating completely .
Henri caused little damage as a tropical cyclone . In Florida , it dropped heavy rainfall , though damage was limited to minor flooding damage . In Delaware and Pennsylvania , damage was greater , where heavy rainfall damaged hundreds of houses and businesses . The resulting floods in Delaware were described as a 1 in 500 year event . The total damage by Henri along its path amounted to $ 19 @.@ 6 million ( 2003 USD , $ 21 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) , but no deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 22 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa , and it moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without developing significantly . On September 1 the wave axis entered the Gulf of Mexico , and upon doing so convection steadily organized around a low @-@ level center of circulation . The system moved northward and developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 3 while located about 300 miles ( 480 kilometers ) west of Tampa , Florida . Embedded within a slow mid @-@ latitude trough , the depression moved eastward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Henri on September 5 .
Despite strong southwesterly vertical shear , Henri continued intensifying while moving eastward , and reached a peak strength of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) later on September 5 . Shortly thereafter , though , the shear greatly weakened the storm , and it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Henri was not able to recover its intensity , and made landfall near Clearwater , Florida on September 6 as a 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) tropical depression , and quickly crossed the state as it accelerated to the northeast . Despite initial predictions of re @-@ intensification over open waters due to potentially lower shear , Henri failed to re @-@ strengthen and degenerated into a remnant low pressure area on September 8 off the coast of North Carolina .
The broad and disorganized remnant low remained nearly stationary due to a ridge of high pressure to its north . Residual convection within the remnants of Henri remained disorganized , but forecasters kept watch for the potential for redevelopment . However , it moved inland near Cape Hatteras on September 12 without reorganizing . The remnants continued to the north and dissipated on September 17 over New England .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a Tropical Storm Warning from Englewood to Indian Pass , Florida while Henri was a tropical depression ; however , warnings were discontinued by the time Henri made landfall . Flood warnings were issued across the state prior to the storm making landfall , with predictions of 5 to 10 inches ( 125 – 255 mm ) of rainfall . As a result of the storm 's approach , twelve shelters were placed on standby . Similarly , the Hurricane Shelter Information Hotline was placed on standby and ready to be activated within 10 minutes . Levy County officials declared a state of emergency . There , sand bags and sand were sent to Cedar Key , Yankeetown , and Inglis in anticipation for storm surge and flooding .
= = Impact = =
Henri dropped heavy rainfall along its path , with the worst of the flooding occurring in Delaware . The storm caused $ 19 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) , primarily in Delaware .
= = = Florida , Bahamas , and Bermuda = = =
Prior to making landfall , the storm produced strong waves on the Florida west coast . Following a summer of tropical moisture in Florida , Henri brought more heavy rainfall to the saturated state , peaking at 9 @.@ 09 in ( 230 mm ) in Hialeah in the southeast portion of the state . Two other areas experienced over 7 in ( 180 mm ) , though most areas received only light rainfall . In Hernando County , a stationary thunderstorm dropped over 5 in ( 125 mm ) of rain in around an hour . It caused a rapid flooding of roads , though quickly retreated . Damage was minor , due to lack of many homes in the area . A feeder band in Charlotte County dropped 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rain in three hours , flooding numerous streets and homes . Throughout Florida , damage was minimal , and there were no deaths . However , lightning from a feeder band injured a man in Lee County , while an indirect injury occurred from a car crash due to hydroplaning .
In the Bahamas , outer rainbands from Henri dropped around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain . Winds in the archipelago gusted to 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) . Just days after Hurricane Fabian struck Bermuda , moisture from Henri brought thunderstorms and heavy rainfall and thunderstorms totaling to 2 @.@ 44 inches ( 62 mm ) at the airport . This hindered cleanup efforts , though caused no known damage .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
In North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland , rainfall was generally light , with the exception of a few areas receiving over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) . Henri produced greater amounts of rain in Delaware and Pennsylvania , with a peak of 9 @.@ 02 in ( 229 mm ) in Hockessin . In Downingtown , Pennsylvania , over eight inches ( 203 mm ) of rain fell in around six hours , while Doppler Radar estimated that Kennett Square received over 10 inches ( 255 mm ) in a five @-@ hour period . The heavy rainfall led to record discharge rates along the Red Clay Creek , which also had a record crest peaking at just below 26 feet ( 8 m ) . Parts of the creek saw a 500 @-@ year flood , which has a 0 @.@ 2 % chance of occurring in any given year . Numerous rivers in southeastern Pennsylvania also crested above their flood stage .
In Delaware , the flooding damaged numerous houses , including 194 in the Glenville area . The rapid flooding trapped numerous people in their cars and homes , forcing at least one rescue by helicopter . Those people were evacuated to nearby schools . The severe flooding washed out most of a bridge in Hockessin and destroyed 6 Wilmington & Western Railroad bridges , causing about $ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 5 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) in damage . The railroad bridges were still being rebuilt as of 2006 . Greenbank Mill , a historic gristmill complex , saw $ 450 @,@ 000 in damage . Damage in Delaware totaled to $ 16 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 17 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) .
Flash flooding in Pennsylvania resulted in 2 @,@ 600 emergency 911 calls and around 100 rescues for cars or houses . The flooding destroyed 12 homes , and damaged 336 , over half of them severely . Wet soil downed trees and power lines , causing power outages to 109 @,@ 000 PECO Energy customers . High floodwaters damaged 22 bridges and closed 2 indefinitely , while the flooding closed several roads , including a portion of U.S. Highway 1 in Chadds Ford . Damage in Pennsylvania totaled to $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 3 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) . The impacts were severely compounded the following week by Hurricane Isabel across the region .
= = Aftermath = =
On September 23 , just days after the storm moved through , President George W. Bush declared New Castle County , Delaware as a disaster area following the effects of Henri and later Hurricane Isabel . The declaration designated the affected citizens eligible for grants to pay for temporary housing , house repairs , and serious disaster @-@ related expenses . The declaration also allowed for federal funding for 75 % of the repair cost for replacing public facilities . By two months after the storm , 659 residents had applied for disaster aid through the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , totaling to just over $ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 1 million 2006 USD ) . 141 small businesses applied for loans , totaling to around $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 2 @.@ 75 million 2006 USD ) . In addition , FEMA received 183 applications for public assistance , which would be used for rebuilding public roads and buildings . Over twenty volunteer organizations met to establish a long @-@ term committee to find resources for disaster recovery needs . One goal sought by the committee was to find a permanent housing solution for every one who was displaced from their houses from the storms . Volunteers also helped remove ruined appliances and furniture to local landfills , totaling to more than 300 tons . State and county governments in Delaware purchased 171 homes following the damage in the Glenville area , the highest number of houses purchased in the state due to storm damage . The house purchasing was done to mitigate the flood damage by restoring the area as a wetland .
On September 26 , President Bush also declared Chester County , Pennsylvania as a disaster area following the damage of Henri , Tropical Storm Isabel , and severe flooding unrelated to either tropical cyclone . By a month after the declaration , 342 homeowners and business owners applied for disaster aid , totaling to around $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , $ 660 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) .
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= Don 't Stop the Music ( Rihanna song ) =
" Don 't Stop the Music " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her third studio album , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . Written by Tawanna Dabney and produced by StarGate , it was released worldwide on September 7 , 2007 as the album 's fourth single . The dance song , featuring rhythmic devices used primarily in hip hop music , samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Rihanna and Jackson were sued by Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango , who claimed that the hook originated in his 1972 song " Soul Makossa " .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was critically acclaimed , with many music journalists praising its sampling of the " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . It received a number of accolades , including a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording . The song reached number one in more than 10 countries , including Australia , France , Germany , and Switzerland . Reaching number four on the UK Singles Chart , it was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The single peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs charts . Certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it sold more than 3 @.@ 7 million copies in the US .
Anthony Mandler filmed the song 's music video in Prague . In the video , Rihanna and her friends sneak into the back of a candy store which contains a secret club and she parties with club @-@ goers . The singer performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards and the NRJ Music Awards in 2008 , and included it on her Good Girl Gone Bad , Last Girl on Earth , Loud and Diamonds World Tour set lists . The American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most @-@ performed songs of 2009 . English recording artist Jamie Cullum recorded a cover version of the song as the second single from his 2009 album , The Pursuit .
= = Development and release = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " was written and produced by the Norwegian production duo StarGate , with additional songwriting by Tawanna Dabney and Michael Jackson . Tim Sturges and Phillip Ramos provided additional production for the song . " Don 't Stop the Music " was recorded at Battery Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles by Mikkel S. Eriksen and Al Hemberger . Phil Tan and Josh Houghkirk mixed the single , and StarGate provided vocal production and instrumentation .
The song samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Jackson 's 1983 single , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In February 2009 , Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango filed a lawsuit claiming that " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " used the hook without his permission . According to Dibango , the line is from his 1972 single " Soul Makossa " . Agence France @-@ Presse reported that Jackson admitted that he borrowed the line for " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and settled out of court . When Rihanna asked Jackson in 2007 for permission to sample the line , he allegedly approved the request without contacting Dibango beforehand . Dibango 's attorneys brought the case before a court in Paris , demanding € 500 @,@ 000 in damages and for Sony BMG , EMI and Warner Music to be " barred from receiving ' mama @-@ say mama @-@ sa ' -related income until the matter is resolved " .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was the fourth single from Rihanna 's third album , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . Before its release , two promotional remixes of the song ( Solitaire 's More Drama and the Wideboys Club Mix ) were added to digital outlets in Canada and the United States on August 7 , 2007 . On September 7 , an EP of " Don 't Stop the Music " was released via the iTunes Store in territories including Australia , Italy , New Zealand and Spain . The EP contains the Wideboys Club Mix and instrumental and album versions of the song . That day , " Don 't Stop the Music " was released as a CD single in Germany with the same material as the EP and the song 's music video . The following month , it was released as a CD single in France . Def Jam Recordings furnished the song to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on January 13 , 2008 , and to rhythmic contemporary stations a week later . Nine remixes , including the album version of " Don 't Stop the Music " , were released on May 14 to digital outlets in territories including Australia , Germany , New Zealand and Spain .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " is a four @-@ minute , 27 @-@ second dance song . According to Sony / ATV Music Publishing 's digital sheet music , it was written in the key of F ♯ minor in common time , with a moderate tempo of 123 beats per minute . Rihanna 's voice ranges from F ♯ 3 to A4 . The syncopated song samples a variety of layered rhythms , with hip @-@ hop rhythms and a heavy bass drumbeat predominating . The sampled " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " was added to the arrangement for a " pulsating musical structure " .
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine compared " Don 't Stop the Music " to Rihanna 's 2006 single , " SOS " . According to Fraser McAlpine of BBC 's Chart Blog , Rihanna 's vocals on the song sound like she recorded them to a different backing track , " then gave them to some nerdy beatmatcher with an extensive collection of dark electro and classic pop . " McAlpine compared the verses ' vocal melody to that of Aaliyah 's 2000 single , " Try Again " , and the chorus to that of Madonna 's 1987 single , " La Isla Bonita " . He concluded , " The backing track is pure four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor trance . It 's like Eric Prydz all over again . " After the release of Rihanna 's single " Only Girl ( In the World ) " in 2010 , many critics compared its composition and structure to " Don 't Stop the Music " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally @-@ positive reviews from music critics , with many praising its " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called " Don 't Stop the Music " " an amazing bit of euroclub insanity combined with synth and bass " . According to Breihan , the hook from Jackson 's 1983 song " come [ s ] in and seamlessly blur [ s ] into the track 's overpowering beat " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy called the song " brilliant and unwitting " , and said that " Don 't Stop the Music " was the best single with a Jackson writing credit since his 1997 " Blood on the Dance Floor " .
McAlpine called Rihanna 's vocals " emotionally removed , a little distant and naughty , but a smidge melancholy and tearful " . According to a New York Times reviewer , in " Don 't Stop the Music " Rihanna found exuberance in a severe techno beat . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters said , " The song that follows , the Michael Jackson @-@ sampling ' Don 't Stop the Music ' , inspires the type of tail feather shaking you can only produce when you 're chanting , ' Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa ' " . In 2012 , Billboard ranked the song 13th on its list of " Rihanna 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits " of all time .
" Don 't Stop the Music " won the Best International Song award at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards . It was nominated for Single of the Year at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards , losing to the Jonas Brothers ' " When You Look Me in the Eyes " . The song was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 50th Grammy Awards , losing to Justin Timberlake 's " LoveStoned / I Think She Knows " . At the 2009 Kids ' Choice Awards " Don 't Stop the Music " was nominated as Best Favorite Song , losing to Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Pop Music Awards , ASCAP recognized it as one of 2009 's most @-@ performed songs . " Don 't Stop the Music " was a winning song at the 2009 BMI Pop Awards . In 2014 , David Drake of the magazine Complex called the single " one of the earliest shots fired in the mainstreaming of dance music " compared with typical 2007 Top @-@ 40 fare .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated December 8 , 2007 . After two months on the chart the song peaked at number three on February 16 , 2008 , Rihanna 's fourth top @-@ three single . It topped the US Dance Club Songs chart ( Rihanna 's sixth number @-@ one single ) , reached number two on the Pop Songs chart and number 74 on the Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " has sold 3 @.@ 7 million digital copies in the US as of June 2015 , and has been certified four @-@ times platinum from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song reached number two on the Canadian Hot 100 , remaining on the chart for a total of 52 weeks . It was Rihanna 's second song to reach the chart 's top three , following " Umbrella " .
In Australia , " Don 't Stop the Music " debuted at number 22 on February 3 , 2008 . After three weeks , on February 24 , the song peaked at number one and remained there for four weeks . It was Rihanna 's third number @-@ one single in the country , after " SOS " and " Umbrella " , remaining on the chart for 27 weeks . " Don 't Stop the Music " charted at number 12 on the 2008 year @-@ end Australian Singles Chart . In 2008 , the song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of over 70 @,@ 000 digital copies . The single debuted at number 31 in New Zealand on October 12 , 2007 . After fluctuating for four weeks , it peaked at number three for a week and spent a total of 22 weeks on the chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) in April 2008 for sales of over 7 @,@ 500 digital copies .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 68 on December 15 , 2007 . After seven weeks on the chart , it peaked at number four . In July 2013 , the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of over 400 @,@ 000 digital copies . The single was 24th on the 2008 year @-@ end UK Singles Chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " debuted atop the French Singles Chart on October 27 , 2007 , Rihanna 's first number @-@ one single on the chart . Remaining at number one for two weeks , the song spent a total of 34 weeks on the chart . On the German Singles Chart , it debuted at number two on September 24 , 2007 . After two weeks , it reached number one for two consecutive weeks . " Don 't Stop the Music " was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It was successful on the Swiss Singles Chart , peaking at number one for five weeks . The song also reached number one in Austria , Flanders and Wallonia in Belgium , Hungary and the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Rihanna 's regular director , Anthony Mandler , and filmed in a Prague nightclub . It was choreographed by Tina Landon , who had previously worked with Janet Jackson and did the dance visual for Ricky Martin 's 1999 " Livin ' la Vida Loca " . The video was digitally released on iTunes on July 26 , 2007 .
In the video Rihanna and two friends arrive at a nightclub in a yellow taxi , and enter a candy store where a boy is standing with his mother . Rihanna tells the boy not to tell anyone where they are going , and the singer and her friends sneak into the back of the store ( where there is a secret nightclub entrance ) . The narrative is intercut with Rihanna singing the song against a wall and dancing in the club . After she enters the club , she checks her makeup in a restroom as she sings .
Rihanna returns to the dance floor for the chorus , dancing and singing with her friends . Her fellow club @-@ goers clap along with a sample of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . VH1 's Chris Rosa ranked the video 18th on his list of Rihanna 's 20 sexiest videos : " This dance @-@ by @-@ numbers song gets a facelift with its brisk , energetic video featuring R as the undisputed queen of the clubs " . For About.com , Bill Lamb called the video one of Rihanna 's ten best .
= = Live performances = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " was the fourteenth song on the set list of Rihanna 's 2007 – 09 Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , her first world tour . The singer 's performance in Manchester was released in the United Kingdom through iTunes , and is featured on the Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD . Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes on January 26 , 2008 . She sang the song at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10 , 2008 as half of a medley with " Umbrella " with American funk band The Time . On June 20 , 2008 Rihanna was a guest on NBC 's Today Concert Series at Rockefeller Center in New York City , performing " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " .
After the 2009 United Kingdom release of her fourth album , Rated R , Rihanna gave a Nokia promotional concert at the Brixton Academy in London . She performed songs from the new album , including " Russian Roulette " , " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " ( the latter sung with Young Jeezy ) . Rihanna also performed " Don 't Stop the Music " and other previously @-@ released songs , including " Disturbia " , " Unfaithful " and " Take a Bow " . On December 4 , 2009 the singer performed on The Release , MySpace Music 's urban @-@ music concert series . Rihanna performed her new material , mashed up with older songs including " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Live Your Life " and " Run This Town " , against a background of stacked vintage televisions and silver mannequins .
On February 1 , 2010 , Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Hard " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . She performed at the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards on March 27 , 2010 in the Pauley Pavilion of the UCLA campus , singing " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Hard " and her 2010 single " Rude Boy " . To promote Rated R Rihanna embarked upon the 2010 – 11 Last Girl on Earth Tour ( her second worldwide tour ) , where she performed the song . In June 2011 Rihanna began the Loud Tour , her third major worldwide tour , when the single was twentieth on the set list . She performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 as the thirteenth song on the set list , with a giant onstage sphinx . The song was on the set list for Rihanna 's 2013 Diamonds World Tour , where she sang it as part of a medley with " S & M " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = Cover versions = =
During the sixth season of the dance reality @-@ television series America 's Best Dance Crew , the dancers Phunk Phenomenon performed a Charlie Chaplinesque music @-@ hall version of " Don 't Stop the Music " . In 2011 , the California indie pop duo The Bird and the Bee covered the song and posted it on SoundCloud . South Korean recording artist Hyoyeon , part of the girl group Girls ' Generation , covered the song during the group 's 2011 tour . Her version was included on their second live album , 2011 Girls ' Generation Tour , which was released on April 11 , 2013 . In October 2011 Rihanna joined L.A. Reid at his home in the Hamptons to help him judge male contestants for the first season of the American version of The X Factor , where contestant Philip Lomax performed a stripped @-@ down version of " Don 't Stop the Music " for Rihanna and Reid . The song was performed by the Treblemakers in the 2012 film Pitch Perfect , and was included on its soundtrack .
= = = Jamie Cullum version = = =
British singer and songwriter Jamie Cullum covered " Don 't Stop the Music " on his 2009 album , The Pursuit . Produced by Martin Terefe , the song was digitally released as the second single from the album on January 20 , 2010 . Cullum 's version substituted the original 's electro @-@ house groove with a " sinuous " acoustic bass and " brushed " drumming . Cullum 's version is in the key of C major and set in common time at 100 beats per minute . His voice ranges from C ♯ 4 to F5 .
According to PopMatters ' Will Layman , the piano builds the groove from soft to loud ( a technique used by Herbie Hancock during the 1960s ) . Adrian Edwards of BBC Music wrote , " Cullum 's take on Rihanna 's ' Don 't Stop the Music ' is best of all , where the novel production techniques and his broken @-@ voiced pleading to his girl on the dance floor would blend well in any night club with strobe lighting and the clink of glasses at the bar " . Cullum 's version peaked at number two on the Ultratip chart in Belgium , number 28 in the Netherlands and number 58 in Germany . A music video for the song was released on December 2 , 2009 on Cullum 's YouTube Vevo channel .
= = = = Credits and personnel = = = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Pursuit ( Decca Records ) .
= = = = Charts = = = =
= = = = Release history = = = =
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes
a ^ Released as separate digital singles in both United States and Canada via iTunes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Battery Studios , New York City and Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad ( Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records ) .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 9 , 2013 , RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Release history = =
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= Everett Strupper =
George Everett Strupper , Jr . ( July 26 , 1896 – February 4 , 1950 ) , known variously as " Ev " or " Strup " or " Stroop " was an American football player . He played halfback for Georgia Tech from 1915 to 1917 . Strupper overcame deafness resulting from a childhood illness and was selected as an All @-@ American in 1917 .
During Strupper 's three years playing for Georgia Tech , the team compiled a record of 24 – 0 – 2 and outscored its opponents by a combined score of 1 @,@ 135 to 61 . In Georgia Tech 's record @-@ setting 222 – 0 win over Cumberland College in 1916 , Strupper scored eight touchdowns . For many years , 1917 Georgia Tech was considered the greatest football team the South ever produced . Strupper starred as part of a renowned backfield including also Joe Guyon , Judy Harlan , and Al Hill . Strupper and teammate Walker Carpenter were the first players from the Deep South selected for an All @-@ America first team .
Sportswriter Morgan Blake called Strupper " probably the greatest running half @-@ back the South has known . " Bernie McCarty writes " Strupper ranks among the greatest broken @-@ field gallopers in Southern football history . And he caught and threw passes , returned kicks , blocked well , punted and played a bang @-@ up defensive game . " He was posthumously inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1972 and the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1974 .
= = Early years = =
Strupper was born in Columbus , Georgia , in 1896 . His parents , G. Everett Strupper , Sr. ( born 1872 ) , and Bessie H. ( Hatcher ) Strupper ( born 1875 ) , were both Georgia natives . As of 1910 , his father was employed as a manager at a cotton oil company . Stupper attended Riverside Military Academy in Gainesville , Georgia . He was the star of the school 's football team in 1913 ; and is a member of the school 's sports hall of fame .
= = Georgia Tech = =
Strupper enrolled at the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) in Atlanta in 1914 . During his freshman year , Strupper became a member of the Georgia Phi chapter of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity . He was a multi @-@ sport athlete competing for Georgia Tech in basketball , football , and track and field .
In 1914 , Strupper played for the freshman football team at Georgia Tech . He then played halfback for Georgia Tech 's varsity football teams under head coach John Heisman from 1915 to 1917 . Strupper was deaf , and because of his deafness , he called the signals instead of the team 's quarterback . Strupper was a small man , with his height being stated in varying accounts to be between five @-@ feet seven inches and five @-@ feet , ten inches . His coach John Heisman later wrote that Strupper was " but 5 feet 7 inches in height , weighed only 148 pounds stripped . " He was sometimes known as " little Everett Strupper . "
Georgia Tech never lost a game in which Strupper played , compiling three consecutive undefeated seasons from 1915 to 1917 . During Strupper 's three years playing for Georgia Tech , the team compiled a record of 24 – 0 – 2 . Only two teams managed a tie – the University of Georgia in 1915 and Washington & Lee in 1916 . In those 26 games , Georgia Tech outscored its opponents by a combined score of 1 @,@ 135 to 61 .
Georgia Tech coach John Heisman later described Strupper as follows :
" Everett Strupper was a small package of condensed lightning when you turned him loose in an open field with a ball you wanted delivered somewhere in the neighborhood of the enemy 's goal line . He was small , but he was put together like a high @-@ powered motor . His arms and legs did just what his mind told them to do , and , believe me , his mind worked faster than Ty Cobb 's when he 's running the bases . Dodging and twisting , stiff @-@ arming and hipping , he 'd run the gauntlet of men big enough , you 'd think , to pick him up and spank him , and most of the time , too , he 'd get away from them , try as hard as they would . "
Heisman also said of Strupper " Were I compelled to risk my head on what one absolutely unaided gridster might accomplish , football under arm and facing eleven ferocious opponents , I would rather choose and chance this man on how he might come through the gauntlet than any ball carrier I have ever seen in action . "
Heisman recalled that , when Strupper first arrived from Riverside Military Academy , Heisman could not imagine Strupper playing on the football team : " Too light for the line , I didn 't see how he could play in the backfield , because he wouldn 't be able to get the signals . He could have played quarterback fine , but his enunciation wasn 't clear enough for him to call the plays . " Heisman recalled how Strupper overcame the obstacle posed by his deafness : " He couldn 't hear anything but a regular shout . But he could read your lips like a flash . No lad that ever stepped on a football field had keener eyes than Everett had . The enemy found this out the minute he began looking for openings through which to run the ball . " He was nominated though not selected for an Associated Press All @-@ Time Southeast 1869 – 1919 era team .
= = = 1915 season = = =
In his sophomore year , Strupper proved to be an all @-@ around athlete . As Heisman told it , Strupper " was a star baseball player , a crack at basketball and the best sprint man we had in the school . " Heisman recalled that , despite his small stature , Strupper had a powerful body : " Stripped down in the dressing rooms Everett was a sight to behold . There never was a better set up lad than he ; he was a regular Apollo , beautifully muscled and built and coordinating rhythmically in every movement . "
When Strupper tried out for the team , he noticed that the quarterback would shout the signals every time Strupper was to carry the ball . Realizing the loud signals would be a tip @-@ off to the opposition , Strupper told Heisman , " Coach , those loud signals are absolutely unnecessary . You see when sickness in my kid days brought on this deafness my folks gave me the best instructors obtainable to teach me lip @-@ reading . "
Strupper first starred in a game against Transylvania , scoring four touchdowns . He was injured the next week against LSU , and blamed LSU 's Phillip Cooper .
Tech closed what was then the greatest season in its history with a 7 – 0 defeat of the Auburn Plainsmen . To begin the second quarter , Strupper had two key plays , the last of which was the game @-@ deciding touchdown . First he made 20 yards around with a pass from Froggie Morrison before being forced out of bounds . Next was the 19 @-@ yard touchdown . Strupper started around left end , then cut back into the center of the field , away from his blockers . He juked and eluded " every man on the Auburn team . " On the last move Strupper faked right and then dove left underneath the outstretched arms of Baby Taylor into the endzone .
At the end of the 1915 season , Strupper received two selections from a composite All @-@ Southern eleven selected by ten sports writers and coaches , including those from Memphis , Nashville , Atlanta , Birmingham , Chattanooga , and New Orleans .
= = = 1916 season = = =
In 1916 , Strupper had a 92 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown on opening day against Mercer . The next week , Strupper led Georgia Tech in a 222 – 0 victory over Cumberland College , " the most lopsided game in football history . " The score ( compiled on 32 touchdowns and 30 extra points ) broke the old record of a 153 – 0 set by the University of Michigan in 1912 . Strupper scored eight touchdowns in the game , six rushing and two on punt returns . One historic account of the 1916 Cumberland game described Strupper as the " lord high executioner " :
" There were many executioners that crisp early @-@ fall Saturday . Halfback G.E. Strupper scored from 20 yards out on Tech 's first offensive play and went on to be lord high executioner with eight touchdowns and a conversion for a total of 49 points . "
In the first quarter alone , Strupper scored four touchdowns on runs of 20 , 10 , 60 , and 45 yards . Strupper chose to allow others to share in the scoring . With a 42 – 0 lead midway through the first quarter , Strupper broke clear and could have scored easily , but he intentionally grounded the ball at the one @-@ yard line to allow Georgia Tech tackle J. Cantey Alexander to score the first touchdown of his career . A teammate later recalled the play as follows :
" Strupper swapped positions with Alexander ... The team didn 't want to make it too easy for Cantey , though . The other boys wouldn 't block for him or help in any way . As soon as the ball was snapped , they ran away from the line and out of the play completely . Leaving poor Cantey to go it alone . Finally , on fourth down , a bruised and weary Alexander managed to get the ball across while his teammates howled with laughter . "
The game was eventually halted after just 44 minutes of play . It was said only one newspaper in all of the South neglected to have Strupper on its All @-@ Southern team for 1916 . He ranked third in the nation in scoring , including 16 touchdowns .
= = = 1917 season = = =
Strupper also played on the 1917 team then considered the greatest the South ever produced , including one of the greatest backfields . According to the Times @-@ Picayune , " Strupper , Guyon , Hill , and Harlan form a backfield with no superiors and few equals in football history " . Tech gave Vanderbilt its worst loss in school history 83 – 0 . " It was not until 1917 that a Southern team really avenged long @-@ time torment at McGugin 's hands . And it took one of history 's top backfields – Joe Guyon , Ev Strupper , Al Hill , and Judy Harlan of Georgia Tech – to do it , " writes Edwin Pope . The team also defeated the University of Pennsylvania , then one of the Eastern powers , 41 – 0 . It was called by one writer " Strupper 's finest hour . " In a 98 – 0 win over the Carlisle Indians in 1917 , Strupper drew praise for his performance . The Atlanta Journal wrote :
" Everett Strupper played like a veritable demon . At one time four Carlisle men pounced on him from all directions , and yet through some superhuman witchery he broke loose and dashed 10 yards further . On another occasion he attempted a wide end run , found that he was completely blocked , then suddenly whirled and ran the other way , gaining something like 25 yards before he was downed . "
Strupper scored five touchdowns against Carlisle , including a 32 @-@ yard fumble return for a touchdown . And in a 68 – 7 win over rival Auburn , Strupper had a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run that drew the following praise from the Atlanta Journal :
" It was not the length of the run that featured it was the brilliance of it . After getting through the first line , Stroop was tackled squarely by two secondary men , and yet he squirmed and jerked loosed from them , only to face the safety man and another Tiger , coming at him from different angles . Without checking his speed Everett knifed the two men completely , running between them and dashing on to a touchdown . "
Remarkably , two Georgia Tech players led the country in touchdowns for the 1917 season . Quarterback Albert Hill was first with 23 touchdowns , and Strupper was second with 20 touchdowns . Strupper rushed for some 1 @,@ 150 yards on a little over 100 carries .
Strupper has been recognized as a consensus first @-@ team player on the 1917 College Football All @-@ America Team , having received first @-@ team honors from Frank Menke Syndicate , Paul Purman , and Dick Jemison of the Atlanta Constitution . Strupper and team captain Walker Carpenter were the first players from the Deep South selected for an All @-@ America first team . Strupper was named as one of four backs on Georgia Tech 's " All @-@ Era " team for the Heisman era covering the years from 1904 to 1919 .
= = Military football and coaching = =
On December 8 , 1917 , Strupper was elected by his teammates to be the captain of the 1918 Georgia Tech football team . However , Strupper enlisted in the U. S. Army on August 28 , 1918 , and was assigned to the First Replacement Regiment at Camp Gordon in Augusta , Georgia . In October 1918 , Strupper transferred to Camp Hancock and promoted to the rank of sergeant . He played football for Camp Gordon and Camp Hancock teams . In November 1918 , Camp Gordon played a game in Strupper 's home town of Columbus , Georgia , and the locals held " Strupper Day " in his honor . In a game for Camp Gordon on December 7 , 1918 , he had two runs of 80 yards and scored four touchdowns . At the end of the season , he was picked as a second @-@ team halfback on Walter Camp 's All @-@ America service team .
The war ended in November 1918 , and Strupper was discharged from the Army on December 20 , 1918 , as part of the post @-@ war demobilization . In August 1919 , Strupper accepted a job as the backfield coach for Oglethorpe University . He next led the Columbus High School football team . Strupper was an assistant coach under Josh Cody at Mercer in 1922 .
= = Family and later years = =
Strupper was married in approximately 1920 to his wife , Odelle . As of 1921 , Strupper was living in Columbus , Georgia , working as a salesman for E. F. Gray . From at least 1925 to 1928 , Strupper was living in Columbus with his wife , Odelle , and operating a tire business under the name Everett Strupper , Inc . The business sold Dunlop Tires and also provided vulcanizing , road service , washing , greasing and oil .
By 1930 , Strupper and his wife , Odelle , had moved to Atlanta where he was employed as the sales manager for an automobile accessories business . He was also a contributor to the Atlanta Journal . Although there are competing stories as to the origin of the Red Elephant mascot for the University of Alabama , some sources have cited a story written by Strupper about an October 1930 football game between Alabama and Mississippi . Strupper wrote : " At the end of the quarter , the earth started to tremble , there was a distant rumble that continued to grow . Some excited fan in the stands bellowed , ' Hold your horses , the elephants are coming , ' and out stamped this Alabama varsity . "
By 1934 , he was working as a solicitor for the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company . He worked with former teammate , Pup Phillips , at Massachusetts Mutual . As of 1941 , Strupper was still living in Atlanta and employed by Massachusetts Mutual . His spouse , apparently a second wife , was identified as Frances C. Strupper .
Strupper later became a general agent for the Volunteer State Life Insurance Company , and by 1948 , he became the president of the Piedmont Life Insurance Co. based in Atlanta .
Strupper died at his home in Atlanta 's Georgian Terrace Hotel in February 1950 from thrombosis . He was age 57 at the time of his death . He was survived by a wife and a step @-@ daughter , Gwyneth Oliver . He was buried in Columbus , Georgia .
In 1972 , the National Football Foundation named Strupper and nine others players who played before 1920 to the " Pioneer " section of the College Football Hall of Fame . He was also inducted into the Georgia Tech Athletics Hall of Fame in 1956 and the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1974 .
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= A Forest =
" A Forest " is a song by the English alternative rock band The Cure . Co @-@ produced by Mike Hedges and The Cure 's Robert Smith , it was released as a single from the band 's second album Seventeen Seconds in April 1980 . It was their debut entry on the United Kingdom chart , where it reached number 31 . The accompanying music video was first shown on BBC 's Top of the Pops programme on 24 April 1980 .
Recorded and mixed over seven days , along with the rest of the songs from the album , " A Forest " is representative of The Cure 's early 1980s gothic rock phase . The song has featured on the band 's setlists for many years . Several versions have appeared on concert albums , and it was remixed and released as a single from the Mixed Up album in 1990 . The song has been covered by several artists including Blank & Jones , Sophie Barker and Ror @-@ Shak .
= = Background and recording = =
Mike Hedges co @-@ produced the album Seventeen Seconds as well as " A Forest " with The Cure 's Robert Smith . Hedges had first worked with the band on the track " Killing an Arab " . Interviewed in 2004 , he did not recall any demos existing for Seventeen Seconds ; the band generally played the track in the studio before laying down a backing track to which overdubs were added . At the time of the recording of the album , bass guitarist Simon Gallup and keyboardist Matthieu Hartley had been added to the band 's lineup . Gallup had replaced Michael Dempsey , who had departed to join The Associates . Gallup and Hartley joined remaining Cure members Smith ( vocals ) and Lol Tolhurst ( drums ) in late 1979 during the group 's Future Pastimes tour , on which " A Forest " was one of the new songs added to their setlist .
Due to budgetary restraints , Seventeen Seconds was recorded and mixed in seven days on a budget of between £ 2000 and £ 3000 , which resulted in the band working 16 or 17 hours a day to complete the album . Hedges and Robert Smith knew " A Forest " would take more work to complete than other songs on the album , and would require more overdubs . " A Forest " was one of the last tracks recorded ; the backing tracks were recorded first , followed by touch @-@ ups to the individual parts , then Smith 's vocals . Fiction Records owner Chris Parry told Smith that the song had the potential to be a hit if they made it sound " radio friendly " , but Smith refused , stating that the way the track sounded was the sound he envisioned in his head , dismissing concerns about radio friendliness . Work on mixing " A Forest " took up much of the final day of sessions for the album .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" A Forest " and its parent album Seventeen Seconds are representative of The Cure 's gothic rock phase in the late 1970s and early 1980s . Cure biographer Jeff Apter refers to " A Forest " as " the definitive early Cure mood piece " and he argued the song is the centrepiece of the album . Smith 's intention with " A Forest " was to make a song that was " really atmospheric " . He has stated that it was a pivotal recording for the group , and represented " the archetypal Cure sound " .
" A Forest " is performed in the key of A minor . Initially only the synth , guitar and drums are heard , followed by the introduction of the bass guitar and a second guitar part . The song initially follows an Am – C – F – Dm progression . Later on the track , its bridge contains a B – C – F # m – C – B – C sequence , which ends with a chromatic movement to the F chord before returning to Am . Following the echoing repetition of the word " again " , a guitar solo appears which avoids string bends and moving in a pentatonic manner . The single version of the song fades out at around four minutes , while on the longer ( album ) version the instruments exit one by one , concluding with the sound of the bass guitar at 4 @.@ 46 " . The sound of Smith 's guitar was a departure from that prevalent in the 1970s . Mike Hedges favored the use of flanging at the time , and he estimated that there were seven flanger devices used on " A Forest " . Rikki Rooksby said that the slow phase effect heard on the guitar in " A Forest " " almost became a Smith trademark for a while " . Simon Gallup said that his playing on the track was intended to be reminiscent of the bass work in the music of The Stranglers , whose bassist Jean @-@ Jacques Burnel was a major influence on him .
Smith has given varying explanations behind his lyrics for " A Forest " . He has said that the lyrics were based upon a dream he had as a child where he was lost in the woods unable to escape but later denied it and stated , " It 's just about a forest " .
= = Release and promotion = =
" A Forest " was released as a single on 5 April 1980 . Its B @-@ side was " Another Journey by Train " , an instrumental remake of The Cure 's " Jumping Someone Else 's Train " . The single received a mixed critical reception , though commercially its sales were an improvement for the band . In early 1980 , it spent eight weeks in the UK Singles Chart , peaking at number 31 on 12 April of that year . It was the highest they had placed on the chart by that point in their career . In the United States , the song reached number 47 on the Billboard Dance Music / Club Play Singles chart .
The version included on 1986 compilation Standing on a Beach ( Staring at the Sea ) is neither the album version ( which was also on the 12 " single ) , nor is it the 7 " single edit ( which removes a few bars between verses and fades out part way through the guitar solo ending ) .
Andy Anderson , who later became the Cure 's drummer , said " A Forest " was the first song he heard by the band . He was taken by both the music and vocals , and was especially drawn to Smith 's guitar work and the keyboard melody , which he described as " haunting . " He described the spare and simple 4 / 4 drum pattern as straightforward ; " all that is needed . "
= = Re @-@ recordings and cover versions = =
Since its release , " A Forest " has become the most played Cure song , with nearly 1 @,@ 000 live appearances . A live version of " A Forest " appeared on a four @-@ song edition of " The Hanging Garden " released in July 1982 . It was performed with what has been described as a " rough , punk @-@ edged " sound on the 1984 live album Concert : The Cure Live . A performance appears on the live video The Cure in Orange , highly regarded by Allmusic reviewer Ned Raggett . , while other live versions of the song include the concert film Show , and on disc one of the live album Bestival Live 2011 .
In 1990 , the track was re @-@ recorded and remixed by Mark Saunders for The Cure 's Mixed Up album . The " Tree mix " version of " A Forest " was released as a single on 6 December 1990 , while the album had been released a few weeks before on 20 November . The song was redone for the second time on the Join the Dots box set , this time remixed by Mark Plati and featuring Earl Slick on guitar . This version was described as " awful " and " instantly dated " by reviewer Chris Ott . An acoustic version was recorded and released on the bonus disc that came with some copies of the 2001 Greatest Hits CD . Robert Smith supplied vocals for a Blank & Jones cover version of the song , which appeared on their 2004 album Monument .
Finnish avant @-@ garde metal band Waltari recorded a cover version released on their album So Fine ! , in 1994 .
French band Nouvelle Vague covered A Forest in a bossa @-@ nova style , as part of its self @-@ titled debut album in 2004 .
Texas Band The Toadies covered A Forest for their 2008 album No Deliverance . This version was an iTunes exclusive bonus track .
Sophie Barker released a recording on her double A @-@ side single " A Forest / Say Goodbye " which was released on 31 October 2011 .
Ror @-@ Shak , a collaboration between DJ DB and Stakka , covered the song on their only album Deep , which was released in 2005 . The music video was used in the TV Series Fringe in 2008 . English artist Bat for Lashes covered the song for the 2008 Cure tribute album Perfect as Cats : A Tribute to the Cure . Luke Lewis of NME praised the version , noting it " teases out a crepuscular , pagan atmosphere absent in the original " .
Norwegian black metal band Carpathian Forest recorded the song for their 1998 album Black Shining Leather .
British band Creaming Jesus included a cover of this song on their 1990 EP Bark .
British musician Steven Wilson recorded a cover of the song for his solo release " Cover Version III " in 2005 , as part of his Cover Versions series .
A cover of the track appears on the album 8 : 58 , a project by Paul Hartnoll , with vocals from The Unthanks .
= = Music video = =
The promotional video for " A Forest " was the band 's first . It was created by David Hiller , who mixed footage from the band 's 24 April 1980 debut appearance on BBC 's Top of the Pops programme with a forest montage . Smith said that the group " came across looking very morose and disinterested " in the video because that is how they felt at the time ; he " hated " Top of the Pops as he was " really anti @-@ pop " during this period . He recalled that he had been in pain at the time of the shoot as he had broken his thumb trying to change a tyre a few days previously .
= = Track listing = =
7 " - Fiction / Polydor ( UK )
" A Forest " - 3 @.@ 54
" Another Journey by Train " - 3 @.@ 04
7 " - Fiction ( UK )
" A Forest " [ Tree Mix ] - 6 @.@ 55
" A Forest " [ Original ]
" Inbetween Days " [ Shiver Mix ] - 6 @.@ 24
= = Personnel = =
Robert Smith - vocals , guitar
Simon Gallup - bass
Matthieu Hartley - keyboards
Lol Tolhurst - drums
= = Chart positions = =
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= Heinz Field =
Heinz Field is a stadium located in the North Shore neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , United States . It primarily serves as the home to the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League ( NFL ) and the Pittsburgh Panthers of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . The stadium opened in 2001 , after the controlled implosion of the teams ' previous stadium , Three Rivers Stadium . The stadium is named for the locally based H. J. Heinz Company , which purchased the naming rights in 2001 . It hosted the 2011 NHL Winter Classic between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals on January 1 , 2011 .
Funded in conjunction with PNC Park and the David L. Lawrence Convention Center , the $ 281 million ( $ 375 @.@ 5 million today ) stadium stands along the Ohio River , on the Northside of Pittsburgh in the North Shore neighborhood . The stadium was designed with the city of Pittsburgh 's history of steel production in mind , which led to the inclusion of 12 @,@ 000 tons of steel into the design . Ground for the stadium was broken in June 1999 and the first football game was hosted in September 2001 . The stadium 's natural grass surface has been criticized throughout its history , but Steelers ownership has kept the grass after lobbying from players and coaches . Attendance for the 68 @,@ 400 seat stadium has sold out for every Steelers home game , a streak which dates back to 1972 ( a year before local telecasts of home games were permitted in the NFL ) . A collection of memorabilia from the Steelers and Panthers of the past can be found in the Great Hall .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and funding = = =
The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Pittsburgh Pirates shared Three Rivers Stadium from 1970 to 2000 . After discussions over the Pittsburgh Pirates building a full @-@ time baseball park , a proposal was made to renovate Three Rivers Stadium into a full @-@ time football facility . Though met with negative reaction from Steelers ownership , the proposal was used as a " fallback position " that would be used if discussions for a new stadium failed . Steelers ownership stated that failing to build a new stadium would hurt the franchise 's chances of signing players who might opt to sign with other teams , such as the other three teams in the Steelers division who had all recently built new football @-@ only stadiums . In June 2001 , the H. J. Heinz Company purchased the naming rights to the stadium . As per the deal , Heinz will pay the Steelers a total of $ 57 million through 2021 ; the " 57 " being an intentional reference to Heinz 57 . Despite Heinz later announcing its acquisition of Kraft Foods Group to form Kraft Heinz Company in 2015 , the stadium 's name will remain known as Heinz Field .
Originally , a sales tax increase was proposed to fund three projects : Heinz Field , PNC Park , and an expansion of the David L. Lawrence Convention Center . After the rejection of this proposal in a referendum , the city developed Plan B. Similarly controversial , the alternative proposal was labeled Scam B by opponents . The Steelers ' pledge toward the new stadium was criticized for being too little , even after it was raised from $ 50 million to $ 76 @.@ 5 million . Other local government members criticized the $ 281 million of public money allocated for Plan B. One member of the Allegheny Regional Asset District board called the use of tax dollars " corporate welfare " . The plan , totaling $ 809 million , was approved by the Allegheny Regional Asset District board on July 9 , 1998 , with $ 233 million allotted for Heinz Field . Shortly after Plan B was approved , the Steelers made a deal with Pittsburgh city officials to stay in the city until at least 2031 . The total cost of Heinz Field was $ 281 million .
= = = Design and construction = = =
HOK Sport designed the stadium . HOK Sport 's project manager for the project , Melinda Lehman , said that the Rooney family asked for the stadium 's design to " acknowledge the history of Pittsburgh and also bring in an element of looking forward , this is where Pittsburgh is going . " In order to accomplish this , HOK Sport used steel structurally and externally . The stone used in Heinz Field 's design is artificial , in order to decrease cost . Of the glass used in the stadium 's design , Lehman said , " The glass is a more modern building element , which ties into a lot of the buildings in [ Downtown ] Pittsburgh and gives great views of the surrounding areas . " The Steelers and Panthers have their own locker rooms , which differ in size based on the amount of players each team is permitted to dress for each game . The visitor facilities are modeled after the home locker rooms ' design . As with its predecessor , Heinz Field 's culinary service provider is Aramark ; over 400 eateries are located throughout the stadium . A bronze statue of Steelers founder Art Rooney , similar to those located outside PNC Park , was moved 100 feet ( 30 m ) from its previous position outside Three Rivers Stadium . In addition , a statue of a Pitt Panther over a paved depiction of Pitt 's Cathedral of Learning was placed outside Gate A. Upon opening in 2001 , Heinz Field 's 27 by 96 foot Sony JumboTron was the largest scoreboard in the NFL . In 2007 , ESPN named the " tipping " of the oversized Heinz ketchup bottles atop the scoreboard one of the top ten touchdown celebrations in the NFL .
Ground was broken for Heinz Field on June 18 , 1999 , at a ceremony co @-@ hosted by the Steelers and the University of Pittsburgh . The stadium was constructed by Hunt Construction Group and Mascaro Corporation . The two companies directed 1 @,@ 400 workers over two years , in which there were no construction accidents or lawsuits . The stadium is inspected yearly , along with PNC Park , by Chronicle Consulting , LLC , for structural defects and maintenance .
= = = Opening and other events = = =
The first event held at Heinz Field was a concert hosted by the band ' N Sync , on August 18 , 2001 . Coincidentally , they were also the last band to perform at the Steelers ' previous home , Three Rivers Stadium . Prior to the Steelers regular season schedule , the team played a pre @-@ season game against the Detroit Lions on August 25 , 2001 . Pittsburgh won the stadium 's unofficial opening game 20 – 7 , with 57 @,@ 829 spectators in attendance . The first official football game played in the stadium was between the Pittsburgh Panthers and East Tennessee State , on September 1 . The Panthers won the game 31 – 0 , with quarterback David Priestley scoring the first touchdown on an 85 @-@ yard run . The Steelers were scheduled to open the regular season play at Heinz Field on September 16 against the Cleveland Browns ; however , due to the September 11 attacks , all NFL games of the week were postponed , thus moving the stadium 's premiere to October 7 , against the Cincinnati Bengals . Prior to the game , a speech from US President George W. Bush , ordering attacks on Taliban @-@ controlled Afghanistan , was shown live on the stadium 's JumboTron . The speech was met with much applause and support from the spectators in attendance . Pittsburgh defeated the Bengals , 16 – 7 . Steelers kicker Kris Brown scored the first NFL points in the stadium on a 26 @-@ yard field goal , and quarterback Kordell Stewart scored the first touchdown on an eight @-@ yard run .
On November 30 , 2002 , the Backyard Brawl college football game between Pitt and West Virginia drew 66 @,@ 731 spectators , the largest single @-@ game attendance in Heinz Field history . West Virginia won the game 24 – 17 .
In addition to football games , Heinz Field has hosted other various activities . Since its opening in 2001 , bands and artists including ' N Sync , Taylor Swift , Kenny Chesney , and LeAnn Rimes have performed at the stadium . In addition , hometown bands The Clarks and the Povertyneck Hillbillies have played multiple shows at the stadium . In 2002 , the Pittsburgh Marathon concluded at Heinz Field , the course was altered from past years to allow competitors to cross the finish line on the field . In 2005 , the Pittsburgh Wine Festival was held at Heinz Field , over 2 @,@ 000 people attended . The 2011 American Idol Auditions chose Pittsburgh of one of six cities and scheduled signups at Heinz Field on July 12 – 13 and auditions on July 15 , 2011 . In 2007 , writer Bill Evans named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL , behind Lambeau Field , in an article for ESPN.com. Although both stadiums received a score of 54 out of 70 , Sports Illustrated named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL , also behind Lambeau Field .
That same year , two light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) video displays from Daktronics were installed at the field . The larger , high definition video display measures approximately 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high by nearly 96 feet ( 29 m ) wide .
Heinz Field served as the home field of the Gotham Rogues in the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 unpaid extras filled the stadium during shooting on August 6 , 2011 .
On August 4 , 2012 , Heinz Field will host the Women 's Football Alliance 's National Championship Game , becoming the first NFL stadium to host a title game for any women 's football league .
The quickest score in NFL history occurred on September 8 , 2013 in the Steelers season opener against the Tennessee Titans , when the Steelers scored a safety on the opening kickoff three seconds into the game . Darius Reynaud of the Titans fielded the kickoff and took a short step backwards ( into the south end zone ) for what was ruled to be a safety , not a touchback , because the ball was not in the end zone when it was fielded . The Steelers , however , lost the game 16 @-@ 9 , which was also their first home opener loss since Heinz Field opened .
On July 27 , 2014 , Heinz Field hosted a soccer match between A.C. Milan and Manchester City which was part of the 2014 International Champions Cup and Manchester City won the match 5 @-@ 1 .
= = = NHL Winter Classic = = =
On May 28 , 2010 , National Hockey League commissioner Gary Bettman announced that Heinz Field would be the host of the 2011 NHL Winter Classic . The game was played January 1 , 2011 between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals . Pittsburgh native Jackie Evancho sang the Star Spangled Banner before local sports legends Franco Harris , Jerome Bettis and Mario Lemieux dropped the ceremonial puck . The Capitals won , 3 – 1 . The game was the highest rated NHL contest since 1996 and the highest rated regular season game since 1975 . It was also the first night Classic and the first to use " CableCam " technology .
= = Features = =
= = = Playing surface = = =
In June 2001 , Kentucky Bluegrass was laid on the field , at half the height of most NFL field 's 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) grass . The field is heated from below , using a mixture of antifreeze and hot water , to keep the field at around 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) in order to keep the grass growing year @-@ round . The field was re @-@ surfaced multiple times , until the synthetic @-@ enhanced Desso GrassMaster was installed in 2003 . Debate continued over the surface after players began slipping during game play . Despite this players and coaches of Pitt , the Steelers , and their opponents supported keeping the current turf .
On Friday , November 23 , 2007 , Heinz Field hosted four WPIAL championship football games which were followed the day after with a game between Pitt and South Florida . After discussion with the NFL , Steelers ownership made the decision to re @-@ surface the field for their nationally televised game against the Miami Dolphins . A layer of sod was laid overtop the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) Desso GrassMaster surface . The field 's condition was exacerbated by 1 ½ inches of rain after the new sod had been laid , which did not allow the tarp to be removed from the field until 70 minutes before the game began . The field conditions during the game ended up being so bad that at one point during the game , a punt by Dolphins punter Brandon Fields ended up sticking into the turf without bouncing . The Steelers won the game 3 – 0 , with a field goal by Jeff Reed with 17 seconds remaining in regulation ; it was the NFL 's first 3 @-@ 0 game since 1993 and the longest two teams went without scoring since the New York Giants and Detroit Lions played to a scoreless tie on November 11 , 1943 . Scott Brown , of the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , called the field a " veritable mud pit " . While Gene Upshaw , head of the National Football League Players ' Association , also criticized the field citing a 2006 survey of NFL players that ranked Heinz Field as the second worst field in the league . Steelers receiver Hines Ward called the playing conditions " horrendous " after the game . However , the following day Ward and other Pittsburgh players lobbied to keep the natural surface stating , " I think everybody wants to keep the grass . " Since that season , the Steelers have played their game on the weekend following Thanksgiving on the road at the team 's request .
Debate continued over the field later in the season when Jacksonville running back Fred Taylor called the field " a lawsuit pending " . Pittsburgh 's ownership stated that the decision was up to the players , who once again defended the natural surface . In February 2008 , the Steelers announced that they would keep the Desso GrassMaster surface . During the 2008 season quarterback Ben Roethlisberger was given a concussion after being hit at Heinz Field . He later stated , " I 'm glad we weren 't on FieldTurf . That grass — you know , the soft Heinz Field — might 've helped a little bit . " After the 2008 season , a poll of 1 @,@ 565 NFL players rated the surface at Heinz Field as the worst of the 18 natural surfaces in the League .
The DDGrassmaster surface was removed in January 2009 and replaced with the old sod placed on top of the DDGrassmaster surface for the AFC Championship also in January 2009 .
= = = Field design = = =
Unique about the field is the design itself . Initially , the south end zone had either " Steelers " or " Panthers " painted in the end zone , depending on the game itself . The north end zone has always read " Pittsburgh " , which is painted in gold lettering and trimmed in either black for the Steelers or dark blue for Pitt . Although there is typically no midfield logo when both Pitt and the Steelers are in season , both teams have applied their logo if the field 's schedule allows for a sufficient break to remove or apply the other team 's logo for that team 's next upcoming game . The Steelers have typically added their logo to midfield after Pitt 's football season has ended .
In 2003 , the Steelers played the Philadelphia Eagles in a preseason game to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the Steagles team , when the two merged as a result of player shortages caused by World War II . Steelers president Dan Rooney had initially considered wearing a throwback uniform for the game , but decided against it because the merged team wore the Eagles uniforms , and the Steelers didn 't want to wear the Eagles ' colors . Instead , the team had the south end zone painted in plain diagonal white lines , which were common in NFL endzones until the 1960s .
Although the Steelers lost the game 21 – 16 , Rooney liked the look of the south end zone being " plain " , and decided to keep it permanently . As with the team 's logo at midfield , the Steelers paint " Steelers " in the south end zone once the college football season ends . The Green Bay Packers also adopted the plain diagonal white lines in the end zones at Lambeau Field for 2007 due to an Anniversary logo being painted on each end , before switching back to wordmark endzones in 2008 which have remained since .
= = = Seating and tickets = = =
As of 2008 , the Pittsburgh Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season . Entering the 2008 season , the Steelers average ticket price of $ 69 @.@ 47 was the 15th highest out of the NFL 's 32 teams . The majority of the 65 @,@ 050 seats are colored " Steeler gold " , though club seats are dark gray . Heinz Field features 1 @,@ 500 seats in 129 luxury boxes , with prices ranging from $ 64 @,@ 000 to $ 135 @,@ 000 depending on location and size . These boxes were predicted to increase the Steelers ' profits from $ 10 to $ 11 million per season over those at Three Rivers Stadium . The stadium also features 6 @,@ 600 club seats that include a restaurant and an indoor bar , at prices up to $ 2 @,@ 000 per person . For the 2010 season , season ticket prices for Panthers games range from a maximum of $ 295 per club seat with required donations per seat between $ 250 and $ 500 depending on location , to as low as $ 87 per seat with no required donation for upper end zone sections . Individual game ticket prices ranged from $ 30 to $ 65 depending on the seat location and the opponent . Attendance for Panthers games has varied from an average high of 59 @,@ 197 people per game throughout the 2003 season to a low of 43 @,@ 680 in 2007 . Most recently , Pitt averaged 48 @,@ 150 in home attendance during the 2015 season .
= = = Great Hall = = =
The Great Hall spans approximately 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) on the east side of the stadium and houses a collection of Steelers and Pittsburgh Panthers memorabilia . The Hall includes a timeline of the Steelers franchise 's major events , an oversized Steelers helmet hangs from the ceiling beside a video screen that shows entertainment for fans throughout game days . The Great Hall also features the actual lockers of several former Steelers , including Hall of Fame members Franco Harris , Joe Greene , and Bill Dudley . Six large Super Bowl trophies @-@ shaped display columns were erected and contain artifacts from each championship the Steelers have won including replica trophies . Two display columns are dedicated to the University of Pittsburgh and contain memorabilia from the Panthers ' teams . The floor is painted to resemble the field at Three Rivers Stadium , with the word " Steelers " painted in black over a gold background . University of Pittsburgh players are featured on two large murals within the Hall . Eight additional tile murals created by local high schools represent western Pennsylvania football history . In 2007 , the Great Hall was named the best concourse at an NFL stadium by writer Bill Evans , in an article for ESPN.com.
= = Seating expansion = =
The Steelers notified the Pittsburgh Stadium Authority in December 2010 of their intention to add up to 4 @,@ 000 seats to the lower southern end of the stadium . The plan would increase seating up to 69 @,@ 050 as soon as the 2012 NFL season . Seating was added in that section for the 2011 NHL Winter Classic which had an attendance of 68 @,@ 111 . The temporary seating was left in place for the 2010 – 11 NFL playoffs , with the AFC Championship game on January 23 having a record attendance of 66 @,@ 662 .
On April 12 , 2012 , the Steelers confirmed they would seek approval from the NFL to expand seating by 3 @,@ 000 . On May 19 , 2014 , after more than two years , the Steelers and the SEA came to an agreement to add about 3 @,@ 000 seats to the venue . After contractors surveyed the complex the final number of 2 @,@ 390 added seats with five additional suites including more parking , restrooms and concessions was determined in December 2014 to increase capacity to a total of 67 @,@ 890 . The seating was put in place by the summer of 2015 .
= = Transportation access = =
Heinz Field is located at Exit 1B of Interstate 279 within a mile of direct access to both Interstate 376 and Interstate 579 . The stadium also has dedicated elevated walkway access to the Allegheny Station of the Light Rail / Subway system . On Steelers and Pitt Panthers game days , access is also provided from Station Square parking facilities via the Gateway Clipper Fleet .
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= Exclusion of judicial review in Singapore law =
Exclusion of judicial review has been attempted by the Parliament of Singapore to protect the exercise of executive power . Typically , this has been done though the insertion of finality or total ouster clauses into Acts of Parliament , or by wording powers conferred by Acts on decision @-@ makers subjectively . Finality clauses are generally viewed restrictively by courts in the United Kingdom . The courts there have taken the view that such clauses are , subject to some exceptions , not effective in denying or restricting the extent to which the courts are able to exercise judicial review . In contrast , Singapore cases suggest that ouster clauses cannot prevent the High Court from exercising supervisory jurisdiction over the exercise of executive power where authorities have committed jurisdictional errors of law , but are effective against non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law .
A partial ouster or time limit clause specifies a restricted period , after which no remedy will be available . Such clauses are generally effective , unless the public authority has acted in bad faith . Similarly , the existence of bad faith entitles applicants to challenge decisions of authorities despite the existence of statutory provisions declaring such decisions to be conclusive evidence of certain facts . In the absence of bad faith , the courts will enforce conclusive evidence clauses .
In general , subjectively worded powers are also viewed restrictively by the Singapore courts . In Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the Court of Appeal took the view that an objective test applied to the exercise of discretion conferred by the Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) ( " ISA " ) on the President and the Minister for Home Affairs concerning the detention without trial of persons thought to be a risk to national security . Hence , the jurisdiction of the High Court was not completely ousted , and it could objectively examine whether the relevant decision @-@ makers had exercised their powers properly . However , legislative amendments to the ISA in 1989 reversed the effect of Chng Suan Tze by mandating that the courts are to apply a subjective test to the exercise of the discretion , and by excluding judicial review except where there is doubt whether the procedures set out in the Act were adhered to . Nevertheless , the subjective test is only applicable in the context of the ISA , and the rule that an objective test applies to subjectively worded powers continues to apply where statutes other than the ISA are concerned .
= = Total ouster or finality clauses = =
An ouster clause in a statute is an attempt by the legislature to prevent an act or decision by a public authority from being challenged before the courts . Such clauses thus serve as a signal to decision @-@ makers that they may operate without fear of intervention by the courts at a later stage . One common kind of ouster clause is the total ouster or finality clause , which is inserted into a statute to indicate that the decision of a particular judge or tribunal is final and cannot be challenged by any court .
The main legal issue with ouster clauses is whether it is in fact possible to exclude the jurisdiction of the courts by the use of carefully drafted provisions . Thio Li @-@ ann has noted that " courts generally loathe ouster clauses as these contradict the rule of law whereby judges finally declare the legal limits of power and also as the individual 's ultimate recourse to the law is denied . Hence , courts try to construe these strictly to minimise their impact . In so doing , they may be going against the grain of parliamentary will . "
Ouster clauses are related to another administrative law concept : jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . Traditionally , at common law , an ouster clause precludes a court from interfering with a decision made by a public authority which was acting within its jurisdiction , but committed a non @-@ jurisdictional error of law . However , the clause is not effective in preventing judicial review of errors of law that affect the jurisdiction of the authority to make the decision . For instance , in R. v. Medical Appeal Tribunal , ex parte Gilmore ( 1957 ) , Lord Justice of Appeal Alfred Denning said that it was " well settled that the remedy by certiorari is never to be taken away by any statute except by the most clear and explicit words . The word ' final ' is not enough . " The effect of such a clause is to make " the decision final on the facts , but not final on the law . Notwithstanding that the decision is by a statute made ' final , ' certiorari can still issue for excess of jurisdiction or for error of law on the face of the record . " However , in the light of developments in the law , such a differentiation may no longer be applicable depending on the judicial school of thought employed .
= = = UK position = = =
= = = = General rule = = = =
The starting point for analysing ouster clauses and their effects is the landmark decision Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission ( 1968 ) . In that case , the House of Lords is regarded as having abolished the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law when it was considering the effect of an ouster clause . In Anisminic , their Lordships were faced with a provision which stated that " the determination by the Commission of any application made to them under this Act shall not be called in question in any court of law " . In his judgment , Lord Reid differentiated between the arguments put forth by the parties . He held that while the respondents had argued that the provision clearly denied the court the ability to question the determination made by the Foreign Compensation Commission , the question at hand did not even involve the questioning of the purported determination and instead focused on whether there was in fact a valid determination . He pointed out that " if you seek to show that a determination is a nullity you are not questioning the purported determination – you are maintaining that it does not exist as a determination " . He then held it was a well @-@ established principle that a provision ousting the ordinary jurisdiction of the court must be construed strictly – if such a provision is reasonably capable of having two meanings , the meaning which preserves the ordinary jurisdiction of the court should be taken . If Parliament had intended to introduce a new kind of ouster clause that would protect such nullities from being questioned , better drafting of the provision would be required .
In his judgment , Lord Reid also took the opportunity to deal with the issue of jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . While recognizing the traditional understanding that jurisdictional errors of law are of no effect , his Lordship also stated that there are many cases where although the decision @-@ maker has jurisdiction to decide , the determination is also a nullity . He then gave a non @-@ exhaustive list of these cases :
The decision @-@ maker may have given its decision in bad faith .
It may have made a decision which it had no power to make .
It may have failed in the course of the inquiry to comply with the requirements of natural justice .
It may , in perfect good faith , have misconstrued the provisions giving it power to act so that it failed to deal with the question remitted to it and decided some question which was not remitted to it .
It may have refused to take into account something which it was required to take into account .
It may have based its decision on some matter which , under the legal provisions establishing the decision @-@ maker , it had no right to take into account .
However , what is of significance is that his Lordship did not expressly reject the effectiveness of such ouster clauses where the decision is valid . He recognized that " [ u ] ndoubtedly such a provision protects every determination which is not a nullity " . Peter Cane has written that Lord Reid thus affirmed that " the ouster clause in question would be effective to prevent the award of a judicial review remedy only if the error of law was within jurisdiction " . However , it appears that Anisminic had defined the concept of jurisdictional error of law so broadly that it had made redundant the old divide between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors and had " led to the use of the word ' jurisdictional ' in a wide sense to cover all errors of law which entailed illegality " . The judgment thus had the effect of reducing the effect of statutory ouster clauses and expanding the limits of judicial review .
Later cases have treated Anisminic as implying that any action committed in error by an administrative agency or body is deemed to affect the jurisdiction of the body to carry out the action , and hence is reviewable by a court of law despite the ouster clause . The blurred distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law was recognized and discussed in R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council , ex parte Page ( 1992 ) . The House of Lords reviewed the development of general principles of judicial review since Anisminic and concluded that the courts will intervene to ensure that the powers of public decision @-@ making bodies are exercised lawfully . In his judgment , Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson referred to O 'Reilly v. Mackman ( 1983 ) and opined that " the decision in [ Anisminic ] rendered obsolete the distinction between errors of law on the face of the record and other errors of law by extending the doctrine of ultra vires . " Thus , an ouster clause is ineffective when the decision @-@ maker has acted unlawfully , whether the unlawfulness is jurisdictional or non @-@ jurisdictional in nature . This is because " Parliament had only conferred the decision @-@ making power on the basis that it was to be exercised on the correct legal basis : a misdirection in law in making the decision therefore rendered the decision ultra vires " .
The issue was revisited in the subsequent case of R. ( on the application of Cart ) v. Upper Tribunal ( 2011 ) . The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom disapproved of certain pronouncements by the lower courts which appeared to signal a return to the pre @-@ Anisminic position . According to Lord Dyson , this was not justified as " the importance of Anisminic is that it showed that a material error of law renders a decision a ' nullity ' so that the decision is in principle judicially reviewable " . He went on to state that " as a matter of principle , there is no justification for drawing the line at jurisdictional error " . In his opinion , any restrictions on judicial review require justification and , prima facie , such review should be available to challenge the legality of decisions of public bodies .
= = = = Exceptions = = = =
= = = = = Decisions under domestic laws ; court decisions = = = = =
Despite the extensiveness of the ruling in Anisminic , it appears that there may be instances where the courts will still be bound by the jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional error of law divide . Cane has noted that there are three views . The first is that the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law is still relevant , while the second is that all errors of law go to jurisdiction . The third view takes a middle ground that allows for certain exceptions to the approach in the second view .
This middle ground approach was discussed in ex parte Page when their Lordships dealt with whether the court can intervene and review a decision made by a visitor ( overseer ) of a university . Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson found that there were two reasons why the general rule that all errors of law are reviewable does not apply to visitors . First , the reason why courts can intervene in a normal case where the decision is considered ultra vires is because the law applicable to a decision made by such a body is the general law of the land . The visitor in ex parte Page did not apply the general law of the land but , rather , a " domestic law " ( the university 's charter and statutes ) of which he was the sole arbiter and over which the courts had no cognizance . Therefore , the visitor " cannot err in law in reaching [ his ] decision since the general law is not the applicable law " .
Secondly , there is a difference between the kinds of tribunals the decisions of which are being considered for judicial review . The source of this reasoning is the dissenting judgment of Lord Justice Geoffrey Lane in Pearlman v. Keepers and Governors of Harrow School ( 1978 ) . Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson noted that this dissenting judgment was approved by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in South East Asia Fire Bricks Sdn . Bhd. v. Non @-@ Metallic Mineral Products Manufacturing Employees Union ( 1980 ) , and also by a majority in Re Racal Communications Ltd . ( 1980 ) . In the latter case , Lord Diplock highlighted that the decision in Anisminic only applies to administrative bodies or tribunals as there is a presumption that Parliament does not intend such bodies to be the final arbiters of questions of law . This can be contrasted with courts of law in respect of which such a presumption is not present . Instead , the presumption is that " where Parliament had provided that the decision of an inferior court was final and conclusive the High Court should not be astute to find that the inferior court 's decision on a question of law had not been made final and conclusive , thereby excluding the jurisdiction to review it . "
The views expressed by Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson have been questioned by Cane . As regards the first reason , he has argued that the distinction between domestic law and general law is problematic . Such institutions may actually operate under a statutory framework which can result in a mixed issue of both general and domestic law arising . As such , the view taken by Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson cannot be as cleanly applied as he had described it to be . Moreover , the actual scope of ex parte Page has yet to be resolved . There is some uncertainty as to the extent the exception applies to decision @-@ makers other than visitors . Where the second reason is concerned , Cane has noted that the correctness of the distinction between administrative tribunals and courts may be questionable as such an approach was " rejected by a Divisional Court and , apparently , by Lord Diplock himself . "
= = = = = Comprehensive tribunal system to correct errors of law = = = = =
Another exception can be found in the Cart judgment . Having affirmed the position taken in Anisminic , Lord Dyson then qualified his statement by emphasizing that " the scope of judicial review should be no more ( as well as no less ) than is proportionate and necessary for the maintaining of the rule of law " . On the facts of the case , he found it was neither proportionate nor necessary for the maintenance of the rule of law to require unrestricted judicial review . By enacting the Tribunals , Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 , Parliament had rationalized the system of administrative tribunals and had created the Upper Tribunal to hear appeals from lower tribunals , thus avoiding the ordinary courts from being overwhelmed by judicial review applications . As the system of tribunals provided ample opportunity for the correction of errors of law , this substantive policy reason precluded the need for all decisions of the Upper Tribunal to be subject to judicial review . Thus , judicial review would only be permitted from an Upper Tribunal decision if it would " raise some important point of principle or practice " or there was " some other compelling reason " .
= = = Singapore position = = =
The High Court case of Re Application by Yee Yut Ee ( 1978 ) suggests that the pre @-@ Anisminic position on ouster clauses applies in Singapore ; that is , the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law persists , and an ouster clause is only ineffective where a jurisdictional error of law has been committed . The ouster clause in question was section 46 of the Industrial Relations Act which states :
Subject to the provisions of this Act an award shall be final and conclusive , and no award or decision or order of a Court or the President or a referee shall be challenged , appealed against , reviewed , quashed , or called in question in any court and shall not be subject to certiorari , prohibition , mandamus or injunction in any court on any account .
The Court neither expressly rejected nor affirmed the abolition of the distinction in Anisminic and its effect on the effectiveness of ouster clauses . Instead , the Court cited UK authorities holding that ouster clauses are ineffective when there has been an absence of jurisdiction or an excess of jurisdiction on the part of the decision @-@ maker , a position which characterized the law prior to Anisminic . The Court did refer to Anisminic but only to observe that the House of Lords had held the ouster clause involved in that case to be irrelevant because a purported determination by the Foreign Compensation Commission which was legally incorrect could not be considered a real determination and had no effect at all . Ultimately , the Court quashed the order made by the Industrial Arbitration Court because it contained an error of law which had caused that court to exceed its jurisdiction .
In Stansfield Business International Pte . Ltd. v. Minister for Manpower ( 1999 ) , an employee fired for incompetence accused the plaintiff company of unfair dismissal and made representations to the Minister for Manpower under section 14 of the Employment Act to be reinstated . After investigating this claim , the Ministry came to the conclusion that the dismissal was made without just cause and recommended payment to the employee . Although section 14 ( 5 ) of the Employment Act provides that " the decision of the Minister on any representation made under this section shall be final and conclusive and shall not be challenged in any court " , the company applied for judicial review against the Minister 's decision .
The High Court held that the ouster clause in section 14 ( 5 ) of the Employment Act was ineffective as there had been a breach of the rules of natural justice in the process by which the Minister 's decision was reached . In his judgment , Justice Warren L. H. Khoo stated that the " broad principle " in Anisminic governing the matter had been restated in the case of South East Asia Fire Bricks as follows :
[ W ] hen words in a statute oust the power of the High Court to review decisions of an inferior tribunal by certiorari , they must be construed strictly ... they will not have the effect of ousting that power if the inferior tribunal has acted without jurisdiction or " if it has done or failed to do something in the course of the inquiry which is of such a nature that its decision is a nullity " : per Lord Reid at p . 171 [ of Anisminic ] . But if the inferior tribunal has merely made an error of law which does not affect its jurisdiction , and if its decision is not a nullity for some reason such as breach of the rules of natural justice , then the ouster will be effective .
In a 2010 lecture to students of the Singapore Management University School of Law , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong briefly discussed the decision in Stansfield . He pointed out that Justice Khoo 's statements on Anisminic were obiter dicta because the decision had been " based on a breach of natural justice and not the doctrine of error of law " . He also considered an academic argument that an ouster clause may be inconsistent with Article 93 of the Singapore Constitution which vests the judicial power of Singapore in the courts . Chief Justice Chan stated that if this proposition was answered in the affirmative , it would follow that the supervisory jurisdiction of the courts cannot be ousted , and there would thus be no need for Singapore courts to draw the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . Nevertheless , he highlighted the fact that he was not expressing an opinion on the issue .
= = Partial ouster or time limit clauses = =
Unlike a total ouster or finality clause which seeks to preclude judicial review entirely , a partial ouster or time limit clause specifies a restricted period of time after which no remedy will be available . Such clauses are generally effective , unless the public authority has acted in bad faith , in which case the decision impugned may be subject to judicial review even though the time permitted for challenging it has lapsed .
In Smith v. East Elloe Rural District Council ( 1956 ) , the House of Lords concluded by a majority that they could not impugn a partial ouster clause because , according to Viscount Simonds , " plain words must be given their plain meaning " , even though fraud on the part of the public authority had been alleged . In contrast , Lord Reid gave a dissenting opinion in which he doubted whether an order that had been obtained by corrupt or fraudulent means could be protected from being questioned in court . Despite the subsequent ruling in Anisminic , in R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment , ex parte Ostler ( 1976 ) the Court of Appeal of England and Wales applied Smith and upheld the validity of a partial ouster clause that gave the applicants six weeks to challenge a decision . Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , explained that upholding partial ouster clauses promoted the certainty of the executive 's actions . It would not be in the public interest if applicants could challenge decisions after the time limit for doing so had expired , as this would delay actions taken by the executive . As Lord Justice of Appeal Michael Mann put it in R. v. Cornwall County Council , ex parte Huntington ( 1992 ) :
The intention of Parliament when it uses an Anisminic clause is that questions as to validity are not excluded . When paragraphs such as those considered in ex p . Ostler are used , then the legislative intention is that questions as to invalidity may be raised on the specified grounds in the prescribed time and in the prescribed manner , but that otherwise the jurisdiction of the court is excluded in the interest of certainty .
= = Conclusive evidence clauses = =
Provisions in statutes declaring that certain decisions by public authorities shall be conclusive evidence of some facts have been found by the Singapore courts to be valid , and therefore have the effect of preventing applicants from challenging most – but not all – of such decisions by way of judicial review . In Galstaun v. Attorney @-@ General ( 1980 ) , the applicant alleged that the Collector of Land Revenue had compulsorily acquired more of his land that was required for public purposes pursuant to the Land Acquisition Act . The High Court held that the argument had to be rejected in the light of section 5 ( 3 ) of the Act , which provided that the President 's declaration that land was needed for a public purpose " shall be conclusive evidence that the land is needed for the purpose specified therein " . The Court said : " When the Government declares that a certain purpose is a public purpose it must be presumed that the Government is in possession of facts which induce the Government to declare that the purpose is a public purpose " . However , in Teng Fuh Holdings Pte . Ltd. v. Collector of Land Revenue ( 2006 ) , the Court clarified that section 5 ( 3 ) cannot prevent judicial intervention if there is evidence that the Government exercised its power of compulsory acquisition in bad faith .
= = Subjectively worded powers = =
Another method employed by the legislature to restrict judicial review by the courts is to cast statutory language in a subjective form . A subjectively worded power suggests that the discretion to exercise this power rests entirely with the minister , statutory body or agency referred to , in which case the view might be taken that a court should not query how the power has been exercised . Examples of subjectively worded powers include powers that are stated to be exercisable " if the Minister so directs " or " as the Minister thinks fit " . However , as with ouster clauses , courts have traditionally displayed resistance to such provisions . In practice , they are subject to the normal grounds of judicial review set forth in the UK case Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service ( " the GCHQ case " , 1983 ) ; in other words , the exercise of power may be invalidated if determined to be illegal , irrational or procedurally improper .
= = = In the Internal Security Act = = =
= = = = Subjective or objective test ? = = = =
Section 8 ( 1 ) of the Internal Security Act ( " ISA " ) empowers the Minister for Home Affairs to detain a person without trial if the President " is satisfied " that this step is necessary because the person is , among other things , a threat to national security . Section 10 of the Act states that the Minister can direct that a detention order be suspended subject to conditions " as the Minister sees fit " , and can also revoke such a direction " if he is satisfied " that the detainee failed to observe any condition or if it is necessary in the public interest to do so .
In the seminal Court of Appeal decision Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the respondents submitted that the President 's discretion under section 8 ( 1 ) was subjective , and so was not open to review by the courts . The appellants argued that the discretion was objective , and thus a court of law could review the grounds on which the discretion had been exercised . The Court held that an objective test applied to the subjectively worded powers in sections 8 and 10 , and hence the exercise of these powers was normally challengeable on the GCHQ grounds of judicial review . In coming to this decision , it disapproved of a 1971 High Court decision , Lee Mau Seng v. Minister for Home Affairs , which had held to the contrary . While the Court 's views regarding the applicability of an objective test were obiter , later Singapore decisions have confirmed this as the correct approach . It gave several reasons for its decision . First , the reasoning in cases supporting a subjective test was found to be questionable , and , secondly , such a test was inconsistent with Article 12 ( 1 ) of the Constitution . Finally , the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion was contrary to the rule of law and all powers had legal limits .
= = = = 1989 legislative intervention = = = =
On 25 January 1989 , the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1989 and the Internal Security ( Amendment ) Act 1989 were passed by Parliament to confirm the applicability of the subjective test laid down in Lee Mau Seng as the law governing judicial review of the executive 's discretionary powers under the ISA . These Acts came into force on 27 and 30 January 1989 respectively . Speaking during the Second Reading of the constitutional amendment bill , Minister for Law S. Jayakumar said the Government was taking this step because it was of the view that the courts ' application of an objective test would amount to judicial usurpation of the executive 's functions in matters pertaining to national security , which the judiciary is ill @-@ equipped to deal with . Its stance was that the objective test would empower the courts to substitute their views on the proper exercise of discretionary power conferred under the ISA for that of the executive in contravention of the separation of powers doctrine . Moreover , the judicial process , unlike executive decision @-@ making , was not conducive to a swift response to national security threats . The courts , unlike the executive , lacked access to inadmissible evidence relevant to security matters , and judges did not possess the skill and knowledge of the security experts employed by the executive . Furthermore , the objective test did not find favour with the Government because it had been imported from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth jurisdictions . Since the objective test had been formulated by foreign judges without consideration of Singapore 's local conditions , the Government was averse to the idea of allowing the objective test to shape the development of Singapore law on matters of national security under the ISA .
Jayakumar said that while the Government recognized that the subjective test enhanced the potential for abuse of executive discretion under the ISA , the best safeguard against such abuse of power was not to give the courts powers of judicial review because an unscrupulous government could still tamper with the composition of the courts to impair this judicial check . Instead , the crucial safeguard was for the electorate to make wise voting choices to put an honest and incorruptible government into power .
The amendments to the Constitution paved the way for intended amendments to the ISA . The new Article 149 ( 3 ) stated that if the issue of the validity of any act done or decision made by the President or the Minister for Home Affairs arose in any court proceedings commenced before or after 27 January 1989 , it was to be determined in accordance with any law enacted by Parliament for this purpose , and Article 93 of the Constitution could not be relied upon to invalidate such a law . Pursuant to Article 149 ( 3 ) , Parliament then inserted new sections into the ISA . In particular , section 8B ( 1 ) confirmed the judgment in Lee Mau Seng by declaring that " the law governing the judicial review of any decision made or act done in pursuance of any power conferred upon the President or the Minister by the provisions of this Act shall be the same as was applicable and declared in Singapore on the 13th day of July 1971 ; and no part of the law before , on or after that date of any other country in the Commonwealth relating to judicial review shall apply " . In addition , section 8B ( 1 ) was made subject to section 8B ( 2 ) , which seeks to oust judicial review in any court of any act done or decision made by the President or the Minister under the ISA , save where there is any question which relates to compliance with any procedural requirement of the ISA governing such acts or decisions . Jayakumar said in Parliament that section 8B ( 2 ) sought not only to prevent the courts from questioning the soundness of the subjective test , but also to anticipate any legal challenges on the basis that the subjective test laid down in Lee Mau Seng only applies to the judicial review of detention orders and not to other acts or decisions under the ISA by the President or Minister , such as suspension directions and revocations of such directions .
= = = = Operation of subjectively worded powers in the ISA after the 1989 amendments = = = =
The 1989 amendments to the ISA were challenged before the High Court in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1989 ) . Justice Frederick Arthur Chua held that sections 8B ( 1 ) and 8B ( 2 ) of the ISA govern judicial review in the context of that Act , and thus preclude any consideration of the legal position laid down in the obiter remarks of the Court of Appeal in Chng Suan Tze . Therefore , applying the subjective test , the respondents ' burden of justifying the legality of the applicant 's detention was discharged as the respondents had produced a valid detention order and evidence of the subjective satisfaction of the President , acting on the advice of the Cabinet , that the applicant was a risk to national security .
The applicant then appealed to the Court of Appeal . The Court of Appeal construed section 8B ( 1 ) in accordance with the clear legislative intention expressed through the plain wording of the provision . It held that the provision reinstates the legal position laid down in Lee Mau Seng as the law governing judicial review of decisions made or acts done pursuant to the executive 's powers under the ISA . In order to determine the law on judicial review of the exercise of executive discretion under the ISA , it is necessary to ascertain the exact decision laid down in Lee Mau Seng . However , the Court declined to opine whether the Lee Mau Seng decision meant that a detention order cannot be challenged on the basis that it was made for reasons completely outside the scope of the ISA . This was because on the facts of the case it had not been established that the applicant was re @-@ detained for reasons not contemplated by section 8 ( 1 ) of the ISA and completely unrelated to national security . Notably , the Court did not decide whether section 8B ( 2 ) of the ISA precludes it from reviewing a detention order shown to have been made for purposes other than national security , or whether the 1989 amendments to the ISA are outside the scope of the legislative power conferred on Parliament by the amended Article 149 of the Constitution .
= = = In other statutes = = =
Due to the 1989 amendments to the Constitution and the ISA , the exercise of the subjectively worded powers in the ISA is not judicially reviewable by the courts , except when there has been some non @-@ compliance with the procedures set out in the Act . On the other hand , the objective test laid down in Chng Suan Tze continues to be the law governing judicial review of the exercise of executive discretion under subjectively worded provisions in statutes other than the ISA . In Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2011 ) , the Court of Appeal opined that the 1989 legislative amendments did not completely reverse Chng Suan Tze . Apart from restricting the courts ' supervisory jurisdiction to reviewing decisions made under the ISA for procedural impropriety , Parliament did not disturb the principle laid down in Chng Suan Tze that the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion – that is , power without legal limits – is contrary to the rule of law , which demands that courts should be able to examine the exercise of discretionary power . Since Parliament did not undermine this principle when it legislatively reversed Chng Suan Tze , it should be taken to have implicitly endorsed the principle .
In Kamal Jit Singh v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1992 ) , the statutory provision in question was section 30 of the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act ( " CLTPA " ) , which states as follows :
Whenever the Minister [ of Home Affairs ] is satisfied with respect to any person , whether the person is at large or in custody , that the person has been associated with activities of a criminal nature , the Minister may , with the consent of the Public Prosecutor —
( a ) if he is satisfied that it is necessary that the person be detained in the interests of public safety , peace and good order , by order under his hand direct that the person be detained for any period not exceeding 12 months from the date of the order ; or
( b ) if he is satisfied that it is necessary that the person be subject to the supervision of the police , by order direct that the person be subject to the supervision of the police for any period not exceeding 3 years from the date of the order . [ Emphasis added . ]
The Court of Appeal suggested that , in the light of Chng Suan Tze , the validity of an order for preventive detention made by the Minister under section 30 of the CLTPA is dependent on the objective satisfaction of the Minister . Moreover , in Re Wong Sin Yee ( 2007 ) , which also involved judicial review of an applicant 's detention under section 30 of the CLTPA , the High Court , following the decision in Chng Suan Tze , held that the absence of the need to establish a jurisdictional or precedent fact meant that the scope of judicial review as regards the exercise of the Minister 's discretion under section 30 was limited to the GCHQ grounds of judicial review . The Court thus applied an objective test to the subjectively worded powers in section 30 ; if it Court had applied a subjective test , it would have deferred to the subjective satisfaction of the Minister that the detention was in the interests of public safety , peace and good order .
= = = Cases = = =
Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission [ 1968 ] UKHL 6 , [ 1969 ] 2 A.C. 147 , House of Lords ( UK ) .
Re Application by Yee Yut Ee [ 1977 – 1978 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 490 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1988 ] SGCA 16 , [ 1988 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 525 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 24 December 2011 .
Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1989 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 461 , H.C. ( Singapore ) ( " Teo Soh Lung ( H.C. ) " ) .
Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1990 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 347 , C.A. ( Singapore ) ( " Teo Soh Lung ( C.A. ) " ) .
R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council , ex parte Page [ 1992 ] UKHL 12 , [ 1993 ] A.C. 682 , H.L. ( UK ) .
R. ( Cart ) v. Upper Tribunal [ 2011 ] UKSC 28 , [ 2012 ] 1 A.C. 663 , Supreme Court ( UK ) .
Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General [ 2011 ] SGCA 9 , [ 2011 ] 2 S.L.R. 1189 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Cane , Peter ( 2004 ) , " Substantive Review " , An Introduction to Administrative Law ( 4th ed . ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press , pp. 228 – 261 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 926898 @-@ 6 .
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , " Express and Implied Limits on Judicial Review : Ouster and Time Limit Clauses , the Prerogative Power , Public Interest Immunity " , Textbook on Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , pp. 392 – 437 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 10 May 2013 .
= = = Articles = = =
Harding , Andrew J. ( 1980 ) , " Jurisdictional Theory in the Melting Pot : South East Asia Fire Bricks Sdn . Bhd. v. Non @-@ Metallic Mineral Products Manufacturing Employees Union and Others " , Malaya Law Review 22 : 285 – 292 .
Todd , Paul ( 1977 ) , " Review of Ouster Clauses in Administrative Law " , Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 28 ( 3 ) : 274 – 282 .
Wade , H [ enry ] W [ illiam ] R [ awson ] ( 1969 ) , " Constitutional and Administrative Aspects of the Anisminic Case " , Law Quarterly Review 85 : 198 – 212 .
= = = Books = = =
Craig , P [ aul ] P. ( 1995 ) , " Jurisdiction , Judicial Control , and Agency Autonomy " , in Loveland , Ian , A Special Relationship ? American Influences on Public Law in the UK , Oxford : Clarendon Press , p . 173 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 826014 @-@ 1 .
Forsyth , Christopher ( 1998 ) , " ' The Metaphysic of Nullity ' – Invalidity , Conceptual Reasoning and the Rule of Law " , in Forsyth , Christopher ; Hare , Ivan , The Golden Metwand and the Crooked Cord : Essays on Public Law in Honour of Sir William Wade QC , Oxford : Clarendon Press , pp. 141 – 160 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 826469 @-@ 9 .
Wade , [ Henry ] William [ Rawson ] ; Forsyth , Christopher ( 2009 ) , " Restriction of Remedies " , Administrative Law ( 10th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 582 – 634 at 610 – 631 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 923161 @-@ 4 .
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= Maryland Route 228 =
Maryland Route 228 ( MD 228 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Berry Road , the state highway runs 6 @.@ 88 miles ( 11 @.@ 07 km ) from MD 210 in Accokeek east to U.S. Route 301 ( US 301 ) and MD 5 Business in Waldorf . MD 228 , which is a four @-@ lane divided highway for its entire length , is a major commuter route between southwestern Prince George 's County and northern Charles County . In conjunction with MD 210 , the state highway serves as an alternative to US 301 and MD 5 as a route to Washington from Southern Maryland . MD 228 also serves as part of the connection , again via MD 210 , between Waldorf and Indian Head Naval Surface Warfare Center .
MD 228 did not originally connect Waldorf with Accokeek ; instead , the state highway headed west from Waldorf and turned south near the Prince George 's – Charles county line , following what is now MD 229 to Pomfret . The state highway was built from Pomfret to Berry in the late 1920s . MD 228 was completed between Berry and Waldorf in the mid @-@ 1930s . MD 228 was expanded to a divided highway in Charles County and extended into Prince George 's County in the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2000 , the Prince George 's County section of the state highway was reconstructed as a divided highway west to the MD 210 intersection , which was rebuilt as the second continuous @-@ flow intersection in the U.S.
= = Route description = =
MD 228 begins at a continuous @-@ flow intersection with MD 210 ( Indian Head Highway ) in Accokeek . Three lanes leave southbound MD 210 and intersect northbound MD 210 . A short distance to the southeast , those lanes intersect a single lane from westbound MD 228 to southbound MD 210 ; that lane intersects northbound MD 210 to the northwest . The two lanes from westbound MD 228 seamlessly join northbound MD 210 , while a single lane ramp from northbound MD 210 joins eastbound MD 228 . The auxiliary lanes from the continuous @-@ flow intersection merge into the state highway 's four @-@ lane divided profile before intersecting Manning Road East ( unsigned MD 810I ) , which serves a shopping center to the west and the historic home Bellevue to the east .
MD 228 heads east through a forested area , intersecting Bealle Hill Road ( unsigned MD 228A ) immediately before crossing over Mattawoman Creek into Charles County . On the east side of the stream crossing , the state highway intersects MD 229 ( Bensville Road ) , the old alignment of MD 228 . MD 228 continues east between residential subdivisions along the northern tier of Charles County . The state highway crosses Piney Branch , a tributary of Mattawoman Creek , and passes the highway 's old alignment of Bunker Hill Road to the south in the hamlet of Berry . MD 228 curves to the southeast after passing Ironwood Drive and enters Waldorf . At Western Parkway , a county @-@ maintained suburban boulevard that parallels US 301 to the west through Waldorf , MD 228 gains continuous right @-@ turn lanes in both directions and enters a commercial area . The state highway reaches its eastern terminus at US 301 ( Robert Crain Highway ) . The roadway continues on the east side of the intersection as MD 5 Business ( Leonardtown Road ) , which heads southeast through the center of Waldorf before intersecting MD 5 on the east side of town .
MD 228 is a part of the main National Highway System for its entire length .
= = History = =
MD 228 originally included Bensville Road and Berry Road east of the highway 's modern intersection with MD 229 . The two named roads met at a defunct intersection with Bealle Hill Road south of Mattawoman Creek . A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide gravel road was constructed from MD 227 in Pomfret to Bennsville in 1925 and 1926 . The highway was extended to the crossing of Piney Branch in 1927 and to Berry in 1928 . MD 228 was constructed west from MD 3 ( later US 301 and now MD 925 ) to Hamilton Road ( now Western Parkway ) in 1933 . The state highway was completed in 1936 when the gap between Berry and Hamilton Road was filled . The Berry Road portion of MD 228 was reconstructed in 1958 and 1959 , leaving behind Bunker Hill Road as an old alignment .
The reconstruction of MD 228 in its modern form and course began in the early 1990s . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway from US 301 west to Sharpersville Road in Berry in 1993 . MD 228 was extended into Prince George 's County on a pair of new bridges over Mattawoman Creek in 1995 . The divided highway extended to just west of a new intersection with Bealle Hill Road ; the state highway continued west as a two @-@ lane road to a standard intersection with MD 210 . Bennsville Road was renumbered as MD 229 by 1997 . The MD 228 divided highway was extended west to MD 210 and the MD 228 – MD 210 junction was reconstructed as a continuous @-@ flow intersection in 2000 . That intersection became the second continuous @-@ flow intersection in the U.S.
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 228A is the designation for a 0 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 26 km ) section of Bealle Hill Road immediately to the north of the highway 's intersection with MD 228 just west of Mattawoman Creek in Accokeek .
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= 2nd Army ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 2nd Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : 2 @.@ armija ) was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković that opposed the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II . It consisted of three infantry divisions and one horsed cavalry regiment . It formed part of the 2nd Army Group , and was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border along the Drava river from Slatina to the Danube .
The 2nd Army was not directly attacked during the first few days after the invasion commenced , but attacks on its flanks from 10 April resulted in successive orders to withdraw to the lines of the Danube and then the Sava . On 11 April , the Hungarians crossed the border in the sector for which the 2nd Army had been responsible , but the Yugoslavs were already withdrawing and the Hungarians faced almost no resistance . On the same day , the German 8th Panzer Division , driving on Belgrade into the flank of the 2nd Army , had effectively routed the entire 2nd Army Group . The disintegration of the 2nd Army as a combat force was accelerated by fifth column activities and desertion by many of its Croat soldiers . The Germans captured Belgrade on 12 April . Remnants of the 2nd Army continued to resist along the line of the Sava on 14 April , and the headquarters of the 2nd Army was rebuffed when it contacted the Germans in an attempt to negotiate a separate ceasefire . On 14 – 15 April , tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were captured . The Germans closed on Sarajevo , capturing it on 15 April , and accepted the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April , which came into effect at 12 : 00 the following day .
= = Composition = =
The 2nd Army was commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković , and his chief of staff was Brigadni đeneral Bogdan Maglić . It was organised and mobilised on a geographic basis from the 2nd Army District , which was divided into divisional districts , each of which was subdivided into regimental regions . The 2nd Army consisted of :
10th Infantry Division Bosanska
17th Infantry Division Vrbaska
30th Infantry Division Osiječka
76th Cavalry Regiment ( horse )
Its support units included the 76th Artillery Regiment , the 2nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalion , the 2nd Army Anti @-@ Aircraft Company , and a border guard battalion at Subotica . The 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group comprising sixteen Breguet 19s was attached from the Royal Yugoslav Air Force and was based at Staro Topolje just east of Brod .
= = Deployment = =
The 2nd Army was part of the 2nd Army Group , which was responsible for the eastern section of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border , with the 2nd Army in the Baranya and Slavonia regions between Slatina and the Danube , and the 1st Army in the Bačka region between the Danube and the Tisza . On the left flank of the 2nd Army was the 4th Army of the 1st Army Group , which was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border west of Slatina . The boundary with the 4th Army ran from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . The Yugoslav defence plan saw the 2nd Army deployed from the boundary with the 4th Army to the Danube , with two divisions along the line of the Drava and one division in depth . Of the formations of the 2nd Army , the 10th Infantry Division Bosanska and the 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska were partly mobilised , and the 30th Infantry Division Osiječka had only commenced mobilisation . The deployment of the 2nd Army from west to east was :
17th Infantry Division Vrbaska south of the Drava from just east of Slatina to Valpovo
30th Infantry Division Osiječka astride the Drava from Valpovo to the confluence with the Danube , centred on Osijek
10th Infantry Division Bosanska in depth on the right flank , behind the Vuka river , centred on Vinkovci
The 33rd Infantry Division Lička , which was under the direct command of the General Headquarters of the VKJ , was deployed further south behind the Sava river , centred on Doboj .
= = Operations = =
The 2nd Army faced the Hungarian 3rd Army , and during the first few days after the commencement of the invasion , there were exchanges of fire with Hungarian border guards , but the 2nd Army faced no direct attacks . Neither the 2nd Army nor the Hungarians were ready for full @-@ scale fighting , as they were still mobilising and deploying their forces . On 9 April , due to events in other parts of Yugoslavia , the 6th Army on the right flank of the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw south of the Danube and deploy on a line facing east to defend against an attack from the direction of Sofia , Bulgaria . The headquarters of the 2nd Army issued orders to evacuate Baranja and reinforce the left flank .
The following day , the situation deteriorated significantly when the German XLI Motorised Corps crossed the Yugoslav – Romanian border into the Yugoslav Banat and struck the 6th Army , halting its withdrawal and disrupting its ability to organise a coherent defence behind the Danube . Also on 10 April , the main thrust of the XLVI Motorised Corps of the 2nd Army , consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs in the 4th Army sector on the left of the 2nd Army . The 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers , and meeting almost no resistance and with strong air support , had reached the left flank of the 2nd Army at Slatina by evening , despite poor roads and bad weather .
Later that day , as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country , Dušan Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff , broadcast the following message :
All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .
The 2nd Army was able to evacuate Baranja and organised a defence of the left flank of the 2nd Army Group , now threatened by the 8th Panzer Division , but Croat reservists began to desert their units due to the fifth column activities of the fascist Ustaše and their sympathisers . This significantly reducing the combat power of the 2nd Army . By the evening of 10 April , the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw from this line and form a defensive line behind the Sava , from Debrc to the confluence with the Vrbas river , for which one or two days would be needed . On the night of 10 / 11 April , the whole 2nd Army Group continued its withdrawal , but units of the 2nd Army that included significant numbers of Croats began to dissolve .
At dawn on 11 April , Hungarian forces , consisting of the Mobile , IV and V Corps of Altábornagy ( Lieutenant General ) Elemér Gorondy @-@ Novák 's 3rd Army , crossed the Yugoslav border north of Osijek and near Subotica , overcame Yugoslav border guards and advanced on Subotica and Palić . The XLVI Motorised Corps continued to push east south of the Drava , with the 8th Panzer Division capturing Našice , Osijek on the Drava , and Vukovar on the Danube , followed by the 16th Motorised Infantry Division which advanced east of Našice , despite bridge demolitions and poor roads . The 8th Panzer Division had effectively routed the 2nd Army Group by 11 April . On the same day , the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group Breguet 19s were flown from Staro Topolje to Bijeljina . The following day , Messerschmitt Bf 110s of I Group of the 26th Heavy Fighter Wing ( German : Zerstörergeschwader 26 , ZG 26 ) destroyed the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group aircraft when they swept over the airfield in one of the most effective attacks of the campaign . On the night of 11 / 12 April , the 8th Panzer Division captured Sremska Mitrovica on the Sava at 02 : 30 , after two important bridges over the Sava were captured intact . The 8th Panzer Division then destroyed a bridge over the Danube at Bogojevo , and advanced on Lazarevac about 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south of Belgrade . These advances delayed the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group south of the Sava .
= = Fate = =
By 12 April , the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group was being threatened from the left flank , with 2nd Army being described by the Polish historian Andrzej Krzak as having " no combat importance at all " . On the far right flank , 6th Army attempted to regroup while being pressed by the 11th Panzer Division as it drove towards Belgrade . West of Belgrade , remnants of the 2nd Army Group tried to establish a line along the Sava , but XLVI Motorised Corps had already captured the bridges . Elements of the 8th Panzer Division captured Zemun without a fight . On 12 April , the 1st Army 's 3rd Cavalry Division counter @-@ attacked on the right flank of the 2nd Army at Šabac and pushed the Germans back across the Sava . The Ustaše had captured Brod without German assistance , but 2nd Army units recaptured the town and destroyed the bridge over the Sava . The Hungarians occupied Baranja without facing resistance .
On the evening of 12 April , elements of the SS Motorised Infantry Division Reich , under command of XLI Motorised Corps crossed the Danube in pneumatic boats and captured Belgrade without resistance . About the same time , most of the elements of XLVI Motorised Corps that were approaching Belgrade from the west were redirected away from the capital , but part of the 8th Panzer Division continued their thrust to capture the Sava bridges to the west of Belgrade , and entered the city during the night . The rest of the 8th Panzer Division turned southeast and drove towards Valjevo to link up with the left flank of the First Panzer Group southwest of Belgrade . The 16th Motorised Infantry Division was redirected south across the Sava , and advanced toward Zvornik .
On 13 and 14 April , the 8th Panzer Division led a southward thrust towards Sarajevo , where both the Yugoslav Supreme Command and the headquarters of the 2nd Army were located , and during that day the 2nd Army asked the Germans for a separate ceasefire agreement , but were rebuffed , as by this stage only the unconditional surrender of the whole Yugoslav Army would be considered by the Germans . On 14 and 15 April , tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during their drive on Sarajevo in the centre of the country , including 30 @,@ 000 around Zvornik and 6 @,@ 000 around Doboj . On 15 April , the 8th Panzer Division approached Sarajevo from the east as the 14th Panzer Division entered it from the west , and the 2nd Army surrendered . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals and papers = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= New York State Route 292 =
New York State Route 292 ( NY 292 ) is a short state highway in the Hudson Valley of New York in the United States , bridging Putnam and Dutchess counties . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 311 in the town of Patterson , and the northern terminus is at a junction with NY 55 in the town of Pawling . NY 292 traverses mostly rural areas as it heads northwestward through Patterson and Pawling . Along the way , NY 292 passes along the southern and western edges of Whaley Lake .
The portion of NY 292 between West Patterson and Whaley Lake originated as a dirt road named the Patterson – Dutchess County Line Road . This road was reconstructed in 1919 and became part of NY 39 , a highway extending from Poughkeepsie to Patterson by way of West Pawling , in the 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the segment of NY 39 from East Fishkill to West Patterson was incorporated into the new NY 52 . By the end of the 1930s , the portion of NY 52 from Stormville to West Patterson was renumbered to NY 216 . In 1970 , NY 216 was truncated to its current length and NY 216 's former alignment from West Pawling to Patterson was renumbered to NY 292 .
= = Route description = =
NY 292 begins at NY 311 near the hamlet of Patterson . It heads west initially , paralleling the Putnam – Dutchess county line as it passes south of the Patterson Veteran Memorial Park and intersects County Route 63 ( CR 63 ) . It crosses a minor stream and briefly turns towards the southwest . After passing through the hamlet of West Patterson , NY 292 turns northwest , crosses the stream once again , and enters Dutchess County . Just north of the county line in the Pawling hamlet of Holmes , the route intersects with CR 30 . Near Holmes , the highway heads due north and passes between two small ponds .
The route continues onward , traveling north through a rural , wooded area of Pawling with little development before curving west to pass along the southern edge of Whaley Lake . At the southwestern tip of the lake , NY 292 turns north , paralleling the western and northern shores of the lake as it heads toward the hamlet of West Pawling . North of the lake in West Pawling , NY 292 turns east onto a former routing of NY 55 for a short distance before ending at modern NY 55 in the northwest corner of Pawling .
= = History = =
Part of the highway was once part of the Patterson – Dutchess County Line Road , a 1 @.@ 61 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 59 km ) dirt road that extended from Banks Corner to Whaley Lake . Plans were finalized in 1919 to rebuild the previously inadequate road ; the project cost an estimated $ 43 @,@ 500 ( $ 517 @,@ 298 2007 USD ) , including $ 15 @,@ 225 ( $ 181 @,@ 054 2007 USD ) of Putnam County 's portion of the construction . In May 1919 , the Danbury News reported , " On the road between Sodom and Pawling turn left and run through Patterson and continue to West Patterson . From West Patterson a new road about one and one @-@ half miles in length is under construction which connects with a good macadam road passing Whaley Pond and running to Stonehouse , thence continuing ... to Newburgh . " The new road was completed in November of that year .
NY 292 was originally part of NY 39 in the 1920s , which ran from Patterson to Poughkeepsie via West Patterson and East Fishkill . In the 1930 renumbering , the portion of NY 39 between East Fishkill and the western fringe of Patterson was redesignated as part of the new NY 52 . Between Patterson and NY 22 , old NY 39 was renumbered to NY 311 .
NY 52 was realigned c . 1937 to follow its current alignment between Stormville and Lake Carmel . The former routing of NY 52 between Stormville and Patterson became part of NY 216 . The route remained unchanged until January 1 , 1970 , when NY 216 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Poughquag . As part of the truncation , its former alignment from West Pawling to Patterson was renumbered to NY 292 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Siege of Pensacola ( 1707 ) =
The Siege of Pensacola was two separate attempts in 1707 by English @-@ supported Creek Indians to capture the town and fortress of Pensacola , then one of two major settlements ( the other was St. Augustine ) in Spanish Florida . The attacks , part of Queen Anne 's War ( the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession ) , resulted in the burning of the town , and caused most of its Indian population to flee , although the fort withstood repeated attacks .
The first siege , in August 1707 , resulted in the destruction of the town , but Fort San Carlos de Austria successfully resisted the onslaught . In late November 1707 a second expedition arrived , and made unsuccessful attacks on three consecutive nights before withdrawing . Pensacola Governor Don Sebastián de Moscoso , whose garrison was depleted by disease , recruited convicted criminals to assist in the fort 's defense .
= = Background = =
English and Spanish colonization efforts in southeastern North America began coming into conflict as early as the middle of the 17th century . The Spanish population of Florida at the time was fairly small . Since its founding in the 16th century , the Spanish had set up a network of missions whose primary purpose was to pacify the local Indian population and convert them to Roman Catholicism . The founding in 1670 by the English of Charles Town ( present @-@ day Charleston , South Carolina ) in the recently established ( 1663 ) Province of Carolina heightened tensions . By the early 18th century Carolina traders like Anthony Dodsworth and Thomas Nairne had established alliances with Creek Indians in the upper watersheds of rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico , who they supplied with arms and purchased slaves and animal pelts from . These traders penetrated into Spanish Florida , leading to raiding and reprisal expeditions on both sides .
In 1700 , Carolina 's governor , Joseph Blake , threatened the Spanish that English claims to Pensacola , established by the Spanish in 1698 , would be enforced . Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville , the French founder of Mobile , in January 1702 warned the Spanish commander at Pensacola that he should properly arm the Apalachee Indians and engage in a vigorous defense against English incursions into Spanish territory . D 'Iberville even offered equipment and supplies for the purpose . However , an attempt at a punitive expedition against the Creek resulted in a rout of the Spanish and their Apalachee allies in October 1702 , shortly before news of war declarations bringing England into the War of the Spanish Succession arrived . After a failed English assault on St. Augustine , Spanish mission towns were severely reduced by numerous raids by Carolina @-@ led Indians against the Spanish mission network from 1703 to 1706 . A French @-@ organized 1706 expedition against Charles Town was a failure but motivated Carolina authorities to again target the Spanish at Pensacola and the French at Mobile . Nairne proposed a major expedition after the attack on Charles Town , intending to recruit as many as 1 @,@ 500 Indians to capture Mobile , but political divisions in Carolina prevented execution of the plan .
= = First siege = =
In 1707 , Pensacola was under the command of Don Sebastián de Moscoso . The exact size of his garrison in 1707 is not known . The authorized strength of the garrison was 220 , but it rarely reached that strength owing to the difficulty in recruiting soldiers for what was viewed as a highly undesirable posting and a fairly high rate of desertion . Moscoso reported in 1708 that the garrison numbered about 100 , having been reduced by the events of 1707 . The garrison was housed in Fort San Carlos de Austria , a wooden stockade fort built in 1698 .
Extant records do not describe the composition of the forces that attacked Pensacola in August 1707 beyond " several hundred Tallapoosas and a few South Carolina traders " . The siege began on August 12 with the arrival of a band of 20 to 30 Indians , who began terrorizing the Indians living in the town outside the fort . They took prisoners ( including some women and children ) and began burning houses . Governor Moscoso fired one of the fort 's cannons , scattering the attackers ; some of their captives managed to escape to the fort in the confusion . Two days later , ten men sent out of the fort to do laundry disappeared . On August 14 an estimated 300 Indians appeared before the fort and engaged it in a battle lasting several hours . The next day the attack resumed , as did the pillaging of the town . Activity quieted down until the 18th , when an English flag was raised over a house near the fort . This prompted Moscoso to open fire from the fort , beginning a battle that raged until dark . That day , the attackers burned down the rest of the town , and Moscoso 's men had to work to prevent the fort from burning as well .
This marked the end of active assaults on the fort . However , the area beyond the range of the fort 's guns was unsafe for at least the next month ; a number of people disappeared after they ventured too far from its vicinity .
= = Second siege = =
The second siege began with the arrival on November 27 of a contingent of about 20 Carolina traders and 300 Creeks , primarily Tallapoosas and Alabamas . On that day , an Englishman ( unidentified in Spanish reports , but possibly Thomas Nairne ) brought a demand for surrender written in English . Since none of the Spaniards could read it , he was sent away , and the demand was eventually transmitted orally by a French Huguenot . Moscoso rejected the demand , even though his garrison was depleted by disease . The besiegers began an ineffectual attack on the fort around midnight which lasted until daybreak , at which point they delivered a final surrender demand . Moscoso again refused . In order to supplement his forces , he successfully recruited convicts being held in the fort 's guardhouse to participate in the defense , offering them freedom and money for their service . During each of the next two nights the besiegers renewed their attacks on the fort , without significant effect . During the night of November 29 / 30 , one of the leading Creek chiefs was killed . This apparently broke the besiegers ' morale , for the siege was lifted the following morning . The attackers were reported to have suffered significant casualties .
Word of the attacking force had reached the French at Mobile on November 24 . Governor Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville raised a force of 100 Frenchmen and 400 Indians . They reached Pensacola on December 8 , only to learn that the siege had been lifted a week earlier .
= = Aftermath = =
These attacks were the last major assaults on Pensacola in the war , although there continued to be minor skirmishes and kidnappings . Most of the Indians that fled during the sieges never returned , reducing Pensacola to little more than its garrison . Governor Bienville learned from a Spaniard who had escaped English hands that Mobile was also being targeted for attack . Although he improved Mobile 's defenses in 1708 , the outpost was never attacked , although a village of Mobile Indians was attacked in May 1709 .
A French force from Mobile captured Pensacola from the Spanish in 1719 , during the War of the Quadruple Alliance , but it was returned to Spain after the war . The location of Fort San Carlos de Austria is now occupied by Fort Barrancas , a National Historic Landmark whose construction began late in the 18th century .
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= Ottawa dialect =
Ottawa ( or Odawa ) is a dialect of the Ojibwe language , spoken by the Ottawa people in southern Ontario in Canada , and northern Michigan in the United States . Descendants of migrant Ottawa speakers live in Kansas and Oklahoma . The first recorded meeting of Ottawa speakers and Europeans occurred in 1615 when a party of Ottawas encountered explorer Samuel de Champlain on the north shore of Georgian Bay . Ottawa is written in an alphabetic system using Latin letters , and is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin " speaking the native language " or Daawaamwin " speaking Ottawa " .
Ottawa is one of the Ojibwe dialects that has undergone the most language change , although it shares many features with other dialects . The most distinctive change is a pervasive pattern of vowel syncope that deletes short vowels in many words , resulting in significant changes in their pronunciation . This and other innovations in pronunciation , in addition to changes in word structure and vocabulary , differentiate Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe .
Like other Ojibwe dialects , Ottawa grammar includes animate and inanimate noun gender , subclasses of verbs that are dependent upon gender , combinations of prefixes and suffixes that are connected with particular verb subclasses , and complex patterns of word formation . Ottawa distinguishes two types of third person in sentences : proximate , indicating a noun phrase that is emphasized in the discourse , and obviative , indicating a noun phrase that is less prominent . Ottawa has relatively flexible word order compared with languages such as English .
Ottawa speakers are concerned that their language is endangered as the use of English increases and the number of fluent speakers declines . Language revitalization efforts include second language learning in primary and secondary schools .
= = History of scholarship = =
Explorer Samuel de Champlain was the first European to record an encounter with Ottawa speakers when he met a party of three hundred Ottawas in 1615 on the north shore of Georgian Bay . French missionaries , particularly members of the Society of Jesus and the Récollets order , documented several dialects of Ojibwe in the 17th and 18th centuries , including unpublished manuscript Ottawa grammatical notes , word lists , and a dictionary . In the 19th century , Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote a history of the Ottawa people that included a description of Ottawa grammatical features . The first linguistically accurate work was Bloomfield 's description of Ottawa as spoken at Walpole Island , Ontario . The Odawa Language Project at the University of Toronto , led by Kaye and Piggott , conducted field work in Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island in the late 1960s and early 1970s , resulting in a series of reports on Ottawa linguistics . Piggott also prepared a comprehensive description of Ottawa phonology . Rhodes produced a study of Ottawa syntax , a dictionary , and a series of articles on Ottawa grammar . Valentine has published a comprehensive descriptive grammar , a volume of texts including detailed analysis , as well as a survey of Ojibwe dialects that includes extensive description and analysis of Ottawa dialect features .
= = Classification = =
Ottawa is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin " speaking the native language " ( from Anishinaabe " native person " + verb suffix -mo " speak a language " + suffix -win " nominalizer " , with regular deletion of short vowels ) ; the same term is applied to the Eastern Ojibwe dialect . The corresponding term in other dialects is Anishinaabemowin . Daawaamwin ( from Odaawaa " Ottawa " + verb suffix -mo " speak a language " + suffix -win " nominalizer " , with regular deletion of short vowels ) " speaking Ottawa " is also reported in some sources . The name of the Canadian capital Ottawa is a loanword that comes through French from odaawaa , the self @-@ designation of the Ottawa people . The earliest recorded form is " Outaouan " , in a French source from 1641 .
Ottawa is a dialect of the Ojibwe language , which is a member of the Algonquian language family . The varieties of Ojibwe form a dialect continuum , a series of adjacent dialects spoken primarily in the area surrounding the Great Lakes as well as in the Canadian provinces of Quebec , Manitoba , and Saskatchewan , with smaller outlying groups in North Dakota , Montana , Alberta , and British Columbia . Mutual intelligibility is the linguistic criterion used to distinguish languages from dialects . In straightforward cases , varieties of language that are mutually intelligible are classified as dialects , while varieties of speech that are not mutually intelligible are classified as separate languages . Linguistic and social factors may result in inconsistencies in how the terms " language " and " dialect " are used .
Languages spoken in a series of dialects occupying adjacent territory form a dialect continuum or language complex , with some of the dialects being mutually intelligible while others are not . Adjacent dialects typically have relatively high degrees of mutual intelligibility , but the degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably . In some cases speakers of nonadjacent dialects may not understand each other 's speech .
A survey conducted during the 1980s and 1990s found that the differences between Ottawa , the Severn Ojibwe dialect spoken in northwestern Ontario and northern Manitoba , and the Algonquin dialect spoken in western Quebec result in low levels of mutual intelligibility . These three dialects " show many distinct features , which suggest periods of relative isolation from other varieties of Ojibwe . " Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible , Ojibwe is conventionally considered to be a single language with a series of adjacent dialects . Taking account of the low mutual intelligibility of the most strongly differentiated dialects , an alternative view is that Ojibwe " could be said to consist of several languages " , forming a language complex .
= = Geographic distribution = =
The Ottawa communities for which the most detailed linguistic information has been collected are in Ontario . Extensive research has been conducted with speakers from Walpole Island in southwestern Ontario near Detroit , and Wikwemikong on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron . South of Manitoulin Island on the Bruce Peninsula are Cape Croker and Saugeen , for which less information is available . The dialect affiliation of several communities east of Lake Huron remains uncertain . Although " the dialect spoken along the eastern shore of Georgian Bay " has been described as Eastern Ojibwe , studies do not clearly delimit the boundary between Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe .
Other Canadian communities in the Ottawa @-@ speaking area extend from Sault Ste Marie , Ontario along the north shore of Lake Huron : Garden River , Thessalon , Mississauga ( Mississagi River 8 Reserve , Serpent River , Whitefish River , Mattagami , and Whitefish Lake . In addition to Wikwemikong , Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island are , west to east : Cockburn Island , Sheshegwaning , West Bay , Sucker Creek , and Sheguiandah . Other Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario in addition to Walpole Island are : Sarnia , Stoney and Kettle Point , and Caradoc ( Chippewas of the Thames ) , near London , Ontario .
Communities in Michigan where Ottawa linguistic data has been collected include Peshawbestown , Harbor Springs , Grand Rapids , Mount Pleasant , Bay City , and Cross Village . The descendants of migrant Ottawas live in Kansas and Oklahoma ; available information indicates only three elderly speakers in Oklahoma as of 2006 .
Reliable data on the total number of Ottawa speakers is not available , in part because Canadian census data does not identify the Ottawa as a separate group . One report suggests a total of approximately 8 @,@ 000 speakers of Ottawa in the northern United States and southern Ontario out of an estimated total population of 60 @,@ 000 . A field study conducted during the 1990s in Ottawa communities indicates that Ottawa is in decline , noting that " Today too few children are learning Nishnaabemwin as their first language , and in some communities where the language was traditionally spoken , the number of speakers is very small . " Formal second @-@ language classes attempt to reduce the impact of declining first @-@ language acquisition of Ottawa .
= = = Population movements = = =
At the time of first contact with Europeans in the early 17th century , Ottawa speakers resided on Manitoulin Island , the Bruce Peninsula , and probably the north and east shores of Georgian Bay . The northern area of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan has also been a central area for Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans .
Population movements of Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans have been complex , with extensive migrations and contact with other Ojibwe groups . Many Ottawa speakers in southern Ontario are descended from speakers of the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect ( also known as " Chippewa " ) who moved into Ottawa @-@ speaking areas during the mid @-@ 19th century . Ottawa today is sometimes referred to as " Chippewa " or " Ojibwe " by speakers in these areas . As part of a series of population displacements during the same period , an estimated two thousand American Potawatomi speakers from Wisconsin , Michigan and Indiana moved into Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario . The non @-@ Ottawa @-@ speaking Ojibwes who moved to these areas shifted to speaking Ottawa , as did the Potawatomi migrants . As a result of the migrations , Ottawa came to include Potawatomi and Ojibwe loanwords .
Two subdialects of Ottawa arise from these population movements and the subsequent language shift . The subdialects are associated with the ancestry of significant increments of the populations in particular communities , as well as with differences in the way the language is named in those locations . On Manitoulin Island , where the population is predominantly of Ottawa origin , the language is called " Ottawa " , and has features that set it off from other communities that have significant populations of Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) and Potawatomi descent . In the latter communities the language is called " Chippewa " , but is still clearly Ottawa . Dialect features found in " Ottawa Ottawa " that distinguish it from " Chippewa Ottawa " include deletion of the sounds w and y between vowels , glottalization of w before consonants , changes in vowel quality adjacent to w , and distinctive intonation .
= = Phonology = =
Ottawa has seventeen consonants and seven oral vowels ; there are also long nasal vowels whose phonological status is unclear . In this article , Ottawa words are written in the modern orthography described below , with phonetic transcriptions in brackets using the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) as needed .
The most prominent feature of Ottawa phonology is vowel syncope , in which short vowels are deleted , or in certain circumstances reduced to schwa [ ə ] , when they appear in metrically defined weak syllables . Notable effects of syncope are :
Differences in pronunciation between Ottawa and other dialects of Ojibwe , resulting in a lower degree of mutual intelligibility .
Creation of new consonant clusters that do not occur in other dialects , through deletion of short vowels between two consonants .
Adjustments in the pronunciation of consonant sequences .
New forms of the person prefixes that occur on nouns and verbs .
Variability in the pronunciation of words that contain vowels subject to syncope , as speakers frequently have more than one way of pronouncing them .
= = = Consonants = = =
The table of consonants uses symbols from the modern orthography with the corresponding symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) following where the two vary , or to draw attention to a particular property of the sound in question .
* The sounds in parentheses f , r , l occur only in loanwords from English .
The plosive , fricative , and affricate consonants are divided into two sets , referred to as fortis and lenis . Fortis ( or " strong " ) consonants are typically distinguished from lenis ( or " weak " ) consonants by features such as greater duration or length , are voiceless where lenis consonants are typically voiced , and may be aspirated . In Ottawa , each fortis consonant is matched to a corresponding lenis consonant with the same place of articulation and manner of articulation . Ottawa fortis consonants are voiceless and phonetically long , and are aspirated in most positions : [ pːʰ ] , [ tːʰ ] , [ kːʰ ] , [ tʃːʰ ] . When following another consonant they are unaspirated or weakly articulated . The lenis consonants are typically voiced between vowels and word @-@ initially before a vowel , but are devoiced in word @-@ final position . The lenis consonants are subject to other phonological processes when adjacent to fortis consonants .
Labialized stop consonants [ ɡʷ ] and [ kʷ ] , consisting of a consonant with noticeable lip rounding , occur in the speech of some speakers . Labialization is not normally indicated in writing , but a subscript dot is utilized in a widely used dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe to mark labialization : ɡ ̣ taaji " he is afraid " and aaḳzi " he is sick " .
= = = Vowels = = =
Ottawa has seven oral vowels , four long and three short . There are four long nasal vowels whose status as either phonemes or allophones ( predictable variants ) is unclear . The long vowels / iː , oː , aː / are paired with the short vowels / i , o , a / , and are written with double symbols ii , oo , aa that correspond to the single symbols used for the short vowels i , o , a . The long vowel / eː / does not have a corresponding short vowel , and is written with a single e . The phonological distinction between long and short vowels plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology , as only short vowels can be metrically weak and undergo syncope . Long vowels are always metrically strong and never undergo deletion .
The table below gives the orthographic symbol and the primary phonetic values for each vowel .
The long nasal vowels are iinh ( [ ĩː ] ) , enh ( [ ẽː ] ) , aanh ( [ ãː ] ) , and oonh ( [ õː ] ) . They most commonly occur in the final syllable of nouns with diminutive suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation , as well as in the suffix ( y ) aanh ( [ - ( j ) ãː ] ) ' first person ( Conjunct ) Animate Intransitive ' . Orthographically the long vowel is followed by word @-@ final nh to indicate that the vowel is nasal ; while n is a common indicator of nasality in many languages such as French , the use of h is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent sound . One analysis treats the long nasal vowels as phonemic , while another treats them as derived from sequences of long vowel followed by / n / and underlying / h / ; the latter sound is converted to [ ʔ ] or deleted . A study of the Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) dialect spoken in Minnesota describes the status of the analogous vowels as unclear , noting that while the distribution of the long nasal vowels is restricted , there is a minimal pair distinguished only by the nasality of the vowel : giiwe [ ɡiːweː ] " he goes home " and giiwenh [ ɡiːwẽː ] " so the story goes " . Other discussions of Ottawa phonology and phonetics are silent on the issue .
= = Grammar = =
Ottawa shares the general grammatical characteristics of the other dialects of Ojibwe . Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns .
Ottawa grammatical gender classifies nouns as either animate or inanimate . Transitive verbs encode the gender of the grammatical object , and intransitive verbs encode the gender of the grammatical subject , creating a set of four verb subclasses . The distinction between the two genders also affects verbs through agreement patterns for number and gender . Similarly , demonstrative pronouns agree in gender with the noun they refer to .
= = = Morphology = = =
Ottawa has complex systems of both inflectional and derivational morphology . Inflectional morphology has a central role in Ottawa grammar . Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate grammatical information through the use of prefixes and suffixes that are added to word stems .
Notable grammatical characteristics marked with inflectional prefixes and suffixes include :
A distinction between obviative and proximate third person , marked on both verbs and nouns .
Extensive marking on verbs of inflectional information concerning person .
Number ( singular and plural ) .
Tense .
Modality .
Evidentiality .
Negation .
Prefixes mark grammatical person on verbs , including first person , second person , and third person . Nouns use combinations of prefixes and suffixes to indicate possession . Suffixes on nouns mark gender , location , diminutive , pejorative , and other categories . Significant agreement patterns between nouns and verbs involve gender , singular and plural number , as well as obviation .
Ottawa derivational morphology forms basic word stems with combinations of word roots ( also called initials ) , and affixes referred to as medials and finals to create words to which inflectional prefixes and suffixes are added . Word stems are combined with other word stems to create compound words .
Innovations in Ottawa morphology contribute to differentiating Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe . These differences include : the reanalysis of person prefixes and word stems ; the loss of final / -n / in certain inflectional suffixes ; a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating doubt ; and a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating plurality on intransitive verbs with grammatically inanimate subjects .
The most significant of the morphological innovations that characterize Ottawa is the restructuring of the three person prefixes that occur on both nouns and verbs . The prefixes carry grammatical information about grammatical person ( first , second , or third ) . Syncope modifies the pronunciation of the prefixes by deleting the short vowel in each prefix .
The third @-@ person prefix / o- / , which occurs with both nouns and verbs , is completely eliminated in Ottawa . As a result , there is no grammatical marker to indicate third @-@ person on inflected forms of nouns or verbs . For example , where other dialects have jiimaan " a canoe " with no person prefix , and ojimaan " his / her canoe " with prefix o- , Ottawa has jiimaan meaning either " canoe " or " his / her canoe " ( with no prefix , because of syncope ) . Apart from the simple deletion of vowels in the prefixes , Ottawa has created new variants for each prefix . Restructuring of the person prefixes is discussed in detail in Ottawa morphology .
= = = Syntax = = =
Syntax refers to patterns for combining words and phrases to make clauses and sentences . Verbal and nominal inflectional morphology are central to Ottawa syntax , as they mark grammatical information on verbs and nouns to a greater extent than in English ( which has few inflections , and relies mainly on word order ) . Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb @-@ initial , such as verb – object – subject ( VOS ) and VSO . While verb @-@ final orders are avoided , all logically possible orders are attested . Ottawa word order displays considerably more freedom than is found in languages such as English , and word order frequently reflects discourse @-@ based distinctions such as topic and focus .
Verbs are marked for grammatical information in three distinct sets of inflectional paradigms , called Verb orders . Each order corresponds generally to one of three main sentence types : the Independent order is used in main clauses , the Conjunct order in subordinate clauses , and the Imperative order in commands .
Ottawa distinguishes yes @-@ no questions , which use a verb form in the Independent order , from content questions formed with the Ottawa equivalents of " what " , " where " , " when " , " who " and others , which require verbs inflected in the Conjunct order .
Ottawa distinguishes two types of grammatical third person in sentences , marked on both verbs and animate nouns . The proximate form indicates a more salient noun phrase , and obviative indicates a less prominent noun phrase . Selection and use of proximate or obviative forms is a distinctive aspect of Ottawa syntax that indicates the relative discourse prominence of noun phrases containing third persons ; it does not have a direct analogue in English grammar .
= = Vocabulary = =
Few vocabulary items are considered unique to Ottawa . The influx of speakers of other Ojibwe dialects into the Ottawa area has resulted in mixing of dialects that were historically distinct . Given that vocabulary spreads readily from one dialect to another the presence of a particular vocabulary item in a given dialect is not a guarantee of the original source of the item . Two groups of function words are characteristically Ottawa : the sets of demonstrative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are both distinctive relative to other dialects of Ojibwe . Although some of the vocabulary items in each set are found in other dialects , taken as a group each is uniquely Ottawa .
= = = Demonstrative pronouns = = =
Ottawa uses a set of demonstrative pronouns that contains terms unique to Ottawa , while other words in the set are shared with other Ojibwe dialects . Taken as a group the Ottawa set is distinctive . The following chart shows the demonstrative pronouns for : ( a ) Wikwemikong , an Ottawa community ; ( b ) Curve Lake , an Eastern Ojibwe community ; and ( c ) Cape Croker , an Ottawa community that uses a mixed pronoun set . The terms maaba ' this ( animate ) ' , gonda ' these ( animate ) ' , and nonda ' these ( inanimate ) ' are unique to Ottawa .
= = = Interrogative pronouns and adverbs = = =
Ottawa interrogative pronouns and adverbs frequently have the emphatic pronoun dash fused with them to form a single word . In this table the emphatic pronoun is written as -sh immediately following the main word .
= = = Other vocabulary = = =
A small number of vocabulary items are characteristically Ottawa . Although these items are robustly attested in Ottawa , they have also been reported in some other communities .
= = Writing system = =
Written representation of Ojibwe dialects , including Ottawa , was introduced by European explorers , missionaries and traders who were speakers of English and French . They wrote Ottawa words and sentences using the letters and orthographic conventions of their own languages , adapting them to the unfamiliar new language . Indigenous writing in Ottawa was also based upon English or French , but only occurred sporadically through the 19th and 20th centuries . Modern focus on literacy and use of written forms of the language has increased in the context of second language learning , where mastery of written language is viewed as a component of the language learning process . Although there has never been a generally accepted standard written form of Ottawa , interest in standardization has increased with the publication of a widely used dictionary in 1985 and reference grammar in 2001 , which provide models for spelling conventions . A conference held in 1996 brought together speakers of all dialects of Ojibwe to review existing writing systems and make proposals for standardization .
= = = Early orthographic practices = = =
19th @-@ century missionary authors who wrote in Ottawa include Catholic missionary Frederic Baraga and Anglican Frederick O ’ Meara ( illustration , this section ) . Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote a history of his people in English ; an appended grammatical description of Ottawa and the Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) dialect also contains vocabulary lists , short phrases , and translations of the Ten Commandments and the Lord 's Prayer . Accurate transcriptions of Ottawa date from linguist Leonard Bloomfield ’ s research with Ottawa speakers in the late 1930s and early 1940s .
A tradition of indigenous literacy in Ottawa arose in the 19th century , as speakers of Ottawa on Manitoulin Island became literate in their own language . Manitoulin Island Ottawas who were Catholic learned to write from French Catholic missionaries using a French @-@ influenced orthography , while Methodist and Anglican converts used English @-@ based orthographies . Documents written in Ottawa by Ottawa speakers on Manitoulin Island between 1823 and 1910 include official letters and petitions , personal documents , official Indian band regulations , an official proclamation , and census statements prepared by individuals . Ottawa speakers from Manitoulin Island contributed articles to Anishinabe Enamiad ( " the Praying Indian " ) , an Ojibwe newspaper started by Franciscan missionaries and published in Harbor Springs , Michigan between 1896 and 1902 .
It has been suggested that Ottawa speakers were among the groups that used the Great Lakes Algonquian syllabary , a syllabic writing system derived from a European @-@ based alphabetic orthography , but supporting evidence is weak .
= = = Modern orthography = = =
Although there is no standard or official writing system for Ottawa , a widely accepted system is used in a recent dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe , a collection of texts , and a descriptive grammar . The same system is taught in programs for Ojibwe language teachers . One of its goals is to promote standardization of Ottawa writing so that language learners are able to read and write in a consistent way . By comparison , folk phonetic spelling approaches to writing Ottawa based on less systematic adaptations of written English or French are more variable and idiosyncratic , and do not always make consistent use of alphabetic letters . While the modern orthography is used in a number of prominent publications , its acceptance is not universal . Prominent Ottawa author Basil Johnston has explicitly rejected it , preferring to use a form of folk spelling in which the correspondences between sounds and letters are less systematic . Similarly , a lexicon representing Ottawa as spoken in Michigan and another based on Ottawa in Oklahoma , use English @-@ based folk spellings distinct from that employed by Johnson .
The Ottawa writing system is a minor adaptation of a very similar one used for other dialects of Ojibwe in Ontario and the United States , and widely employed in reference materials and text collections . Sometimes referred to as the Double Vowel system because it uses doubled vowel symbols to represent Ottawa long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels , it is an adaptation attributed to Charles Fiero of the linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield ’ s Eastern Ojibwa . Letters of the English alphabet substitute for specialized phonetic symbols , in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ottawa . The system embodies two basic principles : ( 1 ) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ottawa , but with Ottawa sound values ; ( 2 ) the system is phonemic in nature , in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value , and does not reflect all the phonetic detail that occurs . Accurate pronunciation cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker .
The Ottawa variant of this system uses the following consonant letters or digraphs :
b , ch , d , f , g , h , j , k , l , m , n , p , r , s , sh , t , w , y , z , zh
The letters f , l , and r are found in loan words , such as telephonewayshin " give me a call " and refrigeratoring " in the refrigerator " . Loan words that have recently been borrowed from English are typically written in standard English orthography .
The letter h is used for the glottal stop [ ʔ ] , which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with the apostrophe . In Ottawa the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function noted below . In a few primarily expressive words , orthographic h has the phonetic value [ h ] : aa haaw " OK " .
Vowels are represented as follows :
Long ii , oo , aa , e ; Short i , o , a
By convention the three long vowels that correspond to a short vowel are written double , while the single long vowel written as orthographic e that does not have a corresponding short vowel is not written doubled .
The apostrophe ’ is used to distinguish primary ( underlying ) consonant clusters from secondary clusters that arise when the rule of syncope deletes a vowel between two consonants . For example , orthographic ng must be distinguished from n ’ g . The former has the phonetic value [ ŋ ] ( arising from place of articulation assimilation of / n / to the following velar consonant / ɡ / , which is then deleted in word @-@ final position as in mnising [ mnɪsɪŋ ] " at the island " ) , while the latter has the phonetic value [ nɡ ] as in san ’ goo [ sanɡoː ] " black squirrel " .
= = History = =
In the general model of linguistic change , " a single ancestor language ( a proto @-@ language ) develops dialects which in time through the accumulation of changes become distinct languages . " Continued changes in the descendant languages result in the development of dialects which again over time develop into distinct languages . The Ojibwe language is a historical descendant of Proto @-@ Algonquian , the reconstructed ancestor language of the Algonquian languages . Ojibwe has subsequently developed a series of dialects including Ottawa , which is one of the three dialects of Ojibwe that has innovated the most through its historical development , along with Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin .
= = Sample text = =
Traditional Ottawa stories fall into two general categories , aadsookaan " legend , sacred story " and dbaajmowin " narrative , story " . Stories in the aasookaan category involve mythical beings such as the trickster character Nenbozh . Stories in the dbaajmowin category include traditional stories that do not necessarily involve mythical characters , although the term is also used more generally to refer to any story not in the aasookaan category . Published Ottawa texts include a range of genres , including historical narratives , stories of conflict with other indigenous groups , humorous stories , and others .
Ottawa speaker Andrew Medler dictated the following text while working with linguist Leonard Bloomfield in a linguistic field methods class at the 1939 Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute . Medler grew up near Saginaw , Michigan but spent most of his life at Walpole Island . The texts that Medler dictated were originally published in a linguistically oriented transcription using phonetic symbols , and have been republished in a revised edition that uses the modern orthography and includes detailed linguistic analyses of each text .
Love MedicineAndrew Medler
( 1 ) Ngoding kiwenziinh ngii @-@ noondwaaba a @-@ dbaajmod wshkiniigkwen gii @-@ ndodmaagod iw wiikwebjigan .
Once I heard an old man tell of how a young woman asked him for love medicine .
( 2 ) Wgii @-@ msawenmaan niw wshkinwen .
She was in love with a young man .
( 3 ) Mii dash niw kiwenziinyan gii @-@ ndodmawaad iw wiikwebjigan , gye go wgii @-@ dbahmawaan .
So then she asked that old man for the love medicine , and she paid him for it .
( 4 ) Mii dash gii @-@ aabjitood maaba wshkiniigkwe iw mshkiki gaa @-@ giishpnadood .
Then this young woman used that medicine that she had bought .
( 5 ) Mii dash maaba wshkinwe gaa @-@ zhi @-@ gchi @-@ zaaghaad niw wshkiniigkwen .
Then this young man accordingly very much loved that young woman .
( 6 ) Gye go mii gii @-@ wiidgemaad , gye go mii wiiba gii @-@ yaawaawaad binoojiinyan .
Then he married her ; very soon they had children .
( 7 ) Aapji go gii @-@ zaaghidwag gye go gii @-@ maajiishkaawag .
They loved each other and they fared very well .
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= The Hand of St. Sebastian =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It originally aired on the Fox network on November 14 , 1997 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " The Hand of St. Sebastian " featured a guest appearance from C. C. H. Pounder .
Millennium Group offender profilers Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) travel to Germany to locate a preserved relic of Saint Sebastian , unintentionally discovering cracks within the unity of the Group .
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was inspired by Wong 's research into Freemasonry and the Knights Templar ; Wong wanted to replicate the disharmony of these societies within the Millennium Group . The episode has received mixed responses from critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 7 percent of the available audience in its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
In 998 , a monk is betrayed by his compatriot , and shot to death by archers . As they search his robe to find their objective — the mummified hand of Saint Sebastian — they notices a tattoo on the man 's body ; an ouroboros , symbol of the Millennium Group .
In 1998 , modern Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) asks his colleague Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) for help with a case the Group have not authorized ; he remains cryptic as to what it is . They travel to Germany to investigate the murder of a Dr. Schlossburg , whose lab is found to house a mummified body . The two are arrested by German police , but when the police realize they have apprehended fellow investigators they promise cooperation . However , the pair learn that Schlossburg has already been cremated ; later they narrowly escape death when their rental car has been rigged with a car bomb .
Black connects the attempt on their lives to Schlossburg 's murder . He demands details of the case from Watts , who explains that the mummy found earlier dates to early Christianity , the time when the Millennium Group first convened . However , they realize they are being tailed by two men , and return to their hotel . There , they are met by Cheryl Andrews ( C. C. H. Pounder ) , a fellow Group member who has worked with them in the past . She offers her help but Watts declines it . Watts is later able to access Schlossburg 's computer files ; meanwhile , the doctor is found to be alive , regaining consciousness in a hospital bed and telling police his assailant was Watts .
Andrews tells Black she has been sent to prevent Watts acting outside the Group 's remit ; she gives Black a contact number and leaves . Later , Black returns to Schlossburg 's lab and finds Watts , who explains that a knightly order , the Knights Chroniclers , had possessed the relic of Saint Sebastian at the turn of the second millennium ; the hand imparts knowledge to its possessor that will help to overcome the evils associated with the turn of the millennium . Watts reveals that Schlossburg had uncovered the order 's burial ground .
Black and Watts learn that Schlossburg is alive and visit him ; the doctor does not recognize Watts , but insists that his attacker identified himself as " Peter Watts " . He reveals the locations of the burial ground , in a peat bog . Black and Watts leave to reach it ; Schlossburg is murdered shortly afterwards by two assassins . At the bog , the pair find a mummified corpse clutching the relic ; however , they have been followed by the police , and Watts is arrested for Schlossburg 's murder . Black tracks down Andrews at the storage building where the relic has been taken . They are ambushed by the two assassins , and during their escape , Black mentions where the relic is hidden . Andrews immediately turns on Black ; the ambush was a trick to draw the information out of Black , while she had engineered events to use Watts as a fall man to discredit the Group . However , the police are able to intervene , hearing everything and rescuing Black . Later , Watts and Black study the relic , but Black is convinced that their own convictions will be more important to them than mystical artefacts .
= = Production = =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . It was the ninth episode to have been written by the pair , who had penned several across the first and second seasons . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season . " The Hand of St. Sebastian " was directed by Thomas J. Wright ; Wright had directed eight episodes previously and would helm a further seventeen over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files .
The episode was driven by Wong 's desire to write an episode focussing on Watts , as he wanted to showcase O 'Quinn as an actor . Wong also felt " that by revealing that the Millennium Group had existed for centuries and setting the episode overseas , that would give the story greater scope and weight " . The introduction of schisms within the Group was inspired by Wong 's research into the Knights Templar and Freemasonry , as he considered these secretive organizations to have mirrored the way he wanted to present the Group , and he felt each contained factions or reactionary elements which he wanted to recreate . The episode features the penultimate appearance by C. C. H. Pounder as pathologist Cheryl Andrews . Pounder portrayed the character in four other episodes , appearing across all three seasons .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 14 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 566 million households , and left the episode the eightieth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " has received mixed responses from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B + " , finding it to contain an entertaining mix of mysticism and espionage . However , he considered the revelation that Andrews was a turncoat within the Group to be confusing , finding it unclear how a human villain could be defined within a series already making use of demons and theological evil . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , praising the guest performances by Pounder and Hall . Gibron wrote that the episode had a " feature film " feel , and described it as one of the best episodes of the season .
However , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Hand of St. Sebastian " one star out of five . Shearman felt that by this point , the series no longer resembled what it had been in its previous season , derisively comparing it to the Indiana Jones film series . He wrote that Henriksen 's portrayal of Frank Black seemed " weakened " in the episode , as the actor had built a credible and deep character who now seemed entirely unlike his former self .
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= Pedra Branca , Singapore =
Pedra Branca ( formerly referred to by Malaysia as Pulau Batu Puteh and now as Batu Puteh ) is an outlying island and also the easternmost point of Singapore . The name means " white rock " in Portuguese ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ ˈpɛðɾɐ ˈβɾɐ ̃ kɐ ] ) , and refers to whitish guano ( bird droppings ) deposited on the rock . The island consists of a small outcrop of granite rocks with an area of about 8 @,@ 560 square metres ( 92 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . During the low water spring tide it measures , at its longest , 137 metres ( 449 ft ) and has an average width of 60 metres ( 200 ft ) . Despite being under Singapore 's sovereignty , the island has a unique distinction of not being located in any planning area , subzone or political constituency in the country . Pedra Branca is situated at 1 ° 19 ′ 48 ″ N 104 ° 24 ′ 27 ″ E , where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea .
There are two maritime features near Pedra Branca . Middle Rocks , under the sovereignty of Malaysia , consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart situated 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Pedra Branca . South Ledge , which is 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca , is a rock formation visible only at low @-@ tide .
Pedra Branca was known to sailors for centuries . It was originally within the territory of the Johor Sultanate , which was founded in 1528 , and remained under the new Sultanate of Johor under the British sphere of influence following the signing of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . Between 1850 and 1851 , the British built Horsburgh Lighthouse on the island without seeking the consent of the Johor authorities , or even informing them of the decision . From that time , the Straits Settlements administered the island ; Singapore then assumed responsibility in 1946 after the dissolution of the Straits Settlements . On 21 September 1953 , the Acting State Secretary of Johor , responding to a query from the Colonial Secretary of Singapore about the status of the island , stated that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " .
On 21 December 1979 , Malaysia published a map that showed the island to be within its territorial waters . This ignited a 29 @-@ year territorial dispute which , together with the issue of sovereignty over the nearby maritime features of Middle Rocks and South Ledge , the disputants presented to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for resolution . On 23 May 2008 the ICJ ruled that Pedra Branca was under Singapore 's sovereignty . Although the island had originally been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate , the United Kingdom and Singapore had carried out various acts of sovereignty in respect of the island . The failure of Malaysia and its predecessors to respond to these acts , and other actions that demonstrated their acknowledgment of Singapore 's sovereignty over the island , meant that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca . On the other hand , Middle Rocks remains part of Malaysian territory as Singapore had not manifested any acts of sovereignty in respect of it . The Court did not rule definitively on the remaining outcrop , South Ledge , merely declaring that it belonged to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located . Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge .
= = Etymology = =
Pedra Branca means " white rock " in Portuguese , and refers to whitish guano ( bird droppings ) deposited on the rock by the black @-@ naped tern , which used the island as a nesting ground . This name is used by both the English @-@ language and Malay @-@ language press in Singapore . Malaysia formerly referred to the island as Pulau Batu Puteh , which means " white rock island " in Malay , but the Government of Malaysia subsequently decided to drop the word Pulau ( " Island " ) . In August 2008 Foreign Minister Rais Yatim said Malaysia considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .
The island is known in Mandarin as Baijiao ( Chinese : 白礁 ; pinyin : báijiāo ) , which means " white reef " . The Tamil name is பெட ் ரா பிராங ் கா , a transliteration of Pedra Branca .
= = Geography = =
Pedra Branca , located at 1 ° 19 ′ 48 ″ N and 104 ° 24 ′ 27 ″ E , is an island with an area of about 8 @,@ 560 square metres ( 92 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . During the low water spring tide it measures , at its longest , a mere 137 metres ( 449 ft ) and has an average width of 60 metres ( 200 ft ) . It is approximately 24 nautical miles ( 44 km ; 28 mi ) to the east of Singapore ; 7 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ; 8 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Johor , Malaysia ; and 7 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 1 km ; 8 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Bintan , Indonesia .
There are two maritime features near Pedra Branca . Middle Rocks , which is under the sovereignty of Malaysia , consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart situated 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 7 mi ) south of the island . They stand 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) to 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) permanently above water . South Ledge , on the other hand , is a rock formation visible only at low @-@ tide . It is 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca . Its ownership has yet to be definitively determined by Malaysia and Singapore .
Rock samples from Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge show they are all composed of a light , coarse @-@ grained biotite granite . Therefore , from a geomorphological standpoint , the three maritime features belong to the same rock body .
= = History = =
= = = Up to the 1840s = = =
Pedra Branca was known to sailors for centuries . Part of the Chinese sailing instructions for the South China Sea based on information compiled by Admiral Zheng He ( 1371 – 1433 ) advised a navigator that after departing Long Ya Men ( Mandarin for " Dragon 's Teeth Gate " ) , a rocky outcrop at the gateway to what is now Keppel Harbour in Singapore , he should steer a course of between 75 ° and 90 ° for five watches until his vessel reached Baijiao . Pedra Branca was also mentioned in Dutch voyager Jan Huyghen van Linschoten 's Itinerario ( Itinerary ) , an account of his voyages in the Portuguese East Indies . After the publication of the work in 1596 , the island began appearing regularly on European maps of the Far East . The 1598 English edition of the work stated :
From the Cape of Singapura to the hook named Sinosura to the east , are 18 miles ; 6 or 7 miles from there lies a cliffe in the sea called Pedra Branque , or White Rock , where the shippes that come and goe from China doe oftentymes passe in greate danger and some are left upon it , whereby the Pilots when they come thither are in greate feare for other way than this they have not .
Pedra Branca was originally within the territory of the Johor @-@ Riau Sultanate , which was founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II , the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah of the Malacca Sultanate . In the mid @-@ 17th century , the Dutch Governor of Malacca wrote to the Dutch East India Company , asking it to send two boats to the Straits of Singapore to " cruise to the south of Singapore Straits under the Hook of Barbukit and in the vicinity of Pedra Branca " to stop Chinese traders from entering Johor River . The plan was put into force , and two Chinese junks were captured in the Straits and diverted to Malacca . However , this action provoked a protest from the Sultan of Johor , which showed that the Sultan regarded the junks ' seizure as an infringement of his sovereignty in the area . Three letters written in 1824 to the Government of India by the British Resident in Singapore , John Crawfurd , also confirm it was his understanding that all the islands in the region of the Straits of Singapore came under the Johor Sultanate .
In addition , other 19th @-@ century documents show that the Sultan of Johor exercised authority over the Orang Laut ( " sea people " ) who inhabited the maritime areas of the Straits of Singapore and visited Pedra Branca . One of these was a letter of November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson , the Government Surveyor of Singapore , which reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built . Calling them a " half fishing half piratical sect " , Thomson noted that they " frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people . "
On 17 March 1824 , the United Kingdom and the Netherlands signed the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 . It divided the old Johor Sultanate into two new Sultanates : the new Sultanate of Johor , which would be under the British sphere of influence , and the Sultanate of Riau – Lingga under Dutch influence . Under Article XII of the Treaty , Britain agreed that " no British Establishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore ... " The islands and islets within the Straits fell within the British sphere of influence . This included Pedra Branca , which thus remained part of the territorial domain of the new Johor Sultanate .
= = = 1840s to 1851 : Construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse = = =
Captain James Horsburgh , a Scottish hydrographer to the British East India Company who had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East Indies , China , New Holland , the Cape of Good Hope and other intermediate ports , died in May 1836 . Merchants and mariners felt that the building of one or more lighthouses would be a fitting tribute to him , and in as early as November 1836 Pedra Branca was proposed as one of the preferred sites . By 1844 , preference had been expressed for Romania Outer Island , or Peak Rock . Some time in November 1844 , the Governor of the Straits Settlements , William John Butterworth , wrote to the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor regarding the matter . His letters have not been found , but English translations of the replies , dated 25 November 1844 , indicate that the Sultan and Temenggung favoured the proposal . In particular , the Temenggung wrote that " the [ East India ] company are at full liberty to put up a Light House there , or any spot deemed eligible " . Three days later , on 28 November , the Governor wrote to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the lighthouse be sited on Peak Rock . Among other things , he said that " [ t ] his Rock is part of the Territories of the Rajah of Johore , who with the Tamongong ... have willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company " , and enclosed the replies received from the Sultan and Temenggung . Although this was apparently the Governor 's understanding of the situation , he did not communicate it to the Sultan and Temenggung . It is unclear whether the correspondence was limited to Peak Rock or extended to other potential sites for the lighthouse such as Pedra Branca , and whether the sovereignty of Johor over any place chosen for the lighthouse was ceded to the British Government or only a permission to build , maintain and operate a lighthouse was granted .
On 22 August 1845 , Governor Butterworth wrote again to the Government of India , indicating he trusted that construction of the lighthouse on Peak Rock would begin soon " as a light in that quarters is becoming daily of more paramount importance " . Between 1824 and 1851 , at least 16 sizeable vessels were wrecked in the vicinity of Pedra Branca and Point Romania ( on the Johor coast ) . However , in April 1846 , the Lords of the Admiralty in London informed the Court of Directors of the East India Company they were inclined to think that Pedra Branca was the best point for the lighthouse . John Thomson and Captain S. Congalton , commander of the East India Company 's steamer called the Hooghly , carried out surveys in May and August . In a report dated 25 August , they said they were " decidedly of opinion that Pedra Branca is the only proper position for a Light to be placed ... for the safety of Shipping whether entering or departing for the Straits of Singapore ... " The following day , Governor Butterworth wrote to the Government of India stating that the Government " will at once perceive that Pedra Branca is the only true position " for the lighthouse . On 30 October 1846 the President in Council in India approved Pedra Branca as the site for the lighthouse . The East India Company gave its approval on 24 February 1847 , and on 10 May of that year the Government of India asked Governor Butterworth to take measures for the construction of the lighthouse . There is no evidence that the authorities in Singapore thought it necessary or desirable to inform the Johor authorities of the decision about the siting of the lighthouse or to seek any consent for its erection .
Although the private subscribers wishing to commemorate Horsburgh had raised a sum which , with compound interest , came up to more than 7 @,@ 400 Spanish dollars when it was paid over to the Singapore authorities , there was still a shortfall of funds for the building works . Thus , the Government of India , in agreement with the East India Company , authorised Governor Butterworth to prepare a law imposing a duty on vessels entering Singapore and asked him to take immediate measures to begin constructing the lighthouse . The Light Dues Act 1852 was duly enacted by the Governor @-@ General of India in Council on 30 January 1852 . Thomson , appointed by the Governor as architect for the project , took charge of planning and supervising the construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse . Construction work began in late March or early April 1850 . On Queen Victoria 's birthday , 24 May 1850 , the foundation stone was laid at a ceremony conducted by members of the newly founded Masonic Lodge Zetland in the East No. 749 and attended by the Governor , the commander of the Singapore garrison , a rear admiral and several foreign consuls . The construction of the lighthouse then continued till 21 October , and resumed after the monsoon in April 1851 . Up to 50 workmen were involved , including Chinese carpenters and stonemasons and their Malay assistants , Indian quarrymen and convict labourers , a cook and his assistant , and six lascars to defend the island from attack by pirates . The pirates of the South China Sea were notorious – during the construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse nine Chinese labourers were killed in pirate raids . Building materials and supplies were brought by the Hooghly , supported by two gunboats and two lighters . Unless he was required elsewhere , Thomson stayed on the island to supervise the works . The ceremonial first lighting of the lamp was arranged for 27 September 1851 , again attended by the Governor , Masons of the Zetland Lodge , foreign dignitaries , senior residents of Singapore and other notables ; the Singapore Free Press reported : " A simultaneous rising [ of the guests from the dinner table ] announced that the process of illumination had commenced . Three hearty cheers welcomed the light , the meteor @-@ like brilliancy of which will probably serve to guide the midnight path of the mariner for a thousand years to come . " On 15 October the lighthouse was permanently turned on , and Thomson finally departed Pedra Branca for Singapore on the Hooghly on 18 November 1851 .
= = = 1852 to the 1970s = = =
The Light Dues Acts of 1852 and 1854 ( India ) declared that Horsburgh Lighthouse and its appurtenances were the property of and vested in the East India Company . In 1867 , the Straits Settlements , of which Singapore was a part , became a Crown Colony , and by the Straits Settlements Light @-@ Houses Ordinance 1912 , the lighthouse was vested in Singapore . After 1912 , the duties levied on ships passing through the Singapore Strait were abolished ; instead , the costs of the lighthouse were shared by the neighbouring states .
In 1946 , following World War II , Singapore became a separate Crown Colony . The other Straits Settlements , Malacca and Penang , joined the Malay states ( including Johor ) to form the Malayan Union . The latter became the Federation of Malaya in 1948 , and the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . On 17 June 1953 , the Colonial Secretary of Singapore wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca . He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 they had entered into with the East India Company . However , the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it , and " [ t ] his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony " . He therefore asked if " there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of " . The Acting State Secretary of Johor replied on 21 September that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " . This correspondence indicated that as of 1953 Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , which had therefore vested in the United Kingdom .
The Colony of Singapore became a self @-@ governing state in 1959 , and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . Two years later , in 1965 , Singapore became a fully independent republic . In 1959 , in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca , Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a " Singapore " station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses . The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966 , the year after Singapore left the Federation . In 1967 , when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately , Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse . In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962 , 1965 , 1970 , 1974 and 1975 , the island was indicated with the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " under it . The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore 's sovereignty . On the other hand , the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang , an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse .
Singapore replaced the original kerosene @-@ fired lamp of Horsburgh Lighthouse with automated navigational lights in the 1970s . In 1972 , 1973 , 1974 and 1978 , the Port of Singapore Authority ( PSA ) considered the feasibility of carrying out reclamation of about 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land around Pedra Branca , but did not go ahead with the project . On 30 May 1977 , with the permission of the PSA , the Republic of Singapore Navy installed a military rebroadcast station which it shared with the Republic of Singapore Air Force . Subsequently , the PSA installed a helipad on the eastern half of the island , and a communications tower for its Vessel Traffic Information System for the 900 @-@ odd ships that pass daily through the south and middle channels which are the main shipping channels of the eastern part of the Singapore Strait .
= = Present = =
In the 1980s , Malaysian Marine Police boats entered the waters around Pedra Branca on several occasions . However , both Malaysia and Singapore acted with restraint , the Singapore Navy having been given strict instructions not to escalate matters . In 1989 , the then Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad made an unannounced visit to the vicinity of the island . His boat was intercepted by Singapore naval vessels . To avoid an international incident , he directed his boat to leave .
With effect from 27 June 2002 , Pedra Branca was declared a protected area within the meaning of the Protected Areas and Protected Places Act . Consequently , a permit from the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore is required for access to the island , and unauthorised presence there is a criminal offence . On 6 October 2008 , a Singaporean man , Roger Lee , was convicted of illegally landing on Pedra Branca . In court documents , he said he had gone to Batam , Indonesia , in 1998 . He later married and started a family with an Indonesian woman , but she left him in 2007 due to his unstable income and inability to hold down a job . As he had illegally overstayed in Indonesia , and had been cheated of his passport and other personal documents by a friend , Lee hatched a plan to pretend to be a lost fisherman in the hope that the Police Coast Guard would rescue him and take him back to Singapore . On 5 February 2008 he paid a boatman to transport him out to sea in a motorised sampan . As he did not see any coast guard or navy patrols he disembarked on Pedra Branca and was arrested by staff stationed there . Lee pleaded guilty to illegally entering Singapore via an unauthorised landing place . A second charge of being found in a protected place without permission was taken into consideration for sentencing purposes . In mitigation , Lee 's pro bono lawyer said that there was no sign on Pedra Branca warning against trespassing on the island . Lee was sentenced to six weeks ' imprisonment .
Speaking at the Singapore Energy Conference on 4 November 2008 , Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew mentioned that the Singapore Government had considered reclaiming land and building a nuclear power plant on Pedra Branca . Such a plant could not be built on the main island of Singapore as international standards require a safety zone of 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) around the plant . However , it was recognised that this was probably not feasible as Pedra Branca is less than 30 kilometres from the Malaysian coast .
= = Territorial dispute = =
= = = International Court of Justice case = = =
On 21 December 1979 , the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters . Singapore rejected this claim in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected . The dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994 . In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised . Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , signing a Special Agreement for this purpose in February 2003 and notifying the Court of it in July 2003 . The case was heard at the Peace Palace in The Hague between 6 and 23 November 2007 .
The ICJ delivered its judgment on 23 May 2008 . It held that although Pedra Branca had originally been under the sovereignty of Johor , the conduct of Singapore and its predecessors à titre de souverain ( with the title of a sovereign ) and the failure of Malaysia and its predecessors to respond to such conduct showed that by 1980 , when the dispute between the parties arose , sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore . The relevant conduct on the part of Singapore and its predecessors included investigating marine accidents in the vicinity of the island , planning land reclamation works , installing naval communications equipment , and requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits . In contrast , Johor and its successors had taken no action with respect to the island from June 1850 for a century or more . In 1953 the Acting Secretary of the State of Johor had stated that Johor did not claim ownership of Pedra Branca . All visits made to the island had been with Singapore 's express permission , and maps published by Malaysia in the 1960s and 1970s indicated that it recognised Singapore 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca .
Like Pedra Branca , the Sultan of Johor held the original ancient title to Middle Rocks . As Singapore had not exercised any rights as a sovereign over Middle Rocks , the ICJ determined that Malaysia retained sovereignty over this maritime feature . As for South Ledge , the ICJ noted that it fell within the apparently overlapping territorial waters of mainland Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . As the Court had not been mandated to draw the line of delimitation with respect to the territorial waters of Malaysia and Singapore in the area in question , it simply held that sovereignty over South Ledge belonged to the state which owned the territorial waters in which it is located .
= = = Reactions to ICJ decision = = =
Although both Malaysia and Singapore had agreed to respect and accept the ICJ 's decision , Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim later said his country had renewed its search for the letters written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca . He noted that the rules of the ICJ allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced . In response , Singapore 's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city @-@ state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with .
A week after the delivery of the ICJ 's judgment , the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ( " Island " ) for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as " Batu Puteh " or " Pedra Branca " . On 21 July 2008 , in response to questions from Singapore Members of Parliament about Pedra Branca , the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Balaji Sadasivan stated that the maritime territory around the island included a territorial sea of up to 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) and an Exclusive Economic Zone . This was condemned by Malaysia 's Foreign Minister Rais Yatim as " against the spirit of Asean and the legal structure " as the claim was " unacceptable and unreasonable and contradicts the principles of international law " . In response , a Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman said that Singapore first stated its claim to a territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone on 15 September 1980 , and reiterated this claim on 23 May 2008 following the ICJ 's judgment . Both statements had made clear that if the limits of Singapore 's territorial sea or Exclusive Economic Zone overlapped with the claims of neighbouring countries , Singapore would negotiate with those countries to arrive at agreed delimitations in accordance with international law . In August 2008 , Rais said Malaysia took the view that Singapore was not entitled to claim an Exclusive Economic Zone around Pedra Branca as it considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .
At the National Day Awards in August 2008 , Singapore announced that awards would be conferred on a number of people and organisations for their special contributions towards the Pedra Branca case . Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong ; Tommy Koh , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large ; and Justice Chao Hick Tin , then Attorney @-@ General of Singapore , who appeared as counsel and advocates for Singapore , would respectively be awarded the Darjah Utama Temasek ( Order of Temasek ) ( Second Class ) , the Darjah Utama Nila Utama ( Order of Nila Utama ) ( First Class ) , and the Darjah Utama Bakti Cemerlang ( Distinguished Service Order ) . The Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorius Service Medal ) would be conferred on Sivakant Tiwari s / o Thakurprasad Tiwari , Special Consultant to the International Affairs Division of the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers . Twenty @-@ two people from the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers , Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore , Ministry of Defence , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , National Archives of Singapore , National Library Board , National University of Singapore and Supreme Court of Singapore would receive the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam ( Public Administration Medal ) , the Pingat Kepujian ( Commendation Medal ) and the Pingat Berkebolehan ( Efficiency Medal ) . The President 's Certificate of Commendation would be issued to the Coastal Command ( COSCOM ) , Republic of Singapore Navy ; the Police Coast Guard , Singapore Police Force ; the Centre for Heritage Services , Ministry of Defence ; the National Archives of Singapore ; and the Hydrographic Department , Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore . The awards were presented on 17 November 2008 .
= = = Resolution of outstanding issues = = =
Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge . Following a meeting on 3 June 2008 , the Committee agreed that a technical sub @-@ committee would be established to oversee the conduct of joint survey works to prepare the way for talks on maritime issues in and around the area . If any incident occurred in and around the waters of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , either side would provide humanitarian assistance to the vessels involved . Finally , both Malaysian and Singaporean fishermen could continue traditional fishing activities in those waters . In September 2008 , the Joint Technical Committee reported that its Sub @-@ Committee on Joint Survey Works was finalising technical preparations for a hydrographic survey that would provide data for future delimitation discussions . A Sub @-@ Committee on Maritime and Airspace Management and Fisheries had also been formed , and after a meeting on 20 August 2008 it decided that traditional fishing activities by both countries should continue in waters beyond 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 0 @.@ 9 km ; 0 @.@ 6 mi ) off Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge .
= = = Articles = = =
" Pedra Branca " , Singapore : The Encyclopedia , Singapore : Editions Didier Millet for the National Heritage Board , 2006 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4155 @-@ 63 @-@ 2 , archived from the original on 29 April 2010 .
= = = Books = = =
Hall @-@ Jones , John ( 1995 ) , The Horsburgh Lighthouse , Invercargill , N.Z. : John Hall @-@ Jones , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 473 @-@ 03205 @-@ 0 ( pbk . ) .
Jayakumar , S. ; Koh , Tommy ( 2008 ) , Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court , Singapore : NUS Press in association with MFA Diplomatic Academy , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 474 @-@ 6 ( hbk . ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 457 @-@ 9 ( pbk . ) .
Pavitt , J.A.L. ( 1966 ) , First Pharos of the Eastern Seas : Horsburgh Lighthouse , Singapore : Donald Moore Press , OCLC 1855904 .
Thomson , J [ ohn ] T [ urnbull ] ( 1852 ) , Account of the Horsburgh Light @-@ house , Erected on Pedra Branca , near Singapore , Singapore : G.M. Fredrick , OCLC 500001469 .
= = = News reports = = =
I Made Andi Arsana ( 24 June 2008 ) , " Singapore gets Pedra Branca : What 's next ? " , The Jakarta Post .
Majawat , Evangeline ( 24 July 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca EEZ : Singapore 's claim on shaky ground " , New Straits Times , archived from the original on 30 July 2008 .
Zakir Hussain ( 20 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca story told in a book : Jayakumar and Tommy Koh give behind @-@ the @-@ scenes account of 30 @-@ year saga " , The Straits Times , p . A4 .
Teo Xuanwei ( 20 – 21 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca : Through storm and fire " , Today , pp. 1 and 6 , archived from the original on 21 December 2008 .
= = = Images = = =
Pedra Branca , Singapore – an aerial photograph from Flickr
Satellite image of the island from Google Maps
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= City of Manchester Stadium =
The City of Manchester Stadium in Manchester , England , also known as the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship reasons , is the home ground of Manchester City Football Club and , with a domestic football capacity of 55 @,@ 097 , is the third @-@ largest stadium in the Premier League and eighth @-@ largest in the United Kingdom .
Built to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games , the stadium has since staged the 2008 UEFA Cup Final , England football internationals , rugby league matches , a boxing world title fight , the England rugby union team 's last match of the 2015 Rugby World Cup and music concerts .
The stadium , originally proposed as an athletics arena in Manchester 's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics , was converted after the 2002 Commonwealth Games from a 38 @,@ 000 capacity arena to a 48 @,@ 000 seat football stadium at a cost to the city council of £ 22 million and to Manchester City of £ 20 million . It was agreed in 1997 that Manchester City F.C. would lease the stadium from Manchester City Council and move from their aging Maine Road ground - a move which took place in the summer of 2003 .
The stadium was built by Laing Construction at a cost of £ 112 million and was designed and engineered by ArupSport , whose design incorporated a cable @-@ stayed roof structure , suspended by twelve exterior masts and attached cables . The stadium design has received much praise and many accolades , including an award from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004 for its innovative inclusive building design , and a special award in 2003 from the Institution of Structural Engineers for its unique structural design .
In August 2015 , a 7 @,@ 000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed , in time for the start of the 2015 – 16 football season . The expansion was designed to be in keeping with the existing roof design . A North Stand third tier has planning approval and work on it is expected to begin by 2017 , increasing capacity to around 61 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Plans to build a new stadium in Manchester were formulated before 1989 as part of the city 's bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics . Manchester City Council submitted a bid that included a design for an 80 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium on a greenfield site west of Manchester city centre . The bid failed and Atlanta hosted the Games . Four years later the city council bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics , but this time focusing on a brownfield site 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) east of the city centre on derelict land that was the site of Bradford Colliery , known colloquially as Eastlands . The council 's shift in focus was driven by emerging government legislation on urban renewal , promising vital support funding for such projects ; the government became involved in funding the purchase and clearance of the Eastlands site in 1992 .
For the February 1993 bid the city council submitted another 80 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium design produced by design consultants Arup Associates , the firm that helped select the Eastlands site . On 23 September 1993 , the games were awarded to Sydney , but the following year Manchester submitted the same scheme design to the Millennium Commission as a " Millennium Stadium " , only to have this proposal rejected . Undeterred , Manchester City Council subsequently bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games , once again proposing the same site along with downsized stadium plans derived from the 2000 Olympics bid , and this time were successful . In 1996 , this same planned stadium competed with Wembley Stadium to gain funding to become the new national stadium , but the money was used to redevelop Wembley .
After successful athletics events at the Commonwealth Games , conversion into a football venue was criticised by athletics figures such as Jonathan Edwards and Sebastian Coe as , at the time , the United Kingdom still lacked plans for a large athletics venue due to the capability of installing an athletics track having been dropped from the designs for a rebuilt Wembley Stadium . Had either of the two larger stadium proposals developed by Arup been agreed for funding , then Manchester would have ended up with a venue capable of being adapted to hosting large @-@ scale athletics events through the use of movable seating .
Sport England wished to avoid creating a white elephant , so they insisted that the City Council agree to undertake and fund extensive work to convert CoMS from a track and field arena to a football stadium , thereby ensuring its long @-@ term financial viability . Sport England hoped either Manchester City Council or Manchester City F.C. would provide the extra £ 50 million required to convert the stadium to a 65 @,@ 000 seater athletics and footballing venue with movable seating . However , Manchester City Council did not have the money to facilitate movable seating and Manchester City were lukewarm about the idea . Stadium architects Arup Sport believed history demonstrated that maintaining a rarely used athletics track often does not work with football – and cited examples such as the Stadio delle Alpi and the Munich Olympic Stadium , with both Juventus and Bayern Munich moving to new stadiums less than 40 years after inheriting them .
= = = 2002 Commonwealth Games = = =
The stadium 's foundation stone was laid by Prime Minister Tony Blair in December 1999 , and construction began in January 2000 . The stadium was designed by Arup Associates and constructed by Laing Construction at a cost of approximately £ 112 million , £ 77 million of which was provided by Sport England , with the remainder funded by Manchester City Council . For the Commonwealth Games , the stadium featured a single lower tier of seating running around three sides of the athletics track , and second tiers to the two sides , with an open @-@ air temporary stand at the northern end ; initially providing a seating capacity for the Games of 38 @,@ 000 , subsequently extended to 41 @,@ 000 through the installation of additional temporary trackside seating along the east and south stands .
The first public event at the stadium was the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games on 25 July 2002 . Among the dignitaries present was Queen Elizabeth II who made a speech , delivered to her in an electronic baton , and ' declared the Commonwealth Games open ' . During the following ten days of competition , the stadium hosted the track and field events and all the rugby sevens matches . Sixteen new Commonwealth Games track and field records ( six men 's and ten women 's ) were set in the stadium , eight of which ( three men 's and five women 's records ) are still extant after three subsequent series of Games in 2006 , 2010 and 2014 . Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London , the 2002 Games was the largest multi @-@ sport event ever to be staged in the UK , eclipsing the earlier London 1948 Summer Olympics in numbers of teams and competing athletes ( 3 @,@ 679 ) , and it was the world 's first multi @-@ sport tournament to include a limited number of full medal events for elite athletes with a disability ( EAD ) . In terms of number of participating nations , it is still the largest Commonwealth Games in history , featuring 72 nations competing in 281 events across seventeen ( fourteen individual and three team ) sports .
= = = Stadium conversion = = =
Sections of the track were removed and relaid at other athletics venues , and the internal ground level was lowered to make way for an additional tier of seating , on terracing already constructed then buried for the original configuration . The two temporary stands with a total capacity of 16 @,@ 000 were dismantled , and replaced with a permanent structure of similar design to the existing one at the southern end . This work took nearly a year to complete and added 23 @,@ 000 permanent seats , increasing the capacity of the converted stadium by 7 @,@ 000 to approximately 48 @,@ 000 . Manchester City F.C. moved to the ground in time for the start of the 2003 – 04 season . The total cost of this conversion was in excess of £ 40 million , with the track , pitch and seating conversion being funded by the city council at a cost of £ 22 million ; and the installation of bars , restaurants and corporate entertainment areas throughout the stadium being funded by the football club at a cost of £ 20 million . The Games had made a small operating surplus , and Sport England agreed that this could be reinvested in converting the athletics warm @-@ up track adjacent to the main stadium into the 6 @,@ 000 seat Manchester Regional Arena at a cost of £ 3.5m.
= = = Stadium expansion = = =
The stadium is owned by Manchester City Council and leased by the football club . The 2008 takeover made the football club one of the wealthiest in the world , prompting suggestions that it could consider buying the stadium outright . Manchester City signed an agreement with Manchester City Council in March 2010 to allow a £ 1 billion redevelopment led by architect Rafael Viñoly .
During the 2010 closed season the football pitch and hospitality areas were renovated , with a £ 1 million investment being made in the playing surface so that it is better able to tolerate concerts and other events without damage . In October 2010 , Manchester City renegotiated the stadium lease , obtaining the naming rights to the stadium in return for agreeing to now pay the City Council an annual fixed sum of £ 3 million where previously it had only paid half of the ticket sales revenue from match attendances exceeding 35 @,@ 000 . This new agreement occurred as part of a standard 5 @-@ year review of the original lease and it amounts to an approximate £ 1 million annual increase in council revenues from the stadium . During 2011 @-@ 14 the club sold all 36 @,@ 000 of its allocated season tickets each season and experienced an average match attendance that is very close to its maximum seating capacity ( see table in previous section ) . Consequently , during the 2014 @-@ 15 season an expansion of the stadium was undertaken . The South Stand was extended with the addition of a third tier which , in conjunction with an additional three rows of pitch side seating , increased stadium capacity to approximately 55 @,@ 000 . Construction commenced on the South Stand in April 2014 and was completed for the start of the 2015 @-@ 16 season .
A final phase of expansion , that received planning approval at the same time as the others but which remains unscheduled , will add a matching third tier of seats to the North Stand . Once this last phase is completed it will bring the stadium 's total seating capacity up to approximately 61 @,@ 000 , making the Etihad Stadium the nation 's second largest capacity club ground .
= = Architecture = =
When planning the development , Manchester City Council required a sustainable landmark structure that would be an icon for the regeneration of the once heavily industrialised site surrounding Bradford Colliery , as well as providing spectators with good sightlines in an atmospheric arena . Arup Associates designed the stadium to be " an intimate , even intimidating , gladiatorial arena embodying the atmosphere of a football club " with the pitch six metres below ground level , a feature of Roman gladiatorial arenas and amphitheatres . The attention to detail , often absent in stadium design , has been remarked upon , including the cigar @-@ shaped roof supports with blue lighting beacons , sculpted rainwater gutters , poly @-@ carbonate perimeter roof edging and openable louvres to aid pitch grass growth with similarities also made to High @-@ tech architecture .
= = = Iconic roof design = = =
The toroidal @-@ shaped stadium roof is held together by a tensioned system , which has been described as " ground @-@ breaking " by New Steel Construction magazine . The stadium 's architectural focal point is the sweeping roof and support masts which are separate from the concrete bowl . A catenary cable is situated around the inner perimeter of the roof structure which is tied to the masts via forestay cables . Backstay cables and corner ties from the masts are connected to the ground to support the structure . With the expansion of the South Stand in 2015 to accommodate a third tier of seating , the original south end roof was dismantled ; but with the southern masts and corner ties remaining , so as to continue to tie the catenary cable which now runs below the new roof . The new higher South Stand roof is a separate structure , with its own set of braced masts and cables ; and it is expected that a counterpart arrangement will be adopted for the proposed North Stand expansion .
Cables are attached to the twelve masts circling the stadium with rafters and purlins for additional rigid support . The cigar @-@ shaped masts double as visual features , with the highest at 70 metres ( 230 ft ) . Access to the upper tiers of seats is provided by eight circular ramps with conical roofs resembling turrets above which eight of the twelve masts rise up providing the support structure for the roof .
The roof of the south , east and west stands built for the athletics stadium configuration was supported by the cable net system . The temporary open stand at the north end was built around the masts and tie down cables that would ultimately support the roof of the North Stand . After the games the track and field were excavated . The temporary bleachers at the north end were removed and the North Stand and lower tier of seats constructed on the prepared excavation . The North Stand roof was completed by adding rafters , purlins and cladding .
= = = Facilities and pitch = = =
The stadium has facilities for players and match officials in a basement area below the west stand , which also contains a kitchen providing meals for up to 6 @,@ 000 people on match days , press rooms , ground staff storage , and a prison cell . The stadium also has conference facilities and is licensed for marriage ceremonies . Fitting out of the hospitality suites , kitchens , offices , and concourse concessions was accomplished by KSS Architects , and included the installation of the communications cabling and automatic access control system .
The stadium 's interior comprises a continuous oval bowl , with three tiers of seating at the sides , and two tiers at each end . Entry by patrons is gained by contactless smart card rather than traditional manned turnstiles . The system can admit up to 1 @,@ 200 people per minute through all entrances . A service tunnel under the stadium provides access for emergency vehicles and the visiting team 's coach to enter the stadium directly . Once inside the stadium patrons have access to six themed restaurants , two of which have views of the pitch , and there are 70 executive boxes above the second tier of seating in the north , west and east stands .
To create the optimum grass playing surface in the stadium bowl , the roof was designed to maximise sunlight by using a ten @-@ metre band of translucent polycarbonate at its periphery . Additionally , each of the corners of the stadium without seating have perforated walls with moveable louvres that can be adjusted to provide ventilation of the grass and general airflow through the stadium . Drainage and under @-@ pitch heating were installed to provide optimum growing conditions for the grass . The pitch has a UEFA standard dimension of 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) . and is covered with natural grass reinforced by artificial fibres made by Desso . The field of play is lit by 218 2000 @-@ watt floodlights , consuming a total of 436 @,@ 000 watts . The grass playing surface is recognised as being one of the best in English football , and has been nominated five times in the last nine seasons for best Premier League pitch , an accolade it won in 2010 – 11 among other awards .
= = Names = =
The stadium was named the City of Manchester Stadium by Manchester City Council before construction began in December 1999 , but has a number of commonly used alternatives . City of Manchester Stadium is abbreviated to CoMS when written and spoken . Eastlands refers to the site and the stadium before they were named SportCity and CoMS respectively , and remains in common usage for both the stadium and the whole complex , as does SportCity but with less frequency . The stadium was also officially referred to as Manchester City Stadium for the 2015 Rugby World Cup . The football club , under its new ownership , renegotiated its 250 @-@ year lease with the city council in October 2010 , gaining the naming rights in return for a substantial increase in rent . The stadium was renamed the Etihad Stadium by the club in July 2011 as part of a ten @-@ year agreement with the team kit sponsors Etihad Airways . The agreement encompasses sponsorship of the stadium 's name , extends the team kit sponsorship for ten years , and includes plans to relocate the club 's youth academy and training facilities to the City Football Academy on a new campus development adjacent to the stadium .
Despite being a continuous oval bowl , each side of the stadium is named in the manner of a traditional football ground . All sides were initially named by compass direction ( North Stand and South Stand for the ends , East Stand and West Stand for the sides ) . In February 2004 , after a vote by fans , the West Stand was renamed the Colin Bell Stand in honour of the former player . The vote was almost cancelled ( and the stand instead named after Joe Mercer ) due to suspicions it had been hijacked by rival fans who wished to dub the renamed stand The Bell End . However , core supporters of the club made it clear they still wished the stand named after their hero . The East Stand is unofficially known by fans as the Kippax as a tribute to the very vocal east stand at the club 's Maine Road ground .
The North Stand is the only part of the stadium built after the Commonwealth Games , during the stadium 's conversion . The temporary unroofed north stand it replaced had been dubbed the New Gene Kelly Stand by supporters , a reference to the unroofed corner between the Kippax and the North Stand at the club 's former Maine Road home , because , being exposed to the elements , they frequently found themselves " singing in the rain . " Commencing season 2010 – 11 , seating in the North Stand has been restricted to only supporters accompanied by children , resulting in this end of the ground now being commonly referred to as the Family Stand . Although the North Stand has never been officially renamed and is still frequently referenced that way , most external ticketing offices and stadium guides , in addition to the club itself , now preferentially label and refer to this section of the ground as the Family Stand when discussing seating and ticket sales . Supporters initially dubbed the South Stand the Scoreboard End ( the former name of the North Stand at Maine Road ) , and it houses the majority of City 's more vocal fans . Supporters of visiting teams are also normally allocated seats in this stand . From 2003 to 2006 it was renamed the Key 103 Stand for sponsorship reasons , though this was largely ignored by regular patrons .
= = SportCity = =
The stadium is the centrepiece of SportCity , which includes several other nationally important sporting venues . Adjacent to the stadium is the Manchester Regional Arena , which served as a warm @-@ up track during the Commonwealth Games and is now a 6 @,@ 178 @-@ capacity venue that hosts national athletics trials , but has previously also hosted the home games of both the Manchester City women 's team and the club 's U21 reserve team . The Regional Arena has regularly hosted the AAA Championships and Paralympic World Cup , and is currently the home ground of amateur rugby league side Manchester Rangers .
The National Squash Centre and the National Cycling Centre , which includes both the Manchester Velodrome and the National Indoor BMX Arena , are all a short distance from the stadium . The Squash Centre - which has hosted the British National Squash Championships since 2003 - was added to the SportCity complex for the Commonwealth Games along with CoMS . The Velodrome , another showpiece venue used to stage all the track cycling events for the Games , was already in place and had been home to British Cycling , the governing body for cycling in Britain , since it was built in 1994 as part of Manchester ’ s unsuccessful 2000 Olympics bid . Prior to the completion of the Lee Valley VeloPark for the 2012 Summer Olympics , the Velodrome had been the only indoor Olympic @-@ standard track in the United Kingdom . The collocated BMX Arena houses the United Kingdom ’ s only permanent indoor BMX track and provides seating for up two thousand spectators . It was added to the National Cycling Centre at SportCity in 2011 .
Other major sporting and sport @-@ related venues located in SportCity in the immediate vicinity of the Etihad Stadium - all legacies of the 2002 Commonwealth Games - are the English Institute of Sport , west of the stadium , adjacent to the southwest corner of the Regional Arena ; the Manchester Regional Tennis Centre , adjacent to the north end of the stadium ; and the Manchester Tennis & Football Centre , also adjacent to the stadium , which is operated and administered by the Manchester Sport and Leisure Trust .
= = = Public sculpture = = =
Between 11 March ( Commonwealth Day ) and 10 August 2002 , as part of the preparations for the upcoming Commonwealth Games and to celebrate Her Majesty the Queen 's Golden Jubilee , a national Spirit of Friendship Festival was organised . On 9 July , a few weeks before the Games began , a sculpture outside the new national headquarters of the English Institute of Sport at SportCity was unveiled by the middle @-@ distance runner , Steve Cram MBE . This sculpture , commissioned in late 2001 , was created in a little over eight weeks by Altrincham @-@ based artist , Colin Spofforth , who had submitted to Manchester City Council his idea for a heroic @-@ sized sculpture of a sprinter as a means of celebrating the beauty , power and determination of the competing athletes . Reaching thirty feet high , weighing seven tonnes , and titled The Runner , this unique larger @-@ than @-@ life bronze statue of a male sprinter surmounting a bronze globe was , at the time , the UK 's largest sporting sculpture . It depicts the very moment the runner leaves the blocks once the starter 's gun has fired .
From 2005 to 2009 a Thomas Heatherwick sculpture , B of the Bang , was situated to the southeast of the stadium at the junction of Ashton New Road and Alan Turing Way . Built after the Commonwealth Games to commemorate them , it was the tallest sculpture in the UK . However , numerous structural problems led to the 184 ft. sculpture being dismantled in 2009 for safety reasons . In 2014 , money recovered by the Manchester City Council as a result of lengthy legal battles consequent to this debacle was used to fund a new £ 341 @,@ 000 public sculpture a few hundred yards further south .
= = Stadium firsts = =
The first public football match at the stadium was a friendly between Manchester City and Barcelona on 10 August 2003 . Manchester City won the game 2 – 1 , with Nicolas Anelka scoring the first ever goal in the stadium .
The first competitive match followed four days later , a UEFA Cup match between Manchester City and Welsh Premier League side The New Saints , which City won 5 – 0 with Trevor Sinclair scoring the first competitive goal in the stadium . Having started the Premier League season with an away match , Manchester City 's first home league fixture in the new stadium was on 23 August , a game drawn 1 – 1 with Portsmouth , with Pompey 's Yakubu scoring the first league goal in the stadium .
2011 – 2012 saw the Etihad Stadium play host to the setting of a number of new club and Premier League footballing records , such as the club becoming the first ever team to win 11 of its opening 12 games in a Premier League season , and going on to remain unbeaten at the Etihad Stadium in all nineteen of the Premier League games played there . The club 's record of 55 home points out of a possible 57 at the stadium is a joint best Premier League record , and the club 's record of twenty consecutive home wins at the stadium ( going back to the end of the previous season ) also set a new Premier League record in March 2012 .
The record football attendance at the stadium not involving its host team Manchester City is 43 @,@ 878 which was set at the 2008 UEFA Cup Final game between Zenit Saint Petersburg and Rangers on 14 May 2008 . As is customary for such games , the then 47 @,@ 715 maximum physical capacity of the stadium had been reduced by UEFA to around 44 @,@ 000 for this final . However , neither limit would have been able to accommodate the vast number of supporters of the Scottish club , estimated to be in excess of 130 @,@ 000 , that travelled down from Glasgow to Manchester on the day of the game , despite the club 's official ticket allocation being just 13 @,@ 000 and police requests for fans without tickets to stay home . This order of magnitude mismatch between the numbers of traveling fans and those holding tickets ultimately led to a serious public disorder incident in the centre of the city now inextricably associated with this final , despite the fact that the 44 @,@ 000 or so crowd who watched the game inside the stadium were perfectly well @-@ behaved .
= = Reception = =
The 2002 Commonwealth Games were deemed a success and the stadium gained critical acclaim for its atmosphere and architectural design . It has won a number of design awards , including the 2004 Royal Institute of British Architects Inclusive Design Award for inclusive building design , the 2003 Institution of Structural Engineers Structural Special Award , and in 2002 a BCI Major Project high commendation was awarded by the British Construction Industry . In July 2014 , the stadium was declared one of the United Kingdom 's five most iconic structures by the Construction Industry Training Board .
In 2003 , initial reception by Manchester City supporters was polarised , with some lukewarm about moving from Maine Road which had a reputation for being one of English football 's most atmospheric grounds , whilst others were enthusiastic about the bigger stadium and move back to East Manchester where the club was formed . Since 2010 , the club has boasted more than 36 @,@ 000 season ticket holders each season , which is more than the 35 @,@ 150 maximum capacity of Maine Road just before the club moved homes .
A 2007 Premier League survey found that fans thought sight lines at the stadium were the second best in the Premier League after the Emirates Stadium . Opposition fans have generally given positive feedback , with CoMS coming second to Old Trafford in a 2005 poll to find the United Kingdom 's favourite football ground . In 2010 , the City of Manchester Stadium was the third most visited stadium after Old Trafford and Anfield by overseas visitors .
In the early years of Manchester City 's tenure , the stadium suffered from a poor atmosphere , a common problem with modern stadia when compared with traditional football grounds such as Maine Road . In the 2007 Premier League survey , Manchester City supporters rated the atmosphere as second worst in the league , but the atmosphere has since significantly improved and continues to do so .
In October 2014 , the club received two national VisitFootball awards for the quality of its customer care of Premier League fans visiting the Etihad Stadium during the previous season . VisitFootball , a joint venture between the Premier League and the national tourism board 's VisitEngland , has been assessing the care that patrons receive at football grounds since August 2010 , and presents annual awards for those clubs who deliver outstanding customer service . Manchester City had been one of the first four clubs to receive an inaugural VisitFootball award in 2011 , but in 2014 it was the recipient of both the Club of the Year and Warmest Welcome awards . According to the panel of experts from the football and customer service industries that assess the services and facilities provided at each of the twenty Premier League club stadia , " Manchester City are the gold standard in providing fans with the best matchday experience . "
= = Etihad Campus = =
= = = Etihad Campus and CFA = = =
In July 2011 , CoMS was renamed the Etihad Stadium , sponsored by Etihad Airways who fought off competition from Ferrostaal and Aabar to gain the stadium naming rights . This lucrative 10 @-@ year sponsorship deal included not just the naming rights to the stadium itself but to the whole £ 200 million complex of football @-@ related facilities into which it was soon to be incorporated . In mid @-@ September 2011 , development plans were duly announced for a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art youth academy and training facility - now known as the City Football Academy ( CFA ) - to be built on derelict land adjacent to the stadium and which would include a 7 @,@ 000 capacity mini @-@ stadium plus fifteen additional outdoor football pitches , six swimming pools and three gyms . The planned CFA facility was not only to become the new home base of the Manchester City first team squad , reserve ( U21 youth ) team squad , and all of the Academy younger age group squads , but also the new home of the prior loosely affiliated Manchester City Ladies team ( which was re @-@ branded in 2012 as Manchester City Women 's F.C. and more formally merged into the Manchester City family of affiliated football teams ) . Also fully integrated into the new CFA facility would be the parent club 's world headquarters .
At the beginning of March 2014 , the structural framework for a new pedestrian walkway / footbridge over the junction of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road connecting the CFA with the Etihad Stadium was lowered into place . With sponsor Suisse Power & Gas SA having subsequently secured the naming rights , the completed SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened and turned over to Manchester City Council for general public access on 26 November 2014 . Twelve days later , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , George Osborne , presided over the official opening of the CFA .
= = = Community outreach / Urban regeneration = = =
As part of Manchester City 's commitment to community outreach in their redevelopment plans for the areas of East Manchester adjacent to the Etihad Stadium , other urban regeneration plans incorporated into the overall Etihad Campus development project include the new £ 43 million Beswick Community Hub , that includes Connell Sixth Form College ; a community leisure centre ( with swimming pool , dance studio , health and fitness gym , rugby pitch , and grass sports pitches ) ; and a planned Manchester Institute of Health and Performance . On 26 November 2014 , the same day the SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened , a " globally admired " grouping of stainless steel sculptures - consisting of three towering metallic chess pieces called Dad 's Halo Effect by its internationally acclaimed creator , Ryan Gander - was likewise unveiled to the public . Commissioned by the Manchester City Council to represent both the past industrial and current sporting heritage of this area of east Manchester , the public artwork is located in front of the Connell Sixth Form College , close to the central circus of the Beswick Community Hub and only a few hundred yards south from where the area 's last public sculpture , B of the Bang , had been situated .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is 2 @.@ 5 km east of Manchester city centre . Manchester Piccadilly railway station , which serves mainline trains . It is a 20 @-@ minute walk away along a well @-@ lit signposted route that is supervised by stewards close to the ground . Piccadilly station also has a Metrolink tram stop ( in the undercroft ) ; from which regular trams along the East Manchester Line to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne serve the stadium and Etihad Campus , with enhanced service frequencies and doubled tram units on matchdays . The Etihad Campus tram stop close to Joe Mercer Way to the immediate north of the stadium opened in February 2013 , and handles several thousand travellers each matchday ; spectators travelling by tram from Manchester city centre being able to board services at Piccadilly Gardens , the journey taking approximately 10 minutes . The Velopark tram stop also opened in February 2013 and provides access to the southeastern approach to the stadium , as well as closer access to other areas of SportCity such as the Manchester Velodrome and the City Football Academy .
There are many bus routes from the city centre and all other directions which stop at , or close to , SportCity . On match and event days special bus services from the city centre serve the stadium . The site has 2 @,@ 000 parking spaces , with another 8 @,@ 000 spaces in the surrounding area provided by local businesses and schools .
= = Other uses = =
Under the terms of its lease , the stadium is able to host non @-@ football events such as concerts , boxing and rugby fixtures at Manchester City 's prerogative . Manchester City applied for a permanent entertainment licence in 2012 in a bid to expand the number of non @-@ footballing events at the stadium .
= = = Concerts = = =
Outside the football season the stadium hosts occasional concerts , and is one of the UK 's largest music venues , having a maximum capacity of 60 @,@ 000 for performances . It was the largest stadium concert venue in England before the new Wembley Stadium was built .
The first concert was a performance by the Red Hot Chili Peppers supported by James Brown in 2004 . An Oasis concert at the ground was featured on the DVD , Lord Don 't Slow Me Down and the band 's concert in 2005 set the attendance record of 60 @,@ 000 . Take That released a DVD of their 2006 performance at the stadium , Take That : The Ultimate Tour . Other artists who have played the stadium are U2 , George Michael , Rod Stewart , Foo Fighters , Pet Shop Boys , Manic Street Preachers , Bastille , Dizzee Rascal , The Futureheads , the Sugababes , Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor , Coldplay , Bruce Springsteen , Muse , Bon Jovi ( three times ) , Robbie Williams and One Direction .
Concerts and boxing matches eventually took their toll on the pitch . In 2008 , late post @-@ concert pitch renovation , combined with an early start to the football season , led to the pitch not being ready for the first home fixture , causing the club to play its UEFA Cup first round qualifying match at Barnsley 's Oakwell Stadium and a moratorium to be imposed on the staging of non @-@ football events at Eastlands . In May 2010 , the club invested in a new pitch and summer concerts resumed in 2011 when Take That played eight nights , with ticket sales totalling approximately 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = Other football events = = =
CoMS is rated a category 4 stadium by UEFA and has hosted several major football matches in addition to Manchester City 's home fixtures . It became the fiftieth stadium to host an England international football match when the English and Japanese national teams played on 1 June 2004 . In June 2005 , the stadium hosted England 's opening game in the UEFA Women 's Championship , setting an attendance record of 29 @,@ 092 for the competition . The stadium also hosted the 2008 UEFA Cup Final , in which Zenit Saint Petersburg defeated Rangers 2 – 0 .
In May 2011 , the stadium hosted the Conference National Play @-@ off final between A.F.C Wimbledon and Luton Town ; Wimbledon gained promotion to the Football League beating Luton in a penalty shootout . The stadium was used for the play @-@ offs because the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final was due to take place at Wembley on Saturday 28 May 2011 and UEFA regulations stipulate the stadium hosting the Champions League final must not be used for other matches during the previous two weeks .
= = = Other sports = = =
In October 2004 , the stadium played host to a rugby league international match between Great Britain and Australia in the Tri @-@ Nations series in front of nearly 40 @,@ 000 spectators . The stadium more recently hosted the Magic Weekend for three consecutive seasons ( 2012 – 2014 ) . This is a rugby league competition in which all 14 members of the Super League competition play each other over a full weekend . After a record attendance in 2012 – both for a single day ( 32 @,@ 953 ) and the aggregate for the whole weekend ( 63 @,@ 716 ) – the Etihad Stadium became the venue of choice for this annual rugby league event , setting another attendance record ( 36 @,@ 339 / 64 @,@ 552 ) for it in May 2014 . However , the current construction work involved with the expansion of the South Stand caused this competition to be relocated to St. James ' Park for the summer of 2015 , but it is expected to return to the Etihad again once the expansion work is complete .
On 24 May 2008 , Stockport born and twice IBF and IBO light welterweight champion boxer Ricky Hatton defeated Juan Lazcano in a contest billed as " Hatton 's Homecoming " . The fight was held in front of 56 @,@ 337 fans , setting a record attendance for a British boxing event post World War II .
On October 10 , 2015 it hosted a 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool A match between hosts nation England and Uruguay . England won 60 – 3 with 50 @,@ 778 in attendance .
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= 1953 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1953 Pacific hurricane season was the least active season on record . The season officially began on May 15 in the northeast Pacific Ocean and on June 1 in the central northern Pacific . They ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the time of year when most tropical cyclones form in northeast Pacific Ocean . Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data prior to that time on Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable as most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land .
Of the four known tropical systems , two became hurricanes . Although only a tropical storm , the first storm of the season was the deepest , with a pressure of 981 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . This season is unusual in that no one was killed , no damage was inflicted , and no tropical cyclones made landfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Only four known systems were observed during the 1953 season . This was below the average at that time , which was six . Furthermore , the season was well below the 1949 @-@ 2006 average of 13 named storms and had the fewest number of storms in the hurricane database . Only two tropical cyclones reached hurricane status , compared to the modern @-@ day average of seven . Furthermore , 1953 is also one of the few seasons without a major hurricane . This season was part of a decade @-@ long absence of major hurricanes ; from 1950 – 56 , no major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ) were reported in the Eastern Pacific basin . However , it is possible that some storms were missed due to the lack of satellite coverage in the region in addition to the lack of Hurricane Hunter data , which did not become available until the following year .
The four known storms developed between the 14 ° N and the 20 ° N. All of the storms remained at sea throughout their lifetime ; no deaths nor damages were noted during the season , though moisture from two of them reached the Southwestern United States . The season got onto an extremely slow start . The first storm formed in late August . At that time , it was believed that two systems would have long formed by then on average . According to the modern @-@ day National Hurricane Center , 8 @-@ 10 storms would have by that time on average . Additionally , 1953 had the latest start date of any Pacific hurricane season on record . Additionally , 1953 is the only season in the database to have no storms by August . Throughout the 1953 hurricane season , the Weather Bureau office in Los Angeles ( WBOLA ) issued 42 advisories during the season , mostly due to the storms ' threat to Southern California .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
Thunderstorm activity off the Mexican coast was quite for the first half of August . Based on data from six ships , a closed atmospheric circulation may have formed near the Revillagigedo Islands at 0000 UTC on August 23 , which are situated roughly 350 mi ( 565 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . At this time , winds were estimated to be no higher than 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) . After formation , One moved west @-@ northwest and on August 25 , the storm attained its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Furthermore , the ship S.S. Sirocco measured a minimum barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . Although the WBOLA reported that the storm dissipated that night near the peninsula , the HURDAT database suggests that the storm maintained peak intensity for another day , until August 27 when it dissipated .
The remnants of Tropical Storm One brought heavy rains to Arizona at the very end of the month . Rainfall peaked at 3 @.@ 22 in ( 82 mm ) in Williams , while two other weather stations reported more than 3 in ( 76 mm ) of precipitation .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Ships reports from the Hawaiian Islands to Panama indicated that an area of disturbed weather formed just west of the Revillagigedo island group . Initially , evidence of closed wind circulation was not sufficient enough to warrant an upgrade into a tropical disturbance . By the afternoon , pressures in the region began to fall . By that night , it was estimated to have developed winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . A tropical storm formed on September 9 ; meanwhile , ship reports indicated a pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) and sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Maintaining peak intensity for a day , the low moved northwest before dissipating on September 10 as barometric pressures began to rise . The remnants of the storm later brought rain to Central California on September 15 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
A tropical cyclone first formed on September 13 near Western Mexico ( in the extreme southern Gulf of California ) while generating winds of 30 – 40 mph ( 50 – 65 km / h ) . It traveled north @-@ northeastward and Three was upgraded into a hurricane on September 14 while reaching its maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . After turning east @-@ northeast , Hurricane Three attained its peak pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The storm held on to its wind speed , until September 17 , when the storm dissipated . The remnants of the storm deluged the Mexican coast with rain , especially in Sinaloa . Winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported in Mazatlan on land ; however , no damage was recorded .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On October 1 , a closed low formed in the Gulf of Tehuantepec from an area of disturbed weather , which had persisted for several days prior . The next day , the hurricane database suggests that Four became a hurricane on October 2 while peaking in intensity , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . That day , a peak pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) was measured . The hurricane dissipated on October 8 later after holding on to its maximum wind speed for six days before finally dissipating nowhere near land .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alice = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on October 22 Tropical Storm Alice crossed the International Dateline , entering into CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . The storm eventually became extratropical on October 23 over open waters .
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= No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 4 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 4 EFTS was established in January 1940 at Mascot , New South Wales , and initially operated in conjunction with civilian flying organisations based at Mascot and Newcastle . The school was disbanded in April 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 6 Elementary Flying School at Tamworth .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 4 EFTS ) was formed at Kingsford Smith Aerodrome , Mascot , New South Wales , on 2 January 1940 , and came under the control of No. 2 Group . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader A.W.L. Ellis . Mascot had been Sydney 's civil airport since 1920 , and was home to several private aviation organisations . It was the airfield 's position as the hub of civilian flight instruction in New South Wales that led to it becoming the base for the fourth flying school the RAAF raised during World War II . The same principle was followed in basing No. 1 EFTS at Parafield , South Australia , No. 2 EFTS at Archerfield , Queensland , and No. 3 EFTS at Essendon , Victoria .
The first training courses at No. 4 EFTS were not conducted under the auspices of EATS but by civil organisations under government contract . The instructors from these organisations were commissioned as officers in the RAAF . The flying school was divided into four flights : " A " ( training conducted by the Royal Aero Club of New South Wales ) , " B " ( conducted by Kingsford Smith Air Services Pty Ltd ) , " C " ( conducted by Airflite Pty Ltd ) , and " D " ( conducted at Newcastle by the Newcastle Aero Club ) . The training aircraft were de Havilland Tiger Moths and Gipsy Moths . All air cadets were subject to RAAF discipline , and the school 's training program was directed by the commanding officer . The initial intake of twenty @-@ four students arrived on 8 January 1940 . Accommodation was severely limited at the new flying school : No. 4 EFTS headquarters was housed in the clubhouse of the Royal Aero Club , the base sick quarters utilised the Department of Civil Aviation 's casualty room , and cadets had to pay for their own rooms at the nearby Brighton @-@ Le @-@ Sands Hotel .
No. 4 EFTS 's strength as at 1 February 1940 was four officers , twenty @-@ one airmen , one civilian , and twenty @-@ four cadets . The second intake of twenty @-@ four cadets arrived four days later . The school 's inaugural EATS course commenced on 29 April . The government 's contracts with the civilian organisations for flying instruction at Mascot and Newcastle were terminated during August 1940 , and their aircraft — fifteen Tiger Moths and eight Gipsy Moths — were impressed by the RAAF . Airflite was engaged to provide maintenance . On 18 November , an instructor was killed when he fell into a Randwick street from a Tiger Moth performing a slow roll after his safety harness broke ; neither he nor his student , who though badly shaken was able to land the plane , were wearing parachutes . One Tiger Moth landed on top of another on 27 December ; both planes were badly damaged but no @-@ one was killed .
No. 4 EFTS 's strength as at 1 February 1941 was twenty officers , 101 airmen , and sixty @-@ two aircrew trainees . Two Tiger Moths collided over the Lakes Golf Club on 6 April , killing the instructor and his pupil in one of the aircraft ; the pilots of the other plane survived after crash @-@ landing on the golf course . Owing to urgent requirements to house elements of the United States Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) , No. 4 EFTS was disbanded on 24 April 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 6 Elementary Flying School at Tamworth , New South Wales . No. 4 EFTS 's graduates included Clive Caldwell , who became Australia 's top @-@ scoring fighter ace of World War II .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 4 EFTS was commanded by the following officers :
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= Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve =
The Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve ( in French Réserve naturelle régionale de la carrière des Nerviens ) is a protected area in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of northern France . It was established on 25 May 2009 to protect a site containing rare plants and covers just over 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) . It is located in the municipalities of Bavay and Saint @-@ Waast in the Nord department .
The reserve was created to protect fifteen plants of regional interest and three plant communities listed in the Habitats Directive . Its flora are linked to calcium present in marl . It is located in a transition zone between the oceanic and semi @-@ continental climates and that gives increased biodiversity , with typical species of the atlantic areas and others more continental . The reserve also plays a role in a wildlife corridor .
The site consists of an old quarry of sandstone dated to the Famennian stage in the Late Devonian epoch . It was backfilled in the 1970s with marl . The new soil was re @-@ colonized by pioneer species , which coexist alongside an established afforestation , forming a mosaic of habitats .
CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois , a non @-@ governmental organization , is the owner and operator of the reserve . The main objective is to maintain the current diversity . To this end , regular management mainly struggles against the afforestation and against invasive species , such as Japanese knot weed . The secondary objectives are environmental education , heritage interpretation , improvement of knowledge fauna and flora , and environmental monitoring .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
The Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve is located in the Arrondissement of Avesnes @-@ sur @-@ Helpe between the cities of Valenciennes and Maubeuge , in the Nord department , Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . It is 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) west of downtown Bavay and 1 @,@ 700 metres ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) south @-@ east of Saint @-@ Waast .
The reserve is triangular in shape . It is bordered to the south by the 942 main road , north @-@ east by an unused railtrack , and to the west by a small path known as Chemin de Rametz . It covers 3 @.@ 11 hectares ( 7 @.@ 7 acres ) . CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois owns a parcel of land on the other side of the railtrack . Though not yet included in the reserve , it is expected to be added when the current agreement is renewed .
= = = Relief = = =
The reserve is located in the valley of the stream Ruisseau de Bavay , with an elevation of between 110 and 115 metres ( 361 and 377 ft ) . It has an overall north @-@ south gradient of − 5 metres ( − 16 ft ) . A mound of accumulated debris , which rises to about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the path Chemin de Rametz , is located north @-@ west of the site . After quarrying operations ceased , the quarry was filled mainly with the marl of the Bellignies quarry . The area has since been completely recolonized by vegetation through ecological succession .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The reserve is located in the valley of the Ruisseau de Bavay , a tributary of the Hogneau , and is part of the greater drainage basin of the Scheldt . The reserve is not in direct contact with the river . It is supplied with water only by precipitation , which is retained by the natural properties of marl .
= = = Climate = = =
The reserve 's nearest weather station is at Cambrai , about 42 kilometres away , inland , to the southeast . However , the nature reserve is affected by the nearby presence of the Ardennes Mountains , which gives a continental influence to the climate .
The regular precipitation and the absence of drought , as well as the predominance of south @-@ southwest winds and rain vectors , show the influence of oceanic climate . However , some significant rainfall variability between seasons , the moderate temperature range , and the high proportion ( 69 @.@ 8 percent ) of low winds ( less than 4 metres per second ( 13 ft / s ) ) compared to strong winds ( 3 @.@ 2 percent over 8 metres per second ( 26 ft / s ) ) winds are typical of a continental influence . This combination is atypical of an altered oceanic climate , a transition zone between the oceanic and semi @-@ continental climates , characterized by mild winters and cool summers .
In the reserve , this climatic transition leads to increased biodiversity . For example , common bluebell ( Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta ) is a typical species of the Atlantic areas , while the common butterbur ( Petasites hybridus ) is more continental .
= = History = =
= = = Quarry = = =
The site is a former quarry , used for its sandstone deposits as early as the late nineteenth century. by the Chevallier & Cie company , which employed about 70 workers , including 25 miners . In 1909 , the annual production was 12 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 420 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of macadam , 500 cubic metres ( 18 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of ballast and 25 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 880 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of cobblestones .
Boreholes were drilled manually . Stone blocks were divided using a mass and a steel heavy hammer ( up to 14 kilograms ( 31 lb ) ) called refenderesse . Stones obtained were then classified by eye into stone for cobble and rubble for macadam . The first were épincés : asperities were removed by épinceurs to form regular cobblestones . They were then sorted by size . The rubble was crushed in a jaw crusher . Debris were mechanically separated according to their size . Each particle has a particular use . Macadam , made of stones between 2 and 8 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 and 3 @.@ 15 in ) , was used for the construction and maintenance of roads . Ballast is a gravel 10 to 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) used for concrete . Shot from 2 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 079 to 0 @.@ 394 in ) was used for the surface of concrete or paths in parks and gardens . The fine dust , from 0 to 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 000 to 0 @.@ 079 in ) , was used for concrete paver blocks , concrete pipes , etc .
Quarrying ceased in the early 1960s ( 1962 – 1965 ) , when the stones extracted were no longer of sufficient quality . Between 1971 and 1978 , the quarry was gradually filled with marl from the Bellignies quarry . Since then , the site has been completely recolonized by vegetation through ecological succession , forming tree , shrub and herb layers .
= = = Reserve = = =
In 2001 , the site was brought to the attention of the CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois , pointing out the biodiversity of the new plant life . The association performed the first inventories . In the meantime , she contacted the five owners to consider a land management proposal . The commune of Bavay , the Bellignies quarry ( SECAB ) and a third owner sold her the property in 2003 . The CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois became the owner / operator of 85 percent of the site . The association implemented the first environmental resources management actions at the site and developed its first environmental management scheme In 2009 , the association obtained the agreement establishing the regional nature reserve at the site for a period of 20 years .
The name of the reserve recalls the former industrial activity ( Carrière : quarry ) and the Gallo @-@ Roman history of Bavay , the capital city of the ancient Nervii tribe .
In 2015 , an other owner give the management of his parcel .
= = Geology = =
The Paleozoic folded outcrops of the Bavay @-@ Saint @-@ Waast area are the bedrock of the eastern flank of the Mélantois ' anticline , where the transgressive Cretaceous ( Turonian and Cenomanian chalk ) thins , and may eventually disappear by erosion . Strata of Hercynian basement , raised in the East by an important structural horst @-@ type accident , then appear locally . In these Paleozoic strata , the Devonian presents as a sandstone base of the Lower Famennian , where the levels were quarried
= = = Formations = = =
= = = = Quarried level = = = =
The stone that was quarried is arkose of the Famennian stage . Approximately 360 million years ago , the thrust of forming Gondwana plates raised the seabed . Meanwhile , an ice age occurred in regions near the poles . Marine regression allowed sedimentation of detrital sand and clays which left large shoals of hard sandstone with ripple marks , alternating with levels more or less shaley according to their clay 's content .
At the base of the deposit , these sandstones are reddish brown , very micaceous and shaley , sometimes containing calcareous nodules , ferruginous concretions and vegetable wax ; above , they are gray and quartziferous . This is the Aye formation , including spiriferida like Cyrtospirifer verneuili , Rhynchonellida as Rhynchonella pugnus and R. boloniensis , some Orthoceras , Orthis striatula or Atrypa reticularis Well @-@ preserved feldspar and mica probably come from wind erosion under a semi @-@ arid climate of mountains present in the Netherlands today and extending to Düsseldorf .
= = = = Lower level = = = =
Under the Famennian , the Frasnian consists , from top to bottom , of nodular gray shale , and mica rich in fossils such as Cyrtospirifer verneuili , Spirigera concentrica , Atrypa reticularis , Orthis striatula , Productus subaculeatus , and Acervularia pentagona . Below this are gray limestone @-@ built beds , rich in corals such as Phacellophyllum caespitosum , Thamnopora boloniensis , alternating with black shale and nodular limestone containing Cyrtospirifer verneuilli and Phacellophyllum caespitosum . These beds issue from siltation of the biostromes present in the Frasnian epoch , 370 million years ago .
= = = = Upper levels = = = =
Those Famennian strata represent the top of the Paleozoic series pleated with north dipping . Above , the transgressive Upper Cretaceous overlies horizontally with unconformity . It includes from the bottom to the top a paleozoic boulder conglomerate mixed with a sandy and glauconitic marl matrix , coarse clayey and glauconitic sands , containing Chlamys asper , Ostrea diluviana , Praeactinocamax plenus and finally marl with Terebratulina gracilis . These strata belong to the Cenomanian @-@ Turonian and were deposited between 90 and 100 million years ago , during a transgressive phase .
Fifty million years ago , during the Ypresian age , locally called Landenian , forms of marl of the Porquerie are found . It comes from the alteration of Cretaceous rocks and takes the form of a brown or greenish plastic clay without fossils . The flints normally present at the base of the deposit have not been reported by Ladrière 1881 .
This stratum is covered with silt composed of clay , sand and flints and Roman pottery pieces , of the late Neogene age . Its origin can be attributed to the alteration of the underlying rocks and wind erosion .
= = = Nature of the embankments = = =
The stones used to backfill the quarry are those which underlie the Givetian limestone extracted in the Bellignies quarry . There is Sarrasin de Bettrechies , a coarse shelly limestone , deep gray , yellowish when it outcrops , detrital ferruginous dated to the Lower Cenomanian epoch , a hundred million years ago . There is clay and very glauconitic marl of the Upper Cenomanian stage , enriched by a pebble conglomerate paléozoïc stones . These rocks contain Praeactinocamax plenus , Chlamys asper , Ostrea diluviana and radiated fossils : Janira quadricostata , Cyprina ligeriensis , Arca mailleana . There is also bluish marl of the Turonian .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Plant communities = = =
The site is characterized by a mosaic of 17 plant communities regrouped into three main types of ecological units : grassy open areas , shrubby areas and wooded areas . Of these , three are listed in the Habitats Directive . The calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation Cystopterido fragilis @-@ Asplenietum scolopendrii are considered as exceptional , with a degree of uncertainty in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . Hydrophilous tall herb fringe community with Petasites hybridus , at the limit of its range , is also exceptional . The herbaceous fringe with red campion ( Silene dioica ) et wood forget @-@ me @-@ not ( Myosotis sylvatica ) ( Sileno dioicae - Myosotidetum sylvaticae ) is very rare in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The wood @-@ fringe Lathyro sylvestris – Astragaletum glycyphylli is also regionally interesting .
= = = Flora = = =
= = = = Vascular plants = = = =
The reserve has 171 plant species , and 15 of them have heritage interest .
Twelve of them were inventoried in 2003 , and their populations have been managed since . The light undergrowth contains common spotted orchid ( Dactylorhiza fuchsii ) and round @-@ leaved wintergreen ( Pyrola rotundifolia ) . Liquorice milkvetch ( Astragalus glycyphyllos ) and narrow @-@ leaved everlasting @-@ pea ( Lathyrus sylvestris ) are present in the small herb glade . The population of lesser butterfly @-@ orchid ( Platanthera bifolia ) is located in the pioneer wood . In the glade with Calamagrostide and at the boundary of a pioneer grove grow pyramidal orchid ( Anacamptis pyramidalis ) . bee orchid ( Ophrys apifera ) and man orchid ( Orchis anthropophora ) grow everywhere , except in the older glade . In the different herbaceous fringes grow wood forget @-@ me @-@ not ( Myosotis sylvatica ) and zigzag clover ( Trifolium medium ) . A tall herb fringe hosts common butterbur ( Petasites hybridus ) .
Seven plants are protected by a regional scale : common spotted orchid , man orchid , bee orchid , zigzag clover , liquorice milkvetch , narrow @-@ leaved everlasting @-@ pea and wood forget @-@ me @-@ not .
= = = = Mosses = = = =
In 2012 , 43 species of bryophytes were inventoried , including Stellar calcareous moss ( Mnium stellare ) , taxon considered as endangered on the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais red regional list of bryophytes .
= = = Mushrooms = = =
Among the 115 species recorded in 2004 on the site , 15 are included in the red list of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . In the shrubs near the path where green waste was deposited by people from outside the organization grow yellow club fungus ( Clavulinopsis helvola ) , gray shag ( Coprinopsis cinerea ) , black earth tongues ( Trichoglossum hirsutum ) , Arrhenia spathulata and Marasmius limosus . Those two last species are also in the Calamagrostide 's glade of a pioneer wood of willow and birch , with moor club ( Clavaria argillacea ) , Geoglossum cookeanum , lilac leg fibrecap ( Inocybe griseolilacina ) , ( Stropharia pseudocyanea ) , girdled knight ( Tricholoma cingulatum ) and burnt knight ( Tricholoma ustale ) . Near orchid stations in the pioneer wood exist golden spindles ( Clavulinopsis fusiformis ) , Hebeloma clavulipes , Hebeloma fusipes , Hebeloma pusillum , and also lilac leg fibrecap and burnt knight . Dog stinkhorn ( Mutinus caninus ) and Scytinostroma hemidichophyticum for their part , were observed in the shaded path north of the site on the edge of mature wood .
= = = Fauna = = =
= = = = Mammals = = = =
Common mammals found here include the red fox , red squirrel , hare and rabbit , mole , wood mouse , bank vole and field vole . Two species of bats frequent the site regularly to hunt : the Daubenton 's bat ( Myotis daubentonii ) and common pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus pipistrellus ) . They cannot , however , establish their habitat due to the lack of roosting sites in the reserve 's young trees .
= = = = Birds = = = =
Forty @-@ two species of birds have been observed on the site , 25 of which are breeding there . Twenty @-@ two species are protected nationally ; five are listed on the annex OO of the Bonn Convention , which aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range . However , no species can be considered as heritage . The northern goshawk and Eurasian sparrowhawk benefit from the abundance of sparrows feeding . The common grasshopper warbler stops there during its migration and the common nightingale nests there occasionally .
= = = = Reptiles ans amphibians = = = =
The common toad ( Bufo bufo ) and the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) are the only amphibians on the site . They use it in winter or during their migration . The viviparous lizard ( Zootoca vivipara ) likes the slate deposits and ballast of the track . It hunts in the herbaceous areas , very flowery in summer and high in insects . The common wall lizard ( Podarcis muralis ) has been seen in 2013 . The slow worm reproduction ( Anguis sp . ) is attested by the observation of young under rocks and other debris .
= = = = Invertebrates = = = =
Reproduction of Odonata is not possible on the site because of the lack of standing water . However , thanks to the richness of insects in the herbaceous areas , several species can be encountered including the western clubtail ( Gomphus pulchellus ) , a species present in the Regional Red List of dragonflies North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais .
Twenty @-@ three species of butterflies and 105 species of moth enjoy the floral diversity of the site . The holly blue ( Celastrina argiolus ) is a heritage species .
Of the nine species of Orthoptera identified , two are considered heritage : the sickle @-@ bearing bush cricket ( Phaneroptera falcata ) , rare in the region , enjoys the dry and high herbaceous areas and the long @-@ horned groundhopper ( Tetrix tenuicornis ) is a pioneer species of poor vegetation settings .
= = = The wildlife corridor = = =
To the north are present two sites containing a rich biodiversity : the Natura 2000 Belgian area " Hauts @-@ Pays des Honnelles " and a ZNIEFF " Vallée de l ’ Hogneau et ses versants et les ruisseaux d ’ Heugnies et de Bavay " . The Bellignies quarry with embankments similar to those which filled " Carrière des Nerviens " is therefore under similar ecological conditions . In the south , the Forêt de Mormal is a major area for biodiversity covered by ZNIEFF and Natura 2000 sites . The railway , unused recently and the stream Ruisseau de Bavay then the river Hogneau provide connection .
= = = Threats and responses = = =
In the past , the site was threatened by garbage dumps or by passage of 4x4 vehicles or quads . The installation of gates by the municipality of Bavay solved the problem . Pedestrians rarely venture off the path . The anthropization is limited . The greatest threats to the species are primary succession and invasive plants .
= = = = Primary succession = = = =
The marls was colonized by pioneer species , then shrubs and trees , corresponding to a primary succession . Without human intervention , a climax community would be reached . This dynamic may eventually lead to the disappearance of related open environments , particularly heritage species . However woodlands can also play an important role in creating habitat for many species . The management plan is therefore to maintain patch dynamics .
= = = = Invasive species = = = =
Four invasive species are a problem in the reserve .
Wood small @-@ reed ( Calamagrostis epigejos ) is present in the center of the site and threatens to spread into herbaceous areas . It compromises sustainability of stations , including man orchid and bee orchid populations . Two distinct zones can be distinguished . The first , where the wood small @-@ reed has a very high rate of recovery , is not hosting any heritage value . It is mowed early and disposed of . Grazing is not possible at the moment . The second , on the contrary , not densely colonized by this plant is much more of a fragile situation due to the presence of orchids and the sickle @-@ bearing bush cricket or long @-@ horned groundhopper . Differentiated management is applied depending on the issues . At orchid stations , slight thinning is done early by hand pruning . The less dense areas where the grass is sparse ( conducive to the long @-@ horned groundhopper ( Tetrix tenuicornis ) ) are pulled . In the newly opened areas , a systematic and annual pulling avoids expansion . Finally , dense areas , well exposed , are left in that state .
Many extensive areas of Japanese knotweed ( Fallopia japonica ) are on the site . Heritage stations of common butterbur and hart 's @-@ tongue fern , colonized by invasive species , are managed by manual removal and disposal for incineration .
The bramble ( Rubus sp . ) lie around the ruins and along the south @-@ east of the site near the houses . Due to an interest in preserving wildlife ( e.g. refuge for mammals , insects , nesting wrens ) , they are not eradicated but contained .
Canada golden @-@ rod ( Solidago canadensis ) appeared in 2003 as a result of plant deposits . The threat proved to be serious the following year . Some stations show a significant concentration of the species , while isolated plants grow everywhere on the site . This plant is easily pulled by hand before flowering to prevent seed dispersal , and the shoots are burned .
Finally , panicled aster ( Symphyotrichum lanceolatum ) is also present among the invasive plants . In their native countries , American asters are found in wet places . In France , these plants colonize relatively dry ruderal areas ( brownfields , road shoulder ... ) or wetlands . In this second case , asters show strong invasive behavior . In the reserve , where the majority of areas are dry , this plant does not present special hazards and removal is managed easily .
= = Management = =
= = = Protection = = =
Parcels of land owned by the CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois were classified as a regional nature reserve on 25 May 2009 by decision of the Conseil Régional Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The entire site is included in a ZNIEFF type 1 Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) and another of type 2 Complexe écologique de la forêt de Mormal et des zones bocagères associées .
= = = Management objectives = = =
The second version of the environmental management scheme covers the period 2007 – 2012 . It presents the knowledge , management , monitoring and vulgarization objectives .
The preservation of the existing diversity was the most important goal . It required conservation of the heritage plant communities : tall @-@ herb fen with common butterbur , the chasmophytic vegetation with hart 's @-@ tongue fern and the woody fringe Lathyro sylvestris – Astragaletum glycyphylli . The survival of populations of round @-@ leaved wintergreen and of man orchid , the two most interesting plants , was also a priority , as a strikeout against brush invasion in the open areas where bee orchid and pyramidal orchid grow . The natural forest dynamics are to be contained within areas of clear undergrowth or fringes with these species : common spotted orchid , zigzag clover and lesser butterfly @-@ orchid . Pioneer areas with mushrooms should be preserved and the invasive species contained . Artificial infrastructures ( ruin , concrete pylons , walls and rock piles ) should be utilized for the creation of new habitats .
The education , interpretation and promotion of local heritage missions should also be continued , while the fauna knowledge was to be developed and floristic monitoring provided .
= = = Assessment of the activities = = =
Evaluation is in progress . However , a partial analysis is already underway .
= = = = Activities carried out = = = =
The Bavay 's municipality has erected two barriers to prohibit access to motorized vehicles . Volunteers and employees of the CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois manage the site regularly .
= = = = Management of the diversity = = = =
Manual removal of the Japanese knotweed has preserved heritage stations of common butterbur and hart 's @-@ tongue fern . Early hand pruning was conducive to orchids . The late mowing seems rather ineffective . The grubbing @-@ up of the Canada golden @-@ rod and American asters was successful . The bush clearing and selective logging have helped maintain the wood @-@ fringe with narrow @-@ leaved everlasting @-@ pea and liquorice milkvetch . Common spotted orchid , zigzag clover and lesser butterfly @-@ orchid , species non @-@ adapted to open areas , benefited areas without clearing . The low dry @-@ stone walls probably favored the installation of viviparous lizard or common wall lizard , observed in 2013 , but also the consolidation of the hart 's @-@ tongue fern population .
From 2007 to 2012 , the number of round @-@ leaved wintergreen footage increased by 50 percent . On the other hand , those of man orchid fall suddenly and continually . Whereas 27 plants were counted in 2003 , the number reached a peak of 240 in 2006 with the uprooting of the wood small @-@ reed , before collapsing to 13 plants in 2012 , despite the continued management . The observation of gnawed seedlings can assume leaf consumption by herbivores . Protection against rodents was established in 2013 and will be evaluated at flowering .
On this site , 171 plant species are surveyed . Given its size and poor soil , this diversity is notable . Management undertaken in recent years has been essential to maintaining open areas , the most threatened by primary succession . Thus , the various vegetation layers ( pioneer and mature woodland , bushy areas , open areas ) provide a mosaic of habitats , and thus remarkable species .
= = = = Improved knowledge of flora and fauna = = = =
Besides heritage plants monitoring , an additional inventory of Orthoptera is being undertaken ; three new species were identified in 2013 : common pheasant , Eurasian siskin and common wall lizard . Fourteen new plants were also identified . Inventories of bats and mushrooms are being carried out by partners .
= = = = Education , interpretation and promotion of local heritage = = = =
Guided outing and participatory management sessions are regularly held with the public or agricultural colleges , including invasive species managing . The heritage interpretation site has yet to be finalized .
= = = New opportunities = = =
Interreg micro projects , established in February 2012 , resulted in methodological exchanges on the management of reserves between two Belgian associations Réserves naturelles et ornithologiques de Belgique and Natagora .
A new environmental management scheme is now under consideration .
= = = Studies of the reserve = = =
The following documents are available from the operator : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois .
CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois ( 2007 ) . Plan de gestion 2007 – 2012 de la réserve naturelle régionale de la carrière des Nerviens [ Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2007 – 2012 ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois. p . 141 .
Haouat , Safia ( 2013 ) . Proposition d 'évaluation du plan de gestion 2008 – 2012 de la Réserve Naturelle Régionale de la carrière des Nerviens dans le cadre du renouvellement de son plan de gestion [ Assessment proposal of Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2008 – 2012 in the context of its renewal ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois. p . 107 .
Bissey , Virginie ( 2003 ) . Plan de gestion 2003 – 2007 de la future réserve naturelle régionale de Rametz [ Rametz future Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2003 – 2007 ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : Nord Nature Bavaisis .
Julve , Philippe ( 2003 ) . Étude de la flore et de la végétation de l ’ ancienne carrière de Rametz [ Study of flora and vegetation of the old Rametz quarry ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : Nord Nature Bavaisis. p . 23 .
Lecron , Jean @-@ Michel ( 2013 ) . Inventaire des Bryophytes de la Réserve naturelle régionale de la Carrière des Nerviens [ Inventory of Bryophytes of the Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve ] ( in French ) . Bailleul : Conservatoire Botanique National de Bailleul .
Lecuru , Christophe ; Courtecuisse , Régis ( 2004 ) . Rapport d ’ étude mycologique ( inventaire et évaluation patrimoniale ) sur le bois d ’ Encade ( Gussignies ) et la carrière de Rametz [ Mycology study report ( inventory and heritage evaluation ) in the bois d 'Encade ( Gussignies ) and Rametz quarry ] ( in French ) . Lille : A.R.U.M. ( Association de Recherches Universitaires Multi @-@ disciplinaires ) , Département de Botanique .
= = = History of quarry and geology = = =
Association française pour l 'avancement des sciences ( 1909 ) . Lille et la région du nord en 1909 [ Lille and the northern region in 1909 ] ( in French ) . Lille : imp . I. Danel. p . XIII , 1061 . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Boulvain , Frédéric ; Pingot , Jean @-@ Louis ( 2011 ) . Genèse du sous @-@ sol de la Wallonie [ Genesis of the Wallonia subsoil ] ( PDF ) . Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique. p . 190 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 8031 @-@ 0288 @-@ 4 . Retrieved 27 August 2013 .
Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières ( 1972 ) . Carte géologique à 1 / 50000 : Le Quesnoy [ Geologic card to 1 / 50000 : Le Quesnoy ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières. p . 19 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières ( 2013 ) . " Géologie en Nord @-@ Pas de Calais " [ Geology in Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 23 August 2013 .
Copper , Paul ( 2002 ) . " Silurian and devonian reefs : 80 million years of global greenhouse between two ice ages " . Phanerozoic Reef Patterns 72 : 181 – 238 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2110 / pec.02.72.0181. Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Cornet , Jules ( 1899 ) . " Compte @-@ rendu de la session extraordinaire de la société géologique de Belgique tenue à Mons du 26 au 27 septembre 1899 " [ Record of the extraordinary session of the Geologic Society of Belgium held in Mons from 26 to 27 September 1899 ] . Annales de la société géologique de Belgique ( in French ) ( Société géologique de Belgique ) 26 : CCCVI , 177 , 41 , XXVIII . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( 5 November 1879 ) . " Documents nouveaux pour l 'étude du terrain dévonien des environs de Bavay " [ New documents for the study of Devonian near Bavay ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) VII : 1 – 11 . Retrieved 18 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( 4 May 1881 ) . " Etude géologique sur les tranchées du chemin de fer du Quesnoy à Dour " [ Geologic study on the railway trenches of the line Le Quesnoy @-@ Dour ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) XIII : 135 – 176 . Retrieved 18 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( September 1905 ) . " Les affleurements du Terrain Dévonien dans les environs de Bavai " [ Devonian outcrops near Bavai ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) . XXXIV : 205 – 264 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
National Stratigraphic Commission Belgium ( 2013 ) . " Famennian Lithostratigraphic Units " . Retrieved 25 August 2013 .
Van Bellingen , Luc ( 2013 ) . " Géologie du Dévonien " [ Devonian geology ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Van Bellingen , Luc ( 2013 ) . " Le Famennien " [ Famennian ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
= = = Ecology and management = = =
Duhamel , Françoise ; Catteau , Emmanuel ( 2010 ) . " Inventaire des végétations de la région Nord @-@ Pas de Calais : Partie 1 . Analyse synsystématique . Évaluation patrimoniale ( influence anthropique , raretés , menaces et statuts ) . Liste des végétations disparues ou menacées . " [ Inventory of the vegetations of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region : Part 1 . Synsytematic analysis . Heritage assessment ( anthropogenic influence , rarities , threats and statutes ) . List of extirpated or threatened vegetations . ] ( PDF ) . Bull . Soc . Bot . N. Fr . ( Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du collectif phytosociologique interrégional ) 63 ( 1 ) : 1 – 83 . Retrieved 23 August 2013 .
European commission ( April 2013 ) . " Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats : EUR 28 " ( PDF ) . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
GON , SfO et CFR ( 2012 ) . " Liste rouge régionale – Nord – Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais : Les Odonates du Nord – Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais " [ Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais red regional list : Odonata of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
INPN ( 2013 ) . " ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Commentaires " [ ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Comments ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 22 August 2013 .
INPN ( 2013 ) . " ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Espèces " [ ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Species ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 22 August 2013 .
Lecron , Jean @-@ Michel ; Hauguel , Jean @-@ Christophe ( May 2013 ) . Toussaint , Benoît , ed . Inventaire des Bryophytes du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais : statuts , rareté et menace [ Inventory of the Bryophytes of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais : statutes , rarities and threats ] ( in French ) ( 1a ed . ) . Bailleul : Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du Collectif des Bryologues du Nord @-@ Ouest de la France .
Muller , Serge , ed . ( 2004 ) . Plantes invasives en France : État des connaissances et propositions d 'actions [ Invasive Plants in France : states of knowledge and action proposals ] . Patrimoines naturels ( in French ) 62 . Paris : Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle. p . 168 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 85653 @-@ 570 @-@ 7 .
République française ( 1991 ) . " Arrêté du 1 avril 1991 relatif à la liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Nord - Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais complétant la liste nationale " [ Order of 1 April 1991 relating to the list of protected plants in Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region completing the national list ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 19 August 2013 .
Rhind , Peter Martin ( 2010 ) . " Atlantic European Ecosystems " . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Toussaint , Benoît , ed . ( 2011 ) . Inventaire de la flore vasculaire du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais ( Ptéridophytes et Spermatophytes ) : raretés , protections , menaces et statuts [ Inventory of the vascular flora of the Nord @-@ Pas de Calais ( Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta ) : rarities , protection , threats and status ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) ( 4b ed . ) . Bailleul : Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du Collectif botanique du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais. pp . I – XX ; 1 – 62 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Swinnen , Vincent ( 2012 ) . " Première collaboration transfrontalière pour notre Régionale ! " [ First cross @-@ border cooperation for our regional ] ( PDF ) . Echo des marais ( in French ) ( Natagora ) ( 79 ) : 12 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
La Voix du Nord ( 17 September 2010 ) . " Chantier nature demain avec le CPIE " [ Nature management tomorrow with CPIE ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
= = = Other references = = =
Bromwich , James ( 2013 ) . The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France : A Guidebook . Routledge. p . 480 . ISBN 9780415139946 . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Conseil Régional Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ( 25 May 2009 ) . " Délibération de création de la réserve " [ Deliberation of the creation of the reserve ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Réserves naturelles de France ( 2012 ) . " Carrière des Nerviens " ( in French ) . Retrieved 19 August 2013 .
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= You Lost Me =
" You Lost Me " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her sixth studio album Bionic ( 2010 ) . It was written by Aguilera , Sia Furler and the producer Samuel Dixon . " You Lost Me " was released on June 27 , 2010 , by RCA Records as the third single from Bionic in the United States and the second elsewhere . The track is a down @-@ tempo ballad that talks about an unfaithful man , who has left Aguilera 's world " infected " .
" You Lost Me " was well received by most critics , who noted it as one of the album 's outstanding songs and praised Aguilera 's vocals on the track . However , it was unsuccessful on charts worldwide . In the United States , the single reached number 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , but topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song had moderate success in Belgium and Israel , peaking in the top twenty in both countries .
The music video for the song was directed by Anthony Mandler . It was received positively by critics , who described it as a comeback by Aguilera following her video for Bionic 's lead single " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . Aguilera performed " You Lost Me " on several television shows . The song has been covered by artists .
= = Background and release = =
In August 2008 , Australian recording artist Sia confirmed that she would work on several ballads for Aguilera 's then @-@ upcoming album . Aguilera commented about the collaboration , " I 'm definitely a fan of Sia 's . I was thrilled she also wanted to work together and , in turn , was a fan of mine " . In an interview for Billboard , Sia said , " She [ Aguilera ] was just excited to get to work with the artists she loves . There 's this misconception that she 's a middle @-@ America kind of person . But she 's a little hipster . You go back to her house and sit by the fire with some wine , and what 's playing over the sound system ? The Knife and Arthur Russell . She doesn 't listen to pop music " .
In the standard edition of Bionic , the couple co @-@ wrote three tracks , including " You Lost Me " . The song was described as " the heart of the album " by Aguilera . According to the Herald Sun , Aguilera wanted to collaborated more with Furler for the album . " You Lost Me " was announced to be released as the third single in the US and the second internationally from Bionic , while " I Hate Boys " would be the second single in Australia . The single 's cover artwork was revealed three days later via her official website . RCA Records officially released the song to US contemporary hit radio on June 27 , 2010 . A radio remix version of the track was digitally released on 7digital stores worldwide in July 2010 . Two digital EPs containing remixes of the song were also distributed by RCA Records later that year .
= = Composition = =
" You Lost Me " was written by Aguilera , Furler and its producer , Samuel Dixon . The song is a ballad lasts for a duration of 4 : 17 ( four minutes and 17 seconds ) . Written in the key of A minor , " You Lost Me " has a tempo of 50 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range spans from E ♭ 3 to E5 . The verses are sung by Aguilera using melisma . The song 's instrumentation comes from piano and strings . Hinshaw Drew of The Village Voice labelled it the " un @-@ bionic moment on the record " .
Lyrically , " You Lost Me " talks about a " cheating " man , who has left Aguilera 's world " infected " . Amar Toor from AOL Radio thought that its lyrical content " perfectly captures one of the most difficult experiences young lovers have to go through " . The song begins with a " somber orchestral " piano opening , followed by the lines " I am done , smoking gun / We 've lost it all , the love is gone " sung by Aguilera . During the chorus , she sings , " I feel like our world 's been infected / And somehow you left me neglected " . Toward the ending , Aguilera 's " painful " and " catharsis " voice " crescendos dramatically " . According to Jon Pareles from The New York Times , Aguilera " barely " holds back her tears in the song . The Village Voice critic Drew Hinshaw thought that Aguilera is " less vexed by what he did than what he lost " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You Lost Me " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly noted Furler 's efforts on the " lovely " ballads " You Lost Me " , " All I Need " , and " I Am " had turned Aguilera into a " smoky , almost Fiona Apple @-@ esque torch singer " . Elysa Gardner of USA Today highlighted the song as one of the album 's standout ballads . According to Genevieve Koski from The A.V. Club , " You Lost Me " is the kind of ballad Aguilera " is best suited to " . Mesfin Fekadu of Northwest Herald thought that the " emotional " song shows off " the diva 's powerful voice " , while Drew Hinshaw from The Village Voice deemed " You Lost Me " as the most vulnerable song from Bionic .
Michael Cragg , writing for musicOMH , wrote that the ballads co @-@ written by Furler make Bionic " the first Aguilera album where the ballads aren 't ruined by her tendency to cover all the notes on the scale " . Her further compared " You Lost Me " to Aguilera 's previous hit " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . Digital Spy editor Robert Cospey gave the song three stars out of five , praising her vocals yet thinking that the song " somehow lacks the sincerity " as she displayed on " Hurt " and " Oh Mother " . On a negative side , Sam Lansky from MTV Buzzworthy deemed " You Lost Me " a " weepy " song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " You Lost Me " debuted and peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 20 on June 26 , 2010 , becoming Aguilera 's first US single not to chart within the main Billboard Hot 100 . The song also peaked at number 28 on the Adult Contemporary , where it remained for four weeks . It was a success on the Hot Dance Club Play , peaking atop the chart . In the United Kingdom , " You Lost Me " became Aguilera 's lowest @-@ charting single in the country , only peaking at number 153 on the UK Singles Chart . The single also charted at number 78 in Slovakia , and number 79 in the Netherlands . The song was more commercially successful in Belgium , where it charted at number 19 on the Wallonian Ultratop chart . In Israel , it became a top @-@ ten hit on the Media Forest chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " You Lost Me " was directed by Anthony Mandler . According to Aguilera , the video " strips back the theatrics " . She also revealed that it used over 200 pounds of charcoal . During the making of the video , Aguilera said , " It was really important that I interpret the simplicity of the raw emotion that takes place within the song itself and not any sort of theatrics involved " . On July 22 , 2010 , the music video was released on Aguilera 's VEVO channel . Two days before the release , a sneak peek of the music video was revealed . According to Billboard writer Monica Herrera , the clip contrasts with the music video for the lead single of Bionic " Not Myself Tonight " , while Chris Ryan for MTV Buzzworthy thought that it goes " back to basics " .
The video features Aguilera with " strawberry @-@ blonde " hair . It begins with a close @-@ up of a gun barrel . Then , she slowly walks through a " deserted " bedroom and lies down in the room , which is filled with charcoal , while crying . She is seen with mascara streaming down her cheeks . As the scene moves on , Aguilera is fighting against a shirtless man , who is considered her lover . The clip ends as Aguilera takes off her shirt in an " Inception @-@ like dreamworld " . Critical response to " You Lost Me " video was positive : Latina writer Mariela Rosario and UK magazine OK ! noted that the clip was a comeback by Aguilera following the video for Bionic lead single " Not Myself Tonight " . Monica Hererra from Billboard also thought that it represents " a kind of return to form for Aguilera " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Brad Wete thought that the video for " You Lost Me " " has some quality material " . Similarly , MTV Buzzworthy 's Chris Ryan complimented it as one of Aguilera 's best videos ever .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Aguilera performed " You Lost Me " for the first time at the season finale of the ninth season of American Idol on May 26 , 2010 . Following the rendition of Aguilera 's songs " Beautiful " and " Fighter " by the top six female contestants , Aguilera appeared onstage as the stage went dark . Wearing a " demure black ensemble " , her hair was pulled back in her curls . On June 8 , 2010 , Aguilera performed the song again with several of her tracks , " Fighter " , " Bionic " , " Not Myself Tonight " , and " Beautiful " . According to James Dinh from MTV News , the performance of " You Lost Me " " brought a subtle and gentle ambience " to the show , and it was not aired on television .
During the Late Show with David Letterman aired on June 10 , 2010 , the singer performed " You Lost Me " with " 1950 's @-@ inspired hair " , red lipstick , " diamante leggings " and a white " glitter style cut @-@ out blouse " with " red sparkly stilettos " . A day later , she appeared on The Early Show to promote her then @-@ upcoming album Bionic , performing " Not Myself Tonight " , " Fighter " , " You Lost Me " , and a medley of " Genie in a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " . Aguilera performed the song again as part of her performance on VH1 Storytellers , aired on June 13 , 2010 .
On November 12 , 2010 , Canadian @-@ Cypriot @-@ Portuguese singer Nikki Ponte covered the song on the third week of the third season of The X Factor ( Greece ) . American singer Marcus Canty performed " You Lost Me " on the first season of The X Factor ( US ) on November 23 , 2011 . The track was recorded in a studio by Ewelina Lisowska , a semifinalist from the second season of the Polish version for The X Factor . " You Lost Me " was also performed by Spanish singer Alberto Bellido Marquez during the auditions of the third season of The X Factor in Germany on September 7 , 2012 , and Ukrainian The X Factor contestant Vladyslav Kurasov on January 19 , 2013 .
In 2014 Maltese child singer , Veronica Rotin , covered this song on her debut album , Veronica Rotin .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recording and vocals recording – The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from Bionic album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= The Fabulous Moolah =
Mary Lillian Ellison ( July 22 , 1923 – November 2 , 2007 ) was an American professional wrestler , better known by her ring name The Fabulous Moolah . She began her career working with promoter Billy Wolfe and his wife , wrestler and trainer Mildred Burke , as well as working alongside professional wrestler " Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers . She won the NWA World Women 's Championship in 1956 and was the most prominent holder of the title for approximately the next 30 years .
In the 1980s , she joined the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later WWE ) as part of the Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection storyline , feuding with Cyndi Lauper and Wendi Richter , the latter of whom defeated her for the WWF Women 's Championship in 1984 . Ellison was marketed by the WWF as holding the record for the longest title reign by any athlete in any professional sport . According to WWE , she was also the first WWF Women 's Champion and held the title a total of four times .
In addition , Ellison was a prominent trainer and promoter in women 's professional wrestling . In the 1990s , she returned to the WWF in a comedic role with longtime friend Mae Young . Ellison became the first woman to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 1995 and became the oldest champion in the history of professional wrestling when she won the WWF Women 's Championship at age 76 , in 1999 . In 2010 , WWE recognized her as the 27th best wrestler ever .
= = Early life = =
Mary Lillian Ellison was born in 1923 in Kershaw County , South Carolina , and grew up in Tookiedoo , 12 miles from Columbia . The youngest of five children , Ellison was the only daughter of a part Cherokee father and an Irish mother . Her parents owned a farm , a grocery store , and a service station .
When her mother died of cancer , eight @-@ year @-@ old Ellison went to live with her paternal grandmother and worked on her cousin 's cotton farm to make money . At age 10 , Ellison was still deeply distraught over her mother ’ s death ; to cheer her up , her father took her to the local wrestling matches . Ellison liked the matches , but it was not until she saw Women 's Champion Mildred Burke wrestle that " they began to mean much more to me . "
Ellison returned to the Columbia home of her father and brothers . She graduated Columbia High School , but at age 14 married 21 @-@ year @-@ old Walter Carroll . They soon became parents to a daughter . A few months after the birth of her daughter , she divorced Carroll . Still only 15 , she left her daughter with a friend and set out on a wrestling career of her own .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1940s – 1950s ) = = =
Ellison began her wrestling career with Mildred Burke ’ s husband Billy Wolfe , the dominant women 's promoter of the time . Her first match was on May 26 , 1949 against June Byers at the Boston Arena . Wolfe was notorious for advising his wrestlers to enter into sexual relationships with either himself or competing promoters to ensure additional bookings , a practice with which Ellison refused to go along . She , however , soon began a romance with wrestler Johnny Long . Long later introduced Ellison to Jack Pfefer who gave her the moniker " Slave Girl Moolah " . By the early 1950s , Moolah was a valet for " Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers , accompanying him to the ring while providing eye candy for the male audiences and assisting Rogers against his opponents . Ellison broke up the partnership because Rogers kept pushing her to begin a sexual relationship . She then served as the valet for the Elephant Boy ( Tony Olivas ) . Olivas was Mexican , but had very dark skin , which caused controversy when Ellison , a white woman , would kiss him on the cheek during their ring entrance routine . At one show in Oklahoma City , a man , who thought that Olivas was a black man , attempted to stab Ellison with a knife for kissing him . Moolah later left Pfeffer 's promotion and began wrestling under Boston promoters Tony Santos and Paul Bowser . In 1955 , she began working for Vince McMahon , Sr. ' s Capitol Wrestling Corporation .
= = = World Champion ( 1956 – 1970s ) = = =
On September 18 , 1956 , Moolah defeated Judy Grable in a 13 @-@ woman battle royal to win the vacant World Women 's Championship , which shares a lineage with the NWA World Women 's Championship . She was not immediately recognized by everyone as the NWA Champion because Billy Wolfe , with whom she had had conflict earlier in her career , still controlled the promotion . After the match , Vince McMahon , Sr. dubbed Ellison with a new ring name – The Fabulous Moolah . Subsequently , June Byers came out of retirement to challenge Moolah to a match for the title . During the match , Moolah acted as the aggressor and pinned Byers to retain the championship . Moolah 's first World Championship reign lasted over ten years . Moolah successfully defended the belt against the top female wrestlers in the world , such as Judy Grable and Donna Christanello , while also purporting to befriend some of the biggest celebrities of the day . Moolah claimed in her book , " First Goddess of the Squared Circle , " that she formed friendships with Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis .
After June Byers retired in 1964 , Moolah was subsequently recognized as official NWA Champion , thus making her the undisputed Women ’ s World Champion . Nevertheless , Moolah dropped the belt on September 17 , 1966 to Bette Boucher , although she regained the title just weeks later . She also traded the belt with Yukiko Tomoe during a tour of Japan in 1968 . On July 1 , 1972 , Moolah became the first woman allowed to wrestle at Madison Square Garden , which had previously banned women 's wrestling . In fact , Moolah helped overturn the ban on women 's wrestling in the entire state of New York , which the New York State Athletic Commission lifted in June 1972 . During her quest to overturn the ban , she flipped football player Roosevelt " Rosey " Grier onto his back on The Mike Douglas Show . Moolah continued an uninterrupted eight @-@ year reign before losing to Sue Green at Madison Square Garden in 1976 . Moolah regained her title a short time later . She also bought the legal rights to the championship in the late 1970s , and after losing the championship for two days to Evelyn Stevens in 1978 , began another long reign , defending her title for another six years . Also in the 1970s , Moolah held the NWA Women 's World Tag Team Championship twice with Toni Rose .
= = = Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection ( 1980s ) = = =
In 1983 , Vince McMahon , Jr. began expanding the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) nationally , and Moolah sold him the rights to her Women ’ s World Championship . Moolah agreed to appear exclusively for the WWF , and thus became the first WWF Women 's Champion . The following year , singer Cyndi Lauper began a verbal feud with manager " Captain " Lou Albano , who long had a reputation of being a villain , that brought professional wrestling into mainstream culture in a storyline that became known as the " Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection . " When it was finally time for Lauper and Albano to settle their differences in the ring , a match @-@ up was scheduled with Albano representing Moolah against the challenge of Lauper ’ s protégé , Wendi Richter . After much buildup and hype , the Fabulous Moolah lost the championship when defeated by Richter , who had Lauper in her corner , on July 23 , 1984 in the main event of The Brawl to End It All , which was broadcast live on MTV . Prior to the match , the WWF promoted Moolah as holding the championship for the previous 28 years .
After losing the title to Richter , Moolah aided Leilani Kai in defeating Richter for the title in February 1985 . Richter won it back at the inaugural WrestleMania , but when Richter ’ s relationship soured with the WWF , Moolah donned a mask as " The Spider Lady " and regained the belt on November 25 , 1985 , in a controversial decision . Richter was never told she would be losing the title and fell victim to a real @-@ life " screwjob " finish known as " The Original Screwjob " . Richter promptly quit the WWF afterward , while Moolah continued to be champion for another two years — excluding a six @-@ day reign by Velvet McIntyre during a tour of Australia in 1986 — before losing the belt to Sherri Martel on July 24 , 1987 . She later captained a team at the inaugural Survivor Series . Her team ( Moolah , Velvet McIntyre , Rockin ' Robin , and the Jumping Bomb Angels ) defeated champion Martel and her team ( Leilani Kai , Judy Martin , Donna Christanello , and Dawn Marie ) .
= = = Semi @-@ retirement = = =
Throughout the early 1990s , she made appearances in video packages and at live WWF events . On June 24 , 1995 , she was the first female wrestler to be inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame . In the late 1990s , Pat Patterson and Ellison began jokingly discussing a comeback for her , which resulted in Patterson contacting WWF Chairman Vince McMahon about the possibility . In 1998 , Moolah and Mae Young re @-@ emerged in the WWF ( later renamed World Wrestling Entertainment , WWE ) . The WWF women 's division , however , had since moved away from the traditional athletic match @-@ ups of the past and now featured women competing in sexually @-@ themed bikini contests and strip matches .
Moolah received a call from McMahon in late 1998 about returning to the company . On the September 9 , 1999 episode of SmackDown ! , Jeff Jarrett invited Moolah , 76 , into the ring and smashed a guitar over her head . Moolah and Young then began appearing regularly in comedic roles . On the September 27 , 1999 episode of Monday Night Raw , Moolah and Young defeated Ivory in a Handicapped Evening Gown match , which led to a title match at No Mercy on October 17 , 1999 . The match saw seventy @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old Moolah defeat Ivory to regain the WWE Women 's Championship , thus becoming the oldest WWE Women 's Champion ever , though she lost the title to Ivory eight days later .
On the September 15 , 2003 episode of Raw , Moolah won a match against Victoria . Moolah had been promised the match for her eightieth birthday and became the first octogenarian to compete in a WWE ring . After Moolah 's victory , the " Legend Killer " Randy Orton came out and performed an RKO on her . Moolah and Young made another appearance at New Years Revolution in 2006 , during a Bra and Panties Gauntlet match attacking Victoria and stripping her of her top . She also made brief appearances at WrestleMania 23 and the 2007 Draft Lottery on June 11 , 2007 . Her last WWE appearance before her death was at SummerSlam in August 2007 , in a backstage segment with Vince McMahon and Raw General Manager William Regal .
= = Training and promoting = =
Ellison and her second husband Johnny Long began training women to become female wrestlers , which included Ella Waldek , Daisy Mae , and Katherine Simpson . Long later contacted promoter Jack Pfefer , who agreed to book some of the wrestlers at his shows . After marrying wrestler Buddy Lee , he began helping Ellison train the female wrestlers . After she left Pfeffer 's promotion in the 1950s , Ellison found it difficult to book her trainees in shows due to Pfeffer 's influence over other National Wrestling Alliance promoters . Ellison claimed Pfeffer would threaten to reveal the pre @-@ planned nature of wrestling if any other promoters did not do as he liked . As a result , Ellison began selling cosmetics door @-@ to @-@ door and Lee opened a service station to make enough money to pay their bills . They later began to book their wrestlers , including Judy Grable in Boston , under promoter Paul Bowser .
In the late 1950s when the once @-@ dominant promoter of women 's wrestling , Billy Wolfe , was out of business , Ellison and Lee began to book their female wrestlers for more and more shows . They began calling their promoting business Girl Wrestling Enterprises ( GWE ) . Ellison demanded a lot from the girls of GWE , including that they had to keep their hair and make @-@ up done , act like a lady , and not date men who were in the professional wrestling business . In addition to women , Ellison also trained midget professional wrestlers , including Katie Glass in the 1960s . Ellison founded the Ladies ' International Wrestling Association , a non @-@ profit organization to help retired professional wrestlers , in the late 1980s . In the 1990s , she spent most of her time training female wrestlers at her school in Columbia , South Carolina . She also began training men , including Del Wilkes , and in 1995 trained more men than women . She also spent time training in Los Angeles at Verne Langdon 's Slammers Gym .
However , Wendi Richter stated that Ellison did not actually train the wrestlers at her wrestling school . Instead , Richter stated that Ellison accepted payment of the training fee ( which at the time of Richter 's training was five hundred dollars ) and had other female wrestlers within her camp ( including Leilani Kai , Judy Martin , Winona Littleheart , and Joyce Grable ) train the new recruits , and that these women did not get paid for their additional work as trainers . Richter also stated that Ellison required all women that received training at her camp to each sign a contract that allowed Ellison to function as their booker and receive twenty five percent of their booking fee . Trainees were also required to rent duplex apartments on Ellison 's property and they were responsible for paying her for rent and utilities . The training lasted six months and took place up to five hours per day inside a wrestling ring in a barn that lacked heating and air conditioning or fans . Debbie Johnson , another former trainee of Ellison 's , stated that she was required to give Ellison thirty percent of her booking fee , and her paycheck was further reduced as Ellison deducted travel expenses , food , rent , and utilities before paying her . As a result , Johnson worked for Ellison for two years before she received any money . Johnson stated that Ellison would refuse to book certain women in her training camp if they angered her , and that Ellison monitored her and refused to let her leave the physical constraints of the training camp unless she was accompanied by someone else .
Over the years , various female wrestlers have come forward with stories accusing Ellison of being a pimp that often provided various wrestling promoters with unsuspecting female wrestlers that would be used as sex objects . One of the most notorious accusations is from the family of Sweet Georgia Brown ( Susie Mae McCoy ) . McCoy , who was trained and booked by Ellison and her then @-@ husband Buddy Lee , told her daughter that she was often raped , given drugs and made an addict in an intentional attempt by Ellison and Lee to control her . Ida Martinez , who wrestled during the 1960s , also recalls that many of the regional promoters “ demanded personal services ” before they would pay the female wrestlers . In a 2002 interview , Luna Vachon claimed that when she was sixteen years old and training at Ellison 's camp , Ellison sent her out of state to be photographed by an older man . Although she remained clothed during the photo shoot , Vachon stated she felt taken advantage of by Ellison and the older man . Vachon also stated that her aunt , Vivian Vachon , witnessed Ellison abusing alcohol and having sex with her female trainees . Sandy Parker , a lesbian former pupil of Ellison 's , also claims that Ellison forbade her from going to any gay bars and tried to press her to date men . Parker says this enranged her , because " ( Moolah ) was two faced because she had her own little dalliances that we all knew about . "
As well as allegedly exploiting female wrestlers sexually , Ellison has been accused of using her financial influence to control the women 's wrestling scene and ensure that other women did not gain greater recognition . In addition to being a key participant in the original screwjob on Wendi Richter , Ellison used her influence to take over the spot originally held by her protégé Mad Maxine on the animated series Hulk Hogan 's Rock ' n ' Wrestling . Maxine was about to receive a big push by Vince McMahon but left the WWF shortly afterwards , as Ellison was unwilling to provide her with additional bookings . Numerous other former trainees defected from Ellison after growing tired of sharing their paychecks with Ellison . Women wrestlers including Vivian and Luna Vachon , Ann Casey , and Darling Dagmar moved into other regions where Ellison had less control and negotiated their own payouts with promoters .
Both Judy Martin and Leilani Kai told in later interviews that Moolah would collect the women wrestler 's pay from promoters , and after taking out her own pay , would only give the girls half of the money they were owed ( keeping half of their pay for herself , plus her own pay ) and telling them that was all the promoter gave her to give them . Martin stated that shortly before Ellison left the WWF in 1988 ( shortly after falling out with Martin and Kai due to Ellison no longer receiving their booking fees ) , she sabotaged the duo while they were touring Japan . Martin stated that Ellison contacted Japanese promoters and informed them that the Jumping Bomb Angels were supposed to drop the WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship to The Glamour Girls before Martin and Kai returned to the United States . This was contrary to the booking decision made by Pat Patterson before the Japanese tour began . Unable to reach Patterson by telephone , Kai and Martin agreed to win the titles from the Angels since Ellison had already misinformed the Japanese promoters . Martin stated that upon returning to the United States , Patterson was angry with them and confirmed that nobody within the WWF made the decision for the title change and that due to her long @-@ standing relationship with the company , the WWF refused to listen to their explanation of Ellison 's deceit . Shortly thereafter , the WWF phased out the WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship . In a later shoot interview , Leilani Kai told that had things gone as the WWF originally planned , The Glamour Girls would have had a title match against the Jumping Bomb Angels at Wrestlemania IV and that Ellison 's actions had cost the four girls what would have been ultimately their biggest ever payday .
Women that chose to continue allowing Ellison to work as their booker were kept under tight control . Velvet McIntyre was forced to compete against Ellison ( whom McIntyre stated she didn 't care for ) at WrestleMania 2 instead of competing during an all @-@ women tour of Kuwait with a group of Ellison 's other female wrestlers . Their Wrestlemania 2 match lasted less than two minutes with the referee ignoring McIntyre 's leg being on the ropes while she was being pinned . Women that did not agree to Ellison 's booking fees faced limited options . Rhonda Sing stated that Ellison contacted her and offered to let her wrestle Richter in a couple of pay @-@ per @-@ view matches for the WWF in 1985 , but demanded she receive half of Sing 's pay check ; a stipulation Sing was unwilling to accept . Penny Banner stated that her retirement was due in large part to Ellison refusing to allow any of her female wrestlers to accept bookings against Banner , which severely limited the number of bookings that Banner was offered by promoters .
= = Other media = =
An animated version of Moolah was included on a CBS Saturday morning cartoon during this lucrative time , titled Hulk Hogan 's Rock ' n ' Wrestling . In addition , she appeared in one of Cyndi Lauper 's music videos , " The Goonies ' R ' Good Enough " . An illness in the mid @-@ 1970s meant Ellison had to pull out of the Bill Cosby movie Mother , Jugs & Speed , which had a role written specifically for her . In 2002 , Moolah wrote her autobiography , The Fabulous Moolah : First Goddess of the Squared Circle . The book has been criticized for keeping kayfabe ( the stance that wrestling storylines are real ) and did not reveal a lot about her time controlling women 's wrestling . Defending herself against these claims , Ellison retorted it was hard to fit all of her almost five decade career into one book .
Moolah and Young , along with several other female wrestlers , starred in the 2004 film Lipstick and Dynamite a documentary about the female wrestlers from the 1950s era . They also appeared on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien promoting the film .
= = Personal life = =
Ellison 's first husband was Walter Carroll , who became the father of her daughter Mary . Mary wrestled briefly but decided against pursuing the profession . Ellison had six grandchildren , five biological and one adopted . Ellison and Carroll divorced shortly after their daughter 's birth . Later , Ellison married wrestler Johnny Long . Marital conflicts developed when Long wanted Ellison to be a housewife instead of a career woman . In addition , Ellison claims Long was a " womanizer " . Ellison and Long divorced . Ellison also says that she dated country singer Hank Williams for four months in 1952 . According to Ellison , Williams proposed to her , but Williams 's drinking and heroin abuse forced the couple to go separate ways . She further claimed that he wanted Ellison to quit her wrestling career , which she did not want to do . Two months after the breakup , Williams died due to an overdose .
Later , Ellison met a wrestler named Buddy Lee , whom she claims was the " love of her life . " They were eventually married , and after divorcing in 1970 after nine years of marriage , they remained friends until Lee 's death in 1999 . The divorce was attributed to Lee 's affair with Rita Cortez , one of the wrestlers the duo was training . In the early 1980s , Ellison opened Moolah 's Hideaway , a bar and grill which was operated by her daughter Mary and frequented by André the Giant .
Beginning in 1991 , Ellison lived with Mae Young in a house in Columbia , South Carolina . Her estate was located on a road named Moolah Drive . A midget professional wrestler named Katie Glass also lived with Moolah for over 40 years . Another wrestler , Donna Christanello , also lived with Ellison on @-@ and @-@ off for 40 years , ending in May 1999 .
During her return to the ring in 1999 , Ellison began experiencing occasional dizziness , and as a result , her doctor requested that she begin to wear a heart monitor . A few days later , Ellison was admitted to the hospital for what turned out to be two clogged arteries and viral pneumonia . She stayed at the intensive @-@ care unit of the hospital for 24 days , during which she was unconscious for fifteen days . After leaving the hospital , she again slipped into unconsciousness in the bathroom at her home , crushing several vertebrae . She underwent successful back surgery in mid @-@ December .
= = = Death = = =
Ellison died on November 2 , 2007 at the age of 84 in Columbia , South Carolina . According to her daughter Mary , the possible cause of death was a heart attack or blood clot related to a recent shoulder replacement surgery . Mary Ellison is buried in a grave plot at Greenlawn Memorial Park in Columbia , South Carolina . The plot appears to be a family plot designed for The Fabulous Moolah , Mae Young , and Katie Glass .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Backbreaker
Schoolgirl
Small package
Signature moves
Diving headscissors takedown
Jumping snapmare
Missile dropkick
The Moolah Whip ( Moolah grabs the opponent by their hair and whips them through the air )
Managers
Harvey Wippleman
Wrestlers managed
Mae Young
Terri Runnels ( WrestleMania 2000 )
Leilani Kai
The Elephant Boy
" Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Cauliflower Alley Club
Ladies Wrestling Award ( 1997 )
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Women 's World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Toni Rose
NWA World Women 's Championship ( 5 times )
NWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Stanley Weston Award ( 1991 )
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Class of 2003
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 8 times , inaugural )
WWF Hall of Fame ( Class of 1995 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Match of the Year ( 1984 ) vs. Wendi Richter on July 23
Other
JWPA Women 's Championship
USA Women 's Wrestling Championship
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= Reuben P. Boise =
Reuben Patrick Boise ( June 9 , 1819 – April 10 , 1907 ) was an American attorney , judge and politician in the Oregon Territory and the early years of the state of Oregon . A native of Massachusetts , he immigrated to Oregon in 1850 , where he would twice serve on the Oregon Supreme Court for a total of 16 years , with three stints as chief justice . Early in his legal career , he worked as a district attorney .
Boise was a member of the Oregon Constitutional Convention in 1857 , served in the Territorial Legislature , and helped to codify the laws of the Oregon Territory . He also served as a circuit court judge , and was a trustee at several colleges . Educated at Williams College , he was twice married to women from Massachusetts , and had a total of five children .
= = Early life = =
Reuben Boise was born in Blandford , Massachusetts , on June 9 , 1819 , to Reuben Boise and Sally Putnam Boise . He attended Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts , graduating with honors in 1843 with a Bachelor of Arts degree . Upon graduation , he moved to Missouri , where he taught school for two years before returning to Massachusetts . When Boise returned , he studied law under his uncle for three years , passing the bar in 1847 . He practiced law for a few years in Chickopee Falls , Massachusetts .
= = Oregon = =
In 1850 , Boise decided to move to the Oregon Territory . To get there , he traveled by ship to Panama and crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean . He took another ship , arriving in Astoria , Oregon , at the mouth of the Columbia River later that year . In the spring of 1851 , he moved upriver to Portland and set up a law practice . In Portland , he served on the first school board . In 1851 , Boise married Ellen Francis Lyon of Boston while in San Francisco , California . Boise had become engaged to her in Massachusetts , with her and her family sailing around Cape Horn to attend the wedding . Reuben and Ellen had three sons – Reuben P. Boise , Jr . , Whitney L. , and Fisher A. – before Ellen died in 1865 .
Also in 1851 , he was appointed by Oregon Supreme Court justice Orville C. Pratt as a district attorney . In 1852 , he purchased some land in Polk County , Oregon , and renamed the community there Ellendale after his wife . In 1857 , the Boise family moved to Salem , Oregon . In 1867 , Boise married Miss Emily A. Pratt who hailed from Webster , Massachusetts . The couple had two daughters , Ellen S. and Marie E. Boise .
= = Political career = =
In 1852 , the Oregon Territorial Legislature selected Boise to be the prosecuting attorney for Districts 1 and 2 , which covered most of the Willamette Valley . He was selected again the following year and served a total of four years in that capacity . In 1853 , he represented Polk and Tillamook counties in the Territorial Legislature as a Democratic Party politician in the lower chamber House of Representatives . The following year , he was selected to help codify Oregon 's laws , along with James K. Kelly and Daniel R. Bigelow . In 1857 , Boise was a Democratic delegate to the Oregon Constitutional Convention from Polk County . While serving at the Constitutional Convention , Boise served on the Legislation Committee .
In 1857 , Boise was appointed to the Territorial Supreme Court by U.S. President James Buchanan to replace Cyrus Olney , beginning service in 1858 . He was then elected to the Oregon Supreme Court in 1859 after Oregon became a state on February 14 , 1859 . Justice Boise served until 1870 , winning re @-@ election in 1864 . After winning re @-@ election in 1870 , he resigned when the election results were contested . Boise was elected to the commission overseeing the construction of the Oregon State Capitol in 1874 .
In 1876 , he returned to the Oregon Supreme Court after winning the election . Two years later , the Oregon Legislative Assembly divided the court into the Supreme Court and the Oregon Circuit Court , and reduced the number of justices on the Supreme Court to three . With the new court , all prior judges lost their seats and the three positions were filled by appointment of the governor . Boise was appointed by Governor W. W. Thayer to the new court in 1878 , with his term ending in 1880 . During his time with the court , he served as chief justice three times ; from 1864 to 1866 , 1870 to 1872 , and 1876 to 1878 .
After leaving the state 's highest court , he was elected as a state circuit court judge for Oregon 's third judicial district in 1880 , covering Yamhill , Tillamook , Marion , Linn , and Polk counties . He served on the court until 1892 , and then entered private legal practice . After six years in private practice in Salem , Boise returned to the circuit court in 1898 . He retired from the court in July 1904 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In his later years , Boise served on the board of trustees at Willamette University in Salem and Pacific University in Forest Grove . Pacific gave him an honorary doctor of laws degree . Additionally , he was a trustee at the La Creole Academy preparatory school in Dallas and a regent of the Oregon Agricultural College ( now Oregon State University ) . He also spent five terms as the master of the state grange association , and owned the Ellendale Woolen Mill . A public speaker , he gave speeches for the Oregon Historical Society , the Oregon Pioneer Society , and the Oregon State Bar as well as at the dedication of a monument to missionary Jason Lee .
Reuben Patrick Boise died on April 10 , 1907 , at the age of 87 in Salem , and is buried at Salem Pioneer Cemetery . Former U.S. Attorney General George Henry Williams gave the eulogy at the funeral , with many prominent politicians and officials in attendance . In honor of the former judge , the state courts adjourned for the day . At the time of his death , Boise owned more than 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of farmland spread across three farms in Marion and Polk counties . Reuben Boise road in Polk County is named in his honor , as is the R. P. Boise Building in Salem , listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Works = =
" Fifty Years Reminiscences of the Bench and Bar : Speech to the Oregon Bar Association , Nov. 19 , 1902 , " Weekly Oregon Statesman [ Salem ] , Nov. 21 , 1902 , pp. 6 , 8 .
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= Larry David =
Lawrence Gene " Larry " David ( born July 2 , 1947 ) is an American comedian , writer , actor , and television producer . He and Jerry Seinfeld created the television series Seinfeld , and he served as its head writer and executive producer from 1989 to 1996 . David has subsequently gained further recognition for the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm , which he also created , in which he stars as a semi @-@ fictionalized version of himself .
David 's work won him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993 . Formerly a stand @-@ up comedian , David went into television comedy , writing and starring in ABC 's Fridays , as well as writing briefly for Saturday Night Live . He has won two Primetime Emmy Awards as well as being voted by fellow comedians and comedy insiders as number 23 of the greatest comedy stars ever in a 2004 British poll to select " The Comedian 's Comedian " .
= = Early life = =
David was born in the neighborhood of Sheepshead Bay , in Brooklyn , New York , the son of Rose ( née Ratner ) and Morty David , who was a men 's clothing manufacturer . His family is Jewish . He graduated from Sheepshead Bay High School , and then from the University of Maryland with a bachelor 's degree in History , before graduating in Business Administration from Maryland 's Robert H. Smith School of Business . After college , he enlisted in the United States Army Reserve .
= = Career = =
While a stand @-@ up comedian , David also worked as a store clerk , limousine driver , and historian . He lived in Manhattan Plaza , a federally subsidized housing complex in the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan , across the hall from Kenny Kramer , the inspiration for the Cosmo Kramer character in Seinfeld . David then became a writer for and cast member of ABC 's Fridays from 1980 to 1982 , and a writer for NBC 's Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) from 1984 to 1985 . During his time at SNL , he was able to get only one sketch on the show , which aired at 12 : 50 AM , the last time slot on the show .
David quit his writing job at SNL in the first season , only to show up to work a few days later acting as though nothing had happened . That event inspired a second @-@ season episode of Seinfeld entitled " The Revenge " . David met his future Seinfeld stars during that early stage of his career : he worked with Michael Richards ( Kramer ) on Fridays and with Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ( Elaine ) on SNL . He can be heard heckling Michael McKean when McKean hosted SNL in 1984 , and he can be seen in the sketch " The Run , Throw , and Catch Like a Girl Olympics " when Howard Cosell hosted the season finale in 1985 .
= = = Seinfeld = = =
In 1989 , David teamed up with comedian Jerry Seinfeld to create a pilot for NBC called The Seinfeld Chronicles , which became the basis for Seinfeld , one of the most successful shows in history , reaching the top of TV Guide 's list of the 50 greatest TV shows of all time . Entertainment Weekly ranked it the third @-@ best TV show of all time . David made occasional uncredited appearances on the show , playing such roles as Frank Costanza 's cape @-@ wearing lawyer and the voice of George Steinbrenner . He was also the primary inspiration for the show 's character George Costanza . David left Seinfeld on friendly terms after the seventh season but returned to write the series finale in 1998 , two years later . He also continued to provide the voice for the Steinbrenner character .
David wrote 62 of the episodes of Seinfeld , including 1992 's " The Contest " , for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award and which TV Guide ranked the episode No. 1 on its list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " . Syndication of Seinfeld earned David an estimated US $ 250 million in 1998 alone . This amount has been steadily decreasing each year , but payments will continue until the full $ 1 @.@ 7 billion from the original deal has been paid . In 2008 David made $ 55 million from Seinfeld syndication , DVD sales , and Curb Your Enthusiasm . He was nominated for an Emmy award 19 times for Seinfeld , winning twice – once for best comedy and once for writing .
= = = Curb Your Enthusiasm = = =
The HBO cable television channel aired David 's 1 @-@ hour special , Larry David : Curb Your Enthusiasm , on October 17 , 1999 . This was followed by Curb Your Enthusiasm , a television series on HBO that aired its first episode on October 15 , 2000 . The show revisits many of the themes of Seinfeld , and is improvised from a story outline only several pages long that David writes ( as of the 5th season , additional writers were hired ) .
The actors improvise their dialogue based on the story outline , direction , and their own creativity . David has said that his character in the show , a fictionalized version of himself , is what he would be like in real life if he lacked social awareness and sensitivity . The character 's numerous and frequent social faux pas , misunderstandings , and ironic coincidences are the basis of much of the show 's comedy and have led to the entry into the American pop culture lexicon of the expression " Larry David moment " , meaning an inadvertently created socially awkward situation .
The basis of the show is the events in David 's life following the fortune he earned from the Seinfeld series ; David , semi @-@ retired , strives to live a fulfilled life . Alongside David is his wife Cheryl ( played by Cheryl Hines ) , his manager and best friend Jeff ( played by Jeff Garlin ) , and Jeff 's wife Susie ( played by Susie Essman ) . Celebrities , including comedians Bob Einstein , Wanda Sykes , and Richard Lewis , appear on the show regularly . Actors Ted Danson and Mary Steenburgen have had recurring roles as themselves .
The show is critically acclaimed and has been nominated for 30 Primetime Emmy Awards , with one win , as well as one Golden Globe win . In the first six seasons , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus and Jason Alexander appeared in several episodes , and Jerry Seinfeld made a cameo . In season 7 , the cast of Seinfeld , including Michael Richards , returned in a story arc involving David 's attempt to organize a Seinfeld reunion special .
On Wednesday , June 2 , 2010 , the series premiered on the TV Guide Network , making its network television debut . TV Guide Network also produced a series of related discussions with high @-@ profile guest stars , media pundits , and prominent social figures called " Curb : The Discussion " debating the moral implications depicted in each episode . David is quoted as saying " Finally , thanks to the TV Guide Network , I 'll get a chance to watch actual , intelligent people discuss and debate the issues addressed on ' Curb ' . Now if only someone could tell me where this alleged ' Network ' is , I might even watch it . "
= = = Other projects = = =
David has also been involved in other films and television series . David wrote and directed the 1998 film Sour Grapes , about two cousins who feud over a casino jackpot . It was neither a commercial nor a critical success . He appeared in minor parts in two Woody Allen films – Radio Days and New York Stories – before taking the leading role in Allen 's New York @-@ based comedy film Whatever Works ( 2009 ) . Because his daughters were Hannah Montana fans , David , along with his daughters , guest @-@ starred , as themselves , in the episode " My Best Friend 's Boyfriend , " in which they were waiting for a table at a fancy restaurant . David had a cameo appearance on the HBO series Entourage as a client of Ari Gold , and also appeared as a panelist on the NBC series The Marriage Ref . During the 2008 U.S Presidential Election , David supported and actively campaigned for Barack Obama . In December 2010 , David penned an op @-@ ed piece for The New York Times , a sardonic critique of the extension of Bush @-@ era tax cuts headlined " Thanks for the Tax Cut ! " David played Sister Mary @-@ Mengele in the 2012 reboot of The Three Stooges . David co @-@ wrote and starred in the 2013 HBO television film Clear History .
David stars in the Broadway play Fish In The Dark , which he also wrote , alongside Rita Wilson , Jayne Houdyshell and Rosie Perez . The play centers on the death of a family patriarch and opened March 5 , 2015 . As of February 1 , 2015 , its advance sale of $ 13 @.@ 5 million had broken records for a Broadway show .
In 2015 and 2016 , David had multiple guest appearances portraying 2016 U.S. presidential candidate Bernie Sanders on Saturday Night Live ; he also hosted the show on February 6 , 2016 , with musical guest The 1975 and a cameo from Sanders himself .
= = Personal life = =
David married Laurie Lennard on March 31 , 1993 . They have two daughters , and lived in Pacific Palisades , California . David and his wife became contributing bloggers at The Huffington Post in May 2005 . On June 5 , 2007 , the couple announced their intention to separate amicably . Laurie David filed for divorce on July 13 , 2007 , citing irreconcilable differences and seeking joint custody of the couple 's two daughters . As of 2013 , David 's estimated net worth was $ 900 million . However , the estimate according to a former Reuters reporter does not take into account the divorce . David also disputes the figure , saying he has nowhere near that amount .
The results of a DNA test shown live on Lopez Tonight in 2009 revealed that 37 % of David 's ethnic lineage might be Native American , though some criticism was shared about the method of testing that the show used . Specifically : " The best known quirk of the test Lopez Tonight is using is its problem distinguishing between Iberian , Italian , and Ashkenazi heritage . Many people of Iberian , Italian and Ashkenazi heritage are assigned Native American ancestry - and Larry David is Ashkenazi . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
Nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for various episodes of Seinfeld from 1991 – 1994 .
Won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the Seinfeld episode , The Contest , in 1993 .
Shared an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for Seinfeld with co @-@ creator , Jerry Seinfeld .
Nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy for his role in Curb Your Enthusiasm in 2002 , 2004 , & 2005 .
Voted by fellow comedians and comedy insiders as number 23 of the greatest comedy stars ever in a poll to select The Comedian 's Comedian .
Nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for his role in Curb Your Enthusiasm in 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2010 and 2012 .
Laurel Award for TV Writing Achievement from the Writers Guild of America in 2010 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Theatre = =
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= Canada 's Walk of Fame =
Canada 's Walk of Fame ( French : Allée des célébrités canadiennes ) , located in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , is a walk of fame that acknowledges the achievements and accomplishments of successful Canadians . It consists of a series of maple leaf @-@ like stars embedded in 13 designated blocks ' worth of sidewalks in Toronto , located in front of Roy Thomson Hall , The Princess of Wales Theatre , and The Royal Alexandra Theatre on King Street as well as Simcoe Street .
The first group of members was inducted in 1998 , and to date 163 Canadians have been inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame . These Inductees include athletes ; coaches ; actors , directors , writers and producers of movies , television and stage ; singers , songwriters and musicians ; playwrights ; authors ; comedians ; cartoonists and models .
= = History = =
The Walk of Fame was first conceived in 1996 when co @-@ founder , Peter Soumalias , suggested the idea of a Walk of Fame for famous Torontonians to the board of the Toronto Entertainment District Association . They rejected his idea , but he went on to establish a Walk of Fame for Canadians in partnership with Bill Ballard , Dusty Cohl and Gary Slaight . In spite of a lack of funds , research and no media plan , they managed to succeed and the first class of inductees was inducted in 1998 . Canada 's Walk of Fame has since become a popular tourist attraction in Toronto and has been named the number one Canadian recognition event .
= = Walk of Fame = =
= = = Induction process = = =
Canada 's Walk of Fame accepts nominations for potential inductees from the public year round , culminating with their National Nomination Promotion during the month of April . In 2000 , prior to the introduction of the online voting system , over 30 @,@ 000 nominations were received via letters , fax and e @-@ mail . Now submissions are accepted on the official Canada 's Walk of Fame website and thousands of nominations are received every year , which are then sent to selection committee for consideration .
The committee then analyzes the nominees based on the following criteria : the nominee was born in Canada or has spent their formative or creative years in Canada ; they have had a minimum of 10 years experience in their field ; they have had a national or international impact on Canada ’ s Cultural heritage . Following the Selection Committee 's evaluation , the nominees that meet all of the requirements are forwarded to the board of directors , who then select the inductees .
The process differs greatly from that of the Hollywood Walk of Fame . The Hollywood version allows only celebrities of the silver screen , television , radio , live theatre and singers / musicians , while Canada 's Walk allows people of more diverse occupations , as listed above . While most celebrities on the Hollywood Walk of Fame are American or have achieved their fame in the United States , Canada 's Walk of Fame is exclusive to Canadians . For someone to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , they must be nominated by a sponsor who must agree to field the approximately $ 25 @,@ 000 cost of installing a star . From there , the names are submitted to a nominating committee of five people , who pick 10 – 15 names to award stars to annually . The only criteria for it are : " professional achievement , longevity of five years or more , contributions to the community and the guarantee that the celebrity will attend the dedication ceremony if selected . "
Canadian stars are inducted in an annual group ceremony ; while the Hollywood Walk of Fame rarely inducts more than two major stars at a time . Celebrities can have more than one star on the Hollywood Walk , the same celebrity can receive as many as five stars under the various categories . This does not happen with Canada 's Walk of Fame , although some may have an individual star but are also included as part of a larger group , such as John Candy , Martin Short , Eugene Levy and Catherine O 'Hara who have their own star but also were in Second City Television .
= = = Induction ceremony = = =
New inductees are inducted annually at an unveiling ceremony where their star , a stylized maple leaf , is revealed . The first was held in 1998 and only four of the twelve living inductees attended : Karen Kain , Norman Jewison , Barbara Ann Scott and Rich Little . The 2007 ceremony was held at Toronto 's Hummingbird Centre , was attended by all seven inductees and was hosted by Eugene Levy .
Past hosts include Trish Stratus , Tom Green , Jann Arden , Kurt Browning and Catriona Le May Doan . The ceremony was broadcast by CTV until 2008 . Beginning in 2009 the ceremony was broadcast by Global . The first ceremony on the network was hosted by Anne Murray while Howie Mandel hosted for the following two years . Paul Shaffer hosted the event in 2012 .
= = Awards = =
= = = Cineplex Legends Award = = =
Established in 2008 , the Cineplex Legends Award is posthumously awarded to " Canadian pioneers in film , music , sport , arts , and innovation . " Sponsored by Cineplex Entertainment , the first recipients of the award were siblings Norma and Douglas Shearer . The award recipients are also given stars on the Walk of Fame .
= = = Allan Slaight Award = = =
First awarded in 2010 , the Allan Slaight Award , named after the leading figure in the Canadian radio industry , is awarded to a young Canadian for " making a positive impact in the fields of music , film , literature , visual or performing arts , sports , innovation or philanthropy . " Recipients receive an honorarium of $ 10 @,@ 000 from the Slaight Foundation , but are not considered inductees of the Walk of Fame . So far , recipients of the Slaight award have been Nikki Yanofsky , Drake , Melanie Fiona , Carly Rae Jepsen , The Weeknd and Shawn Mendes .
= = Initiatives & Programs = =
In recent years , Canada 's Walk of Fame undertaken several new initiatives and programs .
= = = Canada 's Walk of Fame Festival = = =
The Canada 's Walk of Fame Festival was established in 2010 . The festival spans 3 days , culminating with the Canada 's Walk of Fame Awards Show . Since its inaugural year , the festival has included musical performances from Canadian artists such as Sarah McLachlan , Serena Ryder , Crystal Shawanda , Tom Cochrane and Melanie Fiona . In addition to the musical performances , the festival has included both screenings of Canadian films , as well as comedy programming from Canadian comedy acts .
= = = RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize = = =
In 2012 , in partnership with RBC , Canada 's Walk of Fame launched the RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize competition . Valued at more than $ 100 @,@ 000 , the initiative aims to support the next generation of gifted Canadian musicians . Aspiring young musicians are asked to submit a 60 sec. musical audio or video performance for their chance to win the Grand Prize of $ 25 @,@ 000 cash , recording time , performance opportunities and much more . Taylor Kurta was the competitions inaugural Grand Prize Winner . The 2014 RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize was awarded to NEFE ( Sarah Felker ) from Guelph , ON .
= = Criticism = =
In 1998 , Laurie Brown of the CBC criticized the Walk of Fame , calling it " just an attraction to lure tourists to theatres in the area . " She claimed that it would only honour Canadians with international impact , saying " if it was truly for Canadians , then I think there would be more of a national bend to the whole thing . But I doubt I 'm going to see a star on the Walk of Fame that is only a known @-@ name here in Canada . "
In September 2010 , William Shatner commented on Twitter regarding damage to his star on the Walk of Fame : " I hear my star on the Canadian Walk of Fame is a bit frazzled ... but , then again , so am I. I wonder if anybody hovering around that area can tell me what ’ s wrong with it and what needs fixing . " The family of Gordie Howe also commented on the damage to Gordie 's star . The Canadian Press reported that " A number of celebrities ' stars are looking a bit rough around the edges . " The president of the Walk of Fame stated that damage was due to the freezing and thawing during Canadian winters and also sidewalk snowplows . It was announced that the city of Toronto would replace Shatner and Howe 's damaged tiles , and the Walk of Fame was looking into an alternative to installing the plaques on a sidewalk where they are subjected to harsh environmental conditions .
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= Robert R. Wilson =
Robert Rathbun Wilson ( March 4 , 1914 – January 16 , 2000 ) was an American physicist known for his work on the Manhattan Project during World War II , as a sculptor , and as an architect of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory ( Fermilab ) , where he was the first director from 1967 to 1978 .
A graduate of the University of California , Berkeley ( BA and PhD ) , Wilson received his doctorate under the supervision of Ernest Lawrence for his work on the development of the cyclotron at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . He subsequently went to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth on electromagnetic separation of the isotopes of uranium . In 1943 , Wilson and many of his colleagues joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where Wilson became the head of its Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) , and later its Research ( R ) Division .
After the war , Wilson briefly joined the faculty of Harvard University as an associate professor , then went to Cornell University as professor of physics and the director of its new Laboratory of Nuclear Studies . Wilson and his Cornell colleagues constructed four electron synchrotrons . In 1967 he assumed directorship of the National Accelerator Laboratory , subsequently known as the Fermilab . He managed to complete the facility on time and under budget , but at the same time made it aesthetically pleasing , with a main administrative building purposely reminiscent of the Beauvais Cathedral , and a restored prairie with a herd of American Bison . He resigned in 1978 in a protest against inadequate government funding .
= = Early life = =
Robert Rathbun Wilson was born in Frontier , Wyoming , in 1914 , the son of Platt Elvin and Edith Elizabeth ( Rathbun ) Wilson . He had an older sister , Mary Jane . His parents separated when he was eight years old , and custody was awarded to his father , although he lived with his mother from time to time . Much of his early life was spent on cattle ranches . He changed schools frequently , and attended a number of schools , including the Todd School in Woodstock , Illinois , where his grandmother worked .
Wilson entered the University of California , Berkeley , in 1932 , and was awarded his Bachelor of Arts ( AB ) degree cum laude in 1936 . He joined Ernest O. Lawrence 's Radiation Laboratory , which was at that time blossoming into the top American site for both experimental and theoretical physics due to the efforts of Lawrence and J. Robert Oppenheimer , respectively . Wilson received his Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) in 1940 for his thesis on " Theory of the Cyclotron " . That year he married Jane Inez Scheyer .
Wilson ran into trouble with Lawrence 's harsh frugality while working on his cyclotron and was fired twice from the Radiation Laboratory . The first time was for losing a rubber seal in the 37 @-@ inch cyclotron which prevented its use in a demonstration to a potential donor . He was later rehired at Luis Alvarez 's urging , but melted an expensive pair of pliers whilst welding , and was fired again . Though offered his job back , he decided instead to go to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth .
= = Manhattan Project = =
At Princeton , Wilson eventually took over Smyth 's project the development of an alternative approach to electromagnetic separation from Lawrence 's calutron method , used for the purpose of separating the fissile uranium @-@ 235 isotope of uranium from the much more common uranium @-@ 238 , which is a key step to producing an atomic bomb . By 1941 the project had produced a device called the " isotron , " which , unlike the calutron , used an electrical field to separate the uranium instead of a magnetic one .
The work at Princeton was terminated during World War II when Oppenheimer 's secret laboratory for research on the atomic bomb , the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos National Laboratory , opened in 1943 . " Like a bunch of professional soldiers , " Wilson later recalled , " we signed up , en masse , to go to Los Alamos . "
Wilson moved there with some of his Princeton staff and Harvard University 's cyclotron , and was appointed as head of the Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) by Oppenheimer . Only in his late twenties , he was the youngest group leader in the experimental division . The cyclotron would be used for measurements of the neutron cross section of plutonium .
When Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory in August 1944 to focus on the development of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon , Wilson became head of R ( Research ) Division . As such he had four groups reporting to him : the Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) , still headed by himself ; the Electrostatic Group ( R @-@ 2 ) , headed by John H. Williams ; the D @-@ D ( Deuterium @-@ Deuterium ) Group ( R @-@ 3 ) , headed by John H. Manley ; and the Radioactivity Group ( R @-@ 4 ) , headed by Emilio G. Segrè . In March 1945 , R Division acquired the additional responsibility of developing instrumentation for the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 . Wilson helped stack boxes of explosives for the 100 @-@ ton test that preceded it . At Los Alamos , he was also active in community affairs , serving on the town council .
In May 1945 , when Nazi Germany surrendered , and the initial motivation for the crash atomic bomb project dissipated as it was discovered that the German nuclear energy project was years behind , Wilson raised the question of whether they should continue with their work . News of this met with an icy reception from Major General Leslie Groves , director of the Manhattan Project . In later life , when interviewed in the Oscar @-@ nominated documentary The Day After Trinity ( 1980 ) , Wilson would say that he should have strongly considered ceasing work on the bomb after the surrender of Germany , and regretted not doing so to some extent .
After the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Wilson helped organize the Association of Los Alamos Scientists ( ALAS ) , which called , with a scientists ' petition , for the international control of atomic energy . The petition was carried by Oppenheimer to Washington , D.C. , eventually making its way via Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to President Harry S. Truman .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
After the war , Wilson also helped form the Federation of American Scientists and served as its chairman in 1946 . He accepted an appointment as an associate professor at Harvard , but spent the first eight months of 1946 at Berkeley designing a new 150 MeV cyclotron for Harvard to replace the one taken to Los Alamos . At Harvard , Wilson published a seminal paper , " Radiological Use of Fast Protons " , which founded the field of proton therapy .
= = = Cornell = = =
In 1947 Wilson went to Cornell University as professor of physics and the director of its new Laboratory of Nuclear Studies . At Cornell , Wilson and his colleagues constructed four electron synchrotrons . The first , a 300 MeV synchrotron , was under construction when he arrived . In a 1948 report to the Office of Naval Research , he described their purpose :
The most important problems of nuclear physics , to our minds are : What are the elementary particles of which nuclei are made and what is the nature of the forces that hold these particles together ? A more general but connected problem concerns the general expression of electrical laws at such high energies as will be produced by our synchrotron . Our experiments are planned to attack all three problems . Thus we hope to produce artificial mesons which are supposedly elementary particles and to study the interactions of these mesons with nuclei . Further , we shall explore the electrical interactions of high energy electrons with electrons and protons in search of evidence pointing to a correct theory of electricity at high energy .
Wilson initiated the construction of a 1 @.@ 4 GeV synchrotron in 1952 . As he had foreseen in 1948 , it produced artificial K mesons and rho mesons , and tested quantum electrodynamics at short distances . The last machine he built at Cornell was a 12 GeV synchrotron that remains in use as an injector for the Cornell Electron Storage Ring ( CESR ) , built between 1977 and 1999 . It is located in what is now known as the Wilson Synchrotron Laboratory .
Wilson was one of the first physicists to use Monte Carlo methods , which he used to model electron and proton initiated particle showers . He invented the quantometer so that he could measure the intensity of high @-@ energy X @-@ ray beams .
= = = Fermilab = = =
In 1967 he took a leave of absence from Cornell to assume directorship of the nascent National Accelerator Laboratory at Batavia , Illinois , which was to be largest particle accelerator constructed to date . In 1969 , Wilson was called to justify the multimillion @-@ dollar machine to the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy . Bucking the trend of the day , Wilson emphasized it had nothing at all to do with national security , rather :
It only has to do with the respect with which we regard one another , the dignity of men , our love of culture ... It has to do with : Are we good painters , good sculptors , great poets ? I mean all the things that we really venerate and honor in our country and are patriotic about . In that sense , this new knowledge has all to do with honor and country but it has nothing to do directly with defending our country except to help make it worth defending .
Thanks to Wilson 's talented leadership , a management style very much adopted from Lawrence , the facility was completed on time and under budget . According to Wilson , he gave Atomic Energy Commission chairman Glenn T. Seaborg his assurance " signed in blood " that he would not exceed the authorized $ 250 million budget and " would rot in Hell " if he did . The facility centered on a four @-@ mile circumference , 400 GeV accelerator . Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the Tevatron , a 1 TeV particle accelerator . The National Accelerator Laboratory , was renamed the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in 1974 , after Enrico Fermi . It is frequently referred to as " Fermilab " .
Wilson had studied sculpture at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in Italy while on sabbatical in 1961 , and he wanted Fermilab to be an appealing place to work , believing that external harmony would encourage internal harmony as well , and labored personally to keep it from looking like a stereotypical " government lab " , playing a key role in its design and architecture . Surrounding the facility was a restored prairie which served as a home to a herd of American Bison that started with Wilson bringing in a bull and four cows in 1969 .
The site also had ponds , and a main building purposely reminiscent of the Beauvais Cathedral . Fermilab also celebrates his role as a sculptor , featuring several of his works , including " The Mobius Strip " , " The Hyperbolic Obelisk " , " Tractricious " , and " Broken Symmetry " . Another metal sculpture " Topological III " sits in the lobby of the Harvard Science Center . Fermilab 's Central Laboratory building was named Robert Rathbun Wilson Hall in his honor in 1980 .
Wilson served as the director of Fermilab until 1978 , when he resigned in protest against what he considered was inadequate funding by the Federal government . He then joined the faculty of the University of Chicago as Ritzma Professor at the Enrico Fermi Institute . He became Emeritus Professor of Physics at Chicago in 1980 . He moved to Columbia University , where he became I. I. Rabi Visiting Professor of Science and Human Relations in 1979 , Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1980 , and Emeritus Professor in 1982 . He retired in 1983 and moved back to Ithaca , NY .
= = Awards and honors = =
Wilson received many awards and honors , including the Elliott Cresson Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1964 , the National Medal of Science in 1973 , and the Department of Energy 's Enrico Fermi Award in 1984 . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society , and was president of the American Physical Society in 1985 .
= = Death = =
Wilson suffered a stroke in 1999 , from which he never recovered . He died on January 16 , 2000 , at the age of 85 , at a nursing home in Ithaca , New York , and was buried at the 19th @-@ century Pioneer Cemetery on the Fermilab site . He was survived by his wife , Jane ; his three sons , Daniel , Jonathan and Rand ; and his sister , Mary Jane Greenhill . His papers are in the Cornell University Library .
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= Props ( Glee ) =
" Props " is the twentieth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the sixty @-@ fourth overall . Written and directed by Ian Brennan , the episode is the first of two new episodes that aired back @-@ to @-@ back on Fox in the United States on May 15 , 2012 . It features New Directions preparing a new performance routine for the impending Nationals competition , an extended sequence in which Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) has a vision of the glee club having swapped roles , including herself as Rachel , and an appearance by special guest star Whoopi Goldberg as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux .
The episode received mostly positive reviews overall , though reaction to the musical performances was not as strong . The body @-@ swap sequence was given an enthusiastic reception . The scenes featuring Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) were also much praised , and in particular the pair 's acting was highlighted . Their performance of the song " Mean " , by contrast , received the most divergent reactions from reviewers , yet it was the one song from the four singles released from the episode to chart in North America , and debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 09 million American viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was down significantly from " Prom @-@ asaurus " the week before .
= = Plot = =
When New Directions starts planning a setlist for the impending Nationals competition , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) is frustrated that Rachel ( Lea Michele ) is again singing lead while she remains stuck in the background , and walks out . When Rachel tries to bribe her to withdraw her objections , she tells Rachel that she wants to experience a standing ovation of her own . Tina later falls into a fountain and strikes her head , which causes her to experience a vision in which all of the glee club members have switched roles , — most notably , she sees herself as Rachel and Rachel as Tina . " Rachel " performs " Because You Loved Me " , and the club gives her a standing ovation . She thanks " Tina " for her support , and " Tina " in turn gives " Rachel " advice on how to salvage her failed NYADA audition . After Tina comes back to reality , she conveys that advice : Rachel should see NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux ( Whoopi Goldberg ) in person — she is conducting a master class at Oberlin . Tina drives Rachel there , but Carmen has been annoyed by Rachel 's repeated messages and says she does not deserve any special attention . Tina disagrees , telling Carmen that although Rachel wants whatever she can gets and is " a pain in the ass " , but retorts that Rachel gets it all because she is exceptional . Rachel invites Carmen to attend their Nationals performance , and pledges to audition for NYADA every year until she is accepted .
Sue ( Jane Lynch ) announces that rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline is the team to beat , thanks mostly to its transgender lead singer Wade " Unique " Adams ( Alex Newell ) , who has become a media star . Sue decides that New Directions needs a similar gimmick to win and she tells Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) to dress in drag , but he adamantly refuses . Puck ( Mark Salling ) dons a dress and volunteers to lead the drag number , but Will vetoes the gimmickry and refocuses the group on its choreography .
Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) are worried because Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) has not left her abusive husband , Cooter ( Eric Bruskotter ) , as she claimed . Beiste tells them that adult relationships are more complex and insists she is fine . Hockey player Rick " The Stick " ( Rock Anthony ) ridicules Puck for being seen in the dress ; they agree to a fight outside the school . Rick gains the upper hand and Puck is thrown into a dumpster , but he emerges brandishing a switchblade . Coach Beiste breaks up the fight ; in the locker room , Puck tells her that the knife is a fake stage prop , and she retorts that he could have gotten expelled . Puck replies that he is flunking out anyway and a failure , telling her that she does not know what it feels like to be worthless . He breaks down , and Beiste comforts him as he cries . At home , Beiste tells Cooter that she is leaving him , and removes her wedding ring . He asks who else would love her ; she answers : " Me " . Back at the school auditorium , she joins Puck in singing " Mean " , tells him that she has arranged for him to retake a crucial test to graduate , and promises to help him pass . As the episode ends , Rachel and Tina sing " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " , and board the glee club 's bus to Nationals .
= = Production = =
This episode was written by Glee co @-@ creator Ian Brennan , who also made his directorial debut in this episode . While the first scenes for the episode were shot on March 30 , 2012 , on a day that also saw scenes shot for the previous two episodes , shooting on the episode began in earnest on Monday , April 9 , 2012 , after the completion of the prior episode at the end of the week before . Filming continued into the following week at least through Wednesday , April 18 , 2012 , by which point the next episode had begun shooting in parallel .
The plot has Tina suffering a " mild " head injury — she falls into a fountain — that causes her to see an alternate reality version of New Directions : actors playing club members had to swap roles with another actor in the cast . Chris Colfer , who normally plays Kurt Hummel , said that the portrayals " were really hard to nail — they 're not over the top by any means " . Pairs who are swapping roles include Tina and Rachel , Kurt and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Joe ( Samuel Larsen ) , Puck and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) and Santana , Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Sugar ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Rory ( Damian McGinty ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , Mercedes and Brittany , and Will and Sue .
In addition to those mentioned above , other recurring roles include football coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) and her husband , football recruiter Cooter Menkins ( Bruskotter ) , and Newell as Vocal Adrealine lead singer Wade " Unique " Adams . Special guest star Whoopi Goldberg returns for a second appearance as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux .
Four songs from the episode were released in the US as singles available for digital download : Taylor Swift 's " Mean " performed by Jones and Salling , Jason Mraz 's " I Won 't Give Up " performed by Michele , Irene Cara 's " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " performed by Michele and Ushkowitz , and Celine Dion 's " Because You Loved Me " performed by Ushkowitz as Rachel . " I Won 't Give Up " is also featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , The Graduation Album . A fifth song , an excerpt of " Always True to You in My Fashion " from Kiss Me Kate , is performed by an unnamed male student ( Derek L. Butler ) singing in a master class for Carmen ; it was not released as a single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Props " was first broadcast on May 15 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It aired at the usual time for an episode as the first hour in a two @-@ hour special evening with " Nationals " as the second hour . It received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 6 @.@ 09 million American viewers during its initial airing , down from the 2 @.@ 7 / 8 rating / share and 6 @.@ 67 million viewers of the previous episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which was broadcast on May 8 , 2012 . Viewership was down significantly in Canada , which also aired the episode as the first hour of a two @-@ episode special , where 1 @.@ 34 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere , down over 18 % . It was the fourteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down from thirteenth in the previous week , when 1 @.@ 65 million viewers watched " Prom @-@ asaurus " .
Although the United Kingdom also aired these two episodes together , viewership rose rather than fell . " Props " first aired on May 17 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 795 @,@ 000 viewers . This was an increase of nearly 7 % from the previous episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which attracted 744 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Props " was broadcast on May 17 , 2012 , but unlike in the other three countries , it was the only episode broadcast that week . It was watched by 607 @,@ 000 viewers , a decrease of over 4 % from the 636 @,@ 000 viewers for " Prom @-@ asaurus " on May 10 , 2012 . Glee was the seventeenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from thirteenth the week before .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . John Kubicek of BuddyTV called it " easily my favorite episode of the past two seasons , and quite possibly one of the best episodes the show has ever made " . Damian Holbrook of TV Guide described it and the episode that followed , " Nationals " , as " clever , funny and filled with moments that felt like little gifts to the fans who have hung in there " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson said the " double feature continued the recent hot streak " of episodes , and Michael Slezak of TVLine highlighted this episode 's " script that winkingly acknowledged fan complaints that Ryan Murphy & Co. all too often ignore some of Glee 's original players in favor of new and more @-@ hyped flavors " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff wrote that it showcased writer and director Ian Brennan 's " strengths of acid comedy and sad stories of small @-@ town teenagers who 'll never get anything but to sweat it out on the streets of a runaway American dream " ; he gave " Props " a " B " grade . Rae Votta of Billboard said , " It felt organically Glee , zany but with heart . "
E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins thought the body @-@ swap sequence " breathed fresh ' n ' crazy air into Glee " , and Kubicek called it " the best thing Glee has ever done and will ever do " . Jyll Saskin of MTV said it was " super trippy , makes no sense plot @-@ wise " and was a " totally awesome Glee moment " ; Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker wrote that " the entire cast deserved an MVP award for their completely on @-@ point mannerisms " , and singled out " Finn and Puck all snuggly together , holding hands and dressed up like Kurt and Blaine " . VanDerWerff , however , described it as a " totally odd curiosity that comes out of nowhere " , and said that the car trip taken by Tina and Rachel later in the episode was more successful at showing Tina " what Rachel 's life is like " . Kubicek called the offer of the trip and subsequent drive a " sweet bonding moment " between the pair , and called it " great " that " Tina is the one who saves the day " at the meeting with Carmen , but Chaney wondered why it took Rachel two episodes to regain her drive and aspirations .
The scenes with Puck and Beiste were much praised , as were the actors . While reviewers such as Bell and VanDerWerff criticized the domestic abuse storyline , both were far happier with the way it was ended than with how it had been introduced in " Choke " — VanDerWerff wrote that " the fact that both Puck and Beiste 's storylines resolve at the same time in the same scene is a nice piece of writing , with some strong acting " . Votta called the pair 's scenes " delightful " and thought they merited a " road trip adventure spin @-@ off " ; Bell said that she " could have seriously watched an hour dedicated to Beiste and Puck " . Slezak highlighted " terrific work " by Jones and Salling , and the scenes with " Beiste holding a sobbing Puck " and confronting Cooter as " pretty remarkable " . Strecker called the latter scene " painful to watch , in the best possible way " , and Bell described Salling 's performance in the former as " truly incredible " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances were greeted with somewhat less enthusiasm than the episode as a whole , and given mixed to positive reviews . An example of this was the song 's opening number , " I Won 't Give Up " . Saskin wrote that " Rachel sings Jason Mraz , like everything else , beautifully " , while Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman credits her for having made a " sappy ballad mildly more tolerable " . Strecker gave the performance a " B + " grade and called it a " classic Berry power ballad " ; " B " grades were given by Slezak and Washington Post 's Jen Chaney , who also noted Rachel 's " vocal power " .
" Because You Loved Me " performed by Tina as Rachel received the most consistently positive reviews , though both Chaney , who gave the song an " A − " , and Strecker , who graded it a " B + " , stated their belief that the real Rachel would have done it better , and Saskin was more blunt : " We love you , Tina , but you just can 't belt like Rachel " . Futterman was the most pleased , and wrote : " The richness of her voice removes some of the Lite FM softness embedded in the tune , and it really is great to see Tina get a song that suits her vocal abilities " .
The most divergent views were expressed about Puck and Beiste 's performance of " Mean " . Crystal Bell of Huffington Post asked , " How could you not be moved by their duet in the auditorium ? " E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins called it " one of the highlights of the season " , and Slezak gave it a grade of " A " . Chaney 's " B + " followed her statement that " it was more effective than Swift 's version because I can believe that both Puck and Beiste have had it rough " , and Strecker described it as " lovely and thematically perfect " and gave it a " B " . VanDerWerff said he " could have done without " their duet , and Futterman was even harsher : " it was quite unfortunate " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson wrote that he " sort of liked " how the pair were " simultaneously improving upon and butchering a Taylor Swift song " , and Saskin characterized it as " heartfelt and passionate " .
Futterman said of " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " that " there was a glimmer of old @-@ school Glee in the performance , carefree underdog status that made me smile " . Saskin and Chaney both found the performance lacking ; the former wrote that " something about this version falls flat " , and Chaney gave it a " B − " and said it " wasn 't as soaring as it could have been " , though " Rachel and Tina 's bonding moment was sweet " and she liked " the way it took us from hour one into hour two and Nationals " . Slezak and Strecker both gave the performance an " A − " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the four singles released for the episode , " Mean " , charted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ one , which was higher than either of the two songs that debuted on that chart from " Nationals " in the same week ; none of these songs charted in the US . One other single from the episode , " I Won 't Give Up " , though it did not sell well enough to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 the week it was released , affected the charting there of the Jason Mraz original , which moved up from thirty @-@ four to twenty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 ; it had previously charted as high as number eight .
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