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= Kroger Babb =
Howard W. " Kroger " Babb ( December 30 , 1906 – January 28 , 1980 ) was an American film and television producer and showman . His marketing techniques were similar to a travelling salesman 's , with roots in the medicine @-@ show tradition . Self @-@ described as " America 's Fearless Young Showman , " he is best known for his presentation of the 1945 exploitation film Mom and Dad , which was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2005 .
Babb was involved in the production and marketing of many films and television shows , promoting each according to his favorite marketing motto : " You gotta tell ' em to sell ' em . " His films ranged from sex education @-@ style dramas to " documentaries " on foreign cultures , intended to titillate audiences rather than to educate them , maximizing profits via marketing gimmicks .
= = Youth = =
Babb was born in 1906 in Lees Creek , Ohio , USA ( near Wilmington ) . He earned the nickname " Kroger " either from his childhood job at the grocer of the same name or from his father 's preference for B.H. Kroger coffee . Babb held a number of jobs during his youth , gaining a mention in Ripley 's Believe It Or Not for refereeing a record number of youth sports games . He started out with jobs in sportswriting and reporting at a local newspaper in his 20s , and even showed signs of his later work while showcasing " Digger " O 'Dell , the " living corpse , " but first achieved success after his promotion to publicity manager for the Chakeres @-@ Warners movie theaters , where he would create different kinds of stunts to lure audiences — for example , a drawing to award two bags of groceries to one ticket holder at selected theaters . Another gimmick was to find a furniture store window where a bedroom suite was on display , and there Babb would place a large sign reading " Win a bedroom suit ( theatre location & date listed ) " . This always ensured a packed house , and the " lucky " winner was awarded with a pair of pajamas . These experiences led him to the exploitation film business .
In the early 1940s Babb joined Cox and Underwood , a company that obtained the rights to poorly made or otherwise unmarketable films of subjects that were potentially controversial or shocking . It would often remove entire sections of these films and add material such as medical reels that lent itself to sensational promotion . Babb went on the road with a Cox and Underwood concoction titled Dust to Dust , a reworking of High School Girl with a childbirth scene added to the end . Its profits allowed Cox and Underwood to retire from the business , leaving Babb to start his own company , Hygienic Productions . He opened it near his childhood home in Wilmington , Ohio , and hired booking agents and advance salesmen along with out @-@ of @-@ work actors and comedians to present repackaged films and new features .
= = Film promotion = =
Babb is best known for his presentation of exploitation films , a term many in the business would embrace . According to The Hollywood Reporter , his success came from picking topics that would be easily sensationalized , such as religion and sex . His expenses were estimated at 5 % for selling , and his distribution overhead near 7 % , resulting in some of the largest per @-@ dollar returns in the film industry .
Babb 's biggest success was Mom and Dad , which he conceived and produced and which William Beaudine directed in six days . Babb headed the promotion of this film following its premiere in early 1945 , often going on the road with it himself . The film , a morality tale about a young girl who becomes pregnant and struggles to find someone to turn to , cost $ 62 @,@ 000 and over 300 prints were struck and sent to theaters all over the country , with a " presenter " — later known as an advance man — and the presenter would stir up his own controversy in the weeks preceding the film 's arrival by writing protest letters to local churches and newspapers and fabricating letters from the mayors of nearby cities relating tales of young women encouraged by the film to discuss similar predicaments .
The third highest grossing film of its decade , Mom and Dad was claimed by Babb to have made $ 63 @,@ 000 for every $ 1 @,@ 000 the original investors contributed , and the Los Angeles Times estimated that it grossed anywhere from $ 40 million to $ 100 million . Its success spawned a number of imitations , such as Street Corner and The Story of Bob and Sally , that eventually flooded the market , but it was still being shown around the world decades later and ultimately was added to the National Film Registry in 2005 .
The success of Mom and Dad was mostly due to Babb 's marketing strategy of overwhelming a small town with ads and generating controversy . Eric Schaefer explains :
Acknowledging that his films were unknown quantities , Babb advocated a " 100 % saturation campaign . " In his sample situation--The Deadwood Theater in Movie @-@ hater , Missouri , with a potential audience base of twenty @-@ four thousand--Babb suggested sending tabloid heralds to all seven thousand homes in the area at a cost of $ 196 , spending $ 65 for newspaper ads , $ 50 on radio , plus an additional $ 65 for three hundred window cards , hand @-@ out teaser cards , pennants , and posters . The total came to almost $ 400 , or the same amount the theater owner would normally spend on advertising in the course of an entire month . Babb always claimed that with his formula the profit would outweigh the investment ...
The film became so ubiquitous that Time said its presentation " left only the livestock unaware of the chance to learn the facts of life . " Babb also made sure that each showing of the film followed a similar format : adults @-@ only screenings segregated by gender , and live lectures by " Fearless Hygiene Commentator Elliot Forbes " during an intermission . At any one time , hundreds of Elliot Forbeses would be giving a lecture at the same time in a variety of locations . ( in some predominantly African @-@ American areas , Olympic gold medalist Jesse Owens appeared instead , a trend he 'd continue with films like " She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " ) According to entertainer Card Mondor , an Elliot Forbes in the 1940s who later purchased the Australian and New Zealand rights for Mom and Dad , the Forbeses were " mostly local men ( from Wilmington , Ohio ) who were trained to give the lecture . . . [ I ] t was a cross @-@ section of the male population , mostly clean @-@ cut young guys . . . The whole concept would have never worked with a trashy look . "
During the intermission and after the showing , books relevant to the subject of the film were sold . Mom and Dad 's distributor Modern Film Distributors sold over 45 @,@ 000 copies of Man and Boy and Woman and Girl , written by Babb 's wife , netting an estimated $ 31 @,@ 000 . According to Babb , these cost about eight cents to produce , and were sold for $ 1 apiece . While Modern Film was able to sell 45 @,@ 000 on its own , Babb estimates sales of 40 million , citing " IRS figures . " This sort of companion selling would become common practice for Babb : with the religious film The Lawton Story ( AKA @-@ Prince of Peace ) , he would sell Bibles and other spiritual literature ; and with his fidelity film Why Men Leave Home books featuring beauty tips .
With other films , Babb would try different approaches . For She Shoulda Said No ! , an anti @-@ marijuana film of the 1950s , he highlighted the sexual scenes and arranged " one @-@ time @-@ only " midnight showings , claiming that his company was working with the United States Treasury Department to release the film " in as many towns and cities as possible in the shortest possible length of time " as a public service . David F. Friedman , another successful exploitation filmmaker of the era , has attributed the " one @-@ time @-@ only " distribution to a quality so low that Babb wanted to cash in and move to his next stop as fast as possible . At each showing of a film , a singing of " The Star Spangled Banner " was also required .
As well as being at the forefront of the battles over censorship and the motion picture censorship system , the exploitation genre faced numerous challenges during the 1940s and 1950s . It was estimated that Babb was sued over 400 times just for Mom and Dad ( Babb himself claimed 428 ) . He would often use the supposed educational value of the films as a defense , also recommending it to theater owners ; in his pressbook for Karamoja , he wrote , " When a stupid jerk tries to outsmart proven facts , he should be in an asylum , not a theater . "
Despite the criticism that Babb drew for Mom and Dad , in 1951 he received the first annual Sid Grauman Showmanship Award , presented by the Hollywood Rotary Club in honor of his accomplishments over the years .
= = Later films = =
Following the success of Mom and Dad , Babb renamed his company Hallmark Productions , continuing the marketing approaches of Hygienic Productions while going beyond health and sex education films . He would later set up a larger distribution company , named Hallmark 's Big @-@ 6 .
Babb cheaply acquired the rights to what would become " She Shoulda Said No ! " shortly after Robert Mitchum and Lila Leeds were arrested for marijuana use . Its original producer had struggled to get it distributed as Wild Weed , and Babb quickly presented it as The Story of Lila Leeds and Her Exposé of the Marijuana Racket , hoping that the title would draw audiences . When it failed to stir up much interest , Babb instead focused on the one scene of female nudity , using a photo of Leeds in a showgirl outfit , and retitled it " She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " , with taglines such as " How Bad Can a Good Girl Get . . . without losing her virtue or respect ? ? ? " According to Friedman , Babb 's midnight presentation of the film twice a week made more money than any other film at the same theater would earn over a full run ; Friedman proceeded to use the film in his own roadshow double features .
Babb 's associates agreed with his belief that " Nothing 's hopeless if it 's advertised right " , stating that he " could take any piece of junk and sell it . " One film Babb presented in the 1950s was centered on an annual passion play and the story behind putting it on , filmed in 1948 in Lawton , Oklahoma . Initially called The Lawton Story and filmed in Cinecolor , the film was so cheaply , shoddily and quickly made that telephone poles could be seen behind the crucifix . Its cast consisted of local non @-@ professionals whose Oklahoma twangs were so thick that all of their lines had to re @-@ recorded by professional voice @-@ over actors ; upon release , one reviewer described it as " the only film that had to be dubbed from English to English . " In addition to re @-@ dubbing it , Babb re @-@ edited and re @-@ titled it The Prince of Peace ; it was so successful that the New York Daily News called it " the Miracle of Broadway . "
Another film , Karamoja , was marketed as a shocking portrayal of a tribe from Uganda who wore " only the wind and live [ d ] on blood and beer . " Scenes included " the bleeding of cattle and drinking of the warm blood , and self @-@ mutilation as a form of ornamentation , " as well as a full @-@ color circumcision scene . Karamoja proved less controversial than many of Babb 's other films and grossed less .
Babb never repeated the overwhelming success of Mom and Dad , and he followed much of the exploitation industry in turning to burlesque features in an attempt to make more money . One notorious attempt was his acquisition of the American theatrical rights for Ingmar Bergman 's Sommaren med Monika ( Summer with Monika ) . About one @-@ third of the film was cut , and the remaining 62 minutes emphasized nudity by retaining a skinny @-@ dipping scene ; the result was titled Monika , the Story of a Bad Girl . Suggestive advertising art , including promotional postcards , portrayed the nude rear of Harriet Andersson .
Babb 's final film was his presentation of a European version of Harriet Beecher Stowe 's book Uncle Tom 's Cabin . This was described by Friedman as one of the most " unintentionally funny exploitation films ever made , " filled with " second @-@ rate Italian actors who could barely speak English . "
= = Other ventures = =
After the success of Mom and Dad , Babb talked of an " unrealized " project called Father Bingo , which he advertised in BoxOffice magazine as " An Expose of Gambling in the Parish Halls " and described as a comedy with an anti @-@ gambling message about a corrupt priest who runs a " controlled " bingo night at his parish . Babb called it " the best ' snow @-@ job ' of my life , " and it has been speculated that he never intended to make it , despite the trade ads that appeared for years .
Babb was involved with many film production companies along with his own , including Southwestern Productions . On the strength of his past successes , Babb joined John Miller 's film production company , Miller @-@ Consolidated Pictures , as vice president and general manager in 1959 . Babb advocated the use of the hard @-@ selling technique he had perfected as a presenter : " selling the sizzle instead of the steak " , according to an interview . He wrote a column for BoxOffice at the same time . His personal anecdotes provided advice for selling films , such as writing off expenses as tax deductions , and using women 's clubs to expand advertising and revenues cheaply . He noted that there were " over 30 @,@ 000 women 's clubs , " and that " practically every women 's club has a 16mm projector . "
In 1963 Babb formed another distribution company , Studio 10 @,@ 001 . Operating in Beverly Hills ( and claiming representation in Canada , Japan , Australia , and New Zealand ) , it used similar roadshow techniques to market television programs such as The Ern Westmore Show . Babb also acted as a showman for hire , promoting others ' films when not working on his own . Among them was a nudie @-@ cutie picture titled Kipling 's Women , a peep show , and Five Minutes to Love , a reworking of a Rue McClanahan film .
Babb began creating promotion kits entitled " Who 's Got the Ball ? " in an attempt to teach his craft to would @-@ be presenters . Marketing himself as " MR. PIHSNAMWOHS " ( " showmanship " backwards ) , he advertised in BoxOffice . He also dabbled in other areas , writing tirades against pay television and creating a pyramid scheme titled " The Idea Factory . " One of his schemes was the " Astounding Swedish Ice Cream Diet " : overweight throughout his life , Babb claimed to have eaten ice cream three times a day , yet to have lost 100 pounds in 45 days .
= = Personal life = =
Babb met Mildred Horn in 1944 during a showing of Dust to Dust in Indianapolis , where she was working as a movie critic ; her review of the film called it a " cheap , mislabeled morality play , " but the two struck up a conversation about it . They stayed together in a common @-@ law marriage ; Horn wrote a number of Babb 's screenplays , including Mom and Dad , as well as companion books .
In November 1953 Babb was arrested on a drunk @-@ driving charge after running a red traffic light and refusing a sobriety test . His $ 250 bail was continued , and he was not convicted , although this mishap to the recent creator of the anti @-@ alcohol film One Too Many was widely covered in the press .
Babb had tax troubles in the years after his success with Mom and Dad . He suggested to the Press @-@ Enterprise that his operation was so diffuse that sales of his one @-@ dollar sex education pamphlets were too difficult to track accurately . Babb eventually sold the rights to Mom and Dad and his stake in Modern Film Distributors to Erwin Joseph and Floyd Lewis — former partners in Modern Film who would continue to showcase Mom and Dad across the United States .
Babb suffered from various ailments toward the end of his life , including a stroke . He retired in 1977 , at 70 , and died of heart failure ( due to complications from diabetes ) on January 29 , 1980 , in Palm Springs , California . He was survived by his wife , a son and five grandchildren . Babb is buried in the Centerville Cemetery in Lees Creek , Ohio . His gravestone reads , " His many trips around and all over the world began in Centerville and end here in Lees Creek . "
= = Works = =
Babb worked in various areas of the entertainment industry , in both traditional and exploitation genres . He claimed to have made twenty films , and produced for television , radio , and even the stage . This is an incomplete collection of works owing to the nature of the exploitation genre . The titles are as they were finally presented by Babb , with earlier titles noted in parentheses .
= = = As film producer = = =
Dust to Dust ( previously Child Bride ) ( 1938 )
Mom and Dad ( previously A Family Story ) ( 1945 )
The Prince of Peace ( previously The Lawton Story ) ( 1949 )
One Too Many ( previously Mixed @-@ Up Women , Killer With a Label , The Important Story of Alcoholism ) ( 1950 )
Why Men Leave Home ( previously Secrets of Beauty ) ( 1951 )
Halfway to Hell ( 1954 )
Walk the Walk ( 1970 )
= = = As film writer = = =
One Too Many
= = = As film distributor = = =
" She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " ( previously Marijuana , the Devil 's Weed , The Devil 's Weed , Wild Weed , The Story of Lila Leeds and Her Exposé of the Marijuana Racket ) ( 1949 )
Monika , the Story of a Bad Girl ( original title Sommaren med Monika , later re @-@ issued by others in full as Summer with Monika ) ( 1949 )
Delinquent Angels ( 1951 )
The Best is Yet to Come ( 1951 )
Halfway to Hell ( 1954 )
Karamoja ( 1954 )
Kipling 's Women ( 1961 )
Kwaheri ( 1961 )
Five Minutes to Love ( previously The Rotten Apple , It Only Takes Five Minutes ) ( 1963 )
Uncle Tom 's Cabin ( 1970 ) originally released in Europe in 1965
Redheads vs. Blondes ( undated )
= = = Television = = =
The Ern Westmore Hollywood Glamour Show , producer ( 1953 )
Your Show of Shows , producer ( 1963 )
= = = Stage = = =
French Follies
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= Washington State Route 409 =
State Route 409 ( SR 409 ) is a short Washington state highway in Wahkiakum County . The highway runs north from the Wahkiakum County Ferry on Puget Island to SR 4 in the county seat of Cathlamet over a distance of 3 @.@ 84 miles ( 6 @.@ 18 km ) . The route connects Westport , Oregon , which is served by the county ferry , and Cathlamet . The highway was referred to as Secondary State Highway 12F ( SSH 12F ) from 1943 until 1964 .
SR 409 crosses the Cathlamet Channel on the Julia Butler Hansen Bridge , completed in August 1939 . The bridge is named after former U.S. representative Julia Butler Hansen , who served from 1960 until 1974 representing the third congressional district including Wahkiakum County .
= = Route description = =
SR 409 goes on a 3 @.@ 84 miles ( 6 @.@ 18 km ) route north from the northern ferry dock of the Wahkiakum County Ferry on Puget Island , to SR 4 , also referred to as the Ocean Beach Highway , in the county seat of Cathlamet . The route connects Westport , Oregon , which is served by the county ferry , and Cathlamet . The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) found in 2007 that , on average , more than 2 @,@ 800 motorists utilize the road daily south of the northern terminus in Cathlamet , making the highway the second busiest state route in the county , after SR 4 at Boege Road , which more than 4 @,@ 100 motorists utilize daily .
SR 409 originates at the ferry dock on Puget Island which serves as the northern end of the Wahkiakum County Ferry . From the dock , the road travels north past the island 's interior , before turning northwest to parallel the Cathlamet Channel . After intersecting Little Island Road , the highway immediately turns onto the Julia Butler Hansen Bridge spanning over the Cathlamet Channel . Once SR 409 exits off the bridge in Cathlamet , it becomes Front Street . Later , after intersecting River Street and Columbia Street , the highway becomes Main Street , the designation used from the intersection point to SR 4 .
= = = Ferry = = =
The year @-@ round Wahkiakum County Ferry , designated Wahkiakum , runs from Westport , Oregon to the southern terminus of SR 409 at Puget Island . The ferry connects SR 409 to a road that connects to U.S. Route 30 , which runs 477 @.@ 02 miles ( 767 @.@ 69 km ) across Oregon ; Wahkiakum County began running the ferry in 1962 , on a route from Westport to Puget Island . The ferry travels more than eighteen trips per day , and runs from 5 : 00 am to 10 : 15 pm and holds up to nine vehicles . The ferry costs 50 ¢ for foot passengers , $ 1 for bicycles , $ 2 for motorcycles , and $ 3 for passenger cars and other vehicles under 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Vehicles over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) cannot travel on the ferry ; motorhomes , large trucks and trailers are allowed on the ferry for a fare determined by length . Frequent Traveler Tickets can be purchased for $ 40 ( 22 trips ) and $ 75 ( 44 trips ) for vehicles under 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The first ferry launched in June 1925 , when Walter Coates bought two ferries and began to operate them on two different routes , including the current one and a route from Puget Island to Cathlamet . The county later replaced the Puget Island – Cathlamet route with the Puget Island – Cathlamet Bridge in 1939 .
= = History = =
= = = Bridge ( 1925 – 1939 ) = = =
In June 1925 , Walter Coates began a ferry service across the Cathlamet Channel , from Puget Island to Cathlamet . The original ferry was later replaced by the Cathlamet , which could load cars . In 1932 , Coates sold the ferry service , fearing that the newly completed Ocean Beach Highway , soon to be SR 4 , would press drivers to the competing Astoria – Megler Ferry . In 1939 , the year the Julia Butler Hansen Bridge opened , ferry service ceased on the Puget Island – Cathlamet run .
The Julia Butler Hansen Bridge , which currently carries the route of SR 409 , which will be designated in 1964 , from Puget Island to Cathlamet , opened in August 1939 . The bridge , initially named the Puget Island – Cathlamet Bridge , was later renamed to honor Julia Butler Hansen , who served in the Washington House of Representatives from 1939 until 1960 , and U.S. representative for the third congressional district from 1960 until 1974 .
Lacey V. Murrow , R. W. Finke and Clark H. Eldridge designed the bridge , which spanned 2 @,@ 433 feet ( 742 m ) and consisted of four steel spans when first constructed . Steel comprises the majority of the truss bridge 's structure . President Franklin D. Roosevelt commenced the five @-@ day celebration of the bridge 's opening with a ribbon cutting , remotely controlled from the White House via telegraph .
= = = Designation ( 1943 – present ) = = =
After a reconstruction of the Primary and Secondary Highways in 1943 , the road that later became SR 409 was established as Secondary State Highway 12F ( SSH 12F ) . SSH 12F became SR 409 in 1964 during the 1964 highway renumbering , in which the WSDOT replaced the previous system of Primary and Secondary Highways with a new system called State Routes , which is still in use today .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Wahkiakum County .
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= SMS Blitz =
SMS Blitz was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the lead ship of her class . She had one sister ship , SMS Pfeil . Blitz was built at the Norddeutscher Schiffbau dockyard ; she was laid down in 1881 , was launched in August 1882 , and was commissioned in March 1883 . The ship 's career was uneventful ; she served as a flotilla leader for torpedo boats until 1900 . In 1903 , she became a fleet tender . She was briefly mobilized at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but she returned to fleet tender duties in 1915 , where she remained for the duration of the conflict . She was stricken from the naval register in March 1921 and was broken up for scrap later that year .
= = Design = =
Blitz was 78 @.@ 43 meters ( 257 @.@ 3 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft ) and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 07 m ( 13 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 486 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 463 long tons ; 1 @,@ 638 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by eight coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 7 kn ( 29 @.@ 1 km / h ; 18 @.@ 1 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 440 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 520 km ; 2 @,@ 810 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Blitz had a crew of 7 officers and 127 enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with one 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) K L / 23 gun placed in a pivot mount . The gun was supplied with 100 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with four 8 @.@ 7 cm K L / 23 guns in single mounts and one 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tube mounted in the bow . In 1891 – 1892 , the ship was rearmed with six 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts and three 35 cm torpedo tubes , one in the bow and one on each broadside , all submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
Blitz was laid down at the Norddeutscher Schiffbau in Kiel in 1881 . She was launched on 26 August 1882 and commissioned into the German fleet on 28 March 1883 . Blitz served as the flotilla leader for I Torpedo Boat Flotilla after her commissioning . In the 1885 summer maneuvers in August and September , she led her torpedo boats with an armored warship division composed of Bayern , Friedrich Carl , and Hansa , and an unarmored division that comprised three old sail corvettes and Pfeil . At the time , Alfred von Tirpitz , the future architect of the High Seas Fleet , commanded Blitz and the torpedo boat flotilla . Starting in March 1886 , Tirpitz led the flotilla on training exercises that lasted until July . Thereafter , Blitz and her accompanying torpedo boats joined the annual fleet maneuvers as the III Division . In May , Blitz joined the Training Squadron as a torpedo boat leader during training exercises with the Maneuver Squadron in the Baltic .
In 1887 , Blitz , again with Tirpitz aboard , led the torpedo boat flotilla to Britain to participate in the Cowes Regatta ; the delegation was headed by Prince Heinrich . Then @-@ prince Wilhelm — the future Kaiser Wilhelm II — was also present for the cruise , aboard Blitz . The flotilla was back in German waters for the annual August – September maneuvers , where it formed the IV Division . By 1888 , Blitz had been transferred to the III Flotilla . In July , Blitz joined a squadron of ships to take the newly crowned Kaiser Wilhelm II for a tour of Baltic ports , which included a visit to Tsar Alexander III of Russia . During the August – September fleet maneuvers , she led the fourteen torpedo boats of the III Flotilla as part of a squadron defending Wilhelmshaven from a simulated hostile squadron . During the maneuvers , Blitz and the torpedo boats led a mock attack against the main fleet .
In the fleet maneuvers in late 1890 , Blitz and her flotilla were the only German force , and Blitz was given the task of defending Germany 's Baltic coast against a simulated Russian blockade . Blitz also took part in the 1891 and 1892 training exercises . During the 1894 maneuvers , which postulated a two @-@ front war against France and Russia , Blitz remained in the Baltic to defend against the simulated Russian attack . She also participated in the summer 1897 exercises in the simulated hostile squadron , along with her sister Pfeil . In August – September 1900 , she participated in the annual summer fleet maneuvers ; during the exercises , she was assigned to the simulated German squadron , tasked with defending against a simulated enemy fleet in the North Sea . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , Blitz was withdrawn from active service . In 1903 , she was used as a tender for the fleet .
In 1912 , she was assigned as the tender for the new dreadnought battleships of the I Battle Squadron . While in the II Squadron , she wore a white identification band on her funnel , to distinguish her from her sister Pfeil , which wore a yellow identification stripe . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was mobilized as a coastal defense ship , though this duty lasted only until 1915 . That year , she returned to her fleet tender duties ; she served in this capacity for the remainder of the war . She was stricken from the naval register on 8 March 1921 , and sold for 520 @,@ 000 marks . She was broken up for scrap later that year in Wilhelmshaven .
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= M @-@ 183 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 183 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It serves Fayette State Park as an access route from US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) . The highway runs through rural farmlands of the Garden Peninsula and next to Big Bay de Noc , a bay of Lake Michigan . The community at Fayette dates back to the 1860s . It has been a state park since the late 1950s , and the connecting road has been a state highway since the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 183 lies on the Garden Peninsula in Delta County . Running along the east shore of Big Bay de Noc , the highway starts at the gate to Fayette State Park . South of entrance to the park , the roadway continues under local jurisdiction as Delta County Road 483 ( CR 483 ) . From there north , it is a rural two @-@ lane road that runs northeasterly through woodland . The trunkline turns north along LI Road through farmland , and then east along 16th Road near Puffy Bay . South of Garden , the highway turns north through the village on State Street . M @-@ 183 continues north of town running through the farms of the Garden Peninsula along Big Bay de Noc through the Lake Superior State Forest to the northern terminus at US 2 in Garden Corners .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains the highway like all other state trunkline highways under its jurisdiction . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic along its highways . These surveys are expressed using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the traffic counts for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that 692 vehicles a day used the segment near the state park . Through the middle section in Garden , the peak volume was 892 vehicles daily which dropped to 878 at the US junction . The commercial AADT was 54 trucks for the entire highway . M @-@ 183 has not been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Fayette State Park encompasses an historical iron smelting town site from the 1800s . Now a ghost town , the Jackson Iron Company operations lasted here from 1867 – 1891 . The town was used as a location to produce charcoal iron , a purified form of the iron ore mined in the UP . After the furnaces shut down , the town operated as a resort community until the park was created . The Michigan Conservation Department created the park in 1959 after it traded land to obtain the 90 acres ( 36 ha ) from the Escanaba Paper Company and the 71 acres ( 29 ha ) from Cleveland @-@ Cliffs Iron Company . The Delta County Commission had been requesting state assistance for improving the road since 1975 . In February 1985 , MDOT took control of the road from the county road commission and designated it M @-@ 183 . The number was chosen to reflect the CR 483 designation it once bore . After the transfer , the state resurfaced the road as part of a program of improvements to benefit park visitors .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Delta County .
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= Ilyushin Il @-@ 32 =
The Ilyushin Il @-@ 32 was a Soviet heavy military glider developed after World War II to deliver 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo . To facilitate loading and unloading the glider 's nose and tail sections were hinged to swing sideways . The Il @-@ 32 required a four @-@ engined aircraft to tow it safely ; it was canceled when it became clear that no such tug was going to be available after the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 and Ilyushin Il @-@ 18 programs were both canceled because of shortages of their intended Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73 engines .
= = Development = =
After the end of World War II the Soviets devoted a considerable amount of effort to developing heavy transport gliders to deliver troops during an airborne assault . As part of this effort the Council of Ministers ordered the Ilyushin design bureau on 20 September 1947 to begin work on a glider capable of carrying 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo , including 60 troops or a 122 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) cannon with its prime mover , ammunition and crew . Its intended tug was the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 , a four @-@ engined transport derived from the Tupolev Tu @-@ 4 .
The Il @-@ 32 was an aluminum @-@ bodied , high @-@ wing cantilever monoplane with a fixed tricycle undercarriage whose fuselage was square in cross @-@ section to fit as much cargo as possible . The two @-@ spar wings had a moderate aspect ratio . It was regarded as expendable and was built very simply to facilitate large @-@ scale manufacture . The nose and tail sections swung up to 95 ° to starboard to facilitate loading .
The Il @-@ 32 made its first flight on 20 August 1948 , towed by a twin @-@ engined Ilyushin Il @-@ 12 , but the Il @-@ 12 wasn 't powerful enough to tow a fully loaded glider and the four @-@ engined Il @-@ 18 airliner prototype was adapted to tow it from 20 September . During these flight tests it reached a cruising speed of 323 km / h ( 201 mph ) at an altitude of 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and a weight of 16 @,@ 000 kg ( 35 @,@ 000 lb ) . The flight tests were satisfactory and preparations were made to begin series production , but the lack of suitable tugs was a problem . None of the Soviet four @-@ engined aircraft that could be used were either in production or available . Both the Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 and Il @-@ 18 airliners had been canceled , as had the Tu @-@ 75 transport , and the Tu @-@ 4 was dedicated to the strategic bombing mission . Experiments were made with a pair of Il @-@ 12s towing the Il @-@ 32 , but this was both difficult and risky for all involved . The Il @-@ 32 was therefore canceled for lack of a proper tug .
= = Specifications = =
Data from OKB Ilyushin : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Capacity : 60 troops or 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo
Length : 24 @.@ 84 m ( 81 ft 6 in )
Wingspan : 35 @.@ 8 m ( 117 ft 5 in )
Wing area : 159 @.@ 5 m2 ( 1716 @.@ 84 ft2 )
Empty weight : 9600 kg ( 21 @,@ 164 lb )
Gross weight : 16 @,@ 600 kg ( 36 @,@ 597 lb ) each each
Performance
Cruising speed : 327 km / h ( 203 mph )
Service ceiling : 4000 m ( 13 @,@ 100 ft )
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= Dougherty Valley High School =
Dougherty Valley High School ( commonly Dougherty , Dougherty Valley , Dougherty Valley High , DVHS , or DV High ) is a public high school located in the Windemere development of San Ramon , California , United States . Dougherty is one of four high schools in the San Ramon Valley Unified School District ( SRVUSD ) , along with California High School , San Ramon Valley High School , and Monte Vista High School . Constructed by Shapell Industries of California and Windemere Ranch Partners BLC , Dougherty was the first developer @-@ built school in the SRVUSD . The school opened its doors in 2007 .
Dougherty 's nickname is the wildcats , and its school colors are navy , Columbia blue , and silver . Dougherty is known for its state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art campus , which features a performing arts center and aquatics center in a joint @-@ use agreement with the city . Dougherty is the top school in the district based on Academic Performance Index and is developing as an athletic force . The school is also home to over 120 various clubs .
= = History = =
= = = Conception ( 1988 – 2006 ) = = =
Dougherty Valley High School was built by Shapell Industries of California and Windemere Ranch Partners BLC , which were also the two main developers of the Dougherty Valley area in general . Shapell was obligated through a December 1988 agreement with the SRVUSD to " contribute its fair share of the cost of additional high school space needed to serve students generated by the project , " with the project mentioned being the construction of 11 @,@ 000 houses in the area . Dougherty is the first developer @-@ built high school in the SRVUSD , in contrast with the typical method of a developer and the state funding the school district for construction of any necessary schools . The district and developers began further negotiations regarding the school 's construction in 2001 .
The school 's name was chosen from more than 150 suggestions submitted to an online survey , although the name , school colors , and mascot had to be approved by the Board of Education . The school logo was designed in 2006 by Jennifer Wong , at the time a senior at Monte Vista High School , after winning a student logo design contest with 12 other entries . Wong received $ 500 for her design and was honored alongside the contest 's runners @-@ up at a school board meeting . Denise Hibbard , who had been an assistant principal at California High School for six years , was chosen as Dougherty 's first principal .
= = = Construction ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
An official groundbreaking at the school was held on September 23 , 2005 , with school board members Nancy Petsuch , Greg Marvel , and San Ramon Mayor H. Abram Wilson in attendance . The construction of the school was divided into two phases . The first phase , which involved site grading , utilities , and paving , commenced in May 2005 and was completed by January 2006 ; the second phase , which involved constructing buildings , landscaping and creation of ball fields , commenced in February 2006 and was completed by August 2007 . In a December 2006 meeting , the City Council of the City of San Ramon approved the construction of a performing arts center and aquatics center for joint @-@ use between the city and the SRVUSD . Total construction took 16 months , five months less than predicted .
The construction of the school cost approximately $ 128 million , and the total cost , including inspections and management , was about $ 150 million . The costs of the performing arts center , to which the city contributed $ 4 million , and the aquatics center , to which the city contributed $ 9 @.@ 2 million , were expected to exceed revenues by $ 400 @,@ 000 each . According to City Councilmember Scott Perkins , " Other cities have stand @-@ alone [ aquatic ] facilities that cost $ 35 million . Were getting 90 percent of that use for a quarter of the price . " In addition , the city approved the $ 4 million construction of an independent study school on Dougherty 's campus , to replace the area 's older independent study school built in the 1970s . The expenses of construction were shared between Windemere BLC , Shapell , the school district , and the City of San Ramon .
= = = Inauguration and beyond ( 2007 – present ) = = =
The SRVUSD opened both Dougherty and Live Oak Elementary School on August 25 , 2007 . Dougherty began its inaugural school year on August 27 , 2007 , becoming the first high school in 34 years to open in the SRVUSD . History teacher James Corcoran noted that working at the first year school was an opportunity to develop its community , saying " You oftentimes will go into a school as a teacher , or even a principal , and it 's ' This is the way we do it around here . ' It 's hard to change that once it 's been set . " Elaine O 'Hanlon , founding president of the Dougherty Parent @-@ Teacher Association , said that parent volunteering would be encouraged at the new school .
In 2009 , the SRVUSD was affected by a major statewide school budget crisis . 236 layoff notices were sent to teachers within the district , more than half of whom worked at Dougherty . All permanent teachers were rehired with the help of a $ 144 per @-@ parcel tax measure passed in May 2009 , expected to raise $ 6 @.@ 7 million yearly . During the 2009 flu pandemic in the United States , one tenth grade student at Dougherty was known to have been infected with the Influenza A / H1N1 virus ; however , closure of the school did not occur , as it was found to be unnecessary and inconvenient . According to Principal Hibbard , " We just have to make sure we educate parents " , and the school administration reacted to the outbreak by sending out an email to parents with advice from the Center for Disease Control .
In the summer of 2011 , SunPower began construction and installation of solar panels in the school parking lot . The school district used federal funds from low @-@ interest qualified school construction bond as part of government stimulus from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 for the project . When completed , the panels will reportedly provide the school with between two @-@ thirds to 80 percent of its energy needs .
= = Enrollment = =
In the 2008 @-@ 2009 year , 1 @,@ 001 students were enrolled in Dougherty . Admission is based primarily on the location of students ' residency , although birth date documentation and immunization records are also required from new students . The school opened in 2007 with 570 students , fitting the initial prediction of between 450 and 600 students . 95 of these students had transferred to Dougherty from another school in the district , and the majority of the freshmen came from Windemere Ranch Middle School . The school started with only ninth grade freshmen and tenth grade sophomores in 2007 , and in each successive school year another grade was added until the standard ninth to twelfth grade range was reached in 2009 .
In 2007 , Dougherty had 277 female students , representing approximately 48 @.@ 6 % of the total student population , and 293 male students , representing approximately 51 @.@ 4 % of the total student population . Nestled in the culturally integrated Windemere development , Dougherty consists of students from many different backgrounds and is the most diverse in the district . Because of its diversity , San Ramon parks and community services division manager John Skeel said in 2007 that " We know that with the new high school ( Dougherty Valley High School ) and all the new schools , it 's important to stay on top of race issues . With the mixture of middle- and low- income housing in newer neighborhoods , that could be an issue as well . " Dougherty 's 2007 enrollment included a large population of Asian students , accounting for 41 @.@ 2 % of the student body . 32 @.@ 5 % of the school identified themselves as White , 6 @.@ 5 % as Filipino , 6 @.@ 1 % as African American , 4 @.@ 9 % as Hispanic or Latino , 0 @.@ 7 % as Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 2 % as American Indian or Alaska Native , and 7 @.@ 9 % with more than one ethnicity or no response .
= = Academics = =
Greatschools.com awarded the school a perfect ten out of ten score , based on a comparison between the school 's standardized test scores and those statewide ; it is one of the few schools in California to be distinguished as such . In 2009 , Dougherty had an Academic Performance Index rank of 905 out of a possible 1000 , growing from the 2008 base score of 891 . The school was the highest ranked high school in the SRVUSD , the 27th highest high school in the state , and the 744th highest school in the country by API score . In 2011 , Dougherty Valley improved by 12 points the previous year with an API score of 921 , making them the 3rd highest high school in Contra Costa County as well as the 1st highest high school in SRVUSD . Dougherty Valley also further improved with an API score of 937 in 2012 .
In 2013 , the school was awarded a gold medal , and ranked amongst the top 500 schools in the country by U.S. News .
= = School facilities = =
Dougherty occupies approximately 54 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land and can accommodate up to 2 @,@ 200 students . Space has been left open to potentially expand the campus in the future , which would allow for 200 more students to attend . Considered to be state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , the campus received the award for Best of California in the K @-@ 12 category for Northern California from California Construction magazine . There are 11 major buildings on campus , including four two @-@ story classroom buildings , a career tech facility , a library , a commons building , an administration building , and two gymnasiums . The school has 80 classrooms . For athletic purposes , the school has a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ seat stadium with lights , a press box , and a track . Also at Dougherty are two baseball fields , two softball fields and eight tennis courts . The campus is also home to the area 's 11 @,@ 222 square feet ( 1 @,@ 042 @.@ 6 m2 ) Venture Independent Study School .
Dougherty also shares a performance arts center and aquatics center with the city of San Ramon under a joint @-@ use agreement . The performing arts center includes a 600 @-@ seat proscenium theater , a 3 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 m2 ) rehearsal room , a box office , lobby , dressing rooms , rooms for vocal and instrumental music , and city offices . In addition to school productions and concerts , alternative rock band Gin Blossoms , stand @-@ up comedian Caroline Rhea , and others have put on shows at the performing arts center . The purpose of the performing arts center in relation to the school is twofold : students are able " to work with some of the professional artists in mentoring and master class programs " , and , according to Principal Hibbard , it allows for " larger presentations that can serve all our schools in the area " . The aquatics center features a 50 @-@ meter Olympic @-@ size swimming pool and locker rooms .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
= = = Athletics = = =
The Dougherty Valley Athletic Department offers several sports , including cross country , football , golf , tennis , water polo , volleyball , cheerleading , basketball , soccer , wrestling , baseball , lacrosse , softball , swimming , diving , badminton , and track and field . Most of the sports have separate men 's and women 's teams , and golf and tennis for men occur in a later season than for women . Current coaches include former Major League Baseball player Darren Lewis for the varsity baseball team .
The school was part of the East Bay Athletic League ( EBAL ) for its first year , but has since moved to the Diablo Foothill Athletic League ( DFAL ) . Dougherty 's main rival is considered to be Dublin High School , due to the close proximity of the two schools and past controversy between the schools ' respective coaches .
= = = Wildcat Tribune = = =
The Wildcat Tribune was Dougherty 's official student newspaper before being dissolved by the school 's administration in 2009 . Published online and in print , the Tribune featured sections on news , editorials , opinions , features , entertainment , and sports . The first attempt to create a newspaper club occurred in the inaugural school year , although it fell through because the teacher supporting the club was unable to receive approval from the school 's administration . The newspaper club was founded by five students during the 08 @-@ 09 school year . The newspaper had several positions , including editor in chief , front page editor , editors for each section of the paper , and webmaster .
The Wildcat Tribune was the first print publication to interview Chesley Sullenberger after the pilot 's emergency water landing of US Airways Flight 1549 , in a February 2009 special edition of the Tribune with an article titled " Heroism & Humility on the Hudson " . Sullenberger and his wife , both residents of San Ramon , decided with CBS to grant his first interview to a student journalist , and Dougherty is attended by one of their daughters . Sullenberger met with the principal and Jega Sanmugam prior to the interview , and all preparation was done in secrecy . Sanmugam conducted the interview at Sullenberger 's home hours before Katie Couric interviewed Sullenberger for 60 Minutes . An additional interview with Couric , about her career and the state of journalism , was also published in the Tribune . Alex Clemens , a representative of the Sullenberger family , said " The Sullenberger family is grateful to CBS for actively demonstrating acommitment to student journalism . "
The Wildcat Tribune was reinstated in 2011 and continues to issue publications every month .
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= New Orleans Mint =
The New Orleans Mint ( French : Monnaie de La Nouvelle @-@ Orléans ) operated in New Orleans , Louisiana , as a branch mint of the United States Mint from 1838 to 1861 and from 1879 to 1909 . During its years of operation , it produced over 427 million gold and silver coins of nearly every American denomination , with a total face value of over US $ 307 million . It was closed during most of the American Civil War and Reconstruction .
After it was decommissioned as a mint , the building has served a variety of purposes , including as an assay office , a United States Coast Guard storage facility , and a fallout shelter .
Since 1981 it has served as a branch of the Louisiana State Museum . Damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , after over two years of repairs and renovations , the museum reopened in October 2007 .
As of April 2015 , the museum 's music exhibits include instruments used by some of New Orleans ' notable jazz musicians , photographs , and posters , and are planned to open as the Louisiana Music Museum . The site is also a performance venue for jazz concerts , in partnership with the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park and the private " Music at the Mint " organization .
The Louisiana Historical Center is located on the third floor of the building . The center includes collections of colonial @-@ era manuscripts and maps , and primary and secondary source materials in a wide range of media . It is open to anyone with an interest in Louisiana history and culture .
The New Orleans Mint has been designated a National Historic Landmark , and it is the oldest extant structure to have served as a U.S. Mint . Along with the Charlotte Mint , it is one of two former mint facilities in the U.S. to house an art gallery .
= = History = =
= = = Antebellum period , 1835 – 1861 = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
The rapidly growing United States in the early 1830s experienced a shortage of coins . It is estimated that in 1830 there was one small silver coin ( quarter , dime or half dime ) per person . Also , production of silver dollars was suspended in 1804 because they were being exchanged for underweight Spanish coins in the West Indies . That left the half @-@ dollar as the largest denomination of circulating coin being minted in the U. S. Foreign coins were being circulated in the U. S. to alleviate the shortage . The Philadelphia Mint had been the only U. S. mint until 1838 , when operations began at the first branch mints .
In 1832 President Andrew Jackson had vetoed a rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States , an institution which he felt extended credit to northeastern commercial tycoons at the expense of the ordinary frontiersmen of the Old Southwest , a region with which Jackson , a Tennessean , strongly identified . In 1836 Jackson had issued an executive order called the Specie Circular which demanded that all land transactions in the United States be conducted in cash . Both of these actions , combined with the economic depression following the Panic of 1837 ( caused partly by Jackson 's fiscal policies ) increased the domestic need for minted money .
As a result , in 1835 the U.S. Federal Government established three branch mints : the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina , the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia and the New Orleans Mint . Dahlonega and Charlotte were in gold mining regions and these mints produced only gold coins . New Orleans was selected because of the city 's strategic location along the Mississippi River which made it a vitally important center for commercial activity , including the export of cotton from the area 's plantations . Large quantities of gold from Mexico also passed through its port annually .
In the early 19th century , New Orleans , which was the fifth @-@ largest city in the United States until the Civil War , conducted more foreign trade than any other city in the nation . It was also located relatively near to gold deposits recently discovered in Alabama . While the Philadelphia Mint produced a substantial quantity of coinage , in the early 19th century it could not disperse the money swiftly to the far regions of the new nation , particularly the South and West . In contrast to the other two Southern branch mints , which only minted gold coinage , the New Orleans Mint produced both gold and silver coins , and in much greater quantities and total value , which marked it as the most important branch mint in the country until the San Francisco Mint began minting a large monetary value of gold coins in the mid 1850s .
The Mint 's location occupies a prominent place in civic history . It sits at one of the two River corners of the French Quarter , which had been the entire city , or Vieux Carré , of New Orleans . Under French and Spanish rule this location was home to one of the city 's defensive fortifications . In 1792 the Spanish governor , Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet , erected Fort San Carlos ( later Fort St. Charles ) here . The fort was demolished in 1821 ; and the nearby area was later named Jackson Square in honor of Andrew Jackson . As a general in the United States Army , Jackson 's leadership had saved the city from invading British forces during December 1814 and through January 8 , 1815 , the date of the famous Battle of New Orleans , the last significant battle of the War of 1812 .
= = = = Architectural history = = = =
= = = = = Design and construction = = = = =
The Mint building , which was constructed in red brick , was designed by architect William Strickland in the Greek Revival style , like most 19th @-@ century public buildings in the United States . Strickland was a student of the architect Benjamin Latrobe , a disciple of Neoclassicism who had helped design the United States Capitol building in Washington , D.C. Strickland himself , based in Philadelphia , had already designed the Philadelphia Mint building and the Second Bank of the United States , and would design the Charlotte and Dahlonega facilities , making him the architect of the first four U.S. mint buildings . Martin Gordon supervised the building 's construction , which was undertaken by Benjamin F. Fox , the master carpenter and joiner , and John Mitchell , the master stonemason and builder .
On the north façade the mint building features a central projecting Ionic portico , supported by four monumental columns that are flanked at the ends by square pillars . The top of the portico contains a simple entablature , crowned by a flat roof in front of a simple , unadorned pediment . This entrance , which sits on top of a basement story , fronts the rectangular central core of the facility and is flanked by two large wings of multiple bays of rectangular windows . These wings wrap around the central rectangular core to form a " W " -shaped structure with two square courtyards at the rear . Balconies framed by iron railings and posts adorn the sections of the building 's south façade that adjoin the courtyards . Architectural historian Talbot Hamlin described it thus : " it has those graceful , original proportions so characteristic of Strickland 's work . Even today [ 1944 ] , condemned to a use so different from that for which it was designed , it remains one of the most distinguished of the earlier buildings of New Orleans . "
On the interior , Strickland placed the grand staircase that connects the three levels immediately behind the portico in the central core of the structure . The floor system is composed of fired @-@ clay jack arches supported on steel I @-@ beams , a common feature of warehouses and other long @-@ span structures . On the second floor , many of the larger rooms , which were used for coining and melting , contain ceilings with beautiful high arches supported by the walls and freestanding piers . The smaller rectangular rooms on the second level ( and the basement ) , such as the former superintendent 's office , also contain these arched ceilings with a single groin vault . The basement formerly contained the boilers inside a brick cage , but now contain museum exhibits devoted to the minting processes as well as the Coin Vault at the Mint , a coin shop .
= = = = = Structural problems and repairs = = = = =
Strickland did not take into account the swampy lowland and high water table that characterizes the terrain around New Orleans , and so during its career the New Orleans Mint building has encountered numerous structural problems from the shifting soil beneath its foundation . In the 1840s the building was reinforced with iron rods inserted between the floors . In 1854 , the federal government hired West Point engineering graduate ( and Louisiana native ) Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard to fireproof the building , rebuild the arches supporting the basement ceiling and install masonry flooring . Beauregard completed the work in conjunction with Captain Johnson K. Duncan by 1859 . During this period , the Mint 's heavy machinery was converted to steam power so a smokestack ( since demolished ) was built at the rear of the structure to carry away the fumes .
Less than two years later , Beauregard would rise to national fame as the Confederate general who ordered the April 1861 assault on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor , South Carolina , thus beginning the American Civil War . It was during the war that Beauregard would secure his place in American history as one of the Confederacy 's most capable generals .
= = = = Early coining operations = = = =
Like any other mint the New Orleans Mint was a factory to make coins . Operations at the New Orleans Mint began on March 8 , 1838 , with the deposit of the first Mexican gold bullion . The first coins , 30 dimes , were struck on May 7 . Until it was taken over by the Confederacy in 1861 it produced many different denominations , all of which were either silver or gold : silver three @-@ cent pieces ( 1851 only ) , half dimes , dimes , quarters , half dollars , silver dollars , gold dollars , $ 2 @.@ 50 quarter eagles , three @-@ dollar pieces , $ 5 half @-@ eagles , $ 10 eagles , and $ 20 double eagles .
Many interesting characters served at the Mint during the early years of operation . One was John Leonard Riddell , who served as melter and refiner at the Mint from 1839 to 1848 , and , outside of his job , pursued interests in botany , medicine , chemistry , geology , and physics . He invented the binocular microscope . He also wrote on numismatics , publishing in 1845 a book entitled Monograph of the Silver Dollar , Good and Bad , Illustrated With Facsimile Figures , and two years later an article by him appeared in DeBow 's Review called " The Mint at New Orleans — Processes Pursued of Working the Precious Metals — Statistics of Coinage , etc . " Riddell was not held in high esteem by everyone , however : his conflicts with other Mint employees were well @-@ documented , and at one point he was accused of being unable to properly conduct a gold melt .
Throughout the 19th century the New Orleans Mint was frequently featured in magazines , newspapers and other print publications . Articles discussing and images picturing the Mint , in addition to the one by Riddell noted above , were featured in Ballou 's Pictorial Drawing @-@ Room Companion , published in Boston , and the widely circulated Harper 's Weekly .
= = = Civil War and recommissioning , 1861 – 79 = = =
= = = = Secession and Confederate seizure = = = =
The New Orleans Mint operated continuously from 1838 until January 26 , 1861 , when Louisiana seceded from the United States . On January 29 , the Secession Convention reconvened at New Orleans ( it had earlier met in Baton Rouge ) and passed an ordinance that allowed Federal employees to remain in their posts , but as employees of the state of Louisiana . On February 5 , 1861 , during the proceedings of the Convention of the State of Louisiana in New Orleans , the committee appointed by the Convention to take an inventory on February 1 , 1861 , of public property in the hands of the officers of ' the late ' Federal government reported that the Sub @-@ Treasurer 's vault at the mint contained $ 483 @,@ 983 in gold and silver coins . The National Archives records in Rockville , Maryland , indicate the $ 483 @,@ 983 consisted of $ 308 @,@ 771 in gold coins and $ 175 @,@ 212 @.@ 08 in silver coins . The only gold coin produced in January , 1861 was the $ 20 gold double @-@ eagle . This means 15 @,@ 438 $ 20 gold coins were minted by the New Orleans Mint during January , 1861 . Mint coinage records for the $ 20 1861 @-@ O gold double @-@ eagle indicate only 5 @,@ 000 $ 20 gold pieces were minted by the Federal Government in January , 1861 . This discrepancy is explained in a Numismatist Journal article .
In March 1861 , Louisiana accepted the Confederate States Constitution and the Confederate government retained all the mint officers . They used it briefly as their own coinage facility . The Confederates struck 962 @,@ 633 of the 2 @,@ 532 @,@ 633 New Orleans half @-@ dollar coins dated 1861 . Research suggests that 1861 @-@ O half dollars bearing a bisected date die crack ( " WB @-@ 103 " ) and 1861 @-@ O half @-@ dollars with a " speared olive bud " anomaly ( " WB @-@ 104 " ) on the reverse had been minted under authority of the Confederacy . Confederate officials designed alternate reverse dies which they used to strike their own half @-@ dollars in New Orleans ( see image ) . The exact number of the half @-@ dollar coins struck by the Confederate mint with the alternate reverse is unknown ; but only four are known to exist today . One of them , which was sold at auction for a large sum , had once been owned by Jefferson Davis , the only President of the C.S.A.
Confederate minting operations continued from April 1 until the bullion ran out later that month . The staff remained on duty until May 31 , 1861 . After that the mint was used for quartering Confederate troops , until it was recaptured along with the rest of the city the following year , largely by Union naval forces under the command of Admiral David Farragut .
= = = = Occupation by Union forces = = = =
For many Southern sympathizers , the Mint soon became a symbol of their hatred for the Union occupation . After U.S. Marines under Farragut had raised the U.S. flag on the roof of the Mint in April 1862 , a professional steamboat gambler named William Bruce Mumford ascended the roof and tore the flag down . He ripped the banner into shreds , and defiantly stuffed pieces of it into his shirt to wear as souvenirs . Union General Benjamin Franklin Butler , the military governor of New Orleans ( who was soon to be derisively nicknamed " Spoons " for allegedly pocketing the silverware of New Orleans citizens arrested for treason against the United States ) , ordered Mumford executed in retaliation . And so , Mumford was hanged from a flagstaff projecting horizontally from the building on June 7 , 1862 . Mumford 's hanging made national headlines . Jefferson Davis demanded that Butler immediately be executed if captured . The event stuck in the minds of many New Orleanians : eleven years later , in 1873 , a visitor to the city named Edward King mentioned it in his description of the structure .
The mint reopened as an assay office in 1876 . Its machinery was evidently damaged during the war , but because of its importance , unlike the mints at Charlotte and Dahlonega , in 1877 U.S. Mint agent James R. Snowden asked the superintendent of the office , Dr. M. F. Bonzano , to report on the condition of the facility for minting . Upon receipt of Bonzano 's report , new minting equipment was shipped to New Orleans . The building was refurbished and put back into active minting service in 1879 , producing mainly silver coinage , including the famed Morgan silver dollar from 1879 to 1904 .
= = = A second chance , 1879 – 1909 = = =
= = = = New Orleans coinage = = = =
The refurbishment and recommissioning of the New Orleans Mint was due partly to the fact that in 1878 the Federal government in Washington , D.C. had passed the Bland – Allison Act , which mandated the purchase and coining of a large quantity of silver yearly . The Treasury Department needed additional facilities to do so . It reopened the New Orleans facility primarily to coin large quantities of silver dollars , most of which were simply stored in the building instead of circulated . President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed former Mississippi Senator and governor Henry S. Foote the new superintendent of the mint .
During this second period of operation , the Mint also struck dimes , quarters , half dollars , $ 5 half eagles , $ 10 eagles and , in 1879 only , 2 @,@ 325 double eagles . It should also be noted that the New Orleans Mint was used by the Federal authorities in 1907 to coin over five and a half million silver twenty @-@ centavo pieces for the Mexican government as part of the American government 's program of producing foreign coinage . The New Orleans Mint , whose coins can be identified by the " O " mint mark found on the reverse of its coinage , earned a reputation for producing coins of a mediocre quality ; their luster is usually not as brilliant as those of other mints , and center areas tend to be flattened and not sharply struck . Thus , well @-@ struck New Orleanian coinage is prized in the numismatic world today .
= = = = Social history = = = =
Men made up the majority of the workers at the mint . They worked such jobs as coiners , melters , pressers , cutters , and rollers . The mint was overseen by a superintendent , who was always male . He was a political appointee whose term usually did not last much longer than the party which held the presidency remained in power .
But it was also during the mint 's second tour of duty that women began to find work at the New Orleans Mint . Several women workers were sent from the Philadelphia Mint to teach those in New Orleans how to adjust money . About this time , the mint employed forty @-@ four women . Thirty @-@ nine worked as adjusters – employees who weighed the unstamped coin planchets to make sure they were the proper weight before coining . These women would sit at long narrow tables , filing the planchets down to the proper weight , wearing special aprons with pouches attached to the sleeves and the waist to catch the excess dust . Five women served as counters and packers before the coins were shipped to Washington , D.C. Some women were eventually employed at the coining presses .
The women worked from 8 : 30 a.m. to 3 : 30 p.m. daily – not long hours – but the working conditions were probably unbearable by modern standards . New Orleans has a warm , wet climate . The process of adjusting , however , required the utmost attention to the scales ' balance , and the slightest draft could upset it . The draft could also carry off the silver dust from the coin planchets the women would file . For these reasons the windows and doors were almost always kept shut , resulting in a very hot working environment . Workers relied on water coolers to provide relief from the heat and avoid dehydration . The women mint employees were judged to enjoy better working conditions than many other American women workers in the late nineteenth century .
= = = The mint in the 20th & 21st centuries = = =
= = = = Closure = = = =
By the early twentieth century , the U.S. Treasury had mints operating in New Orleans , Denver , San Francisco , and the main center in Philadelphia , which more than met the demand for minted money . In 1904 , the government ceased the minting of the silver dollar , which accounted for the bulk of the coinage the New Orleans branch had been producing since 1879 . In 1909 Treasury officials declined to appropriate funds for the mint 's operation , effectively halting subsequent minting activity in New Orleans . In 1911 , the New Orleans Mint was formally decommissioned and the machinery was transferred to the main U. S. Mint facility in Philadelphia , .
Twenty years later , in 1930 , Governor Huey Long would rail against this loss when he ran for the office of U.S. Senator against incumbent Joseph E. Ransdell . In a circular distributed by his campaign to the citizens of New Orleans , Long listed the loss of the Mint as the very first of many complaints against Ransdell 's lengthy service record in the Senate . Long went on to win the election , although he did not take office until his term as governor expired in 1932 . At some point , however , the original New Orleans machinery was lost , and , at present , has not been located .
= = = = Transformation = = = =
After the mint closed , it performed a variety of functions for the Federal government . It was first downgraded to an assay office for the U.S. Treasury as it had been from 1876 to 1879 . Then , in 1932 , the assay office closed and the building was converted into a Federal prison , in which capacity it served until 1943 . The Coast Guard then took over the building as a nominal storage facility , though in truth the structure was largely abandoned and left to decay until it was transferred to the state of Louisiana in 1965 . During the Cold War , when many believed there to be a high risk of nuclear war , the old Mint was considered to be the best fallout shelter in the city .
The state agreed to save the structure from demolition on the condition that it be renovated and converted to some new purpose within fifteen years . Between 1978 and 1980 this goal was met . Since 1981 , the Mint building has functioned as a museum of its coin production history . Additional exhibitions housed in the facility have been devoted to New Orleans Mardi Gras ( since moved to the Presbytere building on Jackson Square ) , jazz music ( a large exhibit and research materials previously in the New Orleans Jazz Museum – donated by the N.O. Jazz Club ) , and Newcomb Pottery . All three phenomena have contributed to New Orleans ' fame .
On the third floor , the Mint houses an archive of maps and documents , including French and Spanish colonial records . Along with the Cabildo , the Presbytere , the 1850 House , and Madame John 's Legacy , this facility is one of five branches of the Louisiana State Museum in the French Quarter .
The Mint building is located at 400 Esplanade Avenue , not far from the Mississippi River .
= = = = Katrina aftermath = = = =
The mint building suffered significant roof damage from the hurricane . Water entered the building and came into contact with approximately 3 % of the New Orleans Jazz collection , portions of which were removed and cared for at Louisiana State University , the University of Louisiana at Lafayette , and the Louisiana State Archives .
= = Coinage produced = =
= = = Silver coins = = =
= = = Gold coins = = =
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= Mega Man 3 =
Mega Man 3 , known as Rockman 3 : Dr. Wily no Saigo ! ? ( ロックマン3 Dr.ワイリーの最期 ! ? , lit . " Rockman 3 : The End of Dr. Wily ! ? " ) in Japan , is a action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It is the third game of the original Mega Man series and was originally released in Japan on September 28 , 1990 . The game localized in North America later in 1990 and in European regions in 1992 . Taking place after the events of Mega Man 2 , the plot follows the titular hero as he helps his creator , Dr. Light , and a former villain , Dr. Wily , collect parts for a peace @-@ keeping robot by defeating several Robot Masters that have gone haywire .
A platform @-@ action game , Mega Man 3 follows the same format set forth by its two predecessors . The player , as Mega Man , must complete a series of stages in any order . Defeating a stage 's boss will earn the player its special weapon , which can be selected and used at will throughout the rest of the game . Mega Man 3 introduces new gameplay elements such as Mega Man 's canine sidekick Rush and the ability to slide along the ground . Unlike with the first two installments of the series , artist and designer Keiji Inafune has considered the creation of Mega Man 3 to be very stressful due to time constraints and his own increased responsibilities during its development .
Following the success of Mega Man 2 released two years earlier , Mega Man 3 has sold over one million copies and has been positively received in critical reviews . Its presentation and gameplay has been especially praised , although many sources found the game to be too difficult . Like other titles in the series , Mega Man 3 has been re @-@ released several times on other gaming platforms , on mobile phones , and as part of various Mega Man franchise compilations .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man 3 takes place during an unspecified year during the 21st century ( 200X ) . The mad scientist Dr. Wily , having twice had plans for world domination dashed , claims to have reformed and begins work with Dr. Light on a project to build a peace @-@ keeping robot named " Gamma " . Robot Masters in charge of a set of " mining worlds " , however , go berserk and make off with Gamma 's eight power crystals . Mega Man is called into action , this time with a canine companion named Rush , to retrieve the crystals from the sites . Throughout his mission , the protagonist continuously encounters and spars with Break Man , a masked foe who has abilities comparable to Mega Man 's own . After Mega Man destroys the eight Robot Masters , he then revisits four of the mining sites to face off against eight " Doc Robots " , who possess the abilities of the Robot Masters from Mega Man 's previous mission . Once the crystals are retrieved , Wily reverts to his evil ways , steals Gamma , and retreats to his new fortress . To stop Wily 's newest plan to conquer the world , Mega Man destroys Gamma and defeats Wily in a final confrontation . As the fortress begins to crumble , Break Man appears in enough time to save Mega Man , but is too late to save Wily , who is seen being crushed under the rubble . When Mega Man regains consciousness in Dr. Light 's lab , his creator informs him that he must have been rescued by Proto Man , and his notes reveal that Proto Man is in fact Mega Man 's older brother .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man 3 retains the platforming and action game elements established by the two Mega Man games released before it . The player controls the protagonist Mega Man as he traverses eight selectable stages . The player 's primary blaster weapon is used to fend off the game 's numerous enemies . Several power @-@ ups can be picked up in each stage , including life energy , special weapon ammunition , extra lives , and " E @-@ Tanks " , which are stored and can be selected to completely refill the player 's life energy . At the end of every stage the player must defeat a Robot Master boss : Magnet Man , Hard Man , Top Man , Shadow Man , Spark Man , Snake Man , Gemini Man , or Needle Man . Each Robot Master features a unique weapon and stage related to the weapon 's power . After defeating a boss , their signature weapon is added to Mega Man 's arsenal . The Robot Masters are weak to the weapons of certain other Robot Masters , allowing the player to ease the boss battles by clearing some stages before others .
Mega Man 3 is the first Mega Man game to feature the slide maneuver , which lets the player slip under enemy attacks and low @-@ level barriers . After completing certain stages , Mega Man can access new abilities in his robot dog companion Rush . Rush 's transformations include the " Rush Coil " for jumping higher , the " Rush Jet " for flying around the screen , and the " Rush Marine " for traveling underwater . Throughout the various stages the player encounters Proto Man ( as Break Man ) , a mini @-@ boss who , once defeated , will open passageways for the player to advance . Mega Man 3 also expands upon the two preceding games by having additional stages set between the initial eight Robot Masters and the linear stages of Dr. Wily 's fortress . A password system can be used to return to the game with most of the stages completed .
= = Development = =
Development on Mega Man 3 began at Capcom over a year after the release of Mega Man 2 . Akira Kitamura , the lead supervisor for the first two games quit his job at the company during that gap of time . Artist Keiji Inafune , credited as " Inafking " , considered Mega Man 3 as one of his least favorite entries in the series due to " [ ... ] what went into the game and what was behind the release of the game . " He had " preset notions " about successful development because of the team 's good experience with Mega Man 2 and found that his new superior " didn 't really understand Mega Man the way his predecessor did " . During the game 's production , the developers lost the main planner , so Inafune had to take over that job for its completion . Inafune recalled the final two months of development as particularly turbulent , when he had to take responsibility for assessing and dividing up tasks among the team members who were not meeting deadlines . The team was forced to put Mega Man 3 on the market before they thought it was ready . Inafune concluded , " I knew that if we had more time to polish it , we could do a lot of things better , make it a better game , but the company said that we needed to release it . The whole environment behind what went into the production of the game is what I least favored . Numbers one and two – I really wanted to make the games ; I was so excited about them . Number three – it just turned very different . "
Mega Man 3 brought new characters and gameplay mechanics to the franchise . Though Inafune considers the gameplay to have lost some of its simplicity , he felt Mega Man 's slide ability was successfully implemented to enhance the player 's control while battling enemies . Mega Man 's sidekick dog Rush was designed by combining the functionality of three support tools from Mega Man 2 , which would ease the player 's navigation of stages . In addition to the Marine and Coil modes , Rush was originally intended to have a " drill " mode that would allow Mega Man to tunnel underground . Another new character , Proto Man , was introduced in a way that the player would be unable to tell if he was an ally or an enemy to Mega Man . His design was influenced by anime , and he was given both a scarf and shield to make him appear " tougher " than Mega Man . The design team wanted Proto Man to sport uncovered hair , but they instead opted for an open @-@ faced helmet illustration for both the television commercials and instruction manual . Proto Man 's original Japanese name , Blues , was changed by Capcom 's North American division despite Inafune 's protests . Capcom did this not only to be consistent with Rockman 's English name , but because they thought that the name Blues made no sense . Inafune attempted to defend it due to the name 's musical connotation to character names in the series . Though Rush and Proto Man were created solely by the developer , Capcom sought ideas from fans for the creation of the game 's Robot Masters as they had done with Mega Man 2 . The team received around 50 @,@ 000 design submissions for Mega Man 3 , only eight of which were used in the game . The soundtrack for Mega Man 3 was created by Capcom composer Yasuaki Fujita , also known as " Bun Bun " . His co @-@ worker Harumi Fujita , credited as " Mrs. Tarumi " , was the initial composer of the game , but she only completed two songs before giving birth and having to drop off the project .
= = Reception = =
Mega Man 3 has enjoyed a positive reception from print and online sources . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN , Christian Nutt and Justin Speer of GameSpot , Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser ( " The Lessers " ) of Dragon , Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer , Edward J. Semrad of The Milwaukee Journal and Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) , and the staff of Nintendo Power all mutually found the game to have impressive graphics , enjoyable music , and challenging gameplay . Nutt and Speer summarized Mega Man 3 as a " top @-@ notch game " and Capcom 's " pinnacle of NES effort " . IGN 's Colin Moriarty argued the game as a major improvement over the original Mega Man and that it even surpasses the critically acclaimed Mega Man 2 in quality . Moriarty justified this claim with the third installment 's attempt at better storytelling , its longer length than any other classic Mega Man game , and its inclusion of all eight Mega Man 2 Robot Masters in addition to its own . Brett Alan Weiss ( AllGame ) described it as doing what " a great sequel is supposed to do by recapturing the fun , spirit and excitement of its predecessors while adding new levels , characters and challenges . "
Some critics have judged Mega Man 3 to be excessively difficult . GamePro contributor McKinley Noble comically stated that actions such as " pulling teeth , lifting a car over your head or performing open @-@ heart surgery " are all significantly easier than beating Mega Man 3 . Whitehead noted , " Leaps must be precise , enemies must be dispatched rapidly and accurately , and there 's a constant state of delicious near @-@ panic as you wait to see what vicious demands the next room will place on your platforming skills . " The Lessers additionally saw considerable flicker when too many sprites appear onscreen at once . The writers mentioned that it detracted from the normally crisp graphics the few times it was noticed .
Since its 1990 release , Mega Man 3 has sold over one million copies worldwide , making it the 48th best @-@ selling Capcom game . EGM listed Mega Man 3 as " The Best Sequel to an Existing Game " in its 1991 Video Game Buyer 's Guide . The readers of Nintendo Power voted it the third @-@ best game of 1990 in the magazine 's " Nintendo Power Awards " for that year . The publication listed Mega Man 3 as the 11th best NES video game in their 20th anniversary issue in 2008 . IGN included it at number 16 on its " Top 100 NES Games of All Time " . Finally , GamePro ranked Mega Man 3 as the third @-@ greatest 8 @-@ bit video game of all time .
= = Legacy = =
Mega Man 3 has seen releases on many consoles and other devices since its 1990 debut on the NES . In the United States , it was made into a stripped @-@ down , handheld LCD game by Tiger Electronics and was included as part of Nintendo 's PlayChoice @-@ 10 arcade systems . Mega Man 3 was remade in 1994 for the Sega Genesis game Mega Man : The Wily Wars , featuring updated graphics and sound . Mega Man 3 was released on the Sony PlayStation in the Rockman Complete Works line in Japan in 1999 . This version has arranged music , artwork galleries , and a " navi " mode for beginner players . The NES edition of the game was also part of a North American compilation of ten titles in the series called Mega Man Anniversary Collection , which was released for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube in 2004 , and the Xbox in 2005 . Also in 2005 , Mega Man 3 was bundled alongside other Capcom games as part of a Plug It In & Play TV Games peripheral by Jakks Pacific . Mega Man 3 was released by Capcom on mobile phones in Japan in 2005 and in North America in 2008 . The NES version made its way to the Nintendo Wii 's Virtual Console service worldwide in 2008 . Finally , the Complete Works version was released on the PlayStation Network ( downloadable on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable ) in Japan in 2010 and in North America in 2011 . Mega Man 3 was made available for download on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in Japan on September 26 , 2012 .
Many of the features introduced in Mega Man 3 have been carried on by the series . These include the characters Protoman and Rush , the player 's ability to slide , and extra stages set between the initial eight Robot Masters and Dr. Wily 's fortress . With the release of Mega Man 9 in 2008 , however , some of these elements and others implemented in the third through eighth installments were forgone in favor of the more basic aspects of Mega Man and Mega Man 2 . The producers of Mega Man 9 have referred to the ninth game as " the new Mega Man 3 " because they wanted to surpass what they accomplished in Mega Man 2 .
The game was adapted into the Archie Comics Mega Man series over an extended period , with Gamma being introduced and having its power source stolen in the " Redemption " arc while the full adaptation takes place in " Legends of the Blue Bomber " and " The Ultimate Betrayal . " One of the biggest differences was that Super Adventure Rockman was adapted into the continuity prior to this game ; as such , the Mega Man 3 Robot Masters debut in that adaptation . This also results in Shadow Man 's ruins of origin being made the Lanfront Ruins of Super Adventure Rockman and connecting his history to that of Ra Moon ; a flashback featured in the " Legends of the Blue Bomber " arc reveals that his history is also connected with the mysterious robot who fights Duo in the beginning of Mega Man 8 . Additionally , there is but a single " DOC Robot " featured in the game , equipped with the weapons and personality data of the Mega Man 2 Robot Masters .
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= Holby City ( series 1 ) =
The first series of the British medical drama television series Holby City commenced airing in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 12 January 1999 , and concluded on 9 March 1999 . The show was created by Mal Young and Tony McHale as a spin – off from the BBC medical drama Casualty , intended to follow the treatment of patients from Casualty as they were transferred onto the hospital 's surgical wards . McHale served as the programme 's lead writer throughout the first series , which ran for nine episodes . Young cast actors who were already established names in the acting industry , particularly from a soap opera background . Several cast members shadowed real surgeons and nurses in preparation for their roles to increase the show 's realism . The series received mixed reviews from critics . It was compared favourably with Casualty , but received negative reviews in which it was contrasted poorly with the American medical drama ER . The series première attracted 10 @.@ 72 million viewers , falling to 8 @.@ 51 million by the series finale .
The series focuses on the hospital 's cardithoracic ward , Darwin . Department heads and consultant surgeons Anton Meyer ( George Irving ) and Muriel McKendrick ( Phyllis Logan ) clash frequently over patient care and division of beds . Tension arises between nurses Julie Fitzjohn ( Nicola Stephenson ) and Jasmine Hopkins ( Angela Griffin ) over the position of Darwin ward sister . Registrar Nick Jordan ( Michael French ) clashes professionally with his estranged wife Karen Newburn ( Sarah Preston ) , and pursues relationships with registrar Kirstie Collins ( Dawn McDaniel ) and theatre sister Ellie Sharpe ( Julie Saunders ) . Ward clerk Paul Ripley ( Luke Mably ) resigns after being caught kissing a comatose patient , and senior house officer Victoria Merrick ( Lisa Faulkner ) begins taking amphetamines to cope with the pressures of work . In the series finale , Jasmine is stabbed by thieves , and Nick endeavours to save her life in theatre .
= = Production = =
Holby City was created by Tony McHale and Mal Young as a spin – off from the long – running BBC medical drama Casualty . Young wanted to explore what happened to patients treated in Casualty once they were taken away to the hospital 's surgical wards . While Casualty 's scope is limited to " accident of the week " storylines about patients entering hospital , Holby City allowed the possibility of storylines about long – term care , rather than immediate life and death decisions .
Although both shows are set in the same hospital , the Casualty set in Bristol was not large enough to encompass the surgical ward and operating theatre required for Holby City , so the series was produced at the BBC 's Elstree Studios in north London . As a result , some crossover scenes had to be shot twice , first on the Casualty set and then again at Elstree , with cast members travelling between the two locations . McHale wrote the series ' first episode , and served as the show 's lead writer . Holby City premiered on 12 January 1999 on BBC One . Its first series ran for nine episodes of 50 minutes in length , which were broadcast first in the 8 @.@ 10 pm , then 8 pm timeslot on Tuesdays .
= = Cast = =
= = = Overview = = =
The first series of Holby City featured an ensemble cast of characters in the medical profession , who worked on the hospital 's Darwin Ward . Phyllis Logan and George Irving played consultants Muriel McKendrick and Anton Meyer . Michael French and Dawn McDaniel appeared as registrars Nick Jordan and Kirstie Collins , while Lisa Faulkner played senior house officer Victoria Merrick . Sarah Preston and Angela Griffin played ward sisters Karen Newburn and Jasmine Hopkins . Nicola Stephenson appeared as nurse Julie Fitzjohn , and Ian Curtis played senior staff nurse Ray Sykes . Julie Saunders played theatre sister Ellie Sharpe , and Luke Mably appeared as ward clerk Paul Ripley . Logan , Saunders and Mably all departed from Holby City during the course of the series . The series also included walk – on performances by Casualty cast members , including Derek Thompson as nurse Charlie Fairhead , and guest appearances by characters first seen in Casualty , whose treatment was continued on Holby City .
In casting the first series of Holby City , Young — who had previously worked on the soap operas Brookside and Family Affairs — selected actors who were already established names in the acting industry , particularly from a soap opera background . French had starred in the BBC 's EastEnders , while Stephenson and Faulkner had starred in Brookside . Griffin had also appeared in ITV 's Coronation Street . Young explained : " Some of the best performances on screen have come out of soaps in the past few years . There is a fantastic amount of talent on those shows . "
Cast members observed the staff at real hospitals in preparation for their roles . Stephenson and Griffin spent time at Watford Hospital , where they underwent a crash course in nursing basics , including handling bed pans and learning to make beds with hospital corners . Irving observed coronary artery bypass surgery performed at Papworth and Middlesex Hospital , while French shadowed a consultant and registrar at Papworth Hospital , observing a heart bypass and lung biopsy procedure . Young explained that viewers believe in Casualty and trust the show to be realistic , and that he wanted Holby City to be the same in that regard .
= = = Regular cast = = =
Phyllis Logan as Mrs. Muriel McKendrick , Cardiology Consultant , Darwin
George Irving as Mr. Anton Meyer , Cardiothoracic Consultant , Darwin
Michael French as Mr. Nick Jordan , Cardiovascular Surgical Registrar , Darwin
Dawn McDaniel as Ms. Kristie Collins , Cardiothoracic Surgical Registrar , Darwin
Lisa Faulkner as Dr. Victoria Merrick , Senior House Officer , Cardiothoracic Surgery , Darwin
Angela Griffin as Jasmine Hopkins , Ward Sister , Darwin
Sarah Preston as Karen Newburn , Ward Sister , Darwin
Nicola Stephenson as Julie Fitzjohn , Staff Nurse , Darwin
Julie Saunders as Ellie Sharpe , Theatre Sister , Darwin
Luke Mably as Paul Ripley , Ward Clerk , Darwin
Ian Curtis as Ray Sykes , Senior Staff Nurse , Darwin
= = Reception = =
The series received mixed reviews from critics . Graham Keal of the Birmingham Post wrote of the first episode : " Heretical as it might seem , I liked Holby City more than Casualty , not least because the formula is so much more flexible and unpredictable . " Peter Paterson of the Daily Mail praised the series for breaking away from the " dreary sameness " of Casualty , and for presenting " a less hopeless view of the NHS . " His only concern about the series was its continuation of patient storylines from Casualty , writing : " if that happens too often , the new programme will soon lose its freshness and sparkle . " The Mirror 's Charlie Catchpole wrote that he was " sick of the sensitive , hand – wringing , non – judgmental do – gooders who mope around the A & E department in Casualty " , praising in comparison the " pushy , ambitious , cynical and generally thoroughly unpleasant surgeons " in Holby City .
Sam Wollaston of The Guardian received the series positively , writing : " Holby City has everything you want from a hospital drama : good – looking staff , a bit of love interest , a dishy doc , the odd current issue ( no beds , badly – paid nurses ) and bits where you have to look away " , deeming it : " Pretty good , really . " Stan Hey of The Mail on Sunday observed that on the strength of the opening episode , the series ' success seemed " fairly assured " . He noted that : " characters are only skin – deep as yet , being subsidiary to the plot , but a successful graft should be achieved during the series . " Kathleen Morgan of the Daily Record praised the casting of French and Griffin , writing : " It will take a couple of episodes before both actors shake off their soapy history , but with some decent plots and good lines , they should make the grade . " Morgan deemed Irving the star of the show , and commented : " With Irving in the driving seat , Holby City looks like it is on the right track . "
Andrew Billen of the New Statesman also found Irving as Meyer the series ' " most compelling character " , though deemed Holby City mediocre and its storylines " safely unoriginal " . Billen compared Holby City negatively to the American medical drama ER , opining that the former show has a meandering pace in comparison to the latter 's briskness , and that ER has a higher calibre of actors . The Sunday Herald also compared the series unfavourably to ER , writing that Holby City served to highlight ER 's " true sophistication " . Morgan refuted these negative comparisons , however , writing that : " The sign of great drama is when a scriptwriter and director can make a symphony out of a few notes and Holby City 's creators have done that . It doesn 't have the budget of ER , but it is proving just as compelling . "
= = Episodes = =
" Episode # " refers to the episode 's number in the overall series , whereas " Series # " refers to the episode 's number in this particular series .
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= Black Cherry ( Goldfrapp album ) =
Black Cherry is the second studio album by English electronic music duo Goldfrapp , released in the United Kingdom on 28 April 2003 by Mute Records to generally positive reviews . Many critics complimented its blend of retro and modern electropop music , which was a departure from the ambient sound of their début album . Black Cherry was a top twenty album in Goldfrapp 's native United Kingdom , and its second single " Strict Machine " was a top twenty single . It earned the band a nomination for Best British Dance Act at the 2004 BRIT Awards . The album was supported by the 2003 – 04 Black Cherry Tour .
The album represented a change in Goldfrapp 's musical style , featuring glam rock and synthpop music ; inspirations were Spanish disco group Baccara and Swedish techno artist Håkan Lidbo . In August 2005 , the album was certified platinum in the UK , and had sold nearly 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide as of May 2005 .
= = Recording and production = =
The duo wrote three songs while touring in support of their début album Felt Mountain but decided to take their work in a different direction with more rhythmic music . Goldfrapp chose to record in a studio in a Bohemian area of Bath , England because they needed somewhere to put their equipment and start working . The band began working on the album in January 2002 with a list of songs they wanted to try to record , such as a disco song with only string instruments . The studio 's walls were covered in neon lights and Alison Goldfrapp used them to write down her song ideas . They recorded early demos and worked on pre @-@ production using a Yamaha 02R digital mixing console . Goldfrapp held jam sessions with Mark Linkous and Adrian Utley and , after they built momentum writing the album , decided not to move to another studio .
The album cover is a collage made by Mat Maitland of photographs taken by Polly Borland featuring Alison Goldfrapp with two wolves . Artwork in the liner notes also has a wolf motif , including women with wolf heads . Goldfrapp explained that the wolves are a representation of might and mysticism and that she was " interested in the idea of metamorphosis and humans wanting to be like animals and animals wanting to be like humans . "
= = Composition = =
After touring in support of Felt Mountain , Alison Goldfrapp stated that she felt performing slow torch songs " really claustrophobic " . During their jam sessions , improvisation became a major part of the group 's approach to recording Black Cherry . The album focuses more heavily on dance music and glam rock @-@ inspired synthesisers than its predecessor , and is influenced by Spanish disco group Baccara and Swedish techno artist Håkan Lidbo . Goldfrapp commented that the album differs from Felt Mountain because the band " wanted to put more kind of ' oomph ' in it . " She stated that the lyrics are " a lot more direct and … less ambiguous . " The songs on Black Cherry are more forthright in describing sexuality than those on Felt Mountain .
= = Critical reception = =
Black Cherry received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on 22 reviews , which indicates " generally [ favourable ] reviews " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called it " a laudable , challenging and immensely enjoyable album . " However , Michael Idov referred to Goldfrapp as " ambulance chasers " in his review for Pitchfork Media , criticising the band 's switch to electro music , while describing Black Cherry as " a soundtrack to excruciatingly banal seduction " . Rolling Stone 's Pat Blashill disagreed , arguing that " [ t ] ons of bands imitate the sounds of the early Eighties , but Goldfrapp use New Wave as a way to evoke a long history of shiny Euro @-@ lounge music . " In a review for Blender magazine , Dorian Lynskey wrote that on Black Cherry , " Goldfrapp sound right at home . " Heather Phares of Allmusic commended Goldfrapp for their " artistic risk @-@ taking " , but noted that the album " sounds unbalanced , swinging between delicate , deceptively icy ballads and heavier , dance @-@ inspired numbers without finding much of a happy medium between them . " Andy Hermann of PopMatters viewed Black Cherry as " a weird , edgy album , the work of two doggedly maverick talents chasing their muses wherever they take them " . Wes May of About.com called it a " rare electronica album of warmth and depth " and wrote that it was " the ultimate chillout pleasure " .
PopMatters included the album on its list of the Top 50 Albums of 2003 , ranking it at number forty @-@ six . It was listed at number twenty @-@ three on Drowned in Sound 's list of the Top 75 Albums of 2003 . Black Cherry earned Goldfrapp a nomination for Best British Dance Act at the 2004 BRIT Awards , but they lost to Basement Jaxx .
= = Chart performance = =
Black Cherry débuted on the UK Albums Chart on 10 May 2003 at number nineteen . The album remained on the chart for twenty @-@ six weeks and had sold 256 @,@ 703 copies as of August 2005 . Later that month , on 26 August 2005 , Black Cherry was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments in excess of 300 @,@ 000 copies within the UK . The album reached the top thirty in Germany , Ireland , Norway and Portugal , and the top fifty in Belgium , France and Switzerland . Black Cherry became Goldfrapp 's first album to chart in the United States , reaching number four on the Top Electronic Albums chart and number twenty @-@ seven on the Top Independent Albums chart . The album has sold 52 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of August 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Black Cherry album liner notes .
Alison Goldfrapp – vocals , producer , synthesiser , engineer , arranger ( all tracks ) ; mixing ( 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 , 10 ) ; art direction , design
Will Gregory – producer , synthesiser , engineer , arranger ( all tracks ) ; mixing ( 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 , 10 )
David Bascombe – mixing ( 6 , 8 )
Nick Batt – co @-@ producer , synthesiser , engineer , additional programming
Big Active – art direction , design
Polly Borland – photography
Andy Davis – guitar ( 10 )
Bruno Ellingham – Pro Tools
Tom Elmhirst – mixing
Nick Ingman – string conductor , string orchestration
Charlie Jones – bass ( 8 )
Mark Linkous – Casio ( 2 )
Mike Marsh – mastering
Rowan Oliver – drums , percussion ( 2 ) ; additional drum programming ( 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 )
Steve Orchard – string engineer , string submixing
Damon Reece – drums ( 8 )
Adrian Utley – bass , guitar ( 2 )
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Saturday Night ! – The Album =
Saturday Night ! – The Album is the second studio album by hip hop artist Jesse Weaver under the alias of Schoolly D. The album was recorded at INS Studios in New York where Weaver created an album of seven tracks that included rapping and instrumentals that were both inspired and sampled various funk musicians from the 1970s . The album was released independently in 1986 . Singles from the album included the tracks " Saturday Night " and " Dedication to All B @-@ Boys " .
Saturday Night ! – The Album was re @-@ issued by Jive Records in 1987 with several extra tracks that were originally intended for Weaver 's follow @-@ up album Smoke Some Kill . The album charted on the Billboard 's Black Albums chart and the UK Top Indie Singles chart on its release . The album content was described by AllMusic as putting Weaver " in hot water with many critics and community leaders . " Critical reception on its release was mixed with the album being referred to as " artless " by the Washington Post while other critics such as Robert Christgau gave a positive review . The NME placed it on their list of the top albums of 1987 .
= = Production = =
Weaver began recording Saturday Night ! – The Album in 1986 . He was being barred from the studio where he originally recorded his single for " P.S.K. What Does It Mean ? " and went to INS Studios in New York . To compose the music , Weaver first started working on the drums , stating that " by 1985 I had mastered the [ Roland TR- ] 909 . " After completing the drums , Weaver worked on lyrics and vocals when he " smoked and drank until we got silly enough . At that point , the first thing that hit my mind @-@ that was the song " . Some songs were performed with live musicians such as " B @-@ Boy Rhyme and Riddle " which had a live drummer brought in by engineer Joe Nicolo . The music on " Saturday Night " was the result of DJ Codemoney forgetting a plug for the 909 . Weaver used the drum machine at the studio to record the song without the 909 on hand and accidentally pushed a button that sent the kick and snare to go to the timbales sound . This new sound was used for the song " Saturday Night " .
Weaver signed with Jive Records to " pay a lot of bills " as the distributors of his previous work were not paying him for the records that were sold . Saturday Night ! – The Album was re @-@ released by Jive in 1987 with extra tracks including " Parkside 5 @-@ 2 " , " Housing the Joint " and " Get N ' Paid " . These three tracks were originally intended for Weaver 's next album Smoke Some Kill . Weaver was upset after finding these new tracks added to the album , stating that " it was a total scam to reissue Saturday Night like they did , with those tracks , because it had already sold hundreds of thousands of copies . " and that if these tracks were released on Smoke Some Kill , his follow @-@ up album would have " been an even better record " .
= = Style = =
Brian Coleman , author of Check the Technique described Saturday Night ! – The Album as " what everything that Schoolly D was all about : funk , loose rhymes and attitude . " " We Get Ill " was reviewed by Spin , who called it " a seamy celebration of bad habits and bad language . The track was inspired by Bootsy Collins and initially was going to be an instrumental . " Do It , Do It " was developed in DJ Codemoney 's basement when he was working on a break involving Funkadelic 's song " You 'll Like It Too " . The song samples the nursery rhyme " Who 's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf ? " taken from a children 's record . " Dedication to All B @-@ Boys " was inspired by the group The Commodores . The track features a Weaver 's disc jockey , DJ Codemoney , performing a long break at the end . Weaver explained this part of the song by stating that in " rock and funk groups , everybody who was part of the band got to do their thing . And Code was part of the band . "
AllMusic writer David Jeffries noted songs such as " Saturday Night " , stating it as " the kind of sleazy tale of misogyny that put Schoolly in hot water with many critics and community leaders . " When asked about his lyrics commanding a woman to " do it doggy style " in his song " Do It Do It " , Weaver stated that the lyrics are a reflection of his background and audience , and not necessarily how he feels about others . Weaver reflected on the song " Saturday Night " as being about " my 17 year old Saturday night " which consisted of going down to the Parkside Inn , drinking , and " watching the bitches on the corner " and that the song was not meant to be taken literally , but that he " did come home once with a girl and I forgot my key and my mom was pissed off , but she didn 't pull a gun ; she 's never owned a gun in her life " .
" Housing the Joint " was influenced by a trip to California when he heard the song " Thank You ( Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin ) " by Sly and the Family Stone . Upon hearing it , Weaver booked studio time and recorded the song in a day . The track 's lyrics involve a conflict Weaver had with rapper Spoonie Gee and his song " That 's My Style " where he claims that Weaver was appropriating his technique . Weaver has since performed with Spoonie Gee on stage and later stated he " never felt comfortable " performing this track in concert .
= = Release = =
Saturday Night ! – The Album was first released on Schooly @-@ D Records in 1986 . On the album 's Jive Records re @-@ release , it charted on Billboard 's Top Black Albums for ten weeks peaking at number 59 . In the United Kingdom , the album was released by Mute Records affiliate called Rhythm King where it charted on the UK Indie Charts for 10 weeks peaking at number four . Singles for the album included " Saturday Night " and " Dedication to All B @-@ Boys " released on Schooly @-@ D Records and Flame Records . Both " Saturday Night " and " Dedication to All B @-@ Boys " appeared on the UK Indie Charts . " On its release , Philadelphia 's city officials had the album removed from store shelves after public outrage over the violent content in the songs .
Saturday Night ! – The Album was released for the first time on compact disc by Funky Town Grooves on July 21 , 2014 . The CD release included radio edits , remixes and instrumentals of songs from the album as bonus tracks .
= = Reception = =
From contemporary reviews , The Washington Post gave the album a mixed review , stating that " even by rap standards , [ Schooly D 's ] work is artless . " The review compared the album negatively to other rappers , noting that they " construct complex hip @-@ hop concertos for voice , beat @-@ box and borrowed sounds , Schooly 's best @-@ known work is little more than a beat accompanying his foul @-@ mouthed , ill @-@ tempered rants " . The review also found that " there 's no denying that his harsh communiqués crackle with a mean @-@ streets vitality as fascinating as his confrontational world view is disturbing . " Robert Christgau gave the Jive reissue of the album a B , stating " What other rapper would write a rhyme about the night his mother pulled a gun on him--or make it so clear that , just like in West Side Story , he 's depraved on account of he 's deprived . This doesn 't speak too well of white critics , obviously , but it also doesn 't take away his raps , his rips , or his muscleman groove . " Spin stated that it " can 't sustain an album with just reverb and a cowbell . Even if it is killer reverb and a way funky cowbell . " The NME placed Saturday Night ! – The Album at number 20 on their list of the top albums of 1987 . The single " Saturday Night " was also listed at number 28 on their list of Top 50 tracks of the year .
Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) gave the original release an eight out of ten and the Jive re @-@ release a nine out of ten . The review concluded that Jive 's release was superior as it included " some of Schoolly 's best cuts ( " Housing the Joint , " " Park @-@ side 5 @-@ 2 " ) " AllMusic gave the album a four star rating , finding it better than Weaver 's previous album Schooly D due to " higher production values and more direct songs . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs are written and produced by Schooly D ( J.B. Weaver Jr . ) .
= = Credits = =
= = = Original Schooly @-@ D Records release = = =
Schooly D – music , words , writer , producer , artwork
Joe " The Butcher " – engineer
Credits adapted from Saturday Night ! – The Album front and back cover and vinyl sticker .
= = = Jive Records release = = =
Schooly D – music , words , writer , producer , artwork
Joe " The Butcher " – engineer
Arthur Mann – executive producer
Rick Cohn – executive producer
Credits adapted from Jive 's Saturday Night ! – The Album front cover , back cover and vinyl sticker .
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Glina massacres =
The Glina massacres were killings of Serb peasants in the town of Glina in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) that occurred between May and August 1941 , during World War II . The first wave of massacres in the town began on 11 or 12 May 1941 , when a band of Ustaše led by Mirko Puk murdered a group of Serb men and boys in a Serbian Orthodox church before setting it on fire . The following day , approximately 100 Serb males were murdered by the Ustaše in the nearby village of Prekopi . Estimates of the overall number of Serbs killed from 11 – 13 May range from 260 to 417 . Further killings in Glina occurred between 30 July and 3 August of that same year , when 700 – 2 @,@ 000 Serbs were massacred by a group of Ustaše led by Vjekoslav Luburić . Ljubo Jednak , the only survivor of these killings , went on to testify at the trials of the several prominent figures in the NDH after the war . Puk was captured by British forces in 1945 while attempting to flee to Austria and was extradited to Yugoslavia the following year , where he committed suicide . Luburić escaped Yugoslavia after the war and moved to fascist Spain , where he was killed by a person generally assumed to be an agent of the Yugoslav State Security Service .
An estimated 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 400 people were killed in the Glina massacres . In 1969 , a monument was erected and a memorial museum was built to commemorate the victims of the killings . Following the independence of Croatia from Yugoslavia , the monument was removed by Croatian authorities in the town . After the Croatian War of Independence , the local authorities failed to restore it and dismantled it instead . The memorial museum was converted into a generic cultural institution , to the dismay of the local Serbian population .
= = Background = =
On 6 April 1941 , Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . The country was then dismembered and the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " . NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population living within the borders of the new state . Ethnic Serbs were persecuted the most because Pavelić and the Ustaše considered them " potential turncoats " in what they wanted to be an ethnically pure state composed solely of Croats . Racist and antisemitic laws were passed , and ethnic Serbs , representing about thirty percent of the NDH 's population of 6 @.@ 3 million , became targets of large @-@ scale massacres perpetrated by the Ustaše . By the middle of 1941 , these killings reached degrees of brutality that shocked even some Germans . The Cyrillic script was subsequently banned by Croatian authorities , Orthodox Christian church schools were closed , and Serbs were ordered to wear identifying armbands . Mile Budak , the Croatian Minister of Education , is reported to have said that one @-@ third of Serbs in the NDH were to be killed , one @-@ third were to be expelled , and one @-@ third were to be converted to Roman Catholicism . The Ustaše then established numerous concentration camps where thousands of Serbs were mistreated , starved , and murdered .
Glina is a small market town in the Banovina region of Croatia located about 55 kilometers ( 34 miles ) south of Zagreb . In 1931 , the town itself had a population of 2 @,@ 315 people and was inhabited mostly by Serbs , Croats , and Jews . Shortly after the Ustaše took power , the Croatian Minister of Justice , Mirko Puk , established a base in the town .
= = Massacres = =
= = = May 1941 = = =
On 11 or 12 May 1941 , a band of Ustaše led by Puk seized a group of Serb males from Glina and detained them regardless of occupation or class . The Ustaše then herded the group into an Orthodox Church and demanded that they be given documents proving the Serbs had all converted to Catholicism . Two Serbs produced the required documents and were released . The Ustaše then locked inside and massacred those who did not possess conversion certificates , including priest Bogdan Opačić . The bodies were then left to burn as the Ustaše set the church on fire and waited outside to shoot any survivors attempting to escape the flames . On 13 May , a further 100 Serb males were executed by the Ustaše in the nearby village of Prekopi .
Estimates of the number of Serbs killed on 11 – 13 May vary . Historians Jozo Tomasevich and Ivo Goldstein put the number at 260 . Historians Sabrina P. Ramet and Marko Attila Hoare estimate that about 300 Serbs were massacred while historian Davide Rodogno puts the number at 417 killed . On 14 May , the Archbishop of Zagreb , Aloysius Stepinac , sent a letter of protest to Pavelić after receiving news of the killings . He failed to condemn the atrocity publicly . The next day , Pavelić visited Rome and was granted a private audience with Pope Pius XII , who offered de facto recognition of the NDH on behalf of the Holy See . Although he was aware that Pavelić was a totalitarian dictator , there is no evidence that he had knowledge of the first Glina massacre at the time .
= = = July – August 1941 = = =
On the night of 30 July 1941 , a massacre similar to the one in May again occurred in Glina . That summer , the Ustaše had offered amnesty for all Serbs in the NDH who would convert from Eastern Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism . Many Serbs responded positively , and one group turned up at a Serbian Orthodox church in Glina where a conversion ceremony was to take place . The Serbs who had gathered , thinking they were to undergo a conversion ceremony , were greeted by six members of the Ustaše under the direct command of Vjekoslav Luburić . When all were inside , the doors to the church were sealed . The Serbs were then forced to lie on the ground as the six Ustaše struck them one by one on the head with spiked clubs . More Ustaše then appeared and the killings continued . Victims were killed by having their throats cut or by having their heads smashed in with rifle butts . Only one of the victims , Ljubo Jednak , survived after playing dead and later described what had happened :
They started with one huge husky peasant who began singing an old historical heroic song of the Serbs . They put his head on the table and as he continued to sing they slit his throat and then the next squad moved in to smash his skull . I was paralyzed . " This is what you are getting , " an Ustaša screamed . Ustaše surrounded us . There was absolutely no escape . Then the slaughter began . One group stabbed with knives , the other followed , smashing heads to make certain everyone was dead . Within a matter of minutes we stood in a lake of blood . Screams and wails , bodies dropping right and left .
The bodies were then put into trucks and were taken to a large burial pit , where they were left unattended long enough for Jednak to escape . It is estimated that 200 Serbs were killed that evening . Killings continued on 3 August , when the Ustaše murdered the inhabitants of Serb villages in the vicinity of the church . About one month later , the church was burned down by the Ustaše . Estimates of the number of Serbs killed from 30 July to 3 August vary widely . Sociologist Damir Mirković and historian Paul Mojzes state that 700 Serbs were killed . Journalist Tim Judah puts the number at 1 @,@ 200 , and historian Iván T. Berend writes that the Ustaše killed 1 @,@ 800 people . Hoare writes that as many as 2 @,@ 000 Serbs were murdered .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the massacres , many Serbs from Glina and its surroundings fled to Serbia or were deported to Ustaše @-@ controlled concentration camps . The NDH collapsed in May 1945 , and the following year the Nuremberg trials judged that the persecution experienced by Serbs in the country was a crime of genocide . Local Serbs returned to Glina after the war , partly out of a desire to remain near the graves of their deceased family members , and lived peacefully alongside their Croat neighbours until the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s .
Puk , the organizer of the first massacre , was captured by British forces while attempting to flee to Austria in May 1945 and was extradited to Yugoslavia several months later , where he committed suicide by slitting his wrists with a razor blade . Luburić , the organizer of the second massacre , escaped Yugoslavia after the war and moved to fascist Spain , where he was assassinated by a person generally assumed to have been an agent of the Yugoslav State Security Service ( UDBA ) . Pavelić survived the war and died in Spain in 1959 . Stepinac , who failed to publicly condemn the atrocities in Glina , was accused of collaborating with the Ustaše by Yugoslavia 's new Communist government and was tried in 1946 , where Jednak testified against him . He was subsequently sentenced to sixteen years imprisonment and died while under house arrest in 1960 . In 1986 , Jednak testified against the Ustaše government 's Minister of the Interior , Andrija Artuković , at his trial in Croatia .
= = = Legacy = = =
From an estimated 300 @,@ 000 Croatian Serbs that were murdered by the Ustaše from 1941 to 1945 , more than 18 @,@ 000 were from Glina at its surroundings . According to historians Hannes Grandits and Christian Promitzer , the massacres that occurred in the town in 1941 took the lives of approximately 2 @,@ 000 Serbs . Professor Mark Levene estimates that 2 @,@ 400 people lost their lives over the course of five mass killings that occurred in Glina during 1941 . Sometimes called pogroms , the killings have been described by Judah as being one of the most infamous of the early atrocities perpetrated by the Ustaše . Professor Manus I. Midlarsky has noted that the burning of victims inside a church during the May killings " foreshadowed the later German massing of Jews inside their wooden synagogues in Poland ... [ and ] setting fire to the buildings as the congregants inside burned alive . "
The poem Requiem ( Serbian : Rekvijem , Реквијем ) by poet Ivan V. Lalić is dedicated to the victims of the massacres in Glina . After the war , Yugoslav authorities removed the physical remnants where the church which had been burned down on 30 July had stood . In 1969 , a monument by Antun Augustinčić and a museum ( Croatian : Spomen @-@ dom , lit . " Memorial home " ) were erected on the site and were dedicated to the victims of the massacres .
Following the independence of Croatia from Yugoslavia , the monument , a marble tablet bearing the names of Serbs killed in the massacres , was removed by Croatian authorities in the town . The memorial museum was heavily damaged in 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . In August 1995 , the Augustinčić monument was damaged and removed again after it had been restored by Croatian Serb authorities following its initial removal in 1991 . Croatian authorities began working on the conversion of the museum into a general @-@ purpose cultural institution named the " Croatian Home " ( Croatian : Hrvatski dom ) . The move was met with indignation by the Serbian community , who complained to the local authorities , to the Ministry of Culture , and to the Prime Minister of Croatia . They were publicly supported by writer Slavko Goldstein , but local Croatian Peasant Party politicians rejected their pleas .
= = = Newspapers = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Kiger Mustang =
The Kiger Mustang is a strain of Mustang horse located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Oregon . Originally feral horses with specific conformation traits discovered in 1977 , the name also applies to their bred @-@ in @-@ captivity progeny . The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) administers two herd management areas for Kiger Mustangs in the Burns District — Kiger and Riddle Mountain , in the Steens Mountain area . DNA testing has shown that Kiger Mustangs are descended largely from Spanish horses brought to North America in the 17th century , a bloodline thought to have largely disappeared from mustang herds before the Kiger horses were found .
Kiger Mustangs are most often dun in color , although they are found in other solid colors . Compact and well @-@ muscled in appearance , their coloration and phenotype make them some of the most desired by private buyers when horses are removed from the feral herds . The BLM rounds up the horses from the two herd management areas every three to four years , and auctions excess horses to the public , returning horses to public lands that meet the desired coloration and phenotype and sometimes exchanging horses between the two herds to maintain genetic diversity . Horses in private ownership may be registered in several breed associations , the largest and oldest being the Kiger Mesteño Association , established in 1988 .
= = Characteristics = =
Kiger Mustangs are most commonly dun in color , although the breed registry also allows bay , black and roan horses to be registered . There are numerous shades of dun , all variations on a tan base , and many shades have their own names . The Kiger Mesteño Association separates dun shades into four categories : dun , red dun , grulla , and claybank . " Dun " as used by the Kiger registry covers dun horses with black points , and adds the terms zebra dun , dusty dun , smutty dun or coyote dun , depending on the exact shade of body color . Red dun , or the variation " apricot dun " , covers horses with points that are red , brown or flaxen . Grulla covers horses with blueish , mousy or slate @-@ colored bodies and black points , and these horses may also be called lobo duns , olive grullas , silver grullas or smutty grullas . Claybank , another variation of red dun , describes Kiger horses who have golden body coats with red or orange tints and darker red points . Dun horses may have primitive markings , which include any of the following : a dorsal stripe , lightened outer guard hairs on the manes and / or tails , zebra @-@ like stripes on the upper legs , transverse striping over the upper shoulders , dark color around the muzzle , and ears with dark outlines and lighter interiors .
Kiger Mustangs generally stand 13 @.@ 2 to 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 to 62 inches , 137 to 157 cm ) high . They are compact , well @-@ muscled horses with deep chests and short backs . In general , they are agile and intelligent , with the stamina and sure @-@ footedness seen in many feral horse breeds . They are generally bold but gentle and calm . They are used for pleasure riding as well as endurance riding , assorted performance competition under saddle , driving , and many other situations where an athletic horse is desired .
= = History = =
Horses have been present in the American West since the 1500s , when they arrived with Spanish explorers . Many escaped , were released by the Spanish or stolen by Native Americans . Their descendents crossed with horses who escaped from or were released by other European settlers , including draft breeds brought by farmers and wagoneers and lighter riding horses brought by the United States Cavalry . Horses of French descent also moved across the border from Canada to contribute to the herds . The mixture of these breeds created the Mustang present in the western portion of the US today . By the early 1970s , it was assumed that due to crossbreeding , the original Spanish stock had been eliminated from feral herds . In 1971 , the Wild and Free @-@ Roaming Horse and Burro Act was passed , giving the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) the authority to manage the feral horse populations in the American West .
Discovery of the Kiger Mustang was the result of a BLM Mustang roundup in the Beatys Butte area in Harney County in 1977 . During the roundup , it was noticed that among the horses collected from the area , there was a group with similar color and markings . DNA testing by the University of Kentucky showed close relation to the Spanish horses brought to the Americas in the 17th century . These distinct horses were separated from the other horses and the BLM placed two groups in separate areas of Steens Mountain to preserve the breed . Seven horses were placed in the Riddle Mountain Herd Management Area ( HMA ) and twenty in the Kiger HMA .
In 2001 , the Kiger Mustang was proposed as the state horse of Oregon . State Senator Steve Harper proposed Senate Joint Resolution 10 after being encouraged to do so by the Kiger Mesteño Association . The resolution , however , failed to pass . Kiger Mustangs have been used as models for model horses and animated films . The original herd stallion Mesteño was used as the model for a series of Breyer Horses , showing the horse at several ages from foal to old age . It was the first time the company had made a series of models showing the same horse . The artist 's model for the title horse of the animated film Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron was a Kiger Mustang named Donner , also known as " Spirit " , who lives at the Return to Freedom American Wild Horse Sanctuary .
= = BLM management and private ownership = =
The Kiger HMA , 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of Burns , Oregon and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Diamond , Oregon , covers 36 @,@ 618 acres ( 148 @.@ 19 km2 ) and hosts a population that ranges between 51 and 83 horses . The Riddle Mountain HMA , 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Burns , covers 28 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 km2 ) and contains between 33 and 56 horses . Horses are sometimes exchanged between the herds to maintain the highest possible level of genetic diversity . After roundups , horses with the desired physical characteristics ( including phenotype and coloration ) are returned to the herds to maintain a high quality of breeding stock . The herds are rounded up every three to four years , and excess horses are auctioned to the public . At two of the more recent auctions , in 2007 and 2011 , over 100 horses were auctioned at each event . The 2007 event resulted in 106 horses being adopted to homes in 14 states for a total of $ 100 @,@ 206 . The two horses with the highest bids went for $ 7 @,@ 800 and $ 7 @,@ 400 . This is much higher than the adoption fees paid for other mustangs ; horses removed from other herds in Oregon can be adopted for a walk @-@ up fee of $ 125 .
Genetic testing has shown that Kiger Mustang is a descendant of the Spanish horse . Many of today 's Kiger Mustangs can be traced back to a single stallion named Mesteño , captured with the original herd in 1977 and released back to the Kiger HMA . Several organizations exist which inspect and register Kiger Mustangs ; each has their own standards for entry into the stud book . In 1988 , the Kiger Mustang Association ( now the Kiger Mesteño Association ) was formed as the original registry for the herd . By 2013 , the organization had registered around 800 horses , and annually inspects between 75 and 100 new horses . Two other associations are the Steens Mountain Kiger Registry , established in 1993 , and the Kiger Horse Association and Registry . The Kiger Mustangs of the Riddle Mountain and Kiger HMAs are the best known herds of Mustangs in Oregon , despite making up only a small portion of the population . As of 2013 , the state had a total estimated BLM @-@ managed feral horse population of almost 2 @,@ 600 , roaming over 17 HMAs and a Wild Horse Territory co @-@ managed with the US Forest Service . A census taken in April 2010 found 60 Kiger Mustangs in the Riddle Mountain HMA and 81 in the Kiger HMA ; estimates made in February 2013 list 40 horses in Riddle Mountain and 61 in Kiger .
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= The Stakeout ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Stakeout " is the second episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the eighth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 24 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie conducts surveillance on a community garden in an attempt to find out who planted marijuana there .
The episode was written by Rachel Axler and directed by Seth Gordon . It marked the first in a series of guest appearances by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer who develops a romantic interest in Leslie . A scene in which Sanderson arrests Tom Haverford in his own van mirrors the real @-@ life controversial 2009 arrest of Henry Louis Gates .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 22 million households , an 800 @,@ 000 @-@ household drop from the previous week 's season premiere , " Pawnee Zoo " . " The Stakeout " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators saying it marked a continued improvement over the first Parks and Recreation season .
= = Plot = =
Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who is preparing for her first date with Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , worriedly asks Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) if she has any reservations , since Leslie previously had feelings for him . Leslie insists she is fine . Later , Leslie and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) visit a community garden in the Pawnee pit , where they find what appears to be marijuana .
That night , Leslie and Tom don black and watch the pit from a van . Leslie eventually spots Ann and Mark leaving for their date , and starts snapping photos of them . Later , Leslie and Tom see Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) in the pit . They assume he is the kingpin , but he insists he is actually living in the pit and eating the vegetables from the garden .
Back at city hall , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) remains immobile in his chair all day due to a hernia which causes excruciating pain if he moves . Ron remains immobile in his seat well into the night , until the janitors turn the lights off on him . The intern , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , returns to check on him , and wheels Ron out to the car on his office chair to bring him to the hospital .
Leslie and Andy walk off to get fast food . Back at the pit , Tom is locked out of his van and tries to break back in . Ann and Mark return from their date and call the police after they see him , assuming him to be a prowler . Officer Dave Sanderson ( Louis C.K. ) arrives and confronts Tom , who mouths off at Dave until he places him under arrest .
Leslie goes to the police station . Initially angry , she eventually confesses about the marijuana . Dave releases Tom , who thanks Leslie for sticking up for him . The next day , Leslie and Dave go to the garden , but he finds no marijuana . Tom tells Leslie that Mark is an idiot , and she can do better . Dave guesses Leslie orchestrated the whole thing to spy on Ann and Mark . Later , Dave privately admits he is attracted to Leslie .
= = Production = =
" The Stakeout " was written by Rachel Axler and directed by Seth Gordon . It marked the first in a series of guest appearances by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. He played Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer who develops a romantic interest in Leslie , and speaks about intimate feelings in a deadpan , technical tone of voice . C.K. improvised the line , " I was attracted to her in a sexual manner that was appropriate " during his discussion about Leslie near the end of the episode .
During a scene in the van , Tom Haverford tells Leslie he changed his name because his original name was too foreign sounding for a career in politics . When Leslie points about U.S. President Barack Obama has a foreign @-@ sounding name , Tom gets upset . The reference to Obama 's name was originally featured in a scene that was cut from Parks and Recreation pilot episode . Offerman , who barely moves and is often quiet throughout the episode , said he learned to use humor amid silence while serving as an altar boy and lector at his church . Offerman said , " I had a cousin in the congregation , and I would speak with the utmost , august stoicism , and everyone would think I was a very effective speaker . But he knew I was being facetious . He 'd get in trouble for cracking up . "
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , three deleted scenes from " The Stakeout " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first 75 @-@ second clip , a panicked Leslie asks Tom whether the marijuana plant could be a " non @-@ marijuana weed " . In the second 80 @-@ second clip , Dave says he hates arresting people because he " never wants to go " . He also discusses his strategies for calming people down , including using a soft voice , eye contact and tasing them . In the third minute @-@ long clip , Ron tries unsuccessfully to eat his lunch and throw away the garbage without moving .
= = Cultural references = =
The confrontation between Tom Haverford and Dave Sanderson before Tom 's arrest in his own van mirrored the real life arrest of Henry Louis Gates , a black Harvard University professor who was arrested after police mistakenly thought he was breaking into his own home in Cambridge , Massachusetts . The arrest received national attention . When a police officer asked Gates to step outside , he replied , " I 'll speak to your mama outside , " which was parodied in " The Stakeout " when Dave asked Tom to step out of the van and he responded , " I 'll step out of your mama 's van ! "
During the opening scene , Tom pretends to know the names of all the plants in a community garden and assigns them all fake names based on real @-@ life rappers . He refers to one plant as Souljaboy Tellems , a reference to the performer Soulja Boy Tell ' Em , and another as Ludacrises , a reference to rapper Ludacris .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on September 24 , 2009 , " The Stakeout " was seen by 4 @.@ 22 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . It constituted a nearly 800 @,@ 000 @-@ household drop from the previous week 's season premiere , " Pawnee Zoo " . The episode received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the lowest rating for Season Two so far . The Star @-@ Ledger television columnist Alan Sepinwall said although the quality of Parks and Recreations was improving , season two was struggling in the ratings based on the lower quality of the season one episodes . Sepinwall said , " There 's a school of thought in the TV business that it 's harder to get back viewers who watched and left than it is to start small and attract new viewers over time . " " The Stakeout " received generally positive reviews . Sepinwall said the episode was funny , but also notable because it developed a stronger personal connection between Leslie and Tom , and because it featured more references to topical events like the Henry Gates controversy .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said " The Stakeout " was " the best Parks & Recreation episode by a long shot " . He said Poehler seemed more at ease with the Leslie character , and thought " the intersection of business and personal stress " served the episode well . He also praised the supporting cast and particularly the Ron Swanson subplot . Matt Fowler of IGN said with " The Stakeout " , the second season of Parks and Recreation continued to be " significantly funnier " than the first season . Fowler said he thought the pairing between Leslie and Tom helped ground both characters , and said he was interested to see Leslie dealt with the growing romance between Ann and Mark . Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog said " The Stakeout " showed growth improvement for the series , and praised the guest performance of Louis C.K. Fog said the disparate pairing of Leslie and Tom , Mark and Ann , and Ron and April , created a sense that the characters " really knew each other [ and ] had lives outside of Leslie 's immediate orbit " . Chicago Tribune columnist Maureen Ryan particularly praised the performance of Offerman , of whom she said , " His pained reactions and stoic silence are hilarious . "
= = DVD release = =
" The Stakeout " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Homie the Clown =
" Homie the Clown " is the 14th episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 12 , 1995 . When Krusty the Clown opens a clown college to deal with his debt , Homer Simpson enrolls and ends up impersonating Krusty at public events . Mistaking him for the real clown , the Springfield Mafia kidnaps Homer , demanding their money . Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony , while Dick Cavett and Johnny Unitas guest starred as themselves .
The episode was conceived and written by John Swartzwelder and directed by David Silverman . Swartzwelder 's script required very little rewriting and Silverman considers this one of the best episodes he has directed . He later used it to help him when directing The Simpsons Movie . One dropped storyline for The Simpsons saw Krusty being revealed as Homer 's secret identity and this episode allowed writers to comment upon the similarity of the two characters ' design . The episode features references to Close Encounters of the Third Kind , The Godfather and The Maltese Falcon .
= = Plot = =
Krusty 's massive gambling debts and extravagant personal life land him in deep trouble with the Springfield Mafia and only a month away from bankruptcy . To make money , he launches a training college for clowns . Homer sees an advertisement about the college and at first says that it had no effect on him , but then becomes obsessed with it , eventually announcing to his startled family that he is going to enroll . After graduating , he impersonates Krusty at private and public events that the real Krusty deems unworthy of his personal appearance .
At first , the stress of impersonating Krusty makes Homer consider quitting . However , he discovers that he receives all sorts of benefits from authority figures and businesses that mistake him for Krusty due to their uncanny resemblance . The impersonation goes too far when Homer is kidnapped by the mafia , who mistake him for the real clown that owes them money . Mob boss Don Vittorio DiMaggio tells Homer he will kill him unless he performs a loop @-@ de @-@ loop on a tiny bicycle , the only trick Homer never learned to do . He fails , but the real Krusty arrives and the confused Don instead forces them to perform the trick together . The trick is a success and their lives are spared , but Krusty still has to pay off his debt to the mob — a total of $ 48 . Krusty pays them with a $ 50 bill , and gets his change back .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by David Silverman . Swartzwelder came up with the idea and his script required very little rewriting . The episode is one of Silverman 's favorites and he was pleased to direct it , after enjoying Swartzwelder 's script . Silverman felt he himself " brought a lot to the party on [ this ] one , " and although " people didn 't like [ Swartzwelder 's script ] at the read @-@ through , " Silverman thought " the script was really funny , and I had an idea for the opening and presented it with a lot of circus music that inspired the music they used for it . It was great fun . " He used it , along with " Three Men and a Comic Book " , to help him when directing The Simpsons Movie .
Brad Bird also helped Silverman , particularly with Krusty 's design . An early idea for The Simpsons saw Krusty the Clown being revealed as Homer Simpson 's secret stage identity . This storyline never developed , but this episode allowed writers to comment upon the design similarity of the two characters . Krusty 's appearance and design is just that of Homer 's , with clown make @-@ up . Silverman enhanced the lines under Krusty 's eyes , and reshaped his beard line in order to make a clearer distinction between the two characters .
Homer beating up the Estonian dwarf ( who first appeared in " Burns ' Heir " ) was a joke Matt Groening " had trouble with " . David Mirkin wanted the scene to be violent , but Silverman stated that he thought he had animated the finished product to be too realistic . However , nothing was changed . Fox objected to the mafia buying ammunition from a Big 5 Sporting Goods until Mirkin pointed out that Big 5 sold ammunition . The second act break was , up until the animatic , after Fat Tony 's line " cancel the world search " .
Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony . Mirkin said Mantegna is a joy to direct and that Mantegna loves the role so much , he wishes to voice him " even if he only coughs " . Dick Cavett guest starred as himself . Mirkin commented that Cavett 's part was probably the " meanest " they had ever been to a guest star . Cavett often told stories involving himself and other famous people and Mirkin decided to make light of that . Cavett did not have any objections .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is reference to the character Homey the Clown from the sketch comedy show In Living Color . Krusty lights a cigarette with an issue of Action Comics # 1 , the first appearance of Superman , and one of the rarest comic books of all @-@ time , while Homer forms his mashed potatoes into a circus tent in a parody of Richard Dreyfuss ' character forming his potatoes into a replica of Devils Tower in the 1977 film Close Encounters of the Third Kind . The episode contains several references to films related to organized crime , such as the notes played on the wine glasses during Homer and Krusty 's bicycle trick forming those of the theme from the film The Godfather . Additionally , Silverman inserted a low @-@ angle shot of Fat Tony sitting in a chair as a tribute to a similar shot of Sydney Greenstreet 's character in The Maltese Falcon , while Don Vittorio is based on actors William Hickey and Don Ameche .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homie the Clown " finished 59th ( tied with Behind Closed Doors II ) in the ratings for the week of February 5 to February 12 , 1995 , helping Fox to an overall Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 . The episode was the fifth highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
Mike Brantley of The Mobile Register named " Homie the Clown " the 48th greatest television episode of all @-@ time . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , stated the episode was " notable for its scenes of Homer on trying to emulate Krusty 's mini @-@ trike loop the loops . " Ryan Keefer of DVD Verdict felt it " features one of the more amusing stunts to cap an episode " , giving it an A. Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that the episode " offers a truly terrific show , " and also praised the " clever Close Encounters reference , and the ways that it ties together Krusty 's mob connection with Homer , " concluding " it 's a real winner . "
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= Antarctica =
Antarctica ( US English / æntˈɑːrktɪkə / , UK English / ænˈtɑːktɪkə / or / ænˈtɑːtɪkə / or / ænˈɑːtɪkə / ) is Earth 's southernmost continent , containing the geographic South Pole . It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 square miles ) , it is the fifth @-@ largest continent in area after Asia , Africa , North America , and South America . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1 @.@ 9 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ; 6 @,@ 200 ft ) in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula .
Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 128 @.@ 6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . As of 2016 , there are about 135 permanent human residents , but anywhere from 1 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra .
Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( " Southern Land " ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica was only first sighted in 1820 , by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of resources , and isolation .
Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty @-@ eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4 @,@ 000 scientists from many nations .
= = Etymology = =
The name Antarctica is the romanized version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική ( antarktiké ) , feminine of ἀνταρκτικός ( antarktikos ) , meaning " opposite to the Arctic " , " opposite to the north " .
Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c . 350 B.C. Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A.D. The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius ( 1 – 2 centuries A.D. ) used for the South Pole the romanized Greek name polus antarcticus , from which derived the Old French pole antartike ( modern pôle antarctique ) attested in 1270 , and from there the Middle English pol antartik in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer ( modern Antarctic Pole ) .
Before acquiring its present geographical connotations , the term was used for other locations that could be defined as " opposite to the north " . For example , the short @-@ lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called " France Antarctique " .
The first formal use of the name " Antarctica " as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew .
= = History of exploration = =
Antarctica has no indigenous population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century . However , belief in the existence of a Terra Australis — a vast continent in the far south of the globe to " balance " the northern lands of Europe , Asia and North Africa — had existed since the times of Ptolemy ( 1st century AD ) , who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world . Even in the late 17th century , after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled " Antarctica " , geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size .
Integral to the story of the origin of the name " Antarctica " is how it was not named Terra Australis — this name was given to Australia instead , and it was because of a mistake made by people who decided that a significant landmass would not be found farther south than Australia . Explorer Matthew Flinders , in particular , has been credited with popularizing the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia . He justified the titling of his book A Voyage to Terra Australis ( 1814 ) by writing in the introduction :
There is no probability , that any other detached body of land , of nearly equal extent , will ever be found in a more southern latitude ; the name Terra Australis will , therefore , remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country and of its situation on the globe : it has antiquity to recommend it ; and , having no reference to either of the two claiming nations , appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected .
European maps continued to show this hypothesized land until Captain James Cook 's ships , HMS Resolution and Adventure , crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773 , in December 1773 and again in January 1774 . Cook came within about 120 km ( 75 mi ) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773 . The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals . According to various organizations ( the National Science Foundation , NASA , the University of California , San Diego , and other sources ) , ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820 : von Bellingshausen ( a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy ) , Edward Bransfield ( a captain in the Royal Navy ) , and Nathaniel Palmer ( a sealer out of Stonington , Connecticut ) . The expedition led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny reached a point within 32 km ( 20 mi ) from Queen Maud 's Land and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69 ° 21 ′ 28 ″ S 2 ° 14 ′ 50 ″ W , which became known as the Fimbul ice shelf . This happened three days before Bransfield sighted land , and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820 . The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis , apparently at Hughes Bay , near Cape Charles , in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821 , although some historians dispute this claim . The first recorded and confirmed landing was at Cape Adair in 1895 .
On 22 January 1840 , two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands , some members of the crew of the 1837 – 40 expedition of Jules Dumont d 'Urville disembarked on the highest islet of a group of rocky islands about 4 km from Cape Géodésie on the coast of Adélie Land where they took some mineral , algae and animal samples .
In December 1839 , as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 – 42 conducted by the United States Navy ( sometimes called the " Ex . Ex . " , or " the Wilkes Expedition " ) , an expedition sailed from Sydney , Australia , into the Antarctic Ocean , as it was then known , and reported the discovery " of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands " on 25 January 1840 . That part of Antarctica was later named " Wilkes Land " , a name it retains to this day .
Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island ( both of which were named after him ) in 1841 . He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf . Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition : HMS Erebus and Terror . Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January 1853 .
During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907 , parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole . Douglas Mawson , who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return , went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931 . In addition , Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909 : they were the first humans to traverse the Ross Ice Shelf , the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountains ( via the Beardmore Glacier ) , and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau . An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach the geographic South Pole on 14 December 1911 , using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier . One month later , the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole .
Richard E. Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s . He is credited with implementing mechanised land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research . However , it was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Pole again ; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there .
The first person to sail single @-@ handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis , in 1972 , in the 10 @-@ metre steel sloop Ice Bird .
= = Geography = =
Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle , Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean ; alternatively , it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , or by the southern waters of the World Ocean . There are a number of rivers and lakes in antarctica , the longest river being the Onyx . The largest lake , Vostok , is one of the largest sub @-@ glacial lakes in the world . Antarctica covers more than 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , making it the fifth @-@ largest continent , about 1 @.@ 3 times as large as Europe . The coastline measures 17 @,@ 968 km ( 11 @,@ 165 mi ) and is mostly characterized by ice formations , as the following table shows :
Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea . The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica , because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian .
About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , a sheet of ice averaging at least 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) thick . The continent has about 90 % of the world 's ice ( and thereby about 70 % of the world 's fresh water ) . If all of this ice were melted , sea levels would rise about 60 m ( 200 ft ) . In most of the interior of the continent , precipitation is very low , down to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year ; in a few " blue ice " areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative . In the dry valleys , the same effect occurs over a rock base , leading to a desiccated landscape .
West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real , if small , possibility of its collapse . If the sheet were to break down , ocean levels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short period of time , perhaps a matter of centuries . Several Antarctic ice streams , which account for about 10 % of the ice sheet , flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves : see ice @-@ sheet dynamics .
East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprises Coats Land , Queen Maud Land , Enderby Land , Mac . Robertson Land , Wilkes Land , and Victoria Land . All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere . East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet .
Vinson Massif , the highest peak in Antarctica at 4 @,@ 892 m ( 16 @,@ 050 ft ) , is located in the Ellsworth Mountains . Antarctica contains many other mountains , on both the main continent and the surrounding islands . Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world 's southernmost active volcano . Another well @-@ known volcano is found on Deception Island , which is famous for a giant eruption in 1970 . Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years . Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active . In 2004 , a potentially active underwater volcano was found in the Antarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers .
Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet . Lake Vostok , discovered beneath Russia 's Vostok Station in 1996 , is the largest of these subglacial lakes . It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500 @,@ 000 to one million years but a recent survey suggests that , every so often , there are large flows of water from one lake to another .
There is some evidence , in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) above the water line , that Lake Vostok 's waters may contain microbial life . The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter 's moon , Europa . If life is discovered in Lake Vostok , it would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa . On 7 February 2008 , a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee , searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters . If found , these resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold , methane @-@ rich environments .
= = Geology = =
= = = Geological history and paleontology = = =
More than 170 million years ago , Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana . Over time , Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago . Antarctica was not always cold , dry , and covered in ice sheets . At a number of points in its long history , it was farther north , experienced a tropical or temperate climate , was covered in forests , and inhabited by various ancient life forms .
= = = = Palaeozoic era ( 540 – 250 Ma ) = = = =
During the Cambrian period , Gondwana had a mild climate . West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere , and during this period large amounts of sandstones , limestones and shales were deposited . East Antarctica was at the equator , where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas . By the start of the Devonian period ( 416 Ma ) , Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler , though fossils of land plants are known from this time . Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth , Horlick and Pensacola Mountains . Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period ( 360 Ma ) , as Gondwana became centered on the South Pole and the climate cooled , though flora remained . During the Permian period , the land became dominated by seed plants such as Glossopteris , a pteridosperm which grew in swamps . Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains . Towards the end of the Permian period , continued warming led to a dry , hot climate over much of Gondwana .
= = = = Mesozoic era ( 250 – 66 Ma ) = = = =
As a result of continued warming , the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert . In Eastern Antarctica , seed ferns or pteridosperms became abundant and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time . Synapsids , commonly known as " mammal @-@ like reptiles " , were common in Antarctica during the Early Triassic and included forms such as Lystrosaurus . The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period ( 206 – 146 Ma ) , and islands gradually rose out of the ocean . Ginkgo trees , conifers , bennettites , horsetails , ferns and cycads were plentiful during this period . In West Antarctica , coniferous forests dominated through the entire Cretaceous period ( 146 – 66 Ma ) , though southern beech became more prominent towards the end of this period . Ammonites were common in the seas around Antarctica , and dinosaurs were also present , though only three Antarctic dinosaur genera ( Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus , from the Hanson Formation , and Antarctopelta ) have been described to date . It was during this era that Gondwana began to break up .
However , there is some evidence of antarctic marine glaciation during the Cretaceous period .
= = = = Gondwana breakup ( 160 – 23 Ma ) = = = =
The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise , as the continental spread changed the oceanic currents from longitudinal equator @-@ to @-@ pole temperature @-@ equalizing currents to latitudinal currents that preserved and accentuated latitude temperature differences .
Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic , around 160 Ma , followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous ( about 125 Ma ) . By the end of the Cretaceous , about 66 Ma , Antarctica ( then connected to Australia ) still had a subtropical climate and flora , complete with a marsupial fauna . In the Eocene epoch , about 40 Ma Australia @-@ New Guinea separated from Antarctica , so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia , and the first ice began to appear . During the Eocene – Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago , CO2 levels have been found to be about 760 ppm and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm .
Around 23 Ma , the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America , resulting in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent . Models of the changes suggest that declining CO2 levels became more important . The ice began to spread , replacing the forests that then covered the continent .
= = = = Neogene Period ( 23 – 0 @.@ 05 Ma ) = = = =
Since about 15 Ma , the continent has been mostly covered with ice .
= = = = Meyer Desert Formation biota = = = =
Fossil Nothofagus leaves in the Meyer Desert Formation of the Sirius Group show that intermittent warm periods allowed Nothofagus shrubs to cling to the Dominion Range as late as 3 – 4 Ma ( mid @-@ late Pliocene ) . After that the Pleistocene ice age covered the whole continent and destroyed all major plant life on it .
= = = Geology of present @-@ day Antarctica = = =
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by nearly all of the continent being permanently covered with a thick layer of ice . However , new techniques such as remote sensing , ground @-@ penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice .
Geologically , West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America . The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras . This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism . The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period . There is also evidence of volcanic activity , even after the ice sheet had formed , in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island . The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region , where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica .
East Antarctica is geologically varied , dating from the Precambrian era , with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago . It is composed of a metamorphic and igneous platform which is the basis of the continental shield . On top of this base are various modern rocks , such as sandstones , limestones , coal and shales laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains . In coastal areas such as Shackleton Range and Victoria Land some faulting has occurred .
The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal . It was first recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on the Nimrod Expedition , and now low @-@ grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains . The Prince Charles Mountains contain significant deposits of iron ore . The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore , namely the oil and natural gas fields found in the Ross Sea in 1973 . Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty .
= = Climate = =
Antarctica is the coldest of Earth 's continents . The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth was − 89 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 128 @.@ 6 ° F ) at the Soviet ( now Russian ) Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983 . For comparison , this is 10 @.@ 7 ° C ( 20 ° F ) colder than subliming dry ice at one atmosphere of partial pressure , but since CO2 only makes up 0 @.@ 039 % of air , temperatures of less than − 150 ° C ( − 238 ° F ) would be needed to produce dry ice snow in Antarctica . Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation ; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm ( 4 in ) per year , on average . Temperatures reach a minimum of between − 80 ° C ( − 112 ° F ) and − 89 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 128 @.@ 6 ° F ) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) near the coast in summer . Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it . Given the latitude , long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world .
East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , leaving the centre cold and dry . Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent , ice there lasts for extended periods . Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of the continent , where snowfalls of up to 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 48 in ) in 48 hours have been recorded .
At the edge of the continent , strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force . In the interior , wind speeds are typically moderate . During clear days in summer , more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole .
Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for three reasons . First , much of the continent is more than 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level , and temperature decreases with elevation in the troposphere . Second , the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone : the ocean 's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica . Third , the Earth is at aphelion in July ( i.e. , the Earth is farthest from the Sun in the Antarctic winter ) , and the Earth is at perihelion in January ( i.e. , the Earth is closest to the Sun in the Antarctic summer ) . The orbital distance contributes to a colder Antarctic winter ( and a warmer Antarctic summer ) but the first two effects have more impact .
The aurora australis , commonly known as the southern lights , is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole created by the plasma @-@ full solar winds that pass by the Earth . Another unique spectacle is diamond dust , a ground @-@ level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals . It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies , so people sometimes also refer to it as clear @-@ sky precipitation . A sun dog , a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon , is a bright " spot " beside the true sun .
= = Population = =
Several governments maintain permanent manned research stations on the continent . The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1 @,@ 000 in winter to about 5 @,@ 000 in the summer , giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometres ( 180 and 900 per million square miles ) at these times . Many of the stations are staffed year @-@ round , the winter @-@ over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one @-@ year assignment . An Orthodox church — Trinity Church , opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station — is manned year @-@ round by one or two priests , who are similarly rotated every year .
The first semi @-@ permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica ( areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence ) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia , from 1786 onward . During the whaling era , which lasted until 1966 , the population of that island varied from over 1 @,@ 000 in the summer ( over 2 @,@ 000 in some years ) to some 200 in the winter . Most of the whalers were Norwegian , with an increasing proportion of Britons . The settlements included Grytviken , Leith Harbour , King Edward Point , Stromness , Husvik , Prince Olav Harbour , Ocean Harbour and Godthul . Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families . Among them was the founder of Grytviken , Captain Carl Anton Larsen , a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who , along with his family , adopted British citizenship in 1910 .
The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen , born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913 , and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia . She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen , the assistant manager of the whaling station , and Klara Olette Jacobsen . Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 and became the manager of Grytviken , serving from 1914 to 1921 ; two of his children were born on the island .
Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south ( the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty ) , as well as the first one born on the Antarctic mainland , in 1978 at Base Esperanza , on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula ; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if the continent was suitable for family life . In 1984 , Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station , becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica . Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station . As of 2009 , eleven children were born in Antarctica ( south of the 60th parallel south ) : eight at the Argentine Esperanza Base and three at the Chilean Frei Montalva Station .
= = Biodiversity = =
= = = Animals = = =
Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica . Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the Alaskozetes antarcticus , lice , nematodes , tardigrades , rotifers , krill and springtails . The flightless midge Belgica antarctica , up to 6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 in ) in size , is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica . The snow petrel is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica .
Some species of marine animals exist and rely , directly or indirectly , on the phytoplankton . Antarctic sea life includes penguins , blue whales , orcas , colossal squids and fur seals . The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica , while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin . The rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes , giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes . King penguins , chinstrap penguins , and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic .
The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom . The Weddell seal , a " true seal " , is named after Sir James Weddell , commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea . Antarctic krill , which congregate in large schools , is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean , and is an important food organism for whales , seals , leopard seals , fur seals , squid , icefish , penguins , albatrosses and many other birds .
A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010 . The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life ( CoML ) and has disclosed some remarkable findings . More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions , having bridged the gap of 12 @,@ 000 km ( 7 @,@ 456 mi ) . Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually . More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms , sea cucumbers and free @-@ swimming snails found in both polar oceans . Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 ° C , and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport eggs and larval stages .
= = = Fungi = = =
About 1150 species of fungi have been recorded from Antarctica , of which about 750 are non @-@ lichen @-@ forming and 400 are lichen @-@ forming . Some of these species are cryptoendoliths as a result of evolution under extreme conditions , and have significantly contributed to shaping the impressive rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges . The apparently simple morphology , scarcely differentiated structures , metabolic systems and enzymes still active at very low temperatures , and reduced life cycles shown by such fungi make them particularly suited to harsh environments such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys . In particular , their thick @-@ walled and strongly melanized cells make them resistant to UV light . Those features can also be observed in algae and cyanobacteria , suggesting that these are adaptations to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica . This has led to speculation that , if life ever occurred on Mars , it might have looked similar to Antarctic fungi such as Cryomyces minteri . Some of these fungi are also apparently endemic to Antarctica . Endemic Antarctic fungi also include certain dung @-@ inhabiting species which have had to evolve in response to the double challenge of extreme cold while growing on dung , and the need to survive passage through the gut of warm @-@ blooded animals .
= = = Plants = = =
The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form . A combination of freezing temperatures , poor soil quality , lack of moisture , and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth . As a result , the diversity of plant life is very low and limited in distribution . The flora of the continent largely consists of bryophytes . There are about 100 species of mosses and 25 species of liverworts , but only three species of flowering plants , all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula : Deschampsia antarctica ( Antarctic hair grass ) , Colobanthus quitensis ( Antarctic pearlwort ) and the non @-@ native Poa annua ( annual bluegrass ) . Growth is restricted to a few weeks in the summer .
= = = Other organisms = = =
Seven hundred species of algae exist , most of which are phytoplankton . Multicoloured snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer . Bacteria have been found living in the cold and dark as deep as 800 m ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ; 2 @,@ 600 ft ) under the ice .
= = = Conservation = = =
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty ( also known as the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol ) came into force in 1998 , and is the main instrument concerned with conservation and management of biodiversity in Antarctica . The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is advised on environmental and conservation issues in Antarctica by the Committee for Environmental Protection . A major concern within this committee is the risk to Antarctica from unintentional introduction of non @-@ native species from outside the region .
The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act ( 1978 ) in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on Antarctica . The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty , as can the extraction of any indigenous species . The overfishing of krill , which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem , led officials to enact regulations on fishing . The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources ( CCAMLR ) , a treaty that came into force in 1980 , requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem . Despite these new acts , unregulated and illegal fishing , particularly of Patagonian toothfish ( marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S. ) , remains a serious problem . The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing , with estimates of 32 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 35 @,@ 300 short tons ) in 2000 .
= = Politics = =
Several countries claim sovereignty in certain regions . While a few of these countries have mutually recognized each other 's claims , the validity of these claims is not recognized universally .
New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959 although Norway in 2015 formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole . Antarctica 's status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements , collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System . Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60 ° S for the purposes of the Treaty System . The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union ( and later Russia ) , the United Kingdom , Argentina , Chile , Australia , and the United States . It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve , established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection , and banned military activity on Antarctica . This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War .
In 1983 , the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining in Antarctica . A coalition of international organizations launched a public pressure campaign to prevent any minerals development in the region , led largely by Greenpeace International , which operated its own scientific station — World Park Base — in the Ross Sea region from 1987 until 1991 and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on Antarctica . In 1988 , the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources ( CRAMRA ) was adopted . The following year , however , Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention , rendering it dead for all intents and purposes . They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place . The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty ( the " Madrid Protocol " ) was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force . The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica , designating Antarctica a " natural reserve devoted to peace and science " .
The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica , including the establishment of military bases and fortifications , military manoeuvres , and weapons testing . Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes . The only documented military land manoeuvre was Operation NINETY by the Argentine military .
The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians who serve in Antarctica . The medal includes a " wintered over " bar issued to those who remain on Antarctica over winter .
= = = Antarctic territories = = =
The Argentine , British and Chilean claims all overlap , and have caused friction . On 18 December 2012 , the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office named a previously unnamed area Queen Elizabeth Land in tribute to Queen Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee . On 22 December 2012 , the UK ambassador to Argentina , John Freeman , was summoned to the Argentine government as protest against the claim . Argentine – UK relations had previously been damaged throughout 2012 due to disputes over the sovereignty of the nearby Falkland Islands , and the 30th anniversary of the Falklands War .
The areas shown as Australia 's and New Zealand 's claims were British territory until they were handed over following the countries ' independence . Australia currently claims the largest area . The claims of Britain , Australia , New Zealand , France and Norway are all recognised by each other .
Other countries participating as members of the Antarctic Treaty have a territorial interest in Antarctica , but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is in force .
Brazil has a designated " zone of interest " that is not an actual claim .
Peru has formally reserved its right to make a claim .
Russia has inherited the Soviet Union 's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty .
South Africa has formally reserved its right to make a claim .
United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty .
= = Economy = =
There is no economic activity in Antarctica at present , except for fishing off the coast and small @-@ scale tourism , both based outside Antarctica .
Although coal , hydrocarbons , iron ore , platinum , copper , chromium , nickel , gold and other minerals have been found , they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit . The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources . In 1998 , a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining , to be reviewed in 2048 , further limiting economic development and exploitation . The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish . Antarctic fisheries in 2000 – 01 reported landing 112 @,@ 934 tonnes .
Small @-@ scale " expedition tourism " has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions , but in effect self @-@ regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators ( IAATO ) . Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO , but IAATO members account for 95 % of the tourist activity . Travel is largely by small or medium ship , focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife . A total of 37 @,@ 506 tourists visited during the 2006 – 07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships . The number was predicted to increase to over 80 @,@ 000 by 2010 .
There has been some concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors . Some environmentalists and scientists have made a call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota . The primary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop , through their Committee for Environmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO , " site use guidelines " setting landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites . Antarctic sightseeing flights ( which did not land ) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in 1979 on Mount Erebus , which killed all 257 aboard . Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid @-@ 1990s .
Antarctic fisheries in 1998 – 99 ( 1 July – 30 June ) reported landing 119 @,@ 898 tonnes . Unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery , and allegedly illegal fishing in Antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure ( by France and Australia ) of at least eight fishing ships . See Ocean fisheries § Southern Ocean .
About thirty countries maintain about seventy research stations ( 40 year @-@ round or permanent , and 30 summer @-@ only ) in Antarctica , with an approximate population of 4000 in summer and 1000 in winter .
The ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 " AQ " is assigned to the entire continent regardless of jurisdiction . Different country calling codes and currencies are used for different settlements , depending on the administrating country . The Antarctican dollar , a souvenir item sold in the United States and Canada , is not legal tender .
= = Research = =
Each year , scientists from 28 different nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world . In the summer more than 4 @,@ 000 scientists operate research stations ; this number decreases to just over 1 @,@ 000 in the winter . McMurdo Station , which is the largest research station in Antarctica , is capable of housing more than 1 @,@ 000 scientists , visitors , and tourists .
Researchers include biologists , geologists , oceanographers , physicists , astronomers , glaciologists , and meteorologists . Geologists tend to study plate tectonics , meteorites from outer space , and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana . Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice , seasonal snow , glaciers , and ice sheets . Biologists , in addition to examining the wildlife , are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms . Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body 's response to extreme seasonal temperatures . Astrophysicists at Amundsen – Scott South Pole Station study the celestial dome and cosmic microwave background radiation . Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation , which results in a thin atmosphere ; low temperature , which minimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere ; and absence of light pollution , thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth . Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world , built 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) below Amundsen – Scott station .
Since the 1970s , an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica . In 1985 , three British scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer . It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) emitted by human products . With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989 , climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 .
In September 2006 , NASA satellite data revealed that the Antarctic ozone hole was larger than at any other time on record , at 2 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 060 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The impacts of the depleted ozone layer on climate changes occurring in Antarctica are not well understood .
In 2007 , The Polar Geospatial Center was founded . The Polar Geospatial Center uses geospatial and remote sensing technology to provide mapping services to American federally funded research teams . Currently , the Polar Geospatial Center can image all of Antarctica at 50 cm resolution every 45 days .
On 6 September 2007 , Belgian @-@ based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabeth station , the world 's first zero @-@ emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change . Costing $ 16 @.@ 3 million , the prefabricated station , which is part of the International Polar Year , was shipped to the South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions . Belgian polar explorer Alain Hubert stated : " This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions , making it a unique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic . " Johan Berte is the leader of the station design team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology , glaciology and microbiology .
In January 2008 , British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) scientists , led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan , reported ( in the journal Nature Geoscience ) that 2 @,@ 200 years ago , a volcano erupted under Antarctica 's ice sheet ( based on airborne survey with radar images ) . The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10 @,@ 000 years , the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains , close to Pine Island Glacier .
A study from 2014 estimated that during the Pleistocene , the East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) thinned by at least 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) , and that thinning since the Last Glacial Maximum for the EAIS area is less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) and probably started after c . 14 ka .
= = = Meteorites = = =
Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the solar system ; most are thought to come from asteroids , but some may have originated on larger planets . The first meteorite was found in 1912 , and named the Adelie Land meteorite . In 1969 , a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites . Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years . Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges , with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall . Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth , the Antarctic meteorites are well @-@ preserved .
This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets . New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found . Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon , and probably Mars , by impacts . These specimens , particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET , are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars . Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation , the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies . The elapsed time since fall , or terrestrial residence age , of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets .
In 2006 , a team of researchers from Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA 's GRACE satellites to discover the 500 @-@ kilometre @-@ wide ( 300 mi ) Wilkes Land crater , which probably formed about 250 million years ago .
In January 2013 , an 18 kg ( 40 lb ) meteorite was discovered frozen in ice on the Nansen ice field by a Search for Antarctic Meteorites , Belgian Approach ( SAMBA ) mission .
In January 2015 , reports emerged of a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) circular structure , supposedly a meteorite crater , on the surface snow of King Baudouin Ice Shelf . Satellite images from 25 years ago seemingly show it .
= = Ice mass and global sea level = =
Due to its location at the South Pole , Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation . This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice . Precipitation is low ( most of Antarctica is a desert ) and almost always in the form of snow , which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet which covers the land . Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams , which flow towards the edges of the continent . Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves . These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass . Offshore , temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year . It is important to understand the various types of Antarctic ice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global cooling .
Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer . This ice is formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to rise in sea level . The extent of sea ice around Antarctica has remained roughly constant in recent decades , although the thickness changes are unclear .
Melting of floating ice shelves ( ice that originated on the land ) does not in itself contribute much to sea @-@ level rise ( since the ice displaces only its own mass of water ) . However it is the outflow of the ice from the land to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level . This effect is offset by snow falling back onto the continent . Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica , especially along the Antarctic Peninsula . Concerns have been raised that disruption of ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the continental ice mass .
On the continent itself , the large volume of ice present stores around 70 % of the world 's fresh water . This ice sheet is constantly gaining ice from snowfall and losing ice through outflow to the sea . Overall , the net change is slightly positive at approximately 82 gigatonnes ( Gt ) per year ( with significant regional variation ) , reducing global sea @-@ level rise by 0 @.@ 23 mm per year .
East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent . This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seaward glacial flows . The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be slightly positive ( lowering sea level ) or near to balance . However , increased ice outflow has been suggested in some regions .
= = Effects of global warming = =
Some of Antarctica has been warming up ; particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula . A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent @-@ wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is slightly positive at > 0 @.@ 05 ° C ( 0 @.@ 09 ° F ) per decade from 1957 to 2006 . This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed by more than 0 @.@ 1 ° C ( 0 @.@ 2 ° F ) per decade in the last 50 years , and this warming is strongest in winter and spring . This is partly offset by autumn cooling in East Antarctica . There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions , but this remains ambiguous . The amount of surface warming in West Antarctica , while large , has not led to appreciable melting at the surface , and is not directly affecting the West Antarctic Ice Sheet 's contribution to sea level . Instead the recent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to an inflow of warm water from the deep ocean , just off the continental shelf . The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a direct result of the much greater atmospheric warming there .
In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula 's Larsen @-@ B ice shelf collapsed . Between 28 February and 8 March 2008 , about 570 km2 ( 220 sq mi ) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed , putting the remaining 15 @,@ 000 km2 ( 5 @,@ 800 sq mi ) of the ice shelf at risk . The ice was being held back by a " thread " of ice about 6 km ( 4 mi ) wide , prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009 . According to NASA , the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005 , when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze ; this may have resulted from temperatures rising to as high as 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) .
A study published in Nature Geoscience in 2013 ( online in December 2012 ) identified central West Antarctica as one of the fastest @-@ warming regions on Earth . The researchers present a complete temperature record from Antarctica 's Byrd Station and assert that it " reveals a linear increase in annual temperature between 1958 and 2010 by 2 @.@ 4 ± 1 @.@ 2 ° C " .
= = Ozone depletion = =
There is a large area of low ozone concentration or " ozone hole " over Antarctica . This hole covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2008 , when the longest lasting hole on record remained until the end of December . The hole was detected by scientists in 1985 and has tended to increase over the years of observation . The ozone hole is attributed to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere , which decompose the ozone into other gases .
Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica ( and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere ) . Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere . Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 ° C in the local stratosphere . This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent ( the polar vortex ) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole . As a result , the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures , and the peripheral areas of Antarctica , especially the Antarctic Peninsula , are subject to higher temperatures , which promote accelerated melting . Models also suggest that the ozone depletion / enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea ice just offshore of the continent .
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= Sindy =
Sindy is a British fashion doll created by Pedigree Dolls & Toys in 1963 . A rival to Barbie , Sindy 's wholesome look and range of fashions and accessories made it the best selling toy in the United Kingdom in 1968 and 1970 . After Marx Toys ' unsuccessful attempt to introduce Sindy in the United States in the late 1970s , Hasbro bought the rights to Sindy and remodelled the doll to look more American . As a result , the doll 's popularity declined and Barbie manufacturer Mattel filed a lawsuit for copyright infringement , which was settled when Hasbro agreed to remodel Sindy 's face . During the 1990s , Barbie 's share of the doll market continued to grow while Sindy 's diminished , which led to Sindy being delisted from major retailers in 1997 . Hasbro returned the doll 's licence to Pedigree , and the doll was relaunched in 1999 , manufactured by Vivid Imaginations . Sindy 's 40th anniversary in 2003 saw a new manufacturer , New Moons , and another relaunch and redesign .
= = Development and launch = =
After 20 years of producing dolls , Pedigree Dolls & Toys , a British company located in Exeter , sought to expand its product range to include a trendy fashion doll . American toy manufacturer Mattel offered Pedigree a licence to produce Barbie , which Pedigree declined due to market research showing Barbie was unpopular with British buyers . Instead Pedigree manufactured its own doll based on another American doll , Tammy . With permission from Tammy 's manufacturer , the Ideal Toy Company , Pedigree also borrowed Tammy 's slogan , " The doll you love to dress " . The name " Sindy " was chosen after a street poll where young girls were shown a photo of the doll and asked to choose their favourite name from a list of four . The most popular choice was " Cindy " , and the spelling was made more distinctive for trademarking .
The Sindy doll was launched in September 1963 , and London retailers were sent a promotional 45rpm gramophone record to introduce the doll , which included Pedigree 's marketing text below .
Sindy is the free , swinging girl that every little girl longs to be . Sindy has sports clothes , glamour clothes , everyday clothes — a dog , skates , a gramophone — everything ... Every genuine Sindy outfit is a child 's dream come true . Each one is designed for today 's fashionable young women by today 's leading women designers . They are authentic miniature replicas of the latest adult clothes .
= = Brand and doll evolution = =
= = = Developing accessories and American release = = =
Pedigree Toys ' market research was correct – Sindy 's " girl next door " look made her more popular than Barbie in Britain . Sindy 's boyfriend Paul was released in 1965 , and her younger sister Patch in 1966 . Sindy 's friends Vicki and Mitzi , and Patch 's friends Poppet and Betsy debuted in 1968 . Sindy was the best selling toy in Britain in 1968 and 1970 . Sindy 's success in the 1960s was partly due to the increasing range of accessories , with up to 70 % of Sindy 's turnover from sales of accessories . Mattel did not greatly expand Barbie 's accessories until the 1980s , and this was a significant difference between the dolls .
During the 1970s , Pedigree focused on developing more Sindy products and neglected advertising and market research , risking Sindy 's " girl next door " image becoming old @-@ fashioned . In 1978 , Sindy was introduced to the United States market by Marx Toys . Child star Susan Olsen , who played Cindy Brady on the popular family sitcom The Brady Bunch , was featured in a U.S. produced commercial for the doll . Most of Sindy 's accessories and fashions were similar to those sold in the United Kingdom , except for the addition of a friend , Gayle , and a McDonald 's @-@ themed Sindy . Marx Toys went into receivership in 1980 and Sindy was withdrawn from the US market .
= = = Focus on relaunches , fashion and advertising = = =
During the 1980s , Pedigree 's new marketing director David Brown made several changes , including increasing advertising and market research , and consulting often with fashion experts to ensure the doll 's image was kept up to date . Pedigree produced a number of evening dresses designed by The Emmanuels , famous for designing Princess Diana 's wedding gown , shortly after Mattel released gowns for Barbie designed by Oscar de la Renta . Due to its success , a second collection of designs was released the next year , including a bubble dress and lingerie . An older @-@ looking Sindy doll was released in 1985 , with male and female companions Mark and Marie . The advertising campaign was worth £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
In 1986 , Sindy manufacturers took advantage of new colour @-@ changing technology and released Magic Moments Sindy , a doll whose hair and swimming costume changed colour when immersed in warm water . Sindy 's senior designer Jane Braithwaite travelled to Paris each month to research fashion trends for Sindy 's clothing in an attempt to reverse declining sales . As an example of Sindy 's continually updated fashions , during this period the doll 's footwear included kitten heels , sandals , knee @-@ high boots , ankle boots , trainers , slippers , court shoes and slingbacks .
In 1987 , Sindy 's product manager Edward Machin announced that Sindy would reclaim the lead over Barbie within two years . Hasbro redesigned Sindy and spent approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 m on advertising . A Sindy magazine was also launched in this period to challenge the fortnightly Barbie magazine . A £ 1 million advertising campaign was introduced in 1991 with five advertisements highlighting Sindy 's collection of beach and pool wear . The advertisement showed footage of Sindy combined with live action sequences from a look @-@ alike .
In 1993 , Sindy was featured in a £ 500 @,@ 000 advertising campaign for the fashion company Alexon Group . Sindy was used to contrast her childish fashion with the sophistication of Alexon 's fashion range . Each double page spread showed Sindy in a typical outfit superimposed on a real @-@ life setting . The opposite page showed a real woman dressed in Alexon 's clothes above the line ' Dressing up for grown ups ' .
= = = Brand decline and lawsuits = = =
Hasbro introduced Sindy in France and continental Europe in 1994 after minor facial modifications to reduce her resemblance to Barbie . A Neilsen study suggested Sindy could obtain 20 % of the ₣ 500 @-@ 600 m market in France alone . The chief executive of Hasbro France , Paul Audouy , said recent innovations such as the ability for Sindy to swim and walk a small dog would strengthen her market position . Hasbro invested ₣ 5 million in the first week of her advertising launch . A new black friend for Sindy was released in 1995 , named Imani , 30 years after Sindy 's American friend Gayle was withdrawn after low sales . Hasbro released the new doll in response to " overwhelming demand " .
Hasbro withdrew its £ 5 @.@ 5 m advertising support for the Sindy doll in 1997 amid rumours that major retailers were planning to delist the doll . The editor of UK Toy News , Jon Salisbury , said , " This is Hasbro taking Sindy out of its main range . But she is running so far behind Barbie it is almost a non @-@ issue . If delisted by bigger retailers , which seems to be happening , then the brand will lose momentum " . In 1994 , Sindy had a seven percent share of the £ 70 m doll market , and Barbie held 16 % . By 1996 , Barbie 's share had increased to 30 % , estimated by Mattel to be worth £ 100 m per year including licensing deals , and Sindy 's share had only climbed to eight percent . Sindy 's popularity had also been overtaken during that period by Polly Pocket . One explanation for the large variation in market share is the unpopular Americanisation of the Sindy doll in the mid @-@ 1980s . The Sindy doll was still available to retailers during this period , but had to be ordered in bulk from the Hong Kong manufacturer .
= = = Return to Pedigree Toys and further doll makeovers = = =
Sindy and Barbie went head @-@ to @-@ head in August 1999 , when both manufacturers created large advertising campaigns for the dolls and Sindy was relaunched . The manufacturers updated the dolls ' images and revamped them with a " millennium look " . Sindy was transformed into a younger @-@ looking doll with " new themes , new friends and a new family , fitting today 's environment and in tune with the street @-@ cred concerns of today 's young girls " , according to Vivid Imaginations ' marketing director , Paul Weston , from the company then producing Sindy . Pedigree , which owns the rights to Sindy , licensed the doll to Vivid Imaginations after Hasbro ceased production of the doll . The doll market in the United Kingdom during this time was worth £ 77 million , with Barbie holding a share of over 75 % .
The Sindy doll entered the digital world in 2000 when Pedigree Toys introduced an official website . Monitor Media , the website design company , said , " Sindy.com brings Sindy to life for six @-@ year @-@ old girls just getting to grips with computers while sitting on their Mum 's knee . They can dress her up , paint her bedroom in different colours , read her secret diary , chat with other Sindy fans and send her e @-@ mails " .
In 40 years , nearly 100 million Sindy dolls were sold in Britain alone , and in 2003 , Sindy was relaunched for her 40th birthday . Her figure was changed to more closely resemble the girls the doll is marketed towards . Denise Deane , the head of design and development at New Moons , the new Sindy manufacturer , said , " She 's lost the big breasts and very long legs , and we 've completely changed her face . She 's totally unrecognisable . Sindy 's still very popular , but she has been neglected over the last few years , and we don 't think people are identifying with that look . She 's going to look like a 15 @-@ year @-@ old , and we 've designed her to wear trainers . " The doll was released in two versions : six @-@ inch and full @-@ size .
Sindy was relaunched again in 2006 , this time resembling a 12- to 14 @-@ year @-@ old . Jerry Reynolds , chief executive officer of Pedigree Toys explained , " If you take the Sindy of yester @-@ year she was between 12 and 14 years while Barbie was twenty @-@ something . She got too close to Barbie in the ' 80s and ' 90s and has now effectively returned to that younger positioning . " The doll was again released in two sizes , with the standard @-@ size Sindy a Woolworths exclusive , after Woolworths had not stocked a Sindy doll for four years . The 2006 Sindy was aimed at three- to five @-@ year @-@ old girls , younger than the audience targeted by Bratz dolls , and mothers who wanted a more innocent @-@ looking doll for their daughters than Barbie or Bratz dolls .
= = Controversies and lawsuits = =
The January 1989 redesign made Sindy look more similar to her rival Barbie . In response , Mattel sought and won an injunction against Hasbro after claiming the new Sindy doll was easily confused with their product . After a French court decided that the Sindy doll infringed on Mattel 's copyright in early 1992 , the case was settled in December when Hasbro agreed to alter Sindy 's face . Mattel and Hasbro released the following joint statement , " Hasbro has remodeled the head of Sindy in a way which Mattel and Hasbro have agreed is acceptable . As a result , Mattel has agreed to drop all outstanding lawsuits relating to Sindy and Barbie around the world . Each party will be responsible for its own costs " . The case was previously ruled in Hasbro 's favour in Spain and Greece .
Similar to many fashion dolls , including Barbie , Sindy has been criticised by feminist groups who said her figure set an unrealistic standard for young girls . After Hasbro returned the brand to Pedigree Toys , Pedigree responded to the backlash against " cosmetically enhanced bimbo " dolls by making Sindy more wholesome and less shapely .
A minor controversy occurred in 1998 when Hasbro expressed a desire to make a Sindy doll that looked like Princess Diana , shortly after former prime minister John Major recommended sensitivity when making commercial deals to honour the late princess . The Princess ' Memorial Fund denied Hasbro 's request , but did not rule out the possibility of a future doll , " if it met the requirements of the trustees and was judged acceptable to the public " .
= = Collecting = =
The Sindy doll is popular among collectors , and websites provide advice on how to re @-@ root the doll 's hair and replace parts . Mint condition dolls are the most sought after . Many collectors shunned the " American look " Sindy developed by Hasbro , while the value of the Pedigree dolls increased . In 2003 , a first @-@ edition Sindy , complete with original Foale and Tuffin " Weekenders " outfit ( jeans and a striped sweatshirt ) , box and fashion booklet was worth approximately £ 160 @-@ 200 . Sindy 's rarer friends Gayle ( a doll made for the American market in 1975 ) was worth up to £ 400 , and Mitzi ( her French friend from 1968 ) up to £ 500 .
December 2006 saw the launch of a collectible version of the original Sindy , one called " Classic Sindy " and manufactured in porcelain . Created by Anne Zielinski @-@ Old , distributed by the Danbury Mint and still licensed by Pedigree Dolls & Toys , the " Weekender " was the first in a series .
With Sindy doll 's 50th birthday approaching in 2013 , Pedigree toys are designing a new range of merchandise . This will include laptop covers , notepaper , mobile phone cases , gift tags , shoes and accessories aimed at teenagers . A new doll has been reported to be in the design stages . Pedigree Toys say an announcement will follow .
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= 2008 German Grand Prix =
The 2008 German Grand Prix ( formally the LXIX Großer Preis Santander von Deutschland ) was a Formula One motor race held on 20 July 2008 at the Hockenheimring , Hockenheim , Germany . It was the 10th race of the 2008 Formula One season and was contested over 67 laps . It was won by Lewis Hamilton for the McLaren team after starting from pole position . Nelson Piquet Jr. finished second for Renault , with Felipe Massa third for Ferrari .
Hamilton maintained his startline advantage and led until he made his first pit stop on lap 18 . As other cars made their pit stops , Hamilton regained the lead on lap 22 . On lap 36 , Timo Glock crashed , and the race was neutralized by the deployment of the safety car . Hamilton , on a two @-@ stop strategy , did not stop to get more fuel during this period , while all the cars around him did . Thus , when he did eventually stop on lap 50 , he rejoined the race in fifth position . In the closing stages of the race , Hamilton first overtook his teammate Heikki Kovalainen , then Massa , and finally Piquet , whilst also gaining a position due to Nick Heidfeld 's late pit stop . This allowed him to take the lead again on lap 60 , which he maintained to win the race .
The victory was Hamilton 's second consecutive win , having won the preceding British Grand Prix at Silverstone . The win also put him ahead of his two main rivals in the Drivers ' Championship , Kimi Räikkönen ( who finished sixth ) and Massa , who were on equal points with him before the race . After the race he was four points ahead of Massa , and seven ahead of Räikkönen . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren drew closer to the two teams ahead of them , BMW Sauber and Ferrari . Ferrari still led by 15 points from McLaren , and 12 from BMW , whose drivers – Nick Heidfeld and Robert Kubica – finished fourth and seventh respectively .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , BMW Sauber , Honda , Force India , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams and Toro Rosso . Prior to the race , Lewis Hamilton , Kimi Räikkönen , and Felipe Massa led the Drivers ' Championship jointly , all with 48 points . Behind them was Robert Kubica in fourth with 46 points for BMW Sauber , and his teammate Nick Heidfeld in fifth with 36 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 96 points , 14 points ahead of BMW Sauber , who at this stage were ahead of McLaren , despite Hamilton tying for the lead of the Drivers ' World Championship . This was due to Heikki Kovalainen 's low point score of 24 . Toyota were fourth , with 25 points , ahead of Red Bull by one point , who in turn were one further point ahead of Renault .
Hamilton had won the preceding British Grand Prix by 68 seconds from Heidfeld and Honda 's Rubens Barrichello . Of his championship rivals , Räikkönen had finished fourth , Kubica had retired , and Massa had had a nightmare of a race , spinning five times and finishing 13th . In the run @-@ up to the German Grand Prix , Hamilton had tested the McLaren MP4 @-@ 23 's new front wing – introduced at the British Grand Prix – extensively in the team 's simulator , and then during a pre @-@ race test session at the Hockenheim circuit . Having honed the car 's setup to his liking after initially finding the handling difficult , he used it in the race . Kovalainen was not as comfortable with the car 's handling and ran a greater front wing angle to produce more downforce , at the expense of having to run larger radiators due to the reduced airflow produced over the car . This led to a slight reduction in his car 's overall performance . In other technical developments , Ferrari introduced revised bargeboards , exhaust exits and an altered windscreen for its F2008 car . BMW Sauber added turning vanes to the top of its F1.08 's nose , while Toyota removed some bodywork from its TF108 's exhaust exits . Honda also introduced new bargeboards for its RA108 chassis . All of these changes were carried out with the aim of improving each car 's aerodynamic performance .
= = = Practice and Qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race – two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . During the first practice session the track was wet following early @-@ morning rain , and shortly after the session started , further precipitation made the track even wetter , although it did begin to dry out as the session progressed . Hamilton was fastest in this session ahead of his teammate Kovalainen . The Ferraris of Massa and Räikkönen came third and fifth respectively , with Renault 's Fernando Alonso sandwiched between them in fourth place . Kubica spun off the track and Sébastien Bourdais had a mechanical problem with his flywheel sensor towards the end of the session . Both ended up at the bottom of the timesheets as a result of these problems . Friday 's second session was held in dry conditions . Hamilton again set the fastest time . Massa and Räikkönen improved to second and third positions , pushing Kovalainen down to fourth . Mark Webber set the fifth @-@ fastest time , after earlier having electrical and clutch problems with the car . Alonso , Nico Rosberg , Kubica , Heidfeld and David Coulthard made up the rest of the top ten .
In the final practice session on Saturday – which was held in dry conditions – Kovalainen was fastest , ahead of Massa and teammate Hamilton . Alonso continued his strong practice form , finishing fourth , with Toro Rosso 's Sebastian Vettel making it to fifth position . Kubica once again was at the bottom of the table , this time due to a transmission problem . The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 16th or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 15 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Hamilton took pole position for the ninth time in his career with a lap time of 1 : 15 @.@ 666 , having beaten Massa by two @-@ tenths of a second in his final lap of the third session . Kovalainen , coming back after an error during his first run , qualified third , with Jarno Trulli taking fourth position . Alonso and Räikkönen were close together in fifth and sixth positions , with just 0 @.@ 006 seconds separating them . Kubica took a comfortable seventh , half a second quicker in the third session than eighth @-@ placed Webber . Vettel and Coulthard completed the top ten . Timo Glock took 11th place on the grid for Toyota , seven places behind his teammate Trulli . He was immediately in front of compatriots Heidfeld and Rosberg . Jenson Button and Bourdais took 14th and 15th positions respectively . Both Heidfeld and Button later said that they suffered from tyre problems during the session .
Completing the field , Kazuki Nakajima was 16th , Nelson Piquet Jr . 17th , Rubens Barrichello 18th , whilst the Force Indias of Adrian Sutil and Giancarlo Fisichella brought up the rear of the grid in 19th and 20th positions . Piquet later complained that he was blocked during his first @-@ session run by Vettel : " During my lap , Vettel was in front of me , which unsettled me a little , although the FIA felt that he did not impede me . " Kovalainen was , however , penalized by the stewards and fined € 5 @,@ 000 for using a refuelling system during qualifying which had not been approved by the FIA .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , Hamilton , Massa and Kovalainen all maintained their grid positions . Hamilton quickly began to pull away from the other cars , at the rate of about half a second per lap . Behind the leading trio , Kubica passed Räikkönen off the grid , and went on to pass both Alonso and Trulli at the hairpin ( turn 4 ) , when Alonso 's own attempted pass on Trulli delayed both drivers . The fight for fourth position continued in the early stages of the race . Kubica ran wide at the final corner on lap four , impeding Trulli and therefore allowing Alonso to attempt an overtaking manoeuvre on the Toyota down the main straight . However , Trulli held on to his position , and Alonso was instead passed by Räikkönen , moving him down to sixth position . At the back of the field , Nakajima spun his Williams but recovered back onto the track and continued in the race .
At the first round of pit stops , Hamilton had a lead of nearly 20 seconds over Massa , and fuelled longer than all the other drivers in the points @-@ scoring positions when he pitted on lap 18 . Coming out of the pits , Hamilton made an error and was passed by Trulli . The two drivers then nearly collided at the hairpin , with Hamilton holding back for the rest of the lap waiting for Trulli to pit . Trulli 's teammate Glock stayed out on the track longer than all of the other drivers except Barrichello and Piquet , meaning that when he pitted , he was actually in third position and rejoined the race in eighth . Hamilton regained the lead by lap 22 after Massa , Kovalainen , Trulli and Räikkönen made their pit stops , and had in the region of an 11 second lead over Massa at the half @-@ way stage of the race . Behind the leaders , fourth @-@ placed Kubica was beginning to catch Kovalainen in third , while Trulli , Räikkönen , Alonso and Vettel battled over the final four point @-@ scoring places .
On the 36th lap , Glock 's right @-@ rear suspension failed coming out of the final corner . He spun through 180 degrees before hitting the pit wall with a strong rearward impact , with debris flying across the track . The car , pointing the wrong way , rolled to a stop on the grass . A dazed Glock extracted himself before being treated at the medical centre . The safety car was deployed after the accident . When the pit lane opened on lap 38 , most drivers headed in , including all of the leaders except Hamilton . McLaren believed that Hamilton had enough fuel to stay out , the plan being for him to then rapidly pull away from his heavily @-@ fuelled rivals , after the safety car went in . Hamilton needed to build up enough of a lead to rejoin still in first position , following his final pit stop . This would prove to be very risky , as Massa rejoined in fourth position , fuelled to the finish .
Piquet , on a one @-@ stop strategy after his poor qualifying performance , had fortuitously pitted immediately prior to the safety car 's deployment and was also fuelled to the end of the race . Promoted to third place from 14th beforehand following the pit stops , he was set to take the lead once Hamilton and Heidfeld ( who also had not pitted under the safety car conditions ) pitted for their final stops . Further back , Vettel squeezed past Alonso at the pit exit , pushing him over the white line separating the pit lane exit from the track . Alonso complained over his radio but no action was taken against either driver . Meanwhile , Räikkönen dropped several places to 11th , having had to queue behind Massa at the second pit stops .
When the safety car came in on lap 42 , Hamilton led , while Heidfeld and Piquet were running second and third . Behind them were Massa , Kubica , Kovalainen , Trulli , Vettel , Alonso , Webber , Rosberg and Räikkönen . Webber 's Red Bull had been dripping oil for a couple of laps after picking up debris from Glock 's crash , and on lap 40 he pulled out of the race . Räikkönen quickly passed Rosberg , and then overtook the squabbling Vettel and Alonso on the way down to the hairpin , while Hamilton desperately tried to pull away at the front . Räikkönen passed Trulli two laps later , while Kovalainen overtook Kubica for fifth place . Coulthard and Barrichello collided on the 48th lap with both cars pitting for repairs . Barrichello retired three laps later due to damage sustained as a result of the incident . Hamilton pitted on lap 50 , coming out behind Heidfeld , Piquet , Massa and Kovalainen . Kovalainen let his teammate past at the hairpin one lap later , meaning that Hamilton was now fourth . On lap 52 , Heidfeld set a new fastest lap time of 1 : 15 @.@ 987 . He was the only driver to go under one minute 16 seconds during the Grand Prix . At the end of the following lap , Heidfeld entered the pits with a sizeable gap over Piquet , returning to the field comfortably ahead of Kovalainen , but behind Hamilton .
Hamilton 's speed allowed him to quickly catch Massa in second position , with Piquet in the lead by a further three seconds . On lap 57 , Hamilton passed Massa at the hairpin . Massa appeared to have the inside line covered , but he was not fully committed to the line into the braking zone , giving Hamilton the chance to take second position . Three laps later , he used a similar overtaking move to overtake Piquet , although the Renault driver put up a greater fight than Massa had . Hamilton led easily to the finish , although Piquet kept within six seconds of him . Heidfeld threatened a slowing Massa in the last laps , while Räikkönen was able to pass Kubica for sixth place on lap 60 .
Hamilton took the chequered flag first , while Piquet enthusiastically celebrated his drive from 17th to second , just 5 @.@ 5 seconds behind . Massa held on to take third ahead of Heidfeld , Kovalainen , Räikkönen , and Kubica . Vettel secured eighth – the last points @-@ scoring position – for Toro Rosso , ahead of Trulli in ninth , and Rosberg in 10th . Alonso finished 11th , ahead of Bourdais . Coulthard was 13th , Fisichella 14th , Nakajima 15th , Sutil 16th and Button was last of the classified finishers in 17th . A record of sixteen drivers finished on the lead lap , beating the previous highest number of fourteen at the 1999 Belgian Grand Prix .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Following the podium ceremony , in which two Brazilian drivers participated for the first time since the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix , the top three finishers appeared in the obligatory press conference . Hamilton said that the decision to not make a pit stop during the safety car period was the team 's decision : " We had two very comfortable , two very decent stints and the team opted for me to stay out . I guess they thought I could pull out a gap but it was a 23 second gap I needed and I only had seven laps or something , so I don 't know how that worked out . " Hamilton added that he felt that things looked good for the rest of the season , stating that " if we [ McLaren ] can continue with this momentum we have got we are looking very good " .
Ron Dennis , McLaren 's team principal , also commented on the pit stop decision :
The deployment of the Safety Car presented us with a difficult decision : should we or should we not bring Lewis in for a pitstop ? We decided that , since he still had quite a lot of fuel on board , we would leave him out until lap 50 . We 'd expected the track to be cleared of debris a little faster than it was , which would have allowed the Safety Car to come in a bit earlier . As a result , Lewis was unable to rejoin the race in the lead .
Piquet was delighted with his drive to second after qualifying 17th , saying :
I am obviously very happy ! After qualifying yesterday I was thinking that my weekend was over , but we opted for an aggressive strategy in the race and the team made some great decisions when the safety car came out . Then I had to concentrate to keep my pace up and look after my tyres as much as possible towards the end of the race . I knew that Lewis was much faster than me , so I did not want to take any pointless risks . This second place today is a great reward for the whole team .
Although Piquet 's result was fortuitous , Renault Engineering Director , Pat Symonds , subsequently praised him for stepping up to the job of staying with the leaders in the final stint of the race . Meanwhile , Massa commented that his car was not in good order during the race : " It was just slow with difficult stability and also on braking I think I had a little problem as well and lost a lot of performance . I didn ’ t have the car to fight . I tried but it was not possible . " Teammate Räikkönen also struggled with low grip and hot brakes for the duration of the race , while Kovalainen and Kubica had problems with their tyres .
Fisichella was penalised 25 seconds for unlapping lead cars during the safety car period , which dropped him from 14th to 16th position . The stewards issued the following statement about the decision : " While the safety car was deployed , the driver of car 21 [ Fisichella ] chose to enter the pits before ' Lapped cars may now overtake ' was shown on the timing monitors . Having done so the driver of car 21 on leaving the pitlane should then not have unlapped himself . "
The treatment of Glock after his crash caused Toyota some concern . Toyota did not think that normal FIA procedure had been followed . After crashes , drivers are normally taken out of the car in their seat , whereas Glock was unstrapped and then hauled out by the marshals . Glock stayed in hospital overnight for observation , but was released the next day with no injuries . Toyota subsequently confirmed that the failed suspension component had already completed a full race distance at the previous Grand Prix , and resolved to adjust its checking procedures .
The new gap between Hamilton and Massa in the Drivers ' Championship after the race stood at four points in Hamilton 's favour . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren somewhat caught up on Ferrari , although the gap between the two teams was still sizeable at 19 points . McLaren were ten points behind BMW coming into the race and the deficit was reduced to three due to the race result .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Health issues in American football =
Health issues in American football comprise a large number of health risks associated with participating in the sport . Injuries are relatively common in American football , due to its nature as a full @-@ contact game . Injuries occur during both practice and games . Several factors can affect the frequency of injuries : epidemiological studies have shown older players can be at a greater risk , while equipment and experienced coaches can reduce the risk of injury . Common injuries include strains , sprains , fractures , dislocations , and concussions . Concussions have become a concern , as they increase the risk of mental illnesses like dementia and chronic traumatic encephalopathy ( CTE ) . In individual leagues like the National Football League ( NFL ) and National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , a public injury report is published containing all injured players on a team , their injury and the game @-@ day status of each player .
Catastrophic injuries — defined as serious injury to the spine , spinal cord , or brain — and fatalities are uncommon in football ; both have become less common since the 1970s , although a small number of them still occur each year . Both concussions and catastrophic injuries can be caused by helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet collisions as well as impact against the ground or other players ' knees ; in other cases , they can be caused by players who have sustained a head injury returning to play , which can place the player at risk of sustaining a severe injury . Despite the downturn in catastrophic injuries , a greater number of players at the NFL level reported major injuries and shortened careers from the 1970s onwards , in part due to the increasing size and speed of players and the use of artificial turf .
In many cases , injuries sustained while playing can cause long @-@ term damage . In addition to neurological damage caused by hits to the head , injuries to the mid and lower body can force players to retire or lead to nagging ailments in later life . Various methods have been used to reduce injuries in football , including rule changes such as the abolition of large wedge formations ; a sharp decline in cervical spine injuries since the 1970s has been attributed to rule changes that altered blocking and tackling techniques . More recently , rule changes to protect players from head injuries have been instituted . Equipment like the football helmet and pads are used to give players a level of protection from injuries , while other factors such as cleat size are used to minimize the risk of injuries due to field condition .
= = Injuries = =
Because American football is a full @-@ contact sport , head injuries are relatively common . According to the San Francisco Spine Institute at Seton Medical Center in Daly City , California , up to 1 @.@ 5 million young men participate in football annually , and there are an estimated 1 @.@ 2 million football @-@ related injuries per year . An estimated 51 % of injuries occur during training sessions , while 49 % occur elsewhere . Injuries are nearly 5 times more likely to happen during contact training sessions than in controlled , non @-@ contact sessions . Older players are at the most risk for injuries , while teams with experienced coaches and more assistant coaches are less likely to experience injuries . Fifty percent of injuries occur in the lower extremities ( with knee injuries alone counting for roughly 36 % of all injuries ) and 30 % occur in the upper extremities .
The most common types of injuries are strains , sprains , bruises , fractures , dislocations , and concussions . According to the NFL Physicians Society , the most common injuries in football are " concussions , blunt injuries to the chest such as cardiac contusions , pulmonary contusions , broken ribs , abdominal injuries , splenic lacerations and kidney injuries . " Orthopedic injuries to the knee , foot , ankle , shoulder , neck and back are also common , as are muscle strains to the hamstrings , quads , calves and the abdomen .
Concussions are particularly concerning , as repeated concussions may increase a person 's risk in later life for chronic traumatic encephalopathy ( CTE ) and mental health issues such as dementia , Parkinson 's disease , and depression . Concussions are often caused by helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet collisions , impact against the ground or other players ' knees , and upper @-@ body contact between opposing players . However , helmets have prevented more serious injuries such as skull fractures . Cervical spine injuries can be catastrophic , but have sharply declined since the mid @-@ 1970s due to rule changes and improved workout regimes , equipment , and coaching .
Performance @-@ enhancing drugs ( PEDs ) are an issue in both high @-@ school and professional @-@ level football . Steroid use has been linked to an increased risk for musculoskeletal injuries among players . Human growth hormone ( HGH ) is used by some players to improve performance , recover from injuries , decrease aging , and to lose weight . Although none of these uses are scientifically proven or legal , HGH places users at risk for adverse side effects such as onset of diabetes and negatively impacting joints and organs such as the heart . However , there have been no studies of HGH use or the baseline levels of the hormone in NFL athletes . NFL players are routinely subject to drug tests in accordance with the NFL 's two substance policies . Players found using performance @-@ enhancing drugs , including anabolic steroids , can face suspension and other penalties . As of 2014 , the league does not test for HGH use among players .
= = = National Football League = = =
An injury report section is common in the sports sections of American newspapers , detailing injuries for each team and the amount of time each injured player is expected to be out . The injury report was created to prevent gamblers from gaining inside information about injuries from players , and as a result , NFL teams must report on the status of injured players on a set schedule during the season . The standard severity descriptions are " out " ( will not play in the upcoming game ) ; " doubtful " ( 25 % chance of playing ) ; " questionable " ( 50 % chance of playing ) ; or " probable " ( 75 % chance of playing ) . Teams have been known to downplay , exaggerate or overly detail their teams ' injuries in an attempt to confuse or mislead upcoming opponents . Injured players may be placed on one of several injured lists , including the Physically Unable to Perform ( PUP ) list . If a player is injured in an event outside of a game or team practice , or during collegiate practice prior to being drafted , he is eligible for the Nonfootball Injury list . Players who have sustained major injuries and are not expected to play for the rest of the season may be placed on the Injured Reserve ( IR ) list . These players do not count towards the teams ' roster limit .
= = = College and high school football = = =
According to the College Football Assistance Fund , over 20 @,@ 000 injuries occur from college football each year . The National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) maintains an injury list similar to that used by the NFL – injured players are listed as " Out " , " Doubtful " , " Questionable " , or " Probable " , but suspended players are also included on the list . College players are limited to four years of eligibility , but can receive a medical redshirt that lets them play another year if they have suffered a season @-@ ending injury and have not played in more than 30 % of the season 's games .
= = = Brain injury = = =
In 1994 , the NFL established the Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee ( MTBI ) , which was later replaced by the Head , Neck and Spine Committee , to study concussions and brain injuries in professional football players . The committee and its leadership , including Dr. Ira Casson and Dr. Elliot Pellman , were criticized by former players for stating that there is not enough research to determine if concussions lead to permanent brain injury . Pellman , who served as chairman of the committee from 1994 to 2007 , was met with a large amount of criticism because he did not have a background in neurology and the research he published on brain injuries disagreed with the findings of independent scientists . In 2009 , a NFL @-@ commissioned report showed increased incidence of diagnosis of memory loss and dementia among retired professional football players when compared to the general population . The study also indicated that these symptoms were related to the effects of concussions . However , the NFL and the report 's own researchers questioned the reliability of some of the data @-@ gathering methods employed by the study , including the fact that the study was conducted by phone . The same year , the committee acknowledged for the first time that concussions can lead to long @-@ term brain injuries . A Congressional hearing in October 2009 , as well as pressure from the National Football League Players Association ( NFLPA ) , led to an overhaul of the concussion policy in November and December of that year .
NFL commissioner Roger Goodell addressed the issue of head injuries in professional football during a talk held on November 15 , 2012 at the Harvard School of Public Health . In the talk , he highlighted the NFL 's efforts to reduce head injuries by enacting measures such as penalizing hits to the head , better assessing concussions on the sideline , and removing players from the game after they have been diagnosed or suspected of having sustained a concussion . He also discussed the need for increased research on brain injuries and long @-@ term disorders , and called for a culture change in the league , saying that players need to be more willing to acknowledge their injuries to medical staff . In September 2012 the league pledged a $ 30 million donation to the National Institutes of Health to research the connection between brain injuries and long @-@ term mental health issues . Beginning in 2012 the NFL was the subject of several lawsuits initiated by former players who alleged that the league withheld information and misled players about the potential long @-@ term impacts of head injuries . Six of the lawsuits were approved to be tried together . In August 2013 the NFL reached a settlement with more than 4 @,@ 500 former players , agreeing to pay $ 765 million to be used to pay for medical examinations for former NFL players and for research and education purposes . Additionally , the funds will also be used to compensate former players who are determined to have significant cognitive impairment .
Concussions are also an issue outside of professional football . In a 2010 study by Purdue University and Indiana University , an estimated 43 @,@ 000 to 67 @,@ 000 football players suffer a concussion every season . However , because many injuries go unreported , the true number may exceed 100 @,@ 000 . The study , " Functionally @-@ Detected Cognitive Impairment in High School Football Players Without Clinically Diagnosed Concussion " , was published in 2013 in the Journal of Neurotrauma and observed 21 high school players throughout a season ; it determined that even players who would not be diagnosed with a concussion based on their symptoms can display notable impairments via MRIs and verbal or cognitive testing , indicating that the current tests used on the sideline to assess concussions may not be adequate . A 2013 study by the National Academy of Sciences found that concussion rates in college football exceed those in any other sport , and that high school players have twice the risk of sustaining a concussion as collegiate players . The study found that , as reported by athletic trainers , college football players sustain 6 @.@ 3 concussions for every 10 @,@ 000 athletic exposures ( meaning an individual practice or game ) , and the rate for high school football players is 11 @.@ 2 . The high school concussion figure is nearly double that of the next @-@ highest sport , lacrosse . The study , funded by the a $ 75 @,@ 000 donation from the NFL to the Centers for Disease Control Foundation , also found that there is no evidence that newer helmet technology decreases the risk for concussions .
= = = Catastrophic injuries and fatalities = = =
Catastrophic injuries are not common in American football . According to the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research , there were 468 non @-@ fatal injuries resulting in permanent neurological damage across all high school sports in the United States from 1982 to 2011 . In football , catastrophic injuries are rare but are devastating when they occur . The rate of catastrophic head injuries has remained low since the introduction of the modern football helmet in the 1970s , but rates of injury are much higher at the high school level than the college level . A 2007 study found that , in high school and college football , there are an average of 7 @.@ 23 catastrophic head injuries per year : there were 0 @.@ 67 injuries per 100 @,@ 000 high school players and 0 @.@ 21 injuries per 100 @,@ 000 college players . Over a 13 @-@ year period from September 1989 to June 2002 , there were 94 players who sustained catastrophic head injuries — 8 of these players died as a result of the injury , 46 sustained permanent neurological damage , and 36 made a full recovery . Fifty @-@ nine percent of these players had a history of head injuries , 71 % of them occurring in the same season as their catastrophic injury , and most of the catastrophic injuries resulted from being tackled or making a tackle . The study recommended that players exhibiting neurological symptoms should be strongly discouraged from returning to play .
The medical costs for catastrophic injuries can be extremely high — a 2011 estimate from the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center notes that first @-@ year costs of someone who has high tetraplegia , an injury that causes partial or full loss of use in all limbs , is USD $ 1 @,@ 044 @,@ 097 , with subsequent years costing $ 181 @,@ 328 . Many high schools across the United States require students to have an insurance policy , while others offer supplementary insurance to help offset the cost ; some schools also request that boosters help families pay for these policies .
Catastrophic injuries have been on a steady decline since the 1960s , due in part to rules banning dangerous forms of contact such as spearing , face tackling and butt blocking . However , catastrophic injuries are still caused by helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet collisions , as well when players hit their heads against an opposing player 's knee or the ground . Returning to play after sustaining a head injury earlier in the game also places players at risk for an even more severe injury . Many states are requiring teams to prevent players who have shown any signs of a concussion from returning to a game , while other steps such as more aggressive enforcement of safety rules and better condition of the neck muscles have been suggested . Additionally , coaches are being urged to train players to block with their shoulders instead of their heads .
Fatalities in football are rare . A 2013 study of high school and college football players split fatalities into two types : direct fatalities , defined as those caused by " trauma from participation in a sport resulting in a brain injury , cervical fracture , or intra @-@ abdominal injury " and indirect fatalities , defined as those resulting from external factors such as " cardiac failure , heat illness , sickle cell trait [ SCT ] , asthma , or pulmonary embolism " . The study found that , on average , there are 4 direct fatalities and 8 @.@ 2 indirect fatalities among high school and college players per year , making indirect fatalities more than twice as common as direct fatalities .
= = Effects on post @-@ career life = =
In addition to immediate health effects , some injuries sustained during a player 's career can have effects that extend to their post @-@ career life . A cohort mortality study by researchers at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) examined 3 @,@ 349 NFL players who played at least five full seasons from 1959 to 1988 . The findings from this study suggest that , in comparison to the typical American male , NFL players live longer on average but have around three times the risk of death associated with neurodegenerative disorders . In particular , the risk of death from Alzheimer 's disease and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS ) was roughly four times higher among former players than the average American male . The study also compared mortality risks from speed players ( quarterbacks , running backs , fullbacks , wide receivers , tight ends , linebackers , cornerbacks , and safeties ) and nonspeed players ( offensive and defensive linemen ) , with findings indicating that a greater number of deaths were attributable to neurodegenerative disorders in speed players than nonspeed players . This may be due to the increased momentum of collisions from speed players .
Outside of neurodegenerative disorders , physical injuries sustained during a career can have an adverse effect on post @-@ career life . A 1990 survey conducted jointly between the NFLPA and Ball State University found that 65 % of surveyed players had suffered a major injury ( defined as one that caused them to miss at least eight games ) : among players that played before 1959 this number was 42 % , but it jumps to 72 % among those who played in the 1980s . Additionally , roughly 50 % of players who had played in the 1970s and 1980s reported that they retired due to injury , compared to only 32 % among those who played prior to 1959 . Two @-@ thirds of players reported that injuries they had sustained limited their ability to engage in recreational activity and sports in retirement , while half said their injuries decreased their ability to perform manual labor . A follow @-@ up survey in 1994 found that 47 % of recipients reported having arthritis . These reports have been attributed to several factors , including the increase in the use of artificial turf as well as the increasing size and speed of players . Dr. James Andrews , a noted orthopedic surgeon , said that " athletes are bigger , stronger and running faster , and they 're tearing up knees from cutting , changing direction on a dime " . Andrews also noted the increase in the number of non @-@ contact anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) injuries , which he attributed to the size of modern players .
= = Prevention = =
Injuries have always been an extremely big part of American Football , and various methods have been used historically and in modern times to prevent them . One method that has been used to prevent injuries is changing the rules of the sport . An early example of this is the elimination of mass formations like the flying wedge in the early 1900s , due to the large number of severe injuries the formations caused . Smaller wedges consisting of three , four , or five players were frequently used on kickoff returns before wedges were limited to two or fewer players in 2009 by the NFL ; a similar rule was adopted by the NCAA a year later . The sharp decrease in the number of catastrophic cervical spine injuries since the mid @-@ 1970s has been partially credited to rule changes that modified tackling and blocking techniques . With the increasing awareness of the long @-@ term effects of concussions , the NFL has passed rules prohibiting the targeting of " defenseless " players over @-@ the @-@ shoulder , requiring plays to be blown dead when the runner loses his helmet , and placing more stringent limits to the ability of players who have sustained a concussion to return to play .
Similarly , modern equipment was developed to reduce injuries . The football helmet , although a scapegoat for concussions , serves as effective protection against more dangerous injuries like skull fractures . The modern helmet traces its roots back to the leather helmets used by football players in the early 1900s to protect themselves from head injuries . Helmets later evolved to be made of hard plastic , and a facemask was added to protect players from sustaining facial injuries . Many players also wear mouthguards to prevent injuries to their teeth and tongues ; at some levels , such as the NCAA , the use of a mouthguard is mandatory . Football players wear a number of pads to protect themselves – shoulder pads are the most important pads , protecting the shoulder and sternum , but thigh pads , hip pads , tail pads , and knee pads are also used . Many quarterbacks wear flak jackets to protect their ribcage . Cleats come in a number of lengths , with players choosing which cleat to use based on the playing field – on artificial turf , for example , players prefer a shorter cleat to prevent their feet from digging into the ground and risking injury , while longer cleats are generally used on fields that are wet or slippery to provide better traction . Athletic cups are not typically used at the professional level , because athletic cups tend to make it harder to move and there is an unwritten code among players not to target the groin area . Additionally , studies have shown that proper conditioning techniques , fitness routines and exercise routines , as well as high @-@ quality equipment and coaching , can reduce the risk of injury among players .
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= United States Special Operations Command =
The United States Special Operations Command ( USSOCOM or SOCOM ) is the Unified Combatant Command charged with overseeing the various Special Operations Component Commands of the Army , Marine Corps , Navy , and Air Force of the United States Armed Forces . The command is part of the Department of Defense and is the only Unified Combatant Command legislated into being by the U.S. Congress . USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa , Florida .
The idea of a unified special operations command had its origins in the aftermath of Operation Eagle Claw , the disastrous attempted rescue of hostages at the American embassy in Iran in 1980 . The ensuing investigation , chaired by Admiral James L. Holloway III , the retired Chief of Naval Operations , cited lack of command and control and inter @-@ service coordination as significant factors in the failure of the mission . Since its activation on 16 April 1987 , U.S. Special Operations Command has participated in many operations , from the 1989 invasion of Panama to the ongoing Global War on Terrorism .
USSOCOM conducts several covert and clandestine missions , such as direct action , special reconnaissance , counter @-@ terrorism , foreign internal defense , unconventional warfare , psychological warfare , civil affairs , and counter @-@ narcotics operations . Each branch has a Special Operations Command that is unique and capable of running its own operations , but when the different special operations forces need to work together for an operation , USSOCOM becomes the joint component command of the operation , instead of a SOC of a specific branch .
= = History = =
The unworkable command and control structure of separate U.S. military special operations forces ( SOF ) , which led to the failure of Operation Eagle Claw in 1980 , highlighted the need within the Department of Defense for reform and reorganization . Since the incident , the Army Chief of Staff , General Edward C. " Shy " Meyer , called for a further restructuring of special operations capabilities , eventually helping to create the U.S. Delta Force . Although unsuccessful at the joint level , Meyer nevertheless went on to consolidate Army SOF units under the new 1st Special Operations Command in 1982 , a significant step to improve the U.S. Army 's SOF .
By 1983 , there was a small but growing sense in the Congress for the need for military reforms . In June , the Senate Armed Services Committee ( SASC ) began a two @-@ year @-@ long study of the Defense Department , which included an examination of SOF spearheaded by Senator Barry Goldwater ( R @-@ AZ ) . With concern mounting on Capitol Hill , the Department of Defense created the Joint Special Operations Agency on 1 January 1984 ; this agency , however , had neither operational nor command authority over any SOF . The Joint Special Operations Agency thus did little to improve SOF readiness , capabilities , or policies , and therefore was insufficient . Within the Defense Department , there were a few staunch SOF supporters . Noel Koch , Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs , and his deputy , Lynn Rylander , both advocated SOF reforms .
At the same time , a few on Capitol Hill were determined to overhaul United States Special Operations Forces . They included Senators Sam Nunn ( D @-@ GA ) and William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) , both members of the Armed Services Committee , and Representative Dan Daniel ( D @-@ VA ) , the chairman of the United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Readiness . Congressman Daniel had become convinced that the U.S. military establishment was not interested in special operations , that the country 's capability in this area was second rate , and that SOF operational command and control was an endemic problem . Senators Nunn and Cohen also felt strongly that the Department of Defense was not preparing adequately for future threats . Senator Cohen agreed that the U.S. needed a clearer organizational focus and chain of command for special operations to deal with low @-@ intensity conflicts .
In October 1985 , the Senate Armed Services Committee published the results of its two @-@ year review of the U.S. military structure , entitled " Defense Organization : The Need For Change . " Mr. James R. Locher III , the principal author of this study , also examined past special operations and speculated on the most likely future threats . This influential document led to the Goldwater @-@ Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 . By spring 1986 , SOF advocates had introduced reform bills in both houses of Congress . On 15 May , Senator Cohen introduced the Senate bill , co @-@ sponsored by Senator Nunn and others , which called for a joint military organization for SOF and the establishment of an office in the Defense Department to ensure adequate funding and policy emphasis for low @-@ intensity conflict and special operations . Representative Daniel 's proposal went even further — he wanted a national special operations agency headed by a civilian who would bypass the Joint Chiefs and report directly to the Secretary of Defense ; this would keep Joint Chiefs and the Services out of the SOF budget process .
Congress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of 1986 . Admiral William J. Crowe Jr . , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , led the Pentagon 's opposition to the bills . He proposed , as an alternative , a new Special Operations Forces command led by a three @-@ star general . This proposal was not well received on Capitol Hill — Congress wanted a four @-@ star general in charge to give SOF more clout . A number of retired military officers and others testified in favor of the need for reform . By most accounts , retired Army Major General Richard Scholtes gave the most compelling reasons for change . Scholtes , who commanded the joint special operations task force in Grenada , explained how conventional force leaders misused SOF during the operation , not allowing them to use their unique capabilities , which resulted in high SOF casualties . After his formal testimony , Scholtes met privately with a small number of Senators to elaborate on the problems that he had encountered in Grenada .
Both the House and Senate passed SOF reform bills , and these went to a conference committee for reconciliation . Senate and House conferees forged a compromise . The bill called for a unified combatant command headed by a four @-@ star general for all SOF , an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low @-@ Intensity Conflict , a coordinating board for low @-@ intensity conflict within the National Security Council , and a new Major Force Program ( MFP @-@ 11 ) for SOF ( the so @-@ called " SOF checkbook " ) . The final bill , attached as a rider to the 1987 Defense Authorization Act , amended the Goldwater @-@ Nichols Act and was signed into law in October 1986 . Congress clearly intended to force DOD and the Administration to face up to the realities of past failures and emerging threats . DOD and the Administration were responsible for implementing the law , and Congress subsequently had to pass two additional bills to ensure proper implementation . The legislation promised to improve SOF in several respects . Once implemented , MFP @-@ 11 provided SOF with control over its own resources , better enabling it to modernize the force . Additionally , the law fostered interservice cooperation : a single commander for all SOF promoted interoperability among the forces assigned to the same command . The establishment of a four @-@ star Commander in Chief and an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict eventually gave SOF a voice in the highest councils of the Defense Department .
Implementing the provisions and mandates of the Nunn @-@ Cohen Act , however , was neither rapid nor smooth . One of the first issues to surface was appointing an ASD ( SO / LIC ) , whose principal duties included monitorship of special operations activities and low @-@ intensity conflict activities of the Department of Defense . The Congress even increased the number of assistant secretaries of defense from 11 to 12 , but the Department of Defense still did not fill this new billet . In December 1987 , the Congress directed Secretary of the Army John O. Marsh to carry out the ASD ( SO / LIC ) duties until a suitable replacement was approved by the Senate . Not until 18 months after the legislation passed did Ambassador Charles Whitehouse assume the duties of ASD ( SO / LIC ) .
Meanwhile , the establishment of USSOCOM provided its own measure of excitement . A quick solution to manning and basing a brand new unified command was to abolish an existing command . United States Readiness Command ( USREDCOM ) , with an often misunderstood mission , did not appear to have a viable mission in the post Goldwater @-@ Nichols era , and its Commander in Chief , General James Lindsay , had had some special operations experience . On 23 January 1987 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to the Secretary of Defense that USREDCOM be disestablished to provide billets and facilities for USSOCOM . President Ronald Reagan approved the establishment of the new command on 13 April 1987 . The Department of Defense activated USSOCOM on 16 April 1987 and nominated General Lindsay to be the first Commander in Chief Special Operations Command ( USCINCSOC ) . The Senate accepted him without debate .
= = = Operation Earnest Will = = =
USSOCOM 's first tactical operation involved 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment ( Airborne ) ( " Night Stalkers " ) aviators , SEALs , and Special Boat Teams ( SBT ) working together during Operation Earnest Will in September 1987 . During Operation Earnest Will , the United States ensured that neutral oil tankers and other merchant ships could safely transit the Persian Gulf during the Iran – Iraq War . Iranian attacks on tankers prompted Kuwait to ask the United States in December 1986 to register 11 Kuwaiti tankers as American ships so that they could be escorted by the U.S. Navy . President Reagan agreed to the Kuwaiti request on 10 March 1987 , hoping it would deter Iranian attacks . The protection offered by U.S. naval vessels , however , did not stop Iran , which used mines and small boats to harass the convoys steaming to and from Kuwait . In late July 1987 , Rear Admiral Harold J. Bernsen , commander of the Middle East Force , requested NSW assets . Special Boat Teams deployed with six Mark III Patrol Boats and two SEAL platoons in August . The Middle East Force decided to convert two oil servicing barges , Hercules and Wimbrown VII , into mobile sea bases . The mobile sea bases allowed SOF in the northern Persian Gulf to thwart clandestine Iranian mining and small boat attacks .
On 21 September , Nightstalkers flying MH @-@ 60 and Little Birds took off from the frigate USS Jarrett to track an Iranian ship , Iran Ajr . The Nightstalkers observed Iran Ajr turn off her lights and begin laying mines . After receiving permission to attack , the helicopters fired guns and rockets , stopping the ship . As Iran Ajr 's crew began to push mines over the side , the helicopters resumed firing until the crew abandoned ship . Special Boat Teams provided security while a SEAL team boarded the vessel at first light and discovered nine mines on the vessel 's deck , as well as a logbook revealing areas where previous mines had been laid . The logbook implicated Iran in mining international waters .
Within a few days , the Special Operations forces had determined the Iranian pattern of activity ; the Iranians hid during the day near oil and gas platforms in Iranian waters and at night they headed toward the Middle Shoals Buoy , a navigation aid for tankers . With this knowledge , SOF launched three Little Bird helicopters and two patrol craft to the buoy . The Little Bird helicopters arrived first and were fired upon by three Iranian boats anchored near the buoy . After a short but intense firefight , the helicopters sank all three boats . Three days later , in mid @-@ October , an Iranian Silkworm missile hit the tanker Sea Isle City near the oil terminal outside Kuwait City . Seventeen crewmen and the American captain were injured in the missile attack . During Operation Nimble Archer , four destroyers shelled two oil platforms in the Rostam oil field . After the shelling , a SEAL platoon and a demolition unit planted explosives on one of the platforms to destroy it . The SEALs next boarded and searched a third platform 2 miles ( 3 km ) away . Documents and radios were taken for intelligence purposes .
On 14 April 1988 , 65 miles ( 100 km ) east of Bahrain , the frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts ( FFG @-@ 58 ) hit a mine , blowing an immense hole in its hull . Ten sailors were injured . During Operation Praying Mantis the U.S. retaliated fiercely , attacking the Iranian frigate Sahand and oil platforms in the Sirri and Sassan oil fields . After U.S. warships bombarded the Sirri platform and set it ablaze , a UH @-@ 60 with a SEAL platoon flew toward the platform but was unable to get close enough because of the roaring fire . Secondary explosions soon wrecked the platform . Thereafter , Iranian attacks on neutral ships dropped drastically . On 18 July , Iran accepted the United Nations cease fire ; on 20 August 1988 , the Iran – Iraq War ended . The remaining SEALs , patrol boats , and helicopters then returned to the United States . Special operations forces provided critical skills necessary to help CENTCOM gain control of the northern Persian Gulf and balk Iran 's small boats and minelayers . The ability to work at night proved vital , because Iranian units used darkness to conceal their actions . Additionally , because of Earnest Will operational requirements , USSOCOM would acquire new weapons systems — the patrol coastal ships and the Mark V Special Operations Craft .
= = = Somalia = = =
Special Operations Command first became involved in Somalia in 1992 as part of Operation Provide Relief . C @-@ 130s circled over Somali airstrips during delivery of relief supplies . Special Forces medics accompanied many relief flights into the airstrips throughout southern Somalia to assess the area . They were the first U.S. soldiers in Somalia , arriving before U.S. forces who supported the expanded relief operations of Restore Hope . The first teams into Somalia were CIA Special Activities Division paramilitary officers with elements of JSOC . They conducted very high risk advanced force operations prior to the entry of the follow on forces . The first casualty of the conflict came from this team and was a Paramilitary officer and former Delta Force operator name Larry Freedman . Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for " extraordinary heroism " for his actions .
The earliest missions during Operation Restore Hope were conducted by Navy SEALs . The SEALs performed several hydro @-@ graphic reconnaissance missions to find suitable landing sites for Marines . On 7 December , the SEALs swam into Mogadishu Harbor , where they found suitable landing sites , assessed the area for threats , and concluded that the port could support offloading ships . This was a tough mission because the SEALs swam against a strong current which left many of them overheated and exhausted . Furthermore , they swam through raw sewage in the harbor , which made them sick . When the first SEALs hit the shore the following night , they were surprised to meet members of the news media . The first Marines came ashore soon thereafter , and the press redirected their attention to them . Later , the SEALs provided personal security for President George Bush during a visit to Somalia . In December 1992 , Special Forces assets in Kenya moved to Somalia and joined Operation Restore Hope . January 1993 , a Special Forces command element deployed to Mogadishu as the Joint Special Operations Forces @-@ Somalia ( JSOFOR ) that would command and control all special operations for Restore Hope . JSOFOR 's mission was to make initial contact with indigenous factions and leaders ; provide information for force protection ; and provide reports on the area for future relief and security operations . Before redeploying in April , JSOFOR elements drove over 26 @,@ 000 miles ( 42 @,@ 000 km ) , captured 277 weapons , and destroyed over 45 @,@ 320 pounds ( 20 @,@ 560 kg ) of explosives .
In August 1993 , Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed the deployment of a Joint Special Operations Task Force ( JSOTF ) to Somalia in response to attacks made by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid 's supporters upon U.S. and UN forces . The JSOTF , named Task Force ( TF ) Ranger , was charged with a mission named Operation Gothic Serpent to capture Aidid . This was an especially arduous mission , for Aidid had gone underground , after several Lockheed AC @-@ 130 air raids and UN assaults on his strongholds .
While Marines from the 24th MEU provided an interim QRF ( Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM @-@ 263 ) , the task force arrived in the country , and began training exercises . The Marines were asked to take on the Aidid snatch mission , but having the advantage of being in the area for more than two months , decided after mission analysis that the mission was a " no @-@ go " due to several factors , centered around the inability to rescue the crew of a downed helicopter ( re : the indigenous forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force ) . This knowledge was not passed on to the Rangers , due to the Marines operating from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land . TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force , 75th Ranger Regiment , 160th SOAR , SEALs from the Naval Special Warfare Development Group , and Air Force special tactics units . During August and September 1993 , the task force conducted six missions into Mogadishu , all of which were successes . Although Aidid remained free , the effect of these missions seriously limited his movements .
On 3 October , TF Ranger launched its seventh mission , this time into Aidid 's stronghold the Bakara Market to capture two of his key lieutenants . The mission was expected to take only one or two hours . Helicopters carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport . The TF came under increasingly heavy fire , more intense than during previous missions . The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid 's lieutenants and were loading them onto the convoy trucks when a MH @-@ 60 Blackhawk was hit by a rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) . A small element from the security force , as well as an MH @-@ 6 assault helicopter and an MH @-@ 60 carrying a fifteen @-@ man combat search and rescue ( CSAR ) team , rushed to the crash site . The battle became increasingly worse . An RPG struck another MH @-@ 60 , crashing less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south of the first downed helicopter . The task force faced overwhelming Somali mobs that overran the crash sites , causing a dire situation . A Somali mob overran the second site and , despite a heroic defense , killed everyone except the pilot , whom they took prisoner . Two defenders of this crash site , Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall Shughart , were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . About this time , the mission 's quick reaction force ( QRF ) also tried to reach the second crash site . This force too was pinned by Somali fire and required the fire support of two AH @-@ 6 helicopters before it could break contact and make its way back to the base .
The assault and security elements moved on foot towards the first crash area , passing through heavy fire , and occupied buildings south and southwest of the downed helicopter . They fought to establish defensive positions so as not to be pinned down by very heavy enemy fire , while treating their wounded , and worked to free the pilot 's body from the downed helicopter . With the detainees loaded on trucks , the ground convoy force attempted to reach the first crash site . Unable to find it amongst the narrow , winding alleyways , the convoy came under devastating small arms and RPG fire . The convoy had to return to base after suffering numerous casualties , and sustaining substantial damage to their vehicles .
Reinforcements , consisting of elements from the QRF , 10th Mountain Division soldiers , Rangers , SEALs , Pakistan Army tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers , finally arrived at 1 : 55 am on 4 October . The combined force worked until dawn to free the pilot 's body , receiving RPG and small arms fire throughout the night . All the casualties were loaded onto the armored personnel carriers , and the remainder of the force was left behind and had no choice but to move out on foot . AH @-@ 6 gunships raked the streets with fire to support the movement . The main force of the convoy arrived at the Pakistani Stadium @-@ compound for the QRF @-@ at 6 : 30 am , thus concluding one of the bloodiest and fiercest urban firefights since the Vietnam War . Task Force Ranger experienced a total of 17 killed in action and 106 wounded . Various estimates placed Somali casualties above 1 @,@ 000 . Although Task Force Ranger 's few missions were successes , the overall outcome of Operation Gothic Serpent was deemed a failure because of the Task Force 's failure to complete their stated mission , capturing Mohamed Farrah Aidid . Most U.S. forces pulled out of Somalia by March 1994 . The withdrawal from Somalia , was completed on March 1995 . Even though Operation Gothic Serpent failed , USSOCOM still made significant contributions to operations in Somalia . SOF performed reconnaissance and surveillance missions , assisted with humanitarian relief , protected American forces and conducted riverine patrols . Additionally , they ensured the safe landing of the Marines and safeguarded the arrival of merchant ships carrying food .
= = = Iraq = = =
USSOCOM 's 10th Special Forces Group , elements of JSOC and CIA / SAD Paramilitary Officers linked up again and were the first to enter Iraq prior to the invasion . Their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to defeat Ansar Al Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion . This battle was for control of a territory in Northeastern Iraq that was completely occupied by Ansar Al Islam , an ally of Al Qaeda . This was a very significant battle and led to the termination of a substantial number of terrorists and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat . These terrorists would have been in the subsequent insurgency had they not been eliminated during this battle . Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in the Iraq war . This battle may have been the Tora Bora of Iraq , but it was a sound defeat for Al Qaeda and their ally Ansar Al Islam . This combined team then led the Peshmerga against Saddam 's northern Army . This effort kept Saddam 's forces in the north and denied the ability to redeploy to contest the invasion force coming from the south . This effort may have saved the lives of hundreds if not thousands of coalition service men and women .
At the launch of the Iraq War dozens of 12 @-@ member Special Forces teams infiltrated southern and western Iraq to hunt for Scud missiles and pinpoint bombing targets . Scores of Navy SEALs seized oil terminals and pumping stations on the southern coast . Air Force combat controllers flew combat missions in MC @-@ 130H Combat Talon IIs and established austere desert airstrips to begin the flow of soldiers and supplies deep into Iraq . It was a far cry from the Persian Gulf war of 1991 , where Special Operations forces were kept largely on the sidelines . But it would not be a replay of Afghanistan , where Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs led the fighting . After their star turn in Afghanistan , many special operators were disappointed to play a supporting role in Iraq . Many special operators felt restricted by cautious commanders . From that point , USSOCOM has since killed or captured hundreds of insurgents and Al @-@ Qaeda terrorists . It has conducted several foreign internal defense missions successfully training the Iraqi security forces .
= = Current role = =
United States Special Operations Command played a pivotal role in fighting the former Taliban government in Afghanistan in 2001 and toppling it thereafter , as well as combating the insurgency and capturing Saddam Hussein in Iraq . USSOCOM in 2004 was developing plans to have an expanded and more complex role in the global campaign against terrorism , and that role continued to emerge before and after the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011 . In 2010 , " of about 13 @,@ 000 Special Operations forces deployed overseas , about 9 @,@ 000 [ were ] evenly divided between Iraq and Afghanistan . "
= = = War in Afghanistan = = =
In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan , USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Officers from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban without the need for large @-@ scale conventional forces . This was one of the biggest successes of the global War on Terrorism . These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with the enemy . One such battle happened during Operation Anaconda the mission to squeeze life out of a Taliban and Al @-@ Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah @-@ i @-@ Kot mountains of eastern Afghanistan . The operation was seen as one of the heaviest and bloodiest fights in the War in Afghanistan . The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces from all 4 services and the CIA . Navy SEALs , Army Rangers , Air Force Combat Controllers , and Pararescuemen fought against entrenched Al @-@ Qaeda fighters atop a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) mountain . Subsequently , the entrenched Taliban became targets of every asset in the sky . According to an executive summary , the battle of Takur Ghar was the most intense firefight American special operators have been involved in since 18 U.S. Army Rangers were killed in Mogadishu , Somalia , in 1993 . During Operation Red Wings on 28 June 2005 , four Navy SEALs , pinned down in a firefight , radioed for help . A Chinook helicopter , carrying 16 service members , responded but was shot down . All members of the rescue team and three of four SEALs on the ground died . It was the worst loss of life in Afghanistan since the invasion in 2001 . The Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell alone survived . Team leader Michael P. Murphy was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the battle .
= = = Global presence = = =
SOC chief Olson said in 2011 that SOCOM " is a microcosm of the Department of Defense , with ground , air , and maritime components , a global presence , and authorities and responsibilities that mirror the Military Departments , Military Services , and Defense Agencies . " In 2010 , special operations forces were deployed in 75 countries , compared with about 60 at the beginning of 2009 . In 2011 , SOC spokesman Colonel Tim Nye ( Army ) was reported to have said that the number of countries with SOC presence will likely reach 120 and that joint training exercises will have been carried out in most or all of those countries during the year . One study identified joint @-@ training exercises in Belize , Brazil , Bulgaria , Burkina Faso , Germany , Indonesia , Mali , Norway , Panama , and Poland in 2010 and also , through mid @-@ year 2011 , in the Dominican Republic , Jordan , Romania , Senegal , South Korea , and Thailand , among other nations . In addition , SOC forces executed the high profile killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011 .
In November 2009 The Nation reported on a covert JSOC / Blackwater anti @-@ terrorist operation in Pakistan .
In 2010 , White House counterterrorism director John O. Brennan said that the United States " will not merely respond after the fact " of a terrorist attack but will " take the fight to al @-@ Qaeda and its extremist affiliates whether they plot and train in Afghanistan , Pakistan , Yemen , Somalia and beyond . " Olson said , " In some places , in deference to host @-@ country sensitivities , we are lower in profile . In every place , Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of the four @-@ star regional commander . "
The conduct of actions by SOC forces outside of Iraq and Afghan war zones has been the subject of internal U.S. debate , including between representatives of the Bush administration such as John B. Bellinger III , on one hand , and the Obama administration on another . The United Nations in 2010 also " questioned the administration 's authority under international law to conduct such raids , particularly when they kill innocent civilians . One possible legal justification – the permission of the country in question – is complicated in places such as Pakistan and Yemen , where the governments privately agree but do not publicly acknowledge approving the attacks , " as one report put it .
= = Subordinate Commands = =
= = = Joint Special Operations Command = = =
Joint Special Operations Command is a component command of the USSOCOM and is charged to study special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization , plan and conduct special operations exercises and training , and develop Joint Special Operations Tactics . It was established in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckwith , in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle Claw .
Units
The U.S. Army 's 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment @-@ Delta , popularly known as Delta Force , is the first of the two primary counter @-@ terrorist units of JSOC and SOCOM . Modeled after the British Special Air Service , Delta Force is regarded as one of the premier special operations forces in the world . This is because of Delta 's stringent training and selection process . Delta recruits primarily from the most talented and highly skilled operators in the Army Special Forces and the 75th Ranger Regiment although Delta will take anyone and everyone that can pass their screening . Recruits must pass a rigid selection course before beginning training . Delta has received training from numerous U.S. government agencies and other tier one SOF and has created a curriculum based on this training and techniques that it has developed . Delta conducts clandestine and covert special operations all over the world . It has the capability to conduct myriad special operations missions but specializes in counter @-@ terrorism and hostage rescue operations .
The Intelligence Support Activity ( ISA , The Activity ) is the support branch of JSOC and USSOCOM . Its primary missions are to provide Human Intelligence ( HUMINT ) and Signal Intelligence ( SIGINT ) mainly for Delta and DEVGRU 's operations . Before the establishing of the Strategic Support Branch in 2001 , the ISA needed the permission of the CIA to conduct its operations , which sometimes caused it to be less effective in its support of JSOC 's primary units .
The Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU , SEAL Team Six ) is the second of the two primary counter @-@ terrorist units of JSOC and SOCOM . DEVGRU is Naval Special Warfare 's counterpart to Delta . Like Delta , DEVGRU recruits the best operators from the best units in its branch , the Navy SEALs . DEVGRU is capable of performing any type of special operations mission , but trains especially for counter @-@ terrorist and hostage rescue operations .
The Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron ( 24th STS ) is the AFSOC component of JSOC . The 24th STS usually operates with Delta and DEVGRU because of the convenience of 24th STS ability to synchronize and control the different elements of air power and enhance air operations deep in enemy territory .
Portions of JSOC units have made up the constantly changing special operations task force , operating in the U.S. Central Command area of operations . The Task Force 11 , Task Force 121 , Task Force 6 @-@ 26 and Task Force 145 are creations of the Pentagon 's post @-@ 11 September campaign against terrorism , and it quickly became the model for how the military would gain intelligence and battle insurgents in the future . Originally known as Task Force 121 , it was formed in the summer of 2003 , when the military merged two existing Special Operations units , one hunting Osama bin Laden in and around Afghanistan , and the other tracking Sadaam Hussein in Iraq .
= = = Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities = = =
Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities ( SOC @-@ JC ) was transferred to USSOCOM from the soon to be disestablished United States Joint Forces Command in 2011 . Its primary mission was to train conventional and SOF commanders and their staffs , supports USSOCOM international engagement training requirements , and supports implementation of capability solutions in order to improve strategic and operational Warfighting readiness and joint interoperability . SOC @-@ JC must also be prepared to support deployed Special Operations Joint Task Force ( SOJTF ) Headquarters ( HQ ) .
The Government Accountability Office wrote that SOC @-@ JC was disestablished in 2013 , and positions were to be zeroed out in 2014 .
= = = Army = = =
On 1 December 1989 the United States Army Special Operations Command ( USASOC ) activated as the 16th major Army command . These special operations forces have been America 's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years . USASOC commands such units as the well known Special Forces ( SF , or the " Green Berets " ) and Rangers , and such relatively unknown units as the Psychological Operations Group ( PSYOP ) and Civil Affairs Brigade ( CA ) . These are one of the USSOCOM 's main weapons for waging unconventional warfare and counter @-@ insurgency . The significance of these units is emphasized as conventional conflicts are becoming less prevalent as insurgent and guerrilla warfare increases .
Units
The 75th Ranger Regiment ( U.S. Army Rangers ) is the premier light @-@ infantry unit of the United States Army and is headquartered at Fort Benning , Georgia . The 75th Ranger Regiment 's mission is to plan and conduct special missions in support of U.S. policy and objectives . The Rangers are a flexible and rapid @-@ deployable force . Each battalion can deploy anywhere in the world within 18 hours notice . The Army places much importance on the 75th Ranger Regiment and its training ; it possesses the capabilities to conduct conventional and most special operations missions . Rangers are capable of infiltrating by land , sea , or air and direct action operations such as conducting raids or assaulting buildings or airfields .
United States Army Special Forces ( SF ) aka Green Berets perform several doctrinal missions : unconventional warfare , foreign internal defense , special reconnaissance , direct action and counter @-@ terrorism . These missions make Special Forces unique in the U.S. military , because they are employed throughout the three stages of the operational continuum : peacetime , conflict and war . Foreign internal defense operations , SF 's main peacetime mission , are designed to help friendly developing nations by working with their military and police forces to improve their technical skills , understanding of human rights issues , and to help with humanitarian and civic action projects . Special Forces unconventional warfare capabilities provide a viable military option for a variety of operational taskings that are inappropriate or infeasible for conventional forces . Special Forces are the U.S. military 's premier unconventional warfare force . Foreign internal defense and unconventional warfare missions are the bread and butter of Special Forces soldiers . For this reason SF candidates are trained extensively in weapons , engineering , communications and medicine . SF soldiers are taught to be warriors first and teachers second because they must be able to train their team and be able to train their allies during a FID or UW mission . Often SF units are required to perform additional , or collateral , activities outside their primary missions . These collateral activities are coalition warfare / support , combat search and rescue , security assistance , peacekeeping , humanitarian assistance , humanitarian de @-@ mining and counter @-@ drug operations .
The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment ( Night Stalkers ) headquartered at Fort Campbell , Kentucky provides aviation support to units within USSOCOM . The Regiment consists of MH @-@ 6 and AH @-@ 6 light helicopters , MH @-@ 60 helicopters and MH @-@ 47 heavy assault helicopters . The capabilities of the 160th SOAR ( A ) have been evolving since the early 1980s . Its focus on night operations resulted in the nickname , the " Night Stalkers . " The primary mission of the Night Stalkers is to conduct overt or covert infiltration , exfiltration , and resupply of special operations forces across a wide range of environmental conditions .
4th Military Information Support Group ( Airborne ) and 8th Military Information Support Group ( Airborne ) Soldiers use persuasion to influence perceptions and encourage desired behavior . PSYOP soldiers supports national objectives at the tactical , operational and strategic levels of operations . Strategic psychological operations advance broad or long @-@ term objectives ; global in nature , they may be directed toward large audiences or at key communicators . Operational psychological operations are conducted on a smaller scale . 4th PSYOP Gp is employed by theater commanders to target groups within the theater of operations . 4th PSYOP Gp purpose can range from gaining support for U.S. operations to preparing the battlefield for combat . Tactical psychological operations are more limited , used by commanders to secure immediate and near @-@ term goals . In this environment , these force @-@ enhancing activities serve as a means to lower the morale and efficiency of enemy forces .
95th Civil Affairs Brigade ( Airborne ) specialists identify critical requirements needed by local citizens in war or disaster situations . They also locate civilian resources to support military operations , help minimize civilian interference with operations , support national assistance activities , plan and execute noncombatant evacuation , support counter @-@ drug operations and establish and maintain liaison with civilian aid agencies and other nongovernmental organizations . In support of special operations , these culturally oriented , linguistically capable Soldiers may also be tasked to provide functional expertise for foreign internal defense operations , unconventional warfare operations and direct action missions .
Sustainment Brigade ( Special Operations ) ( Airborne ) ( SBSO ( A ) ) has a difficult mission supporting USASOC . In their respective fields , signal and support soldiers provide supplies , maintenance , equipment and expertise allowing Special Operation Forces to " shoot , move and communicate " on a continuous basis . Because USASOC often uses Special Operations Forces @-@ unique items , soldiers assigned to these units are taught to operate and maintain a vast array of specialized equipment not normally used by their conventional counterparts . SBSO ( A ) also provides the USASOC with centralized and integrated material management of property , equipment maintenance , logistical automation and repair parts and supplies .
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center ( USAJFKSWCS ) trains USSOCOM and Army Special Operations Forces through development and evaluation of special operations concepts , doctrines and trainings .
= = = Marine Corps = = =
In October 2005 , the Secretary of Defense directed the formation of United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command , the Marine component of United States Special Operations Command . It was determined that the Marine Corps would initially form a unit of approximately 2500 to serve with USSOCOM . On February 24 , 2006 MARSOC activated at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . MARSOC initially consisted of a small staff and the Foreign Military Training Unit ( FMTU ) , which had been formed to conduct foreign internal defense . FMTU is now designated as the Marine Special Operations Advisor Group ( MSOAG ) .
As a service component of USSOCOM , MARSOC is tasked by the Commander USSOCOM to train , organize , equip , and deploy responsive U.S. Marine Corps special operations forces worldwide , in support of combatant commanders and other agencies . MARSOC has been directed to conduct foreign internal defense , direct action and special reconnaissance . MARSOC has also been directed to develop a capability in unconventional warfare , counter @-@ terrorism , and information operations . MARSOC deployed its first units in August 2006 , six months after the group 's initial activation . MARSOC reached full operational capability in October 2008 .
Units
Marine Raider Regiment ( Marine Raiders ) consists of a Headquarters Company and three Marine Raider Battalions , the 1st , 2nd and 3rd . The Regiment provides tailored military combat @-@ skills training and advisor support for identified foreign forces in order to enhance their tactical capabilities and to prepare the environment as directed by USSOCOM as well as the capability to form the nucleus of a Joint Special Operations Task Force . Marines and Sailors of the MRR train , advise and assist friendly host nation forces – including naval and maritime military and paramilitary forces – to enable them to support their governments ' internal security and stability , to counter subversion and to reduce the risk of violence from internal and external threats . MRR deployments are coordinated by MARSOC , through USSOCOM , in accordance with engagement priorities for Overseas Contingency Operations .
Marine Intelligence Battalion ( MIB ) trains , sustains , maintains combat readiness , and provides intelligence support at all operational levels in order to support MARSOF training and operations worldwide with mission @-@ specific intelligence capability .
Marine Special Operations Support Group ( MSOSG ) trains , equips , structures , and provides specially qualified Marine forces , including , operational logistics , intelligence , Military Working Dogs , Firepower Control Teams , and communications support in order to sustain worldwide special operations missions as directed by Commander , U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command ( COMMARFORSOC ) .
The Marine Special Operations School ( MSOS ) performs the screening , recruiting , training , assessment and doctrinal development functions for MARSOC . It includes two subordinate Special Missions Training Branches ( SMTBs ) , one on each coast .
The Special Mission Training Branch — East provide special operations training in tactics , techniques and procedures , and evaluation and certification of MARSOC forces to specified conditions and standards for SOF . The Marines of MSOS are operators with the training , experience and mature judgment to plan , coordinate , instruct and supervise development of SOF special reconnaissance and direct action skills .
= = = Navy = = =
The United States Naval Special Warfare Command ( NAVSPECWARCOM , NAVSOC , or NSWC ) was commissioned April 16 , 1987 , at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in San Diego as the Naval component to the United States Special Operations Command . Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision , leadership , doctrinal guidance , resources and oversight to ensure component special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders . Today , SEAL Teams and Special Boat Teams comprise the elite combat units of Naval Special Warfare . These teams are organized , trained , and equipped to conduct a variety of missions to include direct action , special reconnaissance , counter @-@ terrorism , foreign internal defense , unconventional warfare and support psychological and civil affairs operations . Their highly trained operators are deployed worldwide in support of National Command Authority objectives , conducting operations with other conventional and special operations forces .
Units
United States Navy SEALs have distinguished themselves as an individually reliable , collectively disciplined and highly skilled special operations force . The most important trait that distinguishes Navy SEALs from all other military forces is that SEALs are maritime special operations , as they strike from and return to the sea . SEALs ( SEa , Air , Land ) take their name from the elements in and from which they operate . SEALs are experts in direct action and special reconnaissance missions . Their stealth and clandestine methods of operation allow them to conduct multiple missions against targets that larger forces cannot approach undetected . Because of the dangers inherent in their missions , prospective SEALs go through what is considered by many military experts to be the toughest training regime in the world .
Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU ) , referred to as SEAL Team Six , the name of its predecessor which was officially disbanded in 1987 .
SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams are SEAL teams with an added underwater delivery capability who use the SDV MK VIII and the Advanced SEAL Delivery System ( ASDS ) , submersibles that provides NSW with an unprecedented capability that combines the attributes of clandestine underwater mobility and the combat swimmer .
Special Warfare Combatant @-@ craft Crewmen ( SWCC ) operate and maintain state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art surface craft to conduct coastal patrol and interdiction and support special operations missions . Focusing on infiltration and exfiltration of SEALs and other SOF , SWCCs provide dedicated rapid mobility in shallow water areas where larger ships cannot operate . They also bring to the table a unique SOF capability : Maritime Combatant Craft Aerial Delivery System — the ability to deliver combat craft via parachute drop . Like SEALs , SWCCs must have excellent physical fitness , highly motivated , combat @-@ focused and responsive in high stress situations .
= = = Air Force = = =
Air Force Special Operations Command was established May 22 , 1990 , with headquarters at Hurlburt Field , Florida . AFSOC is one of the 10 Air Force Major Commands or MAJCOMs , and the Air Force component of United States Special Operations Command . It holds operational and administrative oversight of subordinate special operations wings and groups in the regular Air Force , Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard .
AFSOC provides Air Force special operations forces for worldwide deployment and assignment to regional unified commands . The command 's SOF are composed of highly trained , rapidly deployable airmen , conducting global special operations missions ranging from precision application of firepower via airstrikes or close air support , to infiltration , exfiltration , resupply and refueling of SOF operational elements . AFSOC 's unique capabilities include airborne radio and television broadcast for psychological operations , as well as aviation foreign internal defense instructors to provide other governments military expertise for their internal development .
The command 's core missions include battlefield air operations ; agile combat support ; aviation foreign internal defense ; information operations ; precision aerospace fires ; psychological operations ; specialized air mobility ; specialized refueling ; and intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance .
Units
Combat Controllers ( CCT ) are ground combat forces specialized in a traditional pathfinder role while having a heavy emphasis on simultaneous air traffic control , fire support ( via airstrikes , close air support and command , control , and communications in covert or austere environments .
Pararescuemen ( PJ ) are the only Department of Defense specialty specifically trained and equipped to conduct conventional and unconventional personnel recovery operations . A PJ 's primary function is as a personnel recovery specialist with emergency trauma medical capabilities in humanitarian and combat environments .
Special Operations Weather Technicians ( SOWT ) gather , assess , and interpret weather and environmental intelligence from forward deployed locations , working alongside special operations forces .
Organization
The 1st Special Operations Wing ( 1 SOW ) is located at Hurlburt Field , Florida . Its mission focus is unconventional warfare : counter @-@ terrorism , combat search and rescue , personnel recovery , psychological operations , aviation assistance to developing nations , " deep battlefield " resupply , interdiction and close air support . The wing 's core missions include aerospace surface interface , agile combat support , combat aviation advisory operations , information operations , personnel recovery / recovery operations , precision aerospace fires , psychological operations dissemination , specialized aerospace mobility and specialized aerial refueling . Among its aircraft is the MC @-@ 130 Combat Talon II , a low @-@ level terrain following special missions transport that can evade radar detection and slip into enemy territory at a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) altitude for infiltration / exfiltration missions , even in zero visibility , dropping off or recovering men or supplies with pinpoint accuracy . It also operates the AC @-@ 130 Spooky and Spectre gunships that provide highly accurate airborne gunfire for close air support of conventional and special operations forces on the ground .
The 24th Special Operations Wing ( 24 SOW ) is located at Hurlburt Field , Florida . It 's composed of the 720th Special Tactics Group , 724th Special Tactics Group , Special Tactics Training Squadron and 16 recruiting locations across the United States . The Special Tactics Squadrons , under the 720th STG and 724th STG , are made up of Special Tactics Officers , Combat Controllers , Combat Rescue Officers , Pararescuemen , Special Operations Weather Officers and Airmen , Air Liaison Officers , Tactical Air Control Party operators , and a number of combat support airmen which comprise 58 Air Force specialties .
The 27th Special Operations Wing ( 27 SOW ) is located at Cannon AFB , New Mexico . Its primary mission includes infiltration , exfiltration and re @-@ supply of special operations forces ; air refueling of special operations rotary wing and tiltrotor aircraft ; and precision fire support . These capabilities support a variety of special operations missions including direct action , unconventional warfare , special reconnaissance , counter @-@ terrorism , personnel recovery , psychological operations and information operations .
The 193d Special Operations Wing ( 193 SOW ) is an Air National Guard ( ANG ) unit , operationally gained by AFSOC , and located at Harrisburg International Airport / Air National Guard Station ( former Olmsted Air Force Base ) , Pennsylvania . Under Title 32 USC , the 193 SOW performs state missions for the Governor of Pennsylvania as part of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard . Under Title 10 USC , the 193 SOW is part of the Air Reserve Component ( ARC ) of the United States Air Force . Its primary wartime and contingency operations mission as an AFSOC @-@ gained unit is psychological operations ( PSYOP ) . The 193 SOW is unique in that it is the only unit in the U.S. Air Force to fly and maintain the Lockheed EC @-@ 130J Commando Solo aircraft .
The 919th Special Operations Wing ( 919 SOW ) is an Air Force Reserve Command ( AFRC ) unit , operationally gained by AFSOC , and located at Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field # 3 / Duke Field , Florida . The 919 SOW flies and maintains the MC @-@ 130E Combat Talon I and MC @-@ 130P Combat Shadow special operations aircraft designed for covert operations .
The 352d Special Operations Wing ( 352 SOW ) at RAF Mildenhall , United Kingdom serves as the core to United States European Command 's standing Joint Special Operations Air Component headquarters . The squadron provides support for three flying squadrons , one special tactics squadron and one maintenance squadron for exercise , logistics , and war planning ; aircrew training ; communications ; aerial delivery ; medical ; intelligence ; security and force protection ; weather ; information technologies and transformation support and current operations .
The 353d Special Operations Group ( 353 SOG ) is the focal point for all U.S. Air Force special operations activities throughout the United States Pacific Command ( USPACOM ) theater . Headquartered at Kadena AB , Okinawa , Japan the group is prepared to conduct a variety of high @-@ priority , low @-@ visibility missions . Its mission is air support of joint and allied special operations forces in the Pacific . It maintains a worldwide mobility commitment , participates in Pacific theater exercises as directed and supports humanitarian and relief operations .
The United States Air Force Special Operations School ( USAFSOS ) at Hurlburt Field , Florida is a primary support unit of the Air Force Special Operations Command . The USAFSOS prepares special operations Airmen to successfully plan , organize , and execute global special operations by providing indoctrination and education for AFSOC , other USSOCOM components , and joint / interagency / coalition partners .
= = List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders = =
= = USSOCOM medal = =
The United States Special Operations Command Medal was introduced in 1994 to recognize individuals for outstanding contributions to , and in support of , special operations . Since it was created , there have been more than 50 recipients , four of which are not American . Some of which includes : Generał broni Włodzimierz Potasiński ( Poland , 2010 , posthumously ) , Kaptein Gunnar Sønsteby ( Norway , 2008 ) , Generał brygady Jerzy Gut ( Poland , June 2014 ) and Generał dywizji Piotr Patalong ( Poland , October 2014 ) .
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= Sherman Minton =
Sherman " Shay " Minton ( October 20 , 1890 – April 9 , 1965 ) was a Democratic United States Senator from Indiana and an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States .
After attending college and law school , he served as a captain in World War I , following which he launched a legal and political career . In 1930 , after multiple failed election attempts , and serving as a regional leader in the American Legion , he became a utility commissioner under the administration of Indiana Governor Paul V. McNutt . Four years later , Minton was elected to the United States Senate . During the campaign , he defended New Deal legislation in a series of addresses in which he suggested it was not necessary to uphold the Constitution during the Great Depression crisis . Minton 's campaign was denounced by his political opponents , and he received more widespread criticism for an address that became known as the " You Cannot Eat the Constitution " speech . As part of the New Deal Coalition , the fiercely partisan Minton championed President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's unsuccessful court packing plans in the Senate and became one of his top Senate allies .
After Minton failed in his 1940 Senate re @-@ election bid , Roosevelt appointed him as a judge to the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit . After Roosevelt 's death , President Harry Truman , who had developed a close friendship with Minton during their time together in the Senate , nominated him to the Supreme Court . He was confirmed by the Senate on 4 Oct 1949 , by a vote of 48 to 16 , 15 Republicans and one Democrat ( Harry Flood Byrd of Virginia ) voting against him . He served on the Supreme Court for seven years . An advocate of judicial restraint , Minton was a regular supporter of the majority opinions during his early years on the Court ; he became a regular dissenter after President Dwight Eisenhower 's appointees altered the Bench 's composition . In 1956 , poor health forced Minton 's retirement , after which he traveled and lectured until his death in 1965 .
Historians note the unusual contrast between his role as a partisan liberal Senator and his role as a conservative jurist . They attribute his shift in position as a reaction to the relationship between the New Deal senators and the conservative 1930s Court , which ruled much of the New Deal legislation unconstitutional . When Minton became a Supreme Court Justice , the Senate had become more conservative and the Court more activist , causing him to support conservative minority positions . As a Justice , Minton frequently played the role of peace @-@ maker and consensus builder during a period when the Court was riven with feuds . He generally ruled in favor of order over freedom as a result of his broad interpretation of governmental powers . These rulings and their limited impact lead some historians to have a negative opinion of his judicial record . Other historians point out Minton 's strong commitment to his judicial principles as a valuable attribute . In 1962 , the Sherman Minton Bridge in southern Indiana and the Minton @-@ Capehart Federal Building in Indianapolis were named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Sherman Minton was born on October 20 , 1890 , to John Evan and Emma Livers Minton , in their Georgetown , Indiana , home . He was the third of the family 's five children and was nicknamed Shay because of his younger brother 's inability to properly pronounce " Sherman " . Minton 's paternal grandfather , Jonathan Minton , was killed during the American Civil War and his father grew up on his own . Minton 's parents married in 1883 .
Minton received his basic education in a two @-@ room schoolhouse in Georgetown , which he attended through eighth grade . He was exposed to politics from an early age ; his father took him to several political rallies , including an 1895 speech by Democratic Party leader William Jennings Bryan . His father was a day laborer for the New Albany and St. Louis Air Line Railway . In 1898 , he became disabled when he suffered heat stroke while working . His condition meant he could not work ; the family became impoverished and had to subsist on the limited yield of their small farm . Minton 's mother developed breast cancer in 1899 . A traveling doctor attempted to remove her tumors in April 1900 , performing the operation with her laid on the family dinner table , but she died during the procedure . The death was an emotional blow to Minton ; thereafter , he refused to attend church and spoke against God , whom he blamed for his mother 's death . Minton 's father married Sarah Montague on December 3 , 1901 .
As Minton grew older , he was frequently in trouble with the people in his neighborhood . In 1904 , he was arrested for disregarding a town ordinance forbidding bicyclists to ride on the sidewalk . He was taken before a justice of the peace and fined three dollars , an incident he later credited with changing his outlook on life and sparking his desire to become a lawyer . To accomplish that goal , and continue supporting his family , he traveled with his older brother Herbert to Fort Worth , Texas , to take a job at the Swift and Company meat packing plant . His father and younger siblings soon joined him in Texas after the two brothers ' income was able to cover their expenses . After saving enough money to help establish the family in a new home , Minton returned to Indiana to attend high school , leaving his family in Texas .
= = = Education = = =
Minton started at Edwardsville High School in 1905 , aged fourteen . The following year the school was consolidated with nearby New Albany High School . There , he participated in the football , baseball , and track teams . He founded the school 's first debate club , the Wranglers , which won several awards . He worked in a local arcade , and during summer vacations returned to Fort Worth to work at the Swift plant . He was briefly expelled from school after committing a prank in February 1908 . The school was under the guidance of the innovative Superintendent Charles Allen Prosser , who only let Minton return after he formally apologized before the entire school a week later . Minton began dating Gertrude Gurtz in his senior year , and the two remained in regular correspondence after he left for college . He graduated high school at the top of his class in 1910 .
Minton was intent on attending college ; during the summer of 1910 , he took a job as a Swift Company salesman in the Fort Worth area to help pay his way . He returned to Indiana and enrolled at Indiana University in September 1911 , taking enough classes to complete his first three years of courses in two years . Despite the heavy workload , he joined the school 's baseball and debate teams , and participated in the campus ' Jackson Club , an organization for Democrats . His college years were formative and had significant influence on his future political career . He became friends with future Governor of Indiana Paul V. McNutt , future presidential candidate Wendell L. Willkie , and several other men who later became influential in the state . During his second year he ran out of money , but could not return to Texas to earn more because of his class schedule . He lodged in the Phi Delta Theta ( ΦΔΘ ) international fraternity house and subsisted mostly on wild berries , leftover bread from the cafeteria and free milk . He completed undergraduate school at the top of his class in 1913 . In 1915 , he graduated from the Indiana University School of Law in Bloomington , at what is now known as the Indiana University Maurer School of Law . During law school , he played end and fullback for the Indiana University football team .
Minton ranked first in his class . This placement entitled him to serve as librarian at the legal college . The position paid a fair salary and allowed him to live more comfortably for his last two years of school . He graduated from law school in 1915 , again at the top of his class , and won a one @-@ year scholarship to take post @-@ graduate courses at Yale Law School . There , he focused on studying constitutional law and attended the regular lectures of former President of the United States and future Chief Justice of the United States William Howard Taft . Taft remarked that Minton 's post @-@ graduate thesis was among the best he had ever read . Minton continued to improve his oratory skills and continued debating at Yale ; he won the Wayland Club prize for extemporaneous public speaking , and helped organize the university 's legal aid society . He earned a post @-@ graduate master 's degree from Yale Law School in 1916 .
= = = Legal career and World War I = = =
In May 1916 , Minton returned to New Albany , where he opened a law practice and renewed his relationship with Gurtz . He took several cases and gained experience working pro bono to assist the local county prosecutor . He joined the Chautauqua lecture circuit , and traveled to several cities to give speeches . During one lecture circuit , he met William Jennings Bryan . The three @-@ time Presidential candidate advised the young Hoosier about politics , inspiring him to consider a career in public life .
In 1917 , just after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I , Minton enlisted in the United States Army . He took an officers training course at Fort Benjamin Harrison in hope of earning a commission , but was not among the those chosen to become an officer . In August he was granted a brief leave of absence ; he returned to New Albany , where he married Gurtz on August 11 . He returned to camp in September and requested to repeat his training course , still hoping to receive a commission ; after finishing the training he was commissioned as a captain . The American Expeditionary Forces , Eighty @-@ fourth Division , to which Minton belonged , was dispatched to France in July 1918 . Minton and his unit served on the Western Front at Verdun , Soissons , and later protecting supply lines in Belgium . During most of his time in the war , his unit was responsible for scouting roads to ensure safe transport of men and supplies to the front lines . He saw no combat .
When President Woodrow Wilson came to Paris in 1919 , Minton was in charge of a security detail guarding the negotiation hall and was able to meet Wilson . When the war ended , Minton remained briefly with the Army of Occupation in Germany before being discharged in August 1919 . He chose to remain in Paris for several months to study Roman law , international law , civil law and jurisprudence at the University of Paris . He returned home in March 1920 . The first of Minton 's three children , Sherman Jr . , was born while he was away . Minton 's daughter Mary @-@ Anne was born in 1923 , and his second son , John , in 1925 .
= = Political career = =
When Minton returned home he reopened his law practice and decided to enter politics . He ran for office in Indiana 's 3rd congressional district , but lost the Democratic primary , despite significant campaigning and his war record . He lost to John Ewing , 6 @,@ 502 votes to 3 @,@ 170 , second place in a field of five candidates . After the loss , he briefly joined the Indiana law firm of Stonsenburg and Weathers , two politically active lawyers , before moving to Miami , Florida , where he joined another firm , Shutts & Bowen . In January 1928 , he left the Miami practice and returned to Stonsenburg and Weathers . He attempted to secure the Democratic nomination to run for Congress in 1930 , but was again defeated , this time by the former state party chairman Eugene B. Crowe .
The following year , Minton became a local commander of the American Legion . The group had a large and active membership in the state at the time , and he used his position to encourage support of Democratic Party agenda . Paul McNutt was the national commander , and the two men became political allies . When McNutt became governor in 1930 , he offered Minton a position at the head of a new utility regulation commission . As commissioner , Minton successfully imposed regulations that reduced state telephone bills by a combined total of $ 525 @,@ 000 . The cuts received widespread media coverage , and Minton was credited in the reports with the success .
= = = Senate campaign = = =
Becoming popular among the party leadership during his two years as commissioner , Minton was encouraged by party leaders to run for the United States Senate in 1934 . At the state Democratic Party Convention he ran against Earl Peters , a former chairman of the state party . With the support of McNutt , Minton won the nomination on the third ballot with 827 votes to Peters ' 586 .
Minton launched a statewide campaign in August 1934 and began delivering speeches in defense of the New Deal . He blamed Republicans for the conditions of the Great Depression . His opponent , incumbent Republican Senator Arthur R. Robinson , accused Minton of playing " Santa Claus " by trying to give everyone " presents " . He also criticized Minton 's support of the New Deal , which Robinson and Republicans called unconstitutional . Minton 's initial campaign slogan was " You can 't offer a hungry man the Constitution " , a slogan he unveiled in a debate with Robinson in Corydon on August 11 . He continued using the slogan , and on September 11 , Minton delivered his infamous " You Cannot Eat the Constitution " speech , in which he concluded the urgent needs of the masses outweighed the need to uphold the constitution . The speech backfired wildly and papers and opponents across the state called Minton 's remarks traitorous . Minton stopped using the slogan and explained his position again using new terms , but his opponents continued to dog him over the issue . The Republicans also faulted popular governor McNutt and his reorganization of the government , and McNutt became more personally involved in the election . With the state party 's more direct involvement , Minton won the election with 52 percent of the vote .
= = = Lobby Investigation Committee = = =
Minton took his Senate seat in January 1935 . As a freshman , he sat in the back row of the chamber next to fellow freshman Harry Truman , and the pair quickly became friends . Minton was made a member of a special Lobby Investigation Committee chaired by Senator Hugo Black , that was set up to look into questionable lobbyist groups . According to professor of political science Linda C. Gugin , a Minton biographer , in practice the committee 's investigations were politically motivated and directed against groups that were challenging New Deal legislation .
William Randolph Hearst , a prominent and wealthy media magnate , began using his newspapers to deride the committee 's " reckless attacks on freedom " . Minton led the effort to counter Hearst and delivered a speech criticizing his support of the Republican Party . In 1937 , Senator Black was appointed to the Supreme Court and left the Senate , and Minton secured his post as chair of the committee . Minton immediately began a full @-@ scale investigation of the media conglomerate controlled by Frank E. Gannett , accusing him of publishing Republican Party propaganda . For several weeks , Minton delivered speeches against Gannett in the Senate , and Gannett responded in kind in his newspapers . Minton finally introduced legislation that would have made it " illegal to publish information known to be false " . Gannett , and a large number of allies in newspapers and on radio , immediately began to charge Minton and the Democratic Party with an assault on the freedom of the press . Minton 's allies in Congress asked him to withdraw the bill because of its political repercussions , and he dropped the matter .
Minton tried again to expose what he believed to be Republican control of the media . He led the committee to target a newspaper with national circulation , Rural Progress . Minton accused the publishers of improperly accepting large sums of money from corporations and the editors of undue influence from this money . The owner of the paper , Maurive V. Renolds , was summoned before the committee for a hearing , where Minton demanded to know why he was accepting money from corporations . When Renolds asked his manager , Dr. Glen Frank , to help him answer the questions , Minton and fellow Democratic senators began to shout Dr. Frank down . As he was saying that the money from the corporations was for advertising in the magazine , Minton beat his gavel and yelled , " This committee doesn 't intend to permit you to use this as a forum to air your Republican views . "
Minton did not realize that Frank was also president of the University of Wisconsin , and soon suffered retaliation for the way he had treated Frank . Frank went on NBC radio stations around the country and lambasted Minton for his rudeness . He made lengthy arguments accusing Minton of attempting to violate the Bill of Rights . Minton was outraged , but the arguments had an effect among voters in Indiana . In 1938 , he sought funding to launch a massive nationwide investigation of media conglomerates for proof of Republican interference in the press . Democratic Senator Edward R. Burke led an effort to defeat the measure and privately accused Minton of damaging the Democrats ' cause , which led Minton to leave the Lobby Investigation Committee .
Minton was a fierce partisan during his time in the Senate , and regularly abused his opponents verbally . Democratic Senator Huey Long became one of Minton 's favorite targets because of Long 's often @-@ threatened filibusters . During one of the filibusters , Long threatened to join the Republican Party . After most senators had left the chamber , Minton remained for several hours to periodically taunt Long . After tiring of the taunts , Long launched a rebuttal from the podium , calling Minton a vicious politician whose positions would cost Minton re @-@ election . The exchange was unusual for its tone and later made national news .
Minton was involved in many such exchanges , including a particularly fierce one with Republican Senator Lester J. Dickinson in March 1936 . Dickinson delivered a speech in the Senate castigating President Franklin D. Roosevelt for carrying out what he termed illegal and unconstitutional acts . Minton responded with a range of accusations , some personal , against Dickinson and his " political naivety " .
= = = Court packing = = =
In 1936 , the United States Supreme Court ruled the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 unconstitutional . For the first time , Minton gave speeches criticizing the court for overriding the will of Congress . He accused the court of allowing itself to be influenced by political motives rather than the law . In response to the court ruling , Minton began drafting a bill which would allow the Supreme Court to declare a law unconstitutional only if seven out the nine justices supported the decision . In February 1937 , before Minton introduced his bill , President Roosevelt introduced a plan of his own to deal with the Supreme Court . Roosevelt proposed adding more justices to the court and creating a mandatory retirement age ; the changes would allow him to appoint an overwhelming majority to the court , more sympathetic to his agenda , ensuring the safety of legislation passed by his party .
Minton was pleased with Roosevelt 's bill and quickly became its leading supporter in the Senate . The measure was placed in an omnibus bill designed to reform judicial salaries and districting , among many other measures . Republicans quickly discovered the court @-@ packing provision and targeted the bill . Democrats had overwhelming super @-@ majorities in Congress , and passage of the bill at first seemed assured . Minton 's support of the bill helped him earn the position of Senate majority whip , allowing him to more effectively push for its passage . Minton delivered six radio addresses on behalf of his party in support of the bill , but public opinion could not be swayed in the Democrats ' favor .
Minton received a death threat in the form of an envelope containing a shotgun shell and a message advising him to not vote for the court packing plan . Many Democrats , fearing their re @-@ election prospects , joined with Republicans and defeated the bill . Minton was unhappy with the loss and it cost him considerable support among his voters , but as a result of his close connection with the bill and the leaders of his party , he gained more influence with the Democrats .
Although Minton supported the Roosevelt Administration and became a regular guest at the White House , Minton opposed the president on some measures . He voted to override a presidential veto of a grant of $ 2 @.@ 5 ( $ 43 billion in 2015 dollars ) in bonus pay for World War I soldiers ( Bonus Army ) . He supported the Dyer Anti @-@ Lynching Bill , which Roosevelt feared would cost the party support in the southern states . He also supported an extension of the Hatch Act of 1939 , a law that prevented federal employees from being forced to take part in state election campaigns , effectively lessening the influence of federal patronage .
As World War II neared , Minton took a cautious position on United States involvement . When the Soviet Union invaded Finland , Minton voted against granting a loan to Finland to help finance its defense efforts . He also opposed selling munitions and weapons to the Allies or the Axis powers . He advocated and supported expanding the American military and believed that American entry into the war was inevitable , but should be delayed as long as possible . He voted in favor of the Smith Act , which made it a crime to advocate the overthrow of the government , a law specifically targeted at communists and fascists in the United States . In his final year in office , there was considerable speculation in the press that Minton would be named to higher office by Roosevelt , including cabinet positions and the Supreme Court , but neither happened .
= = = Re @-@ election campaign = = =
Minton ran for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 1940 . McNutt was challenging Roosevelt for the Presidential nomination , forcing Minton to choose between the administration and his allies in the state party . Minton sided with Roosevelt , which cost him McNutt 's and the Indiana Democratic Party machine 's support in his re @-@ election bid .
The Republican presidential candidate , Wendell Willkie was also a native of Indiana , and Minton faced a difficult challenge to win re @-@ election . He referred to Willkie as a " sycophant for the rich and famous " . Willkie never responded to Minton 's taunts , leaving Minton 's opponent in the Senate race , Raymond E. Willis , to respond to Minton 's charges . Willis had run for the Senate two years earlier but was defeated by Democrat Frederick Van Nuys . Willis faulted Minton on a range of topics but focused on the legislation Minton supported while in the Senate . Willis claimed that much of the legislation was unconstitutional and Minton 's positions were detrimental to the nation . Minton responded by pointing out Willis 's connections to wealthy corporations and accused him of not caring for the people . Minton 's campaign focused on the achievements of the New Deal programs . He claimed farm income in Indiana had doubled since 1932 , and highlighted the passage of the Old Age Pension laws . His support for conscription and military preparedness for the coming war proved unpopular with voters and cost him considerable support , but according to historian William Radcliff it was Wilkie 's favorite son status , which led many Hoosiers to vote Republican , that proved to be the election 's deciding factor . Despite Minton 's heavy campaigning , he lost the close election to Willis by 5 @,@ 179 votes out of over 1 @.@ 5 million cast .
Roosevelt won the 1940 presidential election . After Minton left office in January 1941 , he was given a position in the Roosevelt administration as a reward for his loyalty during the court packing failure . He served as one of the president 's advisers and a liaison between the White House and Congress . The extent of his duties is not fully known ; Linda Gugin has speculated that he may have managed Roosevelt 's patronage system . Minton was responsible for getting several officials appointed to high offices in the federal bureaucracy and numerous others appointed to lower ranking positions . He also convinced Roosevelt to support the creation of a Senate defense committee chaired by Truman , a position that brought Truman into the national spotlight and helped him gain the vice presidency .
= = Seventh Circuit = =
= = = Appointment = = =
On May 7 , 1941 , Roosevelt announced Minton 's nomination to the Chicago @-@ based Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals . Minton was confirmed unanimously by the Senate on May 12 . Minton resigned from his post in the administration , but even after he began working on the court , Minton remained active in Democratic politics behind the scenes and was in regular correspondence with Roosevelt to make patronage suggestions .
Minton was sworn in on May 29 , but the court was in recess at the time . He took his seat when it returned to session on October 7 . The court had the highest court load of all the appellate courts in the nation at that time , averaging 40 cases per judge annually . The men on the court were close friends , and Minton developed a particularly close friendship with Judge J. Earl Major ; Major offered Minton financial assistance during his later illnesses . Major had been on the court for several years and held a judicial philosophy similar to Minton 's . The two men regularly attended baseball games and were frequent guests in each other 's homes .
World War II broke out shortly after Minton joined the court , creating a flood of cases in which legal precedent provided little guidance , including challenges to wartime measures , selective service laws , price controls , rationing and civil liberties . In the majority of these cases , the court affirmed the decisions of the district courts , but in several the court was required to establish a precedent . Minton stated on several occasions his personal preference to affirm the decisions of the lower courts . He believed that the court that heard the case and pronounced judgment was generally able to make a decision that was superior to appellate courts ' decisions . He believed the appellate process should be reserved for the more serious cases and cases where the lower court had clearly made a mistake .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
Minton was described by William Radcliff as a " faithful disciple of judicial restraint , " an unexpected development when compared to his overtly partisan political career . Radcliff attributed Minton 's conservative position to the distaste he developed for the courts when they overturned legislation passed while he was in the Senate . The courts actions led him to strongly believe in the limited exercise of judicial power when evaluating the constitutionality of governmental conduct . Much of the recently passed New Deal legislation was being tried in the courts for constitutionality and enforcement , putting Minton in the uncommon position of adjudicating cases depending on legislation he had helped write .
During his time on the Seventh Circuit , Minton authored 253 of the court 's opinions , including twelve dissenting opinions . Some of his opinions won praise ; the editors of Tax Magazine commented favorably on Minton 's opinions on tax law , calling them " direct Hoosier logic " . Other court reporting papers made similar comments , applauding the manner in which he turned complex issues to simple questions that could easily be understood .
In the case of Sunkist v. Sunkist and Quaker Oats Co. v. General Mills , the court created a long @-@ standing precedent in their decision making it possible for different companies to use the same brand and product name as long as they produced dissimilar products . In another case , the court set a short @-@ lived precedent allowing companies to artificially raise prices in local markets if the purpose was to artificially lower prices in another market to remain competitive . After Minton joined the U.S. Supreme Court , the decision was appealed to that body ; Minton recused himself from the case , which the court decided to overturn . In another decision , Minton was in the majority that ruled under the Sherman Antitrust Act that the New York Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company was a monopoly , ordering the company to break up its grocery business . Minton was also in the majority in several cases filed to enforce decisions made by the National Labor Relations Board , usually to end worker strikes .
In the case of United States v. Knauer , the government was denying the wife of a United States citizen entry into the country because of her possible ties to Nazism . In a much criticized majority opinion which Minton co @-@ authored with Judge Major , he stated that the " alien did not have any legal right — [ her ] status was a political decision to be made by officials in government . " Many liberals condemned the court at the time of the decision . The case ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court in a 1946 appeal .
One of Minton 's favorite cases was that of Modernistic Candies , Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission . The candy company produced a one @-@ cent gumball dispenser in which almost all the gumballs were the same color . A few different @-@ colored gumballs were included which , when dispensed , entitled the purchaser to a prize from the merchant who owned the machine . The FTC had an injunction put in place barring the company from producing the machines because they claimed it violated anti @-@ gambling laws . Minton wrote the majority opinion and sided with the majority to keep the injunction in place , but dryly mocked the counsel for the defense and the gambling law , stating :
Counsel for the petitioner discussed at great length from a sociological point of view , of the age @-@ old problem of the gambling instinct in the human being . According to his analysis , gambling pervades our entire economic system ; thus insurance contracts are a gamble , stock and grain exchange transactions are gambles , and the farmer 's dependence on weather is a gamble . Counsel 's attempt to apply this analysis to the present case left us cold and unimpressed . He even reminded us that our great idol , Mr. Chief Justice John Marshall , in his day attended the horse races and wagered with his clergyman . In fact , they ran a book . As indicating how times have changed and how even our coarse nature has yielded to the protecting care of governmental policy , we confess we do not even know a bookmaker , clerical or otherwise , and our passes to the beautiful race tracks around Chicago lie in our desk unused .
Minton often lamented that he was required to " pronounce the law as it was written , but on no occasion [ c ] ould he make the law . "
= = = Clemency board and failing health = = =
After Roosevelt 's death and Truman 's succession to the Presidency , Minton continued offering advice to the new administration on a range of topics , including patronage and political maneuvering . Truman appointed Minton as head of the War Department Clemency Board , a panel of judges charged with overseeing reviews of decisions made by the courts @-@ martial . The panel met every two weeks which , along with his responsibilities on the circuit court , kept Minton very busy and afforded him little rest , leading to a deterioration in his health . While yachting with President Truman on Memorial Day in 1945 , Truman asked Minton to accept an appointment to the position of Solicitor General of the United States . Minton declined because of his health , but he told Truman he would be interested in a seat on the Supreme Court .
In September 1945 , Minton suffered a heart attack while in Washington ; he was hospitalized for three months at Walter Reed Hospital . After returning to work , he was forced to rest regularly due to gradually worsening anemia , and he sought to lessen his workload . To further complicate his health , on August 5 , 1949 , Minton tripped over a stone in his yard and broke his leg . The injury forced him to walk with a cane for the remainder of his life .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Nomination and confirmation = = =
At a September 15 , 1949 , news conference , Truman announced Minton 's nomination to the Supreme Court , succeeding the deceased Justice Wiley Rutledge . Minton had already privately accepted the nomination several days earlier after a telephone conversation with Truman . Truman touted Minton 's extensive law education and his years of experience on the circuit courts as the reason for his nomination .
News of Minton 's appointment received mixed reviews nationally . The New York Times said that Truman had allowed personal and political friendship to influence his choice . The New Republic said " the President is again reverting to his deplorable habit of choosing men for high post because they happen to be his friends ... " . The Washington Post raised questions about Minton 's ability to be confirmed by the Senate due to the power many of his foes held in the body . The Indianapolis Star offered a more sympathetic opinion , pointing out Minton 's qualifications and the pride Indiana could take in having a native on the Supreme Court . The article noted that he would be the most educated justice on the court , should he be confirmed .
Indiana Senator William E. Jenner led opponents of Minton 's nomination , including some of Minton 's old foes , in an attempt to bring him before the body for hearings . Minton wrote a letter to the Senate Judicial Committee answering several of their questions , but refused to submit himself to a hearing . He mentioned his broken leg and hinted in his letter that it could be detrimental to his health to travel in his condition . He also stated that , as a sitting judge and former member of the Senate , it would be improper for him submit to a hearing . Although hearings had occurred irregularly in the past , it was not customary at that time to have a hearing on a nominee . During an absence of Jenners , Minton 's allies worked to have the hearing request dropped and the Judicial Committee sent the measure to the full Senate in a vote of 9 to 2 . Senator Homer Ferguson attempted to have the nomination returned to committee but the motion failed , 45 – 21 . The long debate over Minton 's appointment focused on his partisanship , support of the court packing plan during his time in the Senate , and poor health . His opponents launched numerous delaying tactics ; the Senate session before the vote to confirm Minton lasted until midnight . His confirmation was approved 48 – 16 on October 3 . To date , Minton remains the last member of Congress , sitting or former , to be appointed to the United States Supreme Court , and he is the only native of Indiana to be appointed to the court .
= = = Judicial restraint = = =
Minton 's central judicial philosophy was to ascertain and uphold the original intent of legislation . He continued to take a broad view of governmental powers , demonstrated in his dissenting opinion in the case of Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer , which ruled unconstitutional President Truman 's wartime seizure of several steel mills to avert a workers ' strike . Of all the cases in which Minton was involved , he disagreed most with the Youngstown decision and " went into a tirade " during the conference where the decision was made . He argued that there " could be no vacant spot in power when the security of the nation is at stake . " Despite his strong protest , he could not influence the Court to permit the president to seize the plants without congressional approval . Minton joined with Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Stanley Forman Reed in the dissenting opinion that the President had the authority through the war powers clause of the constitution .
Minton abhorred racial segregation and provided a solid vote to strike down the school segregation practices at issue in 1954 's landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education ; it was among the few decisions in which he sided against the government . According to William Radcliff , the majority opinion authored by Minton in the 1953 case Barrows v. Jackson was his most skillfully written opinion . He framed the complex question of the case as : " Can a racially restrictive covenant be enforced at law by a suit for damages against a co @-@ covenantor who allegedly broke the covenant ? " The Court decided the answer in the negative .
In the area of civil liberties , Minton adhered to the doctrine of " fundamental fairness " , a test established by the Supreme Court in 1937 . In one decision , Minton stated that the right of free speech was not an absolute right , and could be regulated so as not to violate the rights of others . In United States v. Rabinowitz , Minton wrote the Court 's opinion upholding a lower court ruling which allowed police to search automobiles without a warrant , provided there was probable cause to justify the search .
Minton voted to uphold anticommunist legislation during the period of the " red scare " , siding with the majority in 1951 's Dennis v. United States , which upheld the conviction of the leader of the US Communist Party . During the same period , the Court was split over the legality of governmental loyalty tests . Many agencies had programs in place to ensure that members of the government were not communists . Minton 's vote proved to be the deciding factor in cases regarding loyalty tests . In the case of Bailey v. Richardson , Minton 's vote upheld the legality of the loyalty tests , while in the decision he authored in the case of Joint Anti @-@ Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath , he voted to uphold the plaintiff 's position that he had been terminated illegally because of his support of fascist ideology . Minton 's position gradually shifted to allowing the loyalty tests to take place , and in Adler v. Board of Ed. of City of New York he wrote the majority opinion allowing the tests and upholding New York 's Feinberg Law . This proved to be the most important vote as it allowed the tests to be given with only minimal suspicion of a person 's disloyalty to the government .
Because of Minton 's previous Congressional partisanship , many liberals believed he would support their positions when on the Court . Throughout his tenure , Minton regularly disappointed them , leading many to rail against him . A lawyer writing for the New Jersey Law Journal labeled Minton a " spokesman against freedom " , calling him " a man of conspicuous judicial shortcomings , whose votes against civil liberties exceeded those of any other man on the Court , and who wrote comparatively few opinions of other kinds . " Linda Gugin pointed out that Minton was a disappointment to liberals because he consistently chose order over freedom . Gugin also concludes that Minton had the strongest commitment to judicial restraint and ideological neutrality of any justice , past or present .
= = = Politics = = =
Although Minton was on the Supreme Court , he remained casually involved in Democratic internal politics . He wrote Truman several letters criticizing Justices Robert H. Jackson and Hugo Black , referring to Black as a demagogue . He also offered advice on dealing with Republican opposition in the Senate . In a 1954 letter , after Truman left office , he urged Truman to help focus public attention on the economy and away from communism , a threat he claimed the Republicans were exaggerating to avoid confronting their own problems .
After Truman 's withdrawal from the 1952 presidential campaign , Minton made remarks indicating he had advised Truman to stay out of the contested New Hampshire primary election to begin with . In August 1956 , a reporter asked Minton about his preferred candidate in the upcoming presidential election . Minton answered , " I have great confidence in Adlai Stevenson . " He also remarked that Dwight D. Eisenhower was politically handicapped . Minton was lambasted in the media for his endorsement , which he attempted to retract a few days later after being advised to do so by other members of the Court .
= = = Regular dissenter = = =
Truman 's other appointees to the Court provided consistent conservative votes , and during Minton 's first years on the Court it was returned to the conservatism of the William Howard Taft era . While on the Court , Minton transformed from a New Deal senator into an almost reactionary judge as an ally of Justice Felix Frankfurter . Empirical coding of votes shows that Minton was the most conservative justice on the Court during his first year , and remained in the conservative half of the court for the duration of his career .
Minton did not enjoy the limited influence of his judicial role in the later years of his term , when he was more frequently in the minority in voting on cases . After the deaths of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Robert Jackson , Minton found himself with little support for many of his opinions , which led him to begin considering retirement .
The shifting position of the Court led to personal animosity between members of its two wings . Despite his disappointment over the Court 's positions on some issues , Minton remained popular among his colleagues on the Court as he didn 't take sides in their personal disagreements ; he proved a soothing presence during a period marked by bitter personal feuds between strong personalities such as William O. Douglas and Felix Frankfurter .
Minton informed Eisenhower of his intention to retire in a letter on September 7 , 1956 , in which he dryly stated his retirement was authorized by law . Eisenhower responded with a brief note wishing him a happy retirement . Although he did not tell the president , Minton informed the members of the Court that his duties were too taxing on his health . His anemia had steadily worsened , slowing him physically and mentally . Minton served as a Justice until October 15 , 1956 , retiring after 7 years and 3 days of service . He was succeeded by William J. Brennan , Jr .
= = Later life = =
= = = Retirement = = =
Announcing his departure , Minton remarked , " There will be more interest in who will succeed me than in my passing . I 'm an echo . " Despite the health difficulties , Minton regretted his decision almost immediately .
Minton returned to his New Albany home , where he took a much lighter workload . He gave occasional lectures at Indiana University and continued to give public speeches from time to time . For several years after retiring from the Supreme Court , Minton occasionally accepted assignments to serve temporarily on one of the lower federal courts . He received an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Louisville . He took many trips around the United States , and two trips to Europe . In England , he received an honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1956 .
Despite his failing health , Minton remained active in the Democratic Party . He was most concerned with President Eisenhower , who he believed was incompetent . He remained in regular correspondence with Truman , and the two met on several occasions at Democratic Party functions .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In late March 1965 , Minton was admitted to Floyd Memorial Hospital in New Albany , where it was found he was suffering internal bleeding . He died in his sleep early in the morning of April 9 . Minton 's wife was Catholic ; his funeral was held at Holy Trinity Catholic Church and was attended by many dignitaries , including several sitting members of the Supreme Court , the governors of Indiana and Kentucky , and several members of Congress . He was buried in the Holy Trinity Cemetery . Minton himself was nominally Catholic and had shunned Christianity for most of his life ; he only began to occasionally attend mass following his retirement . He left most of his personal papers and judicial records to the Truman Presidential Library .
Minton is the eponym of the Sherman Minton Bridge , which carries Interstate 64 across the Ohio River , connecting western Louisville , Kentucky with New Albany , Indiana . Minton attended the dedication of the bridge at a 1962 ceremony . He is also the namesake of the annual Sherman Minton Moot Court Competition , held at the Indiana University Maurer School of Law . He is also honored ( with Indiana Senator Homer E. Capehart ) — in the " Brutalist " style designed by Woollen , Molzan and Partners and with architectural art by Milton Glaser — in the centrally located Minton @-@ Capehart Federal Building on Indiana World War Memorial Plaza in Indianapolis . A bronze bust of Minton was created and put on display in the Indiana Statehouse .
While some writers like Linda Gugin and legal historian William Radcliff have given high praise to Minton 's logic in his written opinions , they point out that his positions had little long @-@ term impact . Other legal historians , like Bernard Schwartz , have more negative opinion of Minton 's judicial career . Schwartz wrote that Minton " was below mediocrity as a Justice . His opinions , relatively few for his tenure , are less than third rate , characterized by their cavalier approach to complicated issues . " Schwartz went on to say , " he ranks near the bottom of any list of Justices . " Most of the precedents Minton helped establish were overturned by the Warren Court in the years immediately following his retirement . In total he wrote sixty @-@ seven majority opinions along with several of the dissenting opinions . Gugin authored a work in rebuttal to Schwartz 's harsh critique , saying that Minton 's rulings were " predictable based on the principles of deference , precedent , and strict interpretation " ; she attributed his poor ranking to the bias of reviewers in favor of judicial activism .
Minton 's time on the court marked the end of a transitory period in the judiciary . Since Minton , justices have tended to serve increasingly longer terms on the court , which has had strong political science implications on the Supreme Court . The growing concept of judicial non @-@ partisanship became the norm in American politics after Minton — he was the last member of Congress of be appointed to the court . Linda Gugin and Professor James St. Clair have noted that the federal courts have lost a valuable point of view by not having experienced legislators among their ranks .
Minton played an important role behind the scenes of the Court as a peacemaker between its two opposing factions . These attempts to keep the peace led Justice Frankfurter to remark that while Minton would never be remembered as a great justice , he would be remembered as a great colleague by his fellow justices .
= = Electoral history = =
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= Tom Crean ( explorer ) =
Thomas " Tom " Crean ( Irish : Tomás Ó Croidheáin ; 25 February 1877 – 27 July 1938 ) , was an Irish seaman and Antarctic explorer from Annascaul in County Kerry . He was a member of three major expeditions to Antarctica during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Captain Scott 's 1911 – 13 Terra Nova Expedition . This saw the race to reach the South Pole lost to Roald Amundsen and ended in the deaths of Scott and his polar party . During this expedition , Crean 's 35 statute miles ( 56 km ) solo walk across the Ross Ice Shelf to save the life of Edward Evans led to him receiving the Albert Medal for Lifesaving .
Crean had left the family farm near Annascaul to enlist in the Royal Navy at the age of 15 . In 1901 , while serving on Ringarooma in New Zealand , he volunteered to join Scott 's 1901 – 04 Discovery Expedition to Antarctica , thus beginning his exploring career . After his Terra Nova experience , Crean 's third and final Antarctic venture was as second officer on Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , on Endurance . After Endurance became beset in the pack ice and sank , Crean and the ship 's company spent months drifting on the ice before a journey in boats to Elephant Island . He was a member of the crew which made an open boat journey of 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) from Elephant Island to South Georgia , to seek aid for the stranded party .
Crean 's contributions to these expeditions sealed his reputation as a polar explorer , and earned him a total of three Polar medals . After the Endurance expedition , he returned to the navy ; when his naval career ended in 1920 he moved back to County Kerry . In his home town of Annascaul , Crean and his wife Ellen opened a pub called The South Pole Inn , where he lived quietly and unobtrusively until his death in 1938 .
= = Early life and career = =
Thomas Crean ( generally known as Tom Crean ) was born on 25 Feb 1877 , in the farming area of Gurtuchrane near the village of Annascaul on Corca Dhuibhne in County Kerry , Ireland , to Patrick Crean and Catherine , née Courtney . One of ten children , he attended the local Brackluin Catholic school , leaving at the age of 12 to help on the family farm . At the age of 15 , Crean enlisted in the Royal Navy at the naval station in nearby Minard Inlet , possibly after an argument with his father . His enlistment as a boy second class is recorded in Royal Navy records on 10 July 1893 , 10 days before his 16th birthday ; lacking his parents ' consent , he probably lied about his age .
Crean 's initial naval apprenticeship was aboard the training ship Impregnable at Devonport . In November 1894 , he was transferred to Devastation . By his 18th birthday , in 1895 , Crean was serving in Royal Arthur , and rated ordinary seaman . Less than a year later , he was in Wild Swan as an able seaman , and later joined the Navy 's torpedo school ship , Defiance . By 1899 , Crean had advanced to the rate of petty officer , second class and was serving in Vivid .
In February 1900 , Crean was posted to the torpedo vessel Ringarooma , which was part of the Royal Navy 's New Zealand Squadron based in the South Island . On 18 December 1901 , he was demoted from petty officer to able seaman for an unspecified misdemeanour . In December 1901 , the Ringarooma was ordered to assist Robert Falcon Scott 's ship Discovery when it was docked at Lyttelton Harbour awaiting to departure to Antarctica . When an able seaman of Scott 's ship deserted after striking a petty officer , a replacement was required ; Crean volunteered , and was accepted .
= = Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 1904 = =
Discovery sailed for the Antarctic on 21 December 1901 , and seven weeks later , on 8 February 1902 , arrived in McMurdo Sound , where she anchored at a spot which was later designated " Hut Point " . Here the men established the base from which they would launch scientific and exploratory sledging journeys . Crean proved to be one of the most efficient man @-@ haulers in the party ; over the expedition as a whole , only seven of the 48 @-@ member party logged more time in harness than Crean 's 149 days . Crean had a good sense of humour and was well liked by his companions . Scott 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Albert Armitage , wrote in his book Two Years in the Antarctic that " Crean was an Irishman with a fund of wit and an even temper which nothing disturbed . "
Crean accompanied Lieutenant Michael Barne on three sledging trips across the Ross Ice Shelf , then known as the " Great Ice Barrier " . These included the 12 @-@ man party led by Barne which set out on 30 October 1902 to lay depots in support of the main southern journey undertaken by Scott , Shackleton and Edward Wilson . On 11 November the Barne party passed the previous furthest south mark , set by Carsten Borchgrevink in 1900 at 78 ° 50'S , a record which they held briefly until the southern party itself passed it on its way to an eventual 82 ° 17'S .
During the Antarctic winter of 1902 Discovery became locked in the ice . Efforts to free her during the summer of 1902 – 03 failed , and although some of the expedition 's members ( including Ernest Shackleton ) left in a relief ship , Crean and the majority of the party remained in the Antarctic until the ship was finally freed in February 1904 . After returning to regular naval duty , Crean was promoted to petty officer , first class , on Scott 's recommendation .
= = Between expeditions , 1904 – 10 = =
Crean came back to regular duty at the naval base at Chatham , Kent , serving first in Pembroke in 1904 and later transferring to the torpedo school on Vernon . Crean had caught Captain Scott 's attention with his attitude and work ethic on the Discovery Expedition , and in 1906 Scott requested that Crean join him on Victorious . Over the next few years Crean followed Scott successively to Albemarle , Essex and Bulwark . By 1907 , Scott was planning his second expedition to the Antarctic . Meanwhile , Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 09 , despite reaching a new furthest south record of 88 ° 23'S , had failed to reach the South Pole . Scott was with Crean when the news of Shackleton 's near miss became public ; it is recorded that Scott observed to Crean : " I think we 'd better have a shot next . "
= = Terra Nova Expedition , 1910 – 13 = =
Scott held Crean in high regard , so he was among the first people recruited for the Terra Nova Expedition , which set out for the Antarctic in June 1910 , and one of the few men in the party with previous polar experience . After the expedition 's arrival in McMurdo Sound in January 1911 , Crean was as part of the 13 @-@ man team who established " One Ton Depot " , 130 statute miles ( 210 km ) from Hut Point. so named because of the large amount of food and equipment cached there on the projected route to the South Pole . Returning from the depot to base camp at Cape Evans , Crean , accompanied by Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard and Henry " Birdie " Bowers , experienced near @-@ disaster when camping on unstable sea ice . During the night the ice broke up , leaving the men adrift on an ice floe and separated from their sledges . Crean probably saved the group 's lives , by leaping from floe to floe until he reached the Barrier edge and was able to summon help .
Crean departed with Scott in November 1911 , for the attempt at the South Pole . This journey had three stages : 400 statute miles ( 640 km ) across the Barrier , 120 statute miles ( 190 km ) up the heavily crevassed Beardmore Glacier to an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) above sea level , and then another 350 statute miles ( 560 km ) to the Pole . At regular intervals , supporting parties returned to base ; Crean was in the final group of eight men that marched on to the polar plateau and reached 87 ° 32'S , 168 statute miles ( 270 km ) from the pole . Here , on 4 January 1912 , Scott selected his final polar party : Crean , William Lashly and Edward Evans were ordered to return to base , while Scott , Edgar Evans , Edward Wilson , Bowers and Lawrence Oates continued to the pole . Crean 's biographer Michael Smith suggests that Crean would have been a better choice for the polar party than Edgar Evans , who was weakened by a recent hand injury ( of which Scott was unaware ) . Crean , considered one of the toughest men in the expedition , had led a pony across the Barrier and had thus been saved much of the hard labour of man @-@ hauling . Scott 's critical biographer Roland Huntford records that the surgeon Edward L Atkinson , who had accompanied the southern party to the top of the Beardmore , had recommended either Lashly or Crean for the polar party rather than Edgar Evans . Scott in his diary recorded that Crean wept with disappointment at the prospect of having to turn back , so close to the goal .
Soon after heading north on the 700 @-@ statute @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) journey back to base camp , Crean 's party lost the trail back to the Beardmore Glacier , and were faced with a long detour around a large icefall . With food supplies short , and needing to reach their next supply depot , the group made the decision to slide on their sledge , uncontrolled , down the icefall . The three men slid 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 m ) , dodging crevasses up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide , and ending their descent by overturning on an ice ridge . Evans later wrote : " How we ever escaped entirely uninjured is beyond me to explain " .
The gamble at the icefall succeeded , and the men reached their depot two days later . However , they had great difficulty navigating down the glacier . Lashly wrote : " I cannot describe the maze we got into and the hairbreadth escapes we have had to pass through . " In his attempts to find the way down , Evans removed his goggles and subsequently suffered agonies of snow blindness that made him into a passenger . When the party was finally free of the glacier and on the level surface of the Barrier , Evans began to display the first symptoms of scurvy . By early February he was in great pain , his joints were swollen and discoloured , and he was passing blood . Through the efforts of Crean and Lashly the group struggled towards One Ton Depot , which they reached on 11 February . At this point Evans collapsed ; Crean thought he had died and , according to Evans 's account , " his hot tears fell on my face " .
With over 100 statute miles ( 160 km ) still to travel before the relative safety of Hut Point , Crean and Lashly began hauling Evans on the sledge , " eking out his life with the last few drops of brandy that they still had with them " . On 18 February they arrived at Corner Camp , still 35 statute miles ( 56 km ) from Hut Point , with only one or two days ' food rations left and still four or five days ' man @-@ hauling to do . They then decided that Crean should go on alone , to fetch help . With only a little chocolate and three biscuits to sustain him , without a tent or survival equipment , Crean walked the distance to Hut Point in 18 hours , arriving in a state of collapse to find Atkinson there , with the dog driver Dmtri Gerov . Crean reached safety just ahead of a fierce blizzard , which probably would have killed him , and which delayed the rescue party by a day and a half . Atkinson led a successful rescue , and Lashly and Evans were both brought to base camp alive . Crean modestly played down the significance of his feat of endurance . In a rare written account , he wrote in a letter : " So it fell to my lot to do the 30 miles for help , and only a couple of biscuits and a stick of chocolate to do it . Well , sir , I was very weak when I reached the hut . "
Scott 's party failed to return . The winter of 1912 at Cape Evans was a sombre one , with the knowledge that the polar party had undoubtedly perished . Frank Debenham wrote that " in the winter it was once again Crean who was the mainstay for cheerfulness in the now depleted mess deck part of the hut . " In November 1912 , Crean was one of the 11 @-@ man search party that found the remains of the polar party . On 12 November they spotted a cairn of snow , which proved to be a tent against which the drift had piled up . It contained the bodies of Scott , Wilson , and Bowers . Crean later wrote , referring to Scott in understated fashion , that he had " lost a good friend " .
On 12 February 1913 Crean and the remaining crew of the Terra Nova arrived in Lyttelton , New Zealand , and shortly after returned to England . At Buckingham Palace the surviving members of the expedition were awarded Polar Medals by King George and Prince Louis of Battenberg , the First Sea Lord . Crean and Lashly were both awarded the Albert Medal , 2nd Class for saving Evans 's life , these were presented by the King at Buckingham Palace on 26 July 1913 . Crean was promoted to the rank of chief petty officer , retroactive to 9 September 1910 .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition ( Endurance Expedition ) , 1914 – 17 = =
Ernest Shackleton knew Crean well from the Discovery Expedition , and also knew of his exploits on Scott 's last expedition . Like Scott , Shackleton trusted Crean : he was worth , in Shackleton 's own word , " trumps " . Crean joined Shackleton 's Imperial Transantarctic Expedition on 25 May 1914 , as second officer , with a varied range of duties . In the absence of a Canadian dog @-@ handling expert who was hired but never appeared , Crean took charge of one of the dog @-@ handling teams , and was later involved in the care and nurture of the pups born to one of his dogs , Sally , early in the expedition .
On 19 January 1915 the expedition 's ship , the Endurance , was beset in the Weddell Sea pack ice . In the early efforts to free her , Crean narrowly escaped being crushed by a sudden movement in the ice . The ship drifted in the ice for months , eventually sinking on 21 November . Shackleton informed the men that they would drag the food , gear , and three lifeboats across the pack ice , to Snow Hill or Robertson Island , 200 statute miles ( 320 km ) away . Because of uneven ice conditions , pressure ridges , and the danger of ice breakup which could separate the men , they soon abandoned this plan : the men pitched camp and decided to wait . They hoped that the clockwise drift of the pack would carry them 400 statute miles ( 640 km ) to Paulet Island where they knew there was a hut with emergency supplies . But the pack ice held firm as it carried the men well past Paulet Island , and did not break up until 9 April . The crew then had to sail and row the three ill @-@ equipped lifeboats through the pack ice to Elephant Island , a trip which lasted five days . Crean and Hubert Hudson , the navigating officer of the Endurance , piloted their lifeboat with Crean effectively in charge as Hudson appeared to have suffered a breakdown .
On reaching Elephant Island , Crean was one of the " four fittest men " detailed by Shackleton to find a safe camping @-@ ground . Shackleton decided that , rather than waiting for a rescue ship that would probably never arrive , one of the lifeboats should be strengthened so that a crew could sail it to South Georgia and arrange a rescue . After the party was settled on a penguin rookery above the high @-@ water mark , a group of men led by ship 's carpenter Harry McNish began modifying one of the lifeboats — the James Caird — in preparation for this journey , which Shackleton would lead . Frank Wild , who would be in command of the party remaining on Elephant Island , wanted the dependable Crean to stay with him ; Shackleton initially agreed , but changed his mind after Crean begged to be included in the boat 's crew of six . The 800 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) boat journey to South Georgia , described by polar historian Caroline Alexander as one of the most extraordinary feats of seamanship and navigation in recorded history , took 17 days through gales and snow squalls , in seas which the navigator , Frank Worsley , described as a " mountainous westerly swell " . After setting off on 24 April 1916 with just the barest navigational equipment , they reached South Georgia on 10 May 1916 . Shackleton , in his later account of the journey , recalled Crean 's tuneless singing at the tiller : " He always sang when he was steering , and nobody ever discovered what the song was ... but somehow it was cheerful " .
The party made its South Georgia landfall on the uninhabited southern coast , having decided that the risk of aiming directly for the whaling stations on the north side was too great ; if they missed the island to the north they would be swept out into the Atlantic Ocean . The original plan was to work the James Caird around the coast , but the boat 's rudder had broken off after their initial landing , and some of the party were , in Shackleton 's view , unfit for further travel . The three fittest men — Shackleton , Crean , and Worsley — were decided to trek 30 statute miles ( 48 km ) across the island 's glaciated surface , in a hazardous 36 @-@ hour journey to the nearest manned whaling station . This trek was the first recorded crossing of the mountainous island , completed without tents , sleeping bags , or map — their only mountaineering equipment was a carpenter 's adze , a length of alpine rope , and screws from the James Caird hammered through their boots to serve as crampons . They arrived at the whaling station at Stromness , tired and dirty , hair long and matted , faces blackened by months of cooking by blubber stoves — " the world 's dirtiest men " , according to Worsley . They quickly organized a boat to pick up the three on the other side of South Georgia , but thereafter it took Shackleton three months and four attempts by ship to rescue the other 22 men still on Elephant Island .
= = Later life = =
After returning to Britain in November 1916 , Crean resumed naval duties . On 15 December 1916 he was promoted to the rank of warrant officer ( as a boatswain ) , in recognition of his service on the Endurance , and was awarded his third Polar Medal . On 5 September 1917 Crean married Ellen Herlihy of Annascaul .
In early 1920 , Shackleton was organising another Antarctic expedition , later to be known as the Shackleton @-@ Rowett Expedition . He invited Crean to join him , along with other officers from the Endurance . By this time , however , Crean 's second daughter had arrived , and he had plans to open a business following his naval career . He turned down Shackleton 's invitation .
On his last naval assignment , with Hecla , Crean suffered a bad fall which caused lasting effects to his vision . As a result , he was retired on medical grounds on 24 March 1920 . He and Ellen opened a small public house in Annascaul , which he called The South Pole Inn . The couple had three daughters , Mary , Kate , and Eileen , although Kate died when she was four years old .
Throughout his life , Crean remained an extremely modest man . When he returned to Kerry , he put all of his medals away and never again spoke about his experiences in the Antarctic . Indeed , there is no reliable evidence of Crean giving any interviews to the press . It has been speculated that this may have been because Kerry had long been a centre for Irish republicanism , and it would have been inappropriate for an Irishman to speak of his achievements on polar expeditions organised by a once occupying power . In fact , Crean and his family were once the victims of a Black and Tan raid during the War of Independence . The raiders ransacked his property and the Creans felt threatened until the Black and Tans happened across a framed photo of Crean in Royal Navy dress uniform and medals . They then left his inn .
Crean 's older brother was Cornelius Crean , a sergeant in the Royal Irish Constabulary ( RIC ) . Cornelius was based in West Cork , where he served with the RIC during the War of Independence . Sgt. Crean was killed during an IRA ambush near Upton in West Cork on 25 April 1920 .
In 1938 Crean became ill with a burst appendix . He was taken to the nearest hospital in Tralee , but as no surgeon was available to operate , he was transferred to the Bon Secours Hospital in Cork where his appendix was removed . Because the operation had been delayed , an infection developed , and after a week in the hospital he died on 27 July 1938 , shortly after his sixty @-@ first birthday . He was buried in his family 's tomb at the cemetery in Ballynacourty .
Crean is commemorated in at least two place names : Mount Crean 8 @,@ 630 feet ( 2 @,@ 630 m ) in Victoria Land , and the Crean Glacier on South Georgia . A one @-@ man play , Tom Crean – Antarctic Explorer , has been widely performed since 2001 by its author Aidan Dooley , including a special showing at the South Pole Inn , Annascaul , in October 2001 . Present were Crean 's daughters , Eileen and Mary , both in their 80s . Apparently he never told them his stories ; according to Eileen : " He put his medals and his sword in a box ... and that was that . He was a very humble man " .
In July 2003 , a bronze statue of Crean was unveiled across from his pub in Annascaul . It depicts him leaning against a crate whilst holding a pair of hiking poles in one hand and two of " his " beloved sled dog pups in the other .
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= FIFA World Cup =
The FIFA World Cup , often simply called the World Cup , is an international association football competition contested by the senior men 's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) , the sport 's global governing body . The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930 , except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War . The current champion is Germany , which won its fourth title at the 2014 tournament in Brazil .
The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase , which currently takes place over the preceding three years , to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase , which is often called the World Cup Finals . 32 teams , including the automatically qualifying host nation ( s ) , compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation ( s ) over a period of about a month .
The 20 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams . Brazil have won five times , and they are the only team to have played in every tournament . The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy , with four titles each ; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay , with two titles each ; and England , France and Spain , with one title each .
The World Cup is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world , exceeding even the Olympic Games ; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup was estimated to be 26 @.@ 29 billion with an estimated 715 @.@ 1 million people watching the final match , a ninth of the entire population of the planet .
= = History = =
= = = Previous international competitions = = =
The world 's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England , which ended in a 0 – 0 draw . The first international tournament , the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship , took place in 1884 . As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the 20th century , it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics ( however , the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events ) , and at the 1906 Intercalated Games .
After FIFA was founded in 1904 , it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906 . These were very early days for international football , and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure .
At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , football became an official competition . Planned by The Football Association ( FA ) , England 's football governing body , the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition . Great Britain ( represented by the England national amateur football team ) won the gold medals . They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm .
With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams , Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909 . The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs ( not national teams ) from different nations , each one of which represented an entire nation . The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup , and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy , Germany and Switzerland , but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team . Lipton invited West Auckland , an amateur side from County Durham , to represent England instead . West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title .
In 1914 , FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a " world football championship for amateurs " , and took responsibility for managing the event . This paved the way for the world 's first intercontinental football competition , at the 1920 Summer Olympics , contested by Egypt and 13 European teams , and won by Belgium . Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928 . Those were also the first two open world championships , as 1924 was the start of FIFA 's professional era .
= = = World Cups before World War II = = =
Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments , FIFA , with President Jules Rimet as the driving force , again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics . On 28 May 1928 , the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself . With Uruguay now two @-@ time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930 , FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament .
The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team , but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides . Indeed , no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition . Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium , France , Romania , and Yugoslavia to make the trip . In total , 13 nations took part : seven from South America , four from Europe and two from North America .
The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930 , and were won by France and USA , who defeated Mexico 4 – 1 and Belgium 3 – 0 respectively . The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France . In the final , Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 – 2 in front of a crowd of 93 @,@ 000 people in Montevideo , and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup .
After the creation of the World Cup , the 1932 Summer Olympics , held in Los Angeles , did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States , as American football had been growing in popularity . FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players , and so football was dropped from the Games . Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics , but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup .
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel , and war . Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments , with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both . The 1942 and 1946 competitions , which Nazi Germany and Brazil sought to host , were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath .
= = = World Cups after World War II = = =
The 1950 World Cup , held in Brazil , was the first to include British participants . British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920 , partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with , and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football , but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA 's invitation . The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay , who had boycotted the previous two World Cups . Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil , in the match called " Maracanazo " ( Portuguese : Maracanaço ) .
In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978 , 16 teams competed in each tournament , except in 1938 , when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying , leaving the tournament with 15 teams , and in 1950 , when India , Scotland , and Turkey withdrew , leaving the tournament with 13 teams . Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America , with a small minority from North America , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams . Until 1982 , the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were : USA , semi @-@ finalists in 1930 ; Cuba , quarter @-@ finalists in 1938 ; North Korea , quarter @-@ finalists in 1966 ; and Mexico , quarter @-@ finalists in 1970 .
= = = Expansion to 32 teams = = =
The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982 , and then to 32 in 1998 , also allowing more teams from Africa , Asia and North America to take part . Since then , teams from these regions have enjoyed more success , with several having reached the quarter @-@ finals : Mexico , quarter @-@ finalists in 1986 ; Cameroon , quarter @-@ finalists in 1990 ; South Korea , finishing in fourth place in 2002 ; Senegal , along with USA , both quarter @-@ finalists in 2002 ; Ghana , quarter @-@ finalists in 2010 ; and Costa Rica , quarter @-@ finalists in 2014 . Nevertheless , European and South American teams continue to dominate , e.g. , the quarter @-@ finalists in 1994 , 1998 , and 2006 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far .
Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds ; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup .
= = = Possible expansion to 40 teams = = =
In October 2013 , Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union 's region a position in the World Cup . In the 25 October 2013 edition of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that : " From a purely sporting perspective , I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously , and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup . It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup . " Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re @-@ election to the FIFA Presidency .
Following the magazine 's publication , Blatter 's would @-@ be opponent for the FIFA Presidency , UEFA President Michel Platini responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations , increasing the number of participants by eight . Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA , two to Asia Football Confederation and Confederation of African Football , two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL , and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation . Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup . He said : " [ The World Cup is ] not based on the quality of the teams because you don 't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it 's a good compromise . ... It 's a political matter so why not have more Africans ? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world . If you don 't give the possibility to participate , they don 't improve . "
In 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 40 @-@ team World Cup in 2026 .
= = = 2015 FIFA corruption case = = =
By May 2015 , the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case , allegations and criminal charges of bribery , fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights ( rigged bids ) for FIFA games , with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $ 150 million over 24 years . In late May , the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47 @-@ count indictment with charges of racketeering , wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people . Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time , particularly on May 29 and December 3 .
By the end of May 2015 , a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption . At the time , FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016 .
On 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co @-@ operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African , 1998 and 2010 World Cups .
On 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter .
Also , on 10 June 2015 FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments . Then @-@ secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated , " Due to the situation , I think it 's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being . "
On 28 October 2015 , Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini , a potential candidate for presidency , were suspended for 90 days ; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media .
On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice @-@ presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May . An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day .
= = = Other FIFA tournaments = = =
An equivalent tournament for women 's football , the FIFA Women 's World Cup , was first held in 1991 in China . The women 's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men 's , but is growing ; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120 , more than double that of 1991 .
Football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932 . Unlike many other sports , the men 's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top @-@ level tournament , and since 1992 , an under @-@ 23 tournament with each team allowed three over @-@ age players . Women 's football made its Olympic debut in 1996 , and is contested between full national sides with no age restrictions .
The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation ( s ) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup . It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships , along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country .
FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football ( FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup , FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup ) , club football ( FIFA Club World Cup ) , and football variants such as futsal ( FIFA Futsal World Cup ) and beach soccer ( FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup ) . The latter three do not have a women 's version , although a FIFA Women 's Club World Cup is planned for 2017 .
When the U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup is held the year before the Women 's World Cup , both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process . The U @-@ 20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition , the same role as the Confederations Cup plays in the men 's game .
= = Trophy = =
From 1930 to 1970 , the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team . It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde , but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament . In 1970 , Brazil 's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently . However , the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered , apparently melted down by the thieves .
After 1970 , a new trophy , known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy , was designed . The experts of FIFA , coming from seven countries , evaluated the 53 presented models , finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga . The new trophy is 36 cm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) high , made of solid 18 carat ( 75 % ) gold and weighs 6 @.@ 175 kg ( 13 @.@ 6 lb ) . The base contains two layers of semi @-@ precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974 . The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was : " The lines spring out from the base , rising in spirals , stretching out to receive the world . From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory . "
This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently . World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post @-@ match celebration is finished . They are awarded a gold @-@ plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards .
Currently , all members ( players , coaches , and managers ) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy ; winners ' ( gold ) , runners @-@ up ' ( silver ) , and third @-@ place ( bronze ) . In the 2002 edition , fourth @-@ place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea . Before the 1978 tournament , medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third @-@ place match . In November 2007 , FIFA announced that all members of World Cup @-@ winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals .
= = Format = =
= = = Qualification = = =
Since the second World Cup in 1934 , qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament . They are held within the six FIFA continental zones ( Africa , Asia , North and Central America and Caribbean , South America , Oceania , and Europe ) , overseen by their respective confederations . For each tournament , FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand , generally based on the relative strength of the confederations ' teams .
The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two @-@ year period . The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations . Usually , one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play @-@ offs . For example , the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth @-@ placed team from the Asian zone entered a play @-@ off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup . From the 1938 World Cup onwards , host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament . This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002 , but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward , requiring the champions to qualify . Brazil , winners in 2002 , were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches .
= = = Final tournament = = =
The current final tournament has been used since 1998 and features 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nation ( s ) . There are two stages : the group stage followed by the knockout stage .
In the group stage , teams compete within eight groups of four teams each . Eight teams are seeded , including the hosts , with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and / or performances in recent World Cups , and drawn to separate groups . The other teams are assigned to different " pots " , usually based on geographical criteria , and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups . Since 1998 , constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation .
Each group plays a round @-@ robin tournament , in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group . This means that a total of six matches are played within a group . The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams . The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage . Points are used to rank the teams within a group . Since 1994 , three points have been awarded for a win , one for a draw and none for a loss ( before , winners received two points ) .
If one considers all possible outcomes ( win , draw , loss ) for all six matches in a group , there are 729 ( = 36 ) different outcome combinations possible . However a certain number ( 207 ) of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places . In such case , the ranking among these teams is determined as follows :
Greatest combined goal difference in all group matches
Greatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches
If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria , their ranking will be determined as follows :
Greatest number of points in head @-@ to @-@ head matches among those teams
Greatest goal difference in head @-@ to @-@ head matches among those teams
Greatest number of goals scored in head @-@ to @-@ head matches among those teams
If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria , their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots
The knockout stage is a single @-@ elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one @-@ off matches , with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary . It begins with the round of 16 ( or the second round ) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner @-@ up of another group . This is followed by the quarter @-@ finals , the semi @-@ finals , the third @-@ place match ( contested by the losing semi @-@ finalists ) , and the final .
= = Hosts = =
= = = Selection process = = =
Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress . The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat . The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay , for example , led to only four European nations competing . The next two World Cups were both held in Europe . The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed , as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents . Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup .
Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup , to avoid future boycotts or controversy , FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe , which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup . The 2002 FIFA World Cup , hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan , was the first one held in Asia , and the only tournament with multiple hosts . South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010 . The 2014 FIFA World Cup is hosted by Brazil , the first held in South America since Argentina 1978 , and is the first occasion where consecutive World Cups are held outside Europe .
The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Executive Committee . This is done under an exhaustive ballot system . The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a " Hosting Agreement " from FIFA , which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid . The bidding association also receives a form , the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy . After this , a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced . The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament . However , there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time , as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups , which were awarded to Russia and Qatar respectively .
For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups , the final tournament is rotated between confederations , allowing only countries from the chosen confederation ( Africa in 2010 , South America in 2014 ) to bid to host the tournament . The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany 's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament . However , the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014 , so any country , except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments , can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018 . This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament , where Brazil was the only official bidder .
= = Performances = =
Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland , the exceptions being Brazil , who finished as runners @-@ up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semifinal against Germany in 2014 , and Spain , which reached the second round on home soil in 1982 . England ( 1966 ) and France ( 1998 ) won their only titles while playing as host nations . Uruguay ( 1930 ) , Italy ( 1934 ) and Argentina ( 1978 ) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again , while Germany ( 1974 ) won their second title on home soil .
Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament . Switzerland ( quarter @-@ finals 1954 ) , Sweden ( runners @-@ up in 1958 ) , Chile ( third place in 1962 ) , South Korea ( fourth place in 2002 ) , and Mexico ( quarter @-@ finals in 1970 and 1986 ) all have their best results when serving as hosts . So far , South Africa ( 2010 ) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round .
= = Attendance = =
• QF |
= Quarter @-@ Finals ( top 8 ) ; Group =
did not advance beyond first round ( group play )
[ Solna borders Stockholm , Pasadena borders Los Angeles and Saint @-@ Denis is a suburb of Paris . ]
The best @-@ attended single match , shown in the last two columns , has been the final in only about half of the twenty World Cup series so far . Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1938 , 1954 , 1966 – 1982 , 1990 and 2006 .
Source : FIFA
= = Broadcasting and promotion = =
The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world . The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26 @.@ 29 billion . 715 @.@ 1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament ( a ninth of the entire population of the planet ) . The 2006 World Cup draw , which decided the distribution of teams into groups , was watched by 300 million viewers . The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca @-@ Cola , McDonald 's and Adidas . For these companies and many more , being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands . Host countries typically experience a multimillion @-@ dollar revenue increase from the month @-@ long event . It is predicted that Brazil will bring in more than $ 11 billion in revenue for the 2014 World Cup .
Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo . World Cup Willie , the mascot for the 1966 competition , was the first World Cup mascot . Recent World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each World Cup .
The World Cup even has a statistically significant effect on birth rates , the male / female sex ratio of newborns , and heart attacks in nations whose national teams are competing . Hosting the World Cup or a home team 's win tends to increase male births and total birth rate , and heart attacks are more common when home teams are on the field .
= = Results = =
a.e.t. : after extra time
p : after penalty shoot @-@ out
Notes
In all , 77 nations have played in at least one World Cup . Of these , eight national teams have won the World Cup , and they have added stars to their badges , with each star representing a World Cup victory . ( Uruguay , however , choose to display four stars on their badge , representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950 . )
With five titles , Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup ( 20 ) to date . Italy ( 1934 and 1938 ) and Brazil ( 1958 and 1962 ) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles . West Germany ( 1982 – 1990 ) and Brazil ( 1994 – 2002 ) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals . Germany has made the most top @-@ four finishes ( 13 ) , medals ( 12 ) , as well as the most finals ( 8 ) .
= = = Teams reaching the top four = = =
= = = Best performances by continental zones = = =
To date , the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA ( Europe ) and CONMEBOL ( South America ) confederations . European nations have won eleven titles , while South American have won nine . Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi @-@ finals of the competition : USA ( North , Central America and Caribbean ) in 1930 and South Korea ( Asia ) in 2002 . The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter @-@ finals : Cameroon in 1990 , Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010 . Only one Oceanian qualifier , Australia in 2006 , has advanced to the second round .
Brazil , Argentina , Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation ; Brazil came out victorious in Europe ( 1958 ) , North America ( 1970 and 1994 ) and Asia ( 2002 ) , Argentina won a North American World Cup in 1986 , while Spain won an Africa in 2010 . Germany was the first European team to win in South America in 2014 . Only on four occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent , and currently it is the first time with three champions in a row from the same continental confederation . Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively , while Italy 's triumph in 2006 has been followed by Spain 's in 2010 and Germany 's in 2014 . Currently , it is also the first time that one of the currently winning continents ( Europe ) is ahead of the other ( South America ) with two championships .
= = Awards = =
At the end of each World Cup , awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament . There are currently six awards :
The Golden Ball for the best player , determined by a vote of media members ( first awarded in 1982 ) ; the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively ;
The Golden Boot ( sometimes called the Golden Shoe ) for the top goalscorer ( first awarded in 1982 , but retrospectively applied to all tournaments from 1930 ) ; most recently , the Silver Boot and the Bronze Boot have been awarded to the second and third top goalscorers respectively ;
The Golden Glove Award ( formerly the Yashin Award ) for the best goalkeeper , decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group ( first awarded in 1994 ) ;
The Best Young Player Award for the best player aged 21 or younger at the start of the calendar year , decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group ( first awarded in 2006 ) ;
The FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team with the best record of fair play , according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee ( first awarded in 1978 ) ;
The Most Entertaining Team for the team that has entertained the public the most during the World Cup , determined by a poll of the general public ( first awarded in 1994 ) ;
An All @-@ Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1998 .
= = Records and statistics = =
Two players share the record for playing in the most World Cups ; Mexico 's Antonio Carbajal ( 1950 – 1966 ) and Germany 's Lothar Matthäus ( 1982 – 1998 ) both played in five tournaments . Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall , with 25 appearances . Brazil 's Djalma Santos ( 1954 – 1962 ) , West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer ( 1966 – 1974 ) and Germany 's Philipp Lahm ( 2006 – 2014 ) are the only players to be named to three Finals All @-@ Star Teams .
Miroslav Klose of Germany ( 2002 – 2014 ) is the all @-@ time top scorer at the finals , with 16 goals . He broke Ronaldo of Brazil 's record of 15 goals ( 1998 – 2006 ) during 2014 semi @-@ final match against Brazil . West Germany 's Gerd Müller ( 1970 – 1974 ) is third , with 14 goals . The fourth placed goalscorer , France 's Just Fontaine , holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup ; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament .
In November 2007 , FIFA announced that all members of World Cup @-@ winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals . This made Brazil 's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners ' medals ( 1958 , 1962 , and 1970 , although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury ) , with 20 other players who have won two winners ' medals . Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals ( winners ' , runner- ups ' , and third @-@ place ) ; five players were from West Germany 's squad of 1966 – 1974 including Franz Beckenbauer , Jürgen Grabowski , Horst @-@ Dieter Höttges , Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath ( 1966 – 1974 ) , Italy 's Franco Baresi ( 1982 , 1990 , 1994 ) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany ( 2002 – 2014 ) with four consecutive medals .
Brazil 's Mário Zagallo and West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach . Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach . Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach . Italy 's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups ( 1934 and 1938 ) . All World Cup winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory .
Among the national teams , Germany has played the most World Cup matches ( 106 ) and appeared in the most finals ( 8 ) , semi @-@ finals ( 13 ) , quarter @-@ finals ( 16 ) as well as scoring the most World Cup goals ( 224 ) , while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups ( 20 ) . The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup , in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi @-@ final .
= = = Top goalscorers = = =
= = = All @-@ time table for champions = = =
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= Typhoon Brian ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Brian was the first in a series of tropical cyclones to impact southern China and northern Vietnam in October 1989 . Originating from an area of low pressure associated with a monsoon trough in late @-@ September , Brian quickly organized into a tropical storm over the South China Sea on September 30 . Tracking along a general west @-@ southwest to westerly course , the storm attained typhoon status on October 1 before making landfall along the southern coast of Hainan Island the following day . Slight weakening occurred during Brian 's brief passage of Hainan Island before the system entered the Gulf of Tonkin . The storm ultimately struck Vietnam on October 3 before dissipating the next day over Laos .
Across Hainan Island , Brian caused extensive damage to property and infrastructure . Nearly 185 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed by the storm 's high winds or flash flooding . Communications were severely disrupted as 2 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ) of power and telephone lines were downed . Brian killed 40 people and inflicted 837 million Renminbi ( US $ 222 million ) in damage throughout Hainan before impacting Vietnam and causing further damage . Significant losses were reported in Vietnam as well ; however , the rapid succession of Brian and two other typhoons made it difficult to differentiate the losses caused by each storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late September 1989 , an active monsoon trough over the South China Sea spawned a tropical disturbance near northern Luzon . By September 28 , a broad band of convection associated with a weak area of low pressure developed within the trough . Later that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . Aided by a well @-@ defined anticyclone , the low quickly organized , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Initially steered westward by a subtropical ridge , the depression became quasi @-@ stationary on September 30 about 360 km ( 225 mi ) southeast of Hong Kong as the ridge weakened . Shortly after the system stalled , the JTWC also began warning on it as a tropical depression .
Following a reintensification of the ridge later on September 30 , the depression resumed a west @-@ southwesterly track . During this time , the depression attained tropical storm status and was given the name Brian by the JTWC . Over the following 24 hours , Brian continued to intensify and ultimately reached typhoon strength late on October 1 . After developing a large eye , Brian reached its peak intensity on October 2 with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ; one @-@ minute sustained ) . The JMA also classified Brian as a typhoon around this time , estimating the storm to have attained peak ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) as well as a minimum pressure of 970 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Now tracking due west , the typhoon moved towards Hainan Island and ultimately made landfall along the southeastern coast of the island around 1500 UTC .
Only slight weakening took place as the typhoon skirted along the southern coast of Hainan Island . By October 3 , Brian had entered the Gulf of Tonkin and struck Vietnam later that day near Vinh with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 km / h ) . Rapid dissipation ensued once onshore and Brian eventually dissipated on October 4 over the mountainous terrain of Laos .
= = Impact = =
Striking Hainan Island as a strong typhoon , Brian caused widespread wind damage in the region . Approximately 700 km ( 430 mi ) of power lines and 2 @,@ 100 km ( 1 @,@ 300 mi ) of telephone lines were downed by the storm , severely disrupting communications . Many homes in southern areas of Hainan either collapsed or lost their roofs amidst hurricane @-@ force winds . About 15 @,@ 900 homes collapsed throughout the island and another 169 @,@ 000 were damaged . Over 25 million lumber and rubber trees were snapped or uprooted by the typhoon . Heavy rains accompanying the storm triggered significant flash flooding . Many rivers across the island overtopped their banks and inundated surrounding areas , including an estimated 194 @,@ 000 acres of rice paddies . Across Hainan , 40 people were killed and 529 others were injured by the storm . Losses throughout the region reached 837 million Renminbi ( US $ 222 million ) .
Although Hong Kong was not in the direct path of the storm , the Hong Kong Observatory issued storm signals on September 30 as high winds associated with the typhoon were expected to impact the city . On October 2 , the storm passed 270 km ( 170 mi ) south of the city . Wind gusts associated with the storm reached 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) on Waglan Island ; however , no damage was reported . Along the coast , a storm surge of 0 @.@ 62 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) occurred on Waglan .
Due to the severe damage caused by Typhoon Brian , the provincial flood control headquarters urged the Chinese Government to organize relief efforts at all levels . By October 8 , the Government of Hainan Island deployed two relief teams to the hardest hit areas . Additionally , 5 million Renminbi in aid was supplied to the region .
In Vietnam , heavy rains produced by the typhoon caused widespread flooding in northern provinces . Early assessments from the Vietnamese flood control committee indicated that 60 @,@ 000 hectares ( 148 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice fields were submerged and 6 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 400 short tons ) of grain were soaked . High winds also caused extensive damage . At least 29 @,@ 000 homes collapsed and 119 @,@ 000 others were left roofless . Additionally , 572 hospitals or clinics were damaged . Several fatalities were reported in the region ; however , they had yet to be verified by October 12 . Within two weeks of Brian 's passage , Typhoons Angela and Dan struck the country , causing further damage and loss of life . Due to the rapid succession of storms , losses resulting from the three typhoons are difficult to differentiate . Because of the widespread damage caused by the storms , the Vietnamese Government appealed for international assistance .
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= Nyala =
The nyala ( Tragelaphus angasii ) , also called inyala , is a spiral @-@ horned antelope native to southern Africa . It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Nyala , also considered to be in the genus Tragelaphus . It was first described in 1849 by George French Angas . The body length is 135 – 195 cm ( 53 – 77 in ) , and it weighs 55 – 140 kg ( 121 – 309 lb ) . The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles , but grows a dark brown or slate grey , often tinged with blue , in adult males . Females and young males have ten or more white stripes on their sides . Only males have horns , 60 – 83 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) long and yellow @-@ tipped . It exhibits the highest sexual dimorphism among the spiral @-@ horned antelopes .
The nyala is mainly active in the early morning and the late afternoon . It generally browses during the day if temperatures are 20 – 30 ° C ( 68 – 86 ° F ) and during the night in the rainy season . As a herbivore , the nyala feeds upon foliage , fruits and grasses , with sufficient fresh water . A shy animal , it prefers water holes rather than open spaces . The nyala does not show signs of territoriality , and individuals areas can overlap each others . They are very cautious creatures . Old males live alone , but single sex or mixed family groups of up to 10 individuals can be found . These inhabit thickets within dense and dry savanna woodlands . The main predators of the nyala are lion , leopard and Cape hunting dog , while baboons and raptorial birds hunt for the juveniles . Mating peaks during spring and autumn . Males and females are sexually mature at 18 and 11 – 12 months of age respectively , though they are socially immature until five years old . After a gestational period of seven months , a single calf is born .
The nyala 's range includes Malawi , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland , and Zimbabwe . It has been introduced to Botswana and Namibia , and reintroduced to Swaziland , where it had been extinct since the 1950s . Its population is stable and it has been listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . The principal threats to the species are poaching and habitat loss resulting from human settlement . The males are highly prized as game animals in Africa .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The nyala was first described by George French Angas , an English naturalist , in 1849 . The scientific name of nyala is Tragelaphus angasii . The name angasii is attributed to Angas , who said that Mr. Gray had named this species after Angas ' father , George Fife Angas , Esq. of South Australia . But , according to Article 50 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature , this is insufficient to state Gray as the author . The name " nyala " is the Swahili name for this antelope , which itself comes from the Zulu " inyala " . Its first known use was in 1899 . The word has a Bantu origin , similar to the Venda word dzì @-@ nyálà ( nyala buck ) .
The nyala is the second taxon to branch off from the tragelaphine family tree just after the lesser kudu . As the nyala line has remained separate for a considerable amount of time ( over 5 million years ) , it has now been placed in its own monotypic genus Nyala . Nyala was proposed in 1912 by American zoologist Edmund Heller , the one who had also proposed Ammelaphus ( lesser kudu ) . but not widely recognized , and was only re @-@ established as a valid genus in 2011 by Peter Grubb and Colin Groves . While Nyala is the accepted genus , it is still considered as a species of Tragelaphus .
In 2005 , Sandi Willows @-@ Munro ( of the University of KwaZulu @-@ Natal ) and colleagues carried out a mitochondrial analysis of the nine Tragelaphus species. mtDNA and nDNA data were compared . The results showed that the tribe Tragelaphini is monophyletic with the lesser kudu ( T. imberbis ) basal in the phylogeny , followed by the nyala . On the basis of mitochondrial data , studies have estimated that the lesser kudu separated from its sister clade around 13 @.@ 7 million years ago . On the other hand , the nuclear data shows that lesser kudu and nyala form a clade , and collectively separated from the sister clade 13 @.@ 8 million years ago .
= = = Genetics and evolution = = =
The nyala has 55 male chromosomes and 56 female chromosomes . The Y chromosome has been translocated onto the 14th chromosome , as in other tragelaphids , but no inversion of the Y chromosome occurs . Cranial studies have shown that the mountain nyala and nyala , though sharing a common name , are actually distant relatives .
Fossil evidence suggests that the nyala has been a separate species since the end of the Miocene ( 5 @.@ 8 million years ago ) . Genetic evidence suggests that the proto @-@ nyala had some early hybridization with the proto @-@ lesser kudu , but the two have remained separate long after this crossing .
= = Physical description = =
The nyala is a spiral @-@ horned and middle @-@ sized antelope , between a bushbuck and a kudu . It is considered the most sexually dimorphic antelope . The nyala is typically between 135 – 195 cm ( 53 – 77 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length . The male stands up to 110 cm ( 43 in ) , the female is up to 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) tall . Males weigh 98 – 125 kg ( 216 – 276 lb ) , while females weigh 55 – 68 kg ( 121 – 150 lb ) . Life expectancy of the nyala is about 19 years .
The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles . But it grows a dark brown or slate grey in adult males , often with a bluish tinge . Females and young males have ten or more white vertical stripes on their sides . Other markings are visible on the face , throat , flanks and thighs . Stripes are very reduced or absent in older males . Both males and females have a white chevron between their eyes , and a 40 – 55 cm ( 16 – 22 in ) long bushy tail white underside . Both sexes have a dorsal crest of hair running right from the back of the head to the end of the tail . Males have another line of hair along the midline of their chest and belly .
Only the males have horns . Horns are 60 – 83 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) long and yellow @-@ tipped . There are one or two twists . The spoor is similar to that of the bushbuck , but larger . It is 5 – 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . The feces resemble round to spherical pellets . The nyala has hairy glands on its feet , which leave their scent wherever it walks .
The condition of the nyala often varies between the sexes . According to a study , this can be attributed to the differences in their body sizes . It was noted that during nutritional stress , old adults died in more numbers , of which most were males . During an attempt of blood sampling in the nyala , it was found that Vitamin E levels varied during stress .
= = Parasites = =
A study of the helminths from 77 nyalas from four game reserves in Natal revealed the presence of ten nematode species and four nematode genera , a trematode species and paramphistomes ( members of superfamily Paramphistomoidea ) , and two cestode genera . The research discovered new parasites that the nyala was host of - namely a Cooperia rotundispiculum race , Gaigeria pachyscelis , a Gongylonema species , Haemonchus vegliai , Impalaia tuberculata , an Oesophagostomum species , a Setaria species , Trichostrongylus deflexus , Trichostrongylus falculatus , the larval stage of a Taenia species , a Thysaniezia species and Schistosoma mattheei . Ostertagia harrisi and C. rotundispiculum were the most dominant nematodes in the antelope .
Another study of 97 blood samples of South African nyalas revealed the presence of tick @-@ borne hemoparasites ( blood parasites ) . The methods used were polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) and reverse line blot ( RLB ) hybridization . The dominant parasites were Theileria species , T. buffeli , T. bicornis , Ehrlichia species , Anaplasma marginale and A. bovis . Ten tick species , two louse species and a louse fly species were recovered in a study of 73 nyalas at Umfolozi , Mkuzi and Ndumu Game Reserves in northeastern KwaZulu @-@ Natal in 1983 and 1984 and an additional six individuals in 1994 . It was found that nyalas were hosts to all stages of development in Boophilus decoloratus , Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. muehlensi and the immature stages of Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus maculatus . Adult males served hosts to more number of ticks and lice than adult females did . Also , a trypanosome was isolated from a nyala , wild @-@ caught in Mozambique , which was diagnosed and found as akin to Trypanosoma vivax , based on biological , morphological and molecular data .
= = Diseases = =
The nyala can also suffer from myopathy . In between January 1973 and June 1981 , 21 nyalas succumbed to the disease . The main symptoms were stiffness , inability to rise , and failure to suckle in newborns . Necrosis ( that is , the premature death of cells in a living tissue ) and mineralization were found in the skeletal muscle after a histological analysis . In the juveniles there was acute necrosis of the cardiac muscle . In adults , there was interstitial fibrosis of the cardiac muscle , along with arteriosclerosis .
In a report published in 1994 entitled " Epidemiological observations on spongiform encephalopathies in captive wild animals in the British Isles " it was noted that spongiform encephalopathy ( BSE ) had been diagnosed in one nyala captive in a zoo . The nyala was formerly affected by the disease rinderpest , although the viral disease is considered eradicated now .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The nyala is active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon . It browses during the day if temperatures are 20 – 30 ° C ( 68 – 86 ° F ) and during the night in rainy season . These antelopes rest in thick bushes during the hot hours of the day . The nyala is very shy and cautious in nature , and like remaining hidden rather than coming out in the open . Most sightings of the nyala in the wild are at water holes . But now @-@ a @-@ days they are becoming less shy and often come out in the sight of tourists .
Nyala groups are according to sex or mixed . Herds usually browse and drink water together . Each group consists of two to ten individuals . A study in Zinave National Park at Mozambique showed that 67 % of the observations were of groups of one to three nyalas , and the rest of the herds consisted of up to 30 nyalas . It was also seen that herds often broke up and formed again . Generally adult males remain alone . Females often remain near their mothers when they have their offspring , so the relationships in female herds may be considered relatively closer than that of males .
Alert and wary in nature , the nyala use a sharp , high , dog @-@ like bark to warn others in a group about danger . This feature is mainly used by females . They also react to the alarm calls of impala , baboon and kudu . The impala has been found to react to the calls of the nyala too . The main predators of nyala are lion , leopard and Cape hunting dog , while baboons and raptorial birds are the predators of juveniles .
= = = Diet = = =
As a herbivore , the nyala 's diet consists of foliage , fruits , flowers and twigs . During the rainy season they feed upon the fresh grass . They need a regular intake of water , and thus choose places with a water source nearby . However , they are adapted to live in areas with only a seasonal availability of water . A study in Zululand showed that the nyala fed mainly in the early morning and the late afternoon . They feed at night during the rainy season .
A study made in Mkhuze Game Reserve and Ndumu Game Reserve in Natal , focused on the dietary habits of the impala and the nyala , showed that the amount of dicotyledons in their diets varied seasonally . In the diet of nyala its content was 83 @.@ 2 % and impala 's diet contained a lesser figure of 52 % dicotyledons . The diet grew richer in fiber content and dietary proteins were less . The reverse occurred in the rainy season . As the rainy season arrived , both the species took to a diet of mainly monocotyledons , and the impala consumed more of them . The diet contained more proteins than fibers .
Another study was done to find whether the sexual dimorphism in the nyala influenced its foraging habits . Vegetation surveys were conducted with the end of each feeding bout . It was found that females spent equal periods of time foraging in all the three habitats , but males preferred sand forest more . More differences were noted , as males ate woody species at a greater average height whereas females fed from the low herbaceous layer . It was concluded that the differences resulted from varying nutritional and energetic demands according to their diverse body sizes and differing reproductive strategies .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The nyala breeds throughout the year , but mating peaks in spring and autumn . The reason for this is still unknown , but attributed to the photoperiod and the feeding habits of the animal . Females reach sexual maturity at 11 to 12 months of age and males at 18 months ( though they are socially immature until five years old ) . Once sexually mature , a male 's seminiferous tubules begin spermatogenesis , that is , the generation of sperm . In a study , males over 14 months old showed active spermatogenesis .
Before ovulation , the Graafian follicles reach a length of at least 6 @.@ 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) . A female 's estrus cycle is about 19 days long . Males mate with the female for two days of the cycle , but she allows it for only six hours per cycle . When the male enters a females ' herd during mating , he makes a display by raising his white dorsal crest , lowering his horns and moving stiffly . As in many other animals , the males fight over dominance during mating .
In a study , the Kidney Fat Indices ( KFIs ) of impalas and nyalas were studied to understand the influence of social class and reproduction on them . Kidney Fat Index is a technique in which the kidney is removed and weighed with the fat and once again excluding the fat . The resultant difference is the amount of fat on the kidney . The more the fat , the healthier the animal . In rut , the male nyalas had less KFIs , that did not vary much with the season . Pregnant females , both the antelopes nyala and impala , had higher KFIs than the non @-@ pregnant ones .
There is a significant increase in corpus luteum in the last third of gestation . Gestation is of seven months . A single calf is born , weighing 5 kg ( 11 lb ) . Birth takes place generally away from the sight of predators , in places such as a thicket . The calf remains hidden for up to 18 days , and the mother nurses it at regular intervals . The calf remains with its mother until the birth of the next calf , during which males in rut drive it away from the mother .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The nyala inhabits dense lowland woodlands and thickets , mainly in southern Malawi , Mozambique , Zimbabwe , and eastern South Africa . It chooses places with good quality grasslands as well as provision of fresh water . They also inhabit lush green river country . The nyala 's natural range stretches across southeast Africa from the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi through Mozambique and Zimbabwe to eastern South Africa and Swaziland .
The geographic distribution of the nyala may be based on the genetic variation . According to a study of the nyala in South Africa , Mozambique , Malawi and Zimbabwe , a great difference was marked among the gene frequencies at three microsatellite loci . Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed the presence of a unique haplotype in individuals from each location . The conclusions were that the geographic variation in the nyala may be due to a distribution pattern based on the habitat specificity .
Today the nyala are found in South African protected areas in the KwaZulu @-@ Natal Game Reserves of Ndumo Game Reserve , uMkuze Game Reserve and Hluhluwe @-@ Umfolozi Game Reserve , and in Kruger National Park . According to statistics of 1999 , 10 @-@ 15 % of the nyala occur on private land . Currently efforts are being made to retain the populations of nyala in Gorongosa National Park and Banhine National Park in Mozambique . The nyala also thrive in Lengwe National Park in Malawi .
The nyala have never been observed showing signs of territoriality . Territories overlap extensively , let it be of any sex . The home ranges of males are approximately equal to that of females , about 10 km2. in area .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The major threats to the population of the nyala are poaching , habitat loss , agriculture and cattle grazing . Rinderpest outbreaks have also contributed in population loss . This species is currently of Least Concern , and the population is considered stable by both the IUCN and CITES . As of 1999 , the total population of the nyala was around 32 @,@ 000 individuals . More recent estimates show that South Africa has at least 30 @,@ 000 nyalas , with 25 @,@ 000 in KwaZulu @-@ Natal . There are now more than 1 @,@ 000 on protected areas and ranches in Swaziland . In Mozambique there are not more than 3 @,@ 000 , in Zimbabwe there are over 1 @,@ 000 while numbers in Malawi have fallen from 3 @,@ 000 to about 1 @,@ 500 . Namibia has the least population , about 250 .
Today over 80 % of the total population is protected in national parks and sanctuaries , mostly in South African protected areas . These are the Ndumo Game Reserve , uMkuze Game Reserve and Hluhluwe @-@ Umfolozi Game Reserve and Kruger National Park . 10 to 15 % occur on private land . They mostly occur in South Africa due to the high demand for adult males as game trophies .
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= Richard Dawkins =
Clinton Richard Dawkins FRS FRSL ( born 26 March 1941 ) is an English ethologist , evolutionary biologist and author . He is an emeritus fellow of New College , Oxford , and was the University of Oxford 's Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008 .
Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene , which popularised the gene @-@ centred view of evolution and introduced the term meme . With his book The Extended Phenotype , published in 1982 , he introduced into evolutionary biology the influential concept that the phenotypic effects of a gene are not necessarily limited to an organism 's body , but can stretch far into the environment . In 2006 , he founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science .
Dawkins is an atheist , and is well known for his criticism of creationism and intelligent design . In his most popular book , The God Delusion , published in 2006 , Dawkins contends that a supernatural creator almost certainly does not exist and that religious faith is a delusion . In his 1986 book The Blind Watchmaker , he argues against the watchmaker analogy , an argument for the existence of a supernatural creator based upon the complexity of living organisms . Instead , he describes evolutionary processes as analogous to a blind watchmaker in that reproduction , mutation , and selection are unguided by any designer . He is an opponent of creationism being taught in schools . He has been awarded many prestigious academic and writing awards and he makes regular television , radio and Internet appearances , predominantly discussing his books , his atheism and his ideas and opinions as a public intellectual .
= = Background = =
= = = Early life = = =
Dawkins was born in Nairobi , British Kenya , on 26 March 1941 . He is the son of Jean Mary Vyvyan ( née Ladner ) and Clinton John Dawkins ( 1915 – 2010 ) , who was an agricultural civil servant in the British Colonial Service in Nyasaland ( now Malawi ) . His father was called up into the King 's African Rifles during the Second World War and returned to England in 1949 , when Dawkins was eight . His father had inherited a country estate , Over Norton Park in Oxfordshire , which he farmed commercially . Dawkins considers himself English and lives in Oxford , England . Dawkins has a younger sister .
Both his parents were interested in natural sciences , and they answered Dawkins 's questions in scientific terms . Dawkins describes his childhood as " a normal Anglican upbringing " . He embraced Christianity until halfway through his teenage years , at which point he concluded that the theory of evolution was a better explanation for life 's complexity , and ceased believing in a god . Dawkins states : " the main residual reason why I was religious was from being so impressed with the complexity of life and feeling that it had to have a designer , and I think it was when I realised that Darwinism was a far superior explanation that pulled the rug out from under the argument of design . And that left me with nothing . "
= = = Education = = =
From 1954 to 1959 Dawkins attended Oundle School in Northamptonshire , an English public school with a distinct Church of England flavour , where he was in Laundimer house . While at Oundle Dawkins read Bertrand Russell 's Why I Am Not a Christian for the first time . He studied zoology at Balliol College , Oxford , graduating in 1962 ; while there , he was tutored by Nobel Prize @-@ winning ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen . He continued as a research student under Tinbergen 's supervision , receiving his MA and DPhil degrees by 1966 , and remained a research assistant for another year . Tinbergen was a pioneer in the study of animal behaviour , particularly in the areas of instinct , learning and choice ; Dawkins 's research in this period concerned models of animal decision @-@ making .
= = = Teaching = = =
From 1967 to 1969 , he was an assistant professor of zoology at the University of California , Berkeley . During this period , the students and faculty at UC Berkeley were largely opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War , and Dawkins became involved in the anti @-@ war demonstrations and activities . He returned to the University of Oxford in 1970 as a lecturer . In 1990 , he became a reader in zoology . In 1995 , he was appointed Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford , a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder " be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field " , and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins . He held that professorship from 1995 until 2008 .
Since 1970 , he has been a fellow of New College , Oxford and he is now an emeritus fellow . He has delivered many lectures , including the Henry Sidgwick Memorial Lecture ( 1989 ) , the first Erasmus Darwin Memorial Lecture ( 1990 ) , the Michael Faraday Lecture ( 1991 ) , the T. H. Huxley Memorial Lecture ( 1992 ) , the Irvine Memorial Lecture ( 1997 ) , the Sheldon Doyle Lecture ( 1999 ) , the Tinbergen Lecture ( 2004 ) and the Tanner Lectures ( 2003 ) . In 1991 , he gave the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures for Children on Growing Up in the Universe . He has also edited several journals , and has acted as editorial advisor to the Encarta Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia of Evolution . He is listed as a senior editor and a columnist of the Council for Secular Humanism 's Free Inquiry magazine , and has been a member of the editorial board of Skeptic magazine since its foundation .
He has sat on judging panels for awards as diverse as the Royal Society 's Faraday Award and the British Academy Television Awards , and has been president of the Biological Sciences section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science . In 2004 , Balliol College , Oxford , instituted the Dawkins Prize , awarded for " outstanding research into the ecology and behaviour of animals whose welfare and survival may be endangered by human activities " . In September 2008 , he retired from his professorship , announcing plans to " write a book aimed at youngsters in which he will warn them against believing in ' anti @-@ scientific ' fairytales . "
In 2011 , Dawkins joined the professoriate of the New College of the Humanities , a new private university in London , established by A. C. Grayling , which opened in September 2012 .
= = Work = =
= = = Evolutionary biology = = =
In his scientific work in evolutionary biology , Dawkins is best known for his popularisation of the gene as the principal unit of selection in evolution ; this view is most clearly set out in his books :
The Selfish Gene ( 1976 ) , in which he notes that " all life evolves by the differential survival of replicating entities " .
The Extended Phenotype ( 1982 ) , in which he describes natural selection as " the process whereby replicators out @-@ propagate each other " . He introduces to a wider audience the influential concept he presented in 1977 that the phenotypic effects of a gene are not necessarily limited to an organism 's body , but can stretch far into the environment , including the bodies of other organisms . Dawkins regarded the extended phenotype as his single most important contribution to evolutionary biology and he considered niche construction to be a special case of extended phenotype . The concept of extended phenotype helps explain evolution , but it does not actually help predict specific outcomes .
Dawkins has consistently been sceptical about non @-@ adaptive processes in evolution ( such as spandrels , described by Gould and Lewontin ) and about selection at levels " above " that of the gene . He is particularly sceptical about the practical possibility or importance of group selection as a basis for understanding altruism . This behaviour appears at first to be an evolutionary paradox , since helping others costs precious resources and decreases one 's own fitness . Previously , many had interpreted this as an aspect of group selection : individuals are doing what is best for the survival of the population or species as a whole . British evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton used gene @-@ frequency analysis in his inclusive fitness theory to show how hereditary altruistic traits can evolve if there is sufficient genetic correlation between actors and recipients of such altruism ( including close relatives ) . Hamilton 's inclusive fitness has since been successfully applied to a wide range of organisms , including humans . Similarly , Robert Trivers , thinking in terms of the gene @-@ centred model , developed the theory of reciprocal altruism , whereby one organism provides a benefit to another in the expectation of future reciprocation . Dawkins popularised these ideas in The Selfish Gene , and developed them in his own work . In June 2012 Dawkins was highly critical of fellow biologist E.O. Wilson 's 2012 book The Social Conquest of Earth as misunderstanding Hamilton 's theory of kin selection . Dawkins has also been strongly critical of the Gaia hypothesis of the independent scientist James Lovelock .
Critics of Dawkins 's biological approach suggest that taking the gene as the unit of selection ( a single event in which an individual either succeeds or fails to reproduce ) is misleading ; the gene could be better described , they say , as a unit of evolution ( the long @-@ term changes in allele frequencies in a population ) . In The Selfish Gene , Dawkins explains that he is using George C. Williams 's definition of the gene as " that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency . " Another common objection is that a gene cannot survive alone , but must cooperate with other genes to build an individual , and therefore a gene cannot be an independent " unit " . In The Extended Phenotype , Dawkins suggests that from an individual gene 's viewpoint , all other genes are part of the environment to which it is adapted .
Advocates for higher levels of selection ( such as Richard Lewontin , David Sloan Wilson , and Elliott Sober ) suggest that there are many phenomena ( including altruism ) that gene @-@ based selection cannot satisfactorily explain . The philosopher Mary Midgley , with whom Dawkins clashed in print concerning The Selfish Gene , has criticised gene selection , memetics , and sociobiology as being excessively reductionist ; she has suggested that the popularity of Dawkins 's work is due to factors in the Zeitgeist such as the increased individualism of the Thatcher / Reagan decades .
In a set of controversies over the mechanisms and interpretation of evolution ( what has been called ' The Darwin Wars ' ) , one faction is often named after Dawkins , while the other faction is named after the American palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould , reflecting the pre @-@ eminence of each as a populariser of the pertinent ideas . In particular , Dawkins and Gould have been prominent commentators in the controversy over sociobiology and evolutionary psychology , with Dawkins generally approving and Gould generally being critical . A typical example of Dawkins 's position is his scathing review of Not in Our Genes by Steven Rose , Leon J. Kamin , and Richard C. Lewontin . Two other thinkers who are often considered to be allied with Dawkins on the subject are Steven Pinker and Daniel Dennett ; Dennett has promoted a gene @-@ centred view of evolution and defended reductionism in biology . Despite their academic disagreements , Dawkins and Gould did not have a hostile personal relationship , and Dawkins dedicated a large portion of his 2003 book A Devil 's Chaplain posthumously to Gould , who had died the previous year .
When asked if Darwinism informs his everyday apprehension of life , Dawkins says , " in one way it does . My eyes are constantly wide open to the extraordinary fact of existence . Not just human existence but the existence of life and how this breathtakingly powerful process , which is natural selection , has managed to take the very simple facts of physics and chemistry and build them up to redwood trees and humans . That 's never far from my thoughts , that sense of amazement . On the other hand I certainly don 't allow Darwinism to influence my feelings about human social life , " implying that he feels that individual human beings can opt out of the survival machine of Darwinism since they are freed by the consciousness of self .
= = = Fathering the meme = = =
In his book The Selfish Gene , Dawkins coined the word meme ( the behavioural equivalent of a gene ) as a way to encourage readers to think about how Darwinian principles might be extended beyond the realm of genes . It was intended as an extension of his " replicators " argument , but it took on a life of its own in the hands of other authors such as Daniel Dennett and Susan Blackmore . These popularisations then led to the emergence of memetics , a field from which Dawkins has distanced himself .
Dawkins 's meme refers to any cultural entity that an observer might consider a replicator of a certain idea or set of ideas . He hypothesised that people could view many cultural entities as capable of such replication , generally through communication and contact with humans , who have evolved as efficient ( although not perfect ) copiers of information and behaviour . Because memes are not always copied perfectly , they might become refined , combined , or otherwise modified with other ideas ; this results in new memes , which may themselves prove more or less efficient replicators than their predecessors , thus providing a framework for a hypothesis of cultural evolution based on memes , a notion that is analogous to the theory of biological evolution based on genes .
Although Dawkins invented the term meme , he has not claimed that the idea was entirely novel , and there have been other expressions for similar ideas in the past . For instance , John Laurent has suggested that the term may have derived from the work of the little @-@ known German biologist Richard Semon . In 1904 , Semon published Die Mneme ( which appeared in English in 1924 as The Mneme ) . This book discusses the cultural transmission of experiences , with insights parallel to those of Dawkins . Laurent also found the term mneme used in Maurice Maeterlinck 's The Life of the White Ant ( 1926 ) , and has highlighted the similarities to Dawkins 's concept . James Gleick describes Dawkins 's concept of the meme as " his most famous memorable invention , far more influential than his selfish genes or his later proselytising against religiosity " .
= = = Foundation = = =
In 2006 , Dawkins founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science ( RDFRS ) , a non @-@ profit organisation . RDFRS financed research on the psychology of belief and religion , financed scientific education programs and materials , and publicised and supported charitable organisations that are secular in nature . In January 2016 , it was announced that the foundation is merging with the Center for Inquiry with Dawkins becoming a member of the new organization ’ s board of directors .
= = = Criticism of religion = = =
Dawkins is an outspoken atheist and a supporter of various atheist , secular , and humanistic organisations . He is a patron of the British Humanist Association , and a supporter of the Brights movement . He was confirmed into the Church of England at the age of thirteen , but began to grow sceptical of the beliefs . After learning about Darwinism and the real scientific reason why living things look as though they have been designed , Dawkins lost the remainder of his religious faith . He said that his understanding of science and evolutionary processes led him to question how adults in positions of leadership in a civilized world could still be so uneducated in biology , and is puzzled by how belief in God could remain among individuals who are sophisticated in science . Dawkins notes that some physicists use ' God ' as a metaphor for the general awe @-@ inspiring mysteries of the universe , which causes confusion and misunderstanding among people who incorrectly think they are talking about a mystical being which forgives sins , transubstantiates wine , or makes people live after they die . He disagrees with Stephen Jay Gould 's principle of nonoverlapping magisteria ( NOMA ) and suggests that the existence of God should be treated as a scientific hypothesis like any other .
On his spectrum of theistic probability , which has seven levels between 1 ( 100 % belief in a God ) and 7 ( 100 % belief that gods do not exist ) , Dawkins has said he 's a 6 @.@ 9 , which represents a " de facto atheist " who thinks " I cannot know for certain but I think God is very improbable , and I live my life on the assumption that he is not there . " When asked about his slight uncertainty , Dawkins quips , " I am agnostic to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden . " In May 2014 , at the Hay Festival in Wales , Dawkins explained that while he does not believe in the supernatural elements of the Christian faith , he still has nostalgia for the ceremonial side of religion .
Dawkins became a prominent critic of religion and has stated his opposition to religion as twofold : religion is both a source of conflict and a justification for belief without evidence . He considers faith — belief that is not based on evidence — as " one of the world 's great evils " . He rose to prominence in public debates relating science and religion since the publication of his most popular book The God Delusion in 2006 , which became an international best seller . As of 2015 , more than three million copies were sold and the book has been translated into over 30 languages . Its success has been seen by many as indicative of a change in the contemporary cultural zeitgeist and has also been identified with the rise of New Atheism . In the book , Dawkins contends that a supernatural creator almost certainly does not exist and that religious faith is a delusion — " a fixed false belief " . In his February 2002 TED talk entitled " Militant atheism " , Dawkins urged all atheists to openly state their position and to fight the incursion of the church into politics and science . On September 30 , 2007 , Dawkins , Christopher Hitchens , Sam Harris , and Daniel Dennett met at Hitchens ' residence for a private , unmoderated discussion that lasted two hours . The event was videotaped and titled " The Four Horsemen " . Dawkins has since been associated with the notion .
Dawkins sees education and consciousness @-@ raising as the primary tools in opposing what he considers to be religious dogma and indoctrination . These tools include the fight against certain stereotypes , and he has adopted the term bright as a way of associating positive public connotations with those who possess a naturalistic worldview . He has given support to the idea of a free thinking school , which would not indoctrinate children in atheism or in any religion but would instead teach children to be critical and open @-@ minded . Inspired by the consciousness @-@ raising successes of feminists in arousing widespread embarrassment at the routine use of " he " instead of " she " , Dawkins similarly suggests that phrases such as " Catholic child " and " Muslim child " should be considered as socially absurd as , for instance , " Marxist child " , as he believes that children should not be classified based on their parents ' ideological or religious beliefs .
Dawkins suggests that atheists should be proud , not apologetic , stressing that atheism is evidence of a healthy , independent mind . He hopes that the more atheists identify themselves , the more the public will become aware of just how many people actually hold these views , thereby reducing the negative opinion of atheism among the religious majority . Inspired by the gay rights movement , he endorsed the Out Campaign to encourage atheists worldwide to declare their stance publicly . He supported the UK 's first atheist advertising initiative , the Atheist Bus Campaign in 2008 , which aimed to raise funds to place atheist advertisements on buses in the London area .
While some critics , such as writer Christopher Hitchens , psychologist Steven Pinker and Nobel laureates Sir Harold Kroto , James D. Watson and Steven Weinberg have defended Dawkins 's stance towards religion and praised his work , others , including Nobel Prize @-@ winning theoretical physicist Peter Higgs , astrophysicist Martin Rees , philosopher of science Michael Ruse , literary critic Terry Eagleton , and theologian Alister McGrath , have criticised Dawkins on various grounds , including the assertion that his work simply serves as an atheist counterpart to religious fundamentalism rather than a productive critique of it , and that he has fundamentally misapprehended the foundations of the theological positions he claims to refute . Rees and Higgs , in particular , have both rejected Dawkins 's confrontational stance towards religion as narrow and " embarrassing " , with Higgs going as far as to equate Dawkins with the religious fundamentalists he criticises . Atheist philosopher John Gray has denounced Dawkins as an " anti @-@ religious missionary " whose assertions are " in no sense novel or original , " suggesting that , " transfixed in wonderment at the workings of his own mind , Dawkins misses much that is of importance in human beings . " Gray has also criticised Dawkins 's perceived allegiance to Darwin , stating that if " science , for Darwin , was a method of inquiry that enabled him to edge tentatively and humbly toward the truth , for Dawkins , science is an unquestioned view of the world . " In response to his critics , Dawkins maintains that theologians are no better than scientists in addressing deep cosmological questions and that he himself is not a fundamentalist as he is willing to change his mind in the face of new evidence .
= = = = Criticism of creationism = = = =
Dawkins is a prominent critic of creationism , a religious belief that humanity , life , and the universe were created by a deity without recourse to evolution . He has described the Young Earth creationist view that the Earth is only a few thousand years old as " a preposterous , mind @-@ shrinking falsehood " ; and his 1986 book , The Blind Watchmaker , contains a sustained critique of the argument from design , an important creationist argument . In the book , Dawkins argues against the watchmaker analogy made famous by the 18th @-@ century English theologian William Paley via his book Natural Theology , in which Paley argues that just as a watch is too complicated and too functional to have sprung into existence merely by accident , so too must all living things — with their far greater complexity — be purposefully designed . Dawkins shares the view generally held by scientists that natural selection is sufficient to explain the apparent functionality and non @-@ random complexity of the biological world , and can be said to play the role of watchmaker in nature , albeit as an automatic , unguided by any designer , nonintelligent , blind watchmaker .
In 1986 , Dawkins and biologist John Maynard Smith participated in an Oxford Union debate against A. E. Wilder @-@ Smith ( a Young Earth creationist ) and Edgar Andrews ( president of the Biblical Creation Society ) . In general , however , Dawkins has followed the advice of his late colleague Stephen Jay Gould and refused to participate in formal debates with creationists because " what they seek is the oxygen of respectability " , and doing so would " give them this oxygen by the mere act of engaging with them at all " . He suggests that creationists " don 't mind being beaten in an argument . What matters is that we give them recognition by bothering to argue with them in public . " In a December 2004 interview with American journalist Bill Moyers , Dawkins said that " among the things that science does know , evolution is about as certain as anything we know . " When Moyers questioned him on the use of the word theory , Dawkins stated that " evolution has been observed . It 's just that it hasn 't been observed while it 's happening . " He added that " it is rather like a detective coming on a murder after the scene ... the detective hasn 't actually seen the murder take place , of course . But what you do see is a massive clue ... Huge quantities of circumstantial evidence . It might as well be spelled out in words of English . "
Dawkins has opposed the inclusion of intelligent design in science education , describing it as " not a scientific argument at all , but a religious one " . He has been referred to in the media as " Darwin 's Rottweiler " , a reference to English biologist T. H. Huxley , who was known as " Darwin 's Bulldog " for his advocacy of Charles Darwin 's evolutionary ideas . ( The contrasting sobriquet of " God 's Rottweiler " was given to Pope Benedict XVI while he was a cardinal working for the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith . ) He has been a strong critic of the British organisation Truth in Science , which promotes the teaching of creationism in state schools , and he plans through the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science to subsidise schools with the delivery of books , DVDs , and pamphlets that counteract their ( Truth in Science 's ) work , which Dawkins has described as an " educational scandal " .
= = = Other fields = = =
In his role as professor for public understanding of science , Dawkins has been a critic of pseudoscience and alternative medicine . His 1998 book Unweaving the Rainbow considers John Keats 's accusation that by explaining the rainbow , Isaac Newton diminished its beauty ; Dawkins argues for the opposite conclusion . He suggests that deep space , the billions of years of life 's evolution , and the microscopic workings of biology and heredity contain more beauty and wonder than do " myths " and " pseudoscience " . For John Diamond 's posthumously published Snake Oil , a book devoted to debunking alternative medicine , Dawkins wrote a foreword in which he asserts that alternative medicine is harmful , if only because it distracts patients from more successful conventional treatments and gives people false hopes . Dawkins states that " there is no alternative medicine . There is only medicine that works and medicine that doesn 't work . " In his 2007 Channel 4 TV film The Enemies of Reason , Dawkins concluded that Britain is gripped by " an epidemic of superstitious thinking " .
Dawkins has expressed concern about the growth of the planet 's human population and about the matter of overpopulation . In The Selfish Gene , he briefly mentions population growth , giving the example of Latin America , whose population , at the time the book was written , was doubling every 40 years . He is critical of Roman Catholic attitudes to family planning and population control , stating that leaders who forbid contraception and " express a preference for ' natural ' methods of population limitation " will get just such a method in the form of starvation .
As a supporter of the Great Ape Project — a movement to extend certain moral and legal rights to all great apes — Dawkins contributed the article " Gaps in the Mind " to the Great Ape Project book edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer . In this essay , he criticises contemporary society 's moral attitudes as being based on a " discontinuous , speciesist imperative " .
Dawkins also regularly comments in newspapers and blogs on contemporary political questions and is a frequent contributor to the online science and culture digest 3 Quarks Daily . His opinions include opposition to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the British nuclear deterrent , the actions of then @-@ US President George W. Bush , and the ethics of designer babies . Several such articles were included in A Devil 's Chaplain , an anthology of writings about science , religion , and politics . He is also a supporter of Republic 's campaign to replace the British monarchy with a democratically elected president . Dawkins has described himself as a Labour voter in the 1970s and voter for the Liberal Democrats since the party 's creation . In 2009 , he spoke at the party 's conference in opposition to blasphemy laws , alternative medicine , and faith schools . In the UK general election of 2010 , Dawkins officially endorsed the Liberal Democrats , in support of their campaign for electoral reform and for their " refusal to pander to ' faith ' . "
In 1998 , Dawkins expressed his appreciation for two books connected with the Sokal affair , Higher Superstition : The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science by Paul R. Gross and Norman Levitt and Intellectual Impostures by Sokal and Jean Bricmont . These books are famous for their criticism of postmodernism in US universities ( namely in the departments of literary studies , anthropology , and other cultural studies ) . He identifies as a feminist .
Continuing a long @-@ standing partnership with Channel 4 , Dawkins participated in a five @-@ part television series Genius of Britain , along with fellow scientists Stephen Hawking , James Dyson , Paul Nurse , and Jim Al @-@ Khalili . The series was first broadcast in June 2010 . The series focuses on major British scientific achievements throughout history .
In 2014 he joined the global awareness movement Asteroid Day as a " 100x Signatory " .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Dawkins was awarded a Doctor of Science degree by the University of Oxford in 1989 . He holds honorary doctorates in science from the University of Huddersfield , University of Westminster , Durham University , the University of Hull , the University of Antwerp , and the University of Oslo , and honorary doctorates from the University of Aberdeen , Open University , the Vrije Universiteit Brussel , and the University of Valencia . He also holds honorary doctorates of letters from the University of St Andrews and the Australian National University ( HonLittD , 1996 ) , and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1997 and a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 2001 . He is one of the patrons of the Oxford University Scientific Society .
In 1987 , Dawkins received a Royal Society of Literature award and a Los Angeles Times Literary Prize for his book The Blind Watchmaker . In the same year , he received a Sci . Tech Prize for Best Television Documentary Science Programme of the Year for his work on the BBC 's Horizon episode The Blind Watchmaker .
His other awards include the Zoological Society of London 's Silver Medal ( 1989 ) , the Finlay Innovation Award ( 1990 ) , the Michael Faraday Award ( 1990 ) , the Nakayama Prize ( 1994 ) , the American Humanist Association 's Humanist of the Year Award ( 1996 ) , the fifth International Cosmos Prize ( 1997 ) , the Kistler Prize ( 2001 ) , the Medal of the Presidency of the Italian Republic ( 2001 ) , the 2001 and 2012 Emperor Has No Clothes Award from the Freedom From Religion Foundation , the Bicentennial Kelvin Medal of The Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow ( 2002 ) , and the Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public Interest ( 2009 ) .
Dawkins topped Prospect magazine 's 2004 list of the top 100 public British intellectuals , as decided by the readers , receiving twice as many votes as the runner @-@ up . He was short @-@ listed as a candidate in their 2008 follow @-@ up poll . In 2005 , the Hamburg @-@ based Alfred Toepfer Foundation awarded him its Shakespeare Prize in recognition of his " concise and accessible presentation of scientific knowledge " . He won the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science for 2006 , as well as the Galaxy British Book Awards 's Author of the Year Award for 2007 . In the same year , he was listed by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2007 , and he was ranked 20th in The Daily Telegraph 's 2007 list of 100 greatest living geniuses . He was awarded the Deschner Award , named after German anti @-@ clerical author Karlheinz Deschner .
Since 2003 , the Atheist Alliance International has awarded a prize during its annual conference , honouring an outstanding atheist whose work has done the most to raise public awareness of atheism during that year ; it is known as the Richard Dawkins Award , in honour of Dawkins 's own efforts .
In February 2010 , Dawkins was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation 's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers .
In 2012 , ichthyologists in Sri Lanka honored Dawkins by creating Dawkinsia as a new genus name ( members of this genus were formerly members of the genus Puntius ) . Explaining the reasoning behind the genus name , lead researcher Rohan Pethiyagoda was quoted as stating that " Richard Dawkins has , through his writings , helped us understand that the universe is far more beautiful and awe @-@ inspiring than any religion has imagined [ ... ] . We hope that Dawkinsia will serve as a reminder of the elegance and simplicity of evolution , the only rational explanation there is for the unimaginable diversity of life on Earth . "
In a poll held by Prospect magazine in 2013 , Dawkins was voted the world 's top thinker based on 65 names chosen by a largely US- and UK @-@ based expert panel .
= = Personal life = =
Dawkins has been married three times , and has one daughter . On 19 August 1967 , Dawkins married fellow ethologist Marian Stamp in Annestown , County Waterford , Ireland ; they divorced in 1984 . On 1 June 1984 , he married Eve Barham ( 19 August 1951 – 28 February 1999 ) in Oxford . They had a daughter , Juliet Emma Dawkins ( born 1984 , Oxford ) . Dawkins and Barham also divorced . In 1992 , he married actress Lalla Ward in Kensington and Chelsea , London . Dawkins met her through their mutual friend Douglas Adams , who had worked with her on the BBC 's Doctor Who . The couple announced an " entirely amicable " separation in July 2016 .
On 6 February 2016 , Dawkins suffered a minor hemorrhagic stroke while at home . Dawkins reported on his Foundation website in early April that he is experiencing some minor disabilities in his physical coordination but that he expects to make a full recovery .
= = Media = =
= = = Selected publications = = =
The Selfish Gene . Oxford : Oxford University Press . 1976 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 286092 @-@ 5 .
The Extended Phenotype . Oxford : Oxford University Press . 1982 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 288051 @-@ 9 .
The Blind Watchmaker . New York : W. W. Norton & Company . 1986 . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 31570 @-@ 3 .
River Out of Eden . New York : Basic Books . 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 06990 @-@ 8 .
Climbing Mount Improbable . New York : W. W. Norton & Company . 1996 . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 31682 @-@ 3 .
Unweaving the Rainbow . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . 1998 . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 05673 @-@ 4 .
A Devil 's Chaplain . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . 2003 . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 33540 @-@ 4 .
The Ancestor 's Tale . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . 2004 . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 00583 @-@ 8 .
The God Delusion . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . 2006 . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 68000 @-@ 4 .
The Greatest Show on Earth : The Evidence for Evolution . Free Press ( United States ) , Transworld ( United Kingdom and Commonwealth ) . 2009 . ISBN 0 @-@ 593 @-@ 06173 @-@ X.
The Magic of Reality : How We Know What 's Really True . Free Press ( United States ) , Bantam Press ( United Kingdom ) . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4391 @-@ 9281 @-@ 8 . OCLC 709673132 .
An Appetite for Wonder : The Making of a Scientist . Ecco Press ( United Kingdom and United States ) . 2013 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 228715 @-@ 1 .
Brief Candle in the Dark : My Life in Science . Ecco Press ( United States and United Kingdom ) . 2015 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0062288431 .
= = = Documentary films = = =
Nice Guys Finish First ( 1986 )
The Blind Watchmaker ( 1987 )
Growing Up in the Universe ( 1991 )
Break the Science Barrier ( 1996 )
The Atheism Tapes ( 2004 )
The Big Question ( 2005 ) - Part 3 of the TV series , titled " Why Are We Here ? "
The Root of All Evil ? ( 2006 )
The Enemies of Reason ( 2007 )
The Genius of Charles Darwin ( 2008 )
The Purpose of Purpose ( 2009 ) – Lecture tour among American universities
Faith School Menace ? ( 2010 )
Beautiful Minds ( April 2012 ) – BBC4 documentary
Sex , Death and the Meaning of Life ( 2012 )
The Unbelievers ( 2013 )
= = = Other appearances = = =
Dawkins has made many television appearances on news shows providing his political and especially his opinions as an atheist . He has been interviewed on the radio , often as part of his book tours . He has debated many religious figures . He has made many university speaking appearances , again often in coordination with his book tours . As of 2016 , he has over 60 credits in the Internet Movie Database where he appeared as himself .
Expelled : No Intelligence Allowed ( 2008 ) – as himself , presented as a leading scientific opponent of intelligent design in a film that contends that the mainstream science establishment suppresses academics who believe they see evidence of intelligent design in nature and who criticise evidence supporting Darwinian evolution
Doctor Who : " The Stolen Earth " ( 2008 ) – as himself
The Simpsons : " Black Eyed , Please " ( 2013 ) – appears in Ned Flanders ' dream of Hell ; provided voice as a demon version of himself
Endless Forms Most Beautiful ( 2015 ) - by Nightwish : Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish had Dawkins as a guest star on their 2015 album
When the Professor Got Stuck in the Snow ( 2015 ) - A fictional Richard Dawkins is the central character in Dan Rhodes ' 2014 parody novel
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= M @-@ 132 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 132 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan near Ann Arbor . The highway , commissioned in 1929 , connected Ann Arbor and Dexter to the northwest along present @-@ day Dexter – Ann Arbor Road . The roadway was turned back to local control around 1960 .
= = Route description = =
Beginning at the intersection of Main Street and Baker Road in downtown Dexter , M @-@ 132 ran southeasterly along Main Street through town . Upon reaching the city limits , the highway became Dexter – Ann Arbor Road . It ran southeast across rural Washtenaw County through fields before entering Ann Arbor where it followed Dexter Avenue and terminated at US Highway 12 ( US 12 , Huron Street / Jackson Avenue ) .
= = History = =
M @-@ 132 was commissioned in 1929 between Dexter and Ann Arbor ; at the time it was created , it was fully paved . It remained in the same configuration until it was removed from the state trunkline system around 1960 , after the freeway carrying Interstate 94 and US 12 was completed near Ann Arbor . After removal from the state highway system , the roadway is now simply known as Dexter – Ann Arbor Road ; it is two lanes wide throughout .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Washtenaw County .
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= Proteasome =
Proteasomes are protein complexes inside all eukaryotes and archaea , and in some bacteria . The main function of the proteasome is to degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis , a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds .
In eukaryotes , proteasomes are located in the nucleus and the cytoplasm . The main function of the proteasome is to degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis , a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds . Enzymes that help such reactions are called proteases . Proteasomes are part of a major mechanism by which cells regulate the concentration of particular proteins and degrade misfolded proteins . The degradation process yields peptides of about seven to eight amino acids long , which can then be further degraded into shorter amino acid sequences and used in synthesizing new proteins . Proteins are tagged for degradation with a small protein called ubiquitin . The tagging reaction is catalyzed by enzymes called ubiquitin ligases . Once a protein is tagged with a single ubiquitin molecule , this is a signal to other ligases to attach additional ubiquitin molecules . The result is a polyubiquitin chain that is bound by the proteasome , allowing it to degrade the tagged protein .
In structure , the proteasome is a cylindrical complex containing a " core " of four stacked rings forming a central pore . Each ring is composed of seven individual proteins . The inner two rings are made of seven β subunits that contain three to seven protease active sites . These sites are located on the interior surface of the rings , so that the target protein must enter the central pore before it is degraded . The outer two rings each contain seven α subunits whose function is to maintain a " gate " through which proteins enter the barrel . These α subunits are controlled by binding to " cap " structures or regulatory particles that recognize polyubiquitin tags attached to protein substrates and initiate the degradation process . The overall system of ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation is known as the ubiquitin @-@ proteasome system .
The proteasomal degradation pathway is essential for many cellular processes , including the cell cycle , the regulation of gene expression , and responses to oxidative stress . The importance of proteolytic degradation inside cells and the role of ubiquitin in proteolytic pathways was acknowledged in the award of the 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Aaron Ciechanover , Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose .
= = Discovery = =
Before the discovery of the ubiquitin proteasome system , protein degradation in cells was thought to rely mainly on lysosomes , membrane @-@ bound organelles with acidic and protease @-@ filled interiors that can degrade and then recycle exogenous proteins and aged or damaged organelles . However , work by Alfred Goldberg in 1977 on ATP @-@ dependent protein degradation in reticulocytes , which lack lysosomes , suggested the presence of a second intracellular degradation mechanism . This was shown in 1978 to be composed of several distinct protein chains , a novelty among proteases at the time . Later work on modification of histones led to the identification of an unexpected covalent modification of the histone protein by a bond between a lysine side chain of the histone and the C @-@ terminal glycine residue of ubiquitin , a protein that had no known function . It was then discovered that a previously identified protein associated with proteolytic degradation , known as ATP @-@ dependent proteolysis factor 1 ( APF @-@ 1 ) , was the same protein as ubiquitin . The proteolytic activities of this system was isolated as a multi @-@ protein complex originally called the multi @-@ catalytic proteinase complex by Sherwin Wilk and Marion Orlowski . Later , the ATP @-@ dependent proteolytic complex that was responsible for ubiquitin @-@ dependent protein degradation was discovered and was called the 26S proteasome .
Much of the early work leading up to the discovery of the ubiquitin proteasome system occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s at the Technion in the laboratory of Avram Hershko , where Aaron Ciechanover worked as a graduate student . Hershko 's year @-@ long sabbatical in the laboratory of Irwin Rose at the Fox Chase Cancer Center provided key conceptual insights , though Rose later downplayed his role in the discovery . The three shared the 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work in discovering this system .
Although electron microscopy data revealing the stacked @-@ ring structure of the proteasome became available in the mid @-@ 1980s , the first structure of the proteasome core particle was not solved by X @-@ ray crystallography until 1994 .
= = Structure and organization = =
The proteasome subcomponents are often referred to by their Svedberg sedimentation coefficient ( denoted S ) . The proteasome most exclusively used in mammals is the cytosolic 26S proteasome , which is about 2000 kilodaltons ( kDa ) in molecular mass containing one 20S protein subunit and two 19S regulatory cap subunits . The core is hollow and provides an enclosed cavity in which proteins are degraded ; openings at the two ends of the core allow the target protein to enter . Each end of the core particle associates with a 19S regulatory subunit that contains multiple ATPase active sites and ubiquitin binding sites ; it is this structure that recognizes polyubiquitinated proteins and transfers them to the catalytic core . An alternative form of regulatory subunit called the 11S particle can associate with the core in essentially the same manner as the 19S particle ; the 11S may play a role in degradation of foreign peptides such as those produced after infection by a virus .
= = = 20S core particle = = =
The number and diversity of subunits contained in the 20S core particle depends on the organism ; the number of distinct and specialized subunits is larger in multicellular than unicellular organisms and larger in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes . All 20S particles consist of four stacked heptameric ring structures that are themselves composed of two different types of subunits ; α subunits are structural in nature , whereas β subunits are predominantly catalytic . The outer two rings in the stack consist of seven α subunits each , which serve as docking domains for the regulatory particles and the alpha subunits N @-@ termini form a gate that blocks unregulated access of substrates to the interior cavity . The inner two rings each consist of seven β subunits and contain the protease active sites that perform the proteolysis reactions . Three distinct catalytic activities were identified in the purified complex : chymotrypsin @-@ like , trypsin @-@ like and peptidylglutamyl @-@ peptide hydrolyzing . The size of the proteasome is relatively conserved and is about 150 angstroms ( Å ) by 115 Å . The interior chamber is at most 53 Å wide , though the entrance can be as narrow as 13 Å , suggesting that substrate proteins must be at least partially unfolded to enter .
In archaea such as Thermoplasma acidophilum , all the α and all the β subunits are identical , whereas eukaryotic proteasomes such as those in yeast contain seven distinct types of each subunit . In mammals , the β1 , β2 , and β5 subunits are catalytic ; although they share a common mechanism , they have three distinct substrate specificities considered chymotrypsin @-@ like , trypsin @-@ like , and peptidyl @-@ glutamyl peptide @-@ hydrolyzing ( PHGH ) . Alternative β forms denoted β1i , β2i , and β5i can be expressed in hematopoietic cells in response to exposure to pro @-@ inflammatory signals such as cytokines , in particular , interferon gamma . The proteasome assembled with these alternative subunits is known as the immunoproteasome , whose substrate specificity is altered relative to the normal proteasome .
= = = 19S regulatory particle = = =
The 19S particle in eukaryotes consists of 19 individual proteins and is divisible into two subassemblies , a 9 @-@ subunit base that binds directly to the α ring of the 20S core particle , and a 10 @-@ subunit lid . Six of the nine base proteins are ATPase subunits from the AAA Family , and an evolutionary homolog of these ATPases exists in archaea , called PAN ( Proteasome @-@ Activating Nucleotidase ) . The association of the 19S and 20S particles requires the binding of ATP to the 19S ATPase subunits , and ATP hydrolysis is required for the assembled complex to degrade folded and ubiquitinated proteins . Note that only the step of substrate unfolding requires energy from ATP hydrolysis , while ATP @-@ binding alone can support all the other steps required for protein degradation ( e.g. , complex assembly , gate opening , translocation , and proteolysis ) . In fact , ATP binding to the ATPases by itself supports the rapid degradation of unfolded proteins . However , while ATP hydrolysis is required for unfolding only , it is not yet clear whether this energy may be used in the coupling of some of these steps .
In 2012 , two independent efforts have elucidated the molecular architecture of the 26S proteasome by single particle electron microscopy . More recently , a pseudo @-@ atomic atomic model has been built , again using cryo @-@ EM . In the heart of the 19S , directly adjacent to the 20S , are the AAA @-@ ATPases ( AAA proteins ) that assemble to a heterohexameric ring of the order Rpt1 / Rpt2 / Rpt6 / Rpt3 / Rpt4 / Rpt5 . This ring is a trimer of dimers : Rpt1 / Rpt2 , Rpt6 / Rpt3 , and Rpt4 / Rpt5 dimerize via their N @-@ terminal coiled @-@ coils . These coiled @-@ coils protrude from the hexameric ring . The largest regulatory particle non @-@ ATPases Rpn1 and Rpn2 bind to the tips of Rpt1 / 2 and Rpt6 / 3 , respectively . The ubiquitin receptor Rpn13 binds to Rpn2 and completes the base cub @-@ complex . The lid covers one half of the AAA @-@ ATPase hexamer ( Rpt6 / Rpt3 / Rpt4 ) and , unexpectedly , directly contacts the 20S via Rpn6 and to lesser extent Rpn5 . The subunits Rpn9 , Rpn5 , Rpn6 , Rpn7 , Rpn3 , and Rpn12 , which are structurally related among themselves and to subunits of the COP9 complex and the Eukaryotic initiation factor 3 ( hence called PCI subunits ) assemble to a horseshoe @-@ like structure enclosing the Rpn8 / Rpn11 heterodimer . Rpn11 , the deubiquinating enzyme , is placed at the mouth of the AAA @-@ ATPase hexamer , ideally positioned to remove ubiquitin moieties immediately before translocation of substrates into the 20S . The second ubiquitin receptor identified to date , Rpn10 , is positioned at the periphery of the lid , near subunits Rpn8 and Rpn9 .
= = = Conformational changes of 19S = = =
The 19S regulatory particle has been observed in three strongly differing conformational states to date . Realization of all these three conformational states is likely necessary for accomplishing substrate recognition and degradation ( see below ) . A hallmark of the AAA @-@ ATPase configuration in this predominant low @-@ energy state is a staircase- or lockwasher @-@ like arrangement of the AAA @-@ domains . Also in the presence of ATP but absence of substrate an alternative , less abundant conformation of the 19S is adopted primarily differing in the positioning of the lid with respect to the AAA @-@ ATPase module . In the presence of ATP @-@ gammaS or a substrate ( stabilized in a 26S mutant with defective Rpn11 ) a third conformation has been observed displaying a dramatic structural change of the AAA @-@ ATPase module .
= = = Regulation of the 20S by the 19S = = =
The 19S regulatory particle is responsible for stimulating the 20S to degrade proteins . A primary function of the 19S regulatory ATPases is to open the gate in the 20S that blocks the entry of substrates into the degradation chamber . The mechanism by which the proteasomal ATPase open this gate has been recently elucidated . 20S gate opening , and thus substrate degradation , requires the C @-@ termini of the proteasomal ATPases , which contains a specific motif ( i.e. , HbYX motif ) . The ATPases C @-@ termini bind into pockets in the top of the 20S , and tether the ATPase complex to the 20S proteolytic complex , thus joining the substrate unfolding equipment with the 20S degradation machinery . Binding of these C @-@ termini into these 20S pockets by themselves stimulates opening of the gate in the 20S in much the same way that a " key @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lock " opens a door . The precise mechanism by which this " key @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lock " mechanism functions has been structurally elucidated .
= = = 11S regulatory particle = = =
20S proteasomes can also associate with a second type of regulatory particle , the 11S regulatory particle , a heptameric structure that does not contain any ATPases and can promote the degradation of short peptides but not of complete proteins . It is presumed that this is because the complex cannot unfold larger substrates . This structure is also known as PA28 or REG . The mechanisms by which it binds to the core particle through the C @-@ terminal tails of its subunits and induces α @-@ ring conformational changes to open the 20S gate suggest a similar mechanism for the 19S particle . The expression of the 11S particle is induced by interferon gamma and is responsible , in conjunction with the immunoproteasome β subunits , for the generation of peptides that bind to the major histocompatibility complex .
= = Assembly = =
The assembly of the proteasome is a complex process due to the number of subunits that must associate to form an active complex . The β subunits are synthesized with N @-@ terminal " propeptides " that are post @-@ translationally modified during the assembly of the 20S particle to expose the proteolytic active site . The 20S particle is assembled from two half @-@ proteasomes , each of which consists of a seven @-@ membered pro @-@ β ring attached to a seven @-@ membered α ring . The association of the β rings of the two half @-@ proteasomes triggers threonine @-@ dependent autolysis of the propeptides to expose the active site . These β interactions are mediated mainly by salt bridges and hydrophobic interactions between conserved alpha helices whose disruption by mutation damages the proteasome 's ability to assemble . The assembly of the half @-@ proteasomes , in turn , is initiated by the assembly of the α subunits into their heptameric ring , forming a template for the association of the corresponding pro @-@ β ring . The assembly of α subunits has not been characterized .
Only recently , the assembly process of the 19S regulatory particle has been elucidated to considerable extent . The 19S regulatory particle assembles as two distinct subcomponents , the base and the lid . Assembly of the base complex is facilitated by four assembly chaperones , Hsm3 / S5b , Nas2 / p27 , Rpn14 / PAAF1 , and Nas6 / gankyrin ( names for yeast / mammals ) . These assembly chaperones bind to the AAA @-@ ATPase subunits and their main function seems to be to ensure proper assembly of the heterohexameric AAA @-@ ATPase ring . To date it is still under debate whether the base complex assembles separately , whether the assembly is templated by the 20S core particle , or whether alternative assembly pathways exist . In addition to the four assembly chaperones , the deubiquitinating enzyme Ubp6 / Usp14 also promotes base assembly , but it is not essential . The lid assembles separately in a specific order and does not require assembly chaperones .
= = The protein degradation process = =
= = = Ubiquitination and targeting = = =
Proteins are targeted for degradation by the proteasome with covalent modification of a lysine residue that requires the coordinated reactions of three enzymes . In the first step , a ubiquitin @-@ activating enzyme ( known as E1 ) hydrolyzes ATP and adenylylates a ubiquitin molecule . This is then transferred to E1 's active @-@ site cysteine residue in concert with the adenylylation of a second ubiquitin . This adenylylated ubiquitin is then transferred to a cysteine of a second enzyme , ubiquitin @-@ conjugating enzyme ( E2 ) . In the last step , a member of a highly diverse class of enzymes known as ubiquitin ligases ( E3 ) recognizes the specific protein to be ubiquitinated and catalyzes the transfer of ubiquitin from E2 to this target protein . A target protein must be labeled with at least four ubiquitin monomers ( in the form of a polyubiquitin chain ) before it is recognized by the proteasome lid . It is therefore the E3 that confers substrate specificity to this system . The number of E1 , E2 , and E3 proteins expressed depends on the organism and cell type , but there are many different E3 enzymes present in humans , indicating that there is a huge number of targets for the ubiquitin proteasome system .
The mechanism by which a polyubiquitinated protein is targeted to the proteasome is not fully understood . Ubiquitin @-@ receptor proteins have an N @-@ terminal ubiquitin @-@ like ( UBL ) domain and one or more ubiquitin @-@ associated ( UBA ) domains . The UBL domains are recognized by the 19S proteasome caps and the UBA domains bind ubiquitin via three @-@ helix bundles . These receptor proteins may escort polyubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome , though the specifics of this interaction and its regulation are unclear .
The ubiquitin protein itself is 76 amino acids long and was named due to its ubiquitous nature , as it has a highly conserved sequence and is found in all known eukaryotic organisms . The genes encoding ubiquitin in eukaryotes are arranged in tandem repeats , possibly due to the heavy transcription demands on these genes to produce enough ubiquitin for the cell . It has been proposed that ubiquitin is the slowest @-@ evolving protein identified to date . Ubiquitin contains seven lysine residues to which another ubiquitin can be ligated , resulting in different types of polyubiquitin chains . Chains in which each additional ubiquitin is linked to lysine 48 of the previous ubiquitin have a role in proteasome targeting , while other types of chains may be involved in other processes .
= = = Unfolding and translocation = = =
After a protein has been ubiquitinated , it is recognized by the 19S regulatory particle in an ATP @-@ dependent binding step . The substrate protein must then enter the interior of the 20S particle to come in contact with the proteolytic active sites . Because the 20S particle 's central channel is narrow and gated by the N @-@ terminal tails of the α ring subunits , the substrates must be at least partially unfolded before they enter the core . The passage of the unfolded substrate into the core is called translocation and necessarily occurs after deubiquitination . However , the order in which substrates are deubiquitinated and unfolded is not yet clear . Which of these processes is the rate @-@ limiting step in the overall proteolysis reaction depends on the specific substrate ; for some proteins , the unfolding process is rate @-@ limiting , while deubiquitination is the slowest step for other proteins . The extent to which substrates must be unfolded before translocation is not known , but substantial tertiary structure , and in particular nonlocal interactions such as disulfide bonds , are sufficient to inhibit degradation . The presence of intrinsically disordered protein segments of sufficient size , either at the protein terminus or internally , has also been proposed to facilitate efficient initiation of degradation .
The gate formed by the α subunits prevents peptides longer than about four residues from entering the interior of the 20S particle . The ATP molecules bound before the initial recognition step are hydrolyzed before translocation . While energy is needed for substrate unfolding , it is not required for translocation . The assembled 26S proteasome can degrade unfolded proteins in the presence of a non @-@ hydrolyzable ATP analog , but cannot degrade folded proteins , indicating that energy from ATP hydrolysis is used for substrate unfolding . Passage of the unfolded substrate through the opened gate occurs via facilitated diffusion if the 19S cap is in the ATP @-@ bound state .
The mechanism for unfolding of globular proteins is necessarily general , but somewhat dependent on the amino acid sequence . Long sequences of alternating glycine and alanine have been shown to inhibit substrate unfolding , decreasing the efficiency of proteasomal degradation ; this results in the release of partially degraded byproducts , possibly due to the decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis and unfolding steps . Such glycine @-@ alanine repeats are also found in nature , for example in silk fibroin ; in particular , certain Epstein @-@ Barr virus gene products bearing this sequence can stall the proteasome , helping the virus propagate by preventing antigen presentation on the major histocompatibility complex .
= = = Proteolysis = = =
The mechanism of proteolysis by the β subunits of the 20S core particle is through a threonine @-@ dependent nucleophilic attack . This mechanism may depend on an associated water molecule for deprotonation of the reactive threonine hydroxyl . Degradation occurs within the central chamber formed by the association of the two β rings and normally does not release partially degraded products , instead reducing the substrate to short polypeptides typically 7 – 9 residues long , though they can range from 4 to 25 residues , depending on the organism and substrate . The biochemical mechanism that determines product length is not fully characterized . Although the three catalytic β subunits have a common mechanism , they have slightly different substrate specificities , which are considered chymotrypsin @-@ like , trypsin @-@ like , and peptidyl @-@ glutamyl peptide @-@ hydrolyzing ( PHGH ) -like . These variations in specificity are the result of interatomic contacts with local residues near the active sites of each subunit . Each catalytic β subunit also possesses a conserved lysine residue required for proteolysis .
Although the proteasome normally produces very short peptide fragments , in some cases these products are themselves biologically active and functional molecules . Certain transcription factors regulating the expression of specific genes , including one component of the mammalian complex NF @-@ κB , are synthesized as inactive precursors whose ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation converts them to an active form . Such activity requires the proteasome to cleave the substrate protein internally , rather than processively degrading it from one terminus . It has been suggested that long loops on these proteins ' surfaces serve as the proteasomal substrates and enter the central cavity , while the majority of the protein remains outside . Similar effects have been observed in yeast proteins ; this mechanism of selective degradation is known as regulated ubiquitin / proteasome dependent processing ( RUP ) .
= = = Ubiquitin @-@ independent degradation = = =
Although most proteasomal substrates must be ubiquitinated before being degraded , there are some exceptions to this general rule , especially when the proteasome plays a normal role in the post @-@ translational processing of the protein . The proteasomal activation of NF @-@ κB by processing p105 into p50 via internal proteolysis is one major example . Some proteins that are hypothesized to be unstable due to intrinsically unstructured regions , are degraded in a ubiquitin @-@ independent manner . The most well @-@ known example of a ubiquitin @-@ independent proteasome substrate is the enzyme ornithine decarboxylase . Ubiquitin @-@ independent mechanisms targeting key cell cycle regulators such as p53 have also been reported , although p53 is also subject to ubiquitin @-@ dependent degradation . Finally , structurally abnormal , misfolded , or highly oxidized proteins are also subject to ubiquitin @-@ independent and 19S @-@ independent degradation under conditions of cellular stress .
= = Evolution = =
The 20S proteasome is both ubiquitous and essential in eukaryotes . Some prokaryotes , including many archaea and the bacterial order Actinomycetales also share homologs of the 20S proteasome , whereas most bacteria possess heat shock genes hslV and hslU , whose gene products are a multimeric protease arranged in a two @-@ layered ring and an ATPase . The hslV protein has been hypothesized to resemble the likely ancestor of the 20S proteasome . In general , HslV is not essential in bacteria , and not all bacteria possess it , whereas some protists possess both the 20S and the hslV systems . Many bacteria also possess other homologs of the proteasome and an associated ATPase , most notably ClpP and ClpX . This redundancy explains why the HslUV system is not essential .
Sequence analysis suggests that the catalytic β subunits diverged earlier in evolution than the predominantly structural α subunits . In bacteria that express a 20S proteasome , the β subunits have high sequence identity to archaeal and eukaryotic β subunits , whereas the α sequence identity is much lower . The presence of 20S proteasomes in bacteria may result from lateral gene transfer , while the diversification of subunits among eukaryotes is ascribed to multiple gene duplication events .
= = Cell cycle control = =
Cell cycle progression is controlled by ordered action of cyclin @-@ dependent kinases ( CDKs ) , activated by specific cyclins that demarcate phases of the cell cycle . Mitotic cyclins , which persist in the cell for only a few minutes , have one of the shortest life spans of all intracellular proteins . After a CDK @-@ cyclin complex has performed its function , the associated cyclin is polyubiquitinated and destroyed by the proteasome , which provides directionality for the cell cycle . In particular , exit from mitosis requires the proteasome @-@ dependent dissociation of the regulatory component cyclin B from the mitosis promoting factor complex . In vertebrate cells , " slippage " through the mitotic checkpoint leading to premature M phase exit can occur despite the delay of this exit by the spindle checkpoint .
Earlier cell cycle checkpoints such as post @-@ restriction point check between G1 phase and S phase similarly involve proteasomal degradation of cyclin A , whose ubiquitination is promoted by the anaphase promoting complex ( APC ) , an E3 ubiquitin ligase . The APC and the Skp1 / Cul1 / F @-@ box protein complex ( SCF complex ) are the two key regulators of cyclin degradation and checkpoint control ; the SCF itself is regulated by the APC via ubiquitination of the adaptor protein , Skp2 , which prevents SCF activity before the G1 @-@ S transition .
Individual components of the 19S particle have their own regulatory roles . Gankyrin , a recently identified oncoprotein , is one of the 19S subcomponents that also tightly binds the cyclin @-@ dependent kinase CDK4 and plays a key role in recognizing ubiquitinated p53 , via its affinity for the ubiquitin ligase MDM2 . Gankyrin is anti @-@ apoptotic and has been shown to be overexpressed in some tumor cell types such as hepatocellular carcinoma .
= = = Regulation of plant growth = = =
In plants , signaling by auxins , or phytohormones that order the direction and tropism of plant growth , induces the targeting of a class of transcription factor repressors known as Aux / IAA proteins for proteasomal degradation . These proteins are ubiquitinated by SCFTIR1 , or SCF in complex with the auxin receptor TIR1 . Degradation of Aux / IAA proteins derepresses transcription factors in the auxin @-@ response factor ( ARF ) family and induces ARF @-@ directed gene expression . The cellular consequences of ARF activation depend on the plant type and developmental stage , but are involved in directing growth in roots and leaf veins . The specific response to ARF derepression is thought to be mediated by specificity in the pairing of individual ARF and Aux / IAA proteins .
= = = Apoptosis = = =
Both internal and external signals can lead to the induction of apoptosis , or programmed cell death . The resulting deconstruction of cellular components is primarily carried out by specialized proteases known as caspases , but the proteasome also plays important and diverse roles in the apoptotic process . The involvement of the proteasome in this process is indicated by both the increase in protein ubiquitination , and of E1 , E2 , and E3 enzymes that is observed well in advance of apoptosis . During apoptosis , proteasomes localized to the nucleus have also been observed to translocate to outer membrane blebs characteristic of apoptosis .
Proteasome inhibition has different effects on apoptosis induction in different cell types . In general , the proteasome is not required for apoptosis , although inhibiting it is pro @-@ apoptotic in most cell types that have been studied . Apoptosis is mediated through disrupting the regulated degradation of pro @-@ growth cell cycle proteins . However , some cell lines — in particular , primary cultures of quiescent and differentiated cells such as thymocytes and neurons — are prevented from undergoing apoptosis on exposure to proteasome inhibitors . The mechanism for this effect is not clear , but is hypothesized to be specific to cells in quiescent states , or to result from the differential activity of the pro @-@ apoptotic kinase JNK . The ability of proteasome inhibitors to induce apoptosis in rapidly dividing cells has been exploited in several recently developed chemotherapy agents such as bortezomib and salinosporamide A.
= = Response to cellular stress = =
In response to cellular stresses – such as infection , heat shock , or oxidative damage – heat shock proteins that identify misfolded or unfolded proteins and target them for proteasomal degradation are expressed . Both Hsp27 and Hsp90 — chaperone proteins have been implicated in increasing the activity of the ubiquitin @-@ proteasome system , though they are not direct participants in the process . Hsp70 , on the other hand , binds exposed hydrophobic patches on the surface of misfolded proteins and recruits E3 ubiquitin ligases such as CHIP to tag the proteins for proteasomal degradation . The CHIP protein ( carboxyl terminus of Hsp70 @-@ interacting protein ) is itself regulated via inhibition of interactions between the E3 enzyme CHIP and its E2 binding partner .
Similar mechanisms exist to promote the degradation of oxidatively damaged proteins via the proteasome system . In particular , proteasomes localized to the nucleus are regulated by PARP and actively degrade inappropriately oxidized histones . Oxidized proteins , which often form large amorphous aggregates in the cell , can be degraded directly by the 20S core particle without the 19S regulatory cap and do not require ATP hydrolysis or tagging with ubiquitin . However , high levels of oxidative damage increases the degree of cross @-@ linking between protein fragments , rendering the aggregates resistant to proteolysis . Larger numbers and sizes of such highly oxidized aggregates are associated with aging .
Dysregulation of the ubiquitin proteasome system may contribute to several neural diseases . It may lead to brain tumors such as astrocytomas . In some of the late @-@ onset neurodegenerative diseases that share aggregation of misfolded proteins as a common feature , such as Parkinson 's disease and Alzheimer 's disease , large insoluble aggregates of misfolded proteins can form and then result in neurotoxicity , through mechanisms that are not yet well understood . Decreased proteasome activity has been suggested as a cause of aggregation and Lewy body formation in Parkinson 's . This hypothesis is supported by the observation that yeast models of Parkinson 's are more susceptible to toxicity from α @-@ synuclein , the major protein component of Lewy bodies , under conditions of low proteasome activity . Impaired proteasomal activity may underlie cognitive disorders such as the autism spectrum disorders , and muscle and nerve diseases such as inclusion body myopathy .
= = Role in the immune system = =
The proteasome plays a straightforward but critical role in the function of the adaptive immune system . Peptide antigens are displayed by the major histocompatibility complex class I ( MHC ) proteins on the surface of antigen @-@ presenting cells . These peptides are products of proteasomal degradation of proteins originated by the invading pathogen . Although constitutively expressed proteasomes can participate in this process , a specialized complex composed of proteins , whose expression is induced by interferon gamma , are the primary producers of peptides which are optimal in size and composition for MHC binding . These proteins whose expression increases during the immune response include the 11S regulatory particle , whose main known biological role is regulating the production of MHC ligands , and specialized β subunits called β1i , β2i , and β5i with altered substrate specificity . The complex formed with the specialized β subunits is known as the immunoproteasome . Another β5i variant subunit , β5t , is expressed in the thymus , leading to a thymus @-@ specific " thymoproteasome " whose function is as yet unclear .
The strength of MHC class I ligand binding is dependent on the composition of the ligand C @-@ terminus , as peptides bind by hydrogen bonding and by close contacts with a region called the " B pocket " on the MHC surface . Many MHC class I alleles prefer hydrophobic C @-@ terminal residues , and the immunoproteasome complex is more likely to generate hydrophobic C @-@ termini .
Due to its role in generating the activated form of NF @-@ κB , an anti @-@ apoptotic and pro @-@ inflammatory regulator of cytokine expression , proteasomal activity has been linked to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases . Increased levels of proteasome activity correlate with disease activity and have been implicated in autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis .
The proteasome is also involved in Intracellular antibody @-@ mediated proteolysis of antibody @-@ bound virions . In this neutralisation pathway , TRIM21 ( a protein of the tripartite motif family ) binds with immunoglobulin G to direct the virion to the proteasome where it is degraded .
= = Proteasome inhibitors = =
Proteasome inhibitors have effective anti @-@ tumor activity in cell culture , inducing apoptosis by disrupting the regulated degradation of pro @-@ growth cell cycle proteins . This approach of selectively inducing apoptosis in tumor cells has proven effective in animal models and human trials .
Lactacystin , a natural product synthesized by Streptomyces bacteria , was the first non @-@ peptidic proteasome inhibitor discovered and is widely used as a research tool in biochemistry and cell biology . Lactacystin was licensed to Myogenics / Proscript , which was acquired by Millennium Pharmaceuticals , now part of Takeda Pharmaceuticals . Lactacystin covalently modifies the amino @-@ terminal threonine of catalytic β subunits of the proteasome , particularly the β5 subunit responsible for the proteasome 's chymotrypsin @-@ like activity . This discovery helped to establish the proteasome as a mechanistically novel class of protease : an amino @-@ terminal threonine protease .
Bortezomib ( Boronated MG132 ) , a molecule developed by Millennium Pharmaceuticals and marketed as Velcade , is the first proteasome inhibitor to reach clinical use as a chemotherapy agent . Bortezomib is used in the treatment of multiple myeloma . Notably , multiple myeloma has been observed to result in increased proteasome @-@ derived peptide levels in blood serum that decrease to normal levels in response to successful chemotherapy . Studies in animals have indicated that bortezomib may also have clinically significant effects in pancreatic cancer . Preclinical and early clinical studies have been started to examine bortezomib 's effectiveness in treating other B @-@ cell @-@ related cancers , particularly some types of non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma . Clinical results also seem to justify use of proteasome inhibitor combined with chemotherapy , for B @-@ cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia Proteasome inhibitor can kill some types of cultured leukemia cells that are resistant to glucocorticoid .
The molecule ritonavir , marketed as Norvir , was developed as a protease inhibitor and used to target HIV infection . However , it has been shown to inhibit proteasomes as well as free proteases ; to be specific , the chymotrypsin @-@ like activity of the proteasome is inhibited by ritonavir , while the trypsin @-@ like activity is somewhat enhanced . Studies in animal models suggest that ritonavir may have inhibitory effects on the growth of glioma cells .
Proteasome inhibitors have also shown promise in treating autoimmune diseases in animal models . For example , studies in mice bearing human skin grafts found a reduction in the size of lesions from psoriasis after treatment with a proteasome inhibitor . Inhibitors also show positive effects in rodent models of asthma .
Labeling and inhibition of the proteasome is also of interest in laboratory settings for both in vitro and in vivo study of proteasomal activity in cells . The most commonly used laboratory inhibitors are lactacystin and the peptide aldehyde MG132 initially developed by Goldberg lab . Fluorescent inhibitors have also been developed to specifically label the active sites of the assembled proteasome .
= = Clinical significance = =
The Proteasome and its subunits are of clinical significance for at least two reasons : ( 1 ) a compromised complex assembly or a dysfunctional proteasome can be associated with the underlying pathophysiology of specific diseases , and ( 2 ) they can be exploited as drug targets for therapeutic interventions . More recently , more effort has been made to consider the proteasome for the development of novel diagnostic markers and strategies . An improved and comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiology of the proteasome should lead to clinical applications in the future .
The proteasomes form a pivotal component for the Ubiquitin @-@ Proteasome System ( UPS ) and corresponding cellular Protein Quality Control ( PQC ) . Protein ubiquitination and subsequent proteolysis and degradation by the proteasome are important mechanisms in the regulation of the cell cycle , cell growth and differentiation , gene transcription , signal transduction and apoptosis . Subsequently , a compromised proteasome complex assembly and function lead to reduced proteolytic activities and the accumulation of damaged or misfolded protein species . Such protein accumulation may contribute to the pathogenesis and phenotypic characteristics in neurodegenerative diseases , cardiovascular diseases , inflammatory responses and autoimmune diseases , and systemic DNA damage responses leading to malignancies .
Several experimental and clinical studies have indicated that aberrations and deregulations of the UPS contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative and myodegenerative disorders , including Alzheimer 's disease , Parkinson 's disease and Pick 's disease , Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS ) , Huntington 's disease , Creutzfeldt @-@ Jacob disease , and motor neuron diseases , polyglutamine ( PolyQ ) diseases , Muscular dystrophies and several rare forms of neurodegenerative diseases associated with dementia . As part of the Ubiquitin @-@ Proteasome System ( UPS ) , the proteasome maintains cardiac protein homeostasis and thus plays a significant role in cardiac Ischemic injury , ventricular hypertrophy and Heart failure . Additionally , evidence is accumulating that the UPS plays an essential role in malignant transformation . UPS proteolysis plays a major role in responses of cancer cells to stimulatory signals that are critical for the development of cancer . Accordingly , gene expression by degradation of transcription factors , such as p53 , c @-@ Jun , c @-@ Fos , NF @-@ κB , c @-@ Myc , HIF @-@ 1α , MATα2 , STAT3 , sterol @-@ regulated element @-@ binding proteins and androgen receptors are all controlled by the UPS and thus involved in the development of various malignancies . Moreover , the UPS regulates the degradation of tumor suppressor gene products such as adenomatous polyposis coli ( APC ) in colorectal cancer , retinoblastoma ( Rb ) . and von Hippel @-@ Lindau tumor suppressor ( VHL ) , as well as a number of proto @-@ oncogenes ( Raf , Myc , Myb , Rel , Src , Mos , Abl ) .The UPS is also involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses . This activity is usually attributed to the role of proteasomes in the activation of NF @-@ κB which further regulates the expression of pro inflammatory cytokines such as TNF @-@ α , IL @-@ β , IL @-@ 8 , adhesion molecules ( ICAM @-@ 1 , VCAM @-@ 1 , P selectine ) and prostaglandins and nitric oxide ( NO ) . Additionally , the UPS also plays a role in inflammatory responses as regulators of leukocyte proliferation , mainly through proteolysis of cyclines and the degradation of CDK inhibitors . Lastly , autoimmune disease patients with SLE , Sjogren 's syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis ( RA ) predominantly exhibit circulating proteasomes which can be applied as clinical biomarkers .
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= Mary Celeste =
Mary Celeste ( often misreported as Marie Celeste ) was an American merchant vessel brigantine that was found adrift and deserted in the Atlantic Ocean , off the Azores Islands , Portugal , on December 5 , 1872 , by the Canadian brigantine Dei Gratia . She was in a dishevelled but seaworthy condition , under partial sail , with nobody on board , and her lifeboat missing . The last log entry was dated ten days earlier . She had left New York City for Genoa on November 7 , and on discovery was still amply provisioned . Her cargo of denatured alcohol was intact , and the captain 's and crew 's personal belongings were undisturbed . None of those who had been on board , the captain and his wife , their two @-@ year @-@ old daughter , and the crew of seven , were ever seen or heard from again .
Mary Celeste was built in Spencer 's Island , Nova Scotia and launched under British registration as Amazon , in 1861 . She transferred to American ownership and registration in 1868 , when she acquired her new name , and thereafter sailed uneventfully until her 1872 voyage . At the salvage hearings in Gibraltar , following her recovery , the court 's officers considered various possibilities of foul play , including mutiny by Mary Celeste 's crew , piracy by the Dei Gratia crew or others , and conspiracy to carry out insurance or salvage fraud . No convincing evidence was found to support these theories , but unresolved suspicions led to a relatively low salvage award .
The inconclusive nature of the hearings helped to foster continued speculation as to the nature of the mystery , and the story has repeatedly been complicated by false detail and fantasy . Hypotheses that have been advanced include the effects on the crew of alcohol fumes rising from the cargo , submarine earthquakes ( seaquakes ) , waterspouts , attacks by giant squid , and paranormal intervention .
After the Gibraltar hearings , Mary Celeste continued in service under new owners . In 1885 , her captain deliberately wrecked her off the coast of Haiti , as part of an attempted insurance fraud . The story of her 1872 abandonment has been recounted and dramatized many times , in documentaries , novels , plays and films , and the name of the ship has become synonymous with unexplained desertion .
In 1884 , Arthur Conan Doyle wrote a short story based on the mystery , but spelled the vessel 's name as Marie Celeste . This spelling has now become more common than the original in everyday use .
= = Early history = =
= = = Amazon = = =
The keel of the future Mary Celeste was laid in late 1860 at the shipyard of Joshua Dewis in the village of Spencer 's Island , on the shores of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia . The ship was constructed of locally felled timber , with two masts , and was rigged as a brigantine ; she was carvel @-@ built , with the hull planking flush rather than overlapping . She was launched on May 18 , 1861 , given the name Amazon , and registered at nearby Parrsboro on June 10 , 1861 . Her registration documents described her as 99 @.@ 3 feet ( 30 @.@ 3 m ) in length , 25 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) broad , with a depth of 11 @.@ 7 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) , and of 198 @.@ 42 gross tonnage . She was owned by a local consortium of nine people , headed by Dewis ; among the co @-@ owners was Robert McLellan , the ship 's first captain .
For her maiden voyage in June 1861 , Amazon sailed to Five Islands to take on a cargo of timber for passage across the Atlantic to London . After supervising the ship 's loading , Captain McLellan fell ill ; his condition worsened , and Amazon returned to Spencer 's Island where McLellan died on June 19 . John Nutting Parker took over as captain , and resumed the voyage to London , in the course of which Amazon encountered further misadventures . She collided with fishing equipment in the narrows off Eastport , Maine , and after leaving London ran into and sank a brig in the English Channel .
Parker remained in command for two years , during which Amazon worked mainly in the West Indies trade . She crossed the Atlantic to France in November 1861 , and in Marseille was the subject of a painting , possibly by Honoré de Pellegrin , a well @-@ known maritime artist of the Marseilles School . In 1863 Parker was succeeded by William Thompson , who remained in command until 1867 . These were quiet years ; Amazon 's mate later recalled that " we went to the West Indies , England and the Mediterranean — what we call the foreign trade . Not a thing unusual happened " . In October 1867 , at Cape Breton Island , Amazon was driven ashore in a storm , and was so badly damaged that her owners abandoned her as a wreck . On October 15 , she was acquired as a derelict by Alexander McBean , of Glace Bay , Nova Scotia .
= = = New owners , new name = = =
Within a month , McBean sold the wreck to a local businessman , who in November 1868 , sold it to Richard W. Haines , an American mariner from New York . Haines paid US $ 1 @,@ 750 for the wreck , and then spent $ 8 @,@ 825 restoring it . He made himself her captain , and in December 1868 registered her with the Collector of Customs in New York as an American vessel , under a new name , Mary Celeste .
In October 1869 , the ship was seized by Haines 's creditors , and sold to a New York consortium headed by James H. Winchester . During the next three years , the composition of this consortium changed several times , although Winchester retained at least a half @-@ share throughout . There is no record of Mary Celeste 's trading activities during this period . Early in 1872 , the ship underwent a major refit , costing $ 10 @,@ 000 , which enlarged her considerably . Her length was increased to 103 feet ( 31 m ) , her breadth to 25 @.@ 7 feet ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) and her depth to 16 @.@ 2 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) . Among the structural changes , a second deck was added ; an inspector 's report refers to extensions to the poop , new transoms and the replacement of many timbers . The work increased the ship 's tonnage to 282 @.@ 28 . On October 29 , 1872 , the consortium was made up of Winchester , with six @-@ twelfths ; two minor investors with one @-@ twelfth apiece , and the remaining four @-@ twelfths held by the ship 's new captain , Benjamin Spooner Briggs .
= = = Captain Briggs and crew = = =
Benjamin Briggs was born in Wareham , Massachusetts on April 24 , 1835 , one of five sons of sea captain Nathan Briggs . All but one of the sons went to sea , two becoming captains . Benjamin was an observant Christian who read the Bible regularly and often bore witness to his faith at prayer meetings . In 1862 , he married his cousin Sarah Elizabeth Cobb , and enjoyed a Mediterranean honeymoon on board his schooner Forest King . Two children were born : son Arthur in September 1865 , and daughter Sophia Matilda in October 1870 .
By the time of Sophia 's birth , Briggs had achieved a high standing within his profession . Nevertheless , he considered retiring from the sea to go into business with his seafaring brother Oliver , who had also grown tired of the wandering life . They did not proceed with this project , but instead each invested his savings in a share of a ship : Oliver in Julia A. Hallock , and Benjamin in Mary Celeste . In October 1872 , Benjamin took command of Mary Celeste for her first voyage following her extensive New York refit , which took her to Genoa in Italy . He arranged for his wife and infant daughter to accompany him , while his school @-@ aged son was left at home with his grandmother .
Briggs chose the crew for this voyage with care . First mate Albert G. Richardson was married to a niece of Winchester and had sailed under Briggs before . Second mate Andrew Gilling , aged about 25 , was Danish in origin although born in New York . The steward , newly married Edward William Head , was signed on with a personal recommendation from Winchester . The four general seaman were all Germans from the Frisian Islands : the brothers Volkert and Boz Lorenzen , Arian Martens , and Gottlieb Goodschaad . A later testimonial described them as " peaceable and first @-@ class sailors " . In a letter to his mother shortly before the voyage , Briggs declared himself eminently satisfied with ship and crew . Sarah Briggs informed her mother that the crew appeared to be quietly capable , " if they continue as they have begun " .
= = Abandonment = =
= = = New York = = =
On October 20 , 1872 , Briggs arrived at Pier 50 on the East River , New York City , to supervise the loading of the ship 's cargo for Genoa : 1 @,@ 701 barrels of poisonous denatured alcohol . A week later , Briggs was joined by his wife and baby daughter . On Sunday , November 3 , Briggs wrote to his mother , telling her that he intended to leave on Tuesday , adding that " Our vessel is in beautiful trim and I hope we shall have a fine passage " .
On Tuesday morning , November 5 , Mary Celeste left Pier 50 and moved into New York Harbor . The weather was uncertain , and Briggs decided to wait for better conditions . He anchored the ship just off Staten Island , where Sarah used the delay to send a final letter to her mother @-@ in @-@ law , in which she wrote : " Tell Arthur I make great dependence on the letters I shall get from him , and will try to remember anything that happens on the voyage which he would be pleased to hear " . On November 7 , when the weather eased , Mary Celeste left the harbor and went out into the Atlantic .
While Mary Celeste prepared to sail , another brigantine , the Canadian Dei Gratia , lay in nearby Hoboken , New Jersey , awaiting a cargo of petroleum destined for Genoa via Gibraltar . Her captain , David Morehouse , and his first mate Oliver Deveau , were Nova Scotians , both highly experienced and respected seamen . As captains with common interests , it is likely that Morehouse and Briggs knew each other , if only casually . Some accounts assert that they were close friends who , on the evening before Mary Celeste 's departure , dined together , but the evidence for this is limited to a recollection by Morehouse 's widow , 50 years after the event . Dei Gratia departed for Gibraltar on November 15 , eight days after Mary Celeste , following the same general route .
= = = Derelict = = =
Dei Gratia had reached a position of 38 ° 20'N , 17 ° 15'W , midway between the Azores and the coast of Portugal at about 1 pm on Wednesday , December 4 , 1872 , land time ( Thursday , December 5 , sea time ) , . As Captain Morehouse came on deck , the helmsman reported a vessel about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) distant , heading unsteadily towards Dei Gratia . The ship 's erratic movements and the odd set of her sails led Morehouse to suspect that something was wrong . As the vessels drew close , he could see nobody on deck , and he received no reply to his signals , so he sent Deveau and second mate John Wright to investigate . The pair established that she was the Mary Celeste from the name on her stern , then climbed aboard where they found the ship deserted . The sails , partly set , were in a poor condition , some missing altogether , and much of the rigging was damaged , with ropes hanging loosely over the sides . The main hatch cover was secure , but the fore and lazarette hatches were open , their covers beside them on the deck . The ship 's single lifeboat was missing , a small yawl that had apparently been stowed across the main hatch , while the binnacle housing the ship 's compass had shifted from its place , its glass cover broken . There was about 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) of water in the hold , a significant but not alarming amount for a ship this size . A makeshift sounding rod ( a device for measuring the amount of water in the hold ) was found abandoned on the deck .
The last entry on the ship 's daily log , found in the mate 's cabin , was dated at 8 : 00 am on November 25 , nine days earlier . It recorded Mary Celeste 's position then as 37 ° 01'N , 25 ° 01'W , off Santa Maria Island in the Azores — nearly 400 nautical miles ( 740 km ) from the point where Dei Gratia encountered her . Deveau saw that the cabin interiors were wet and untidy from water which had entered through doorways and skylights , but were otherwise in reasonable order . In Briggs 's cabin , Deveau found personal items scattered about , including a sheathed sword under the bed , but most of the ship 's papers were missing , together with the captain 's navigational instruments . Galley equipment was neatly stowed away ; there was no food prepared or under preparation , but there were ample provisions in the stores . There were no obvious signs of fire or violence ; the evidence indicated an orderly departure from the ship , by means of the missing lifeboat .
Deveau reported these findings to Morehouse , who agreed to bring the derelict into Gibraltar , 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) away . Under maritime law , a salvor could expect a substantial share of the combined value of rescued vessel and cargo , the exact award depending on the degree of danger inherent in the salvaging . Morehouse divided Dei Gratia 's crew of eight between the two vessels , sending Deveau and two experienced seamen to Mary Celeste , while he and four others remained on Dei Gratia . The weather was relatively calm for most of the way to Gibraltar , but with each ship seriously undermanned , progress was slow . Dei Gratia reached Gibraltar on December 12 , 1872 , and Mary Celeste , which had encountered fog , arrived on the following morning . She was immediately impounded by the vice admiralty court , preparatory to salvage hearings . Deveau wrote to his wife that the ordeal of bringing the ship in was such that " I can hardly tell what I am made of , but I do not care so long as I got in safe . I shall be well paid for the Mary Celeste " .
= = Gibraltar salvage hearings = =
The salvage court hearings began in Gibraltar on December 17 , 1872 , under Sir James Cochrane , the chief justice of Gibraltar . The hearing was conducted by Frederick Solly Flood , Attorney General of Gibraltar who was also Advocate @-@ General and Proctor for the Queen in Her Office of Admiralty . Flood was described by one historian of the Mary Celeste affair as a man " whose arrogance and pomposity were inversely proportional to his IQ " , and as " the sort of man who , once he had made up his mind about something , couldn 't be shifted " . The testimonies of Deveau and Wright convinced Flood unalterably that a crime had been committed , a belief picked up by the New York Shipping and Commercial List on December 21 : " The inference is that there has been foul play somewhere , and that alcohol is at the bottom of it " .
On December 23 , Flood ordered an examination of Mary Celeste , which was carried out by John Austin , Surveyor of Shipping , with the assistance of a diver , Ricardo Portunato . Austin noted cuts on each side of the bow , caused , he thought , by a sharp instrument , and found possible traces of blood on the captain 's sword . His report emphasized that the ship did not appear to have been struck by heavy weather , citing a phial of sewing machine oil found upright in its place ; Austin did not acknowledge that the phial might have been replaced since the abandonment , nor did the court raise this point . Portunato 's report on the hull concluded that the ship had not been involved in a collision or run aground . A further inspection by a group of Royal Naval captains endorsed Austin 's opinion that the cuts on the bow had been caused deliberately . They also discovered stains on one of the ship 's rails that might have been blood , together with a deep mark possibly caused by an axe . These findings strengthened Flood 's suspicions that human wrongdoing rather than natural disaster lay behind the mystery . On January 22 , 1873 , he sent the reports to the Board of Trade in London , adding his own conclusion that the crew had got at the alcohol ( he ignored its non @-@ potability ) and murdered the Briggs family and the ship 's officers in a drunken frenzy . They had cut the bows to simulate a collision , then fled in the yawl to suffer an unknown fate . Flood thought that Morehouse and his men were hiding something , specifically that Mary Celeste had been abandoned in a more easterly location , and that the log had been doctored . He could not accept that Mary Celeste could have traveled so far while unmanned .
James Winchester arrived in Gibraltar on January 15 , to inquire when Mary Celeste might be released to deliver its cargo . Flood demanded a surety of $ 15 @,@ 000 , money which Winchester did not have . He became aware that Flood thought he might have deliberately engaged a crew that would kill Briggs and his officers , as part of some conspiracy . On January 29 , during a series of sharp exchanges with Flood , Winchester testified to Briggs 's high character , and insisted that he would not have abandoned the ship except in extremity . Flood 's theories of mutiny and murder received significant setbacks when scientific analysis of the stains found on the sword and elsewhere on the ship showed that they were not blood . A second blow to Flood followed in a report commissioned by Horatio Sprague , the American consul in Gibraltar , from Captain Shufeldt of the US Navy . In Shufeldt 's view the marks on the bow were not man @-@ made , but came from the natural actions of the sea on the ship 's timbers .
With nothing concrete to support his suspicions , Flood reluctantly released Mary Celeste from the court 's jurisdiction on February 25 . Two weeks later , with a locally raised crew headed by Captain George Blatchford from Massachusetts , she left Gibraltar for Genoa . The question of the salvage payment was decided on April 8 , when Cochrane announced the award : £ 1 @,@ 700 , or about one @-@ fifth of the total value of ship and cargo . This was far lower than the general expectation — one authority thought that the award should have been twice or even three times that amount , given the level of hazard in bringing the derelict into port . Cochrane 's final words were harshly critical of Morehouse for his decision , earlier in the hearing , to send Dei Gratia under Deveau to deliver its cargo of petroleum — although Morehouse had remained in Gibraltar at the disposal of the court . Cochrane 's tone carried an implication of wrongdoing which , says Hicks , ensured that Morehouse and his crew " would be under suspicion in the court of public opinion forever " .
= = Proposed solutions = =
= = = Foul play = = =
Although the evidence in Gibraltar failed to support Flood 's theories of murder and conspiracy , the suspicion of foul play lingered . Insurance fraud on the part of Winchester was briefly suspected , on the grounds of newspaper reports that Mary Celeste had been heavily over @-@ insured . Winchester was able to refute these allegations , and no inquiry was instituted by the insurance companies which had issued the policies . In 1931 an article in the Quarterly Review suggested that Morehouse could have lain in wait for Mary Celeste , then lured Briggs and his crew aboard Dei Gratia and killed them there . Paul Begg , in his account of the mystery , comments that this theory ignores undisputed facts : Dei Gratia left New York eight days after Mary Celeste , was a slower ship , and would not have caught Mary Celeste before the latter reached Gibraltar . Another theory posits that Briggs and Morehouse were partners in a conspiracy to share the salvage proceedings . The unsubstantiated friendship between the two captains has been cited by commentators as making such a plan a plausible explanation . Hicks comments that " if Morehouse and Briggs had been planning such a scam , they would not have devised such an attention @-@ drawing mystery " , and also asks why , if Briggs was intending to disappear permanently , he left his son Arthur behind .
Other theories of foul play have suggested an attack by Riffian pirates , who were active off the coast of Morocco in the 1870s . Charles Edey Fay , in his 1942 account , observes that pirates would have looted the ship , yet the personal possessions of captain and crew , some of significant value , were left undisturbed . In 1925 , the historian John Gilbert Lockhart surmised that Briggs , in a fit of a religious mania , had slaughtered all on board and then killed himself . In a later edition of his book Lockhart , who had by then spoken to Briggs 's descendants , apologized and withdrew this theory .
= = = Natural phenomena = = =
Commentators generally agree that , to precipitate such a course of action as abandonment of an apparently sound and seaworthy ship , with ample provisions , some extraordinary and alarming circumstance must have arisen . In his evidence to the enquiry , Deveau ventured an explanation based on the sounding rod found on the derelict 's deck . He suggested that Briggs abandoned ship after a sounding which , because of a malfunction of the pumps or other mishap , had given a false impression that the vessel was taking on water rapidly . A severe waterspout strike before the abandonment could explain the amount of water in the ship , and the ragged state of her rigging and sails . The low barometric pressure generated by the spout could have driven water from the bilges up into the pumps , leading the crew to assume the ship had taken on more water than she had , and was in danger of sinking .
Other proffered explanations are the appearance of a displaced iceberg ; the fear of running aground while becalmed , and a sudden " seaquake " . Hydrographical evidence suggests the improbability of an iceberg drifting so far south , and had it done so it would have been spotted by other ships . Begg gives more consideration to the theory that Mary Celeste , while becalmed , began drifting towards the Dollabarat reef off Santa Maria Island . Fearing she would run aground , Briggs launched the yawl in the hope of reaching land . The wind then picked up and blew Mary Celeste away from the reef , but in the rising seas the yawl was swamped , and sank . The weakness of this theory is that if the ship had been becalmed , all sails would have been set to catch any available breeze , yet the ship was found with many of its sails furled .
As to the seaquake theory , this disturbance – an earthquake on the sea bed – could , it is surmised , have caused sufficient turbulence on the surface to damage parts of the cargo , thus releasing noxious fumes . The displaced hatches might indicate that an inspection , or an attempted airing , took place . Rising fears of an imminent explosion could plausibly have led Briggs to order the abandonment . The New York World of January 24 , 1886 , drew attention to a case where a vessel carrying alcohol had exploded . The same journal 's issue of February 9 , 1913 , cited a seepage of alcohol through a few porous barrels as the source of gases that may have caused or threatened an explosion in the hold . Briggs 's cousin Oliver Cobb was a strong proponent of this theory as providing a sufficiently alarming scenario — rumblings from the hold , the smell of escaping fumes and possibly an explosion — for Briggs to have ordered the evacuation of the ship . The lack of damage from an explosion and the generally sound state of the cargo upon discovery tend to weaken this case . In 2006 an experiment was carried out for Channel Five television by Andrea Sella of University College , London , the results of which helped to revive the " explosion " theory . Sella built a model of the hold , with paper cartons representing the barrels . Using butane gas , he created an explosion , which caused a considerable blast and ball of flame , but contrary to expectation , no fire damage within the replica hold . " What we created was a pressure @-@ wave type of explosion . There was a spectacular wave of flame but , behind it , was relatively cool air . No soot was left behind and there was no burning or scorching " .
Cobb believed that the transfer of personnel to the yawl may have been intended as a temporary safety measure . He speculated from Deveau 's report on the state of the rigging and ropes that the ship 's main halliard may have been used to attach the yawl to the ship . Thus , when the danger had passed , the company could return on board . The line could subsequently have parted , whereupon Mary Celeste sailed away empty while the yawl foundered with its occupants . Begg notes the illogicality of attaching the yawl to a vessel that the crew thought was about to explode or sink , while the modern writer Macdonald Hastings asks whether Briggs , an experienced captain , would have effected a panicky abandonment of the ship when , " if the Mary Celeste had blown her timbers , she would still have been a better bet for survival than the ship 's boat " . If this is what happened , Briggs " behaved like a fool ; worse , a frightened one " .
= = Myths and false histories = =
In the decades that followed , fact and fiction became intertwined . As early as June 1883 , the Los Angeles Times retold the Mary Celeste story with invented detail : " Every sail was set , the tiller was lashed fast , not a rope was out of place ... The fire was burning in the galley . The dinner was standing untasted and scarcely cold ... the log [ was ] written up to the hour of her discovery " . Twenty years later , in the November 1906 Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , Mary Celeste was recorded as drifting off the Cape Verde Islands , some 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) south of the actual location . Among many inaccuracies , the first mate was " a man named Briggs " , and there were live chickens on board .
The most influential retelling , which according to many commentators ensured that the Mary Celeste affair would never be forgotten , was a story in the January 1884 issue of the Cornhill Magazine . This was an early work of Arthur Conan Doyle , then a 25 @-@ year @-@ old ship 's surgeon . Doyle 's story , entitled " J. Habakuk Jephson 's Statement " , did not adhere to the facts ; he renamed the ship " Marie Celeste " , the captain 's name was " J. W. Tibbs " , the fatal voyage took place in 1873 and was from Boston to Lisbon . The vessel carried passengers , among them the eponymous Jephson . In the story , another passenger , a fanatic named Septimus Goring with a hatred of the white race , has suborned members of the crew to murder Tibbs and take the vessel to the shores of Western Africa . Here , the rest of the ship 's company is killed , save for Jephson who is spared because he possesses a magical charm that is venerated by Goring and his accomplices . Doyle had not expected his story to be taken seriously , but Sprague , still serving as the US consul in Gibraltar , was sufficiently intrigued to inquire if any part of the story might be true .
In 1913 , The Strand Magazine provided another alleged survivor 's account , from one " Abel Fosdyk " , supposedly Mary Celeste 's steward . In this version all on board ( except Fosdyk ) were drowned or eaten by sharks , when a temporary platform , on which they had crowded to watch a swimming contest , collapsed into the sea . Unlike Doyle 's story , this was proposed by the magazine as a serious solution to the enigma , but it contained many simple errors : " Griggs " for Briggs , " Boyce " for Morehouse , Briggs 's daughter as a seven @-@ year @-@ old child rather than a two @-@ year @-@ old , a crew of 13 and an ignorance of nautical language . Many more people were convinced by a plausible literary hoax of the 1920s , perpetrated by an Irish writer , Laurence J. Keating . Again presented as a survivor 's story — one " John Pemberton " — this told a complex tale of murder , madness and collusion with the Dei Gratia . It included basic errors such as using Doyle 's name " Marie Celeste " , and misnaming key personnel . Nevertheless , the story was so convincingly told that the New York Herald Tribune of July 26 , 1926 , thought its truth beyond dispute . Hastings describes Keating 's hoax as " an impudent trick , by a man not without imaginative ability " .
In 1924 , the Daily Express published a story from a retired naval war hero , Captain R. Lucy , whose informant , allegedly , was Mary Celeste 's former bosun — no such person is recorded in the registered crew list . In this tale , Briggs and his crew are cast in the role of predators ; they sight a derelict steamer , which they board and find deserted , with £ 3 @,@ 500 @-@ worth of gold and silver in its safe . They decide to split the money , abandon Mary Celeste , and seek new lives in Spain , which they reach by using the steamer 's lifeboats . Hastings finds it astonishing that such an unlikely story was , for a time , widely believed ; readers , he says " were fooled by the magic of print " .
Chambers 's Journal of September 17 , 1904 , suggests that the entire complement of Mary Celeste was plucked off one by one by a giant octopus or squid . According to the Natural History Museum , giant squid , or Architeuthis dux , can reach 49 feet ( 15 m ) in length ; they have been known to attack ships . Begg remarks that while such a creature could conceivably have picked off a crew member , it could hardly have taken the yawl and the captain 's navigation instruments . Other explanations have suggested paranormal intervention ; an undated edition of the British Journal of Astrology describes the Mary Celeste story as " a mystical experience , connecting it by processes of reasoning beyond the power of ordinary human understanding , with the Great Pyramid of Gizeh , the lost continent of Atlantis , and the British Israel Movement " . The Bermuda Triangle has been invoked , even though Mary Celeste was abandoned in a completely different part of the Atlantic . Similar fantasies have considered theories of abduction by aliens in flying saucers .
= = Later career and final voyage = =
Mary Celeste left Genoa on June 26 , 1873 , and arrived in New York on September 19 . The Gibraltar hearings , with newspaper stories of bloodshed and murder , had made her an unpopular ship ; Hastings records that she " rotted on wharves where nobody wanted her " . In February 1874 , the consortium sold the ship , at a considerable loss , to a partnership of New York businessmen .
Under this new ownership , Mary Celeste sailed mainly in the West Indian and Indian Ocean routes , regularly losing money . Details of her movements occasionally appeared in the shipping news ; in February 1879 , she was reported at the island of St. Helena , where she had called to seek medical assistance for her captain , Edgar Tuthill , who had fallen ill . Tuthill died on the island , encouraging the idea that the ship was cursed — he was her third captain to die prematurely . In February 1880 , the owners sold the Mary Celeste to a partnership of Bostonians headed by Wesley Gove . A new captain , Thomas L. Fleming , remained in the post until August 1884 , when he was replaced by Gilman C. Parker . During these years , the ship 's port of registration changed several times , before reverting to Boston . There are no records of her voyages during this time , although Brian Hicks , in his study of the affair , asserts that Gove tried hard to make a success of her .
In November 1884 , Parker conspired with a group of Boston shippers , who filled Mary Celeste with a largely worthless cargo , misrepresented on the ship 's manifest as valuable goods and insured for US $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 790 @,@ 100 today ) . On December 16 , Parker set out for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , the capital and chief port of Haiti . On January 3 , 1885 , Mary Celeste approached the port via the channel between Gonâve Island and the mainland , in which lay a large and well @-@ charted coral reef , the Rochelois Bank . Parker deliberately ran the ship on to this reef , ripping out her bottom and wrecking her beyond repair . He and the crew then rowed themselves ashore , where Parker sold the salvageable cargo for $ 500 to the American consul , and instituted insurance claims for the alleged value .
When the consul discovered what he had bought was almost worthless , the insurance company began a thorough investigation , which soon revealed the truth of the over @-@ insured cargo . In July 1885 , Parker and the shippers were tried in Boston for conspiracy to commit insurance fraud . Parker was additionally charged with " wilfully cast [ ing ] away the ship " , a crime known as barratry and at the time carrying the death penalty . The conspiracy case was heard first , but on August 15 , the jury announced that they could not agree on a verdict . Some jurors were unwilling to risk prejudicing Parker 's forthcoming capital trial by finding him guilty on the conspiracy charge . Rather than ordering an expensive retrial , the judge negotiated an arrangement whereby the defendants withdrew their insurance claims and repaid all they had received . The barratry charge against Parker was deferred , and he was allowed to go free . Nevertheless , his professional reputation was ruined , and he died in poverty three months later . One of his co @-@ defendants went mad , and another committed suicide . Begg observes that " if the court of man could not punish these men ... the curse that had devilled the ship since her first skipper Robert McLellan had died on her maiden voyage could reach beyond the vessel 's watery grave and exact its own terrible retribution . "
In August 2001 , an expedition headed by the marine archaeologist and author Clive Cussler announced that they had found the remains of a ship embedded in the Rochelois reef . Only a few pieces of timber and some metal artifacts could be salvaged , the remainder of the wreckage being lost within the coral . Initial tests on the wood indicated that it was the type extensively used in New York shipyards at the time of Mary Celeste 's 1872 refit , and it seemed the remains of the Mary Celeste had been found . However , dendrochronological tests carried out by Scott St George of the Geological Survey of Canada showed that the wood came from trees , most probably from the US state of Georgia , that would still have been growing in 1894 , about ten years after the ship 's demise .
= = Legacy and commemorations = =
Mary Celeste was not the first reported case of a ship being found strangely deserted on the high seas . Rupert Gould , a naval officer and investigator of maritime mysteries , lists several such occurrences between 1840 and 1855 . Whatever the truth of these stories , it is the Mary Celeste that is remembered ; the ship 's name , or Doyle 's version of it , has become fixed in people 's minds as synonymous with inexplicable desertion . The Oxford English Dictionary includes an entry for the term Marie Celeste , defining it as " Allusively : a place suddenly and inexplicably deserted " , with citations from 1966 onwards using this spelling ; Mary Celeste is shown as an alternative spelling .
In October 1955 , the MV Joyita , a 70 @-@ ton motor vessel , disappeared in the South Pacific while traveling between Samoa and Tokelau , with 25 people on board . The vessel was found a month later , deserted and drifting north of Vanua Levu , 600 miles ( 970 km ) from its route . None of those aboard was seen again , and a commission of inquiry failed to establish an explanation . David Wright , the affair 's principal historian , has described the case as " a classic marine mystery of Mary Celeste proportions " .
The Mary Celeste story inspired two well @-@ received radio plays in the 1930s , by L. Du Garde Peach and Tim Healey respectively , and a stage version of Peach 's play in 1949 . Several novels have been published , generally offering natural rather than fantastic explanations . In 1935 , the British film company Hammer Film Productions issued The Mystery of the Mary Celeste ( retitled Phantom Ship for American audiences ) , starring Bela Lugosi as a deranged sailor . It was not a commercial success , although Begg considers it " a period piece well worth watching " . A 1938 short film titled The Ship That Died presents dramatizations of a range of theories to explain the abandonment : mutiny , fear of explosion due to alcohol fumes , and the supernatural . A 1965 episode of Doctor Who , entitled “ Flight Through Eternity ” , takes place on the Mary Celeste — in the episode the crew are scared into abandoning ship by the arrival of the daleks , who were chasing the Doctor and his companions . The January 24 , 1980 episode of the paranormal investigation television series In Search of ... focused on the mystery . In November 2007 , the Smithsonian Channel screened a documentary , The True Story of the Mary Celeste , which investigated many aspects of the case without offering any definite solution .
At Spencer 's Island , Mary Celeste and her lost crew are commemorated by a monument at the site of the brigantine 's construction and by a memorial outdoor cinema built in the shape of the vessel 's hull . The ship has featured on postage stamps issued by the Maldive Islands , and by Gibraltar .
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= Coast Guard Squadron One =
Coast Guard Squadron One , also known in official message traffic as COGARDRON ONE or RONONE , was a combat unit formed by the United States Coast Guard in 1965 for service during the Vietnam War . Placed under the operational control of the United States Navy , it was assigned duties in Operation Market Time . Its formation marked the first time since World War II that Coast Guard personnel were used extensively in a combat environment .
The squadron operated divisions in three separate areas during the period of 1965 to 1970 . Twenty @-@ six Point @-@ class cutters with their crews and a squadron support staff were assigned to the U.S. Navy with the mission of interdicting the movement of arms and supplies from the South China Sea into South Vietnam by Viet Cong and North Vietnam junk and trawler operators . The squadron also provided naval gunfire support to nearby friendly units operating along the South Vietnamese coastline and assisted the U.S. Navy during Operation Sealords . As the United States ' direct involvement in combat operations wound down during 1969 , squadron crews began training Republic of Vietnam Navy ( RVN ) sailors in the operation and deployment of the cutters . The cutters were later turned over to the RVN as part of the Vietnamization of the war effort . Turnover of the cutters to South Vietnamese Navy crews began in May 1969 and was completed by August 1970 . Squadron One was disestablished with the decommissioning of the last cutter .
The squadron was awarded several unit citations for its service to the U.S. Navy and the South Vietnamese government during the six years the unit was active with over 3 @,@ 000 Coast Guardsmen serving aboard cutters and on the squadron support staff . Six squadron members were killed in action during the time the unit was commissioned .
Squadron One , along with American and South Vietnamese naval units assigned to the task force that assumed the Market Time mission , were successful interdicting seaborne North Vietnamese personnel and equipment from entering South Vietnamese waters . The success of the blockade served to change the dynamics of the Vietnam War , forcing the North Vietnamese to use a more costly and time @-@ consuming route down the Ho Chi Minh trail to supply their forces in the south .
= = Background = =
As the United States military involvement in South Vietnam shifted from an advisory role to combat operations , advisors from Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) to the South Vietnamese military noticed an increase in the amount of military supplies and weapons being smuggled into the country by way of North Vietnamese junks and other small craft . The extent of infiltration was underscored in February 1965 when a U.S. Army helicopter crew spotted a North Vietnamese trawler camouflaged to look like an island . The event would later be known as the Vung Ro Bay Incident , named for the small bay that was the trawler 's destination . After the U.S. Army helicopter crew called in air strikes on the trawler , it was sunk and captured after a five @-@ day action conducted by elements of the Republic of Vietnam Navy ( RVN ) . Investigators found one million rounds of small arms ammunition , more than 1 @,@ 000 stick grenades , 500 pounds of prepared TNT charges , 2 @,@ 000 rounds of 82 mm mortar ammunition , 500 anti @-@ tank grenades , 1 @,@ 500 rounds of recoilless rifle ammunition , 3 @,@ 600 rifles and sub @-@ machine guns , and 500 pounds of medical supplies . Labels on captured equipment and supplies and other papers found in the wreckage indicated that the shipment was from North Vietnam . Concern by top MACV advisors as to whether the RVN was up to the task of interdicting shipments originating in North Vietnam led to a request by General William C. Westmoreland , commanding general of MACV , for U.S. Navy assistance .
The request was initially filled by U.S. Navy radar picket destroyer escorts ( DER ) and minesweepers ( MSO ) in March when Operation Market Time was started , but these vessels had too great a draft to operate effectively in shallow coastal waters . In April the U.S. Navy ordered 54 Swift boats ( PCF ) , 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) aluminum @-@ hulled boats with a draft of only 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and capable of 25 knots ( 29 mph ; 46 km / h ) . At the same time , the U.S. Navy queried the Treasury Department , the lead agency for the U.S. Coast Guard at the time , about the availability of suitable vessels . The Coast Guard had only a very minor role in combat operations during the Korean War and the Commandant of the Coast Guard , Admiral Edwin J. Roland , responded to the request by offering the use of 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) Point @-@ class cutters ( WPB ) and 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) utility boats , fearing that , if the Coast Guard were left out of a role in Vietnam , its status as one of the nation 's armed services might be jeopardized .
The decision to use the Point @-@ class cutter was one of logistics . The 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) Cape @-@ class cutter was initially considered an option by Roland since it had a greater speed because of its four main drive engines . The Point @-@ class cutter had only two main drive engines but they were more consistent throughout the class than the Cape @-@ class cutters , so it was easier to supply spare parts and maintain the engines . Additional factors favoring the Point @-@ class cutter were an unmanned engine room with all controls and alarms on the bridge , and air @-@ conditioned living spaces , a big factor in a tropical climate where crews were expected to live on the boat whether on or off duty . The 40 @-@ foot utility boats were rejected because they lacked radar , berthing , and mess facilities for extended patrols offshore .
On 22 April representatives of the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Navy signed a memorandum of understanding stating that the Coast Guard would supply 17 Point @-@ class cutters and their crews and the Navy would provide transport to South Vietnam and logistical support with two tank landing ships ( LST ) that had been converted to repair ships . Ten of the cutters were sourced from stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and seven were sourced from Pacific coast stations . After removal of the Oerlikon 20 – mm cannon on the bow , in place of which each cutter was fitted with a combination mount consisting of a 81 mm mortar which could be either drop @-@ fired or trigger @-@ fired , above which was mounted a .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun . The mortar could be fired in both indirect and direct modes , and was equipped with a recoil cylinder . The cutters were loaded on merchant ships for shipment to U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay in the Philippines . On 29 April President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized Coast Guard units to operate under Navy command in Vietnam and to provide surveillance and interdiction assistance to U.S. Navy vessels and aircraft in an effort to stop the infiltration of troops , weapons and ammunition into South Vietnam by North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) and Viet Cong ( VC ) forces .
= = Crew training and unit commissioning = =
While the cutters were being shipped to Subic Bay , crew members started reporting to Coast Guard Training Center Alameda , California on 17 May 1965 for overseas processing and training . The cutter crews received one week of small arms training at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado and Camp Pendleton while Survival , Evasion , Resistance and Escape ( SERE ) training was received at Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center , near Coleville , California , in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and at Whidbey Island Naval Air Station , Washington . Returning to Alameda , they underwent refresher firefighting and damage control training from the Navy at Treasure Island Naval Base . Additional weapons qualifications and live fire exercises were held at Coast Guard Island and Camp Parks , California , along with refresher training in radar navigation , radio procedures and visual signaling . Gun crews received mortar and machine gun training at Camp Pendleton . Of the 245 personnel assigned to the unit only 131 were present at the squadron commissioning ceremony held at Alameda on 27 May with the remainder of the crews in the process of completing training elsewhere . For service in Vietnam , two officers were added to the normal crew complement of eight to add seniority to the crew in the mission of interdicting vessels at sea . All officers assigned to command cutters were required to be lieutenants and to have previously commanded a Cape @-@ class cutter and had to volunteer for the assignment . The executive officer was either a lieutenant junior grade or ensign .
= = Naval Base Subic Bay = =
= = = Divisions 11 and 12 = = =
The first crews arrived at Subic Bay on 11 June and a squadron office was established . On 12 June 1965 , the squadron came under the operational control of the commander , Vietnam Patrol Force ( CTF 71 ) . Administrative control for personnel actions such as pay and personnel records was retained by the Coast Guard . The first cutters arrived at Subic Bay on 17 June and before they were put in the water each hull bottom was inspected , repaired if necessary and painted from the waterline down . Mechanical , ordnance , electrical and electronic maintenance checks were completed before any modifications for duty in Vietnam were attempted . Modifications completed at Subic Bay included new radio transceivers , fabrication of gunner 's platforms and ammunition ready boxes for the mortar , the addition of floodlights for night boardings , installation of small arms lockers on the mess deck and addition of sound @-@ powered telephone circuits . Additional bunks and refrigerators were added to increase patrol on @-@ station time . Modifications were made to the bow @-@ mounted over @-@ under machine gun mortar combination allowing it to be depressed below the horizon for close @-@ range firing . Four additional M @-@ 2 machine guns with ready boxes were added to the gunwales of each cutter .
As the crews arrived from the United States , they began doing required modification work in the shipyard and shakedown sorties in an effort to get all systems working . Night training exercises and gunnery drills were held each day and underway drills and training had been completed and commissary stores loaded by 9 July . A one @-@ day survival training course was conducted by Negrito natives and completion was compulsory for all squadron personnel . When it became known that the cutters would be operating in two widely separated locations , Squadron One was divided into two divisions with Division 11 operating in the Gulf of Thailand at An Thoi , Phu Quoc Island and Division 12 operating near the port of Da Nang close to the Demilitarized Zone ( DMZ ) . Division 11 consisted of nine cutters and Division 12 consisted of eight cutters . At 16 : 00 on 16 July , Division 12 got underway and once out of the harbor they formed up on USS Snohomish County , the LST permanently assigned to support the division at Da Nang . Division 11 and USS Floyd County , the division 's LST support ship , left Subic Bay bound for Phu Quoc Island at 08 : 00 on 24 July
= = = Division 13 = = =
After reviewing a study of the overall infiltration threat , MACV requested additional aircraft and patrol vessels for Operation Market Time . A request for an additional division of Point @-@ class cutters to be added to Squadron One was made on 5 August 1965 and preparations for deploying the additional cutters started in late October with the new division of nine patrol boats to be named Division 13 . The staff and repair personnel arrived at Subic Bay 14 December 1965 while the division 's boat crews received weapons and undertook survival training in California . The crews started arriving at Subic Bay on 28 December where additional survival and weapons training was given . Twenty @-@ one of the division 's personnel were sent to Divisions 11 and 12 to be exchanged for crewmen who had Market Time experience . Division 13 cutters began arriving as deck cargo on transport ships at Subic Bay on 24 January 1966 and crews commenced outfitting and painting them deck gray . Some of the outfitting had been accomplished before shipment so that more time could be devoted to training crews in gunnery and procedure before the division 's scheduled departure for Vietnam on 18 February . During a training exercise on 13 February , the main engine alarm sounded on the bridge of Point League . After checking the cause of the alarm , it was determined that a complete overhaul of one of the engines would be required . Division 12 shipped a complete kit of repair parts from Da Nang overnight by way of a U.S. Marine Corps C @-@ 130 flight to Cubi Point Naval Air Station . The flight was met by division personnel and repairs commenced . Divided into three shifts , the crews worked around @-@ the @-@ clock and the repairs were completed in 72 hours . A partial load break @-@ in was made the morning of departure and the rest of the procedure was completed while the division was en route to Vietnam . At 16 : 00 on 18 February , Division 13 left Subic Bay in the company of USS Forster , arriving at the RVN Base at Cat Lo on 22 February . Patrol work for six of the division 's cutters began at 08 : 00 the following morning , covering the area from 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of Vung Tau to 120 miles ( 193 km ) south .
= = Operations = =
= = = Arrival in South Vietnam = = =
Division 12 arrived at the port city of Da Nang at 07 : 00 on 20 July 1965 and was the first U.S. Coast Guard unit to be stationed in South Vietnam . The morning after their arrival five of the division 's eight cutters prepared to get underway for their first patrol accompanied by the Navy destroyer USS Savage , which coordinated the Market Time assets in the Da Nang area .
Division 11 arrived at Con Son Island on 29 July taking shelter from heavy seas and monsoon rains that had developed during the transit . Point Banks was the only cutter to have engine problems during the transit and repairs were made in the cramped engine room while underway so that no time was lost by the division during transit . During the lay over at Con Son minor repairs were made and repainting was completed on some of the cutters ' hulls which had been partially stripped of paint by the storm . Three RVN liaison officers reported aboard the cutters just before the division departed for Phu Quoc Island and the same three cutters started patrol work as the rest of the division put into Phu Quoc harbor on 31 July . On 30 July operational control of all Market Time elements , whether U.S. Navy , U.S. Coast Guard or RVN , was transferred to the Commander , Task Force 115 ( TF115 ) .
= = = Market Time operational theory = = =
Market Time planners sectioned off nine patrol areas numbered in order from the DMZ in the north to the Cambodian border in the south . The areas varied in size , measuring 80 by 120 miles ( 130 km × 190 km ) wide and running 30 to 40 miles ( 48 to 64 km ) out to sea . The outer two @-@ thirds of each area was covered by the U.S. Navy DER and MSO fleet and was identified by the area number with the suffix " B " . After May 1967 high endurance cutters ( WHEC ) from Coast Guard Squadron Three also assisted in the outer patrol areas . Because the inner third of each patrol area was usually shallow water it was covered by Navy PCFs and Coast Guard WPBs which had shallow drafts . These smaller patrol areas were identified by a letter " C " or higher . Thus , the patrol area covering the waters near Cam Ranh Bay would have the outer two @-@ thirds designated " 4B " and the waters nearer shore designated " 4C " through " 4H " . Overflying the whole area were Navy patrol aircraft that flew various assigned tracks , reporting any traffic to watchstanders stationed at five Coastal Surveillance Centers ( CSC ) operated jointly by the U.S. Navy and RVN . Reports of movements by suspicious vessels were relayed to the nearest Market Time patrol craft whose duty it was to board and search for contraband material and persons on board without proper identification . The rules of engagement that Market Time forces operated under allowed any vessel except warships to be stopped , boarded and searched within three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of the coastline and from the area three miles to twelve miles ( 19 @.@ 4 km ) from shore , identification and a declaration of intent could be demanded of any vessel except a warship . Outside the twelve @-@ mile limit only vessels of South Vietnamese origin could be stopped , boarded and searched .
While on patrol the cutters operated under orders from an operational commander at the CSC and not the division commander to which they were assigned . The division was responsible for seeing that each cutter was ready to perform her assignments and properly supplied with trained personnel , supplies and equipment . Each division 's staff performed regular readiness reviews on each assigned cutter ; riding with the crews to judge their effectiveness .
On 30 September 1968 , Vice Admiral Elmo Zumwalt assumed command of Naval Forces Vietnam and he redirected the focus of interdiction operations conducted by TF115 to areas nearer the DMZ as a part of Operation Sealords ( Southeast Asia Lake , Ocean , River , and Delta Strategy ) . The result was that all but four Division 11 WPBs were transferred to Divisions 12 and 13 and the shallower draft U.S. Navy PCFs that had been used for patrol duties at the DMZ were used to patrol the canals and rivers .
= = = Major cutter operations = = =
= = = = 1965 = = = =
Soon after patrol operations started in Division 12 's area of responsibility ( AOR ) , Point Orient encountered machine gun and mortar fire from the shore south of the Cua Viet River while attempting to board a junk in the early morning hours of 24 July 1965 . The Point Orient returned fire , and in doing so it became the first Coast Guard unit in Vietnam to engage the enemy . As a result of the incident , it became obvious to the skipper of the Point Orient that the paint scheme used by the Coast Guard in the U.S. was too visible at night and shortly thereafter the white paint was replaced by deck gray on all WPBs in Squadron One . On assuming control , the TF115 commander changed the way patrols were conducted in the DMZ . Future patrols were concentrated along the DMZ for most of the WPBs and PCFs with only a few assets placed in the Da Nang area . Assets were concentrated where vessel traffic was encountered ; most traffic near the Da Nang area was interdicted further out to sea by the DERs and WHECs and fewer shallow draft assets were needed there .
19 September was a busy day for Division 11 in the Gulf of Thailand with Point Glover encountering a junk that fired on her and when unable to escape tried to ram the cutter . The Viet Cong crew jumped overboard and Point Glover disabled the junk 's engine with machine gun fire . A boarding party from Point Glover boarded the sinking junk and did a quick search of the vessel , finding arms and ammunition . Unable to stop the junk from sinking , she was beached in shallow water while Point Garnet , Point Clear and Point Marone went searching for the missing junk crew ; however , only one crew member was captured . Later that night Point Marone attempted to stop an unlit junk near the coastal town of Ha Tien but the junk ignored a warning shot across her bow and attempted to evade boarding while firing at the cutter and throwing hand grenades . Point Glover was nearby and assisted Point Marone in engaging the junk with machine gun fire . The junk caught fire and started sinking . Unable to keep the junk afloat the cutter crews marked it with a buoy and let it sink in shallow water . Salvage operations conducted later found rifles , ammunition , hand grenades , documents and money . Eleven Viet Cong were killed in the action and one badly wounded crewman was captured ashore .
= = = = 1966 = = = =
After Division 13 's arrival at Cat Lo on 22 February 1966 , operations started at nearby Rung Sat Special Zone ; an area of tidal mangrove swamp southeast of Saigon that straddled the Long Tau River , the main shipping channel to the Port of Saigon . Point White was patrolling on the night of 9 March and intercepted a small junk attempting to smuggle supplies across the Soai Rạp River . After hailing the junk and receiving automatic weapons fire in reply , the cutter returned fire and killed several Viet Cong . They continued to fire on Point White so the skipper ordered the helmsman to ram the junk amidships at full speed . All but four of the crew of the junk were killed . One of the survivors turned out to be a key leader in the Viet Cong Rung Sat infrastructure . On 15 March Point Partridge engaged and damaged another junk , but shallow water allowed the junk to escape . On 22 March Point Hudson drew fire from another junk on the river . In the battle that followed , an estimated ten Viet Cong were killed . In conjunction with a joint U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps operation designated Operation Jackstay , several Division 13 cutters were ordered to patrol the lower portion of the Soi Rap River in an effort to deny food , water , and ammunition to the Viet Cong operating in the Rung Sat Special Zone . From the start of patrols on 10 March until the ships of the amphibious ready group put the Marines ashore on the Long Thành peninsula on 26 March , Division 13 cutters had taken fire from the shore almost every night during patrol operations . Some of the most intense combat operations that Squadron One encountered occurred during the month of March 1966 in support of Operation Jackstay . The joint operation ended 6 April with the withdrawal of the Marine Amphibious Force but the skipper of Point Partridge decided to continue the patrols after the operation ended . On the night patrols from 1 to 6 May Point Partridge engaged Viet Cong junks or received fire from the shore every night .
While patrolling off the coast of the Ca Mau Peninsula in the late evening hours of 9 May 1966 Point Grey reported sighting two large bonfires on the shore near the mouth of the Rach Gia River . Since this was an unusual activity the skipper decided to monitor the area for the remainder of the night . Shortly after midnight , a steel @-@ hulled trawler was spotted and challenged but Point Grey received no answer . The trawler continued on a course headed for the beach area near the bonfires and ran aground 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the shore . After daybreak Point Grey attempted to board the trawler but encountered heavy fire from the shore . After requesting assistance from the CSC , Point Grey stood off from the trawler until destroyer escort USS Brister arrived on scene . With Brister standing in deeper water and South Vietnamese Air Force A @-@ 1E Skyraider aircraft bombing the beach nearby , Point Grey attempted a boarding but she received very heavy small arms fire from Viet Cong positions beyond the beach which heavily damaged the bridge and wounded three of her crew manning the mortar on the bow . With evening approaching it was decided by CSC to destroy the trawler and Point Grey assisted by Point Cypress began mortaring the trawler . During the shelling an explosion on board the trawler broke it in two pieces and caused it to sink in the shallow waters . Salvage operations began the next morning and included the recovery of six crew served weapons and 15 short tons ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) of ammunition of Chinese manufacture . The destruction of the trawler marked the first instance of the capture of a trawler by Market Time assets .
While on patrol near the mouth of the Co Chien River in the early hours of 20 June , the skipper of Point League noted a large radar contact which , upon further investigation , was found to be running without navigation lights . After informing the CSC of the situation the cutter went to general quarters and spotlighted the incoming trawler . The trawler ignored a hail from Point League and two bursts of machine gun fire across its bow . The trawler returned with heavy machine gun fire hitting the cutter 's bridge and wounding the executive officer and a crewman manning the mortar on the forecastle . The trawler dropped the line on a towed junk and picked up speed in an effort to beach along the shore . When the commanding officer of Point League noticed that the trawler was headed for shoal water near the mouth of the river , he let the trawler run aground 75 yards ( 69 m ) from shore and moved to a position 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) away while keeping the target illuminated with mortar rounds . Point League then came under fire from Viet Cong elements operating from just behind the shoreline . With assistance from Point Slocum the two cutters poured machine gun fire into the grounded trawler . Just after dawn the trawler was sunk by what was probably a scuttling charge resulting in a large fire . At 07 : 15 destroyer escort USS Haverfield arrived on scene and assumed control of the operation . With the assistance of two U.S. Air Force F @-@ 100 Super Sabre aircraft providing close air support , resistance from the shoreline was finally controlled . It was decided by the commanding officer of the Haverfield that salvage of the trawler would be attempted in order to learn more about the trawler , its origins and the cargo on board . The crews of the two cutters were joined by Point Hudson and dock landing ship USS Tortuga and several RVN junks in fighting the fire and beginning salvage operations . After patching the hull and dewatering ; the trawler was eventually towed to the RVN shipyard at Vung Tau . The 99 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) trawler yielded valuable information about the capabilities of that particular class of trawler . It was carrying about 100 short tons ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) of small arms and ammunition of recent manufacture in China and North Korea . The surviving log and navigation charts helped determine the trawler 's origin and two possible destinations .
= = = = = Point Welcome incident = = = = =
Point Welcome was patrolling Area 1A1 immediately south of the DMZ in the early morning hours of 11 August 1966 . At 03 : 40 the cutter was illuminated by an U.S. Air Force forward air controller ( FAC ) who mistook her for an enemy vessel . The FAC called in one B @-@ 57 Canberra tactical bomber and two F @-@ 4 Phantom fighter @-@ bomber aircraft which proceeded to strafe the cutter for about one hour , each making from seven to nine passes . Point Welcome turned on all of her running and docking lights when first illuminated by the FAC aircraft and contacted the CSC by radio telling them that they were being illuminated by aircraft . During the first pass all of the crew on the bridge were wounded and the commanding officer , Lieutenant Junior Grade David Brostrom , was killed along with the helmsman , Engineman Second Class Jerry Phillips . All signaling equipment , electronics and radios were knocked out on the first pass . Point Welcome began evasive maneuvers at the direction of Chief Boatswains Mate Richard Patterson , who had assumed command after the executive officer was seriously injured . Patterson attempted to avoid the illumination lights of the attacking aircraft and move out of the way of the strafing aircraft . At 04 : 15 Patterson decided that the best course of action was to beach the cutter and move the wounded ashore , however when this was attempted , the crew came under fire from unknown sources from the shoreline . At 04 : 25 Point Orient and Point Caution arrived on the scene and started rescue proceedings . In addition to the commanding officer , one other crewman was killed , nine other crewmen were injured along with a RVN liaison officer and civilian freelance journalist Tim Page . The bridge of the cutter was severely damaged and despite nine 5 to 9 inch ( 13 to 23 cm ) wide holes in the main deck , the hull was undamaged . Point Welcome was escorted back to Da Nang under her own power and required three months to repair the damage . Patterson saved the cutter and the surviving crew at great risk to himself . He was awarded a Bronze Star with the combat " V " device for his actions .
After eight days of testimony the findings of a board of investigation conducted by MACV were forwarded to the Commandant of the Coast Guard :
As a result of the investigation , lines of communication were set up between the Navy and the Air Force . The Air Force knew nothing of Operation Market Time and did not routinely communicate with Naval Forces , Vietnam . To avoid a repetition of the incident , aircraft patrolling near the DMZ were instructed not to attack vessels without first contacting CSC Da Nang for clearance .
= = = = 1967 = = = =
In the late evening hours of 1 January 1967 Point Gammon along with two U.S. Navy vessels , PCF @-@ 68 and PCF @-@ 71 , intercepted a trawler attempting to land supplies on the Cau Mau Peninsula . After running the trawler aground the PCFs managed to hit it with several mortar rounds while Point Gammon kept the trawler illuminated . Several secondary explosions occurred and the trawler disappeared . Investigations later concluded that the trawler could have successfully escaped to a nearby river although heavily damaged .
A more successful action was fought in the early morning hours of 14 March 1967 when a U.S. Navy patrol aircraft spotted a trawler near Cu @-@ Lao Re , an island 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Da Nang . USS Brister and two PCFs along with Point Ellis closed on the trawler and forced it aground near the village of Phouc Thien on Cape Batangan . The patrol elements continued to exchange heavy gunfire with the trawler and land @-@ based Viet Cong units until dawn when the trawler was scuttled with a massive explosion . Investigators later discovered a heavy machine gun , a recoilless rifle , sub @-@ machine guns , rifles and carbines along with thousands of rounds of ammunition . Also in the wreckage was a complete surgical kit for a field hospital and medical supplies .
A similar conclusion was the result of the capture of a steel hull trawler 15 July 1967 after three days of tracking by patrol aircraft and the radar picket , USS Wilhoite . After playing a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game for three days with TF115 units the trawler headed for the mouth of the Sa Ky River on the Batangan Peninsula late on 14 July . The trawler was directed by Point Orient to heave to , but the hail was answered with gunfire . The cutter returned fire along with Wilhoite and gunboat USS Gallup , destroyer USS Walker , and PCF @-@ 79 . At 02 : 00 on 15 July , the trawler was boxed in and ablaze , and ran aground 200 yards ( 180 m ) from shore . South Korean marines directed artillery fire from the shore and at 06 : 00 with the trawler apparently abandoned , a U.S. Navy demolitions expert from Walker boarded the trawler and defused 2 @,@ 000 pounds of TNT charges that were designed to scuttle the craft . Found on board were several thousand rounds of rifle and machine gun ammunition , mortar and rocket rounds , anti @-@ personnel mines , grenades , and several thousand pounds of C @-@ 4 plastic explosive and TNT . Weapons found included several hundred machine guns , AK @-@ 47 rifles , AK @-@ 56 rifles , and B @-@ 40 rocket launchers .
On many occasions during the months of October , November and December 1967 , the cutters Point Hudson , Point Jefferson , Point Grace and Point Gammon were called on to assist in naval gunfire support missions in the Long Toan and Thanh Phu Secret Zones near Soc Trang . These missions resulted in the destruction of several sampans and structures as well as bunkers used by the Viet Cong .
= = = = 1968 = = = =
During the morning hours of 31 January 1968 , combined forces of North Vietnamese Army / Viet Cong personnel initiated coordinated attacks on military installations throughout South Vietnam in what would be later be referred to as the Tet Offensive . Because of monsoon weather in the northern provinces of South Vietnam and a general curfew imposed by South Vietnam on most sampan traffic , routine boardings by Squadron One vessels during February were far below normal . However , requests for naval gunfire support by land @-@ based U.S. Army and U.S. Marine units increased significantly after Tet . The cutters Point Gammon , Point Arden , Point Grey , Point Cypress , Point League , and Point Slocum were involved in multiple naval gunfire support missions throughout the month of February . The use of Squadron One cutters as a blocking force against exfiltration by NVA / VC forces operating along the coastline also increased at this time .
During an action on 1 March 1968 , in the early morning several Squadron One cutters were involved in the interdiction and destruction of four North Vietnamese trawlers attempting to smuggle arms and ammunition into South Vietnam at different locations . This co @-@ ordinated attempt by the North Vietnamese was met by various elements of TF115 ; including U.S. Navy aircraft and vessels , RVN junks , U.S. Air Force aircraft , and U.S. Army helicopters . In addition , there were several Owasco @-@ class cutter cutters from Coast Guard Squadron Three – Androscoggin , Winona , and Minnetonka – as well as Point Grey , Point Hudson , and Point Welcome from Squadron One . As a result of this action , three North Vietnamese trawlers were destroyed and a fourth was turned back before it could reach the coast . After this action the incidence of smuggling by trawler was decreased and Communist forces had to resort to shipments along the Ho Chi Minh trail or through the port of Sihanoukville in Cambodia .
While on patrol just south of the DMZ in the early morning hours of 16 June 1968 Point Dume reported seeing two rockets fired from an unidentified source hit U.S. Navy PCF @-@ 19 , which sank very quickly with the loss of five crew . Shortly thereafter , Point Dume came under fire from an unidentified aircraft along with the heavy cruiser USS Boston and the Royal Australian Navy destroyer HMAS Hobart . The duration of the attack was about one hour with little damage to the cutter and Boston but considerable damage to Hobart with two sailors killed and eight wounded . Evidence during a board of inquiry later showed that it was a friendly fire incident involving U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy aircraft mistaking the ships for enemy targets . This incident and the 11 August 1966 friendly fire incident involving Point Welcome caused several procedures for the identification of naval vessels by U.S. Navy , U.S. Marine and U.S. Air Force aircrews to change .
Operations conducted by South Vietnamese Regional Force troops on Phu Quoc Island in September were assisted by Market Time assets . Point Partridge and Point Banks assisted with naval gunfire support on 9 September which destroyed three bunkers , killing four and wounding several others . Ten Viet Cong were captured . On 20 September , Point Cypress and RVN MSC @-@ 116 assisted Regional Forces troops that had been ambushed by Viet Cong forces by lending naval gunfire support . Point Hudson , Point Kennedy , and U.S. Navy PCF @-@ 50 and PCF @-@ 3 arrived shortly after the action started and joined in the gunfire support . Small boats from the cutters helped evacuate wounded Regional Force troops .
Heavy weather in the form of monsoons in the northern half of South Vietnam reduced indigenous coastal traffic during October 1968 and the U.S. Navy 's PCF support of Market Time was limited by heavy seas ; however , Market Time units including Squadron One cutters fired a record number of naval gunfire missions for the sixth month in a row . The 1 @,@ 027 missions conducted during October was 19 percent higher than the previous record .
On 5 December 1968 , three crewmen operating the small boat from Point Cypress in a small stream on the Ca Mau Peninsula were ambushed , severely wounding two and killing the third , Fireman Heriberto S. Hernandez . Zumwalt awarded a Bronze Star Medal with " V " Device posthumously to Hernandez for his heroic actions in saving his fellow crewmen 's lives .
= = = = 1969 = = = =
In February 1969 , Squadron One personnel began training RVN engineers in the maintenance and repair of the Point class cutters that would eventually be turned over to the South Vietnamese government under the " Vietnamization " program .
On 22 March during routine operations involving the inspection of fishing craft for contraband arms and supplies , the chief engineer , Chief Engineman Morris S. Beeson of the Point Orient was killed by ambush fire from three shore positions while attempting to board a sampan near Qui Nhon .
On 27 March , Point Dume was notified by a unit of the U.S. Army 's 173rd Airborne Brigade that a Viet Cong unit was located at a village 40 miles ( 64 km ) north of Qui Nhon and Point Dume was requested to perform a blocking patrol while the brigade 's troops conducted a sweep . Point Dume assisted with naval gunfire support . Additionally , in the aftermath , a landing party helped to destroy 41 sampans that had been used to transport Viet Cong supplies .
The first turnover of Squadron One cutters occurred on 16 May with the transfer of Point League and Point Garnet to the South Vietnamese Navy under the Vietnamization plan . An elaborate ceremony was held at the RVN Base in Saigon with dignitaries from many area naval activities witnessing the turnover of the two cutters . On 5 June , Division 11 was disestablished and its cutters were transferred to Division 13 . The need for Squadron One cutters had been supplanted by the shallower draft PCFs and PBRs that were being concentrated in the Delta region for use in Operation Sealords . With better foul weather stationkeeping abilities than the U.S. Navy craft , the Point @-@ class cutters of the Squadron were shifted for use during the northeast monsoon season in the northern half of the country .
On 9 August while conducting a harassment and interdiction mission aboard Point Arden , a misfire occurred with the mortar killing Lieutenant Junior Grade Michael W. Kirkpatrick , the cutter 's executive officer , and Engineman First Class Michael H. Painter .
= = 1970 – Vietnamization and disestablishment = =
With the growing dissatisfaction of the American electorate about Vietnam in 1969 , high officials in the Nixon Administration sought a way to disengage the United States from the war . Part of the strategy to placate public opinion was termed " Vietnamization " and it included plans to remove most U.S. combat troops from Vietnam and the turnover of supplies and equipment to the South Vietnamese military . Other parts of the plan , referred to as Accelerated Turnover to Vietnamese ( ACTOV ) , included the training of Vietnamese in the use of equipment that was to be turned over to them and a gradual phase @-@ in of responsibilities for the conduct of the war by the South Vietnamese government . The first assets turned over to the Vietnamese under ACTOV occurred on 1 February 1969 when 25 mostly smaller U.S. Navy vessels were transferred to the RVN to be used in supporting Operation Sealords in the Mekong Delta .
– Admiral John J. Hyland , USN , Commander , Pacific Fleet ,
25 August 1970
= = = ACTOV = = =
The naval assets portion of the ACTOV plan consisted of two parts : SCATTOR ( Small Craft Assets , Training , and Turnover of Resources ) and VECTOR ( Vietnamese Engineering Capability , Training of Ratings ) . While SCATTOR trained Vietnamese replacement crews for the patrol boats of Squadron One , VECTOR trained and prepared Vietnamese repair personnel to maintain them .
= = = = Background = = = =
Since the patrol boats of Squadron One were an essential part of the blockade of war supplies entering South Vietnam from North Vietnam , it was decided that they would be transferred to the South Vietnamese navy after crews had been trained to operate them effectively . On 2 November 1968 , Zumwalt , Commander , Naval Forces Vietnam , presented a plan to General Creighton W. Abrams , Commander , MACV to turn over all U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard resources to the RVN by 30 June 1970 . Abrams approved the Navy 's plan with the caveat that any equipment turned over to the Vietnamese would have to be in first @-@ class condition and that they would have to be properly trained in its use . The Navy plan called for the enlisted Vietnamese personnel to report aboard vessels for training first with the officers finally reporting aboard after the crews were trained . In a recommendation made 14 January 1969 , the Commander , Coast Guard Activities Vietnam , Captain Ralph W. Niesz , suggested that English speaking Vietnamese officers report aboard first and be given the chance to receive extensive procedural training with Coast Guard crews before any junior personnel report aboard . Neisz cited cultural imperatives that required seniors to be more knowledgeable than subordinates and that it would be very difficult for officers to accept instruction from junior personnel without losing face . Zumwalt agreed with the Coast Guard plan enthusiastically and ordered it implemented immediately .
On 3 February 1969 the first RVN officers reported aboard Point Garnet and Point League for an 18 @-@ week pilot training program . Each cutter 's executive officer was relieved and assigned staff duties ashore with the commanding officer assuming his duties . The two spare bunks on each cutter were utilized by the new Vietnamese personnel reporting on board . As experience was gained by the Vietnamese crew members , new junior personnel reported in pairs replacing Coast Guardsmen that were then assigned ashore to assist with the VECTOR phase of training . The first transfer of Squadron One cutters occurred at the RVN Base in Saigon during joint decommissioning and commissioning ceremonies held 16 May 1969 by the Coast Guard and the RVN . Point Garnet and Point League were the first cutters transferred under the ACTOV plan .
= = = = Problems = = = =
SCATTOR training was not easy for either the trainers or the trainees . Cultural differences and language barriers had to be breached by both . English – Vietnamese dictionaries were used extensively and Vietnamese sailors who spoke even broken English were often pressed into service to help translate the training syllabus for each job on the cutter . Coast Guardsmen that had maintained their cutters with pride could not understand the Vietnamese sailors seeming lack of care about housekeeping chores . Orders dictated that any cutter entering the ACTOV Program had to be ready for turnover within four months . Often after a return from patrol duties the Vietnamese sailors would just leave the cutter as soon as it reached homeport , leaving maintenance , cleanup , and re @-@ provisioning to the Coast Guardsmen . AWOL rates for Vietnamese sailors often interfered with training schedules as well as patrol operations . Morale of the Coast Guardsmen charged with the training of the replacement Vietnamese crew was often very low and this caused friction between the two parts of the crew . Because of political pressures in the United States to end involvement in the war as soon as possible , the SCATTOR program of training was accelerated to a 15 @-@ week program and eventually an 11 @-@ week program . This caused overcrowding on the cutters and further problems with the mixed crews .
All of the Squadron One cutters eventually completed training of the Vietnamese crews and as cutters were transferred to the RVN each division shrunk in size until they were consolidated with other divisions . Division 11 was disestablished on 5 June 1969 with the remaining cutters in the division moving to Cat Lo . Division 12 was consolidated with Division 13 at Cat Lo 16 March 1970 .
= = = = Last patrols = = = =
After Point Grey and Point Orient were turned over to the RVN on 14 July only Point Cypress and Point Marone were left in Division 13 . On that day the remaining two cutters were given orders to report to the lower Mekong Delta and provide support for operations in the Than Phu Secret Zone . On 19 and 20 July the crews of both cutters consisted of a full complement of 13 RVN sailors and 5 Coast Guardsmen including the commanding officers . Kit Carson Scouts were also embarked , making the decks very crowded . The Scouts were put ashore on a search and destroy mission and the cutters backed them up with gunfire from their decks and the cutter small boats . The raid was successful , netting several captured Viet Cong troops and boxes of documents . A week later both cutters with Australian Army explosive ordnance disposal soldiers aboard cruised the My Thanh River and destroyed fortifications .
On 4 August 1970 , coincidentally Coast Guard Day , the pair of cutters set out on what would prove to be their last combat patrol . Each cutter had 25 Kit Carson Scouts embarked for a patrol of the Co Chien River . While following a narrow canal leading off the main channel , Point Marone was the target of a command detonated mine . The blast killed two of the RVN sailors instantly ; all five Coast Guardsmen were injured along with 10 Kit Carson Scouts . After the mine explosion , Point Marone listed to starboard but managed to get underway while Point Cypress laid down suppressing fire and escorted the damaged cutter back to base at Cat Lo . Point Marone suffered three shrapnel holes at the starboard waterline as well as extensive damage to the bridge windows and damage to the watertight door between the mess deck and the forward berthing space . The deck aft of the bridge was covered with three inches of mud . After patching and painting , Point Marone was prepared for a final Operational Readiness Inspection to check the RVN crew readiness for the pending turnover of both Point Marone and Point Cypress .
= = = = Last turnover = = = =
With the turnover of Point Cypress and Point Marone to South Vietnamese navy on 15 August 1970 , Squadron One and its remaining division , Division 13 , were decommissioned . Over 3 @,@ 000 Coast Guardsmen had served with Squadron One in Vietnam since May 1965 . Administrative and liaison functions that had been carried out by the Squadron One staff were turned over to the Office of the Senior Coast Guard Officer , Vietnam ( SCGOV ) . Several officers of Squadron One were assigned temporary duties as advisors to former Squadron One cutters to further assist the new RVN commanding officers in their new duties . The Coast Guard continued to provide technical assistance and training under the SCATTOR / VECTOR programs for the SVN after Squadron One was disestablished through the formation of four Technical Assistance Groups . Each group was composed of an officer and eight to eleven engineers reporting to SCGOV . The groups were located at Da Nang where there were six cutters assigned ; Cam Ranh Bay , six cutters ; Vung Tau , eight cutters ; and An Thoi , six cutters . As tours of duty for each Coast Guardsman ended , U.S. Navy personnel gradually took over the training duties .
= = Civic action = =
U.S. Coast Guard personnel stationed in Vietnam were encouraged by their commands to donate off duty time to assist in various civic action programs supporting the Vietnamese people . Squadron One personnel participated as time permitted in an island adoption program that was designed to provide educational materials and medical treatment to inhabitants of the many coastal islands in their area of operation . This program was offered to counter Viet Cong propaganda and promote a better understanding of the South Vietnamese government and USAID rural development programs . Since medical personnel were normally not a part of the make @-@ up of the Squadron One patrol boat crews , medical corpsmen were borrowed from Squadron Three cutters or nearby U.S. Navy units . Division 11 crews constructed a fresh water well and distribution system in addition to constructing voting booths on Hon Thom Island . Division 12 cutters helped evacuate refugees from the vicinity of Cape Batangan when military operations intensified during 1967 . Division 13 personnel spent many hours of off duty time at the children 's ward of the U.S. Army 36th Medevac Hospital and gave games , toys , clothing and candy to injured Vietnamese children . During the Christmas holidays , at local orphanages all squadron personnel distributed gifts of candy and toys as well as clothing , soap and toothpaste that had been donated by Coast Guard families in the United States and brought to Vietnam on the Commandant 's airplane . Squadron One crews arranged for transportation of a small girl by an U.S. Air Force helicopter to USS Sanctuary for eye surgery while the squadron commander personally delivered a cornea for transplant .
= = Legacy and impact = =
The cutters of Squadron One made a significant contribution to the success of Operation Market Time by forcing the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces to rely on the difficult Ho Chi Minh trail for most of their supplies and reinforcements . During the period between 27 May 1965 and 15 August 1970 the squadron cruised 4 @,@ 215 @,@ 116 miles ( 6 @,@ 783 @,@ 572 km ) and boarded 236 @,@ 396 vessels while detaining 10 @,@ 286 persons . During 4 @,@ 461 naval gunfire missions they damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 811 enemy vessels and killed or wounded 1 @,@ 232 enemy personnel .
= = Unit and service awards = =
Presidential Unit Citation
The Presidential Unit Citation ( Navy ) was awarded for extraordinary heroism and outstanding performance to units participating in Operation Sealords for the period 18 October to 5 December 1968 and included the Squadron One cutters Point Cypress , Point White , Point Grace , Point Young , Point Comfort , Point Mast , Point Marone , Point Caution , and Point Partridge .
Navy Unit Commendation
The Navy Unit Commendation was awarded for exceptionally meritorious service to the United States Navy Coastal Surveillance Force ( Task Force 115 ) which included the administrative staff of Squadron One and Division 11 for service during period 1 January 1967 to 31 March 1968 ; Division 12 , 1 January to 28 February 1967 ; and Division 13 , 1 January to 10 May 1967 .
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
The Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation was awarded for meritorious service to units of the United States Navy Coastal Surveillance Force ( Task Force 115 ) which included the following Squadron One cutters : Point White , Point Arden , Point Dume , Point Glover , Point Jefferson , Point Kennedy , Point Young , Point Partridge , Point Caution , Point Welcome , Point Banks , Point Lomas , Point Grace , Point Mast , Point Grey , Point Orient , Point Cypress , and Point Marone .
Vietnam Service Medal
Although the Vietnam Service Medal is a personal service award , it is permissible and customary under Coast Guard regulations for cutters to display service awards on the port and starboard bridge wings . Squadron One cutters were entitled to display the VSM by virtue of having served in Vietnam for more than thirty days during the eligibility period of 15 November 1961 to 30 April 1975 .
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm
All units serving under MACV were awarded the Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm by South Vietnam . Because U.S. Navy units serving in Vietnam were subordinate to MACV this included all Coast Guard Squadron One cutters .
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
The Vietnam Campaign Medal was an award of South Vietnam for those individuals who served in Vietnam for a period of at least six months . Although it was a personal award , Coast Guard regulations permitted its display on a cutter 's port and starboard bridge wings since Squadron One 's cutters served during the eligibility period of 1 March 1961 to 28 March 1973 .
= = Cutter assignment and disposition information = =
Legend :
Denotes initial assignment to Division 11
Denotes initial assignment to Division 12
Denotes initial assignment to Division 13
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= Tiktaalik =
Tiktaalik / tɪkˈtɑːlᵻk / is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian ( lobe @-@ finned fish ) from the late Devonian period , about 375 Ma ( million years ) ago , having many features akin to those of tetrapods ( four @-@ legged animals ) .
Tiktaalik has a possibility of being a representative of the evolutionary transition from fish to amphibians . It is an example from several lines of ancient sarcopterygian fish developing adaptations to the oxygen @-@ poor shallow @-@ water habitats of its time , environmental conditions which are thought to have led to the evolution of tetrapods .
It and similar animals may possibly be the common ancestors of the broad swath of all terrestrial fauna : amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . The first well @-@ preserved Tiktaalik fossils were found in 2004 on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut , Canada .
= = Etymology = =
The name Tiktaalik is an Inuktitut word meaning " burbot " , a freshwater fish related to true cod . The " fishapod " genus received this name after a suggestion by Inuit elders of Canada 's Nunavut Territory , where the fossil was discovered . The specific name roseae cryptically honours an anonymous donor . Taking a detailed look at the internal head skeleton of Tiktaalik roseae , in the October 16 , 2008 , issue of Nature , researchers show how Tiktaalik was gaining structures that could allow it to support itself on solid ground and breathe air , a key intermediate step in the transformation of the skull that accompanied the shift to life on land by our distant ancestors .
= = Description = =
Tiktaalik provides insights on the features of the extinct closest relatives of the tetrapods . Unlike many previous , more fishlike transitional fossils , the " fins " of Tiktaalik have basic wrist bones and simple rays reminiscent of fingers . The homology of distal elements is uncertain ; there have been suggestions that they are homologous to digits , although this is incompatible with the digital arch developmental model because digits are supposed to be postaxial structures , and only three of the ( reconstructed ) eight rays of Tiktaalik are postaxial .
However , the proximal series can be directly compared to the ulnare and intermedium of tetrapods . The fin was clearly weight bearing , being attached to a massive shoulder with expanded scapular and coracoid elements and attached to the body armor , large muscular scars on the ventral surface of the humerus , and highly mobile distal joints . The bones of the forefins show large muscle facets , suggesting that the fin was both muscular and had the ability to flex like a wrist joint . These wrist @-@ like features would have helped anchor the creature to the bottom in fast moving current .
Also notable are the spiracles on the top of the head , which suggest the creature had primitive lungs as well as gills . This attribute would have been useful in shallow water , where higher water temperature would lower oxygen content . This development may have led to the evolution of a more robust ribcage , a key evolutionary trait of land @-@ living creatures . The more robust ribcage of Tiktaalik would have helped support the animal ’ s body any time it ventured outside a fully aquatic habitat . Tiktaalik also lacked a characteristic that most fishes have — bony plates in the gill area that restrict lateral head movement . This makes Tiktaalik the earliest known fish to have a neck , with the pectoral girdle separate from the skull . This would give the creature more freedom in hunting prey either on land or in the shallows .
Tiktaalik is sometimes compared to gars ( esp . Atractosteus spatula , the alligator gar ) of the Lepisosteidae family , with whom it shares a number of characteristics :
diamond @-@ shaped scale patterns common to the Crossopterygii class ( in both species scales are rhombic , overlapping and tuberculated ) ;
teeth structured in two rows ;
both internal and external nostrils ;
tubular and streamlined body ;
absence of anterior dorsal fin ;
broad , dorsoventrally compressed skull ;
paired frontal bones ;
marginal nares ;
subterminal mouth ;
lung @-@ like organ .
= = Paleobiology = =
Tiktaalik generally had the characteristics of a lobe @-@ finned fish , but with front fins featuring arm @-@ like skeletal structures more akin to those of a crocodile , including a shoulder , elbow , and wrist . The fossil discovered in 2004 did not include the rear fins and tail . It had rows of sharp teeth of a predator fish , and its neck could move independently of its body , which is not common in other fish ( Tarrasius , Mandageria , placoderms , and extant seahorses being some exceptions ; see also Lepidogalaxias and Channallabes apus ) . The animal had a flat skull resembling a crocodile 's ; eyes on top of its head , suggesting that it spent a lot of time looking up ; a neck and ribs similar to those of tetrapods , with the ribs being used to support its body and aid in breathing via lungs ; well developed jaws suitable for catching prey ; and a small gill slit called a spiracle that , in more derived animals , became an ear .
The fossils were found in the " Fram Formation " , deposits of meandering stream systems near the Devonian equator , suggesting a benthic animal that lived on the bottom of shallow waters and perhaps even out of the water for short periods , with a skeleton indicating that it could support its body under the force of gravity whether in very shallow water or on land . At that period , for the first time , deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water , attracting small prey into warm oxygen @-@ poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in . The discoverers said that in all likelihood , Tiktaalik flexed its proto @-@ limbs primarily on the floor of streams and may have pulled itself onto the shore for brief periods . In 2014 , the discovery of the animal 's pelvic girdle was announced ; it was strongly built , indicating the animal could have used them for moving in shallow water and across mudflats . Neil Shubin and Ted Daeschler , the leaders of the team , have been searching Ellesmere Island for fossils since 2000
We 're making the hypothesis that this animal was specialized for living in shallow stream systems , perhaps swampy habitats , perhaps even to some of the ponds . And maybe occasionally , using its very specialized fins , for moving up overland . And that 's what is particularly important here . The animal is developing features which will eventually allow animals to exploit land .
= = Classification and evolution = =
Tiktaalik roseae is the only species classified under the genus . Tiktaalik lived approximately 375 million years ago . Paleontologists suggest that it is representative of the transition between non @-@ tetrapod vertebrates ( fish ) such as Panderichthys , known from fossils 380 million years old , and early tetrapods such as Acanthostega and Ichthyostega , known from fossils about 365 million years old . Its mixture of primitive fish and derived tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers , Neil Shubin , to characterize Tiktaalik as a " fishapod " .
Tiktaalik is a transitional fossil ; it is to tetrapods what Aurornis is to birds , troodonts and dromaeosaurids . While it may be that neither is ancestor to any living animal , they serve as evidence that intermediates between very different types of vertebrates did once exist . The mixture of both fish and tetrapod characteristics found in Tiktaalik include these traits :
Fish
fish gills
fish scales
fish fins
" Fishapod "
half @-@ fish , half @-@ tetrapod limb bones and joints , including a functional wrist joint and radiating , fish @-@ like fins instead of toes
half @-@ fish , half @-@ tetrapod ear region
Tetrapod
tetrapod rib bones
tetrapod mobile neck with separate pectoral girdle
tetrapod lungs
= = Phylogenetic position = =
= = = 2006 - 2010 = = =
The phylogenetic analysis by Daeschler et al. placed Tiktaalik as a sister taxon to Elpistostege and directly below Panderichthys preceded by Eusthenopteron . Tiktaalik was thus inserted above Acanthostega and Ichthyostega as a transitional form and a true " missing link " .
Such order of the phylogenetic tree was initially adopted by other experts , most notably by Per Ahlberg and Jennifer Clack . However , it was questioned in a 2008 paper by Boisvert at al. who noted that Panderichthys , due to its more derived distal portion , might be closer to tetrapods than Tiktaalik or even that it was convergent with tetrapods . Ahlberg , co @-@ author of the study , considered the possibility of Tiktaalik 's fin having been " an evolutionary return to a more primitive form . "
= = = 2010 - now = = =
In January 2010 , a group of paleontologists ( including Ahlberg ) published a paper accompanied by extensive supplementary material ( discussed also in a Nature documentary ) which showed that first tetrapods appeared long before Tiktaalik and other elpistostegids . Their conclusions were based on numerous trackways ( esp . Muz . PGI 1728.II.16 ) and individual footprints ( esp . Muz . PGI 1728.II.1 ) discovered at the Zachełmie quarry in the Holy Cross Mountains ( Poland ) . A tetrapod origin of those tracks was established based on :
distinct digits and limb morphology ;
trackways reflecting quadrupedal gait and diagonal walk ;
no body or tail drag marks ;
very wide stride in relation to body length ( much beyond that of Tiktaalik or any other fish ) ;
various size footprints with some unusually big ( up to 26 cm wide ) indicating body lengths of over 2 @.@ 5 m .
Track @-@ bearing layers were assigned to the lower @-@ middle Eifelian based on conodont index fossil samples ( costatus Zone ) and " previous biostratigraphic data obtained from the underlying and overlying strata " with subsequent studies confirming this dating .
Both Titaalik 's discoverers were skeptical about the Zachelmie trackways . Edward Daeschler said that trace evidence was not enough for him to modify the theory of tetrapod evolution , while Neil Shubin argued that Tiktaalik could have produced very similar footprints ( in a later study Shubin expressed a significantly modified opinion that some of the Zachelmie footprints , those which lacked digits , may have been made by walking fish ) . However , Ahlberg insisted that those tracks could not have possibly been formed either by natural processes or by transitional species such as Tiktaalik or Panderichthys . Instead , the authors of the publication suggested ichthyostegalians as trackmakers , based on available pes morphology of those animals . However , a 2012 study indicated that Zachelmie trackmakers were even more advanced than Ichthyostega in terms of quadrupedalism . Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki 's reconstruction of one of the trackmakers was identical to that of Tulerpeton .
Prof. Narkiewicz , co @-@ author of the article on the Zachelmie trackways , claimed that the Polish " discovery has disproved the theory that elpistostegids were the ancestors of tetrapods " , a notion partially shared by Philippe Janvier . There have been a number of new hypotheses suggested as to a possible origin and phylogenetic position of the elpistostegids ( including Tiktaalik ) :
their phylogenetic position remains unchanged and the footprints found in the Holy Cross Mountains are attributed to tetrapods but as a result there are at least six long ghost lineages separating Zachelmie trackmakers from various elpistostegalian and ichthyostegalian species ;
they were " late @-@ surviving relics rather than direct transitional forms " ;
they were " an evolutionary dead @-@ end " ;
they were a result of convergent or parallel evolution so that apomorphies and striking anatomical similarities found in both digited tetrapods and elpistostegalians evolved at least twice .
It should be noted that convergency is considered responsible for uniquely tetrapod features found also in other non @-@ elpistostegalian fish from the period like Sauripterus ( finger @-@ like jointed distal radial bones ) or Tarrasius ( tetrapod @-@ like spine with 5 axial regions ) .
Estimates published after the discovery of Zachelmie tracks suggested that digited tetrapods may have appeared as early as 427 @.@ 4 Ma ago and questioned attempts to read absolute timing of evolutionary events in early tetrapod evolution from stratigraphy .
Until more data becomes available , the phylogenetic position of Tiktaalik and other elpistostegids remains uncertain .
= = Discovery = =
In 2004 , three fossilized Tiktaalik skeletons were discovered in rock formed from late Devonian river sediments on Ellesmere Island , Nunavut , in northern Canada . Estimated ages reported at 375 Ma ago , 379 Ma ago , and 383 Ma ago . At the time of the species ' existence , Ellesmere Island was part of the continent Laurentia ( modern eastern North America and Greenland ) , which was centered on the equator and had a warm climate . When discovered , one of the skulls was found sticking out of a cliff . Upon further inspection , the fossil was found to be in excellent condition for a 375 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old specimen .
The discovery , made by Edward B. Daeschler of the Academy of Natural Sciences , Neil H. Shubin from the University of Chicago , and Harvard University Professor Farish A. Jenkins , Jr , was published in the April 6 , 2006 , issue of Nature and quickly recognized as a transitional form . Jennifer A. Clack , a Cambridge University expert on tetrapod evolution , said of Tiktaalik , " It 's one of those things you can point to and say , ' I told you this would exist , ' and there it is . "
After five years of digging on Ellesmere Island , in the far north of Nunavut , they hit pay dirt : a collection of several fish so beautifully preserved that their skeletons were still intact . As Shubin 's team studied the species they saw to their excitement that it was exactly the missing intermediate they were looking for . ' We found something that really split the difference right down the middle , ' says Daeschler .
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= Battle of Tassafaronga =
The Battle of Tassafaronga , sometimes referred to as the Fourth Battle of Savo Island or , in Japanese sources , as the Battle of Lunga Point ( ルンガ沖夜戦 ) , was a nighttime naval battle that took place on November 30 , 1942 between United States ( US ) Navy and Imperial Japanese Navy warships during the Guadalcanal campaign . The battle took place in Ironbottom Sound near the Tassafaronga area on Guadalcanal .
In the battle , a US warship force of five cruisers and four destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright attempted to surprise and destroy a Japanese warship force of eight destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka . Tanaka 's warships were attempting to deliver food supplies to Japanese forces on Guadalcanal .
Using radar , the US warships gained surprise , opened fire , and sank one of the Japanese destroyers . Tanaka and the rest of his ships , however , reacted quickly and launched numerous Type 93 " Long Lance " torpedoes at the US warships . The Japanese torpedoes hit and sank one US cruiser and heavily damaged three others , enabling the rest of Tanaka 's force to escape without significant additional damage but also without completing the intended supply delivery mission . Although a severe tactical defeat for the US , the battle had little strategic impact as the Japanese were unable to take advantage of the victory to further resupply or otherwise assist in their ultimately unsuccessful efforts to recapture Guadalcanal from Allied forces .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal Campaign = = =
On August 7 , 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily US ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the US and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralising the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 Japanese personnel present on the islands were taken by surprise , and by nightfall on August 8 the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops , under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift , secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The Allies later renamed the airfield Henderson Field . Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the US Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point . Additional reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of US troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20 @,@ 000 .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake , the task of retaking Guadalcanal . Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on August 19 to drive Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were rarely able to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The Japanese attempted several times between August and November 1942 to recapture Henderson Field and drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal , to no avail . The last attempt by the Japanese to deliver significant additional forces to the island failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal of November 12 – 15 .
On November 26 , Japanese Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the newly formed Eighth Area Army at Rabaul . The new command encompassed both Hyakutake 's 17th Army in the Solomons and the 18th Army in New Guinea . One of Imamura 's first priorities upon assuming command was the continuation of the attempts to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal . The Allied offensive at Buna in New Guinea , however , changed Imamura 's priorities . Because the Allied attempt to take Buna was considered a more severe threat to Rabaul , Imamura postponed further major reinforcement efforts to Guadalcanal to concentrate on the situation in New Guinea .
= = = Supply crisis = = =
Due to a combination of the threat from CAF aircraft , US Navy PT boats stationed at Tulagi , and a cycle of bright moonlight , the Japanese had switched to using submarines to deliver provisions to their forces on Guadalcanal . Beginning on November 16 , 1942 , and continuing for the next three weeks , 16 submarines made nocturnal deliveries of foodstuffs to the island , with one submarine making the trip each night . Each submarine could deliver 20 to 30 tons of supplies , about one day 's worth of food , for the 17th Army , but the difficult task of transporting the supplies by hand through the jungle to the frontline units limited their value to sustain the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal . At the same time , the Japanese tried to establish a chain of three bases in the central Solomons to allow small boats to use them as staging sites for making supply deliveries to Guadalcanal , but damaging Allied airstrikes on the bases forced the abandonment of this plan .
On November 26 , the 17th Army notified Imamura that it faced a critical food crisis . Some front @-@ line units had not been resupplied for six days and even the rear @-@ area troops were on one @-@ third rations . The situation forced the Japanese to return to using destroyers to deliver the necessary supplies .
Eighth Fleet personnel devised a plan to help reduce the exposure of destroyers delivering supplies to Guadalcanal . Large oil or gas drums were cleaned and filled with medical supplies and food , with enough air space to provide buoyancy , and strung together with rope . When the destroyers arrived at Guadalcanal they would make a sharp turn , the drums would be cut loose , and a swimmer or boat from shore could pick up the buoyed end of a rope and return it to the beach , where the soldiers could haul in the supplies .
The Eighth Fleet 's Guadalcanal Reinforcement Unit , based in the Shortland Islands and under the command of Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka , was tasked by Mikawa with making the first of five scheduled runs using the drum method on the night of November 30 . Tanaka 's unit was centered on the eight ships of Destroyer Squadron ( Desron ) 2 , with six destroyers assigned to carry from 200 to 240 drums of supplies apiece , to Tassafaronga at Guadalcanal . Tanaka 's flagship Naganami along with Takanami acted as escorts . The six drum @-@ carrying destroyers were Kuroshio , Oyashio , Kagerō , Suzukaze , Kawakaze , and Makinami . To save weight , the drum @-@ carrying destroyers left their reloads of Type 93 torpedoes ( Long Lances ) at the Shortlands , leaving each ship with eight torpedoes , one for each tube .
After the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , US Vice Admiral William Halsey , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific , had reorganized US naval forces under his command , including , on November 24 , the formation of Task Force 67 ( TF67 ) at Espiritu Santo , comprising the heavy cruisers USS Minneapolis , New Orleans , Pensacola , and Northampton , the light cruiser Honolulu , and four destroyers ( Fletcher , Drayton , Maury , and Perkins ) . US Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright replaced Thomas Kinkaid as commander of TF67 on November 28 .
Upon taking command , Wright briefed his ship commanders on his plan for engaging the Japanese in future , expected night battles around Guadalcanal . The plan , which he had drafted with Kinkaid , stated that radar @-@ equipped destroyers were to scout in front of the cruisers and deliver a surprise torpedo attack upon sighting Japanese warships , then vacate the area to give the cruisers a clear field of fire . The cruisers were then to engage with gunfire from 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) to 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . The cruisers ' floatplanes would scout and drop flares during the battle .
On November 29 , Allied intelligence personnel intercepted and decoded a Japanese message transmitted to the 17th Army on Guadalcanal alerting them to Tanaka 's supply run . Informed of the message , Halsey ordered Wright to take TF67 to intercept Tanaka off Guadalcanal . TF67 , with Wright flying his flag on Minneapolis , departed Espiritu Santo at 27 knots ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) just before midnight on November 29 for the 580 miles ( 930 km ) run to Guadalcanal . En route , destroyers Lamson and Lardner , returning from a convoy escort assignment to Guadalcanal , were ordered to join up with TF67 . Lacking the time to brief the commanding officers of the joining destroyers of his battle plan , Wright assigned them a position behind the cruisers . At 17 : 00 on November 30 , Wright 's cruisers launched one floatplane each for Tulagi to drop flares during the expected battle that night . At 20 : 00 , Wright sent his crews to battle stations .
Tanaka 's force departed the Shortlands just after midnight on November 30 for the run to Guadalcanal . Tanaka attempted to evade Allied aerial reconnaissance aircraft by first heading northeast through Bougainville Strait before turning southeast and then south to pass through Indispensable Strait . Paul Mason , an Australian coastwatcher stationed in southern Bougainville , reported by radio the departure of Tanaka 's ships from Shortland and this message was passed to Wright . At the same time , a Japanese search aircraft spotted an Allied convoy near Guadalcanal and communicated the sighting to Tanaka who told his destroyer commanders to expect action that night and that , " In such an event , utmost efforts will be made to destroy the enemy without regard for the unloading of supplies . "
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
At 21 : 40 on November 30 , Tanaka 's ships sighted Savo Island from Indispensable Strait . The Japanese ships were in line ahead formation , interval 600 metres ( 660 yd ) , in the order of Takanami , Oyashio , Kuroshio , Kagero , Makinami , Naganami , Kawakaze , and Suzukaze . At this same time , TF67 entered Lengo Channel en route to Ironbottom Sound . Wright 's ships were in column in the order Fletcher , Perkins , Maury , Drayton , Minneapolis , New Orleans , Pensacola , Honolulu , Northampton , Lamson , and Lardner . The four van destroyers led the cruisers by 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and the cruisers steamed 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) apart .
At 22 : 40 , Tanaka 's ships passed south of Savo about 3 miles ( 5 km ) offshore from Guadalcanal and slowed to 12 knots ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) as they approached the unloading area . Takanami took station about 1 mile ( 2 km ) seaward to screen the column . At the same time , TF67 exited Lengo Channel into the sound and headed at 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) towards Savo Island . Wright 's van destroyers moved to a position slightly inshore of the cruisers . The night sky was moonless with between 2 miles ( 3 km ) and 7 miles ( 11 km ) of visibility . Because of extremely calm seas which created a suction effect on their pontoons , Wright 's cruiser floatplanes were delayed in lifting off from Tulagi harbor , and would not be a factor in the battle .
At 23 : 06 , Wright 's force began to detect Tanaka 's ships on radar near Cape Esperance on Guadalcanal about 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) away . Wright 's destroyers rejoined the column as it continued to head towards Savo . At the same time , Tanaka 's ships , which were not equipped with radar , split into two groups and prepared to shove the drums overboard . Naganami , Kawakaze , and Suzukaze headed for their drop @-@ off point near Doma Reef while Makinami , Kagero , Oyashio , and Kurashio aimed for nearby Tassafaronga . At 23 : 12 , Takanami 's crew visually sighted Wright 's column , quickly confirmed by lookouts on Tanaka 's other ships . At 23 : 16 , Tanaka ordered unloading preparations halted and " All ships attack . "
= = = Action = = =
At 23 : 14 , operators on Fletcher established firm radar contact with Takanami and the lead group of four drum @-@ carrying destroyers . At 23 : 15 , with the range 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) , Commander William M. Cole , commander of Wright 's destroyer group and captain of Fletcher , radioed Wright for permission to fire torpedoes . Wright waited two minutes and then responded with , " Range on bogies [ Tanaka 's ships on radar ] excessive at present . " Cole responded that the range was fine . Another two minutes passed before Wright responded with permission to fire . In the meantime , the US destroyer 's targets escaped from an optimum firing setup ahead to a marginal position passing abeam , giving the American torpedoes a long overtaking run near the limit of their range . At 23 : 20 , Fletcher , Perkins , and Drayton fired a total of 20 Mark 15 torpedoes towards Tanaka 's ships . Maury , lacking SG radar and thus having no contacts , withheld fire .
At the same time , Wright ordered his force to open fire . At 23 : 21 , Minneapolis complied with her first salvo , quickly followed by the other American cruisers . Cole 's four destroyers fired star shells to illuminate the targets as previously directed then increased speed to clear the area for the cruisers to operate .
Because of her closer proximity to Wright 's column , Takanami was the target of most of the American 's initial gunfire . Takanami returned fire and launched her full load of eight torpedoes , but was quickly hit by American gunfire and , within four minutes , was set afire and incapacitated . As Takanami was destroyed , the rest of Tanaka 's ships , almost unnoticed by the Americans , were increasing speed , maneuvering , and preparing to respond to the American attack . All of the American torpedoes missed . Historian Russell S. Crenshaw , Jr. postulates that had the twenty @-@ four Mark 15 torpedoes fired by U.S. Navy destroyers during the battle not been fatally flawed , the outcome of the battle might have been different .
Tanaka 's flagship , Naganami , reversed course to starboard , opened fire and began laying a smoke screen . The next two ships astern , Kawakaze and Suzukaze , reversed course to port . At 23 : 23 , Suzukaze fired eight torpedoes in the direction of the gunflashes from Wright 's cruisers , followed by Naganami and Kawakaze which fired their full loads of eight torpedoes at 23 : 32 and 23 : 33 respectively .
Meanwhile , the four destroyers at the head of the Japanese column maintained their heading down the Guadalcanal coast , allowing Wright 's cruisers to pass on the opposite course . Once clear of Takanami at 23 : 28 , Kuroshio fired four and Oyashio fired eight torpedoes in the direction of Wright 's column and then reversed course and increased speed . Wright 's cruisers maintained the same course and speed as the 44 Japanese torpedoes headed in their direction .
At 23 : 27 , as Minneapolis fired her ninth salvo and Wright prepared to order a course change for his column , two torpedoes , from either Suzukaze or Takanami , slammed into her forward half . One warhead exploded the aviation fuel storage tanks forward of turret one and the other knocked out three of the ship 's four firerooms . The bow forward of turret one folded down at a 70 @-@ degree angle and the ship lost power and steering control . Thirty @-@ seven men were killed .
Less than a minute later a torpedo hit New Orleans abreast of turret one and exploded the ship 's forward ammunition magazines and aviation gasoline storage . The blast severed the ship 's entire bow forward of turret two . The bow twisted to port , damaging the ship 's hull as it was wrenched free by the ship 's momentum , and sank immediately off the aft port quarter . Everyone in turrets one and two perished . New Orleans was forced into a reverse course to starboard and lost steering and communications . A total of 183 men were killed . Herbert Brown , a seaman in the ship 's plotting room , described the scene after the torpedo hit ,
I had to see . I walked alongside the silent turret two and was stopped by a lifeline stretched from the outboard port lifeline to the side of the turret . Thank God it was there , for one more step and I would have pitched head first into the dark water thirty feet below . The bow was gone . One hundred and twenty five feet of ship and number one main battery turret with three 8 inch guns were gone . Eighteen hundred tons of ship were gone . Oh my God , all those guys I went through boot camp with - all gone .
Pensacola followed next astern in the cruiser column . Observing Minneapolis and New Orleans taking hits and slowing , Pensacola steered to pass them on the port side and then , once past , returned to the same base course . At 23 : 39 , Pensacola took a torpedo abreast the mainmast . The explosion spread flaming oil throughout the interior and across the main deck of the ship , killing 125 of the ship 's crew . The hit ripped away the port outer driveshaft and the ship took a 13 @-@ degree list and lost power , communications , and steering .
Astern of Pensacola , Honolulu 's captain chose to pass Minneapolis and New Orleans on the starboard side . At the same time , the ship increased speed to 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) , maneuvered radically , and successfully transited the battle area without taking any damage while maintaining main battery fire at the rapidly disappearing Japanese destroyers .
The last cruiser in the American column , Northampton , followed Honolulu to pass the damaged cruisers ahead to starboard . Unlike Honolulu , Northampton did not increase speed or attempt any radical maneuvers . At 23 : 48 , after returning to the base course , Northampton was hit by two of Kawakaze 's torpedoes . One hit 10 feet ( 3 m ) below the waterline abreast the after engine room , and four seconds later , the second hit 40 feet ( 12 m ) further aft . The after engine room flooded , three of four shafts ceased turning , and the ship listed 10 degrees to port and caught fire . Fifty men were killed .
The last ships in Wright 's column , Lamson and Lardner , failed to locate any targets and exited the battle area to the east after being mistakenly fired on by machine guns from New Orleans . Cole 's four destroyers circled completely around Savo Island at maximum speed and reentered the battle area , but the engagement had already ended .
Meanwhile , at 23 : 44 Tanaka ordered his ships to break contact and retire from the battle area . As they proceeded up Guadalcanal 's coast , Kuroshio and Kagero fired eight more torpedoes towards the American ships , which all missed . When Takanami failed to respond to radio calls , Tanaka directed Oyashio and Kuroshio to go to her assistance . The two destroyers located the burning ship at 01 : 00 on December 1 but abandoned rescue efforts after detecting American warships in the area . Oyashio and Kuroshio quickly departed the sound to rejoin the rest of Tanaka 's ships for the return journey to the Shortlands , which they reached 10 hours later . Takanami was the only Japanese warship hit by American gunfire and seriously damaged during the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Takanami 's surviving crew abandoned ship at 01 : 30 , but a large explosion killed many more of them in the water , including the destroyer division commander , Toshio Shimizu , and the ship 's captain , Masami Ogura . Of her crew of 244 , 48 survived to reach shore on Guadalcanal and 19 of them were captured by the Americans .
Northampton 's crew was unable to contain the ship 's fires and list and began to abandon ship at 01 : 30 . The ship sank at 03 : 04 about 4 miles ( 6 km ) from Doma Cove on Guadalcanal ( 09 ° 12 ′ S 159 ° 50 ′ E ) . Fletcher and Drayton rescued the ship 's 773 survivors .
Minneapolis , New Orleans , and Pensacola were able to make it the 19 miles ( 31 km ) to Tulagi on the morning of December 1 where they were berthed for emergency repairs . The fires on Pensacola burned for 12 hours before being extinguished . Pensacola departed Tulagi for rear area ports and further repair on December 6 . After construction of temporary bows from coconut logs , Minneapolis and New Orleans departed Tulagi for Espiritu Santo or Sydney , Australia on December 12 . All three cruisers required lengthy and extensive repairs . New Orleans returned to action in August , Minneapolis in September , and Pensacola in October 1943 .
The battle was one of the worst defeats suffered by the US Navy in World War II , third only to the Attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Savo Island . The battle , along with the losses suffered during the Battle of Savo Island , Cape Esperance and the Naval Battles of Guadalcanal temporarily left the US Navy with only 4 operational heavy cruisers and 9 light cruisers in the entire Pacific Ocean . In spite of his defeat in the battle , Wright was awarded the Navy Cross , one of the highest American military decorations for bravery , for his actions during the engagement . Mitigating to some degree the destruction of his task force , Wright , in his after @-@ action report , claimed that his force sank four Japanese destroyers and damaged two others . Halsey , in his comments on Wright 's report , placed much of the blame for the defeat on Cole , saying that the destroyer squadron commander fired his torpedoes from too great a distance to be effective and should have " helped " the cruisers instead of circling around Savo Island . Tanaka claimed to have sunk a battleship and two cruisers in the battle .
The results of the battle led to further discussion in the US Pacific Fleet about changes in tactical doctrine and the need for technical improvements , such as flashless powder . It was not until eight months later that the naval high command recognized there were serious problems with the functioning of the torpedoes . The Americans were still unaware of the range and power of Japanese torpedoes and the effectiveness of Japanese night battle tactics . In fact , Wright claimed that his ships must have been fired on by submarines since the observed position of Tanaka 's ships " make it improbable that torpedoes with speed @-@ distance characteristics similar to our own " could have caused such damage , though Tanaka states that his torpedoes were fired at a range as short as three miles . The Americans would not recognize the true capabilities of their Pacific adversary 's torpedoes ( particularly the surface @-@ ship @-@ fired Type 93 " Long Lance " ) and night tactics until well into 1943 . After the war , Tanaka said of his victory at Tassafaronga , " I have heard that US naval experts praised my command in that action . I am not deserving of such honors . It was the superb proficiency and devotion of the men who served me that produced the tactical victory for us . "
In spite of their defeat in the battle , the Americans had prevented Tanaka from landing the desperately needed food supplies on Guadalcanal , albeit at high cost . A second Japanese supply delivery attempt by 10 destroyers led by Tanaka on December 3 successfully dumped 1 @,@ 500 drums of provisions off Tassafaronga , but strafing American aircraft sank all but 310 of them the next day before they could be pulled ashore . On December 7 , a third attempt by 12 destroyers was turned back by US PT boats off Cape Esperance . The next night , two US PT boats torpedoed and sank the Japanese submarine I @-@ 3 as it attempted to deliver supplies to Guadalcanal . Based on the difficulties experienced trying to deliver food to the island , the Japanese Navy informed Imamura on December 8 that they intended to stop all destroyer transportation runs to Guadalcanal immediately . After Imamura protested , the navy agreed to one more run to the island .
The last attempt to deliver food to Guadalcanal by destroyers in 1942 was led by Tanaka on the night of December 11 and consisted of 11 destroyers . Five US PT boats met Tanaka off Guadalcanal and torpedoed his flagship Teruzuki , severely damaging the destroyer and injuring Tanaka . After Tanaka transferred to Naganami , Teruzuki was scuttled . Only 220 of the 1 @,@ 200 drums released that night were recovered by Japanese army personnel on shore . Tanaka was subsequently relieved of command and transferred to Japan on December 29 , 1942 .
On December 12 , the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned . Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders , who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken from the Allies , on December 31 , 1942 Japan 's Imperial General Headquarters , with approval from the Emperor , agreed to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and the establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia . The Japanese evacuated their remaining forces from Guadalcanal over three nights between February 2 and February 7 , 1943 , conceding the hard fought campaign to the Allies . Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere , the Allies continued their campaign against Japan , ultimately culminating in Japan 's defeat and the end of World War II .
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= Nights into Dreams ... =
Nights into Dreams ... ( Japanese : ナイツ , Hepburn : Naitsu , stylised as NiGHTS into Dreams ... ) is an action video game developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Sega Saturn in 1996 . The story follows two teenagers , Claris and Elliot , who enter a dream world called Nightopia where all dreams take place . With the help of Nights , an exiled " Nightmaren " , they begin a journey to stop the evil ruler Wizeman from destroying Nightopia and consequently the real world . Gameplay is centred around Nights flying through Claris and Elliot 's dreams to gather enough energy to defeat Wizeman and save Nightopia . The game is presented in 3D and imposes time limits on every level , in which the player must accumulate enough points to proceed .
Development began soon after the release of Sonic & Knuckles in 1994 , although the concept originated during the development of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 ( 1992 ) . Development was led by Sonic Team veterans Yuji Naka , Naoto Ohshima , and Takashi Iizuka . Naka began the project with the main idea revolving around flight , and Ohshima designed the character Nights to resemble an angel that could fly like a bird . Ohshima designed Nights specifically as an androgynous character . The team conducted research on dreaming and REM sleep , and was influenced by the works and theories of psychoanalysts Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud . An analogue controller , known as the Saturn 3D controller , was designed alongside the game and was included with some retail copies sold .
Nights into Dreams ... received positive reviews upon release ; critics praised the graphics , gameplay , soundtrack , and atmosphere . It has been included on multiple lists as being the best Sega Saturn game of all time , as well as among the best games ever made . An abbreviated version of the game with a Christmas theme , titled Christmas Nights , was released in December 1996 . The game was ported to the PlayStation 2 in 2008 exclusively in Japan and a high @-@ definition version was released worldwide for PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Microsoft Windows in 2012 . A direct sequel , Nights : Journey of Dreams , was released for the Wii in 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Nights into Dreams ... is split into seven levels , referred to as " Dreams " . The levels are distributed equally between the two teenage characters : three are unique to Claris , three to Elliot , and each play through an identical final seventh level , " Twin Seeds " . Initially , only Claris ' Spring Valley and Elliot 's Splash Garden levels are available , and successful completion of one of these unlocks the next level in that character 's path . Previously completed stages may be revisited to improve the player 's high scores ; a grade between A and F will be given to the player upon completion , but a " C " grade in all the selected character 's levels must be achieved to unlock the relevant Twin Seeds stage for that character . Points are accumulated depending on how fast the player completes a level , and extra points are awarded when the player flies through rings .
Each level is split up into four " Mares " set in Nightopia and a boss fight which takes place in Nightmare . In each level , players initially control Claris or Elliot , who immediately have their Ideyas ( spherical objects that contain emotions ) of hope , growth , intelligence and purity stolen from them by Wizeman 's minions , leaving behind only their Ideya of courage . The goal of each Mare is to recover one of the stolen Ideya by collecting 20 blue chips and delivering them to the cage holding the Ideyas , which will overload and release the orb it holds . If the player walks around the landscape for too long , they will be pursued by a sentient alarm clock which will awaken the character and end the level if it comes into contact with the player . The majority of the gameplay centres on flying sequences , which are triggered by walking into the Ideya Palace near the start of each level so that the character merges with the imprisoned Nights . Once the flying sequence is initiated , the time limit will begin .
In the flying sections , the player controls Nights ' flight along a predetermined route through each Mare , resembling that of a 2D platformer . The player has only a limited period of time available before Nights falls to the ground and transforms back into Claris or Elliot , and each collision with an enemy subtracts five seconds from the time remaining . While flying , Nights can use a boost to travel faster , as well as defeat certain reverie enemies scattered throughout the level . Grabbing onto certain enemies causes Nights to spin around , which will launch both Nights and the enemy in the direction the boost was initiated . Various acrobatic manoeuvres can be performed , including the " Paraloop " , whereby flying around in a complete circle and connecting the trail of stars left in Nights ' wake will cause any items within the loop to be attracted towards Nights . The game features a combo system known as " Linking " , whereby actions such as collecting items and flying through rings are worth more points when performed in quick succession . Power @-@ ups may be gained by flying through several predetermined rings , which will be indicated by a bonus barrel . The power @-@ ups include a speed boost , point multiplier and an air pocket .
The player receives a grade based on their score at the end of each Mare , and an overall grade for the level after clearing all four Mares . Nights is then transported to Nightmare for a boss fight against one of Wizeman 's " Level Two " Nightmarens . Each boss fight has a time limit , and the game will end if the player runs out of time during the battle . Upon winning the boss fight , the player is awarded a score multiplier based on how quickly the boss was defeated , which is then applied to the score earned in the Nightopia section to produce the player 's final score for that Dream . The game also features a multiplayer mode , which allows two players to battle each other by using a splitscreen . One player controls Nights , whereas the other controls the secondary antagonist , Reala . The winner is determined by the first player to defeat the other , which is accomplished by hitting the other player three times .
The game features an artificial life system known as " A @-@ Life " , which involves entities called Nightopians and keeps track of their moods . It is possible to have them mate with other Nightopians , which will result in creating hybrids known as " Superpians " . The more the game is played , the more inhabitants appear , and environmental features and aesthetics will consequently change . The A @-@ Life system features an evolving music engine , allowing tempo , pitch , and melody to alter depending on the state of Nightopians within the level . The feature runs from the Sega Saturn 's internal clock , which will also alter features in the A @-@ Life system depending on the time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Every night , all human dreams are played out in Nightopia and Nightmare , the two parts of the dream world . In Nightopia , distinct aspects of dreamers ' personalities are represented by luminous coloured spheres known as " Ideya " . The evil ruler of Nightmare , Wizeman the Wicked , is stealing this dream energy from sleeping visitors in order to gather power and take control of Nightopia and eventually the real world . To achieve this , he creates five beings called " Nightmaren " : jester @-@ like , flight @-@ capable beings , which include Jackle , Clawz , Gulpo , Gillwing and Puffy as well as many minor maren . He also creates two " Level One " Nightmaren : Nights and Reala . However , Nights rebels against Wizeman 's plans , and is punished by being imprisoned inside an Ideya palace , a gazebo @-@ like container for dreamers ' Ideya .
= = = Synopsis = = =
One day , Elliot Edwards and Claris Sinclair , two teenagers from the city of Twin Seeds , go through failures . Elliot is a basketball player who enjoys a game with his friends . He is challenged by a group of older school students and suffers a humiliating defeat on the court . Claris is a talented singer and her ambition is to perform on stage . She auditions for a part in the events commemorating the centenary of the city of Twin Seeds . Standing in front of the judges , she is overcome by stage fright and does not perform well , which causes her to lose all hopes of getting the role . When they go to sleep that night , both Elliot and Claris suffer nightmares that replay the events . They escape into Nightopia and find that they both possess the rare Red Ideya of Courage , the only type that Wizeman cannot steal .
Once in Nightopia , they discover and release Nights , who tells them about dreams and Wizeman and his plans ; the three begin a journey to stop Wizeman and restore peace to Nightopia . When they defeat Wizeman and Reala , peace is returned to Nightopia and the world of Nightmare is suppressed . The next day , back in Twin Seeds , a centenary ceremony begins . Elliot is seen walking through the parade until he has a vision of Nights looking at him through a hoarding . Realising that Claris is performing in a hall , Elliot runs through the crowd and sees Claris on stage in front of a large audience , singing well . The two look at each other , and are transitioned to a spring valley in Nightopia , which leaves ambiguity as to whether what they achieved was real or just a dream .
= = Development = =
Sonic Team developed the game in the United States , unlike their previous titles which had been developed in Japan . The concept for the game originated during the development of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 in 1992 , but actual development did not begin until after the release of Sonic & Knuckles in late 1994 . The programming of the game began in April 1995 and total development spanned a period of six months . The development team consisted of staff who worked on previous Sonic the Hedgehog titles : Yuji Naka ( the former head of AM8 ) was selected to act as lead programmer and producer , while Naoto Ohshima and Takashi Iizuka undertook the roles of director and lead designer , respectively . According to Naka , the initial development team consisted of seven people at the start of production , and gradually grew to 20 people once more programmers started to arrive .
Sonic the Hedgehog creator and project director Ohshima created the character of Nights based on his inspirations from travelling around Europe and western Asia . He eventually came to the conclusion that the main character of the game should resemble an angel and fly like a bird . Naka originally intended to make Nights into Dreams ... a slow @-@ paced game , but as development progressed the gameplay pace gradually increased , in similar vein to Sonic the Hedgehog titles . The initial concept of the game featured the flying character in a rendered 2D sprite art , with side @-@ scrolling features similar to Sonic the Hedgehog . The team were at first hesitant to switch the game from 2D to 3D , as Naka was sceptical that appealing characters could be created with polygons , in contrast to traditional pixel art sprites , which Sonic Team 's designers found " more expressive " . According to Izuka , the game design and story took two years to finalise .
The game was developed using Silicon Graphics workstations for graphical designs and Sega Saturn emulators running on Hewlett @-@ Packard machines for programming . Izuka said that there were problems during early stages of development because of a lack of games to use as reference ; the team consequently had to redesign the Spring Valley level numerous times and build " everything from scratch " . Because the Sonic Team offices did not include any sound @-@ proof studios , team members were forced to record vocal sound effects for the game at night . Naka revealed that every phrase in the game has a meaning ; for example " abayo " is Japanese slang for " goodbye " . Regarding the design of the 3D cutscenes , the team felt that the global market would be less resistant to a game featuring full 3D CGI in comparison to 2D anime . Norihiro Nishiyama , the designer of the in @-@ game movies , stated that the use of 3D cutscenes in the game was necessary as he felt the movies were a good method to show the different concepts of dreaming and waking up into reality . Naka said that the in @-@ game movies incorporate realism in order to make it more difficult for the player to disambiguate the boundary between dreams and reality .
At the end of development , Naka admitted that the cycle took longer than expected because of the team 's inexperience with Saturn hardware and uncertainty about utilising the full 560 megabyte space on the CD @-@ ROM . The team initially thought that the game would consume around 100 megabytes of data , and at one point considered releasing it on two separate discs . In a retrospective interview , Iizuka said that the most difficult part of development was finding a way of handling the " contradiction " of using 2D sidescroller controls in a fully 3D game . Naka also purposely limited the game 's flying mechanic to " invisible 2D tracks " because early beta testing revealed that the game was too difficult to play in full 3D .
Iizuka said that the game was inspired by various titles and characters from Japanese anime and Cirque du Soleil 's Mystère theatrical performance . The development team researched dream sequences and REM sleep , including the works of the psychoanalysts Carl Jung , Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Holtz . Iizuka analysed Jung 's theories of dream archetypes and spent a considerable amount of time studying dreams and theories associated with them . Naka said that the main protagonist , Nights , is reflective of Jung 's analytical " shadow " theory , whereas the two central characters , Claris and Elliot , were inspired by Jung 's animus and anima .
= = = Release = = =
Nights into Dreams ... was introduced alongside an optional game controller , the Saturn 3D controller , which was included with some copies of the game . The gamepad features an analogue stick and analogue triggers which was designed specifically for the game , in order to make movement easier . During development , director Steven Spielberg visited the Sonic Team studio and became the first person outside the development team to play the game . Naka asked him to play with an experimental version of the Saturn 3D controller , and was jokingly referred to as the " Spielberg controller " throughout development . The controller was designed with the game specifically in mind ; the development team compared the success of the Nintendo 64 controller with Super Mario 64 ( 1996 ) , and realised that the default Saturn controller was more suited for arcade games in contrast to the gameplay of Nights into Dreams .... The game was marketed with an advertising budget of $ 10 million , which included the use of television and print advertisements in the United States .
= = Related games = =
= = = Christmas Nights = = =
Christmas Nights ( クリスマスナイツ , Kurisumasu Naitsu ) , or Christmas NiGHTS into Dreams ... , is a Christmas @-@ themed two @-@ level game of Nights into Dreams ... that was released in December 1996 . It was introduced in Japan as part of a Christmas Sega Saturn bundle , whereas elsewhere it was given away with the purchase of certain Saturn games such as Daytona USA Championship Circuit Edition ( 1996 ) , and was also bundled in with issues of Sega Saturn Magazine and Next Generation Magazine . In the United Kingdom , Christmas Nights was not included with the Sega Saturn Magazine until December 1997 .
The story of Christmas Nights follows Elliot and Claris during the holiday season following their adventures with Nights . Though they both enjoy the Christmas season , they feel as if something is missing . Realising that the Christmas Star that usually sits at the top of the Twin Seeds Christmas tree is absent , the pair travel to Nightopia to find it . There , they reunite with Nights and re @-@ explore Spring Valley , which has now been decorated due to their dreams of the holiday season . The remainder of the story revolves around their attempts of defeating a revived Gillwing and retrieving the Christmas Star from his lair .
The Christmas Nights disc contains the full version of Claris ' Spring Valley dream level from Nights into Dreams ... , which allows both Claris and Elliot to play through the area . The game uses the Saturn 's internal clock to change elements of the game according to the date and time . During December , " Christmas Nights " mode is activated , resulting in further Christmas @-@ themed alterations , such as item boxes becoming Christmas presents , greenery becoming snow , Nightopians dressing in elf costumes , and Christmas trees replacing Ideya captures . During the " Winter Nights " period , the weather in Spring Valley will change according to the hour . Other cosmetic changes are visible on New Year 's Day , and loading the game on April Fool 's Day results in Reala replacing Nights as the playable character .
In a 2007 interview , Iizuka stated that the Christmas @-@ themed add @-@ on Christmas Nights was conceptualised in order to increase the sales of Saturn consoles . Development of Christmas Nights began in July 1996 and took " three to four " months to complete , according to Naka . The disc features several unlockable bonuses such as being able to play the game 's soundtrack . Further extra modes allow players to observe the status of the A @-@ life system , experiment with the game 's music mixer , time attack one Mare , or play the demo stage as Sega 's mascot Sonic the Hedgehog . In the minigame Sonic the Hedgehog : Into Dreams , Sonic may only play through the stage of Spring Valley on foot , and must defeat the boss : an inflatable Dr. Robotnik . The music is a remixed version of " Final Fever " , the final boss battle music from the Japanese and European version of Sonic CD ( 1993 ) . The Christmas Nights content is playable in the HD version after the game has been cleared once .
= = = Sequel = = =
A game with the working title " Air Nights " was prototyped for the Saturn and began development for the Dreamcast , and in an August 1999 interview Yuji Naka confirmed that a sequel was in development ; by December 2000 , however , the project had been cancelled . Naka expressed reluctance to develop a sequel , but subsequently noted that he was interested in using Nights into Dreams ... as a licence " to reinforce Sega 's identity " . Aside from a handheld electronic game released by Tiger Electronics and small minigames featured in several Sega titles , no full sequel was released for a Sega console .
On 1 April 2007 , a sequel called Nights : Journey of Dreams was officially announced for the Wii . The game was first previewed on Spanish publication Maxi Consolas , after the release of short reveals from the Official Nintendo Magazine and Game Reactor . The sequel is a Wii exclusive , making use of the Wii Remote . The gameplay involves the use of various masks , and features a multiplayer mode for two players in addition to Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection online functions . The game was developed by Sega Studio USA , with Iizuka , one of the designers of the original game , serving as producer . It was released in Japan and the United States in December 2007 , and in Europe and Australia on 18 January 2008 .
In 2010 , Iizuka commented that he would be interested in making a third Nights into Dreams ... game , should the management of Sega decide to commission one .
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . It holds an average score of 89 % at GameRankings , based on an aggregate of nine reviews . In Japan , Nights into Dreams ... was the best @-@ selling game for the Sega Saturn and the 21st @-@ highest @-@ selling game during 1996 .
The graphics and flight mechanics were the most praised aspects of the game . Tom Guise from Computer and Video Games heralded the game 's flight system and freedom as captivating , while stating that Nights into Dreams ... is the " perfect evolution " of a Sonic game . GamePro said flying using the analogue joystick " is a breeze " and that the gameplay is fun , enjoyable , and impressive . Entertainment Weekly said its " graceful acrobatic stunts " offer " a more compelling sensation of soaring than most flight simulators " . Edge praised the game 's analogue controller and called the levels " well @-@ designed and graphically unrivalled " , but the reviewer expressed disappointment in the limited level count compared to Super Mario 64 , and suggested that Nights seemed to prioritise technical achievements and Saturn selling points over gameplay with as clear a focus as Sonic . Martin Robinson from Eurogamer opined that the flight mechanics were a " giddy thrill " , in contrast to Sonic games . Colin Ferris from Game Revolution praised the graphics and speed of the game as breathtaking and awe @-@ inspiring , concluding that it offered the best qualities of the fifth @-@ generation machines . GameFan praised the combination of " lush graphics , amazing music , and totally unique gameplay " . Next Generation criticised the fast tempo of the game , saying that the only disappointing aspect was the way " it all rushes by so fast " . However , the magazine praised the two @-@ player mode and the innovative method of grading the player once they completed a level .
Levi Buchanan from IGN believed that the console " was not built to handle Nights " due to the game occasionally clipping and warping , though he admitted that the graphics were " pretty darn good " . A reviewer from Mean Machines Sega praised the game 's vibrant colours and detailed textures , and described its animation as being " fluid as water " . The reviewer also noted occasional pop @-@ in and glitching during the game . Sam Hickman from the British Sega Saturn Magazine praised the visuals and colour scheme as rich in both texture and detail , while suggesting that Nights into Dreams ... is one of the most captivating games on the Saturn . Next Generation similarly commended the game 's visuals , stating that they were " beyond a doubt " the most fluid and satisfying for any game on any system . Upon release , the Japanese Sega Saturn Magazine opined that the game would have a significant impact on the video game industry , particularly that in the action game genre . The reviewer also stated that the game felt better through the use of the analogue pad , in contrast to the conventional controller , and also praised the light and smooth feeling the analogue pad portrayed during gameplay .
Reviewers also praised the game 's soundtrack and audio effects . Paul Davies from Computer and Video Games cited the game as having " the best music ever " ; in the same review , Tom Guise attributed the music to creating a hypnotically magical atmosphere . Ferris stated that the music and sound effects were that of a dream world , and asserted that they were fitting for a game like Nights into Dreams .... IGN 's Buchanan praised the game 's soundtrack , stating that each stage 's soundtrack is " quite good " and that the sound effects " fit in perfectly with the dream universe " .
= = Legacy = =
Since its release , Nights into Dreams ... has appeared on several best game of all time lists . In a January 2000 poll by Computer and Video Games , readers placed the game 15th on their " 100 Greatest Games " list , directly behind Super Mario 64 . IGN ranked the game as the 94th best game of all time in their " Top 100 Games " list in 2007 , and in 2008 , Levi Buchanan ranked it fourth in his list of the top 10 Sega Saturn games . Next Generation Magazine ranked the game 25th in its list of the " 100 Greatest Games of All @-@ Time " in their September 1996 issue . 1UP ranked the game third in its " Top Ten Cult Classics " list . In 2014 , GamesRadar listed Nights into Dreams ... as the best Sega Saturn game of all time , stating that the game " tapped into a new kind of platform gameplay for its era " .
= = = Remakes = = =
Sega released a remake of Nights into Dreams ... for the PlayStation 2 exclusively in Japan on 21 February 2008 . It includes 16 : 9 wide screen support , an illustration gallery and features the ability to play the game in classic Saturn graphics . The game was also featured in a bundle named the Nightopia Dream Pack , which includes a reprint of a picture book that was released in Japan alongside the original Saturn game . A Nights into Dreams ... handheld electronic game was released by Tiger Electronics in 1997 , and a port of it was later released for Tiger 's unsuccessful R @-@ Zone console .
A high definition remaster of the PlayStation 2 version was released for PlayStation Network on 2 October 2012 and for Xbox Live Arcade on 5 October 2012 . A Microsoft Windows version was released via Steam on 17 December 2012 . This version of the game introduces online high score leaderboards and includes the option to play either with enhanced graphics or with the original Saturn version 's graphics . The HD version also includes Christmas Nights and the original game 's two player versus mode , but the Sonic the Hedgehog level of Christmas Nights was removed .
= = = In other media = = =
Claris and Eliot make a cameo appearance in Sonic Team 's Burning Rangers ( 1998 ) , with both Claris and Eliot sending the Rangers emails thanking them for their help . Nights into Dreams ... -themed pinball areas feature in Sonic Adventure ( 1998 ) and Sonic Pinball Party ( 2003 ) , with soundtrack being featured in the latter game . The PlayStation 2 titles EyeToy : Play ( 2003 ) and Sega SuperStars ( 2004 ) both feature minigames based on Nights into Dreams ... , in which Nights is controlled using the player 's body . Nights is also an unlockable character in Sonic Riders ( 2006 ) and Sonic Riders : Zero Gravity ( 2008 ) .
A minigame version of Nights into Dreams ... is playable through utilising the Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable connectivity with Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II ( 2000 ) and Billy Hatcher and the Giant Egg ( 2003 ) . Following a successful fan campaign by a Nights into Dreams ... fansite , the character Nights was integrated into Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing ( 2010 ) as a traffic guard . Nights and Reala also appear as playable characters in Sega Superstars Tennis ( 2008 ) and Sonic & All @-@ Stars Racing Transformed ( 2012 ) , the latter of which also features a Nights into Dreams ... -themed racetrack . The limited Deadly Six edition of Sonic Lost World ( 2013 ) features a Nights into Dreams ... -inspired stage , named " Nightmare Zone " , as downloadable content .
= = = Comics = = =
In February 1998 , Archie Comics adapted Nights into Dreams ... into a three @-@ issue comic book miniseries to test whether or not a Nights comic would sell well in North America . The first miniseries was loosely based on the game , with Nights being specifically identified as a male despite the character 's androgynous design . The company later released a second three @-@ issue miniseries , continuing the story of the first , but the series did not gain enough sales to warrant an ongoing series . The series would later be added to a list of guest franchises featured in Archie Comics ' Worlds Unite crossover between its Sonic the Hedgehog and Mega Man titles .
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= 39th Canadian Parliament =
The 39th Canadian Parliament was in session from April 3 , 2006 until September 7 , 2008 . The membership was set by the 2006 federal election on January 23 , 2006 , and it has changed only somewhat due to resignations and by @-@ elections . The Parliament was dissolved on September 7 , 2008 , with an election to determine the membership of the 40th Parliament occurring on October 14 , 2008 .
There were two sessions of the 39th Parliament :
= = Overview = =
The 39th Parliament was the longest minority government led by any federal government excepting Mackenzie King 's Liberal Party government in the 14th Parliament , which fluctuated between majority and minority status . No other Conservative minority had previously lasted a full year , and only Lester B. Pearson 's governments had lasted more than two .
The 39th Parliament was controlled by a Conservative Party minority , led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and the 28th Canadian Ministry , which assumed power on February 6 , 2006 . The Official Opposition was the Liberal Party , led first by interim leader Bill Graham , and then by Stéphane Dion for the remainder of the Parliament 's life .
The Speaker is Liberal Peter Milliken . Milliken was re @-@ elected as the Speaker of the House for the 39th Parliament on April 3 , 2006 . The Speaker only votes in a tie , and , as Milliken is a Liberal , the Liberal caucus was effectively reduced by one . This , along with the defection of Wajid Khan to the Conservatives enabled the Conservatives to pass legislation with the cooperation of any one of the three opposition parties : Liberals , Bloc Québécois , or New Democratic Party ( NDP ) .
The party standings as of the election and as of dissolution on September 7 , 2008 , are on the table below . Between these events , five members of the House of Commons crossed the floor , one died , twelve resigned , and nine members were elected in by @-@ elections to fill vacancies , leaving four vacancies at dissolution . In that same period , two senators died , six reached the mandatory retirement age of 75 , four resigned , and two were appointed to fill vacancies , leaving fifteen vacancies at dissolution . Step @-@ by @-@ step changes are listed in the Members section . See List of Canadian federal electoral districts for a list of the ridings in this parliament .
The Parliament was dissolved by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on the advice of Prime Minister Stephen Harper on September 7 , 2008 . The general election for the members of the 40th Parliament of Canada was held on October 14 , 2008 .
¹ Members of the Canadian Senate are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and remain as Senators until the age of 75 , even if the House of Commons has been dissolved or an election has been called .
² Lillian Dyck was officially designated as affiliated with the New Democratic Party , despite the fact that the party would not accept her affiliation ( due to the party 's position on the Senate ) . Her official affiliation did not change until October 31 , 2006 .
³ André Arthur , Louise Thibault , Bill Casey.4 Blair Wilson as a member of Green Party .
= = Major events = =
= = = Floor @-@ crossing = = =
Five members of parliament crossed the floor since the election on January 23 , 2006 :
On February 6 , 2006 , David Emerson , elected as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Vancouver Kingsway , crossed the floor to join Stephen Harper 's cabinet as Minister of International Trade .
On January 5 , 2007 , Wajid Khan , elected as the Liberal MP for Mississauga — Streetsville , crossed the floor to join the Conservative Party .
On February 6 , 2007 , Garth Turner , elected as a Conservative MP for Halton , moved to the Liberal caucus . He had been sitting as an Independent since being suspended from the Tory caucus on October 18 , 2006 .
On June 26 , 2007 , Joe Comuzzi , elected as a Liberal MP for Thunder Bay — Superior North , moved to the Conservative caucus . He had been sitting as an Independent since being suspended from the Liberal caucus on March 21 , 2007 .
On August 30 , 2008 , Blair Wilson elected as a Liberal MP for West Vancouver — Sunshine Coast — Sea to Sky Country , moved to the Green caucus . He had been sitting as an Independent since he resigned from the Liberal caucus on October 28 , 2007 .
= = = Liberal leadership = = =
During the election campaign , the Liberal leader was then @-@ Prime Minister Paul Martin . After the election results were announced , Martin announced his intention to resign , but did not indicate when , other than saying he would not lead the party into the next election . On February 1 , 2006 , the Liberal Party Caucus chose Bill Graham as parliamentary leader , meaning he served as Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons until the election of Stéphane Dion as Liberal leader at the Liberal Party leadership convention , held December 2 – 3 , 2006 .
On March 18 , 2006 Martin tendered his resignation as Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada .
= = = Five priorities = = =
Prime Minister Harper said he would move forward with his top five priorities from the campaign . At least four of these would require legislative action : the passage of a Federal Accountability Act in response to the sponsorship scandal ; setting longer mandatory sentences ; lowering the Goods & Services Tax to 6 % ( and eventually to 5 % ) ; giving $ 1 @,@ 200 for parents per child under the age of 6 ; and negotiating with the provinces to shorten wait @-@ times ( this priority was replaced , post @-@ election , with combating crime by creating more police officers ) . The child allowance and first GST were in place by July 1 , 2006 . On December 6 , 2006 , another issue many expected to arise in the first session of parliament did , in fact , come to the fore , when the government introduced a motion calling " on the government to introduce legislation to restore the traditional definition of marriage without affecting civil unions and while respecting existing same @-@ sex marriages . " The next day , the House defeated the motion by a vote of 175 to 123 , with six cabinet ministers voting against it , and Harper declared the issue settled . ( See Members of the 39th Canadian Parliament and same @-@ sex marriage for more information . ) and on January 1 , 2008 the second GST reduction came into effect . The Federal Accountability Act received Royal Assent on December 12 , 2006
= = = Resignations and by @-@ elections = = =
On September 20 , 2006 Liberal MP Joe Fontana ( London North Centre ) resigned to run in the London mayoralty election . Fontana was replaced in the riding by Liberal Glen Pearson after a by @-@ election on November 27 , 2006 .
Liberal MP Jean Lapierre declared on January 11 , 2007 that he would resign from the Liberal Party at the end of the month to pursue a career in television . This took place on January 28 , leaving the Outremont district vacant . On July 28 , Prime Minister Stephen Harper called by @-@ elections for this and two other Quebec ridings , which were held on September 17 , 2007 . Newcomer NDP candidate Thomas Mulcair won this riding over star Liberal candidate Jocelyn Coulon , only the second @-@ ever time Outremont has not been won by a Liberal candidate . Mulcair was previously a Provincial Liberal Cabinet Minister in Quebec .
On February 21 , 2007 , Yvan Loubier ( representing Saint @-@ Hyacinthe — Bagot for the Bloc Québécois ) resigned in order to run in the Quebec general election , 2007 . Loubier was replaced in a by @-@ election on September 17 , 2007 , by newcomer Bloc candidate Ève @-@ Mary Thaï Thi Lac .
One day later , on February 22 , veteran Liberal MP and former Liberal Party of Canada interim leader Bill Graham announced that he would not seek reelection in the next federal election . On June 19 , 2007 , Graham announced he would be resigning his Toronto Centre seat effective July 2 , 2007 , to allow former Ontario New Democratic Party Premier and Liberal Party leadership candidate Bob Rae to run in the riding . Rae went on to win the Liberal stronghold riding in a March 17 , 2008 byelection .
On March 8 , 2007 , Liberal MP Jim Peterson announced that he would not be a candidate in his Willowdale riding in the next federal election . On June 20 , 2007 , Peterson followed Bill Graham 's lead and announced his resignation from the House of Commons , effective July 12 . Both Bill Graham and Jim Peterson resigned their seats early in the hope that Prime Minister Stephen Harper would be compelled to add those vacant seats to the scheduled September 17 , 2007 by @-@ elections in Quebec . On July 23 , the Tory government announced that it would delay the Ontario by @-@ elections so as not to overlap with the impending Ontario general election , 2007 scheduled for October 10 , 2007 . When the by @-@ election was eventually held in the riding on March 17 , 2008 , appointed former Liberal Party leadership candidate Martha Hall Findlay won handily .
Also in March 2007 , Bloc Québécois MP and former BQ House Leader Michel Gauthier announced that he would not run in the next federal election . He resigned his seat of Roberval — Lac @-@ Saint @-@ Jean on July 29 , 2007 . Gauthier was replaced in a by @-@ election on September 17 , 2007 , by newcomer Conservative candidate and former Roberval mayor Denis Lebel .
On July 5 , 2007 , Liberal MP Stephen Owen announced he would resign his seat of Vancouver Quadra to accept a position at the University of British Columbia , his resignation effective July 27 , 2007 . Owen was replaced in the riding by former BC Provincial Liberal MLA Joyce Murray , after a by @-@ election on March 17 , 2008 .
On July 11 , 2007 , Liberal MP Gary Merasty announced he would resign his Desnethé — Missinippi — Churchill River seat , due to " family considerations " , effective August 31 , 2007 . Merasty was replaced in the riding by Conservative newcomer Rob Clarke , after a by @-@ election on March 17 , 2008 .
On December 12 , 2007 , Liberal MP Lucienne Robillard announced she would resign her seat of Westmount @-@ Ville @-@ Marie effective January 25 , 2008 .
On March 14 , 2008 Bloc MP Maka Kotto resigned , followed by Liberal MP Brenda Chamberlain resigned on April 7 . Another Liberal MP , John Godfrey , resigned on August 1 .
= = Major bills and motions = =
Important business of the 39th Parliament includes the following bills and motions . Note that not all of these bills become law . Motions ( excepting those which pass bills ) have no effect in law . A complete list of bills of the 39th Parliament is on the Parliament 's website , divided into bills from the 1st and 2nd sessions . On the site , the bills are divided into government bills , private member 's bills , and private bills for both the House and the Senate .
= = = Noteworthy acts passed by 39th Parliament = = =
= = = = Federal Accountability Act = = = =
Bill C @-@ 2 , the Federal Accountability Act ( officially " An Act providing for conflict of interest rules , restrictions on election financing and measures respecting administrative transparency , oversight and accountability " ) , received Royal Assent in the Senate on December 12 , 2006 , and is now becoming law . The act plans to reduce the opportunity to exert influence with money by banning corporate , union , and large personal political donations ; create a five @-@ year lobbying ban on former ministers , their aides , and senior public servants ; provide protection for whistleblowers ; and enhancing the power for the Auditor General to follow the money spent by the government .
full text of bill
= = = = 2006 Canadian federal budget = = = =
Bill C @-@ 13 is The 2006 Canadian federal budget , which received Royal Assent in the Senate on June 22 , 2006 .
full text of bill
= = = = Extending the Afghan War until 2011 = = = =
A motion in the House to extend Canada 's mission in Afghanistan by two years was successful . The motion was supported by the Conservatives and 30 Liberal MPs , allowing it to narrowly pass 149 – 145 on May 17 , 2006 . Even outside of government bills , the Prime Minister 's support of Canada 's action has been a recurring topic , gaining him both supporters and critics among the Canadian population . On March 13 , 2008 , the mission was further extended until July 2011 by a vote of 197 – 77 , with Conservative and Liberal MPs in favour , and Bloc and NDP MPs opposed .
full text of 1st motion
full text of 2nd motion
= = = = Softwood lumber deal = = = =
Bill C @-@ 24 , the " Softwood Lumber Products Export Charge Act , 2006 " put into effect the deal made between the Canadian and American governments regarding the longstanding softwood lumber debates . The Act received Royal Assent December 14 , 2006 .
full text of bill
= = = = Reaffirming the Kyoto Protocol = = = =
A motion passed by the opposition parties ( 161 for to 115 against ) on February 5 , 2007 to reaffirm Canada 's commitment to the Kyoto Protocol . The motion may not have any legal effect , but it is related to Bill C @-@ 288 – which received Royal Assent on June 22 , 2007 .
= = = = Fixed election dates = = = =
Bill C @-@ 16 , titled " An Act to amend the Canada Elections Act " , is a bill to set fixed election dates . Future elections will be held on the third Monday in October in the fourth calendar year following polling day for the last general election . Had Parliament not been dissolved on September 7 , 2008 the next general election under this act would have been held on October 19 , 2009 ; instead the next general election took place on October 14 , 2008 . The provinces of British Columbia , Saskatchewan , Ontario , and Newfoundland and Labrador have already implemented fixed election dates for their own provincial elections . Bill C @-@ 16 passed in the House on November 6 , 2006 and the Senate on March 28 , 2007 . The House began discussing the amendments made in the Senate on April 21 , 2007 . The House voted against the amendments on April 24 , 2007 . On May 1 , 2007 , the Senate chose not to insist on its amendment . The bill received Royal Assent on May 3 .
full text of bill
= = = = Minimum penalties for offences involving firearms = = = =
Bill C @-@ 9 , titled " An Act to amend the Criminal Code ( conditional sentence of imprisonment ) " , is a bill to set minimum penalties for offences involving firearms . Under this act , persons convicted of a serious personal injury offence or a terrorism offence with a term of imprisonment of ten years or more would not be eligible for a conditional sentence . Bill C @-@ 9 passed in the House on November 3 , 2006 and was passed by the Senate on May 16 , 2007 . The bill received Royal Assent on May 31 , 2007 .
full text of bill
= = = = Tackling Violent Crime Act = = = =
Bill C @-@ 2 , titled An Act to amend the Criminal Code and to make consequential amendments to other Acts ( Tackling Violent Crime Act ) was the government 's omnibus crime bill which received Royal Assent on February 29 , 2008 and amended several pieces of legislation . Among other things , the bill raised the age of consent to 16 from 14 , imposed minimum mandatory sentence for crimes involving firearms , instituted a " three @-@ strikes @-@ and @-@ you 're @-@ out " ( also known as a " reverse onus sentencing " ) for habitual offenders , and restricted " house arrest " policies for serious offenders . The bill received royal assent on February 28 , 2008 and sections 1 to 17 , 28 to 38 , 54 , 57 and 58 went into force on May 1 , 2008 and sections 18 to 27 , 39 to 53 , 55 , 56 , 59 and 60 went into force on July 2 , 2008 .
= = = = Kyoto Protocol Implementation Act = = = =
Bill C @-@ 288 , an act of the opposition parties to try to make the government support its global climate change obligations under the Kyoto Protocol . It received Royal Assent on June 22 , 2007 .
full text of bill
= = = = 2007 federal budget = = = =
Bill C @-@ 52 is the 2007 Canadian federal budget .
full text of bill
= = = = 2008 federal budget = = = =
Bill C @-@ 50 is the 2008 Canadian federal budget .
full text of bill
= = = Noteworthy Motions Passed by 39th Parliament = = =
= = = = Québécois nationhood = = = =
A successful motion in the House to recognise the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada . The motion was put forward by the Prime Minister in reaction to an announced motion by Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe that would recognise Quebec as a nation , but did not contain the words " in Canada " . The motion easily passed 266 to 16 , with all party leaders voting in favour , including Duceppe
transcript of motion
= = = = Conscientious Objectors to a War Not Sanctioned by UN = = = =
On June 3 , 2008 , the Parliament of Canada passed a motion ( 137 to 110 ) which recommended that the government immediately implement a program which would “ allow conscientious objectors … to a war not sanctioned by the United Nations … to … remain in Canada … ” The motion gained international attention from the New York Times , Britain 's BBC and the New Zealand press .
= = = Failed acts and motions = = =
= = = = Re @-@ opening the same @-@ sex marriage debate = = = =
A government motion to reopen the same @-@ sex marriage debate failed . The 38th Canadian Parliament , led by the Liberals , had legalized same @-@ sex marriage a year earlier . Several provinces had legalized same @-@ sex marriage before that . During his campaign , Harper promised a parliamentary vote on reopening the issue . The motion failed 175 – 123 leaving the same @-@ sex marriage legal in Canada and the legal debate about it closed .
= = = = Extending anti @-@ terror laws = = = =
A failed government motion ( 159 opposed to 124 in favour ) to renew certain sunsetted provisions of the Anti @-@ terrorism Act , first passed by the Liberals after 9 / 11 that suspended some civil liberties in order to combat terrorism .
= = = Acts that died on the Order Paper = = =
= = = = Eight @-@ year Senate terms = = = =
Bill C @-@ 19 ( previously Bill S @-@ 4 ) titled An Act to amend the Constitution Act , 1867 ( Senate tenure ) was a bill to limit new Senators ' tenure to eight @-@ year terms . Currently , senators can stay in office until they reach the age of 75 . The bill was first introduced by the government in the Senate on May 30 , 2006 . After consideration in committee and making amendments to the bill , the Senate recommended that the bill not be proceeded with until such time as the Supreme Court of Canada had ruled with respect to its constitutionality , which had not occurred prior to dissolution . The bill was reintroduced in the second session as a Commons bill on November 13 , 2007 , but did not become law before the session ended .
= = = = Senate Appointment Consultations Act = = = =
Bill C @-@ 20 ( previously Bill C @-@ 43 ) , titled " An Act to provide for consultations with electors on their preferences for appointments to the Senate " , was a bill to hold referendums on Senate appointments , introduced December 13 , 2006 . The bill did not pass by the end of the 1st session of parliament , and was reintroduced in the 2nd session on November 13 , 2007 . The bill was sent to a legislative committee before second reading on February 13 , 2008 , but it did not became law before the end of the session .
= = = = Expanding the House of Commons = = = =
Bill C @-@ 22 ( previously Bill C @-@ 56 ) , titled " An Act to amend the Constitution Act , 1867 ( Democratic representation ) " was a bill which would add 22 seats to the House of Commons . This would increase the number to 330 seats , although these seats probably will not be in use until at least 2014 . Under the proposed plan , Ontario would gain ten seats , British Columbia would get another seven seats , and Alberta would receive another five seats . The bill did not pass by the end of the 1st session of parliament , and was reintroduced in the 2nd session . The bill was delayed by an amendment by the Bloc and did not become law by the end of the session .
= = = = Income Tax Amendments Act , 2006 = = = =
Bill C @-@ 10 ( previously Bill C @-@ 33 ) , among a long list of minor changes to tax law contained a controversial clause that would give the government power to deny taxation benefits for films made in Canada if the government deems the content to be objectionable . David Cronenberg and Sarah Polley argued it is equivalent to censorship because most Canadian films cannot afford to be produced without government assistance . The Bill was passed in the House October 29 , 2007 , but opposition parties later said that they did not notice the controversial part and several Senators have said that they intend to send the Bill back to the House .
= = = = Bill C @-@ 61 ( 39th Canadian Parliament , 2nd Session ) = = = =
Bill C @-@ 61 , titled An Act to amend the Copyright Act , automatically died before second reading when the 39th Parliament was dissolved prematurely and an election was called by the Governor General Michaëlle Jean at Prime Minister Stephen Harper 's request on September 7 , 2008 . The controversial bill was tabled in 2008 during the second session of the 39th Canadian Parliament by Minister of Industry Jim Prentice .
= = Members = =
For full lists of members of the 39th Parliament of Canada , see List of House members of the 39th Parliament of Canada and List of senators in the 39th Parliament of Canada .
= = Officeholders = =
= = = Speakers = = =
Hon. Peter Milliken ( the Liberal member for Kingston and the Islands ) was re @-@ elected Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons on April 3 , 2006 . He defeated Diane Marleau ( the Liberal Member for Sudbury ) and Marcel Proulx ( the Liberal Member for Hull — Aylmer ) on the first ballot , becoming only the third Speaker from an opposition party in history .
Hon. Noël Kinsella is the Speaker of the Senate ( a Conservative Senator for New Brunswick ) .
= = = = Other Chair occupants = = = =
House of Commons
Deputy Speaker and Chair of Committees of the Whole – Hon. Bill Blaikie ( the New Democratic Party Member for Elmwood — Transcona ) . An MP since 1979 , he is the longest @-@ serving current Member of the House .
Deputy Chair of Committees of the Whole — Royal Galipeau ( the Conservative Member for Ottawa — Orléans ) . He is the first member of Parliament to hold this position without previous parliamentary experience .
Assistant Deputy Chair of Committees of the Whole — Andrew Scheer ( the Conservative Member for Regina — Qu 'Appelle ) . As one of Canada 's youngest MPs , is a vocal advocate of western concerns .
Senate
Speaker pro tempore of the Canadian Senate — Hon. Rose @-@ Marie Losier @-@ Cool ( a Liberal Senator for New Brunswick ) .
= = = Leaders = = =
Prime Minister of Canada : Rt. Hon. Stephen Harper ( Conservative )
Leader of the Opposition ( Liberal ) :
Hon. Bill Graham ( interim )
Hon. Stéphane Dion ( from December 2 , 2006 )
Bloc Québécois leader : Gilles Duceppe
New Democratic Party leader : Hon. Jack Layton
Green Party of Canada leader : Elizabeth May ( from outside the House )
= = = Floor leaders = = =
The following were the parties ' floor leaders during the 39th Parliament :
House of Commons
Government House Leader : Hon. Peter Van Loan
Opposition House Leader : Hon. Ralph Goodale
Bloc Québécois House leader :
Michel Gauthier ( until April 20 , 2007 )
Pierre Paquette ( from April 20 , 2007 )
New Democratic Party House leader : Libby Davies
Senate
Leader of the Government in the Senate : Hon. Marjory LeBreton
Leader of the Opposition in the Senate : Hon. Céline Hervieux @-@ Payette
= = = Whips = = =
The party whips in this Parliament were as follows :
Chief Government Whip : Hon. Jay Hill
Deputy Government Whip : Pierre Lemieux
Official Opposition Whip : Hon. Karen Redman
Bloc Québécois Whip : Michel Guimond
New Democratic Party Whip : Yvon Godin
= = = Other notable members = = =
Right Honourable Paul Martin , Liberal , former Prime Minister sitting the back benches as Member of Parliament for LaSalle — Émard
= = By @-@ elections = =
= = Major Reports and Inquiries = =
" Rail Safety Act Review " , Chaired by the Hon. Doug Lewis reported 31 October 2007 ; discussed in TRAN committee 12 November 2007 ; tabled in House of Commons by the Hon. Lawrence Cannon on 7 March 2008
= = Succession = =
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= Trial by Jury =
Trial by Jury is a comic opera in one act , with music by Arthur Sullivan and libretto by W. S. Gilbert . It was first produced on 25 March 1875 , at London 's Royalty Theatre , where it initially ran for 131 performances and was considered a hit , receiving critical praise and outrunning its popular companion piece , Jacques Offenbach 's La Périchole . The story concerns a " breach of promise of marriage " lawsuit in which the judge and legal system are the objects of lighthearted satire . Gilbert based the libretto of Trial by Jury on an operetta parody that he had written in 1868 .
The opera premiered more than three years after Gilbert and Sullivan 's only previous collaboration , Thespis , an 1871 – 72 Christmas season entertainment . In the intervening years , both the author and composer were busy with separate projects . Beginning in 1873 , Gilbert tried several times to get the opera produced before the impresario Richard D 'Oyly Carte suggested that he collaborate on it with Sullivan . Sullivan was pleased with the piece and promptly wrote the music .
As with most Gilbert and Sullivan operas , the plot of Trial by Jury is ludicrous , but the characters behave as if the events were perfectly reasonable . This narrative technique blunts some of the pointed barbs aimed at hypocrisy , especially of those in authority , and the sometimes base motives of supposedly respectable people and institutions . These themes became favourites of Gilbert through the rest of his collaborations with Sullivan . Critics and audiences praised how well Sullivan 's witty and good @-@ humoured music complemented Gilbert 's satire . The success of Trial by Jury launched the famous series of 13 collaborative works between Gilbert and Sullivan that came to be known as the Savoy Operas .
After its original production in 1875 , Trial by Jury toured widely in Britain and elsewhere and was frequently revived and recorded . It also became popular as a part of charity benefits . The work continues to be frequently played , especially as a companion piece to other short Gilbert and Sullivan operas or other works . According to theatre scholar Kurt Gänzl , it is " probably the most successful British one @-@ act operetta of all time " .
= = Background = =
Before Trial by Jury , W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan had collaborated on one previous opera , Thespis ; or , The Gods Grown Old , in 1871 . Although reasonably successful , it was a Christmas entertainment , and such works were not expected to endure . Between Thespis and Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan did not collaborate on any further operas , and each man separately produced works that further built his reputation in his own field . Gilbert wrote several short stories , edited the second volume of his comic Bab Ballads , and created a dozen theatrical works , including Happy Arcadia in 1872 ; The Wicked World , The Happy Land and The Realm of Joy in 1873 ; Charity , Topsyturveydom and Sweethearts in 1874 . At the same time , Sullivan wrote various pieces of religious music , including the Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) and an oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) , and edited Church Hymns , with Tunes ( 1874 ) , which included 45 of his own hymns and arrangements . Two of his most famous hymn tunes from this period are settings to " Onward , Christian Soldiers " and " Nearer , my God , to Thee " ( both in 1872 ) . He also wrote a suite of incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) and many parlour ballads and other songs , including three in 1874 – 75 with words by Gilbert : " The Distant Shore " , " Sweethearts " ( inspired by Gilbert 's play ) and " The Love that Loves Me Not " .
= = = Genesis of the opera = = =
The genesis of Trial by Jury began in 1868 , when Gilbert wrote a single @-@ page illustrated comic piece for the magazine Fun entitled Trial by Jury : An Operetta . Drawing on Gilbert 's training and brief practice as a barrister , it detailed a " breach of promise " trial going awry , in the process spoofing the law , lawyers and the legal system . ( In the Victorian era , a man could be required to pay compensation should he fail to marry a woman to whom he was engaged . ) The outline of this story was followed in the later opera , and two of its numbers appeared in nearly their final form in Fun . The skit , however , ended abruptly : the moment the attractive plaintiff stepped into the witness box , the judge leapt into her arms and vowed to marry her , whereas in the opera , the case is allowed to proceed further before this conclusion is reached .
In 1873 , Gilbert arranged with the opera manager and composer , Carl Rosa , to expand the piece into a one @-@ act libretto . Rosa was to write or commission the music , and Euphrosyne Parepa @-@ Rosa , his wife and an old friend of Gilbert 's , was to sing the role of the Plaintiff , as part of a season of English opera that Rosa planned to present at the Drury Lane Theatre . Euphrosyne died in childbirth in 1874 , and the despondent Rosa dropped the project . Later in the same year , Gilbert offered the libretto to the impresario Richard D 'Oyly Carte , but Carte knew of no composer available to set it to music .
Meanwhile , Sullivan may have been considering a return to light opera : Cox and Box , his first comic opera , had received a London revival ( co @-@ starring his brother , Fred Sullivan ) in September 1874 . In November , Sullivan travelled to Paris and contacted Albert Millaud , one of the librettists for Jacques Offenbach 's operettas . However , he returned to London empty @-@ handed and worked on incidental music for the Gaiety Theatre 's production of The Merry Wives of Windsor . By early 1875 , Carte was managing Selina Dolaro 's Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole , which was to open on 30 January ( with Fred Sullivan in the cast ) , and in which Dolaro starred . Carte had asked Sullivan to compose something for the theatre and advertised in The Times in late January : " In Preparation , a New Comic Opera composed expressly for this theatre by Mr. Arthur Sullivan in which Madame Dolaro and Nellie Bromley will appear . " But around the same time , Carte also remembered Gilbert 's Trial by Jury and knew that Gilbert had worked with Sullivan to create Thespis . He suggested to Gilbert that Sullivan was the man to write the music for Trial .
Gilbert finally called on Sullivan and read the libretto to him on 20 February 1875 . Sullivan was enthusiastic , later recalling , " [ Gilbert ] read it through ... in the manner of a man considerably disappointed with what he had written . As soon as he had come to the last word , he closed up the manuscript violently , apparently unconscious of the fact that he had achieved his purpose so far as I was concerned , inasmuch as I was screaming with laughter the whole time . " Trial by Jury , described as " A Novel and Original Dramatic Cantata " in the original promotional material , was composed and rehearsed in a matter of weeks .
= = = Production and aftermath = = =
The result of Gilbert and Sullivan 's collaboration was a witty , tuneful and very " English " piece , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas that dominated the London musical stage at that time .
Initially , Trial by Jury , which runs only 30 minutes or so , was played last on a triple bill , on which the main attraction , La Périchole ( starring Dolaro as the title character , Fred Sullivan as Don Andres and Walter H. Fisher as Piquillo ) , was preceded by the one @-@ act farce Cryptoconchoidsyphonostomata . The latter was immediately replaced by a series of other curtain raisers . Arthur Sullivan conducted the first night 's performance , and the theatre 's music director , B. Simmons , conducted thereafter . The composer 's brother , Fred Sullivan , starred as the Learned Judge , with Nellie Bromley as the Plaintiff . One of the choristers in Trial by Jury , W. S. Penley , was promoted in November 1875 to the small part of the Foreman of the Jury and made a strong impact on audiences with his amusing facial expressions and gestures . In March 1876 , he temporarily replaced Fred Sullivan as the Judge , when Fred 's health declined from tuberculosis . With this start , Penley went on to a successful career as comic actor , culminating with the lead role in the record @-@ breaking original production of Charley 's Aunt . Fred Sullivan died in January 1877 .
Jacques Offenbach 's works were then at the height of their popularity in Britain , but Trial by Jury proved even more popular than La Périchole , becoming an unexpected hit . Trial by Jury drew crowds and continued to run after La Périchole closed . While the Royalty Theatre closed for the summer in 1875 , Dolaro immediately took Trial on tour in England and Ireland . The piece resumed at the Royalty later in 1875 and was revived for additional London seasons in 1876 at the Opera Comique and in 1877 at the Strand Theatre .
Trial by Jury soon became the most desirable supporting piece for any London production , and , outside London , the major British theatrical touring companies had added it to their repertoire by about 1877 . The original production was even given a world tour by Opera Comique assistant manager Emily Soldene , which travelled as far as Australia . Unauthorised " pirate " productions quickly sprang up in America , taking advantage of the fact that American courts did not enforce foreign copyrights . It also became popular as part of the Victorian tradition of " benefit concerts " , where the theatrical community came together to raise money for actors and actresses down on their luck or retiring . The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to play the work for a century , licensing the piece to amateur and foreign professional companies , such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company . Since the copyrights to Gilbert and Sullivan works ran out in 1961 , the piece has been available to theatre companies around the world free of royalties . The work 's enduring popularity since 1875 makes it , according to theatrical scholar Kurt Gänzl , " probably the most successful British one @-@ act operetta of all time " .
The success of Trial by Jury spurred several attempts to reunite Gilbert and Sullivan , but difficulties arose . Plans for a collaboration for Carl Rosa in 1875 fell through because Gilbert was too busy with other projects , and an attempted Christmas 1875 revival of Thespis by Richard D 'Oyly Carte failed when the financiers backed out . Gilbert and Sullivan continued their separate careers , though both continued writing light opera , among other projects : Sullivan 's next light opera , The Zoo , opened while Trial by Jury was still playing , in June 1875 ; and Gilbert 's Eyes and No Eyes premièred a month later , followed by Princess Toto in 1876 . However , Gilbert and Sullivan would not be reunited until The Sorcerer in 1877 .
= = Roles = =
The Learned Judge ( comic baritone )
The Plaintiff ( soprano )
The Defendant ( tenor )
Counsel for the Plaintiff ( lyric baritone )
Usher ( bass @-@ baritone )
Foreman of the Jury ( bass )
Associate ( silent )
First Bridesmaid
Chorus of Bridesmaids , Gentlemen of the Jury , Barristers , Attorneys and Public .
= = Synopsis = =
The curtain rises on the Court of the Exchequer , where a jury and the public assemble to hear a case of breach of promise of marriage .
The Usher introduces the proceedings by exhorting the jury to listen to the broken @-@ hearted Plaintiff 's case but telling them that they " needn 't mind " what the " ruffianly defendant " has to say . He adds , however , that " From bias free of every kind , this trial must be tried ! " The Defendant ( Edwin ) arrives , and the jurymen greet him with hostility , even though , as he points out , they have as yet no idea of the merits of his case . He tells them , with surprising candour , that he jilted the Plaintiff because she became a " bore intense " to him , and he then quickly took up with another woman . The jurymen recall their own wayward youth , but they are now respectable gentlemen and no longer have any sympathy for the Defendant .
The Judge enters with great pomp and describes how he rose to his position – by courting a rich attorney 's " elderly , ugly daughter " . The rich attorney then aided his prospective son @-@ in @-@ law 's legal career until " at length I became as rich as the Gurneys " and " threw over " the daughter . The jury and public are delighted with the judge , and ignore that he has just admitted to the same wrong of which the Defendant is accused .
The jury is then sworn in , and the Plaintiff ( Angelina ) is summoned . She is preceded into the courtroom by her bridesmaids , one of whom catches the eye of the judge . However , when Angelina herself arrives in full wedding dress , she instantly captures the heart of both Judge and jury . The Counsel for the Plaintiff makes a moving speech detailing Edwin 's betrayal . Angelina feigns distress and staggers , first into the arms of the Foreman of the Jury , and then of the Judge . Edwin counters , explaining that his change of heart is only natural :
He offers to marry both the Plaintiff and his new love , if that would satisfy everyone . The Judge at first finds this " a reasonable proposition " , but the Counsel argues that from the days of James II , it has been " a rather serious crime / To marry two wives at a time " ( humorously , he labels the crime in question " burglary " rather than " bigamy " ) . Perplexed , everyone in court ponders the " nice dilemma " in a parody of Italian opera ensembles .
Angelina desperately embraces Edwin , demonstrating the depth of her love , and bemoans her loss – all in evidence of the large amount of damages that the jury should force Edwin to pay . Edwin , in turn , says he is a smoker , a drunkard , and a bully ( when tipsy ) , and that the Plaintiff could not have endured him even for a day ; thus the damages should be small . The Judge suggests making Edwin tipsy to see if he would really " thrash and kick " Angelina , but everyone else ( except Edwin ) objects to this experiment . Impatient at the lack of progress , the Judge resolves the case by offering to marry Angelina himself . This is found quite satisfactory , and the opera is concluded with " joy unbounded " .
= = Musical numbers = =
1 . " Hark , the hour of ten is sounding " ( Chorus ) and " Now , Jurymen , hear my advice " ( Usher )
1a . " Is this the Court of the Exchequer ? " ( Defendant )
2 . " When first my old , old love I knew " ( Defendant and Chorus ) and " Silence in Court ! " ( Usher )
3 . " All hail great Judge ! " ( Chorus and Judge )
4 . " When I , good friends , was call 'd to the Bar " ( Judge and Chorus )
5 . " Swear thou the Jury " ( Counsel , Usher ) and " Oh will you swear by yonder skies " ( Usher and Chorus )
6 . " Where is the Plaintiff ? " ( Counsel , Usher ) and " Comes the broken flower " ( Chorus of Bridesmaids and Plaintiff )
7 . " Oh , never , never , never , since I joined the human race " ( Judge , Foreman , Chorus )
8 . " May it please you , my lud ! " ( Counsel for Plaintiff and Chorus )
9 . " That she is reeling is plain to see ! " ( Judge , Foreman , Plaintiff , Counsel , and Chorus )
10 . " Oh , gentlemen , listen , I pray " ( Defendant and Chorus of Bridesmaids )
11 . " That seems a reasonable proposition " ( Judge , Counsel , and Chorus )
12 . " A nice dilemma we have here " ( Ensemble )
13 . " I love him , I love him , with fervour unceasing " ( Plaintiff , Defendant and Chorus ) and " The question , gentlemen , is one of liquor " ( Judge and Ensemble )
14 . " Oh , joy unbounded , with wealth surrounded " ( Ensemble )
For clarity , only characters with a major role in each particular song have been listed .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the first performance of Trial by Jury were uniformly glowing . Fun magazine declared the opera " extremely funny and admirably composed " , while rival Punch magazine wrote that it " is the funniest bit of nonsense your representative has seen for a considerable time " , only regretting that it was too short . The Daily News praised the author : " In whimsical invention and eccentric humour Mr. W. S. Gilbert has no living rival among our dramatic writers , and never has his peculiar vein of drollery and satire been more conspicuous than in a little piece entitled Trial by Jury " . The Daily Telegraph concluded that the piece illustrated the composer 's " great capacity for dramatic writing of the lighter class " . Many critics emphasised the happy combination of Gilbert 's words and Sullivan 's music . One noted that " so completely is each imbued with the same spirit , that it would be as difficult to conceive the existence of Mr. Gilbert 's verses without Mr. Sullivan 's music , as of Mr. Sullivan 's music without Mr. Gilbert 's verses . Each gives each a double charm . " Another agreed that " it seems , as in the great Wagnerian operas , as though poem and music had proceeded simultaneously from one and the same brain . "
The opening night audience was also delighted by the piece , preferring it even to the Offenbach work : " To judge by the unceasing and almost boisterous hilarity which formed a sort of running commentary on the part of the audience , Trial by Jury suffered nothing whatever from so dangerous a juxtaposition [ with a piece by the popular Offenbach ] . On the contrary , it may fairly be said to have borne away the palm . " A reviewer noted that " Laughter more frequent or more hearty was never heard in any theatre than that which more than once brought the action ... to a temporary standstill . " Another paper summed up its popular appeal : " Trial by Jury is but a trifle – it pretends to be nothing more – but it is one of those merry bits of extravagance which a great many will go to see and hear , which they will laugh at , and which they will advise their friends to go and see , and therefore its success cannot be doubtful . "
Among the actors , special critical praise was reserved for the composer 's brother , Fred Sullivan , in the role of the Learned Judge : " The greatest ' hit ' was made by Mr. F. Sullivan , whose blending of official dignity , condescension , and , at the right moment , extravagant humour , made the character of the Judge stand out with all requisite prominence , and added much to the interest of the piece . " The Times concurred that his portrayal deserved " a special word of praise for its quiet and natural humour . " Nelly Bromley ( the Plaintiff ) , Walter H. Fisher ( the Defendant ) , John Hollingsworth ( the Counsel ) and others were also praised for their acting .
Later assessments of the work have been no less positive . In 1907 , Gilbert 's first biographer , Edith A. Browne , concluded : " In Trial by Jury we find author and composer looking at the humorous side of life from exactly the same point of view , and we at once realise how Gilbert and Sullivan have been able to do for Comic Opera what Wagner has done for Grand Opera by combining words and music so as to make them one . " H. M. Walbrook similarly wrote in 1922 :
Trial by Jury ... satirizes the procedure in an average breach of promise , and also the insincerity which may sometimes underlie the pose of " respectability . " Everything done or sung is ludicrous , and yet beneath it all lies a recognisable substratum of truth . The piece is a riot of laughter . The Judge 's ditty , " When first , my friends , I was called to the Bar , " [ sic ] is the best @-@ known comic song in the English language . In none of the operas is the genius of Gilbert as an inventor of " comic business " more daringly and irresistibly exhibited . One can see the piece again and again and discover fresh strokes of comicality . Its place in the Gilbert and Sullivan repertory is as secure as ever ; and whatever reforms may be hereafter effected in this particular department of the King 's Bench Division , Trial by Jury will probably long continue to be one of the English @-@ speaking world 's refreshments .
Gilbert and Sullivan biographer Michael Ainger , writing in 2002 , 127 years after the premiere of the opera , explained its enduring appeal : " Nothing could be more serious than a court of law ... and now the world had been turned upside down . The court of law had become the scene of humor and frivolity ; the learned judge had shown himself to be as fickle as the defendant , and the justice system turned out to be flawed by human frailty . And Sullivan had grasped the joke .... From the first chords ... Sullivan ’ s music sets the scene of mock @-@ seriousness and proceeds to dance its way through the whole piece . "
= = Impact and analysis = =
= = = Impact = = =
As the first Savoy opera , Trial by Jury marked an important moment in the history of the Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration , as well as in the careers of each of the two men and in Victorian drama in general . Historian Reginald Allen sums up the historical import of the opera :
Most scholars of the Victorian theatre date the birth of Gilbert & Sullivan opera with the first performance of Trial by Jury .... Some will maintain that there is no single date of comparable importance in the history of the modern lyric theatre than this occasion which first brought together the triumvirate of W. S. Gilbert , Arthur Sullivan , and their catalyst business genius , Richard D 'Oyly Carte . The next twenty @-@ five years witnessed the spectacular , worldwide success of this collaboration : the Gilbert & Sullivan operas , initiated by Trial by Jury . Without this spark , who can say that any of the instantaneous hits of G [ ilbert ] & S [ ullivan ] that followed would ever have been written ?
Sidney Dark and Rowland Grey also give a high value to the importance of Trial by Jury and the operas that followed : " There is not a little historical interest in the genesis of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , the one English contribution of any value to dramatic literature for many generations . " In addition , references to the opera continue today in the popular media and even in law cases .
= = = Pattern for later Savoy operas = = =
Trial by Jury is the only Gilbert and Sullivan opera played in one act and the only theatrical work by W. S. Gilbert without spoken dialogue . However , later Gilbert and Sullivan operas retained a number of patterns seen in Trial . For example , all except for The Yeomen of the Guard begin with a chorus number . Also , like Trial by Jury , the later operas generally end with a relatively short finale consisting of a chorus number interspersed with short solos by the principal characters . " Comes the broken flower " ( part of No. 3 ) was the first in a string of meditative " Horatian " lyrics , " mingling happiness and sadness , an acceptance and a smiling resignation " . These would , from this point forward , allow the characters , in each of the Savoy operas , an introspective scene where they stop and consider life , in contrast to the foolishness of the surrounding scenes . Like both of the tenor 's arias in Trial by Jury , tenor arias in later Savoy operas were set in 6 / 8 time so frequently that comedian Anna Russell , in her 1953 parody , " How to Write Your Own Gilbert and Sullivan Opera " , exclaimed , " the tenor ... according to tradition , must sing an aria in 6 / 8 time , usually accompanying himself on a stringed instrument " . In Trial by Jury hypocrisy is revealed as the characters ' motivations are held up to satire , and Gilbert mocks the underlying absurdity of the judicial procedures . As Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther explains , Gilbert combines his criticisms with comic entertainment , which renders them more palatable , while at the same time underlining their truth : " By laughing at a joke you show that you accept its premise . " This too would become characteristic of Gilbert 's work .
The judge 's song , " When I , good friends , was called to the Bar " was followed by a string of similar patter songs that would come to epitomise Gilbert and Sullivan 's collaboration . In these , often , a " dignified personage [ would , just like the Judge , ] supply a humorous biography of himself . " Just as in Gilbert 's earlier play , The Palace of Truth , in these songs , the characters " naïvely reveal their innermost thoughts , unconscious of their egotism , vanity , baseness , or cruelty " . Crowther points out that such revelations work particularly well in Trial by Jury , because people commonly expect " characters singing in opera / operetta will communicate at a deeper level of truth than they would in mere speech . " In " When I , good friends " , the judge outlines the path of corruption that led to his becoming a judge , and this , too , would set the pattern for many of the patter songs in Gilbert and Sullivan operas to follow .
One of Gilbert 's most notable innovations , first found in Thespis and repeated in Trial by Jury and all of the later Savoy operas , is the use of the chorus as an essential part of the action . In most earlier operas , burlesques , and comedies , the chorus had very little impact on the plot and served mainly as " noise or ornament " . In the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , however , the chorus is essential , taking part in the action and often acting as an important character in its own right . Sullivan recalled , " Until Gilbert took the matter in hand choruses were dummy concerns , and were practically nothing more than a part of the stage setting . It was in ' Thespis ' that Gilbert began to carry out his expressed determination to get the chorus to play its proper part in the performance . At this moment it seems difficult to realise that the idea of the chorus being anything more than a sort of stage audience was , at that time , a tremendous novelty . " Another Gilbert innovation , following the example of his mentor , T. W. Robertson , was that the costumes and sets were made as realistic as possible : Gilbert based the scenery for the production on the Clerkenwell Sessions House , where he had practised law in the 1860s . The costumes were contemporary , and Angelina and her bridesmaids were dressed in real wedding attire . This attention to detail and careful creation of realistic sets and scenes were typical of Gilbert 's stage management and would be repeated in all of Gilbert 's work . For instance , when preparing the sets for H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) , Gilbert and Sullivan visited Portsmouth to inspect ships . Gilbert made sketches of H.M.S. Victory and H.M.S. St Vincent and created a model set for the carpenters to work from . This was far from standard procedure in Victorian drama , where naturalism was still a relatively new concept , and where most authors had very little influence on how their plays and libretti were staged .
= = = Analysis = = =
Andrew Crowther places Trial by Jury at the centre of Gilbert 's development as a librettist . He notes that in some of Gilbert 's early libretti , such as Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , the songs simply emphasise the dialogue . In others , such as Thespis ( 1871 ) , some songs are relatively disconnected from both the story and characterisation , such as " I once knew a chap " or " Little maid of Arcadee " , which simply convey a moral lesson . In Trial by Jury , however , each song carries the plot forward and adds depth to the characters . In addition , unlike some of Gilbert 's more fantastical early plots , " Aside from the ending , nothing essentially improbable happens . " Theatre historian Kurt Gänzl agrees , writing that " Gilbert 's libretto was superior to any of his previous efforts . It was concise , modern and satirical without being impossibly whimsical . Having no spoken dialogue it was perforce tightly constructed and allowed of no interpolation or alteration . " Sullivan 's development as a comic opera writer , too , would mature with Trial by Jury . Except for incidental music for productions of Shakespeare , he had not written any music for the stage since Thespis . Gänzl wrote that Trial by Jury " brought Sullivan firmly and finally into the world of the musical " stage and confirmed , after his previous success with Cox and Box and Thespis , that " Sullivan was a composer of light lyric and comic music who could rival Offenbach , Lecocq and any English musician alive . "
Sullivan used the opportunities suggested by Gilbert 's satire of the pomp and ceremony of the law to provide a variety of musical jokes . " From the first chords ... Sullivan 's music sets the scene of mock @-@ seriousness .... His ... humorous use of the orchestra runs throughout " . For example , counterpointing the plaintiff 's calculated swooning in " That she is reeling is plain to see ! " ( No. 9 ) with a reeling , minor @-@ key theme in the string accompaniment , heading up and down the octaves . The instruments are also used to comically set the scene ; for instance , he underlines the Counsel 's misstatement in the line " To marry two at once is burglaree " with a comic bassoon " sting " in octaves and has the Defendant tune his guitar on stage ( simulated by a violin in the orchestra ) in the opening to his song .
The score also contains two parodies or pastiches of other composers : No. 3 , " All hail great Judge " is an elaborate parody of Handel 's fugues , and No. 12 , " A nice dilemma " , parodies " dilemma " ensembles of Italian opera in the Bel canto era ; in particular " D 'un pensiero " from Act I of Bellini 's La sonnambula . " A nice dilemma " uses the dominant rhythm and key of " D 'un pensiero " and divides up some of the choral lines between the basses and higher voices to create an oom @-@ pa @-@ pa effect common in Italian opera choruses .
= = Productions = =
After the premiere of Trial by Jury in 1875 , operetta companies in London , the British provinces and elsewhere picked it up rapidly , usually playing it as a forepiece or an afterpiece to a French operetta . The first American productions were at the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia on 22 October 1875 and the Eagle Theatre in New York City on 15 November 1875 . The world tour of the original British production took it to America , Australia , and elsewhere . It was even translated into German , and premièred as Im Schwurgericht , at the Carltheater on 14 September 1886 , and as Das Brautpaar vor Gericht at Danzer 's Orpheum on 5 October 1901 .
Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's opera companies ( of which there were often several playing simultaneously ) usually programmed Trial by Jury as a companion piece to The Sorcerer or H.M.S. Pinafore . In the 1884 – 85 London production , a transformation scene was added at the end , in which the Judge and Plaintiff became the Harlequinade characters Harlequin and Columbine and the set was consumed by red fire and flames . From 1894 , the year when the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company established a year @-@ round touring company that had most of the Gilbert and Sullivan works in its repertory , Trial by Jury was always included , except for 1901 – 03 , and then again from 1943 – 46 , when the company played a reduced repertory during World War II . From 1919 , costumes were by Percy Anderson , and a new touring set was designed by Peter Goffin in 1957 .
During the company 's 1975 centennial performances of all thirteen Gilbert and Sullivan Operas at the Savoy Theatre , Trial was given four times , as a curtain raiser to The Sorcerer , Pinafore and Pirates and as an afterpiece following The Grand Duke . Before the first of the four performances of Trial , a specially written curtain raiser by William Douglas @-@ Home , called Dramatic Licence , was played by Peter Pratt as Carte , Kenneth Sandford as Gilbert and John Ayldon as Sullivan , in which Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte plan the birth of Trial in 1875 . Trial by Jury was eliminated from the D 'Oyly Carte repertory in 1976 as a cost @-@ saving measure .
= = = Production history = = =
The following table summarises the main London productions of Trial by Jury up to the time of Sullivan 's death in 1900 :
The exclusive performing rights to Trial by Jury and the other Gilbert and Sullivan operas were held by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company until their expiration in 1961 , 50 years after Gilbert 's death , and no other professional company was authorised to present the Savoy operas in Britain from 1877 until that date . The following tables show the casts of the principal original D 'Oyly Carte productions and touring companies at approximately 10 @-@ year intervals through to the 1975 centenary season .
= = Benefit performances = =
Starting in 1877 , Trial by Jury was often given at benefit performances , usually for an actor or actress who had fallen on hard times , but occasionally for other causes . These were glittering affairs , with various celebrities appearing in principal roles or as part of the chorus . Gilbert himself played the silent role of the Associate on at least four occasions .
Arthur Sullivan conducted the 1877 benefit for actor Henry Compton . At the Compton benefit , Penley and George Grossmith were members of the Jury , and a number of other famous actors and actresses were in the chorus . Sullivan also conducted the 1889 benefit for Barrington .
At the Nellie Farren benefit , many of the performers listed below sat in the jury or the gallery , and Trial by Jury was followed by a six @-@ hour @-@ long concert . Performances were given by Henry Irving , Ellaline Terriss , Marie Tempest , Hayden Coffin , Arthur Roberts , Letty Lind , Edmund Payne and many others .
The Ellen Terry benefit in 1906 was also a particularly well @-@ attended affair , with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle numbered among the jury and Enrico Caruso singing , among many star performances .
1The role of the Associate 's Wife was especially created for the disabled soldiers ' benefit performance and does not appear in any standard performances .
= = Recordings = =
Trial by Jury has been recorded many times . Of the recordings by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , those recorded in 1927 and 1964 are ranked the best , according to the " Gilbert and Sullivan Discography " , edited by Marc Shepherd . The 1961 Sargent and especially the 1995 Mackerras recordings are also rated highly by the Discography . Reviewer Michael Walters gives his highest praise to the 1924 recording , but he also likes the 1961 recording .
The Discography recommends the 1982 Brent Walker video , which is paired with Cox and Box . More recent professional productions have been recorded on video by the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival .
Selected recordings
1927 D 'Oyly Carte – Conductor : Harry Norris
1961 Sargent / Glyndebourne – Pro Arte Orchestra , Glyndebourne Festival Chorus , Conductor : Sir Malcolm Sargent
1964 D 'Oyly Carte – Conductor : Isidore Godfrey
1975 D 'Oyly Carte – Conductor : Royston Nash
1982 Brent Walker Productions video – Ambrosian Opera Chorus , London Symphony Orchestra , Conductor : Alexander Faris
1995 Mackerras / Telarc – Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh National Opera , Conductor : Sir Charles Mackerras
2005 Opera Australia video ( modern dress ) – Stage Director : Stuart Maunder ; conductor : Andrew Greene
= = Textual changes = =
Before the first performance of Trial by Jury , some material was cut , including two songs and a recitative : a song for the foreman of the jury , " Oh , do not blush to shed a tear " , which was to be sung just after " Oh , will you swear by yonder skies " ; and a recitative for the Judge and song for the Usher , " We do not deal with artificial crime " and " His lordship 's always quits " , which came just before " A nice dilemma " . The melody for " His Lordship 's always quits " is known , and it was reused in " I loved her fondly " in The Zoo and later modified into the main tune from " A wand 'ring minstrel , I " in The Mikado . A few changes were made to the end of " I love him , I love him ! " after the first night . A third verse for " Oh , gentlemen , listen I pray " was sung , at least on the first night , and part was quoted in a review in the Pictorial World .
Trial by Jury underwent relatively minor textual changes after its first run , mainly consisting of insignificant amendments to wording . The most significant changes involve the ending . The original stage directions set up a simple pantomime @-@ style tableau :
Judge and Plaintiff dance back , hornpipe step , and get on to the Bench – the Bridesmaids take the eight garlands of roses from behind the Judge 's desk and draw them across floor of court , so that they radiate from the desk . Two plaster Cupids in bar wigs descend from flies . Red fire .
This became much more elaborate in the 1884 revival , with the entire set being transformed , and the plaintiff climbing onto the Judge 's back " à la fairy " . However , in the 1920s , the plaster cupids were evidently damaged on a tour , and the transformation scene was abandoned completely .
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= 2015 Hungarian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Hungarian Grand Prix ( formally the Formula 1 Pirelli Magyar Nagydíj 2015 ) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 26 July 2015 at the Hungaroring in Mogyoród , Hungary . It was the tenth round of the 2015 Formula One season and the 30th Hungarian Grand Prix .
Daniel Ricciardo of Red Bull was the defending race winner , while Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes came into the race with a 17 @-@ point lead over teammate Nico Rosberg . During Saturday 's qualifying , Hamilton took his ninth pole position of the season in only the tenth race , ahead of Rosberg .
At the start of the race the two Ferrari drivers Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen took first and second respectively from the Mercedes ; the first win for Ferrari in Hungary since 2004 . An eventful race saw a safety car period and several mistakes from both Mercedes drivers , leading to Hamilton and Rosberg finishing sixth and eighth , while the two Red Bull drivers scored the team 's first podium positions of the season . As a result , Hamilton extended his lead over Rosberg to 21 points , while Vettel moved closer to the pair , another 21 points behind Rosberg .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Hungarian Grand Prix marked the first Formula One race after the passing of former Marussia driver Jules Bianchi on 17 July 2015 , who had crashed at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix and remained in a coma for nine months . Drivers and teams paid tribute to Bianchi , many of them in the form of messages written on helmets and cars . A minute of silence was held before the race start on Sunday in commemoration of Bianchi . The drivers , and members of the Bianchi family ( parents and siblings ) , linked in a chain arm in arm , with their helmets surrounding Jules ' in the middle .
Tyre supplier Pirelli opted to bring the yellow @-@ marked soft and white @-@ marked medium tyres to the Hungaroring , the same choice as the year before . Minor changes were made to the track , renewing catch fences and tyre barriers , while removing the higher curb at the apex of turn 6 in order to prevent the cars from lifting off the ground . Generally , the track is considered to be one of the slowest in the calendar , with the fourteen corners and few straights making it hard to overtake .
Going into the weekend , Lewis Hamilton was leading the drivers ' championship with 194 points , 17 more than his closest rival and teammate Nico Rosberg . Third placed Sebastian Vettel was another 42 points behind , followed by Valtteri Bottas on 77 points . In the constructors ' standings , Mercedes was leading on 371 , followed by Ferrari with 211 points , and Williams a further 60 points behind .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Lewis Hamilton was fastest in the first practice session on Friday morning , one @-@ tenth of a second faster than teammate Nico Rosberg . Sebastian Vettel missed the first half @-@ hour of practice due to electrical problems on his Ferrari SF15 @-@ T. He eventually was sixth quickest , 1 @.@ 254 seconds down on Hamilton . The session was red @-@ flagged around the hour mark , when Sergio Pérez crashed heavily in turn 11 . Going into the right @-@ hand corner , he lost the rear and spun into the barrier , breaking off his right front wheel . The wheel caused the Force India to flip over when the car bounced back to the track . After the car came to a rest upside down , Pérez was quick to inform his team that he was unharmed . Racing resumed fifteen minutes later , only to be interrupted once more when Kimi Räikkönen 's front wing came off in turn 12 , leaving debris on the track . Räikkönen ultimately finished the session in third place , having put in his fastest lap before the incident . Meanwhile , the Red Bull drivers finished fourth and fifth . Valtteri Bottas in the Williams , using a new front wing , finished ninth , six @-@ tenths of a second quicker than teammate Felipe Massa . Stating satisfaction with the new part , he opted to use it for the remainder of the weekend . While Jolyon Palmer replaced Romain Grosjean during first free practice , as he had done in previous race weekends , 2013 GP2 Series champion Fabio Leimer took part in his first Formula One session , replacing Roberto Merhi at Manor .
Following the crash for Pérez , Force India opted not to run in the second practice session in order to have time to investigate the causes . Hamilton again topped the timesheets , this time leading the two Red Bulls , with Rosberg down in fourth . However , it was not a trouble @-@ free session for Red Bull , as Daniel Ricciardo had to stop his car due to engine problems twenty minutes before the end of the session , bringing out another red flag . McLaren , which had a troublesome season so far , proved to be more competitive , with Jenson Button saying that the car " felt good " and that he hoped to qualify the car in the top ten . His teammate Fernando Alonso finished the second practice session eighth fastest , while Button himself was twelfth .
After making modifications to their suspension , Force India was cleared by the stewards to take part in the third and last practice session on Saturday morning . Lewis Hamilton was once again quickest , but this time with teammate Nico Rosberg less than a tenth of a second behind him in second place . Sebastian Vettel in third was the only other driver to come within a second of Hamilton 's time . While Daniil Kvyat was next @-@ fastest in fourth , McLaren confirmed their improved pace by finishing the session eighth and thirteenth . The second Ferrari of Räikkönen was confined to sixteenth place , after a water leak on his car prevented him from doing fast laps on the softer tyre compound .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . Despite hopes for a top ten starting position , Jenson Button was eliminated during the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , along with both Saubers and the two Manors . The only driver to risk not using the soft tyre compound , which provided up to two seconds advantage , was Daniel Ricciardo , who finished the first part twelfth .
Fernando Alonso , the only McLaren to have made it into Q2 , stopped on track due to his engine shutting down close to pit entry , bringing out a red flag . He pushed the car back into the pit garage , aided by numerous track marshals , only to be disallowed to drive out again due to regulations . Nico Rosberg , who complained about the handling of his car all through qualifying , was about half a second off his teammate 's pace in Q2 in second position . Meanwhile , Pastor Maldonado and Carlos Sainz , Jr. joined Alonso on the sidelines as they were eliminated , as were both Force Indias .
The top ten competed for pole position in the final part of qualifying . Lewis Hamilton continued his impressive performance by setting what he considered " probably the most dominant " pole of his career , having led every practice and qualifying session . Daniel Ricciardo produced a clean lap to qualify between the two Ferraris in fourth place , behind Sebastian Vettel . Behind them , Bottas edged out Daniil Kvyat for sixth , while the second Williams of Felipe Massa qualified eighth on the grid .
Hamilton was delighted with his performance , saying : " I 'm incredibly happy with the weekend [ ... ] I can 't remember having a performance as good as this . " His teammate Rosberg however lamented his poor performance . While he beat Hamilton on number of pole positions the previous year , he now trailed him by 0 @.@ 262 seconds on average in qualifying , prompting him to say : " It is not explainable to me . [ ... ] I don 't understand why there is such a big difference to last year . "
= = = Race = = =
Felipe Massa lined up incorrectly on the grid , causing the start to be aborted and another formation lap to commence . One lap was removed from the race distance and Massa was handed a five @-@ second penalty .
At the start , Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen gained the lead off the two Mercedes drivers , taking advantage of the slower starts from Nico Rosberg and Lewis Hamilton . Hamilton ran wide and cut the chicane at turn six and dropped to tenth place . Further back , Nico Hülkenberg made up six places in the opening corners , jumping from eleventh to fifth , while Bottas and Ricciardo touched at the start , sending Ricciardo back to seventh while Bottas led Hülkenberg in fourth place . During the opening laps , Felipe Massa was able to hold Hamilton behind him , while Daniil Kvyat led his teammate Ricciardo through into sixth place on lap eight . Lap ten saw Hamilton overtake Massa for ninth , while Ricciardo edged out Hülkenberg for fifth position . Three laps later , Hamilton moved past Pérez for eighth .
Pit stops started on lap 14 , when Bottas and Ricciardo were the first to come in , with Massa following suit a lap later , taking his five @-@ second penalty . By lap 18 , the two Ferraris in front were unchallenged by Rosberg behind . Sebastian Vettel set a new fastest lap , being 2 @.@ 7 seconds in front of his teammate , who was a further seven seconds ahead of Rosberg in third . Räikkönen lost one of his front cameras on lap 19 , but did not opt to change his front wing . The same lap , Pastor Maldonado and Sergio Pérez touched going into turn one , with Pérez spinning in the process but being able to continue . Maldonado however was handed a drive @-@ through penalty for causing the collision .
When Lewis Hamilton came into the pits on lap 20 , he emerged slightly in front of Valtteri Bottas in fifth place . Rosberg pitted for new tyres one lap later , choosing the harder medium compound . The two Ferraris and Daniel Ricciardo followed in the subsequent lap , staying ahead of Rosberg and Hamilton respectively . Meanwhile , Romain Grosjean became the second Lotus driver to be penalised , receiving a five @-@ second penalty for an unsafe release from his pit box . Hamilton was behind Ricciardo in fifth place at this point , who was running the harder compound tyres , eventually passing him on lap 29 . By lap 33 , Vettel in front was leading teammate Räikkönen by seven seconds , with Rosberg a further twenty seconds adrift . Meanwhile , Hamilton started to gain on his teammate , setting fastest laps to trail him by eight seconds on lap 36 .
By lap 42 , Kimi Räikkönen started to experience engine problems which turned out to be an issue with his kinetic electrical unit . This led to a loss in power which allowed the lapped Fernando Alonso to overtake him and Nico Rosberg to close in as well . One lap later , Nico Hülkenberg lost his front wing without evident reason . After the race , the kerbs of the Hungaroring were blamed for the malfunction , which sent Hülkenberg into the tyre barriers in turn one . The Virtual Safety Car was deployed , leading to both Mercedes cars pitting instantly , while both Ferraris did the same one lap later . By that time , the actual safety car was sent out on track to lead the field through the pit lane while marshals cleaned up pieces of Hülkenberg 's front wing that littered the front straight , leading the field until the end of lap 49 .
At the restart , Lewis Hamilton came under pressure from Daniel Ricciardo and both cars touched and took damage in turn one , handing Ricciardo the position . Hamilton was given a drive @-@ through penalty for his actions . Meanwhile , Rosberg easily took second place from the troubled Räikkönen , who lost one more spot to Ricciardo just shortly after . Further back , Max Verstappen ran into the back of Bottas , causing Bottas to lose ground while Verstappen moved up to seventh . Nico Rosberg started to gain time on Sebastian Vettel in front , trailing him by 1 @.@ 2 seconds with 18 laps to go . Kimi Räikkönen went into the pits on lap 53 and reset his engine , only to retire for good on lap 57 . Sainz joined him three laps later with a fuel pressure issue . Pastor Maldonado was handed two more penalties in the following laps , for speeding in the pit lane and for overtaking behind the safety car . Max Verstappen was also reprimanded with a drive @-@ through penalty for failing " to stay above the required time set by the FIA ECU during the deployment of the safety car " .
By lap 63 , three drivers were contending for the race victory . Sebastian Vettel was leading compatriot Rosberg by 0 @.@ 8 seconds with Daniel Ricciardo another 0 @.@ 7 seconds behind . Meanwhile , Hamilton made up ground and overtook Ericsson and Button to move into eighth place . When Ricciardo tried to overtake Rosberg one lap later , the two collided , clipping the Red Bull 's front wing and giving Rosberg a puncture . Both headed to the pits , with Ricciardo emerging third , while Rosberg fell back behind Hamilton . Even though Daniil Kvyat was handed a ten @-@ second time penalty for leaving track limits , he held on to second place for his first Formula One podium finish . Lewis Hamilton went past Romain Grosjean for sixth place on lap 67 , closing on Fernando Alonso , but was eventually unable to catch him , who scored McLaren 's best finish of the season up to that point . The race was also Honda 's 350th Grand Prix as an engine supplier and the first time that the renewed partnership with McLaren scored a double points finish .
By winning his first Hungarian Grand Prix , and 41st Grand Prix overall , Vettel matched Ayrton Senna for third @-@ most Formula One career wins . It was Ferrari 's first win at the track since Michael Schumacher won in 2004 . It was the first time since the 2013 Brazilian Grand Prix that any of the factory Mercedes cars failed to finish on the podium .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Sebastian Vettel dedicated his victory to Jules Bianchi , saying over the team radio on his way back to the pits : " Merci Jules , you will always be in our hearts and we know that sooner or later you would have been part of this team ! " During the podium interviews , conducted by German TV presenter Kai Ebel , he went on to say : " Incredible day but this victory is for Jules . We know that it has been an incredibly tough week and it 's , I think , for all of us very , very difficult , so this one is for him [ ... ] . " Daniil Kvyat stated that the team deserved the podium finish after " a very tough year " . Daniel Ricciardo described it as " a crazy race " , but said that " that 's the way Jules would have wanted it " .
Media reactions to the race were very positive , with The Guardian calling it " heart @-@ stopper of a race " , while the BBC spoke of a " classic " race . Lewis Hamilton apologised for " a really bad performance from me " . He continued : " I don 't know if it was a lack of concentration or what . I pushed right to the end but there were so many obstacles . It 's like there were two different directions and each time I chose the wrong one . " Fernando Alonso hailed his fifth @-@ place finish as " unbelievable " , but stressed that the result was " a present " , stating : " at the moment we are not super @-@ competitive " .
Several drivers received penalty points on their Super Licences , including Hamilton , who was given his first two for his collision with Ricciardo at the safety car restart . Romain Grosjean added two points to get to six over the course of the season for the unsafe release . His teammate Pastor Maldonado was handed two points as well for his accident with Pérez , bringing him to six over a course of two months . Concerning the incident between Rosberg and Ricciardo , no further action was taken . The stewards came to the same verdict concerning the Verstappen – Bottas incident , saying that Verstappen " took reasonable actions to avoid contact " , however he did receive three penalty points , bringing his total to five , for speeding behind the safety car .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Will Stevens was classified because he completed over 90 % of the race distance .
^ 2 – Daniil Kvyat had ten seconds added to his time for exceeding track limits .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Dirty Picture =
" Dirty Picture " is a song by British R & B singer Taio Cruz , released from his second studio album , Rokstarr ( 2009 ) . The song was written and produced by Cruz alongside Fraser T Smith , and later released as the album 's third single on 5 April 2010 . Originally , Cruz wanted the female vocals to be done by Lady Gaga but opted to switch to Kesha due to heavy influence by Dr. Luke and for finding her voice unique . It was released as the third single from Rokstarr on 5 April 2010 and was later re @-@ recorded as an album bonus track for Kesha 's debut album , Animal , dubbed the " Kesha edit " . Lyrically , the song 's message is about being able to send your significant other that you 're missing a dirty picture .
Critical reception of the song was generally positive . Kesha and Cruz 's collaboration and vocal work together on the track was generally praised although some critics noted that Kesha overtook the track , outshining Cruz . The song 's simple but effective lyrics were also positively received by music critics . Commercially , " Dirty Picture " fared well on the charts . The song peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart , and number ten in the Republic of Ireland . The song also reached the top forty in Europe and Australia . The song 's accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles and in London and its concept is intended to be presented as a party .
= = Background and composition = =
" Dirty Picture " was written and produced by Taio Cruz , in collaboration with Fraser T Smith . While creating the track Cruz stated that he originally had wanted American singer Lady Gaga to feature on the track alongside himself . Following a meeting with Dr. Luke , Cruz agreed to switch to then upcoming singer Kesha . Luke had been working with Kesha and Cruz found Kesha 's voice to be distinctive and opted to switch to her featuring on the track . Cruz commented on his decision , stating : " I was thinking about Lady Gaga at first , then I went to a meeting with Dr. Luke and he was telling me about this new girl he was working with . She hadn 't done ' Tik Tok ' or anything like that at that point . But I just thought she sounded really cool . A very unique @-@ sounding voice . I like that with artists , that as soon as you hear them on a song on the radio , you know immediately who that is without having to be told . She looked really sexy , and I just thought she was talented . Her voice was awesome . It had this — I hope she won 't mind me saying this , but her voice has this kind of yodely quality to it , the way that she does things and the way that she ends words . I just loved that quality about it . "
" Dirty Picture " is song composed in the dance genre , that encompasses a techno beat infused in its backing , as well as synthesizers . The song features auto @-@ tuned vocals by Kesha . According to Robert Cospey of Digital Spy , the song 's chorus contains " trancey " elements and is reminiscent of Benny Benassi 's song , " Satisfaction " . Lyrically , Cruz explained the song 's message saying , " the song is actually about sending sexy pictures to your significant other , if you miss each other and you can 't see each other , you 're far away from each other , you send pictures to remind each other of how sexy you are . " According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Dirty Picture " is written in the time signature of common time , with a moderate beat rate of 125 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of F Minor ; Cruz ' vocal range spans from the note of Eb4 to the note of F5 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Dirty Picture " received generally positive reviews from music critics upon its release . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly compared the song to Cruz ' prior single " Break Your Heart " , noting that Cruz had " struck gold " with the song and that " Dirty Picture " was the only song on the album with " equal caliber . " In a review of the album , Mike Diver of BBC wrote that the song was " the kind of track Sugababes should be patching up their every difference ever for . " In a separate publication from BBC , Fraser McAlpine wrote that although the song 's lyrics were dumb , silly and crude , " none of [ these ] are bad things in themselves . " McAlpine complimented the overall sound of Kesha and Cruz 's vocal work together on the song commenting that " the jarring clash between Taio 's supersmooth soul @-@ gentleman image and Kesha 's sloppy drunken nonsense is genuinely fascinating . The song actually transforms from one kind of a thing to another , depending who has their hand on the microphone . "
The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan first criticized Cruz for his evident " facelessness " in his music while reviewing his album ; she , however , wrote that the song " saves the day " and wrote that it exemplified " British humour by impersonating a camera ( ' Snap , snap , click ! ' ) . " Sara Anderson from AOL Radio was positive in her review of the song . Anderson wrote , " Building from strobing , techno back beats , Taio melodically , and bluntly , asks his muse to take a few , er , risque pictures for him , before transitioning into speaking voice with the help of party queen Kesha . " David Jeffries of Allmusic listed the song as one of the album 's three best tracks , alongside " Break Your Heart " and " Take You Back . " Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard praised Cruz ' vocal delivery , calling it the " most impressive " on the album .
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the single three out of a possible five stars . Copsey wasn 't convinced with Cruz 's vocal work on the song commenting that Kesha takes over the track , " Cruz 's vocals soar over the verses , his delicate tones fails to dent that deliciously trashy chorus . Luckily , guest star Kesha more than steps up to the mark [ ... ] it 's a bit of a shame that it 's not her version of the song " . Ken Capobianco from The Boston Globe was negative in his review of the song . Capobianco called the song " salacious " , writing that it " features that notorious no @-@ talent , Ke $ ha , but with its galloping percussion it makes for salacious nonsense . " Ash Dosanjh from NME wrote that Cruz ' downfall on his album was when he acted as the " player " , citing " Dirty Picture " as an example .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United Kingdom , " Dirty Picture " entered at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart on 18 April 2010 ― for the week ending dated 24 April 2010 . After weeks of steadily ascending the charts , the single reached an eventual peak of number 6 on the chart on 9 May 2010 ― for the week ending dated 15 May 2010 . The single also peaked at number 3 on the UK R & B Chart .
In Australia , " Dirty Picture " entered at number 31 on the ARIA Singles Chart . On the song 's third week on the chart it reached its peak position of 16 , where it remained for three weeks . It has since been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 35 @,@ 000 units .
In New Zealand the single entered at number 38 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . The following week , it rose to position 21 and then proceeded to fall off the charts . The song re @-@ entered the charts on the week titled 14 June 2010 at 12 ; the single reached its peak the following week at position 11 . It has since been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales of 7 @,@ 500 units . In the United States , " Dirty Picture " entered and peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 96 , the same week Rokstarr was released .
In Canada , the song similarly reached its peak on its first week ― number 49 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Dirty Picture " was directed by Alex Herron and it premiered online on 24 May 2010 . Recording of the video was done in both Los Angeles and in London . Cruz explain the video 's simplistic theme and recording saying , " It was shot in this really cool basement in LA . We wanted it to look like a party scene , but not in a typical club , and it was really good fun . Kesha 's shots were recorded in London because our schedules were all over the place , and then I shot the rest in LA . "
The video opens with Cruz driving a car speeding through the desert . It then cuts to a new scene where Cruz is at a house party where everyone is drinking and sending dirty text messages . Throughout the scenes Cruz is seen taking pictures with different women and singing karaoke . Kesha 's vocals cut in and she is seen standing in a bathroom stall standing on top of a toilet " asking that her man do the same [ and send a dirty picture ] . " Once again the video then cuts to scenes of Cruz standing next to his car in the desert singing his verses . The video then cuts back to the party where all of the party goers are seen " sexting , kissing , touching and bumping and grinding as the flashes flash . " Kesha 's vocals once again cut in and this time she is seen laying on top of the bathroom sink singing her verses . The video ends with Cruz and Kesha standing next to each other telling their loved ones to " click , click , snap " that dirty picture their way .
= = Kesha version = =
Kesha re @-@ recorded " Dirty Picture " for her debut studio album , Animal . The song was selective in its release only being sold as an album bonus track in United Kingdom and Ireland , and was dubbed " Kesha edit " or " Dirty Picture , Pt . 2 " . The song is similar to the original recording of the song with the only noticeable change being that Kesha now sings the song 's first verse . While being interviewed by Digital Spy Cruz explained how the cover initially came about and his view on the cover , " she asked me if she could do a version of the song where she sang the first verse and I thought that was a really cool idea . I really like both versions , and it 's good that there are these two different versions out there , because fans of me get more of me on mine and [ Kesha ] fans get more of her on hers . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Taio Cruz , Fraser T Smith
Production – Taio Cruz , Fraser T Smith
Engineering – Beatriz Artola
Mixing – Fraser T Smith , Neil Tucker
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rokstarr , via Photo Finish Records .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hurricane Charley =
Hurricane Charley was the third named storm , the second hurricane , and the second major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , and at its peak intensity it attained 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , making it the strongest hurricane to hit the United States since Hurricane Andrew struck Florida in 1992 .
After moving slowly through the Caribbean Sea , Charley crossed Cuba on Friday , August 13 as a Category 3 hurricane , causing heavy damage and four deaths . That same day , it crossed over the Dry Tortugas , just 22 hours after Tropical Storm Bonnie had struck northwestern Florida . It was the first time in history that two tropical cyclones struck the same state in a 24 @-@ hour period . At its peak intensity of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , Hurricane Charley struck the northern tip of Captiva Island and the southern tip of North Captiva Island , causing severe damage in both areas . Charley , the strongest hurricane to hit southwest Florida since Hurricane Donna in 1960 , then continued to produce severe damage as it made landfall on the peninsula near Port Charlotte . It continued to the north @-@ northeast along the Peace River corridor , devastating Punta Gorda , Port Charlotte , Cleveland , Fort Ogden , Nocatee , Arcadia , Zolfo Springs , Sebring , and Wauchula . Zolfo Springs was isolated for nearly two days as masses of large trees , power poles , power lines , transformers , and debris filled the streets . Wauchula sustained gusts to 147 mph ( 236 km / h ) ; buildings in the downtown areas caved onto Main Street . Ultimately , the storm passed through the central and eastern parts of the Orlando metropolitan area , still carrying winds gusting up to 106 mph ( 171 km / h ) . The city of Winter Park , north of Orlando , also sustained considerable damage since its many old , large oak trees had not experienced high winds . Falling trees tore down power utilities and smashed cars , and their huge roots lifted underground water and sewer utilities . The storm slowed as it exited the state over New Smyrna Beach and Ponce Inlet , just south of Daytona Beach . The storm was ultimately absorbed by a front in the Atlantic Ocean shortly after sunrise on August 15 , near southeastern Massachusetts .
Damage in the state totaled to over $ 13 billion ( 2004 USD ) . Charley initially was expected to hit further north in Tampa , and caught many Floridians off @-@ guard due to a sudden change in the storm 's track as it approached the state . Throughout the United States , Charley caused 10 deaths and $ 15 @.@ 4 billion in damage , making it the second costliest hurricane in United States history at the time ( it has since dropped to 8th ) . Charley was a compact , fast @-@ moving storm , which limited the scope and severity of the damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Charley began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 4 . It moved quickly westward and steadily organized over the open Atlantic Ocean , with convection developing in curved bands . The wave continued to develop as it approached the Lesser Antilles , and became Tropical Depression Three on August 9 while 115 mi ( 185 km ) south @-@ southeast of Barbados , near the island of Grenada , however , the threat to Barbados was short @-@ lived . Low upper @-@ level wind shear and well @-@ defined outflow contributed to further intensification , and the depression strengthened on August 10 , despite being located in the eastern Caribbean Sea , which is an area not particularly suited to tropical cyclogenesis . At this time , the National Hurricane Center in Miami designated the name " Charley . "
A strong ridge of high pressure to the system 's north forced Charley to change track quickly to the west @-@ northwest . It continued to strengthen and became a Category 1 hurricane on August 11 , while 90 mi ( 150 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica . The storm was being steered around the periphery of the high pressure area , and as a result , Charley changed direction toward the northwest . The following day , the core passed 40 mi ( 65 km ) southwest of Jamaica , affecting the island on August 11 and 12 . The storm then passed 15 mi ( 25 km ) northeast of Grand Cayman , reaching Category 2 status just after passing the island . The hurricane continued to strengthen as it turned to the northwest and rounded the southwest portion of the subtropical ridge , becoming a major hurricane — a storm classified as a Category 3 hurricane or higher — just before making landfall on southern Cuba . Charley came ashore near Punta Cayamas with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and gusts of up to 133 mph ( 215 km / h ) , at about 0430 UTC on August 13 . It weakened while crossing the island , passing about 15 mi ( 25 km ) west of downtown Havana before weakening to 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) .
After crossing Cuba near Menelao Mora , Hurricane Charley accelerated to the north @-@ northeast , toward the southwest coast of Florida in response to the approach of an unseasonal mid @-@ tropospheric trough . Charley passed over the Dry Tortugas at 1200 UTC on August 13 , with maximum winds of about 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The strike occurred only 22 hours after Tropical Storm Bonnie made landfall on St. Vincent Island , marking the first time two tropical cyclones hit the same state within a 24 @-@ hour period . Then Charley rapidly intensified , strengthening from a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) hurricane with a minimum central barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) to a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) hurricane with a pressure of 947 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) in just three hours . It continued to strengthen as it turned more to the northeast , and made landfall near the island of Cayo Costa , Florida as a 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane with a pressure of 941 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 49 inHg ) at approximately 1945 UTC on August 13 . An hour later , the hurricane struck Punta Gorda as a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) storm . However , the eye had shrunk before landfall , limiting the most powerful winds to an area within 7 mi ( 10 km ) of the center .
Charley weakened considerably due to its passage over land , but still retained sustained winds of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) as it passed directly over Orlando between 0020 and 0140 UTC August 14 ; gusts of up to 106 mph ( 171 km / h ) were recorded at Orlando International Airport . It cut a swath of destruction across Florida , also passing near Kissimmee . The hurricane reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean after crossing directly over New Smyrna Beach as a Category 1 hurricane , but restrengthened slightly over open waters . Continuing to move rapidly to the north @-@ northeast , Charley struck near Cape Romain , South Carolina as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane , moved offshore briefly , and made its final landfall near North Myrtle Beach as a minimal hurricane , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Charley then began interacting with an approaching frontal boundary , becoming a tropical storm over southeastern North Carolina . After moving back into the Atlantic Ocean near Virginia Beach on August 15 , the storm became extratropical and became embedded in the frontal zone . The extratropical storm continued to move rapidly to the northeast , and was completely absorbed by the front shortly after sunrise on August 15 , near southeastern Massachusetts .
= = Preparations = =
On August 10 , two days before the hurricane passed near the island , Jamaican officials issued a tropical storm warning , which was upgraded to a hurricane warning a day later . In Jamaica , the threat of the storm forced the country 's two airports to close , and also forced two cruise ships to reroute . The Cayman Islands issued a hurricane warning on August 11 , a day before the hurricane passed near the archipelago .
Cuban government officials issued a hurricane watch for the southern coastline on August 11 , two days before the hurricane struck the island . This was upgraded to a hurricane warning on the 12th , 13 ½ hours before Charley made landfall . Because of the threat , the government issued a mandatory evacuation for 235 @,@ 000 citizens and 159 @,@ 000 animals in the area of the expected impact . An additional 3 @,@ 800 residents were evacuated from offshore islands , while 47 @,@ 000 in Havana were transported from old , unsafe buildings to safer areas . The people were transported to shelters provisioned with supplies . In addition , the power grid in southern Cuba was turned off to avoid accidents .
On August 11 , Florida governor Jeb Bush issued a state of emergency declaration due to the impending threat Charley presented to the state while the storm was still located south of Jamaica . The National Hurricane Center issued hurricane warnings for the Florida Keys and from Cape Sable to the mouth of the Suwannee River a day prior to Charley 's passage through the state , while tropical storm warnings were issued elsewhere throughout Florida . Because of the threat , 1 @.@ 9 million people along the Florida west coast were urged to evacuate , including 380 @,@ 000 residents in the Tampa Bay area , and 11 @,@ 000 in the Florida Keys . It was the largest evacuation order for Pinellas County history , and the largest evacuation request in Florida since Hurricane Floyd five years before . Many Floridians remained despite the evacuation order , as authorities estimated that up to a million people would not go to shelters ; instead , these residents boarded up their homes and bought supplies to ride out the storm . However , about 1 @.@ 42 million people evacuated their homes in Florida , and approximately 50 @,@ 000 residents were placed in shelters throughout the state . Power companies mobilized workers to prepare for the expected widespread power outages . MacDill Air Force Base , home of U.S. Central Command ( USCENTCOM ) and the U.S. military center for the Iraq War , severely limited its staff on base , shifting most of its operations to its forward headquarters in Doha , Qatar . Similarly , Kennedy Space Center , which usually counts with 13 @,@ 000 on @-@ site personnel , reduced its staff to only 200 people in preparation for the hurricane , and secured all Space Shuttles by sealing them in their hangars . Many amusement parks in the Orlando area closed early , and Walt Disney World 's Animal Kingdom remained closed . This was only the second time in history that a Disney park was closed due to a hurricane , with the other occurrence being after Hurricane Floyd . The approaching hurricane also forced several cruise ships to reroute their paths , and forced rail service between Miami and New York to shut down .
The rapid strengthening of Charley in the eastern Gulf of Mexico caught many by surprise . Around five hours before its Florida landfall , Charley was a strong Category 2 hurricane predicted to strengthen its strongest winds to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) upon its landfall in the Tampa @-@ Saint Petersburg area . About two hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued a special advisory , notifying the public that Charley had become a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane , with a predicted landfall location in the Port Charlotte area . As a result of this change in forecast , numerous people in the Charlotte County area were unprepared for the hurricane , despite the fact that the new track prediction was well within the previous forecast 's margin of error . National Hurricane Center forecasting intern Robbie Berg publicly blamed the media for misleading residents into believing that a Tampa landfall was inevitable . In addition , he also stated that residents of Port Charlotte had ample warning , as a hurricane warning had been issued for the landfall area 23 hours before , and a hurricane watch had existed for 35 hours .
Several local meteorologists , however , did break with national news predictions of a Tampa Bay landfall as early as the morning of August 13 . Jim Farrell of WINK , Robert Van Winkle WBBH , Steve Jerve of WFLA in Tampa , Jim Reif of WZVN in Fort Myers , and Tom Terry of WFTV in Orlando , all broke with their national news forecasts and stated at around 1500 UTC that Charley was going to turn early , striking around Charlotte Harbor and traveling over Orlando , as would prove to be the case .
Following the Florida landfall , Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue declared a state of emergency as a precaution against a 4 – 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 1 m ) storm surge and price gouging . In South Carolina , Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached its final landfall . Two coastal counties were forced to evacuate , with state troopers redirecting traffic further inland from Myrtle Beach . In all , 138 @,@ 000 evacuated from the Grand Strand area .
= = Impact = =
One death in Jamaica , four deaths in Cuba , and ten deaths in the United States were directly attributed to Charley . Numerous injuries were reported , as well as twenty indirect deaths in the U.S.
Property damage from Charley in the United States was estimated by the NHC to be $ 15 @.@ 0 billion . At the time , this figure made Charley the second costliest hurricane in United States history , behind 1992 's Hurricane Andrew 's $ 43 @.@ 7 billion . However , Charley has since dropped to eighth costliest , due to the damage caused by Hurricane Ivan later in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Wilma in 2005 , Hurricane Ike in 2008 , Hurricane Irene in 2011 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 .
= = = Caribbean Sea = = =
On Jamaica , strong winds caused moderate damage to the agricultural sector , with crop and livestock damage totaling to $ 1 @.@ 44 million . As the storm traveled along the southwest coast of Jamaica , it caused heavy wind and rain damage . Damage was heaviest in Saint Elizabeth Parish , where 100 people had to be housed in six shelters . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , causing power outages and blocking roads . Throughout the country , Charley caused $ 4 @.@ 1 million in damage and one fatality . In spite of the close approach that Charley made on the Cayman Islands , the islands were mostly spared , and were subjected to little damage . Rainfall was light , peaking at 0 @.@ 9 in ( 23 mm ) in Grand Cayman , while Cayman Brac reported tropical storm force winds .
Operationally , forecasters estimated that Charley struck southern Cuba as a 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . In post @-@ hurricane @-@ season analysis , Charley was determined to have struck southern Cuba as a 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) hurricane ; the original estimate was revised based on a report of a 118 mph ( 190 km / h ) sustained wind measurement in Playa Baracoa , and meant that Charley was a major hurricane at landfall . The hurricane produced a storm surge of up to 13 @.@ 1 ft ( 4 m ) in Playa Cajio ; on the other hand , Charley 's quick passage caused precipitation amounts to be small , with the largest total , 5 @.@ 87 in ( 149 mm ) occurring in Mariel .
Strong wind gusts downed nearly 1 @,@ 500 power lines and knocked over 28 large high tension wire towers at a power plant in Mariel . As a result , more than half of the electricity customers in Havana Province were left without power for 12 days after the storm , and all of Pinar del Río Province was without power for over 11 days . Blackouts continued in areas where power returned . The power outages resulted in lack of drinking water for numerous people , including no potable water in the city of Havana for four days . As a result , the Cuban government sent water tanks to satisfy the short term need . Similarly , there was a lack of gas for cooking for over a week . However , one Cuban government official stated that it could take up to two months for basic utilities to be returned to many isolated villages .
Near its landfall location , Charley destroyed 290 of the 300 houses in the village , while over 70 @,@ 000 homes in Havana were either damaged or destroyed . Numerous hotels reported damage , potentially impacting the important tourism industry in the country . Agricultural damage was heavy , with the hurricane damaging more than 3 @,@ 000 agricultural institutions . Citrus officials estimated a loss of 15 @,@ 000 metric tons of grapefruit on the Isle of Youth , while strong winds ruined 66 @,@ 000 metric tons of citrus trees in the Havana area . Charley also destroyed around 57 @,@ 000 acres ( 230 km ² ) of fruit trees in the Havana area . Approximately 95 % of the sugar cane , bean , and banana crops were affected in Cuban territory . In all , Charley was directly responsible for four deaths in Cuba , and was responsible for $ 923 million in property damage , primarily from agricultural losses .
= = = Florida = = =
Hurricane Charley severely affected the state of Florida . There were nine direct fatalities , 20 indirect fatalities , and numerous injuries attributed to the storm . Property damage was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 4 billion , and approximately $ 285 million in agricultural damage . However , due to Charley 's speed ( it crossed the Florida peninsula in approximately seven hours ) and small size , rainfall along the eyewall was mostly limited to 4 – 6 inches ( 10 – 15 cm ) .
While moving northward to the west of the Florida Keys , Charley produced moderate winds of 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) with gusts to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) in Key West . The winds toppled a few trees , power lines , and unreinforced signs . A boat , knocked loose by strong waves , struck a power transmission line , causing widespread power outages from Marathon to Key West . On Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas , the hurricane produced an estimated storm surge of up to 6 ft ( 2 m ) . The surge , combined with incoming waves , caused extensive flooding in the park and damaged numerous docks . In spite of this , property damage was minimal in the area , totaling $ 160 @,@ 000 .
Hurricane Charley passed directly over Captiva Island near Cayo Costa with peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The Category 4 hurricane produced an estimated storm surge of up to 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 m ) on the island , which is lower than expected for a storm of its intensity . The decrease in the height of the surge was due to the hurricane 's small size and its rapid intensification just prior to landfall . Furthermore , the storm surge , combined with the strong pressure gradient , produced a ¼ mi ( 450 m ) inlet on North Captiva Island , known as Charley 's Cut . Strong waves and storm surge caused severe beach erosion and dune damage at various locations . The storm severely damaged five houses , lightly damaged many others , and downed many trees on Gasparilla Island . At least half of the 300 homes on North Captiva Island were substantially damaged , including ten that were destroyed . On Captiva Island , the strong winds severely damaged most houses , as well as several recreational buildings .
The city of Arcadia in DeSoto County saw extreme damage , in spite of being relatively further inland . About 95 % of the buildings in the downtown area saw some sort of damage . The only shelter in the town had its roof torn open by the wind , leaving 3 @,@ 500 evacuees inside unprotected from the onslaught of the storm .
Hardee County saw property damage estimated at $ 750 million , along with six injuries , but no deaths were reported . Charley caused blackouts in the entire county , as well as damage to 3 @,@ 600 homes and the destruction of 1 @,@ 400 . A radio tower near Sebring was toppled , along with numerous trees and power poles along the north and east side of Highlands County . Additionally , there were several reports of severely damaged homes in Polk County near Babson Park and Avon Park . In Lake Wales , Florida , a sand mine lake encroached into State Road 60 due to wave action and swallowed a car . Additionally , Lake Wales saw 23 @,@ 000 buildings damaged , as well as the destruction of 739 structures . Seven deaths were reported in the county , one of them determined to be direct .
Throughout the rest of the islands in Sarasota , Charlotte , Lee , and Collier counties , strong winds from Hurricane Charley caused severe damage to hundreds of buildings and trees . Lee County also endured an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) storm surge . These counties were exposed to Charley 's eyewall , so they saw the most damage . Due to its small size , the area of most intense damage was located within a 10 @-@ mi ( 16 @-@ km ) band centered on Charley 's track , with additional heavy damage forming an outer band extending 7 @.@ 5 mi ( 12 km ) to each side of the inner swath of damage . In Charlotte County , 80 % of buildings were damaged .
On mainland Florida , Charley produced a peak storm surge of 10 – 13 feet ( 3 – 4 m ) at Vanderbilt Beach near Naples , along with a much lower surge at its Punta Gorda landfall . The hurricane dropped generally light rainfall across Florida , with the maximum amount of 9 @.@ 88 in ( 251 mm ) occurring in Bud Slough in Sarasota County . In Punta Gorda 's airport , where the hurricane made landfall , wind speeds of up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) were measured , alongside gusts of up to 111 mph ( 180 km / h ) , before the instrument was blown apart , along with most of the planes and the airport itself . The Charlotte Regional Medical Center recorded an unofficial peak wind gust of 172 mph ( 277 km / h ) . Port Charlotte 's Saint Joseph 's Hospital had its roof blown away by Charley 's strong winds . Due to the compact nature of the hurricane , the storm 's radius of maximum sustained winds only extended a short distance from its center . In comparison , Fort Myers , which is only 25 mi ( 38 km ) from where Charley made landfall , experienced sustained winds of only 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) with gusts of 78 mph ( 125 km / h ) . In South Florida , Charley spawned several tornadoes , including a long @-@ lived F2 that struck Clewiston , and five weak tornadoes near the point where the hurricane made landfall .
The most severe damage from Hurricane Charley occurred in Charlotte County . In Boca Grande , numerous houses sustained extensive roof damage , while thousands of trees and power lines were uprooted or snapped . In Port Charlotte and Punta Gorda , many buildings , RVs , and mobile homes were completely destroyed , while other buildings were uproofed due to the powerful winds .
Charley devastated Southwest Florida , causing $ 14 @.@ 6 billion in property damage on the peninsula of Florida alone . Many towns such as Punta Gorda and Port Charlotte were leveled by the hurricane . Trees were downed and trailer parks were obliterated as far as Ormond Beach .
Charley also caused considerable damage in the central and eastern parts of the state . Several possible tornadoes occurred , with severe thunderstorms during the duration of the storm . Winds were estimated to be at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) sustained near , and to the north of Okeechobee , while winds at Orlando International Airport topped out at 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) in a gust . The storm caused 2 million customers to lose electricity in Florida . In some areas , power was not restored for weeks : 136 @,@ 000 residents had no electricity a week after Charley 's landfall , and 22 @,@ 000 customers , primarily from cooperatives , were still waiting for their service to be restored on August 26 . Citizens in Daytona Beach , New Smyrna Beach , and Port Orange in Southeastern Volusia County also dealt with storm surge from the St. Johns River and Halifax River , and Intracoastal Waterway as Charley passed over before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean . Further inland , Seminole County experienced some of the highest winds ever recorded from a hurricane in the area , with a gust of 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) in Longwood at 0407 UTC on August 14 and 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) in Altamonte Springs . Power was out in these areas for up to 12 days after the storm in some locations .
Public schools in some counties in the path of the hurricane were scheduled to be closed for two weeks . In some areas this was necessary because the school buildings were damaged or destroyed : all 59 of Osceola County 's schools were damaged , and one @-@ third of Charlotte County 's were destroyed by Charley 's impact . DeSoto County schools saw $ 6 million in damage , while Orange County Public Schools saw $ 9 million in damage to their educational infrastructure .
Agricultural losses were heavy . In Florida , the second @-@ largest producer of oranges in the world , damage to the citrus crop was estimated at $ 200 million , and caused a 50 % increase in the price of grapefruit juice . Charley , along with the other storms that hit Florida during 2004 , caused a total agricultural loss of $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . Other crops , nurseries , buildings , and agricultural equipment also suffered .
= = = Rest of United States = = =
Upon making landfall on northeastern South Carolina , Charley produced a storm tide that was unofficially measured to up to 7 @.@ 19 ft ( 2 @.@ 19 m ) in Myrtle Beach . Wind gusts were moderate , peaking at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) in North Myrtle Beach , though there were several unofficial records of hurricane @-@ force gusts . Charley produced moderate rainfall along its path , peaking at over 7 in ( 178 mm ) . Moderate winds knocked down numerous trees . Flash flooding occurred in Charleston County , causing drainage problems . Damage in South Carolina totaled to $ 20 million .
In North Carolina , Charley produced an estimated storm surge of 2 – 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 m ) , along with waves of up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in height . This produced minor beach erosion along the coastline . Winds gusted from 60 to 70 mph ( 95 to 110 km / h ) , causing minor wind damage . Rainfall amounts in the state were moderate , ranging from 4 to 6 in ( 100 to 150 mm ) , but still caused flooding across seven North Carolina counties . The hurricane spawned five weak tornadoes across the state , including an F1 in Nags Head that damaged twenty structures . Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2 @,@ 231 , 231 severely , including 221 damaged beach homes in Sunset Beach . Damage was the greatest in Brunswick County , where wind gusts peaked at 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . Crop damage was also heavy in Brunswick County , with 50 % of the tobacco crop lost and 30 % of the corn and vegetable fields destroyed . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , leaving 65 @,@ 000 without power . Damage in North Carolina totaled to $ 25 million .
Tropical Storm Charley produced wind gusts of up to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) at Chesapeake Light in Virginia , causing scattered power outages . Rainfall was light , ranging from 2 to 3 @.@ 7 in ( 50 to 94 mm ) . Charley produced one tornado in Chesapeake and one in Virginia Beach . In Rhode Island , one man drowned in a rip current .
= = Aftermath = =
President George W. Bush declared Florida a federal disaster area . He later reflected on the government response to Charley :
U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson released $ 11 million in additional aid and other assistance to Florida , with $ 10 million to be earmarked to Head Start facilities that need repair or new supplies , another $ 1 million was provided to the DeSoto Memorial Hospital in Arcadia and Osceola Regional Medical Center in Kissimmee , and $ 200 @,@ 000 would be spent to provide services to senior citizens . Across Florida , 114 food service operations and eight comfort stations were set up . FEMA opened four disaster recovery centers .
= = = Retirement = = =
Because of its effects in the United States , the name Charley was retired from the rotating lists of tropical cyclone names in the spring of 2005 by the World Meteorological Organization . As a result , the name will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced with Colin for the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season .
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= Invasion of Martinique ( 1809 ) =
The invasion of Martinique of 1809 was a successful British amphibious operation against the French West Indian island of Martinique that took place between 30 January and 24 February 1809 during the West Indies Campaign 1804 – 1810 of the Napoleonic Wars . Martinique , like nearby Guadeloupe , was a major threat to British trade in the Caribbean , providing a sheltered base from which privateers and French Navy warships could raid British shipping and disrupt the trade routes that maintained the British economy . The islands also provided a focus for larger scale French operations in the region and in the autumn of 1808 , following the Spanish alliance with Britain , the Admiralty decided to order a British squadron to neutralise the threat , beginning with Martinique .
The British mustered an overwhelming force under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane and Lieutenant @-@ General George Beckwith , who collected 29 ships and 10 @,@ 000 men – almost four times the number of French regular forces garrisoning Martinique . Landing in force on both the southern and northern coasts of the island , British troops pushed inland , defeating French regulars in the central highlands and routing local militia units in the south of the island . By 9 February , the entire island was in British hands except Fort Desaix , a powerful position intended to protect the capital Fort @-@ de @-@ France , which had been bypassed during the British advance . In a siege lasting 15 days the Fort was constantly bombarded , the French suffering 200 casualties before finally surrendering .
The capture of the island was a significant blow to French power in the region , eliminating an important naval base and denying safe harbours to French shipping in the region . The consequences of losing Martinique were so severe , that the French Navy sent a battle squadron to reinforce the garrison during the invasion . Arriving much too late to affect the outcome , these reinforcements were intercepted off the islands and scattered during the Action of 14 – 17 April 1809 : half the force failed to return to France . With Martinique defeated , British attention in the region turned against Guadeloupe , which was captured the following year .
= = Background = =
During the Napoleonic Wars , the British Royal Navy was charged with limiting the passage and operations of the French Navy , French merchant ships and French privateers . To achieve this objective , the Royal Navy imposed a system of blockades on French ports , especially the major naval bases at Toulon and Brest . This stranglehold on French movement off their own coastline seriously affected the French colonies , including those in the West Indies , as their produce could not reach France and supplies and reinforcements could not reach them without the risk of British interception and seizure . These islands provided excellent bases for French ships to raid the British trade routes through the Caribbean Sea : in previous conflicts , the British had countered the threat posed by French West Indian colonies by seizing them through force , such as Martinique , which had been previously captured by armed invasion in 1762 and 1794 . An attempt in 1780 was defeated by a French battle squadron at the Battle of Martinique . By 1808 there were no French squadrons at sea : any that left port were eliminated or driven back in a series of battles , culminating at the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 . The fleet that was destroyed at Trafalgar had visited Martinique the year before and was the last full scale French fleet to visit the Caribbean for the rest of the war .
With the bulk of the French Navy confined to port , the British were able to strike directly at French colonies , although their reach was limited by the significant resources required in blockading the French coast and so the size and quality of operations varied widely . In 1804 , Haiti fell to a nationalist uprising supported by the Royal Navy , and in 1806 British forces secured most of the northern coast of South America from its Dutch owners . In 1807 the Danish West Indies were invaded and in 1808 Spain changed sides and allied with Britain , while Cayenne fell to an improvised force under Captain James Lucas Yeo in January 1809 . The damage done to the Martinique economy during this period was severe , as British frigates raided coastal towns and shipping , and merchant vessels were prevented from trading Martinique 's produce with France or allied islands . Disaffection grew on the island , especially among the recently emancipated black majority , and during the summer of 1808 the island 's governor , Vice @-@ Admiral Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse , sent urgent messages back to France requesting supplies and reinforcements . Some of these messages were intercepted by British ships and the low morale on Martinique was brought to the attention of the Admiralty , who ordered their commander on the West Indian Station , Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane , to raise an expeditionary force from the ships and garrisons available to him and invade the island .
During the winter of 1808 – 1809 , Cochrane gathered his forces off Carlisle Bay , Barbados , accumulating 29 ships and 10 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General George Beckwith . Landings were planned on the island 's southern and northern coasts , with the forces ordered to converge on the capital Fort @-@ de @-@ France . The soldiers would be supported and supplied by the Royal Navy force , which would shadow their advance offshore . Beckwith 's army was more than twice the size of the French garrison , half of which was composed of an untrained and irregular black militia which could not be relied on in combat . News of the poor state of Martinique 's defences also reached France during the autumn of 1808 . Attempts were made to despatch reinforcements and urgently needed food supplies , but on 30 October 1808 Circe captured the 16 @-@ gun French Curieux class brig Palinure . The British then captured the frigate Thétis in the Bay of Biscay at the Action of 10 November 1808 . Another relief attempt was destroyed in December off the Leeward Islands and HMS Aimable captured the corvette Iris , carrying flour to Martinique , off the Dutch coast on 2 January 1809 . Only the frigate Amphitrite , whose stores and reinforcements were insignificant compared to the forces under Cochrane and Beckwith , managed to reach Martinique .
= = Invasion = =
Cochrane 's fleet sailed from Carlisle Bay on 28 January , arriving off Martinique early on 30 January . The force was then divided , one squadron anchoring off Sainte @-@ Luce on the southern coast and another off Le Robert on the northern . The invasion began the same morning , 3 @,@ 000 soldiers going ashore at Sainte @-@ Luce under the command of Major @-@ General Frederick Maitland , supervised by Captain William Charles Fahie , while 6 @,@ 500 landed at Le Robert under Major @-@ General Sir George Prevost , supervised by Captain Philip Beaver . Beckwith remained on Cochrane 's flagship HMS Neptune , to direct the campaign from offshore . A third force , under a Major Henderson and consisting entirely of 600 soldiers from the Royal York Rangers , landed at Cape Salomon near Les Anses @-@ d 'Arlet on the southwestern peninsula to secure the entrance to Fort @-@ de @-@ France Bay .
During the first day of the invasion , the two main forces made rapid progress inland , the militia troops sent against them retreating and deserting without offering resistance . Serious opposition to the British advance did not begin until 1 February , when French defenders on the heights of Desfourneaux and Surirey were attacked by Prevost 's troops , under the direct command of Brigadier @-@ General Daniel Hoghton . Fighting was fierce throughout the next two days , as the outnumbered French used the fortified high ground to hold back a series of frontal assaults . The British lost 84 killed and 334 wounded to French losses of over 700 casualties , and by 3 February the French had been forced back , withdrawing to Fort Desaix near the capital . Progress was also made at Cape Salomon , where the appearance of British troops panicked the French defenders into burning the naval brig Carnation and retreating to the small island , Ilot aux Ramiers , offshore . Henderson 's men , assisted by a naval brigade under Captain George Cockburn , set up batteries on the coast and by 4 February had bombarded the island into surrender , opening the principal harbour of Martinique to naval attack .
A small naval squadron , consisting of HMS Aeolus , HMS Cleopatra and the brig HMS Recruit , advanced into Fort @-@ de @-@ France Bay on 5 February . This advance spread panic among the French militia defending the bay and Amphitrite and the other shipping anchored there were set on fire and destroyed , while the forts in the southern part of the island were abandoned . On 8 February , Maitland 's force , which had not yet fired a shot , arrived on the western side of Fort Desaix and laid siege to it . Minor detachments spread across the remainder of the island : Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edward Barnes captured Saint @-@ Pierre and another force occupied Fort @-@ de @-@ France and seized the corvette Diligente in the harbour . By 10 February , when Prevost 's force linked up with Maitland 's , Fort Desaix was the only remaining point of resistance .
For nine days , the British soldiers and sailors of the expeditionary force constructed gun batteries and trenches around the fort , bringing ashore large quantities of supplies and equipment in readiness for a lengthy siege . At 16 : 30 on 19 February the preparations were complete and the bombardment began , 14 heavy cannon and 28 mortars beginning a continuous attack on the fort which lasted for the next four days . French casualties in the overcrowded fort were severe , with 200 men killed or wounded . British casualties were minimal , with five killed and 11 wounded , principally in an explosion in an ammunition tent manned by sailors from HMS Amaranthe . At 12 : 00 on 23 February , Villaret de Joyeuse 's trumpeter was sent to the British camp with a message proposing surrender terms . These were unacceptable to Beckwith and the bombardment resumed at 22 : 00 , continuing until 09 : 00 the following morning when three white flags were raised over the fort and the French admiral surrendered unconditionally . The bombardment had cracked the roof of the fort 's magazine , and there were fears that further shelling might have ignited the gunpowder and destroyed the building completely .
= = Aftermath = =
With the surrender of Fort Desaix , British forces solidified their occupation of the island of Martinique . The remaining shipping and military supplies were seized and the regular soldiers of the garrison taken as prisoners of war . The militia were disbanded and Martinique became a British colony , remaining under British command until the restoration of the French monarchy in 1814 , when it was returned to French control . British losses in the campaign were heavy , with 97 killed , 365 wounded and 18 missing . French total losses are uncertain but the garrison suffered at least 900 casualties , principally in the fighting in the central highlands on 1 and 2 February and during the siege of Fort Desaix . Upon his return to France , Villaret 's conduct was condemned by an inquiry council ; he requested in vain a Court @-@ martial to clear his name , and lived in disgrace for two years .
In Britain , both Houses of Parliament voted their thanks to Cochrane and Beckwith , who immediately began planning the invasion of Guadeloupe , executed in January 1810 . Financial and professional rewards were provided for the junior officers and enlisted men and in 1816 the battle honour Martinique was awarded to the ships and regiments involved , with the date 1809 added in 1909 to distinguish the campaign from the earlier operations of 1762 and 1794 . Four decades later the operation was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal and the Military General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 . In France , the defeat was the subject of a court martial in December 1809 , at which Villaret de Joyeuse and a number of his subordinates were stripped of their commissions , honours , and ranks for inadequately preparing for invasion , in particular for failing properly to strengthen and disperse the magazine at Fort Desaix .
There was a subsequent French effort to reach Martinique , launched in February 1809 before news of the British invasion had reached Europe . Three ships of the line and two disarmed frigates were sent with soldiers and supplies towards the island , but learned of Villaret de Joyeuse 's surrender in late March and instead took shelter in the Îles des Saintes , blockaded by Cochrane 's squadron . On 14 April , Cochrane seized the Saintes and the French fled , the three ships of the line drawing away Cochrane 's forces so that the frigates could slip away and reach Guadeloupe . During the ensuing Action of 14 – 17 April 1809 , the French flagship Hautpoult was chased down and captured , but two escaped and the frigates reached Guadeloupe , although neither would ever return to France .
= = British order of battle = =
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= Rachel Nichols ( actress ) =
Rachel Emily Nichols ( born January 8 , 1980 ) is an American actress and model . Nichols began modeling while attending Columbia University in New York City in the late 1990s . She transitioned into television and film acting in the early 2000s ; she had a part in the romantic drama film Autumn in New York ( 2000 ) and a one @-@ episode role in Season 4 of the show Sex and the City ( 2002 ) .
Her first major role was in the comedy film Dumb and Dumberer : When Harry Met Lloyd ( 2003 ) . She had the main role in the crime drama television series The Inside ( 2005 ) , though it was cancelled after one season . Nichols gained recognition playing Rachel Gibson in the final season of the serial action television series Alias ( 2005 – 06 ) and for her role in the horror film The Amityville Horror ( 2005 ) .
Nichols ' first starring film role was in the horror @-@ thriller P2 ( 2007 ) . She had a supporting role in the coming @-@ of @-@ age film The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2 ( 2008 ) and appeared in Star Trek ( 2009 ) . She starred in the action film G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra ( 2009 ) and also in the sword and sorcery film Conan the Barbarian ( 2011 ) . She played lead roles in the television series Criminal Minds ( 2010 – 11 ) and Continuum ( 2012 – 15 ) .
= = Early life and modeling = =
Rachel Nichols was born January 8 , 1980 in Augusta , Maine , to Jim , a schoolteacher , and Alison Nichols . She attended Cony High School , where she competed in the high jump . Nichols said in an interview that she was not the hot chick in high school and her mother would euphemistically refer to her as ' a late bloomer ' , " which meant that I had uncontrollable arms and legs , I had very long appendages . I took several years of very highly structured dance classes for me to be able to control myself . "
Upon graduating in 1998 , she enrolled at Columbia University in New York City , aiming for a career as a Wall Street analyst . She was noticed by a modeling agent during lunch one day and was invited to work in Paris ; she eventually paid her tuition with the proceeds from her modeling work . She worked on advertising campaigns for Abercrombie & Fitch , Guess , and L 'Oréal ; she also hosted several MTV specials . Nichols studied economics and psychology , as well as drama , graduating from Columbia in 2003 with a double major in math and economics . Nichols said in September 2008 that " the modeling shoes have been hung up . "
= = Acting career = =
= = = 2000 – 04 : Early acting credits = = =
Nichols had done commercial work and had a bit part as a model in the romantic drama film Autumn in New York ( 2000 ) when her modeling agent helped her get a one @-@ episode role in the fourth season of Sex and the City ( 2002 ) . She later said she had " never really done a proper audition before " , and added that " I had such fun [ filming on set ] , that day actually made me want to pursue [ acting ] more seriously . " Later that year she was cast in her first major film role as Jessica , a dogged student newspaper reporter , in Dumb and Dumberer : When Harry Met Lloyd ( 2003 ) . Although the film was panned by critics , making it was a learning experience for Nichols . She said , " I was a sponge for the entire time I was in Atlanta [ during filming ] and freely admitted that I had no idea what was going on . I had never done a big film before , I had never been the lead in a film before and any advice anyone wanted to give me , I was more than willing to take . " The following year , Nichols played a member of a high school debate team in the independent film Debating Robert Lee ( 2004 ) and had a two @-@ episode role in the crime drama television series Line of Fire ( 2004 ) , which was cancelled after 11 of 13 produced episodes were broadcast . By August 2004 , she was cast in supporting roles in the horror films The Amityville Horror ( 2005 ) and The Woods ( 2006 ) .
In late February 2004 , Nichols was cast in a starring role in a then @-@ untitled drama pilot for the Fox Broadcasting Company ( Fox ) . According to Variety , her character was to be " a DEA agent who goes undercover at a high school " . Todd and Glenn Kessler were developing the series , ultimately titled The Inside . The pilot they produced did not satisfy studio executives , however , and Tim Minear was brought in to create a new pilot for the series in late September 2004 , replacing the Kesslers as executive producer and showrunner . The Inside was originally supposed to air midseason , but the new pilot itself was reshot and the series was pushed back . The new concept made Nichols ' character a rookie FBI agent assigned to the FBI 's Los Angeles Violent Crimes Unit . The series premiered in June 2005 and critical reception was mixed ; it had been scheduled opposite the popular Dancing with the Stars on ABC , and due to low ratings six of the 13 produced episodes were aired . It was not picked up for further episodes .
= = = 2005 – 09 : Breakthrough = = =
Following The Inside , Nichols found work on the fifth season of the serial action series Alias in 2005 , being cast that July . Nichols starred as Rachel Gibson , a computer expert who thought she was working for the CIA when in fact she was working for a dangerous terrorist organization — a situation similar to that of the series ' main character Sydney Bristow ( Jennifer Garner ) the first season . Discovering the truth , Gibson joins the real CIA and becomes Bristow 's protégé . Of working on Alias , Nichols said that " to say it 's the nicest set on the planet is an understatement " . Her role involved multiple fight sequences , as did Garner 's . Nichols worked with Garner 's personal trainer ; she said she " already knew that [ Garner 's ] job was extremely hard . But I didn 't know how difficult it was until I started training for just one fight . " Nichols was being groomed to replace Garner as the main character due to the latter 's pregnancy , which had been written into the storyline . But Alias was cancelled in November 2005 , making its fifth season its final . " I think everybody knew that the show wouldn 't work without Jennifer " , Nichols said , " But still , they were grooming me , so it was heartbreaking when it happened . "
She had a small role in the 2005 romantic drama Shopgirl and played the babysitter of George and Kathy Lutz 's children in The Amityville Horror ( 2005 ) . For the latter role she was nominated for the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Scream Scene and the MTV Movie Award for Best Frightened Performance . She later revealed that she almost did not audition for the film due to her fear of dogs . " [ Producer ] Michael Bay has these gigantic [ dogs ] . [ ... ] And , when I went to audition for The Amityville Horror , I went into his offices and literally these three huge dogs were there , and I almost turned around . I was like , ' No , I 'm not going to read for this film . ' I actually used the dogs in my audition to think of what would scare me the most . " The Amityville Horror received generally negative reception from critics , but was a commercial success .
The Woods , which had been shelved for some 18 months , was released directly @-@ to @-@ video in October 2006 . The film opened to favorable reviews and critics acclaimed the individual performances of the actors . Nichols had a small part in the drama film Resurrecting the Champ ( 2007 ) , in which she played the assistant to a sportswriter ( Josh Hartnett ) who believes he has found a former boxing legend ( Samuel L. Jackson ) living homeless on the streets . Also that year , Nichols had a bit part in the fact @-@ based political drama Charlie Wilson 's War ( 2007 ) and was cast in a new science fiction drama television series Them , which was ultimately not picked up by Fox .
Her first starring film role was in the 2007 horror – thriller P2 , in which she played a businesswoman who becomes trapped inside a public parking garage with a deranged security guard . About the dress her character wears for much of the film , Nichols said , " When I read the script originally , it wasn 't a dress , it was a small nightgown with no bra or underwear . Then I read the first scene where she gets wet , and I went : ' OK , this has got to be altered ! ' " Nichols said in an interview that among the rules established in her contract were : " I will not get wet and show nipples " in addition to no nudity . A bra was sewn into the " Marilyn Monroe dress " she wore in the film . She said , " I wasn 't going to run around for two months without a bra , I thought that was inappropriate . But in place of the nipples there 's clearly a lot of cleavage . So we made a compromise . " P2 was generally disliked by critics . Reviewer James Berardinelli said that her performance was " admirable , although one wonders whether she was cast more for her physical assets than her acting ability . " John Anderson of Variety wrote that " Nichols is in territory well trod over the years by everyone from Fay Wray and Grace Kelly to Heather Langenkamp , the terrified but gutsy heroine , who in this case has been chloroformed and put into a sheer white evening dress by her abductor — who must have anticipated that his captive would try to escape in an elevator , which he could then fill with water . ( Nichols ' considerable physical attributes , henceforth , seem to occupy most of the screen . ) She 's sympathetic , hysterical when required and likeable . "
Nichols had a supporting role in The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2 ( 2008 ) , playing a jealous friend of America Ferrera 's character . Overall , the film was well received by critics . Roger Ebert commented that Nichols as her character Julia " proves a principle that should be in the Little Movie Glossary : If a short , curvy , sun @-@ kissed heroine [ Ferrera ] has a tall , thin blond as a roommate , that blond is destined to be a bitch . No way around it . " Stephen Holden , writing for The New York Times , similarly said , " It falls to Ms. Nichols to play the movie 's designated blond baddie , a cold , arrogant vixen who tries to undermine [ Ferrera 's character 's ] triumphs in romance and onstage . " Nichols was cast in Star Trek ( 2009 ) in November 2007 , but due to the project 's secrecy her role was initially unknown even to her ; she said that month she did not even know her character 's name . It was speculated that she would play Janice Rand , but she would actually play an Orion cadet at Starfleet Academy , as revealed by TrekMovie.com the following month .
Nichols was cast as Shana " Scarlett " O 'Hara in the live @-@ action film adaptation of the G.I. Joe franchise G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra ( 2009 ) in late 2007 . She later said that she accepted director Stephen Sommers ' offer for the role without having read the actual script . " I 'd heard from other people that the script was quite good . And then when I finally got to read it myself ... I really , really liked it ... I liked that there were two kick @-@ ass female roles . And I liked the fact that it wasn 't just a big action movie ... And there was comedy in it . I was genuinely really happily surprised when I read the script . " She put on approximately 15 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 kg ) of muscle for the role and trained in mixed martial arts with co @-@ star Sienna Miller for some of the film 's action sequences . Nichols was burned by a flame during the filming of a fight scene with Miller . Like The Amityville Horror , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra was not well received by most critics , but performed well at the box office . Richard Corliss of Time wrote that Nichols had " an appealing manner and comely biceps " as Scarlett O 'Hara and took notice of her " savory girl fight with Sienna Miller , as the mostly villainous Baroness . " After G.I. Joe , Nichols ' next project was the horror film For Sale by Owner , where she played Anna Farrier . Going straight @-@ to @-@ video on October 27 , 2009 , the movie went largely unnoticed by critics and audiences alike .
= = = 2010 – present : Criminal Minds and Continuum = = =
She starred as Leslie Spencer in the indie crime @-@ drama Meskada , which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival and had no domestic distributor as of April 2010 . However , the film received a limited release on December 3 , 2010 in the United States . Nichols was cast in the 3 @-@ D sword and sorcery movie Conan the Barbarian in March 2010 , as the character of Tamara , a master of martial arts , a priestess , and also the potential Conan 's love interest . The film , released on August 19 , 2011 , was a reimagining of the 1982 film of the same name which starred Arnold Schwarzenegger . It received mostly poor reviews , and was a box office bomb .
Nichols guest starred in three episodes of CBS 's Criminal Minds , and was then promoted as a series regular . Her role was Ashley Seaver , an FBI cadet assigned to the BAU . The casting choice came amid uproar from the series ' fanbase as she was bought in to replace exiting actresses A.J. Cook and Paget Brewster ; she told Parade magazine that the show ' fans at first " hated " her , with many sending her hate messages through Twitter , because " [ ... ] they were very angry about [ the Paget and A.J. ] situation . " However , as the season went on , viewers eventually gave her character a warm reception . " It just kind of worked . It was a long process , " she said . It was later informed that Nichols had been let go from the show . Nichols next starred in the indie drama @-@ romance feature A Bird of the Air ( formerly known as The Loop ) , where she played Fiona " a librarian who joins a highway patrolman to uncover the mysteries behind the cryptic sayings spoken by an ancient parrot . " She described the film as a " quirky , edgy love story " and felt that playing her role " was great for me , because [ Fiona ] is a departure from some of the roles I 've been offered " . It was released in selected theaters on September 23 , 2011 , to mixed reviews ; while The New York Times remarked that the actress " is consistently appealing in the kind of role Zooey Deschanel has pretty much cornered " , Village Voice felt her character was " a grating twit " in her hands .
On May 27 , 2012 , Continuum , a Canadian science fiction series starring Nichols , premiered on Showcase . The show centres on the conflict between a police officer and a group of rebels from the year 2077 who time @-@ travel to Vancouver , BC in the year 2012 . The pilot brought 900 @,@ 000 viewers , becoming the highest @-@ rated single episode ever on the network . A ratings success in its four seasons , Continuum also earned Nichols a Constellation Award and two Saturn Award nominations for Best Actress on Television . Also in 2012 , she appeared in the action film Alex Cross , which garnered negative reviews and premiered with a disappointing $ 11 @.@ 4 million opening weekend gross .
Her next movie appearance was in the exploitation film Raze , where she played a character named Jamie . Directed by Josh C. Waller , the movie co @-@ starred Zoë Bell as a woman forced to fight against various other women for the twisted entertainment of the wealthy elite . It was released on April 21 , 2013 at the Tribeca Film Festival and then received a very limited release in New York City and Los Angeles in early 2014 . She was cast opposite Nicolas Cage in the action @-@ crime feature Rage , which focused on a reformed criminal seeking his own brand of justice after his daughter gets kidnapped . The film premiered through selected theaters and video @-@ on @-@ demand in the U.S. between June and July 2014 . The same year , she guest starred in one episode of the Lifetime series Witches of East End and debuted as a recurring character in the short @-@ lived USA Network show Rush .
= = Personal life = =
Nichols married film producer Scott Stuber on July 26 , 2008 , in Aspen , Colorado . Nichols allowed her hair to return to its natural blond color for the ceremony , as it had been dyed red for her consecutive roles in Star Trek and G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra . They were working on building a home in Cabo San Lucas shortly after their honeymoon . Seven months later , in February 2009 , Nichols and Stuber separated due to irreconcilable differences .
On December 30 , 2013 , Nichols confirmed her engagement to Michael Kershaw , a real estate developer . They married in September 2014 .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Bronwyn Oliver =
Bronwyn Joy Oliver ( née Gooda , 22 February 1959 – 11 July 2006 ) was an Australian sculptor who worked primarily in metal . Raised in rural New South Wales , she trained at Sydney 's College of Fine Arts and London 's Chelsea School of Art . She had early successes , winning a New South Wales Travelling Art Scholarship in 1981 and the Moet & Chandon Australian Art Fellowship in 1984 . Oliver settled in Sydney , where she practised and taught until her death by suicide in 2006 .
Oliver 's sculptures are admired for their tactile nature , their aesthetics , and the technical skills demonstrated in their production . In her later career , most of her pieces were commissions , both public and private . Her major works include Vine , a 16 @.@ 5 @-@ metre @-@ high sculpture in the Sydney Hilton , Magnolia and Palm , in the Sydney Botanical Gardens , and Big Feathers in Brisbane 's Queen Street Mall . Recognition of her work included selection as a finalist in the inaugural Helen Lempriere National Sculpture Award in 2000 , inclusion in the National Gallery of Australia 's 2002 National Sculpture Prize exhibition , and being shortlisted for the 2006 Clemenger Contemporary Art Award . Her works are held in major Australian collections , including the National Gallery of Australia , the National Gallery of Victoria and the Art Gallery of New South Wales .
= = Early life = =
Oliver was born Bronwyn Gooda on 22 February 1959 , in Gum Flat , west of Inverell in New South Wales . Her parents were Milton , a farmer turned greenkeeper , and Wendy , who worked in a pharmacy . Her creativity was nurtured from a young age . Aged just eight , Oliver attended weekend art classes in Inverell run by Ian Howard , who went on to become dean of the college in Sydney where she would later study . As she was dux of her school , her parents expected her to go on to university . However , Oliver wished to pursue a creative career . When she told her parents of her plans , her mother replied , " Darling , your father and I are very pleased you 're going to art school , but if you 'd been a son , I think we 'd be a little disappointed . " A rift subsequently developed between her and her family that resulted in her having no contact with them for 25 years .
After leaving school , Oliver studied and worked in Sydney . She had intended to enrol in painting classes , but a computer error placed her in the sculpture course : she later said " I knew straight away I was in the right place " .
She graduated from the Alexander Mackie College of Advanced Education , now the University of New South Wales College of Fine Arts , in 1980 . Winning a New South Wales Travelling Art Scholarship in 1983 , she then completed a master 's degree at Chelsea School of Art in 1984 . Her work was influenced by Richard Deacon , Antony Gormley and Martin Puryear under whom she studied while in England . Upon returning from the United Kingdom , she immediately met with further success , when in 1984 she won a Moet & Chandon Australian Art Fellowship . In 1988 she was granted a period as artist @-@ in @-@ residence in the city of Brest on the coast of Brittany , where she studied Celtic metalworking techniques .
= = Personal life = =
In her early twenties , Bronwyn Gooda married Leslie Oliver , taking his surname and later retaining it " despite a distressing divorce " . The artist lived in the inner @-@ western Sydney suburb of Haberfield , where she also had her studio . For 19 years up until her death , she taught art to primary school @-@ age children at Sydney 's Cranbrook School in Bellevue Hill . She was a friend of Roslyn Oxley , at whose eponymous gallery Oliver exhibited her works . Her long @-@ term de facto partner was wine writer Huon Hooke .
= = Works and exhibitions = =
Biographer Hannah Fink estimated that Oliver produced 290 works over a career of 22 years . Of these , public art works are Oliver 's best known sculptures . These include Eyrie , created for Adelaide 's Hyatt Hotel in 1993 , and Magnolia and Palm , commissioned in 1999 by the Sydney Botanical Gardens , as part of the Sydney Sculpture Walk . That same year , Big Feathers was commissioned for the Queen Street Mall in Brisbane . It comprises two large feather @-@ shaped forms suspended above the pedestrian precinct , representing " Queen Street 's history of parades as well as the mall 's connection between earth and sky " .
In 2000 , Oliver 's piece Entwine was a finalist in the inaugural Helen Lempriere National Sculpture Award , while in the following year , Oliver won the University of New South Wales inaugural sculpture commission competition , with her three @-@ metre @-@ high Globe . Other success followed , when Trace was selected for the National Gallery of Australia 's 2002 National Sculpture Prize exhibition . In August 2002 she was one of five artists shortlisted by the Australian Government for a project to produce a public artwork celebrating the centenary of women 's suffrage in Australia .
By the 2000s most of Oliver 's output constituted commissioned pieces , whether public or private . The most substantial of these is Vine , a 16 @.@ 5 metre high sculpture installed as part of the $ 400 million refurbishment of the Sydney Hilton . Taking twelve months to create and requiring a budget of up to half million dollars , the work was completed in 2005 . The sculpture was fabricated from 380 kilograms of aluminium , and assembled by a team of eight Croatian welders .
By 2006 , Oliver had held 18 solo exhibitions of her work , half of them at Roslyn Oxley9 Gallery , which represented her throughout her career as a sculptor . Only one of those solo exhibitions was held outside Australia : a 1992 exhibition at Auckland City Gallery . However , Oliver was represented in numerous international group shows , including five during the period 1983 to 1984 , around the time she completed her master 's degree in London . Four of the group shows at that time were in the United Kingdom ; the fifth was at the Museum of Traditional Industries in Kyoto . Subsequent international group shows included ' Five Australian Artists ' at Brest 's Centre Culturale in 1988 , the year she undertook an artist 's residency in that city . Later group shows of which Oliver was part included ' Prospect ' 93 ' at the Frankfurter Kunstverein , ' Systems End : Contemporary Art in Australia ' , which exhibited in several east Asian galleries in 1996 , and the Beijing International Biennale in 2003 .
= = Technique = =
A sculptor for her entire artistic career , Oliver used paper , cane or fibreglass for her early works . However , she found " fibreglass hazardous and paper too impermanent " , and for most of her career she worked in metal . The metals used for her creations varied : the monumental Vine was fabricated in aluminium , as was the Brisbane sculpture Big Feathers ; however most , such as Palm and the 2002 sculpture Lock , were crafted in copper . All 25 works included in the 1995 publication , Bronwyn Oliver : mnemonic chords , were made in copper , though a handful also utilised other materials such as bronze , lead or , in one case , fibreglass .
Oliver was always preoccupied with " what materials will do " . Fink observed that " [ f ] rom the beginning , Oliver has been interested in things that are made from the inside out , and her works often give cryptic evidence of their manufacture " . That evidence of manufacture was not confined to the works themselves : friends and art critics observed the injuries and marks she carried as a result of working with such unforgiving material .
Ideas were often first sketched by Oliver , before she moved to construction in three dimensions . When preparing commissions , she would draw on the ideas of clients or the nature of the site . For large works she created maquettes ( or models ) , sometimes in plasticine , on other occasions using copper wire or , in the case of her 2002 sculpture Globe , wood and metal . Oliver would produce the more delicate works herself . Many were created by crafting and joining wire to create abstract forms . These were built around moulds , twisting the metal into place with pliers , before severing it with wirecutters . Joins were soldered or brazed ( though in some pieces , the wire was woven ) . In Web ( 2002 ) , copper pieces were sewn together using wire .
Major pieces were created at Crawfords Casting foundry in Enfield in Sydney 's inner western suburbs . Although the foundry would fabricate the elements of the sculptures , Oliver would still undertake the initial stages , training foundry staff and supervising their activity . Some of the pieces assembled to create the sculptures were made using copper rod , while others were formed using the lost @-@ wax casting technique . Individual pieces would take up to two months to complete .
= = Themes and critical reception = =
Oliver was not one to intellectualise her creativity : she preferred to talk about the process of creating her artworks rather than their meanings . Asked about how she approached her art , she stated :
My work is about structure and order . It is a pursuit of a kind of logic : a formal , sculptural logic and poetic logic . It is a conceptual and physical process of building and taking away at the same time . I set out to strip the ideas and associations down to ( physically and metaphorically ) just the bones , exposing the life still held inside .
While Oliver was reluctant to discuss meaning in her works , critics have identified recurring themes . Hannah Fink , like art critic John McDonald , noted that there is a pattern to the shapes and structures in Oliver 's work . Fink described this as " a consistent vocabulary of elemental forms – the spiral , meander , loop and sphere – in a repertoire of signature archetypes " , while McDonald referred to them as organisms , or their remains . Despite their organic appearance , Oliver 's own view was that her work was not grounded in nature 's structures . Nevertheless , critics have identified the lifelike qualities of early pieces that resembled shells , claws or tails , or commented on the apparent similarities to biological forms . Both major reviews of Oliver 's work ( Fenner 's 1995 essay and Fink 's 2002 journal article ) draw attention to dualism and contradiction in the sculptures : Fenner describes them as " delicate and ephemeral , [ yet ] structurally robust and durable " ; Fink sees them as " ethereal but solid , fluid yet rigid , open but closed " .
Oliver 's sculptures are admired for their tactile nature , their aesthetics , and the technical skills demonstrated in their production . Particular works have been singled out for praise . A writer reviewing Vine in the Sydney Hilton admired how it " curls like a fairytale beanstalk up towards the ceiling as though empowered by the sunlight streaming in from a large open space adjacent " . Journalist Catherine Keenan 's 2005 description of how the towering sculpture demonstrated both aesthetic and production values are typical of comments about Oliver 's work :
It has the delicate , adamantine beauty that characterises many of her pieces , but is also an engineering marvel : 380 kilograms of metal that was delivered on the back of an oversized truck and now hangs from a single specially manufactured rod fixed to the ceiling .
The Sydney Morning Herald 's art writer , John McDonald , said of her work " It often seems to me she 's only got one tune , but it 's a pretty good tune " . He later elaborated :
It is a cliche that every artist keeps making the same work , but in Oliver 's case , while some forms resemble sea creatures and others the buds of plants , the family ties between even the most diverse pieces are very strong ... nothing was dashed off or thrown together . Every piece feels as if it has been minutely considered , with each strand of copper wire being brazed into exactly the right spot ... All the things that have recently been said about Oliver – that she was beautiful , intelligent , charming – could also be said about the work .
Despite this consistency in her output and the coherent themes of her oeuvre , variety was also present . Critic Bruce James considered her 2002 exhibition , and in particular one small work titled Crackled , to demonstrate a broader artistic range : " Crackled is ... formally surprising , evidence that Oliver is not content to rely on a winning recipe of convolution for her concepts . Whole new areas of physical and artistic exploration lay open before her " . Hannah Fink , reflecting on Oliver 's last sculptures , wrote :
The mastery of her last works seems to defy imagining – one can only marvel at the ingenuity of their construction and the perfection of their realisation . The utter variety of her posthumous exhibition ... put paid to any suggestion she had reached a natural end to her work : almost every work was different , and full of innovation .
In 2000 , Oliver was included by Australian Art Collector in its list of Australia 's 50 " most collectable artists " . In 2005 , her work was identified by auction dealers as amongst those of greatest interest in the secondary art market .
= = Death and legacy = =
Oliver was sometimes characterised as reclusive in both the artistic and social worlds . Her teacher and long @-@ time associate Professor Ian Howard described her as having " an underlying and at times painful distrust of the relationships that are part of our everyday lives " . Close friend and gallerist , Roslyn Oxley , observed that she was " very private . She stopped people entering her world a lot of the time . " Oliver 's sister , Helen , had described her as a " powerful and fragile person " while biographer Fink observed " [ a ] deeply asocial person , [ who ] nonetheless maintained longstanding friendships with a small coterie of people whom she trusted " . The final period of Oliver 's personal life was the subject of contradictory accounts . Oxley said that Oliver in 2006 experienced the end of a 20 @-@ year @-@ long relationship , and obituarist Joyce Morgan , who spoke to Huon Hooke after Oliver 's death , described Hooke as Oliver 's " former " partner. though others writing shortly after her death did not indicate that the relationship with Hooke had ended , including an obituary by Howard , one written by art critic John McDonald , and tributes by her two biographers , Felicity Fenner and Hannah Fink . Some years later , author Katrina Strickland interviewed people close to Oliver , and reported they had noticed a gradual deterioration in her personality over a period of years ; she became " reclusive , obsessive , anxious " as well as " difficult and impatient , and completely obsessed with her diet . " Under the circumstances , Hooke had felt he " just wanted to be somewhere else " and left the relationship in late May 2006 . At that point , Strickland recounted , " Oliver fell to pieces " .
Her friend Roslyn Oxley subsequently concluded that , at some point , Oliver made plans to take her own life . Journalist Sunanda Creagh interviewed Oxley , as the gallerist prepared the last exhibition of her friend 's work :
Oliver made meticulous arrangements for her final show , says Oxley . " She named everything and she wrote a note saying she wanted the show to go ahead . It was very clear . She finished all the work she said she would finish . She never let anyone down , ever . To be under that tension and obviously to have suicide on your mind , but to complete all the obligations before you did it ... " Oxley 's sentence trails off .
Oliver committed suicide on 11 July 2006 . McDonald recounts that , some weeks after her death , Hooke indicated in an interview that Oliver was " a very troubled person " , but none of the sources offered anything definitive about why she took her own life ; McDonald himself concluded " we will never know " . In 2013 , it was reported that analysis of a sample of Oxley 's hair contained a very high level of copper , nearly 8 times normal . The debilitating effects of high copper levels , which are associated with some mental illnesses , may have been exacerbated by an imbalance created by low zinc levels in her diet , which was devoid of red meat .
Just before her death , Oliver had been shortlisted for the 2006 Clemenger Contemporary Art Award . In the year following , Oliver was amongst 60 artists profiled in Sonia Payes ' book Untitled : Portraits of Australian Artists , while in 2008 her final works were included in the Adelaide Biennale of Australian Art . The secondary art market , meanwhile , was returning six @-@ figure sums for her works at auction ; in 2007 a record for Oliver 's work was set when Skein ( 2004 ) went under the hammer for $ 192 @,@ 000 . By 2010 , Sydney Biennale chairman Luca Belgiorno @-@ Nettis was reported to have paid $ 300 @,@ 000 for one of Oliver 's sculptures , titled Tracery . In 2011 , Sydney 's College of Fine Arts announced that its new sculpture studio would be named after Oliver .
Works by Oliver are held in most major Australian art collections , including the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the National Gallery of Victoria , Queensland Art Gallery , the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Auckland Art Gallery , the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery , Wollongong City Gallery , Orange Regional Gallery , and the Australian government 's collection Artbank .
= = Endnotes = =
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= 1967 Football League Cup Final =
The 1967 Football League Cup Final was an association football match between Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) and West Bromwich Albion on 4 March 1967 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 1966 – 67 Football League Cup , the seventh season of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the teams in The Football League . This was the first final to be decided over a single game ; the six previous finals were contested over two legs . QPR were appearing in their first final , while Albion were appearing in their second after winning the previous final in 1966 .
As QPR were in the Third Division they played one more round than Albion who received a bye in the first round . Therefore , QPR progressed through six rounds to reach the final , whereas Albion progressed through five . Matches up to the semi @-@ final were contested on a one @-@ off basis with the exception of the semi @-@ finals which were contested over two @-@ legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . QPR 's matches were generally close affairs , they only won by a three two goal margin or more in three of their matches . Albion 's matches were almost all comfortable victories . Their biggest margin of victory was five goals when they beat Aston Villa 6 – 1 . While the only match did not win was the second leg of the semi @-@ final against West Ham United , which was drawn 2 – 2 .
Watched by a crowd of 97 @,@ 952 , Albion took the lead in the first half when Clive Clark scored in the 7th minute . He scored again later in the half to give Albion a 2 – 0 lead at half @-@ time . QPR reduced the deficit in the 63rd minute when Roger Morgan scored and then levelled the match 12 minutes later courtesy of a goal by Rodney Marsh . Mark Lazarus scored a third goal for QPR in the 81st minute , as QPR won the match 3 – 2 to win the League Cup for the first time .
QPR 's victory caused a problem for the Football Association as typically the League Cup winner would qualify for the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , but one of the criteria for that competition was that the team must come from the highest tier of that country 's league system . QPR was replaced in the following season 's European competition by a First Division side .
= = Road to Wembley = =
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
On the first day of the 1966 – 67 Football League Cup on 23 August 1966 , QPR played Colchester United at their home ground of Loftus Road , winning 5 – 0 . In the third round , they defeated Welsh team Swansea City on 2 – 1 . They were drawn against Leicester City in the following round . Three goals in the second half saw QPR come back from being 2 – 1 down to win the match by 4 – 2 . The first of these goals was a rebound off Leicester goalkeeper Gordon Banks after a shot by Rodney Marsh , then a shot by Les Allen went through a Leicester goalmouth packed with defenders , and the final goal came from Mark Lazarus in similar circumstances to the Allen goal . QPR were put under pressure in their match against Carlisle United , but Marsh scored twice more for Rangers to give them the 2 – 1 victory .
Until the first leg of the semi @-@ final against Birmingham City , QPR had not won an away match during their League Cup campaign . They were one goal down at half time , and again were forced to recover the deficit during the second half . In the 55th minute , Marsh scored his 34th goal of the season , he headed the ball into the goal after a corner kick from Allen . Marsh was involved again in QPR 's second and third goal as he set up Roger Morgan for the second , and then back heeled the ball through to Lazarus for the third . QPR 's fourth and final goal saw Marsh hit a header direct from a free kick to Allen who scored . The second leg secured QPR 's first trip to Wembley , and marked the first time that a team from the Third Division had reached any Wembley final . They won the game 3 – 1 , but they did not score until the last twelve minutes of the match .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Bobby Hope led Albion to a victory at the start of their League Cup campaign , having received a bye past the first round , scoring a hat @-@ trick as the team went on to defeat Aston Villa 6 – 0 . Albion played Manchester City on 5 October 1966 in the third round , and although they won the game 4 – 2 , they were pressed hard for the victory . Albion went a goal down after nine minutes against Northampton Town , but came back to win 3 – 1 .
Their semi @-@ final was a rematch of the 1966 Football League Cup Final , with West Ham United the opposition over two legs . Albion took a commanding lead in the first leg with a 4 – 0 victory , a goal from Dennis Clarke and a hat @-@ trick from Jeff Astle . West Ham captain Bobby Moore urged his team to push Albion hard in the second leg , even in the closing stages of the match when they still had all four goals from the first leg to catch up with . Goals from Geoff Hurst and Johnny Byrne for West Ham were cancelled out by goals from Stanley Jones and Clarke by the 60th minute . The match finished with 2 – 2 , thus Albion progressed due to a 6 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
It was decided at a Football Association Council meeting on 26 September 1966 to host the League Cup at Wembley Stadium for the first time . The final had previously been decided over two legs , but the move to Wembley coincided with a change in format to a single leg final . Albion were the defending champions and were aiming to become the first team to retain the Cup . The winner of the League Cup typically went on to play in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . Albion were still in the competition at the time of the final , although they had recently lost 3 – 0 to Bologna in the first leg of the third round .
Queens Park Rangers 's strip for the final was all @-@ white , instead of their normal white and blue hoops . West Browmwich Albion wore their away strip , which was all @-@ red . Each team 's supporters did not have a limit on the number of tickets they were allowed to purchase . This was despite a limit of 15 @,@ 000 for FA Cup finals which were also held at Wembley . A crowd of nearly 100 @,@ 000 was expected to be inside the stadium , although only highlights were to be shown on television .
= = = First @-@ half = = =
Rangers started the slower of the two sides , with Albion passing the ball with some considerable pace . Any QPR attack stagnated once someone attempted to pass the ball through to Rodney Marsh or Les Allen , who were overwhelmed by the numbers of Albion defensive players . Albion 's first goal came in the seventh minute as the ball was worked down the left hand side of the pitch by Tony Brown , Bobby Hope and finally Doug Fraser , before Clive Clark 's shot went through a gap in QPR 's defence . The Albion supporters began provocatively chanting " easy " , although QPR were immediately on the attack with Albion goalkeeper Dick Sheppard saving a shot from Frank Sibley .
QPR continued to be outplayed for the most part by their First Division opponents . In the twenty fifth minute , Clark once again ran with the ball down the left hand side of the pitch , outrunning QPR 's Ron Hunt , before crossing it into the path of Jeff Astle . His subsequent shot was saved by QPR goalkeeper Peter Springett , who managed to push the ball around the post . QPR briefly had a chance for a counterattack as Mark Lazarus found himself on the halfway line with the ball , before taking it around Ian Collard and found the Albion defence out of position , leaving him with a clear path to goal . But the opposition players were gaining on him as he approached the penalty area , with the attack falling apart shortly afterwards . Nine minutes before half time , QPR found themselves under attack by Albion again with some cross pitch passing resulting in Clark 's second goal of the game . QPR had a corner just before half time which fell to the feet of club captain Mike Keen , but his shot went of the post . The game went into half time at 2 – 0 to Albion .
= = = Second @-@ half = = =
The teams came out for the second half , and Rangers began an attack almost immediately . A series of short , quick passes from Marsh and Roger Morgan released Allen but he was not quick enough to make something of the chance . A high pass from Keen followed , striking defender Clarke in the back , from which the Albion defence were forced to clear . The attacks continued to come from Rangers as Lazarus passed the ball through to Marsh who took the ball around two defenders , but his shot went over the bar . QPR were rewarded for their perseverance in the sixty @-@ third minute as Lazarus took the ball around Albion captain Graham Williams , crossing the ball in for Morgan , who scored with a header to reduce the deficit to a single goal .
Albion 's sole goalscoring opportunity of the second half came afterwards ; Clark took the ball on a lengthy run before crossing it into the box , across an open goal with no Albion player there to tap the ball in and put the game beyond QPR 's reach . Fifteen minutes from the end of the match QPR equalised , Marsh 's shot with his right foot went in off the post . A corner followed for QPR who were now dominating Albion with their style of play . Allen crossed it in to Lazarus , but the Albion goalkeeper saved the shot with his legs . With eight minutes to go , one of Albion defenders mis @-@ kicked the ball in their own penalty area . Hunt rushed in for the chance but Sheppard once again saved the game for Albion . The ball ran free to Mike Lazarus who tapped the ball into the back of an empty net to increase the scoreline to 3 – 2 in QPR 's favour . A final attack from QPR came in the closing moments of the game as Lazarus took the ball past two defenders and into the box , his subsequent shot hit the outside of the post and went wide .
= = = Details = = =
Match rules
90 minutes .
30 minutes of extra @-@ time if necessary .
Replay if scores still level .
One named substitute .
Sources :
= = Post match = =
QPR 's victory was the first occasion a team from the Third Division had won a major trophy in England . Both teams received £ 18 @,@ 000 as their share of the gate receipts . QPR 's victory created a problem for the Football League management committee . On previous occasions , one of the three nominations for the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup was the winner of the League Cup . However , the Fairs Cup committee required that only teams from the highest tier of a nation 's league system could enter . In the end , Nottingham Forest , Leeds United and Liverpool qualified for the following season 's competition .
QPR paraded the trophy in front of the crowd in their following home match at Loftus Road , where they defeated Bournemouth 4 – 0 . The 1966 – 67 season saw QPR do a double , winning the Third Division title as well . The season is considered to be the most successful season in the club 's history . Albion reached the final again in 1970 , where they were once again runners @-@ up , this time to Manchester City . QPR did not reach the final until 1986 when they lost against Oxford United .
Before the match against Sheffield Wednesday on 11 March 2007 , the 1967 cup winning team were paraded at half time at Loftus Road to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the win . In the 2002 – 03 Second Division play @-@ off final QPR wore an all @-@ white strip in reference to their Football League Cup victory . As of 2015 , QPR 's victory in the 1967 Football League Cup remains the only major trophy the club has won .
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= Carlson 's patrol =
Carlson 's patrol , also known as The Long Patrol or Carlson 's long patrol , was an operation by the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion under the command of Evans Carlson during the Guadalcanal Campaign against the Imperial Japanese Army from 6 November to 4 December 1942 . In the operation , the 2nd Raiders attacked forces under the command of Toshinari Shōji , which were escaping from an attempted encirclement in the Koli Point area on Guadalcanal and attempting to rejoin other Japanese army units on the opposite side of the U.S. Lunga perimeter .
In a series of small unit engagements over 29 days , the 2nd Raiders killed almost 500 Japanese soldiers while suffering only 16 killed , although many were afflicted by disease . The raiders also captured a Japanese field gun that was delivering harassing fire on Henderson Field , the Allied airfield at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. Marines ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . Their mission was to deny the Japanese use of the islands as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign to isolate the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal Campaign .
The Japanese were taken by surprise , and by nightfall on 8 August the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops — under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift — secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The Allies later renamed the airfield Henderson Field . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point . Additional reinforcements over the next two months later increased the number of U.S. troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20 @,@ 000 .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal . Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on 19 August to drive Allied forces from the island .
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 @-@ man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , ending in the defeat of the 6 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi at the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops then regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal .
= = = Battle for Henderson Field = = =
Between 1 and 17 October , the Japanese delivered 15 @,@ 000 troops to Guadalcanal , giving Hyakutake 20 @,@ 000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive . After his staff officers observed the American defenses around Lunga Point , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by troops from the 38th Division ) , under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defenses from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The 7000 @-@ member 2nd Division was split into three units ; the Left Wing Unit under Major General Yumio Nasu containing the 29th Infantry Regiment , the Right Wing Unit under Kawaguchi consisting of troops from the 230th Infantry Regiment ( from the 38th Infantry Division ) , and the division reserve led by Maruyama comprising the 16th Infantry Regiment .
On 23 October , Maruyama 's forces struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . Kawaguchi — on his own initiative — began to shift his right wing unit to the east , believing that the American defenses were weaker in that area . Maruyama , through one of his staff officers , ordered Kawaguchi to keep to the original attack plan . When he refused , Kawaguchi was relieved of command and replaced by Colonel Toshinari Shōji , commander of the 230th Infantry Regiment . That evening , after learning that the left and right wing forces were still struggling to reach the American lines , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces .
Finally , late on 24 October , Maruyama 's forces reached the U.S. Lunga perimeter . Over two consecutive nights Maruyama 's forces conducted numerous unsuccessful frontal assaults on positions defended by troops of the 1st Battalion , 7th Marines ( 1 / 7 ) under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller and the U.S. Army 's 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall . U.S. Marine and Army rifle , machine gun , mortar , artillery and direct canister fire from 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on the Japanese . More than 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed . Shōji 's right wing units did not participate in the attacks , choosing to remain in place to cover Nasu 's right flank against a possible attack in that area by U.S. forces that never materialized .
At 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . Maruyama 's left wing and division reserve survivors were ordered to retreat back to the Matanikau River area while the right wing unit under Shōji was told to head for Koli Point , 13 mi ( 21 km ) east of the Lunga River . Shōji and his troops began arriving at Koli Point on November 3 .
= = = Aola Bay and the Koli Point action = = =
At 05 : 30 on 4 November , two companies from the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson , landed by boat at Aola Bay , 40 mi ( 64 km ) east of Lunga Point . Carlson 's raiders — along with troops from the U.S. Army 's 147th Infantry Regiment — were to provide security for 500 Seabees as they attempted to construct an airfield . The Aola Bay airfield construction effort had been approved by William Halsey , Jr . — commander of Allied forces in the south Pacific area — acting on a recommendation by Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner , U.S. naval commander of amphibious forces for the south Pacific .
The 2nd Marine Raider Battalion was a unique unit in the Marine Corps . The battalion 's original organization and tactics were based around Communist Chinese precepts Carlson had witnessed while serving as an observer with the Communists during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 @-@ 1938 . These precepts included promoting equality between officers and enlisted men and making decisions through collective consensus . Unlike the 1st Marine Raider Battalion , which focused on commando tactics , the 2nd Battalion trained to operate as a guerrilla force . The training included an emphasis on infiltration tactics and often involved tactical exercises conducted at night . The battalion was organized into six self @-@ contained rifle companies and a headquarters company . Before landing at Guadalcanal elements of the battalion had seen action as part of the garrison of Midway Atoll during the Battle of Midway in May 1942 and the near disastrous Makin Island raid in August .
In early November , Vandegrift , fearing that the Japanese were planning an assault on the Lunga perimeter from the east using Shōji 's forces plus additional reinforcements , launched an operation against the Japanese units at Koli Point . Beginning on 4 November , two battalions of U.S. Marines and two battalions of U.S. Army troops attacked and attempted to encircle Shōji 's men at Gavaga Creek near the village of Tetere in the Koli Point area .
As the American troops were attempting to destroy Shōji 's force , Vandegrift ordered Carlson 's raiders to march overland from Aola Bay toward Koli Point to cut off any of Shōji 's forces that escaped the encirclement attempt . On 5 November , two transport ships headed for Espiritu Santo to pick up three companies from Carlson 's battalion while Carlson prepared his two companies already on Guadalcanal to march overland towards Koli Point . Carlson arranged for rear echelon personnel at Aola to resupply his patrol with rations every four days at a prearranged point on the coast . A patrol with native carriers would meet the boat and manpack the supplies inland to Carlson 's patrol base .
= = Patrol = =
= = = Initial actions = = =
At first light on 6 November , Carlson and his command group , two of his companies , and a group of native scouts and carriers commanded by Major John Mather of the Australian Army and Sergeant Major Jacob C. Vouza of the Solomon Islands Police Force set out from Aola on the patrol . The group marched along a jungle trail northwest to the Reko River , arriving on 7 November . At the Reko , Carlson learned that the local Christian mission had recently been raided by Japanese troops who had killed two of the missionaries before moving west . Pushing across the river with one platoon of troops , Carlson encountered a small group of Japanese who shot and severely wounded the native scout leading the Marine column . Returning fire , the Marines killed two Japanese soldiers and drove off another three or four . Carlson 's main body then arrived and the column bivouacked for the night .
On 8 November , the column continued through the jungle to the northwest , striking the coast at the Kena River , and made camp at the village of Tasimboko , 15 mi ( 24 km ) from Aola Bay . The next day they crossed the Berande and Balasuna rivers and reached the village of Binu — 10 mi ( 16 km ) southwest of Tasimboko — in the afternoon . At Binu , about 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Koli Point , Carlson established his base camp and prepared to block the movement of any Japanese forces from Koli to the east and south .
The other three raider companies arrived at Aola on 8 November . On 9 November , they moved by landing craft to Tasimboko and , on 10 November marched overland — guided by native scouts — toward Binu . On the way , the raiders encountered a small group of Japanese soldiers and killed three of them before arriving at Binu in the afternoon of the same day .
In the meantime , Hyakutake ordered Shōji to abandon his positions at Koli and rejoin Japanese forces at Kokumbona in the Matanikau area . Although American forces had almost completely encircled Shōji 's troops along Gavaga Creek at Koli , a gap existed by way of a swampy creek in the southern side of the American lines . Taking advantage of this route , Shōji 's men began to escape . The Americans closed the gap in their lines on 11 November , but by then Shōji and between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 of his men had escaped into the jungle to the south .
On 11 November , Carlson sent four of his battalion 's companies — " C " , " D " , " E " , and " F " — to fan out and patrol the area to the north and west of Binu . The remaining company , " B " , stayed behind to provide security for the Binu base camp . At 10 : 00 , Company C , which had marched directly west toward the village of Asamana , encountered a large body of Shōji 's troops camped near the Metapona River and were quickly pinned down by rifle , machinegun , and mortar fire . Carlson responded by directing Companies D and E to come to C 's aid , attacking the Japanese forces from two different directions .
As Companies D and E moved in C 's direction , both encountered large concentrations of Shōji 's soldiers and , by 12 : 30 , were involved in intense firefights . At 15 : 00 , Company D commander Captain Charles McAuliffe — with nine of his men — unexpectedly marched into the Binu base camp . McAuliffe reported to Carlson that soon after he had made contact with the Japanese forces , he and one of his squads had become cut off from the rest of his company . After extricating themselves with difficulty , McAuliffe and the men with him had decided to retreat back to the base camp . McAuliffe reported that , as far as he knew , the rest of his company had been annihilated . A short time later , however , the rest of D Company arrived at the base camp , led by Gunnery Sergeant George Schrier , after successfully disengaging from the firefight . Carlson summarily relieved McAuliffe for what he later described as " total ineptitude for leadership in battle " and placed Captain Joe Griffith in command of Company D.
Along with Company F , which had returned to the base camp , Carlson proceeded to the area where Company C was engaged , arriving at 16 : 30 . Carlson ordered Company F to attack the Japanese positions facing Company C at 17 : 15 . In the meantime , the Japanese troops departed the area , which Company F soon confirmed . Leaving Company F at the scene , Carlson returned to Binu with Company C , arriving at 22 : 00 . Company E arrived at Binu about the same time and reported that they had caught a Japanese company crossing a river in the open and killed many of them before withdrawing . Carlson then took Company B and returned to the area that Company F was guarding , arriving at daybreak on 12 November . The Marines had suffered 10 killed in the day 's actions and estimated that they had killed 120 Japanese soldiers .
Carlson and the two companies , with Company B leading , marched west towards the village of Asamana on the Metapona River . While crossing the river , the Marines captured two Japanese soldiers and killed a third who happened by in a native boat , then attacked and occupied Asamana , surprising and killing several Japanese soldiers in the village . Signs in Japanese in the village indicated that it was being used as a rallying location for Shōji 's forces . Occupying defensive positions around the village and river crossing , the raiders killed 25 Japanese soldiers that approached the village during the remainder of the day .
The next day , when a company @-@ sized column of Japanese soldiers approached Asamana , the raiders called in 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) artillery fire from the 1st Battalion , 10th Marine Regiment , killing many of the Japanese and causing the rest to scatter and retreat away from the village . Carlson and the Marines with him returned to Binu on 14 November to rest and reprovision . In the same day , a patrol from the raiders Company F wiped out a 15 @-@ man Japanese encampment discovered by the native scouts .
On 15 November , Carlson 's battalion changed their base camp from Binu to Asamana . By this time , however , Shōji 's units were no longer in the area , having continued their march deep into the interior of Guadalcanal en route to the Matanikau . Raider patrols around Asamana over the next two days found and killed a few scattered Japanese stragglers .
= = = New mission = = =
Carlson 's battalion was ordered to move to the upper Tenaru River and patrol around the Lunga River — south of the Lunga perimeter — to locate the trail the Japanese had used to position their men and materiel for their assaults during the Battle for Henderson Field . Carlson 's raiders were also to seek out and destroy several Japanese artillery pieces that had been delivering harassing fire against Henderson Field for several weeks . The raiders set up the new base camp about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of the Lunga perimeter on 20 November and rested and replenished until 24 November .
On 25 November , Carlson 's Company A arrived from Espiritu Santo and joined the raiders . On 27 November , the battalion relocated 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further up the Tenaru River and established two auxiliary patrol bases 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) upstream and downstream , respectively .
On 28 November , Companies B and D patrolled across the Lunga River and bivouacked in the Mount Austen area , southwest of the Lunga perimeter . The same day , Companies A and F patrolled further south between the Lunga and the Tenaru . On 30 November , the raiders found a Japanese 75 mm mountain gun and 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank gun emplaced on a ridge about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the Lunga perimeter . As one squad of six Marines from Company F patrolled near where the guns were discovered , they entered a hidden Japanese camp and found themselves among about 100 Japanese soldiers resting under shelters with their weapons stacked around trees in the center of the camp . In the resulting melee , the raider squad killed about 75 of the Japanese . The rest escaped .
The raiders rested on 1 December and received some provisions by airdrop . On 2 December , Carlson fanned out his patrols around the Lunga River . Company B discovered 10 Japanese camped by the river and killed all of them . None of the other companies encountered any Japanese , but one discovered another 75 mm mountain gun . Late in the day , Carlson received orders to terminate the patrol and take his troops into the Lunga perimeter the next day .
On 3 December , Carlson sent Companies C , D , and E east towards the Tenaru river while Companies A , B , and F headed west towards Mount Austen . Companies C , D , and E reached the lower Tenaru and entered friendly lines at Lunga Point without incident . Companies A , B , and F , however , encountered a Japanese patrol near the summit of Mount Austen . In a close @-@ quarters fight in the jungle , 25 Japanese were killed and four Marines were seriously wounded , one of whom died later .
The next day , Companies A , B , and F set out with the intention of entering the Lunga perimeter near the Matanikau River . Along the way , the Marine column was ambushed by a Japanese machinegun team that killed four raiders . Seven Japanese were killed in this skirmish . The patrol encountered no further opposition and entered friendly lines at Lunga Point by mid @-@ afternoon .
= = Aftermath = =
As Carlson 's battalion was ending its patrol , Shōji and his surviving troops were reaching friendly positions west of the Matanikau . In addition to the losses sustained from attacks by Carlson 's raiders , a lack of food and tropical diseases felled many more of Shōji 's men . By the time Shōji 's forces reached the Lunga River in mid @-@ November , about halfway to the Matanikau , only 1 @,@ 300 men remained with the main body . When Shōji reached the 17th Army positions west of the Matanikau , only 700 @-@ 800 survivors were still with him . Survivors from Shōji 's force later participated in the Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse in December 1942 and January 1943 .
During the 29 days of the patrol , Carlson 's raiders hiked approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) to cover a straight @-@ line distance of about 40 mi ( 64 km ) from Aola Bay to the Matanikau River . Carlson claimed that his troops killed 488 Japanese soldiers and captured or destroyed large amounts of equipment , including two howitzers and various small arms and ammunition .
The 2nd Raiders suffered 16 killed and 17 wounded ( plus 2 wounded native guides ) . Non @-@ battle casualties totaled 225 , of which 125 suffered from malaria , 29 from dysentery , and 71 from ringworm or jungle rot . Most of the remaining raiders were also suffering some type of physical ailment . On 17 December , the raiders departed Guadalcanal by ship and arrived back at their home camp on Espiritu Santo on 20 December . At Espiritu Santo , the unit continued to be affected by the lingering tropical diseases many had contracted during the Guadalcanal patrol . In the second week of March 1943 , the 2nd Raiders were declared unfit for combat duty , although this finding was never announced in an official document . The 2nd Marine Raiders did not participate as a unit in a combat operation until the Bougainville campaign beginning on 1 November 1943 . In spite of the high fallout from disease , Carlson 's troops generally felt that they had performed well as a unit during the patrol and had accomplished their mission . Cleland E. Early — a lieutenant in Carlson 's Company E — described the long Guadalcanal patrol and the effect on his unit : " Enduring the living conditions was worse than the combat . My platoon went in with 30 men , one corpsman and one officer . When we came out we had one officer , one corpsman , and 18 enlisted , all of whom had malaria , worms , diarrhea , jungle rot and high morale .
= = = Books = = =
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 @-@ 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Peatross , Oscar F. ( 1995 ) . John P. McCarthy ; John Clayborne , eds . Bless ' em All : The Raider Marines of World War II . Review . ISBN 0 @-@ 9652325 @-@ 0 @-@ 6 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon ( 2005 ) . US Special Warfare Units in the Pacific Theatre 1941 @-@ 45 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 707 @-@ 7 .
Smith , George W. ( 2003 ) . Carlson 's Raid : The Daring Marine Assault on Makin . Berkley Trade . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 425 @-@ 19019 @-@ 7 .
= = = Web = = =
Hoffman , Jon T. ( 1995 ) . " The Long Patrol " ( brochure ) . From Makin to Bougainville : Marine Raiders in the Pacific War . Marine Corps Historical Center . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 11 @-@ 21 .
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1949 ) . " Guadalcanal : The First Offensive " . United States Army in World War II . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= Tropical Storm Barry ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Storm Barry was a strong tropical storm that made landfall on the Florida Panhandle during August 2001 . The third tropical cyclone and second named storm of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season , Barry developed from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 24 . The wave entered the Caribbean on July 29 and spawned a low @-@ pressure area , which organized into Tropical Storm Barry on August 3 . After fluctuations in intensity and track , the storm attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) over the Gulf of Mexico . Barry headed northward and moved ashore along the Gulf Coast before dissipating on August 7 .
Unlike the devastating Tropical Storm Allison earlier in the season , Barry 's effects were moderate . Nine deaths occurred : six in Cuba and three in Florida . As a tropical cyclone , Barry produced heavy rainfall that peaked at 8 @.@ 9 in ( 230 mm ) at Tallahassee . Gusts in the area reached 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) , which was the highest wind speed recording for the storm . The precursor tropical wave to Barry dropped large amounts of rain on southern Florida , leading to significant flooding and structural damage . Moderate flooding and wind damage occurred throughout the Florida Panhandle . As the storm 's remnants tracked inland , parts of the Mississippi Valley received light precipitation . Barry caused an estimated $ 30 million ( 2001 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 24 , 2001 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa , and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean . Little cyclonic development occurred until July 28 , when convection began to increase along the wave . The wave moved into the eastern Caribbean on July 29 , and its convection continued to increase while it tracked west @-@ northwest over the subsequent few days . The disturbance emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 1 , with rainfall noted over southern Florida and the western tip of Cuba . That same day , a broad low @-@ pressure system developed along the wave near the Dry Tortugas at the end of the Florida Keys , which began to intensify as it moved northwestward . At around 1800 UTC on August 2 , an Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigating the system discovered that the low had organized into a tropical storm , which received the name Barry . Post @-@ hurricane season reanalysis , however , revealed that the low had become a tropical depression six hours earlier . There is uncertainty as to whether Barry actually held tropical characteristics at the time of designation , because of an upper @-@ level low that was situated over the cyclone 's surface center .
When Barry became a tropical cyclone , its convection wrapped around roughly half of the center . Outflow in the eastern semicircle was good , although due to upper @-@ level wind shear , it was restricted to southeast of the circulation . The cyclone became embedded within a mid- to @-@ upper @-@ level trough between the ridge over the central U.S. and the ridge over the northwestern Caribbean . A strong , upper @-@ level cyclonic shear axis extended from just south of Cape Hatteras to near Brownsville , Texas , which prevented Barry from accelerating in forward speed . The ridge over the United States weakened , thus collapsing the steering pattern ; this resulted in a west @-@ southwestward drifting motion of the tropical storm by around August 3 . Early on August 3 , strong westerly winds prevailed , and separated the center of circulation from what limited convection remained . The storm quickly regained some convection , although maximum sustained winds remained weak , at about 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) . Despite a slight drop in barometric pressure , post @-@ season analysis revealed Barry weakened into a tropical depression early on August 4 due to the persistent wind shear and falling external pressure .
At 1800 UTC on August 4 , the cyclone re @-@ intensified slightly , and was upgraded to a tropical storm as the shear decreased . Early on August 5 , a strengthening period began as deep convection ignited over and near the low @-@ level center . Prior to landfall , banding features developed on the eastern half of the circulation , despite some residual westerly shear . Within seven hours , the barometric pressure dropped from 1004 mb to 990 mb and overall satellite presentation had begun to improve . Barry reached its peak intensity at 1800 UTC on August 5 with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , just shy of hurricane status . An eye formed at around the same time . At 0500 UTC on August 6 , Barry increased in forward speed and made landfall at Santa Rosa Beach , Florida with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Moving inland , the system weakened rapidly to a tropical depression ; the National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the storm early on August 6 . By the evening hours , maximum sustained winds near the center were around 5 mph ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) to 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) as the system slowed significantly and drifted northwest at about 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . The depression turned northwestward , and steadily weakened to a remnant low near Memphis , Tennessee on August 7 , and the low dissipated on August 8 over southeastern Missouri .
= = Preparations = =
In advance of the storm , the National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watches and warnings for much of the U.S. Gulf Coast . They were upgraded to a hurricane warning when the storm was predicted to reach hurricane intensity . Because that strengthening failed to occur , the hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning shortly before landfall . Westward , the warnings for Louisiana and Mississippi were discontinued . After Tropical Storm Barry made landfall , all tropical storm warnings for the Florida Panhandle were discontinued . Flood warnings were issued for parts of Leon and Wakulla counties , while a flash flood watch was in effect for parts of southern Georgia . A tornado watch was issued for the eastern Florida Panhandle , southern Georgia , as well as portions of central and eastern Alabama .
As Barry approached the Florida Panhandle , voluntary evacuations took place in eight counties . Shelters opened in six counties , though most were placed on standby . In parts of Franklin County , mandatory evacuations were ordered , and in Okaloosa County , tolls on the Mid @-@ Bay Bridge were suspended . Forty C @-@ 130 cargo aircraft and about 300 personnel from Hurlburt Field were moved to the Little Rock Air Force Base in Arkansas to flee the storm 's projected path . In Tallahassee , county officials filled sandbags in areas vulnerable to flooding . At Grand Isle State Park , Park Rangers moved picnic tables out of tidal range and closed the camping grounds for a period of time . Additionally , the storm forced NASA to delay a shuttle launch in southern Florida . Elsewhere , thousands of personnel were evacuated from several offshore oil platforms . The city of New Orleans closed 60 of its 72 floodgates to avoid possible flooding . Throughout southeastern Louisiana , including New Orleans , roughly 500 Red Cross volunteers and staff members were on standby . The threat of the storm forced the cancellation of an ' N Sync concert at Pro Player Stadium .
= = Impact = =
= = = Cuba and Florida = = =
The precursor tropical wave to Barry dropped widespread rainfall in western Cuba , but no damage was reported . Offshore , high seas sank a Cuban refugee boat , drowning 6 of its 28 passengers .
Three people in Florida were killed by the storm , and total damage is estimated at around 30 million ( 2001 USD ) . In southern Florida , the precursor to Barry produced 3 in ( 75 mm ) to 8 in ( 200 mm ) , with rainfall peaking at 13 in ( 330 mm ) . The rain helped relieve persistent drought conditions ; however , it caused significant flooding in Martin County on August 2 , where a total of 300 homes received water damage . About 63 structures and 6 mobile homes in the county sustained major damage . In the Treasure Coast , catfish reportedly swam through flooded streets . Winds downed a 60 ft ( 18 m ) radio tower , striking a house .
Due to the initial slow movement of the storm , outer rainbands began affecting the Florida Panhandle on August 4 , with the heaviest rainfall observed on August 5 – 6 . The storm dropped 5 in ( 125 mm ) to 9 in ( 225 mm ) ; the highest official report was 8 @.@ 9 in ( 230 mm ) at Tallahassee , though unofficial reports ranged as high as 11 in ( 175 mm ) . The rainfall inundated several structures in Bay County due to roof damage . Flooding occurred in Leon County and parts of Apalachicola National Forest , where torrential rains flowed into the Cascade Lakes , Lake Bradford and Munson Slough ; the Munson Slough rose to its highest level since 1994 . Numerous county and secondary roads were closed by floodwater in Walton , Washington , and Bay counties , as well as in the Tallahassee area . In and around Tallahassee , 100 vehicles were stalled by flood waters and towed , while four residents of an apartment complex on Allen Road were forced to evacuate due to rising waters . Sporadic flooding also occurred in Franklin County and Wakulla County . An indirect death occurred from a traffic accident due to heavy rain in Jackson County .
Wind gusts peaked at 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) at the Eglin Air Force Base Range Station C @-@ 72 . Light to moderate winds were widespread , causing damage throughout Walton , Washington , Bay , Calhoun , Gulf and Okaloosa counties . Trees were downed or damaged , and several structures suffered light wind damage . Window damage was reported at a high @-@ rise condominium building in Destin , while nearby , the Mid @-@ Bay Bridge was closed due to high winds . The Freeport Elementary School in Walton County sustained minor roof damage . Storm surge was generally light , ranging from 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , with only minor beach erosion as a result . As a tropical system , Barry spawned a few weak tornadoes that caused minor damage . In an outer rain band , a lightning strike in Jacksonville killed one person . Another death is blamed on a rip current off of Sanibel Island . In total , the storm left 34 @,@ 000 customers in the state without power .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Tropical Storm Barry dropped light to moderate rainfall across Alabama , peaking at 4 @.@ 57 in ( 116 mm ) near the town of Evergreen . About 2 in ( 50 mm ) fell over the state 's peanut @-@ growing region , helping to alleviate drought conditions . Heavy showers were also reported in the Birmingham area . Despite moderate rainfall totals inland , coastal locations received very little precipitation . Minor street flooding occurred in Geneva , Enterprise and New Brockton . Wind gusts peaked at 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) at Montgomery , although damage was light , mostly from downed trees . Damage to awnings and small structures was reported in Florala . Barry 's remnants produced light rainfall across Mississippi and Georgia , though no damage was reported . As the storm continued to track inland , it dropped up to 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain throughout Arkansas , Missouri and western Tennessee .
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= Survivor Series ( 1994 ) =
Survivor Series ( 1994 ) was the eighth annual Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on Thanksgiving Eve , November 23 , 1994 at the Freeman Coliseum in San Antonio , Texas . It was also the last Survivor Series to take place on the traditional Thanksgiving / Thanksgiving Eve date the show had always occupied since its inception ; the following Survivor Series and all subsequent shows have taken place on Sunday nights .
Two main event matches were held ; in the first , Bob Backlund won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Bret Hart in a submission match after Bret 's brother Owen convinced their mother to throw in a towel to end the match . In the other main event , The Undertaker defeated Yokozuna in a casket match with Chuck Norris as the special guest ring enforcer .
The event also featured three elimination matches and two singles matches . Razor Ramon led The Bad Guys against Diesel 's team of The Teamsters . Ramon won the match for his team after all members of the other team were counted out . Doink the Clown teamed with three midgets to form Clowns R ' Us in a match against The Royal Family , composed of Jerry Lawler and three midgets . The Royal Family won the match , but all seven other competitors attacked Lawler after the match . Lex Luger led Guts and Glory against the Million Dollar Corporation team , which was managed by Ted DiBiase . DiBiase 's team won after Luger , the last wrestler from his team , was pinned .
Shawn Michaels and Diesel , the WWF Tag Team Champions going in to the event , began feuding after Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel during the match . They vacated their title and began a feud that led to a match at WrestleMania XI . Three days after Survivor Series , Diesel won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Backlund . The rivalry between Backlund and Bret Hart continued , and they also faced each other at WrestleMania XI .
= = Background = =
Several storylines formed the background for the opening match , which saw the fan favorite team of The Bad Guys ( Razor Ramon , the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , Davey Boy Smith and The Headshrinkers ) square off against the villainous team of The Teamsters ( Shawn Michaels , Diesel , Jeff Jarrett , Owen Hart and Jim Neidhart ) . Razor Ramon had been feuding with Shawn Michaels since September 1993 when Ramon won the WWF Intercontinental Championship . Michaels , the former champion , had been stripped of the belt . WWF President Jack Tunney scheduled a battle royal , in which Ramon and Rick Martel were the final participants remaining . They faced each other on Monday Night Raw , and Ramon won the match and was awarded the title . Michaels claimed that he was the rightful holder of the belt and refused to acknowledge Ramon as the champion . Diesel was serving as Michaels ' bodyguard but soon became an active wrestler and carried on Michaels ' feud with Ramon . In the months leading up to Survivor Series , Ramon had also developed a feud with Jeff Jarrett , and the two faced each other several times with the Intercontinental Championship on the line . Ramon 's friend , the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , took Ramon 's side in these feuds , and the two formed an occasional tag team . The Headshrinkers had also been feuding with Michaels and Diesel since dropping the WWF Tag Team Championship to them on August 28 . The Headshrinkers had several rematches but were unable to regain the belts . Finally , Davey Boy Smith was involved in a feud with his real @-@ life brother @-@ in @-@ law Owen Hart and Hart 's other brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jim Neidhart . Owen Hart had turned on his brother Bret at the 1994 Royal Rumble , after which Smith got involved on Bret 's side and Neidhart took Owen 's side .
Although Jerry Lawler and Doink the Clown had a storyline rivalry that dated back to when Doink turned on Lawler by dumping a bucket of water on him following SummerSlam 1993 , the feud had rarely been mentioned since then . On the September 10 , 1994 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling , however , Lawler provoked Doink by popping balloons carried by Doink 's midget sidekick Dink . The rivalry soon led to Lawler introducing a midget named Queasy , who dressed like Lawler . Doink and Lawler then introduced several more midgets over the following weeks . An elimination match was booked for Survivor Series , with Lawler , Queasy , Sleazy and Cheesy facing Doink , Dink , Wink and Pink .
Bret Hart 's feud with Bob Backlund dated back to the July 30 , 1994 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling . Backlund believed that he had won the match and the WWF World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Hart . The match had not ended , however , and Hart pinned Backlund . When Hart tried to shake Backlund 's hand after the match , Backlund slapped him in the face and locked him in a crossface chickenwing . After that Backlund began acting in a completely different manner than he had before , demanding respect from his fellow wrestlers insisting that they call him " Mr. Backlund " and using the crossface chickenwing , a hold he said was unbreakable , on them if they did not adhere to his wishes . He claimed that he had never truly been beaten for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship on December 26 , 1983 , as the match ended when his manager , Arnold Skaaland , threw a towel into the ring rather than allowing Backlund to submit to The Iron Sheik 's camel clutch . Playing off of this , a rematch between Hart and Backlund was signed for Survivor Series . The match was signed as a submission match , but with the stipulation that the only way for a wrestler to win was to have the other person throw in a towel . Since this required a wrestler to have a cornerman , each of the participants chose one . The challenger chose Owen Hart , while the champion went with Davey Boy Smith .
The central feud in the match between Guts & Glory and The Million Dollar Team was between Lex Luger and Ted DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation . During 1994 , DiBiase had " purchased " the contracts of several wrestlers to form a heel stable . Among the members to join were Bam Bam Bigelow and King Kong Bundy . Prior to SummerSlam 1994 , DiBiase claimed to have added Luger to the group . Luger denied having joined , despite Tatanka claiming that he had evidence that Luger had " sold out " to DiBiase . Luger and Tatanka faced each other at SummerSlam , where it was revealed that the storyline was a swerve , as Tatanka turned on Luger to join the Million Dollar Corporation . Bigelow and Adam Bomb had also been feuding since the September 10 , 1994 episode of Superstars of Wrestling . Bigelow attacked his opponent , a jobber , before the match . DiBiase then claimed that the company was not providing suitable competition , and he challenged any wrestler to face Bigelow . Bomb responded , and the two brawled briefly . Leading up to Survivor Series , Bomb and Bigelow faced each other at several house shows . The Heavenly Bodies were not members of DiBiase 's stable , but they competed on behalf of the group . At the time , they were involved in a feud with The Smokin ' Gunns as a result of a match on the September 3 episode of Superstars of Wrestling . The Heavenly Bodies attacked the Gunns prior to the match and stole the Gunns ' cowboy hats . They put on the hats to mock the Gunns and then threw them on the ground and stomped on them . To get revenge , the Gunns stole The Heavenly Bodies ' ring robes and tore the wings off them .
The feud between The Undertaker and Yokozuna began at Survivor Series 1993 . During an elimination match , Yokozuna was unable to injure The Undertaker , despite slamming The Undertaker 's head into the ring steps and performing the Banzai drop on him . A match was booked for Royal Rumble 1994 , in which The Undertaker would challenge WWF World Heavyweight Champion Yokozuna for the title in a Casket match . During the match , which featured a no @-@ disqualification clause , Mr. Fuji , Yokozuna 's manager , hired nine other wrestlers to interfere on Yokozuna 's behalf . Yokozuna won the match after opening The Undertaker 's urn , which , according to the storyline , contained the secret to The Undertaker 's powers . After the match , The Undertaker appeared on the video screen and vowed to return to the World Wrestling Federation one day . He was not seen for several months , although , in reality , he was taking time off wrestling to allow injuries to heal . The Undertaker returned at SummerSlam 1994 , defeating an Undertaker look @-@ alike . A rematch against Yokozuna was scheduled for Survivor Series . This was also to be a Casket match , but Chuck Norris was brought in as a special outside referee to prevent interference .
= = Event = =
The first match of the event saw The Bad Guys , which consisted of Razor Ramon , the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , the Davey Boy Smith , and The Headshrinkers ( Sione and Fatu ) versus The Teamsters , composed of Diesel , Shawn Michaels , Jeff Jarrett , Owen Hart , and Jim Neidhart . The opening minutes of the match featured brothers @-@ in @-@ law Hart and Smith trading moves as well as Jarrett and Ramon brawling . Fatu became the first wrestler eliminated after Diesel performed a Jackknife powerbomb on him . Diesel eliminated the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid forty @-@ two seconds later after another Jackknife powerbomb . Sione followed thirty @-@ one seconds later after being pinned by Diesel . Davey Boy Smith entered the ring , but Diesel soon knocked him between the ropes to the arena floor . Hart and Neidhart prevented Smith from getting back in the ring , and Smith was eliminated after the referee counted him out . Razor Ramon was left as the only member of his team to face the five members of The Teamsters . He fought with Diesel for several minutes , but Diesel then performed the Jackknife powerbomb on him and prepared to pin him for the victory . Michaels insisted on having Diesel hold Ramon while Michaels performed a superkick on their opponent . Ramon dodged the kick , and Michaels kicked Diesel in the face . Diesel became angry at Michaels , particularly because the same mistake had cost Diesel the Intercontinental Championship at SummerSlam . He and Michaels argued outside the ring while the rest of the team attempted to calm them down . The referee counted all five wrestlers out of the ring and declared Razor Ramon the winner of the match . Shawn Michaels was shown backstage after the match , and he stated that he was disbanding his tag team with Diesel and vacating the Tag Team Championship . He then got into a car and drove away from the arena .
The match between Jerry Lawler 's team , known as The Royal Family ( with Queasy , Sleazy , and Cheesy ) , and Doink 's Clowns R ' Us team ( with Dink , Wink , and Pink ) consisted of comedic action for much of the first ten minutes . Eventually , Doink attempted a crossbody , but Lawler reversed the move . He was able to pin Doink and eliminate him from the match . Lawler remained involved in the match and played a role in the elimination of two more members of Doink 's team . When Wink attempted a monkey flip against Queasy , Lawler blocked the move and helped Queasy to pin Wink . Later in the match , Lawler threw Cheesy on top of Pink , which enabled Cheesy to eliminate another of Doink 's teammates . After Wink and Pink were eliminated , however , they hid under the ring rather than returning backstage . The final member of Clowns R ' Us was eliminated after Sleazy and Dink fought in the ring . Dink performed a crossbody on Sleazy and attempted to pin him . Queasy rolled the wrestlers over so that Sleazy was on top , however , and the referee made the three count and awarded the match to The Royal Family . As Queasy , Sleazy and Cheesy celebrated after the match , Lawler criticized them for taking credit for the victory . All six midgets turned against Lawler and chased him away from the ring . As Lawler tried to escape , Doink returned and hit him in the face with a pie .
The next match was the submission match between champion Bret Hart and challenger Bob Backlund , with the aforementioned stipulation being that the only way to win the match was to have the opposing cornerman ( either Owen Hart or Davey Boy Smith ) throw in the towel . Bret got the early advantage and wore down Backlund using head locks , but Backlund broke free and attempted a crossface chickenwing on Bret . Bret escaped , but Backlund maintained the advantage by attacking Bret 's arm and attempting another crossface chickenwing . Bret used a figure four leglock on Backlund , but Backlund got out of the hold . Bret then applied the Sharpshooter , his signature hold , on Backlund . Owen entered the ring and clotheslined Bret from behind , causing him to break the hold , and exited the ring . Smith then chased Owen around the ring , but fell and was kayfabe knocked unconscious on the ring steps . While Bret was distracted , Backlund applied the crossface chickenwing . Owen looked on in disbelief at what was happening to Bret and went to the ringside area , where their parents Stu and Helen Hart were sitting . Owen begged them to throw Bret 's towel in to the ring to save him as Backlund kept the hold locked in for what would eventually total nine and a half minutes . Stu refused to do so , not trusting Owen 's motives , but Helen overruled him and tossed the towel into the ring . Owen then ran into the ring and showed the referee Bret 's towel , and the match and championship were awarded to Backlund as Owen took off backstage holding the towel over his head triumphantly , saying later that this Thanksgiving would be the best ever due to him having finally cost Bret the WWF World Heavyweight Championship after trying and failing to do so himself .
The team of Guts and Glory , consisting of Lex Luger , Adam Bomb , Mabel , and The Smoking Gunns ( Billy and Bart Gunn ) , faced The Million Dollar Team , made up of Tatanka , Bam Bam Bigelow , King Kong Bundy , and The Heavenly Bodies ( Tom Prichard and Jimmy Del Ray ) in the next match . Guts and Glory took the early lead when Mabel pinned Prichard after performing a crossbody from the second rope . Mabel fought Bundy and Bigelow , but he was counted out after clotheslining Bigelow out of the ring . Bigelow then performed a moonsault on Bomb and got a pinfall . Luger and Del Ray fought back and forth until Luger performed a running forearm smash on Del Ray to get the pinfall . The Smokin ' Gunns were eliminated next , as Tatanka pinned Bart and Bundy pinned Billy . Luger fought back by pinning Tatanka with a small package . Seven seconds later , Bundy pinned Luger after performing a splash to get the victory . Bundy , Bigelow , and Tatanka continued to attack Luger after the match until Luger 's team returned to the ring to save him .
The main event was next , featuring The Undertaker versus Yokozuna in a casket match with Chuck Norris as the special outside referee . The Undertaker gained the early advantage , but Yokozuna reversed the momentum with a Samoan drop . He tried to put The Undertaker in the casket , but The Undertaker fought back . Yokozuna next performed a leg drop and placed The Undertaker in the casket . Before Yokozuna could close the lid , however , The Undertaker attacked him and the two wrestlers fought while standing in the casket . The Undertaker performed a clothesline from the top rope and placed Yokozuna in the casket . King Kong Bundy and Bam Bam Bigelow came down the aisle toward the ring , but Chuck Norris blocked their path . While Norris was distracted , however , Irwin R. Schyster entered the ring from the other side and attacked The Undertaker . He placed The Undertaker in the casket , but The Undertaker recovered before Yokozuna could close the lid . Jeff Jarrett tried to interfere on Yokozuna 's behalf , but Norris stopped him with a superkick . The Undertaker performed a DDT and a big boot on Yokozuna . He then rolled his opponent in to the casket and closed the lid to gain the victory .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after Survivor Series Diesel was named the top contender to Backlund 's title . Backlund 's first defense of his title was made at a Madison Square Garden live show three days after Survivor Series , where Diesel defeated him with the Jackknife Powerbomb in eight seconds . With the victory , Diesel joined Hart and Pedro Morales as the only wrestlers to that point to be Triple Crown Champion and became the quickest to do so having won all three components within the span of seven months .
Hart returned at the Royal Rumble in January 1995 , where he faced Diesel to try to regain his title . Backlund interfered in the match , restarting the rivalry and leading to an I Quit match at WrestleMania XI . Hart won the match by using the crossface chickenwing to make Backlund concede defeat .
To fill the vacancy created when Diesel and Michaels broke up , an eight team tournament was announced with the finals scheduled for the Royal Rumble . The 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid and Bob Holly won the tournament by defeating Tatanka and Bam Bam Bigelow and won the titles but dropped the belts the following night to The Smoking Gunns .
Michaels and Diesel 's feud resumed at the Royal Rumble when Michaels attacked Diesel during his match with Hart . Michaels then became the top contender for the WWF Championship by winning the 1995 Royal Rumble match . Diesel won their match at WrestleMania after Sid , Michaels ' new bodyguard , accidentally distracted the referee . Diesel offered Michaels a rematch , and Michaels told Sid that his services would not be required during the rematch . Sid attacked Michaels , and Diesel came to Michaels ' defense . This attack caused Michaels to turn face , and he and Diesel resumed their friendship and won the WWF Tag Team Championship later in 1995 .
Lex Luger 's feud with the Million Dollar Corporation did not continue , as the Corporation targeted The Undertaker . The Undertaker spent most of the following year feuding with the Corporation , as he faced IRS at the 1995 Royal Rumble , King Kong Bundy at WrestleMania XI , and Kama at SummerSlam 1995 . Luger was placed in a tag team with Davey Boy Smith known as The Allied Powers , but the team never won the tag team titles . The team was dissolved in the summer of 1995 after Smith turned heel and Luger left the company following SummerSlam to return to World Championship Wrestling .
Yokozuna did not regain his main event status after Survivor Series . After taking some time off , he made a surprise return at WrestleMania XI as Owen Hart 's partner in a tag team title match against the Smoking Gunns . Yokozuna and Hart won the WWF Tag Team Championship , and Owen 's feud with Bret was dropped . The brothers eventually reunited in 1997 to form The Hart Foundation , a stable that also included Davey Boy Smith and Jim Neidhart .
= = Results = =
= = = Survivor Series elimination matches = = =
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= Elias Abu Shabaki =
Elias Abu Shabaki ( also spelled Ilyas Abu Shabaka ; Arabic : الياس أبو شبكة , May 3 , 1903 – January 27 , 1947 ) was a Lebanese writer , poet , editor , translator and literary critic , he was one of the founders of the literary League of Ten and is considered as one of the leading figures of the Arabic Nahda Movement .
Born into a well @-@ to @-@ do Lebanese family , Abu Shabaki became interested in poetry at a young age . The son of a merchant , he was left fatherless in his youth , an experience that would mark his earlier works . Elias worked as a teacher , translator and _ in addition to publishing several volumes of poetry _ as a journalist writing for many Arabic newspapers and literary magazines . Being an adherent to the Romantic school , Abu Shabki believed in inspiration and denounced conscious control in poetry . His poems were gloomy , deeply personal and often contained biblical overtones centering on his internal moral conflicts . Some of Abu Shabaki 's work was very controversial in its time , particularly his poetry collection Serpents of Paradise which was regarded as obscene due to its overt sexual content . The poet 's obsession with the spiritual consequences of carnality that was manifested in his writings was attributed to the guilt brought upon by his sexual escapades with various women when he was married and until his death from leukemia in 1947 .
Abu Shabaki called for the renewal and modernization of Arab literature , he inspired succeeding generations of poets . His contributions to literature were commemorated by turning his house in his hometown of Zouk Mikael into a museum .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood and youth = = =
Elias Abu Shabaki was born on 3 May 1903 in Providence , USA to Youssef Abu Shabaki , a wealthy Lebanese merchant , and his wife Nayla née Saroufim . Elias ' mother came from a family well known for its poetic gifts , and both Nayla 's brother and maternal uncle ( Elias Ferzan ) were established poets . The couple had left the Lebanon to visit Nayla 's uncle Elias Ferzan in Providence where she gave birth to Elias at Ferzan 's place . In 1904 , Youssef and Nayla settled back in their native town of Zouk Mikael in the current Keserwan District in Mount Lebanon , a town overlooking the Mediterranean sea which is noted for its natural beauty .
Elias was raised as a devout Christian by his Maronite parents ; he was admitted in 1911 to the Lazarist Saint Joseph College in the nearby town of Aintoura where he studied , among other courses , French and Arabic literature . Nayla introduced Elias to Arabic poetry and taught him a long poem written by her uncle Elias Ferzan , which , according to the young Abu Shabaki , was highly inspirational .
In 1914 , while Elias ' father was visiting his estates in the Khartoum region in Sudan , he was attacked by bandits who stripped him of his belongings and killed him ; the loss of his father left young Elias in a state of emotional distress and depression that would mark the rest of his life . The orphaned Elias continued his education at Aintoura until the outbreak of the Great War when he had to quit the school due to financial problems , though the school was later forced to close by the Ottoman authorities . Elias resumed his studies at the College Central in Jounieh which was run then by the Marist Brothers before returning a year later to Saint Joseph 's but he never graduated as a result of a quarrel he had with one of his teachers ; nevertheless he continued his self @-@ education and read religious books and French Romantic literature extensively which inspired his first literary efforts . Among the French authors , Elias was particularly fond of the works of Charles Baudelaire and Alfred de Musset .
= = = Courtship and marriage = = =
When he was 16 , Elias met and was infatuated by his neighbor Olga Saroufim who was two years his senior . Their friendship rapidly evolved as they exchanged literary books and letters . Elias ' attachment to Olga was most evident when she fell ill with fever during a visit to the southern city of Sour ; Elias was reported to have invited his family members to kneel and pray for Olga to get better . After some 10 years of betrothal , Abu Shabaki wedded Olga in December 1931 . Elias and Olga had a lone child together who died at birth in 1932 .
= = = Career = = =
Having lost his father at an early age , Elias was compelled to teach in order to earn a living . He taught for a while at the Jesuit mission school then at the school of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools in Gemmayze and lastly at the Makassed school . Elias had had an affinity for journalism since his youth , and he eked a meager living through his contributions to a number of Lebanese newspapers ( al @-@ Bayraq , al @-@ Bayan , an @-@ Nidaa , al @-@ Ma 'rad , al- ' assifa , Lisan al @-@ hal , al @-@ Joumhour , al @-@ Makshouf and Sawt al @-@ Ahrar ) , also publishing a great number of journalistic articles on a variety of topics . Elias also corresponded with a number of Egyptian newspapers such as al @-@ Moktataf and al @-@ Masa . At the request of his publishers , Abu Shabaki translated to Arabic a number of French literary material from the 17th till the 19th century such as Lamartine 's Jocelyn and La Chute d 'un ange , Edmond Rostand 's La Samaritaine , Bernardin St. Pierre 's Paul et Virginie and La Chaumière indienne and many other works by Henri Bordeaux , Voltaire , Antoine François Prévost , and Moliere . Elias was employed during World War II as a translator in the press and radio services of the French high Commission .
In 1926 Elias produced his first poetic juvenilia al @-@ Kithara ( The lyre ) ; the work attests of the young poet 's inexperience but also of his promising talent . In 1928 Elias finished al @-@ Marid as @-@ samit ( The silent invalid ) , a narrative poem which is one of Abu Shabaki 's best known works , springing from the center of European romantic tradition . His next book Afa 'i al @-@ Firdaws ( Serpents of Paradise ) , published in 1938 , is lauded by many as Abu Shabaki 's best work and one of the best accomplishments of romantic poetry in modern Lebanese and Arabic literature . Afa 'i al Firdaws and Elias ' latter works would play an influential role in the development of modern Arabic poetry and literature . In 1941 Elias published his third book al @-@ Alhan ( The melodies ) , an ode to simple peasant life , followed in 1944 by Nidaa ' al @-@ Qalb ( The heart 's evocation ) and Ila al @-@ Abad ( Eternally ) , where Elias reverts to discussing matters of the heart from a more mature perspective . Ghalwaa was published in 1945 . The book 's title is an anagram of Olga 's name in Arabic .
In addition to poetry , Elias published a number of studies including a study in comparative literature called Rawabith al @-@ fikr wal @-@ ruh bayn al @-@ Arab wal @-@ Franja ( Intellectual and spiritual links between the Arabs and the French ) , in which he sought to demonstrate the weight of French influence on world literature ; he also authored long essays about Lamartine , Baudelaire and Oscar Wilde . In addition , Abu Shabaki produced a series of portraits of literary and political personages which were first published in al @-@ Maarad journal then collected in a volume dubbed al @-@ Rusum ( The Portraits ) .
= = = Death = = =
Elias died on January 27 , 1947 from Leukemia at the Hôtel @-@ Dieu de France Hospital in Beirut , he was buried in his hometown of Zouk Mikael . After his death , Elias ' friends put together a number of verses and works that were published in periodicals in a book dubbed Min Sa 'id al @-@ Aliha ( From the bosom of the Gods ) in 1958 .
= = Views and beliefs = =
= = = Morality = = =
Elias was raised a devout Christian by his Maronite parents in the Lebanese countryside . His religious schooling and upbringing is reflected in his deeply spiritual writings and his resort to the Bible for some of his poems , which reflects the strong hold it had upon him . Elias developed a consuming obsession with the opposing forces of good and evil , awakened at an early age due to the loss of his father at the beginning of World War I ; early writings attest to the young poet 's disgust and disenchantment with human existence . This is best manifested in a poem entitled Qathoora ( Defilement ) .
Abu Shabaki 's stances and the subjects he treated were considered provocative and scandalous at the time . He forthrightly and fearlessly confronted matters of sin , sexuality and immorality in a deeply personal manner . Even though he was one of the first Arab literary figures to bluntly address these taboo issues , Abu Shabaki drew praise for his innovative style . During the course of his lengthy engagement to Olga , Elias had a torrid love affair with a married woman that is subliminally confessed in his writing of Ghalwa and Serpents of Paradise , where the remorseful Elias engages in constant conflict between lust and love and the struggle to reconcile sensual bestiality with spirituality . Despite Abu Shabaki 's celebration of carnal pleasures , he retained his belief in God whose judgement he feared ; his poems show a concern for the spiritual expenses that these pleasures entail .
= = = Women and sexuality = = =
Some scholars argue that Elias was a misogynist as attested at an early stage in his works such as this passage from al @-@ Kithara :
" Beware of love ! In love is evil , it is a fire in the heart which melts . If there is a deceitful heart in men , then the hearts of women are more so . "
Elias epitomized beautiful lewd women as diabolical creatures , cunning temptresses causing man 's downfall and " Serpents of Paradise " ; this bitter and ironical antithesis is an allusion to danger and evil that is brought upon by lust and sin . Elias ' aversion and attraction to women and sex is evident in the poem " Storm " where the disturbed poet condemns a prostitute while asking her to make love ; similarly in " The Wretched Woman " , Abu Shabaki depicts a prostitute who inflicts her clients with venereal diseases as a way to avenge herself . Elias ' attitude towards women softened and changed radically as attest his later works as he went through a process of reconciliation and redemption through love .
Despite his views Elias was romantically involved with at least four women according to his biographer Razzuk Faraj Razzuk . Olga Saroufim whom Abu Shabaki married in 1931 was the main love of his life yet he had an affair with Rose , a married woman in his hometown , while he was engaged to marry in 1929 . Elias alludes to this experience in many of his writings , especially his book " Serpents of Paradise " . The third woman to mark Abu Shabaki 's life , albeit in a minor role , was an Egyptian singer called Hadia who exercised a calming effect on Abu Shabaki , as evidenced by the poem written for her . After having parted with the singer , in 1940 Elias met a dancer called Leila Adem ; the poems in " The Call of the Heart " and " To Eternity " were written for her . Abu Shabaki 's relationship with Leila continued until his death in 1947 .
= = Writing = =
Abu Shabaki 's was a prolific writer , publishing a wide variety of works including poems , journal articles and literary studies . Widely seen as his most important work was Afa 'i al @-@ Firdaws ( 1938 ) . Elias ' writing is characterized by powerful imagery , realism and often a striking carnality and obsession with the pleasures of the flesh . Elias believed that the purest art evolves from emotion , which he thought was the source of authentic and aesthetic experience ; he set a high value for inspiration and denounced rationalism and the role of conscious control in writing poetry . In one poem Abu Shabaki wrote that truthful poetry is the best , contrary to the old Arabic saying that the best poetry is that which feigns most .
= = = Influences = = =
The many hardships and emotional challenges that Abu Shabaki endured , from growing up fatherless amid the First World War to losing his only born son , influenced his gloomy poetry which conveys a strong sense of the presence of evil in the world and an effort to find an escape in love or in the innocence of childhood and nature . Elias ' often pessimistic writings evoked a concern for the body and its lust , greatly affected by Romantic works he had read during his youth which commended loneliness , sorrow , passion , pain and death and denounced the materialism and lewdness of city life . Christian tradition and imagery inspired and permeated much of Abu Shabaki 's work , which abounds in biblical images , mirroring the experiences of a Christian who felt deeply about the teachings of the Catholic Church .
= = = League of ten = = =
In 1930 , Abu Shabaki along with Michel Abou Shahla , Khalil Takieddin and Fouad Hobeish , co @-@ founded a literary society conveniently dubbed the " League of ten " ( Arabic : عصبة العشرة ) since it at first included ten literary and artistic figures . In addition to the four founding members , the league consisted of Karam Ali Melhem Karam , Youssef Ibrahim Yazbek , Takieddin al @-@ Solh , Toufic Youssef Awwad , Abdallah Lahoud and Michel Asmar . The league waged an assiduous attack on literary figures and the political establishment through articles published in the periodical al @-@ Maarad , which was subsequently forced to close down by the government . The league 's aim was to promote literary renewal and modernization of Arab literature .
= = = Publications = = =
= = = = Al @-@ Kithara = = = =
Elias ' first Diwan , al @-@ Kithara ( The Lyre ) , was published in 1926 by Sader publishers . Al @-@ Kithara was Elias ' earliest work , attesting of the young poet 's inexperience while revealing his great poetic potential . The juvenilia that showed the influence of classical Arab poets such as Abu Nuwas was described as gloomy and pretentious . It contained a number of poems translated from French and was dedicated to the spirit of Abu Shabaki 's dead father ; the dedication established the melancholy and pessimistic mood that pervade the Diwan .
= = = = Al @-@ Marid as @-@ samet = = = =
Al @-@ Marid as @-@ samet ( The Silent Invalid ) was Elias ' second juvenilia . It was published in 1928 and was the poet 's first trial at narrative poetry .
= = = = Ghalwaa = = = =
Abu Shabaka 's narrative poem Ghalwaa was written between the years 1926 and 1932 but wasn 't published until 1945 by Sader Press , two years before the poet 's death . The poem was inspired by Elias ' love interest and muse Olga ; the poem 's title is an anagram of Olga 's name in Arabic ( أولغا = غلواء ) . It was viewed ever since its publication as an influential and progressive work which revolutionized Arabic literature and as a prime example of Arabic romanticism . The generally acclaimed masterpiece owed its success to its sheer artistic merit , impressive length and the juxtaposition of extreme emotional and moral situations such as passion and sin . Although Mahjarite writers had produced similar long poems , they seldom engaged in poems with such clear narrative plot .
= = = = Afa 'i al @-@ Firdaws = = = =
Afa 'i al @-@ Firdaws ( Serpents of Paradise ) is a collection of 13 poems written between 1928 and 1938 and published in 1938 by the now @-@ defunct Dar al @-@ Makshouf publishing press . The book is highly regarded as a masterpiece of Lebanese poetry ; it draws inspiration from love and eroticism in a clear connection to the influences of French romantic works such as Charles Baudelaire 's Les fleurs du mal . In Serpents of Paradise , Elias ' candid and puritanical morality gives way to a sense of sin and spiritual deprivation as he comes to terms with the effects of the love affair that he had while he was betrothed to Olga . The Diwan is characterized by constant antithesis between love and deceit , life and death .
= = = = Al @-@ Alhan = = = =
Al @-@ Alhan ( The melodies ) is an anthology encompassing 16 poems . Al @-@ Alhan was published in 1941 by Dar al @-@ Makshouf , it was described as a unique work in the history of Arabic literature ; each of the poems deal with a different aspect of rustic country life , where images of Lebanese folklore and colloquialism abound . In the book , Abu Shabaki identifies himself with the peasant , praises the simplicity of traditional ways , and furthers himself from the spurious gifts of technology and displays of false riches . Eliyah Hawi , a contemporary literary figure , saw Abu Shabaki 's poem as calling to a form of new paganism where Abu Shabaki " worships the blessing and fertility of the Earth womb . " Through al @-@ Alhan , Abu Shabaki paved the way for a new trend among his contemporary Muslim poets which manifested in a return to Islamic Sufism or to pre @-@ Islamic natural atheism such in the case of Adunis .
= = = = Nidaa al @-@ Qalb and Ila al @-@ Abad = = = =
Published in 1942 by Dar al @-@ Makshouf , Nidaa al @-@ Qalb ( The Call of the Heart ) is a collection of love poems . In this volume , Elias placed aside his view of Woman as an evil snare and extolled chaste love , in a striking contrast with the harsh judgement and hedonistic pursuits expressed in Afai al @-@ firdaws . In the poem The Cup , Abu Shabaki , having recovered peace and his faith in love , accepts his predicament as a poet who is unappreciated by his society .
Ila al @-@ Abad ( To Eternity ) was the last of Abu Shabaki 's works published during his lifetime , the anthology confirmed Elias ' return to peace that was evidenced in The Call of the Heart . The crude sensuality of his earlier works are totally replaced with more refined and mystical dimensions of love that are further emphasized in this book which was also issued by Dar al @-@ Makshouf in 1944 .
= = Legacy = =
Elias is considered a cornerstone in modern Arabic poetry in Lebanon and one of the greatest Arab poets ; he is also one of the leading Lebanese figures of Arabic romanticism . His revival of the romantic school , long dormant in the Occident , was pursed by a large following of Arab contemporary poets and writers . The romantic movement is now outdated in the Middle East but Abu Shabaka 's work still attracts young readers who appreciate sentimentality and poetry and have little taste for the socio @-@ political raptness found in the work of modern , politically engaged Arab poets . Abou Shabaki 's work confirmed the Christian tradition in modern Arabic literature and helped establish the Bible as a literary source in Arabic . Later writers and poets benefited from the revival of biblical themes and legends which Abu Shabaki 's poetry portrayed . The poet influenced the writings of many of his successors like Badr Shakir al @-@ Sayyab , Nizar Qabbani , Khalil Hawi , Henry Zgheib and Adunis .
= = = Elias Abu Shabaki Museum = = =
On 11 June 2008 , the Zouk Mikael municipality inaugurated the Elias Abu Shabaki museum in the poet 's home . Abu Shabaki 's mansion in Zouk Mikael was built by his father and uncle , who traded goods between Egypt , Sudan and Lebanon . The mansion was designed by an Egyptian architect , built by local stonemasons and its interior walls were decorated by Austrian artists . In the later years of his life , Elias had mortgaged his house due to his poor financial condition . The municipality appropriated the plot in the 1970s and saved the house and its gardens from being replaced by a residential building . The mansion was restored during the next 2 decades and was refurbished with the original furniture and accessories of the poet that were saved by his wife 's family ; in addition to the furniture , the museum houses a collection of the poet 's books , original manuscripts and letters .
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= Pearson 's Candy Company =
Pearson 's Candy Company is an American chocolate and confectionery manufacturer headquartered in Saint Paul , Minnesota . Founded as a confectionery distribution firm in 1909 , the company began to manufacture its own products in 1912 . Originally a family @-@ owned company , Pearson 's experienced changes in ownership , acquisitions and product alterations in the 1960s and 1970s , before being purchased in 1989 and resold in 2011 .
Pearson 's products are produced on three production lines in the company ’ s Saint Paul plant . The company sells its Mint Patties , Salted Nut Roll and Bit @-@ O @-@ Honey nationally and its Nut Goodie and Bun Bars products in several Midwestern states . Measured by revenue , Pearson 's is among the top 100 global confectionery companies .
= = History = =
= = = Pearson family = = =
Pearson 's Candy Company was founded as a confectionery distribution firm in 1909 by P. Edward Pearson and his brothers , John and Oscar . Two more brothers , Waldemar and C. Fritz , joined the company several years later . The five brothers determined manufacturing would be more profitable than distribution and , in 1912 , introduced their first confection , the Nut Goodie .
Pearson 's grew and began manufacturing for other companies , including Whitmans and Planters . Pearson 's introduced the Salted Nut Roll in 1933 , at the height of The Great Depression . The success of the Salted Nut Roll prompted other manufacturers to mimic the confection . Pearson 's subsequently changed the roll 's name to the Choo Choo Bar , to distinguish the product . The Choo Choo name , however , was not as successful , and the original name was restored with the Pearson 's logo more prominently displayed .
By the end of World War II , the Pearson brothers had dropped the distribution aspect of the business . The youngest brother , William Pearson , joined the family business in 1944 , as did George Pearson , son of founder P. Edward Pearson . In 1951 , Pearson 's acquired the Trudeau Candy Company , which brought Mint Patties and the Seven Up bar to Pearson 's product line . The company moved to a new manufacturing plant at its current address in 1959 . In 1962 , Pearson ’ s acquired Milwaukee @-@ based Sperry Candy Company , a company known for its Chicken Dinner Bar . Pearson 's , however , sold Sperry Candy to the Schuler Chocolate Factory of Winona , Minnesota five years later .
= = = Ownership changes = = =
The Pearson family sold the company in 1968 to ITT / Continental Baking , a New York firm . ITT / Continental Baking sold the company to an out @-@ of @-@ state confectionery partnership in 1979 . During this time , sales declined due to problems with availability and product changes , such as a wrapper redesign and recipe change of the Nut Goodie .
In 1985 , the company was purchased by Larry Hassler and Judith Johnston , the current CEO and COO , respectively . The company ’ s previous owners had split up , causing the bank to offer the company in the leveraged buyout . The Nut Goodie 's original wrapper and recipe were restored and , despite the loss of a label contract with General Mills to produce Nature Valley granola bars , which accounted for 1 @.@ 4 million bars daily and 85 percent of the company 's total tonnage , Pearson 's became profitable again in December 1992 . In early 1998 , Pearson 's acquired the Bun Bar trademark from Clark Bar America . Pearson 's introduced Flurries in 2004 .
In 2011 , Pearson 's was acquired by Brynwood Partners .
= = Products = =
= = = Current products = = =
Salted Nut Rolls and Mint Patties account for approximately 80 percent of the company ’ s sales ; Nut Goodie and Bun Bars account for the remainder . Mint Patties are sold nationally and Salted Nut Rolls are available in approximately 60 percent of the company 's outlets . The Bit @-@ O @-@ Honey brand was acquired from Nestle in 2013 . In the Twin Cities , Salted Nut Rolls consistently rank number one or number three in sales . Although the products are not sold internationally , the company is the 99th largest confectionery company in the world by revenue .
Pearson 's utilizes 200 tons of peanuts , 400 tons of sugar , 100 tons of chocolate and 350 tons of corn syrup per month . Products are produced in the company ’ s 130 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) . plant on three production lines . Current products include :
= = = Discontinued products = = =
= = = = Seven Up Bar = = = =
The Seven Up Bar was a candy bar comprising seven different chocolate " pillows " , each filled with a different flavor . Flavors changed with the availability and popularity of ingredients , which included , among others , brazil nut , buttercream , butterscotch , caramel , cherry , coconut , fudge , mint , nougat and orange . The high manufacturing costs and trademark issues with a soda manufacturer ( The American Bottling Company , today Cadbury Schweppes ) , caused the bar to be retired in 1979 .
= = = = Chicken Dinner Bar = = = =
The Chicken Dinner Bar had been a product of the Sperry Candy Company , which was acquired by Pearson ’ s in 1962 . The bar , introduced during The Great Depression , was so called in reference to President Herbert Hoover ’ s promise of “ a chicken in every pot ” . The bar did not contain chicken or other poultry products , but was , rather , a chocolate @-@ covered nut roll . Pearson ’ s discontinued the bar ’ s production after the acquisition . Early TV commercials sang " Chick - Chick - Chick - Chick - Chicken Dinner " similar to , and in the cadence of a rooster crowing .
= = = = Flurries = = = =
Flurries were chocolate mint fudge with a white coating that were introduced in 2004 and discontinued sometime later .
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= Gunfright =
Gunfright is an arcade adventure video game developed by Ultimate Play the Game and published by U.S. Gold . It was first released for the ZX Spectrum in 1985 and was ported to the Amstrad CPC and the MSX later that year . In the game , the player takes the role of a sheriff in the town of Black Rock and is tasked with eliminating outlaws who are scattered throughout the settlement .
The game was developed directly after Nightshade , and re @-@ uses the latter game 's Filmation II game engine that allows images to be rendered without overlapping each other . The game received mostly positive reviews upon release ; praise was directed at the graphics and presentation , but criticism was directed at the game 's similarity to Nightshade . It was later included in Rare Replay , Rare 's 2015 Xbox One retrospective compilation .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in an isometric format and set in the fictional town of Black Rock . The player takes on the role of Sheriff Quickdraw , and the main objective of the game is to track down and kill a gang of outlaws who are hiding in the town . The game begins with a first @-@ person perspective targeting minigame in which vertically scrolling bags of money can be shot at using crosshairs . Shooting the bags give the player initial sums of money which can be used to purchase ammunition .
During the game , Quickdraw must locate the wanted outlaws one by one . Once an outlaw has been found and shot ( shooting the outlaw does not kill him , but only initiates a duel ) , the game shifts to the first @-@ person targeting minigame . This time , the player must shoot the rapidly moving outlaw as quickly as possible . The player can either wait for the outlaw to draw , or take the initiative and shoot first , which will make the bandit draw his weapon as well . If the player successfully shoots an outlaw , a bounty is paid ( increasing with every round ) , and a new outlaw enters the town .
During gameplay , players often encounter helpful residents who will point the way to outlaws . The residents need to be protected during gameplay , as the player has to pay a fine if any are shot by either bandits or Sheriff Quickdraw himself . Some outlaws are mounted on horseback , meaning that the player may have to saddle an imaginary horse to pursue them .
= = Development and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play the Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company were known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on graphics whilst the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .
The game was developed with the isometric projection game engine known as Filmation II , which was used previously in Ultimate 's 1985 ZX Spectrum game Nightshade . The Filmation engine was created by the Stamper brothers to portray 3D imagery . Filmation II used an image masking technique that drew and filled holes in the background , allowing the game to create composite structures out of pixelated drawings without visual overlay , despite the limitations platforms such as the ZX Spectrum offered .
Gunfright was initially released for the ZX Spectrum in 1985 and was the last game to be developed under the direct involvement of the Stamper brothers . Realising that the graphical limits of platforms such as the ZX Spectrum had been pushed , future projects such as Blackwyche and Dragon Skulle were handed over to designer brothers Dave and Bob Thomas , who were often uncredited for their work . Gunfright , along with Knight Lore , Alien 8 and Nightshade , were re @-@ released for the MSX in 1986 , with Gunfright and Sabre Wulf being ported to the Amstrad CPC later that year . Gunfright was later included in an August 2015 Xbox One compilation of 30 Rare titles , Rare Replay .
= = Reception = =
The game received mostly positive reviews upon release . Reviewers writing for Crash praised the game 's graphics as highly detailed and " colourful " , but stated that the game was visually similar to Ultimate 's immediately previous game , Nightshade . Gwyn Hughes of Your Sinclair thought the graphics were the best aspect of the game , despite similarly comparing them to those of Nightshade . Hughes also praised the game 's smooth animation and the techniques used to portray the western town . A reviewer for CVG suggested that the game 's style and gameplay was a mix of Nightshade and Nintendo 's Duck Hunt . Reviewing the MSX version , a reviewer for Computer Gamer praised the game 's plot , and was complimentary of the way the game was able to separate itself from Ultimate 's previous game , which had used the same Filmation engine .
Reviewers writing for Crash praised the gameplay , stating that the game 's " element " was considerably developed and that the several different stages were " highly addictive " . Writers in CVG criticised the gameplay , noting that they found it difficult to distinguish the outlaws from other male inhabitants of the town . They also noted the absence of puzzle elements which was considered " unusual " for an Ultimate game . Bill Bennett of Your Computer similarly considered the omission of puzzle elements unusual , but welcomed the " witty " change in genre from the previous dungeon @-@ themed video games .
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= Como Duele ( Ricardo Arjona song ) =
" Como Duele " ( English : How Much It Hurts ) is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on 4 November 2008 as the lead single from his eleventh studio album , 5to Piso ( 2008 ) . The song was written and produced by Arjona along with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos , with additional production work and background vocals from Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . " Como Duele " is the first single Arjona releases after signing a record deal with Warner Music in 2008 , after being signed to Sony Music since 1993 .
Lyrically , " Como Duele " was intended to show " the monotony that attacks the couples that have many years together , the lack of passion and regreted love that seems to pose over them . " The song became an commercial success for Arjona , becoming his first top ten single in the US Billboard Top Lating Songs since 2005 and , with a peak of No.2 , his highest entry on that list since " El Problema " in 2002 . It also became his sixth song to top the Latin Pop Songs chart , as well as reaching the top in Mexico and Venezuela . " Como Duele " was critically praised by media outlets , receiving comparisons to Arjona 's previous song " Olvidarte " , and being considered as his " biggest hit in years " .
An accompanying music video for " Como Duele " was released in September 2008 . It was directed by Ricardo Calderón and filmed in Mexico City . In the clip , focused on a department which rooms are being moved , Arjona is shown inside a room that goes empty , and everything that gave life to the place is going away until the department is finally demolished . " Como Duele " was included in the set list of Arjona 's Quinto Piso Tour ( 2009 ) and Metamorfosis World Tour ( 2012 ) .
= = Background = =
After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina . The deal was closed in September 2008 . Iñigo Zabala , chairman of Warner Music Latin America commented that " He 's an artist that fits perfectly with our company , " and that " We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná , Alejandro Sanz , Laura Pausini , and now , Arjona . " In an interview , the singer commented that while composing 5to Piso he " tried to recoup some of the freshness " of his past releases , stating that " it makes so good to the songs " . He further stated that he believes " all albums are result of an evolution , and contradictions either " , also stating that he celebrated contradictions as part of life . Arjona begun working on the album as early as 2005 . Talking about the process of recording the album , he stated that " We must work to make the albums comfortable to us " , further commenting that " The rest is a matter of how good or bad the albums defend themselves . "
= = Composition = =
" Como Duele " is a latin pop ballad about " the monotony that attacks the couples that have many years together , the lack of passion and regreted love that seems to pose over them . " Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic called the song " phenomenal " , and considered it as to be " his biggest hits in years " . He also named it , alongside " Sin Ti .. Sin Mi " and " El Del Espejo " , to be a standout track from the album . An editor from El Mercurio Online commented that " Como Duele " is " a ballad of merciless chords and lyrics plagued of contradictions made metaphors . " He also stated that " Is the logic of [ past Arjona 's single ] ' Olvidarte ' , that song in which the guatemalan talked about making something as difficult as ' pulling the hair out of a bottle ' , " and compared it to his past song " Olvidarte " , from Sin Daños a Terceros .
= = Chart performance = =
" Como Duele " became a commercial success for Arjona . In the United States , the song reached number two and became Arjona 's first top ten single in the Billboard Top Latin Songs since " Acompañame A Estar Solo " , which reached number seven in 2005 , and his highest @-@ charting single there since " El Problema " , which reached number one back in 2002 . " Como Duele " became Arjona 's sixth song to reach number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart after debuting at number eight , and is the first to do so since " Acompañame A Estar Solo " . Additionally , the song appeared on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart at number 33 , and at number 69 on the Radio Songs chart , being the only song ever by the artist to chart on the latter . " Como Duele " became a hit in Latin America , reaching number one position in Mexico and Venezuela . On the Billboard year @-@ end charts for 2009 , " Como Duele " finished at number 40 on the Top Latin Songs chart , and at number 14 on the Latin Pop Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Como Duele " was shot in Mexico City in September 2008 , in a forum and some other places in the city . It was released on October 20 and was directed by the Mexican filmmaker Ricardo Calderón , who later in 2012 joined Arjona on his own record label , Metamorfosis . The story takes place in a department which rooms are being moved , and in where Arjona lived with his couple . As the video progresses , the room goes empty , and everything that gave life to the place is going away until the department if finally demolished .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet .
Personnel
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" Como Duele " — 3 : 30
Bachata Version
" Como Duele " ( featuring Voz a Voz ) — 3 : 20
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hey Venus ! =
Hey Venus ! is the eighth album by Welsh band Super Furry Animals . It was released on 27 August 2007 in the United Kingdom . Hey Venus ! is the band 's first full @-@ length release on current label Rough Trade Records and , at just over 36 minutes , is also their shortest @-@ running studio release . The title is taken from the first line of the song " Into the Night " .
The album was conceived as a " rowdy pop record " , both in response to Rough Trade 's request for " one of those pop records like you used to make " and as a result of the " very different atmosphere " the band encountered at shows on the Love Kraft tour when the ' slow ' songs from that album were played . In contrast with many Super Furry Animals albums , no samplers were used during recording of Hey Venus ! as the group made a conscious decision to create a " simple record " which " capture [ d ] the spirit of the band playing live in a room " . Dave Newfeld took over production duties from Mario Caldato Jr . , who had worked on both Phantom Power and Love Kraft , as the band didn 't want to " repeat [ their ] past two records " . As with Love Kraft , all members of the band contributed songs at the recording stage but , besides chief songwriter Gruff Rhys , only guitarist Huw Bunford ( " Battersea Odyssey " ) and keyboard player Cian Ciaran ( " Carbon Dating " ) ended up with their tracks on the finished album .
The album follows the life and adventures of a character called Venus as she moves " from a small town to a big metropolis " . The band have given several explanations for the appearance of this narrative arc in the record claiming variously that Hey Venus ! was conceived as a concept album , that the similar themes in the songs were only noticed after they had been written and were used as a way of " structuring and compiling the album " and that the Venus concept was thought up after the album 's completion in order to give sleeve designer Keiichi Tanaami " a reference point to make an illustration from . " After working with Pete Fowler since 1997 's Radiator the band asked Tanaami to produce artwork for Hey Venus ! , having been " blown away " by his work on a Japanese tour .
Critical response was generally positive with some reviews claiming Hey Venus ! is " [ the band 's ] most satisfying work " and exhibits a " full @-@ fledged return to pop power " . Some critics , however , pointed out that the album has the " faint whiff of musical conservatism " and " must rank as [ the Super Furry Animals ' ] least adventurous " record .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Tiny Mix Tapes in January 2008 , the band 's vocalist , Gruff Rhys , stated that Hey Venus ! was deliberately conceived as a ' pop ' record following a request from the band 's new record label Rough Trade :
Rhys has also stated that after Love Kraft the band were " kind of thinking of making a loud record " following the " very different atmosphere " at initial shows on the Love Kraft tour , when the group played the " slow " songs from that album . Towards the end of the tour the setlist had become " full of fast songs from [ the Super Furry Animals ] back catalogue " and this had an effect as the band entered into the studio for the Hey Venus ! sessions : " It 's definitely the first time our audience has influenced our music in that sense " . Rhys used his second solo album , Candylion , as an outlet for the quiet , acoustic songs that he had written rather than put them forward for inclusion on Hey Venus ! :
= = Recording = =
The majority of the album was recorded at Miraval Studios , France , picked , at keyboardist Cian Ciaran 's request , because of its large live room which enabled all the band to set up and play as a group . The Super Furries wanted to " go somewhere new and have a cultural experience " while they recorded what is their eighth album together . Recording in France also enabled the band to get away from distractions such as " clean [ ing ] the house " . Additional recording took place at Rockfield Studios , Monmouth while string instruments were recorded at Metropolis Studios , London .
After working with producer Mario Caldato Jr. on their previous albums , Phantom Power and Love Kraft , the band " were looking for someone new to work with " as they didn 't want to repeat these records . They chose Dave Newfeld to produce Hey Venus ! , after hearing his work with Canadian indie rock supergroup Broken Social Scene :
Rhys has praised Newfeld for his " knowledge of pop and what makes people react " stating that " most of the time he just stood there by the desk " and " wouldn 't accept a take until he was physically moved by it " .
As with Love Kraft Rhys was not the sole writer ; guitarist Huw Bunford wrote " Battersea Odyssey " ( inspired by Battersea Power Station ) , while keyboard player Cian Ciaran wrote " Carbon Dating " . Other members of the band contributed songs that do not appear on Hey Venus ! but might " end up on the next record " . Newfeld also encouraged the group to improvise songs , two of which , " Semi Pro " and " Hot Nutz " , appear briefly on footage of the recording process streamed at the band 's website and included with American editions of the album . Rhys claimed these tracks ( along with 32 other improvised songs recorded during the Hey Venus ! sessions ) would " probably never be released " but give " a glimpse into the magic of the Super Furry Animals in the studio , and the kind of atmosphere that Dave created " . However , " Hot Nutz " was reworked as " Moped Eyes " for their next album , Dark Days / Light Years .
Some of the songs recorded barely resemble their earlier demo versions including " Baby Ate My Eightball " , which originally " had this sort of Miami based rhythm with babies crying and glasses smashing " and was " very abrasive " . The finished track ( which features Huw Bunford " impersonating a police or ambulance siren with the backing vocals " ) was mixed three or four times and " barely resembles the original " .
Hey Venus ! reflected the group 's desire to " capture the spirit of the band playing live in a room " . The album was recorded " very quickly " and , as the band did not feel the need to " experiment so much with such a simple record " , is not particularly " sonically adventurous " . In Gruff Rhys 's words Hey Venus ! is " a straight up album of songs ... with key changes and a live band playing them " with more emphasis " on songs than the arrangement " . According to Rhys " nobody brought samplers into the studio , so there 's far less electronics than on a lot of our records ... a lot of electronic music is quite a solitary pursuit . You sit at your computer or sampler and sometimes it 's more of an individual kind of thing . Whereas with this record , we were trying to play as a band : a five people at once kind of record . "
Along with the bass , drums and guitar , several other instruments were used during recording including a dulcimer ( for its " sixties spy movie sound " ) , an electric saz ( on " Into the Night " ) , an " electric @-@ sitar box " ( " Like a drum machine for Indian musicians " ) and a harpsichord which , according to Guto Pryce , was used on a lot of songs " because it was there [ Miraval studios ] , and it was more in tune than the pianos " . The latter had a strong influence on the album with Rhys stating : " when we found the harpsichord everything started to go 1960s ... and we kind of followed that feeling ... " Although Gruff Rhys had initially told fans to expect a " speaker @-@ blowing " LP the addition of instruments such as the harpsichord meant this was not the case ; the album instead highlights the band 's " musical sweet tooth " .
The band enlisted the help of several musicians when making the album including string arranger Sean O 'Hagan ( of The High Llamas ) , percussionist Kris Jenkins and others who the group have " built up relationships with over the years ... the brass players we 've toured with a lot ... Sean O 'Hagan ... brought his string section in ... they 've played on almost all our records " .
Sixteen songs were recorded for the album with only 11 making the final cut . The band made a conscious decision to keep the number of tracks , and therefore the running time of Hey Venus ! , down " because the last three albums have been almost an hour long " . At just over 36 minutes , the album is the shortest full @-@ length release by the band . Some of the songs left off the record were " really heavy and raw " as a result of which Gruff Rhys feels Hey Venus ! is " more consistent with our back catalogue " . Both lead single " Show Your Hand " and " Suckers ! " were originally cut from the album , for being " too generic " and too " obvious ... melodically " respectively , until the band were persuaded to reconsider . Rough Trade Records boss Geoff Travis told the group that " Show Your Hand " was his favourite song and , following the tracks reworking to include a French horn part , it was reinstated . Similarly " Suckers ! " was " really pushed " by producer Dave Newfeld until it too took its place on Hey Venus ! .
The album was mixed by Chris Shaw and the Super Furry Animals at Rockfield Studios and the band 's own studio , Pleasurefoxxx , in Cardiff with Dave Newfeld performing additional mixing duties on " Suckers ! " Mastering was undertaken by Greg Calbi at Sterling Sound , New York .
Rhys has claimed to be particularly pleased with " Into the Night " ( which " was kind of where my head was at , which is quite a ridiculous place to be " ) and " Carbon Dating " ( " probably the most beautiful song on the record " ) while Huw Bunford has described the album as " one of [ the ] best records we 've ever made " .
= = Themes = =
The album documents the life and adventures of a character called Venus as she moves " from a small town to a big metropolis " . The band have been consistent when describing this central story of " running away from relationships , breaking up in a small town , moving to the big city , losing yourself , having your innocence completely corrupted , and living to tell the tale as a wiser person " , however , several conflicting explanations have been given for the appearance of this narrative arc . Chief songwriter Gruff Rhys has claimed that Hey Venus ! was conceived as a concept album :
However both drummer Dafydd Ieuan and Rhys himself have contradicted this statement , Ieuan stating that , although there are " a number of crossovers between songs ... the similarities are more because all the songs were written during a certain period of time " , while Rhys claimed , in an interview with the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , that he only noticed the similar themes running through the songs after he had written them :
A third explanation was provided by Rhys during an interview with American music magazine ALARM when he claimed that the concept only came about when sleeve designer Keiichi Tanaami asked what the album was about :
After the Super Furry Animals had decided to call the album Hey Venus ! they remembered " slightly too late " that the name had already been used by Northern Irish band That Petrol Emotion for a single taken from their Chemicrazy LP . However , as Rhys and Guto Pryce in particular were fans of the band , they reasoned that it " wasn 't necessarily a bad thing to share a name " with the song .
= = Cover = =
Hey Venus ! is the first Super Furry Animals studio album since 1996 's Fuzzy Logic without a cover designed by Pete Fowler . Instead , the band hired Japanese artist Keiichi Tanaami to produce the artwork for the album . According to bassist Guto Pryce the band were " blown away " by Tanaami 's art during a tour of Japan a few years before the release of Hey Venus ! :
The story of the Venus character helped the band give something to Tanaami that he " could read and maybe translate into a visual representation " . After hearing the album the artist came up with something " quite mental " according to Huw Bunford , who went on to state " it 's amazing what he obviously heard in the music " .
The album cover received some criticism from journalists but Gruff Rhys has called it " great " and claims to love the fact that the " graphics and the words are placed in kind of , what seem to be random places ... it 's not a predictable record cover , it doesn 't look like an album by the Editors or something " .
= = Release = =
Hey Venus ! was released on CD , vinyl and as a digital download on 27 August 2007 in the United Kingdom and was the band 's first release for new label Rough Trade Records . In the United States the album 's release was staggered with vinyl and download versions being made available on 28 August 2007 and the CD version being released on 22 January 2008 . The latter came packaged with a bonus CD containing the b @-@ sides of the " Show Your Hand " and " Run @-@ Away " singles as well as video footage of the band recording the improvised songs " Semi @-@ Professional " and " Hot Nutz " at Miraval Studios . Hey Venus ! reached number 11 on the UK Albums Chart and number 19 on Billboard magazine 's Top Heatseekers chart .
" Neo Cosumer " impacted US radio on January 22 , 2008 . " Show Your Hand " and " Run @-@ Away " were released as singles in the UK although neither reached the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart . " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was given away as a free download from the band 's website on Christmas Day 2007 .
= = Critical response = =
Hey Venus ! received a generally favourable reception from critics with The Independent stating that the album " marks a welcome return to form for the Furries " and is " fit to challenge Rings Around the World and Phantom Power as their most satisfying work " and Artrocker calling it the Super Furry Animals ' " eighth excellent album in a row " . Allmusic hailed Hey Venus ! as a " full @-@ fledged return to pop power ... by far the tightest record SFA has released since Radiator " while Yahoo ! Music UK claimed the album is " among the greatest things [ the Super Furry Animals ] have ever done " . London 's Time Out described Hey Venus ! as " a treasure trove of left @-@ of @-@ centre sun @-@ pop that , by rights , should see them back on the radio all day , every day " and the NME claimed that the " melodies on Hey Venus ! are certain to ensnare new hearts in a way hardly any bands who 've been around as long as the Furries can " .
However , some reviews pointed out that the album has the " faint whiff of musical conservatism " with both Uncut and Q calling it a " missed opportunity " , the former going on to describe the record as " a consolidation of affairs rather than a step forward " and suggesting that , " while no means a stinker " it " must rank as their least adventurous " LP . Allmusic countered this opinion , stating that Hey Venus ! contains the kind of " subtle innovations that prove that the Furries can still surprise as they enter their second decade " :
The track " Run @-@ Away " was singled out for praise by several publications with the Independent on Sunday calling the song " outstanding " , Culture Deluxe claiming the track showed the Super Furries at " their pop @-@ best " and proved they " could do no wrong " and the NME stating that " with a chorus as big as guitarist Huw Bunford 's new serial @-@ killer beard , it 's up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury " . " Baby Ate My Eightball " received some criticism , with The Independent claiming that it " falls short of expectations , its limp disco groove providing uncertain footing for Rhys 's rococo confection of harmonies " and Uncut stating that the song , along with " Neo Consumer " , doesn 't " tell us anything we didn 't already know " about the band .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Tour = =
Following the release of Hey Venus ! in the United Kingdom the Super Furry Animals embarked on an 11 date tour of Great Britain and Ireland , ending with two shows at London 's Roundhouse . The group visited Japan and Europe before a US and Canadian tour in January and February 2008 during which fans could vote for songs they wanted to hear by using a " voting widget " on the blog page of the Super Furries ' American record label , Beggars Banquet US .
The band decided to keep the Hey Venus ! tour simple as the elaborate stage designs and costumes used on previous tours tended to wipe out any profits created , resulting in " financial melt @-@ down " for the group in 2006 . Huw Bunford told a Times journalist in August 2007 that the tour would be " like that bit at the end of the Mike Yarwood shows where he said , ' And this is me ' , no gim @-@ micks . Just us . " Despite this the band did perform in front of a backdrop featuring the lighthouse from Tanaami 's cover art and frequently wore hand @-@ tailored suits , featuring patches designed by Tanaami , during shows .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals . Lead vocals by Gruff Rhys unless otherwise stated ..
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Hey Venus ! :
= = Album chart positions = =
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= Monument Valley ( video game ) =
Monument Valley is a puzzle game developed and published by indie studio Ustwo . The player leads the princess Ida through mazes of optical illusions and impossible objects while manipulating the world around her to reach various platforms . Monument Valley was developed over ten months beginning in early 2013 based on concept drawings by company artist Ken Wong . Its visual style was inspired by Japanese prints , minimalist sculpture , and indie games Windosill , Fez , and Sword & Sworcery , and was compared by critics to M. C. Escher drawings and Echochrome . The art was designed such that each frame would be worthy of public display . After a closed beta test , it was released for iOS on April 3 , 2014 , and was later ported to Android and Windows Phone . The game received generally favorable reviews . Critics praised its art and sound design , but noted its lack of difficulty and short length . It won a 2014 Apple Design Award , was named Apple 's best iPad game of 2014 , and sold over two million copies by January 2015 ; by May 2016 , sales of the game exceeded 26 million .
= = Gameplay = =
In Monument Valley , player @-@ character princess Ida journeys through mazes of optical illusions and impossible objects , which are referred to as " sacred geometry " in @-@ game , as she journeys to be forgiven for something . The game is presented in isometric view , and the player interacts with the environment to find hidden passages as Ida progresses to the map 's exit . Each of the ten levels has a different central mechanic . Interactions include moving platforms and pillars , and creating bridges . The player is indirectly cued through the game by design elements like color , and directly cued by crow people , who block Ida 's path . Critics compared the game 's visual style to a vibrant M. C. Escher drawing and Echochrome . The game includes a camera mode where the player can roam the level to compose screenshots . It includes filters similar to those of Instagram .
= = Development = =
Monument Valley was developed by Ustwo , a digital design firm founded in 2004 that has produced iPhone apps since 2007 . Their Whale Trail game received millions of downloads , and their other apps include design app Granimator and photo sharing app Rando . Monument Valley was conceived as a touch game for tablets . Its development began in the beginning of 2013 , and lasted 10 months . It began with a piece of concept art drawn in the style of M. C. Escher , and the final design did not deviate far from this original . Ustwo management did not give the development team a timeline or budget , and instead told them to focus on " making a high @-@ quality product " . Games development is not a large portion of Ustwo 's revenue , so the company focuses its games development on producing " great products " that reflect well on the company , rather than highly profitable apps .
Of the art style , game designer and artist Ken Wong said he aspired to make each frame of the gameplay worthy of public display . The project began as Wong 's concept drawings before it became a game project . The visual style was inspired by Japanese prints , minimalist sculpture , and indie games Windosill , Fez , and Superbrothers : Sword & Sworcery EP . Wong added that the gameplay was designed to let the player find the object of the game through exploration , without direct guidance . The game uses colors to signify where the player can interact , similar to Mirror 's Edge . Wong compared the gameplay experience to a cross between the wonder of a toy shop and the world of The Lion , the Witch , and the Wardrobe , and its story to a symbolic " song " rather than a narrative book . The game was designed to be completed by most players , a style uncommon for games designed for popular audiences . It was intended to be a " premium experience " rather than a difficult challenge .
The game was in beta as of December 2013 , where it had over 1 @,@ 000 testers and the average finish time was 90 minutes . It was planned as an iPad exclusive . The game was initially released for iOS on April 3 , 2014 , and the company recouped their cost of development within the first two weeks of release . An Android port went through two beta tests and was later released on May 14 , 2014 . More levels were in development , as of April 2014 . Ustwo said they were adding the levels for " artistic reasons " , such as ideas they wanted to try but could not fit into the original release . Wong stated that , with consumer interest , the company would consider porting the game to other platforms . The game 's technical director said that the game was " not very difficult to port " since it was written in the Unity game engine . But as the game was built with a portrait ( vertical ) screen orientation in mind , the developer had difficulty converting the game for devices with landscape @-@ oriented ( horizontal ) screens , such as the YouTube trailer video format and the PlayStation Vita .
An add @-@ on expansion , entitled Forgotten Shores , was released for iOS devices on November 12 , 2014 , on the Appstore on November 20 , 2014 and on Google Play Store on November 24 , 2014 . This adds eight additional levels to the ten in the original game . A Windows Phone port was released on April 30 , 2015 .
The game 's soundtrack features music by Stafford Bawler , Obfusc , and Grigori . A limited edition vinyl two @-@ volume recording is set to be released by Ustwo and iam8bit sometime in the second quarter of 2016 , and will include the music from the main game and its two expansions .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It immediately went to the top of the App Store paid apps chart , where it stayed for at least a month based on strong reviews and word of mouth . It was chosen as an App Store Editor 's Choice and later both received a 2014 Apple Design Award and was named Apple 's best iPad game of 2014 . Pocket Gamer gave the game their gold award , and their Harry Slater wrote that there was " nothing else like Monument Valley on the App Store " .
Multiple reviewers cited the art and sound design as exceptional . Edge added that the sound design 's addition of " deep rumbles " and environmental " clicks " gave the game the feeling of Tomb Raider 's moving " ancient mechanisms " . TouchArcade 's Shaun Musgrave called the visuals " almost impossibly gorgeous " , and Wired wrote that the game " might be the most beautiful iPad game of 2014 " . Creative Review called the game 's puzzles " clever " and appreciated the developers ' attention to detail .
While Polygon 's Danielle Riendeau praised the puzzle design , other critics noted its lack of difficulty and short length . Riendeau wrote that the puzzles solutions always felt intuitive and never felt frustrating . She found " everything " about the game to be " soothing , almost hypnotic " . Edge thought that the game did not present a " genuine " challenge , and that the puzzles did not " find fresh ways to confound and delight " until the final levels . The magazine compared the game to " assembling flat @-@ pack furniture " : straightforward in its process , but rewarding in its transformation . Harry Slater of Pocket Gamer wrote that the game was " almost breathtakingly unique " . Riendeau said she finished the game in under three hours , and TouchArcade 's Shaun Musgrave , who could not " even begin to imagine anyone getting stuck on ... the puzzles " , put the game 's length at " an hour and change " . Jeff Marchiafava of Game Informer wanted more content . He was also unsatisfied with the game 's narrative , which he found " obtuse " and " vague " to a fault . Musgrave of TouchArcade thought that while games that focus on experiences can be shorter , Monument Valley did not last long enough " for the mechanics to reach their full potential " , though the time was " just about right " for the story .
Monument Valley sold 500 @,@ 000 copies in a month , and one million copies in three months . In November 2014 , the game had sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies and by January 2015 , the game had sold 2 @.@ 4 million copies . In January 2015 , Ustwo noted that the game had seen a large amount of software piracy , with 95 % of the installs on Android and 60 % on iOS devices coming from unpaid copies ; the company asserted some of these may include users installing on multiple devices but believe the majority was though users that had not purchased the title . While these numbers were discouraging , the company asserted it will continue to develop premium titles for mobile devices . Despite the piracy , Ustwo stated they have exceeded $ 6 million in revenue from sales of the game as of mid @-@ January 2015 , exceeding the $ 1 @.@ 4 million in development costs . By January 2016 , USTwo reported that more than 24 million users have downloaded the game , the ten @-@ fold increase from 2015 partially due to legitimate giveaways of the game through Apple 's App Store , Google Play , and Amazon Underground . Of about seven million of the free downloads through Apple , about 35 % of them purchased the " Forgotten Shores " expansion . Ustwo reported total sales over $ 14 million from 26 million copies by May 2016 .
The game was named as a finalist for Innovation Award , Best Visual Art , and Best Handhold / Mobile Game for the 2015 Game Developers Choice Awards , and was an honorable mention for Best Design . The game was also named a finalist for Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction , Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction , Outstanding Innovation in Gaming , Mobile Game of the Year , and the D.I.C.E. Spirit Award for the 18th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . The title won the BAFTA Video Game Awards for best " British Game " and " Mobile / Handheld Game " , while nominated for " Best Game " , " Artistic Achievement " , and " Original Property " awards . Time magazine placed the game on their best of list while being Game Informer 's " Editor 's Choice " for " Best Mobile Exclusive " .
= = Legacy = =
The game was a " minor plot point " in the third season of House of Cards , in which Frank Underwood plays the game ; he is inspired by video gamer reviewer Thomas Yates 's elegant description of Monument Valley to bring the reviewer on as his biographer . According to the studio Ustwo , they were approached by Netflix about including the game in the story , and the studio readily agreed without any financial compensation . They made a specialized version of the game for the show to aid in filming and to meet a description of the game provided within the script for the first episode in which it appeared . Ustwo saw the opportunity to introduce the title to a different audience set , and have already seen an increase in sales as a result of this appearance . The game re @-@ entered the top of the most download app charts on the major app stores a few days after the February 2015 release of the season on Netflix . Monument Valley characters were added to the cast of Crossy Road in late 2015 . Jaz Rignall ( USgamer ) noted that the 2015 Lara Croft Go appeared to have been influenced by Monument Valley .
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= Ihr werdet weinen und heulen , BWV 103 =
Ihr werdet weinen und heulen ( You shall weep and wail ) , BWV 103 , is a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach , a church cantata for the third Sunday after Easter , called Jubilate ( Jubilate Sunday ) .
Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig and first performed it on 22 April 1725 . It is the first of nine cantatas on texts by Christiana Mariana von Ziegler , which Bach composed at the end of his second annual cycle of cantatas in Leipzig . Based on the Gospel reading from the Farewell Discourse , where Jesus , announcing that he will leave , says " your sorrow shall be turned into joy " , Bach contrasts music of sorrow and joy , notably in the unusual first movement , where he inserts an almost operatic recitative of Jesus in the fugal choral setting . The architecture of the movement combines elements of the usual concerto form with the more text @-@ related older form of a motet . Bach scores an unusual flauto piccolo ( descant recorder in D ) as an obbligato instrument in an aria contemplating the sorrow of missing Jesus , who is addressed as a doctor who shall heal the wounds of sins . Bach scores a trumpet in only one movement , an aria expressing the joy about the predicted return of Jesus . The cantata in six movements closes with a chorale , the ninth stanza of Paul Gerhardt 's hymn " Barmherzger Vater , höchster Gott " .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in Leipzig for third Sunday after Easter , called Jubilate . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of Peter , " Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man " ( 1 Peter 2 : 11 – 20 ) , and from the Gospel of John , Jesus announcing his second coming in the so @-@ called Farewell Discourse , saying " your sorrow shall be turned into joy " ( John 16 : 16 – 23 ) . For this occasion Bach had already composed in 1714 Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 , which he used later as the basis for the movement Crucifixus in his Mass in B minor .
In his second year in Leipzig , Bach composed chorale cantatas between the first Sunday after Trinity and Palm Sunday , but for Easter he returned to cantatas on more varied texts , possibly because he lost his librettist . Nine of his cantatas for consecutive occasions in the period between Easter and Pentecost are based on texts by Christiana Mariana von Ziegler , this one being the first of the series especially written for Bach . He had possibly commissioned them in 1724 for his first cantata cycle but not composed them at that time , because of his exceptional workload in creating the St John Passion .
The librettist begins with a quotation from the Gospel , verse 20 , and concludes with the ninth stanza of Paul Gerhardt 's hymn " Barmherzger Vater , höchster Gott " ( 1653 ) . Her own poetry reflects , in a sequence of recitatives and arias , in two movements sadness at the loss of Jesus , and in two others joy at his predicted return . Bach edited her writing considerably , for example in movement 4 , excising two lines of four and rephrasing the others .
Bach first performed the cantata on 22 April 1725 with the Thomanerchor . For later performances , he revised the instrumentation , replacing the flauto piccolo by a flauto traverso .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata in six movements is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , trumpet , flauto piccolo ( descant recorder in D ) , two oboes d 'amore , two violins , viola and continuo .
Chorus and arioso ( bass ) : Ihr werdet weinen und heulen
Recitative ( tenor ) : Wer sollte nicht in Klagen untergehn
Aria ( alto ) : Kein Arzt ist außer dir zu finden
Recitative ( alto ) : Du wirst mich nach der Angst auch wiederum erquicken
Aria ( tenor ) : Erholet euch , betrübte Sinnen
Chorale : Ich hab dich einen Augenblick
= = Music = =
The cantata begins in B minor , illustrating sorrow , but in movement 4 shifts to the relative major key of D major , illustrating the theme of consolation in Ziegler 's text .
The opening chorus has an unusual structure , which includes an arioso passage for the bass voice . All instruments except the trumpet play a ritornello , after which a choral fugue pictures the weeping and wailing of the text in unrelated musical material , rich in chromaticism . In great contrast the following line , " aber die Welt wird sich freuen " ( But the world will rejoice ) , is conveyed by the chorus embedded in a repeat of the first part of the ritornello . The sequence is repeated on a larger scale : this time the fugue renders both lines of the text as a double fugue with the second theme taken from the ritornello , then the ritornello is repeated in its entirety . The bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) sings three times , with a sudden tempo change to adagio , " Ihr aber werdet traurig sein " ( But you will be sad ) as an accompagnato recitative . Musicologist Julian Mincham notes : " This recitative is a mere eight bars long but its context and piteousness give it enormous dramatic impact . Bach 's lack of respect for the conservative Leipzig authorities ' dislike of operatic styles in religious music was never more apparent ! " Klaus Hofmann compares the recitative 's " highly expressive melody and harmony " to Bach 's Passions . Finally , the extended sequence of fugue and ritornello with chorus returns transposed , on the text " Doch eure Traurigkeit soll in Freude verkehret werden " ( Yet your sorrow shall be changed into joy ) . According to Alfred Dürr , the architecture of the movement is a large scale experiment combining elements of the older style of a text @-@ related motet with the form of a concerto of instrumental groups and voices , as typically used by Bach .
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000 , notes that Bach 's " strategy is to superimpose these opposite moods , binding them in a mutually enlightening whole and emphasising that it is the same God who both dispenses and then ameliorates these conditions .
Movement 2 is a secco recitative for tenor , concluding in an arioso section with a " deeply moving " melisma on the word " Schmerzen " ( sorrows ) . Movement 3 , " Kein Arzt ist außer dir zu finden " ( Besides You is no doctor to be found ) is an aria for alto with the obbligato flauto piccolo , which according to Mincham , employs a " figuration ever striving upwards , moderates the underlying sense of potential tragedy " . The alto recitative " marks a change of scene " , it begins in B minor , like the opening chorus , but modulates to D @-@ major and ends with a wide @-@ ranging coloratura marking the word " Freude " ( joy ) . Movement 5 , " Erholet euch , betrübte Sinnen " ( Recover now , O troubled feelings ) , picks up the joyful coloraturas , supported by the trumpet and fanfares in triads in the orchestra , Mincham notes that the trumpet " bursts upon us with an energy , acclamation and jubilation unheard , so far , in this work " . The cantata is closed with a four @-@ part setting of the chorale , sung to the melody of " Was mein Gott will , das g 'scheh allzeit " which Bach used frequently , including in his St Matthew Passion .
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable table are excerpt from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . For several recordings , the name of the bass soloist is not provided . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
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= OPEC =
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC , / ˈoʊpɛk / OH @-@ pek , or OPEP in several other languages ) is an intergovernmental organization of 14 nations , founded in 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members , and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna . As of 2015 , the 14 countries accounted for 43 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world 's " proven " oil reserves , giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices .
OPEC 's stated mission is " to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets , in order to secure an efficient , economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers , a steady income to producers , and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry . " As of July 2016 , OPEC 's members are Algeria , Angola , Ecuador , Gabon , Indonesia , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Libya , Nigeria , Qatar , Saudi Arabia ( the de facto leader ) , United Arab Emirates , and Venezuela . Two @-@ thirds of OPEC 's oil production and reserves are in its six Middle Eastern countries that surround the oil @-@ rich Persian Gulf .
The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward national sovereignty over natural resources , and OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil market and international relations . The effect can be particularly strong when wars or civil disorders lead to extended interruptions in supply . In the 1970s , restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices and OPEC revenue and wealth , with long @-@ lasting and far @-@ reaching consequences for the global economy . In the 1980s , OPEC started setting production targets for its member nations ; and generally when the production targets are reduced , oil prices increase . In December 2014 , " OPEC and the oil men " ranked as # 3 on Lloyd 's list of " the top 100 most influential people in the shipping industry " – although their influence on international trade is periodically challenged by the expansion of non @-@ OPEC energy sources , and by the recurring temptation for individual OPEC members to exceed production ceilings .
= = Membership = =
= = = Current member countries = = =
As of July 2016 , OPEC has 14 member countries : six in the Middle East ( Western Asia ) , one in Southeast Asia , five in Africa , and two in South America . Their combined rate of oil production represented 43 percent of the world 's total in 2015 , and they accounted for 73 percent of the world 's " proven " oil reserves , including 48 percent from just the six Middle Eastern members :
In October 2015 , Sudan formally submitted an application to join OPEC . Approval of a new member country requires agreement by three @-@ fourths of the existing members , including all five of the founders .
= = = Lapsed members = = =
For countries that export petroleum at relatively low volume , their limited negotiating power as OPEC members would not necessarily justify the burdens imposed by OPEC production quotas and membership costs . Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992 , because it was unwilling to pay the annual US $ 2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under its OPEC quota at the time , although it rejoined in October 2007 . Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995 ; it rejoined in July 2016 . In May 2008 , Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year , having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota . It rejoined the organization in January 2016 .
Some commentators consider that the United States was a de facto member of OPEC during its formal occupation of Iraq , due to its leadership of the Coalition Provisional Authority in 2003 – 2004 . But this is not borne out by the minutes of OPEC meetings , as no US representative attended in an official capacity .
= = = Observers = = =
Since the 1980s , representatives from Egypt , Mexico , Norway , Oman , Russia , and other oil @-@ exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers , as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies .
= = = Leadership and decision @-@ making = = =
The OPEC Conference is the supreme authority of the organization , and consists of delegations normally headed by the oil ministers of member countries . The chief executive of the organization is the OPEC Secretary General . The Conference ordinarily meets at the Vienna headquarters , at least twice a year and in additional extraordinary sessions when necessary . It generally operates on the principles of unanimity and " one member , one vote " , with each country paying an equal membership fee into the annual budget . However , since Saudi Arabia is by far the largest and most @-@ profitable oil exporter in the world , with enough capacity to function as the traditional swing producer to balance the global market , it serves as " OPEC 's de facto leader " .
= = = International cartel = = =
At various times , OPEC members have displayed apparent anti @-@ competitive cartel behavior through the organization 's agreements about oil production and price levels . In fact , economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition , as in this definition from OECD 's Glossary of Industrial Organisation Economics and Competition Law :
International commodity agreements covering products such as coffee , sugar , tin and more recently oil ( OPEC : Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ) are examples of international cartels which have publicly entailed agreements between different national governments .
OPEC members strongly prefer to describe their organization as a modest force for market stabilization , rather than a powerful anti @-@ competitive cartel . In its defense , the organization was founded as a counterweight against the previous " Seven Sisters " cartel of multinational oil companies , and non @-@ OPEC energy suppliers have always had enough market share to maintain a substantial degree of worldwide competition . Moreover , widespread cheating within OPEC largely neutralizes its collective ability to influence global oil prices through members ' agreements .
OPEC has not been involved in any disputes related to the competition rules of the World Trade Organization , even though the objectives , actions , and principles of the two organizations diverge considerably . A key US District Court decision held that OPEC consultations are protected as " governmental " acts of state by the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act , and are therefore beyond the legal reach of US competition law governing " commercial " acts . Despite popular sentiment against OPEC , legislative proposals to limit sovereign immunity , such as the NOPEC Act , have so far been unsuccessful .
= = = Conflicts = = =
OPEC often has difficulty agreeing on policy decisions because its member countries differ widely in their oil export capacities , production costs , reserves , geological features , population , economic development , and political circumstances . Indeed , oil reserves can themselves become a source of serious conflict and instability , in what economists call the " natural resource curse " . A further complication is that religion @-@ linked conflicts in the Middle East are recurring features of the geopolitical landscape for this oil @-@ rich region . Internationally important conflicts in OPEC 's history have included the Six @-@ Day War ( 1967 ) , Yom Kippur War ( 1973 ) , a hostage siege directed by Palestinian militants ( 1975 ) , the Iranian Revolution ( 1979 ) , Iran – Iraq War ( 1980 – 1988 ) , Iraqi occupation of Kuwait ( 1990 – 1991 ) , September 11 attacks by mostly Saudi hijackers ( 2001 ) , American occupation of Iraq ( 2003 – 2011 ) , Conflict in the Niger Delta ( 2004 – present ) , Arab Spring ( 2010 – 2012 ) , Libyan Crisis ( 2011 – present ) , and international Embargo against Iran ( 2012 – 2016 ) . Although events such as these can temporarily disrupt oil supplies and elevate prices , the frequent disputes and instabilities tend to limit OPEC 's long @-@ term cohesion and effectiveness .
= = Market information = =
As one area in which OPEC members have been able to cooperate productively over the decades , the organization has significantly improved the quality and quantity of information available about the international oil market .
= = = Publications and research = = =
In April 2001 , OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations ( APEC , Eurostat , IEA , OLADE , UNSD ) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data . They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise , which in 2005 was joined by IEF and renamed the Joint Organisations Data Initiative ( JODI ) , covering more than 90 percent of the global oil market . GECF joined as an eighth partner in 2014 , enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90 percent of the global market for natural gas .
Since 2007 , OPEC has published the " World Oil Outlook " ( WOO ) annually , in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium- and long @-@ term projections for supply and demand . OPEC also produces an " Annual Statistical Bulletin " ( ASB ) , and publishes more @-@ frequent updates in its " Monthly Oil Market Report " ( MOMR ) and " OPEC Bulletin " .
= = = Crude oil benchmarks = = =
A " crude oil benchmark " is a standardized petroleum product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil . Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ based on variety , grade , delivery date and location , and other legal requirements .
The OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000 . It is calculated as a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries : Saharan Blend ( Algeria ) , Girassol ( Angola ) , Oriente ( Ecuador ) , Rabi Light ( Gabon ) , Minas ( Indonesia ) , Iran Heavy ( Islamic Republic of Iran ) , Basra Light ( Iraq ) , Kuwait Export ( Kuwait ) , Es Sider ( Libya ) , Bonny Light ( Nigeria ) , Qatar Marine ( Qatar ) , Arab Light ( Saudi Arabia ) , Murban ( UAE ) , and Merey ( Venezuela ) .
North Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils , and is used to price approximately two @-@ thirds of the world 's traded crude oil . Other well @-@ known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate ( WTI ) , Dubai Crude , Oman Crude , and Urals oil .
= = = Spare capacity = = =
The US Energy Information Administration , the statistical arm of the US Department of Energy , defines spare capacity for crude oil market management " as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days ... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market 's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies . "
In November 2014 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) estimated that OPEC 's " effective " spare capacity , adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria , was 3 @.@ 5 million barrels per day ( 560 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of 4 @.@ 6 million barrels per day ( 730 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . By November 2015 , the IEA changed its assessment " with OPEC 's spare production buffer stretched thin , as Saudi Arabia – which holds the lion 's share of excess capacity – and its Gulf neighbours pump at near @-@ record rates . "
= = History = =
= = = Post @-@ WWII situation = = =
In 1949 , Venezuela and Iran took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC , by inviting Iraq , Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum @-@ exporting nations as the world recovered from World War II . At the time , some of the world 's largest oil fields were just entering production in the Middle East . The United States had established the Interstate Oil Compact Commission to join the Texas Railroad Commission in limiting overproduction . The US was simultaneously the world 's largest producer and consumer of oil ; and the world market was dominated by a group of multinational companies known as the " Seven Sisters " , five of which were headquartered in the US .
= = = 1959 – 1960 anger from exporting countries = = =
In February 1959 , the multinational oil companies ( MOCs ) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent . Weeks later , the first Arab Petroleum Congress convened in Cairo , Egypt , where the influential journalist Wanda Jablonski introduced Saudi Arabia 's Abdullah Tariki to Venezuela 's Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo . Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts , and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or Gentlemen 's Agreement , calling for an " Oil Consultation Commission " of exporting countries , to which MOCs should present price @-@ change plans . Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against " absentee landlordism " of the MOCs , which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence . In August 1960 , ignoring the warnings , and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons , the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil .
= = = 1960 – 1975 founding and expansion = = =
The following month , during 10 – 14 September 1960 , the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki and Pérez Alfonzo . The governments of Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries , and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs . Despite strong US opposition : " Together with Arab and non @-@ Arab producers , Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries ( OPEC ) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations . " The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut , but Venezuela argued for a neutral location , and so Geneva , Switzerland was chosen . On 1 September 1965 , OPEC moved to Vienna , Austria , after Switzerland declined to extend diplomatic privileges .
During 1961 – 1975 , the five founding nations were joined by Qatar ( 1961 ) , Indonesia ( 1962 – 2008 , rejoined 2016 ) , Libya ( 1962 ) , United Arab Emirates ( originally just the Emirate of Abu Dhabi , 1967 ) , Algeria ( 1969 ) , Nigeria ( 1971 ) , Ecuador ( 1973 – 1992 , rejoined 2007 ) , and Gabon ( 1975 – 1994 , rejoined 2016 ) . Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion , Mohammed Barkindo , OPEC 's Acting Secretary General in 2006 , urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join , and Angola did in 2007 . Since the 1980s , representatives from Egypt , Mexico , Norway , Oman , Russia , and other oil @-@ exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers , as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies .
= = = 1973 – 1974 oil embargo = = =
In October 1973 , the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OAPEC , consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria ) declared significant production cuts and an oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War . A previous embargo attempt was largely ineffective in response to the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 . However , in 1973 , the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues , from US $ 3 / bbl to US $ 12 / bbl , and an emergency period of energy rationing , intensified by panic reactions , a declining trend in US oil production , currency devaluations , and a lengthy UK coal @-@ miners dispute . For a time , the UK imposed an emergency three @-@ day workweek . Seven European nations banned non @-@ essential Sunday driving . US gas stations limited the amount of gasoline that could be dispensed , closed on Sundays , and restricted the days when gasoline could be purchased , based on license plate numbers . Even after the embargo ended in March 1974 following intense diplomatic activity , prices continued to rise . The world experienced a global economic recession , with unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously , steep declines in stock and bond prices , major shifts in trade balances and petrodollar flows , and a dramatic end to the post @-@ WWII economic boom .
The 1973 – 1974 oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialized nations , which established the International Energy Agency in response . Oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits on highways , smaller and more energy @-@ efficient cars and appliances , year @-@ round daylight saving time , reduced usage of heating and air @-@ conditioning , better insulation , increased support of mass transit , national emergency stockpiles , and greater emphasis on coal , natural gas , ethanol , nuclear and other alternative energy sources . These efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption would rise only 11 percent during 1980 – 2014 , while real GDP rose 150 percent . But in the 1970s , OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations , at least in the short term .
= = = 1975 Special Fund = = =
OPEC 's international aid activities date from well before the 1973 – 1974 oil price explosion . For example , the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has operated since 1961 .
OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio @-@ economic growth of poorer nations . The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in Algiers , Algeria , in March 1975 , and was formally established the following January . " A Solemn Declaration ' reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment , ' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries ... [ The Fund 's ] resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels . " The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the OPEC Fund for International Development ( OFID ) .
= = = 1975 hostage siege = = =
On 21 December 1975 , Saudi Arabia 's Ahmed Zaki Yamani , Iran 's Jamshid Amuzegar , and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi @-@ annual conference in Vienna , Austria . The attack , which killed three non @-@ ministers , was orchestrated by a six @-@ person team led by Venezuelan terrorist Carlos the Jackal , and which included Gabriele Kröcher @-@ Tiedemann and Hans @-@ Joachim Klein . The self @-@ named " Arm of the Arab Revolution " group called for the liberation of Palestine . Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers , except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed .
Carlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages , with stops in Algiers and Tripoli , planning to fly eventually to Baghdad , where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed . All 30 non @-@ Arab hostages were released in Algiers , excluding Amuzegar . Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers . With only 10 hostages remaining , Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian President Houari Boumédienne , who informed Carlos that the oil ministers ' deaths would result in an attack on the plane . Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment . Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar , then he and his comrades left the plane . All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation , two days after it began .
Some time after the attack , Carlos 's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by Wadie Haddad , a founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president , widely thought to be Libya 's Muammar al @-@ Gaddafi . Fellow militants Bassam Abu Sharif and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between US $ 20 million and US $ 50 million from " an Arab president " . Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran , but that the money was " diverted en route and lost by the Revolution " .
= = = 1979 – 1980 oil crisis and 1980s oil glut = = =
In response to oil nationalizations and the high prices of the 1970s , industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil , especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US $ 40 / bbl in 1979 – 1980 when the Iranian Revolution and Iran – Iraq War disrupted regional stability and oil supplies . Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal , natural gas , or nuclear power ; national governments initiated multibillion @-@ dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil ; and commercial exploration developed major non @-@ OPEC oilfields in Siberia , Alaska , the North Sea , and the Gulf of Mexico . By 1986 , daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels , non @-@ OPEC production rose by an even @-@ larger amount , and OPEC 's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985 . The result was a six @-@ year decline in the price of oil , which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone .
To combat falling revenue from oil sales , in 1982 Saudi Arabia pushed OPEC for audited national production quotas in an attempt to limit output and boost prices . When other OPEC nations failed to comply , Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979 – 1981 to just one @-@ third of that level in 1985 . When this proved ineffective , Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil , causing prices to fall below US $ 10 / bbl and higher @-@ cost producers to become unprofitable . Faced with increasing economic hardship ( which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989 ) , OPEC members that had previously failed to comply with quotas finally began to limit production to shore up prices , based on national quotas that sought to balance oil @-@ related and economic criteria since 1986 . ( Within their sovereign territories , the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government @-@ owned and private oil companies . ) Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced , oil prices increase .
= = = 1990 – 2011 responses to wars and instability = = =
Leading up to his 1990 Invasion of Kuwait , Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was pressuring OPEC to end overproduction and to push oil prices higher , in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980 – 1988 Iran – Iraq War . But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization , and oil prices subsided quickly after the short @-@ term supply disruptions . The 2001 September 11 attacks and the 2003 American invasion of Iraq had even milder short @-@ term impacts on oil prices , as Saudi Arabia and other exporters cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied .
Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992 , because it was unwilling to pay the annual US $ 2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota , although it rejoined in October 2007 . Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995 ; it rejoined in July 2016 . Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization 's founding , but Iraqi production has not been a part of any OPEC quota agreements since 1998 , due to the country 's daunting political difficulties .
Lower demand triggered by the 1997 – 1998 Asian financial crisis saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels . After oil slumped to around US $ 10 / bbl , joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC , Mexico and Norway .
In 2003 , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues , and they have continued to meet regularly since then to " better understand trends , analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability . "
Widespread insurgency and sabotage during the 2003 – 2008 height of the American occupation of Iraq , combined with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and investors , recurring violence against the Nigerian oil industry , and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against global supply disruptions , prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC . Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008 , as WTI crude oil surged to a record US $ 147 / bbl in July and then plunged to just US $ 32 / bbl in December , during the worst global recession since World War II . OPEC 's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008 , estimated around US $ 800 billion , and would go on to approximate US $ 1 trillion in 2011 – 2013 before plunging again . By the time of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and Arab Spring , OPEC was calling for more efforts by governments and regulatory bodies to curb " excessive speculation " in oil futures markets , blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility in prices , disconnected from market fundamentals .
In May 2008 , Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year , having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota . A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia 's withdrawal , noting that OPEC " regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization , and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not @-@ too @-@ distant future . "
= = = 2008 production dispute = = =
The differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal politics behind OPEC production quotas . Poorer members have pushed for reductions in OPEC production , to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues . These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia 's stated long @-@ term strategy of being a partner with the world 's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion . Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve and develop alternative fuels , curtailing the worldwide demand for oil . To this point , Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously said in 1973 : " The Stone Age didn 't end because we ran out of stones . "
On 10 September 2008 , a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output . Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas , they stated anonymously that they would not observe them . The New York Times quoted one such delegate as saying : " Saudi Arabia will meet the market 's demand . We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil . The policy has not changed . "
= = = 2014 – 2016 oil glut = = =
During 2014 – 2015 , OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling , and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth . At the same time , US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world @-@ leading " swing producer " volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia , due to substantial improvements in shale " fracking " technology in response to record oil prices . These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements ( on a path toward energy independence ) , a record volume of worldwide oil inventories , and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016 .
In spite of global oversupply , on 27 November 2014 in Vienna , Saudi Oil Minister Ali Al @-@ Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices . Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself at lower price levels , strategically rebuilding OPEC 's long @-@ term market share by ending the profitability of high @-@ cost US shale oil production . As he explained in an interview :
Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output , while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce ? That is crooked logic . If I reduce , what happens to my market share ? The price will go up and the Russians , the Brazilians , US shale oil producers will take my share ... We want to tell the world that high @-@ efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share . That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries ... One thing is for sure : Current prices [ roughly US $ 60 / bbl ] do not support all producers .
A year later , when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015 , the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months , US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak , world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite Libya producing 1 million barrels below capacity , oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as the $ 40s , Indonesia was rejoining the export organization , Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder , Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of international sanctions , hundreds of world leaders at the Paris Agreement were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels , and solar technologies were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent . In light of all these pressures , OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016 . By 20 January 2016 , the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US $ 22 @.@ 48 / bbl – less than one @-@ fourth of its high from June 2014 ( $ 110 @.@ 48 ) , less than one @-@ sixth of its record from July 2008 ( $ 140 @.@ 73 ) , and back below the April 2003 starting point ( $ 23 @.@ 27 ) of its historic run @-@ up .
As 2016 continued , the oil glut was gradually trimmed with significant production offline in the US , Canada , Libya , Nigeria and China , and the price gradually rose back toward US $ 50 / bbl . OPEC maintained the status quo at its June conference , and endorsed " prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers " , with the world waiting to see if and when and how the oil market would fully return to balance .
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= George Koval =
George Abramovich Koval ( Russian : Жорж ( Георгий ) Абра ́ мович Кова ́ ль ; IPA : [ ˈʐorʐ ( ɡʲɪˈorɡʲɪj ) ɐˈbraməvʲɪtɕ kɐˈvalʲ ] , Zhorzh Abramovich Koval , December 25 , 1913 – January 31 , 2006 ) was an American who acted as a Soviet intelligence officer . According to Russian sources , Koval 's infiltration of the Manhattan Project as a Glavnoye Razvedyvatel 'noye Upravleniye ( GRU ) agent " drastically reduced the amount of time it took for Russia to develop nuclear weapons . "
Koval was born to Jewish immigrants in Sioux City , Iowa , USA . Shortly after reaching adulthood he traveled with his parents to the Soviet Union to settle in the Jewish Autonomous Region near the Chinese border . Koval was recruited by the Soviet Main Intelligence Directorate , trained , and assigned the code name DELMAR . He returned to the United States in 1940 and was drafted into the US Army in early 1943 . Koval worked at atomic research laboratories and , according to the Russian government , relayed back to the Soviet Union information about the production processes and volumes of the polonium , plutonium , and uranium used in American atomic weaponry , and descriptions of the weapon production sites . In 1948 , Koval left on a European vacation but never returned to the United States . In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval the Hero of the Russian Federation decoration for " his courage and heroism while carrying out special missions " .
= = Early life = =
George Koval 's father , Abram Koval , left his home town of Telekhany in Belarus to immigrate to the United States in 1910 . Abram , a carpenter , settled in Sioux City , Iowa , which at the turn of the 20th century was home to a sizeable Jewish population of merchants and craftsmen . He and his wife Ethel Shenitsky Koval raised three sons : Isaya , born 1912 ; George ( or Zhorzh ) , born Christmas 1913 ; and Gabriel , born 1919 .
George Koval attended Central High School , a red @-@ brick Victorian building better known as " the Castle on the Hill " . Neighbors recalled that Koval spoke openly of his Communist beliefs . While attending Central High he was a member of the Honor Society and the debate team . He graduated in 1929 at the age of 15 . Meanwhile , his parents left Sioux City as the Great Depression deepened . Abram Koval became the secretary for ICOR , the Organization for Jewish Colonization in the Soviet Union . Founded by American Jewish Communists in 1924 , the group helped to finance and publicize the development of the " Jewish Autonomous Region " – the Communist answer to Jewish emigration to the British Mandate of Palestine then being undertaken by the Zionist movement . The Koval family emigrated in 1932 , traveling with a United States family passport . They settled in Birobidzhan , near the border of Manchuria .
The Koval family worked on a collective farm and were profiled by an American Communist daily newspaper in New York City . The journalist Paul Novick wrote to his readers that the family " had exchanged the uncertainty of life as small storekeepers ... for a worry @-@ free existence for themselves and their children . " While Isaya became a champion tractor driver , George Koval improved his Russian language skills in the collective and began studies at the Mendeleev Institute of Chemical Technology in 1934 . At the university he met and married fellow student Lyudmila Ivanova . Koval graduated with honors in five years and received Soviet citizenship .
= = Recruitment and espionage = =
Later , Koval was recruited by the Soviet Main Intelligence Directorate ( Главное Разведывательное Управление ) , or GRU . By the time he received his degree he had left Moscow under orders as part of a subterfuge . He was drafted into the Soviet army in 1939 to explain his sudden disappearance from the city . Though his parents had relinquished their US family passport , Koval returned to the US in 1940 , replacing a spy recalled during Stalin 's purges . His code name was DELMAR . Arriving in San Francisco , he traveled to New York City . According to Arnold Kramish , an American colleague he befriended and with whom he re @-@ established contact in 2000 , it was there that Koval assumed deputy command of the local GRU cell . This outpost operated under the cover of the Raven Electric Company , a supplier to firms such as General Electric . Koval told coworkers he was a native New Yorker and an only child . He ingratiated himself with everyone he met . While Koval originally worked under a pseudonym , gathering information on toxins for use in chemical weapons , his handlers decided to have him work under his real name .
During the beginning of World War II , President Franklin D. Roosevelt had re @-@ introduced the draft ( conscription ) in September 1940 , and Koval registered for it on January 2 , 1941 . Raven Electric Company secured him a year 's deferment from service until February 1942 . According to historian Vladimir Lota , Koval 's handlers wanted him to steal information about chemical weapons , and felt that he would not be able to do so while drafted . When the deferment expired , Koval was inducted into the United States Army . He received basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey before being sent to the Citadel in Charleston , South Carolina . There , Koval served as a private in the 3410th Specialized Training and Reassignment Unit . On August 11 , 1943 , he was transferred to the Army Specialized Training Program , a unit established in December 1942 to provide talented enlistees with an education and technical training . Koval attended the City College of New York ( CCNY ) and studied electrical engineering . His CCNY classmates looked up to the older Koval as a role model and father figure who never did homework and was a noted ladies ' man , never knowing about his Soviet education and wife . Colleagues recalled that he never discussed politics or the Soviet Union .
= = = Atomic secrets = = =
The Specialized Training Program was dissolved in early 1944 , as the progress of the war tipped in favor of the Allies ; many of the CCNY classmates were transferred to the infantry , while Koval and a dozen others were selected for the Special Engineer Detachment . The Detachment was part of the covert project to design , engineer , and fabricate an atomic bomb — an American , Canadian and British initiative known as the Manhattan Project . Koval was assigned to Oak Ridge , Tennessee ; at the time , Project scientists were researching enriched uranium and plutonium @-@ based bombs , with the Oak Ridge laboratories central to the development of both . The Project suffered from a lack of human resources , and asked the Army for technically qualified men .
Koval enjoyed free access to much of Oak Ridge ; he was made a " health physics officer " , and monitored radiation levels across the facility . According to Federal Bureau of Investigation records , the job gave him top @-@ secret security clearance . At the time , Project scientists discovered reactor @-@ produced plutonium was too unstable for the intended bomb designs , and that polonium initiators ( urchin ) were needed for the necessary chain reactions to occur . Koval was charged by his handlers with watching Oak Ridge 's polonium supply to transmit information about it through a Soviet contact named " Clyde " . His information reached Moscow via coded dispatches , couriers , and the Soviet Embassy . Among the intelligence he sent was that Oak Ridge 's polonium was being sent to another Project site at Los Alamos National Laboratory .
Koval was transferred from Oak Ridge to a top @-@ secret lab in Dayton , Ohio on June 27 , 1945 , where polonium initiators were fabricated . The world 's first atomic bomb was detonated in New Mexico on July 16 of that year . Atomic bombs were dropped on Japan on August 6 and 9 , leading to Japan 's surrender and the end of World War II . The Soviet Union responded by increasing efforts to develop its own atomic bomb . While the American Central Intelligence Agency estimated the Soviets would not succeed until 1950 – 53 , the first Soviet atomic bomb was detonated on August 29 , 1949 . The initiator for the plutonium bomb was , according to Russian military officials , " prepared to the ' recipe ' provided by military intelligence agent Delmar [ Koval ] " .
= = Later years = =
After World War II , Koval was discharged from the Army . He returned to New York and CCNY , where he received his bachelor 's degree in electrical engineering on February 1 , 1948 . Telling his friends he was thinking about taking a trip to Poland or Israel , Koval secured a passport for six months ' travel to Europe . According to the Russian publication Rossiyskaya Gazeta , he might have left because American counter @-@ intelligence agents had discovered Soviet literature about his parents after being tipped off about the leak by a Soviet defector . He left by sea in October 1948 and never returned to his birth country . In Russia , he left the Soviet military with discharge papers as an untrained rifleman and the rank of private . His foreign background and service record made him " a very suspicious character " , he wrote to Kramish . Turned down for education and research positions , Koval turned to his old GRU contact , who secured him a job as a laboratory assistant at the Mendeleev Institute . Eventually , Koval managed to obtain a teaching job there ; his students often laughed at his foreign pronunciations for technical terms .
While other spies such as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Klaus Fuchs were caught after the war , Koval apparently went unscrutinized for years . Among the reasons given for his maintained cover was that inter @-@ service politics undermined efforts to perform proper security checks on employees . Another possibility is that the U.S. government chose scientific ability over clear records and political sympathies . In the 1950s , the FBI investigated his wartime activities and interviewed his former colleagues , leaving them with the impression that he might have been a spy . The matter was kept confidential for sixty years as the US was afraid of the damage that would result from the exposure of Koval 's activities .
In 1999 , Koval was living on his small pension in Russia and had heard that U.S. War Veterans like he could apply for U.S. Social Security Payments . He applied . In 2000 , the Social Security Administration 's Office of Central Operations , Baltimore , Maryland in this one sentence letter said , " We are writing to tell you that you do not qualify for retirement benefits . "
Koval described his 57 years of post @-@ spy life living in Russia as " uneventful " . His family knew he had done work for the GRU , but the subject was never discussed . He did not receive any high awards upon his return , a fact that bothered him . Bigger awards went to " career men " , he told Kramish . However , he ended his correspondence by saying that he was not protesting his treatment ; " [ I am thankful ] that I did not find myself in a Gulag , as might well have happened " . Koval died in his Moscow apartment on January 31 , 2006 , at the age of 92 .
Koval 's activities as a spy began to emerge after the publication of a 2002 book , The GRU and the Atomic Bomb , which mentioned Koval by his code name and listed him as one of a handful of spies who evaded counterintelligence groups . On November 3 , 2007 , he received the posthumous title of Hero of the Russian Federation bestowed by Russian President Vladimir Putin . When Koval was honored , the Russian presidential proclamation stated , " Mr Koval , who operated under the pseudonym Delmar , provided information that helped speed up considerably the time it took for the Soviet Union to develop an atomic bomb of its own " .
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= Outer space =
Outer space , or just space , is the void that exists between celestial bodies , including the Earth . It is not completely empty , but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles , predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium as well as electromagnetic radiation , magnetic fields , neutrinos , dust and cosmic rays . The baseline temperature , as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang , is 2 @.@ 7 kelvins ( K ) ( − 270 @.@ 45 ° C ; − 454 @.@ 81 ° F ) . Plasma with a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins in the space between galaxies accounts for most of the baryonic ( ordinary ) matter in outer space ; local concentrations have condensed into stars and galaxies . In most galaxies , observations provide evidence that 90 % of the mass is in an unknown form , called dark matter , which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces . Data indicates that the majority of the mass @-@ energy in the observable universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy . Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe , but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space .
There is no firm boundary where outer space begins . However the Kármán line , at an altitude of 100 km ( 62 mi ) above sea level , is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping . The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty , which was passed by the United Nations in 1967 . This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space . Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space , anti @-@ satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit .
Humans began the physical exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high @-@ altitude balloon flights , followed by manned rocket launches . Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961 and unmanned spacecraft have since reached all of the known planets in the Solar System . Due to the high cost of getting into space , manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon .
Outer space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum and radiation . Microgravity also has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss . In addition to these health and environmental issues , the economic cost of putting objects , including humans , into space is high ; in 1969 , the Apollo program cost approximately $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 395 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) .
= = Discovery = =
In 350 BCE , Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum , a principle that became known as the horror vacui . This concept built upon a 5th @-@ century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides , who denied the possible existence of a void in space . Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist , in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty . As late as the 17th century , the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled .
In ancient China , there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens , some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding . In the 2nd century , astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite , extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars . The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless , " empty and void of substance " . Likewise , the " sun , moon , and the company of stars float in the empty space , moving or standing still " .
The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity . In 1640 , he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum . However , it would remain for his pupil Evangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a vacuum in 1643 . This experiment resulted in the first mercury barometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe . The French mathematician Blaise Pascal reasoned that if the column of mercury was supported by air then the column ought to be shorter at higher altitude where the air pressure is lower . In 1648 , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Florin Périer , repeated the experiment on the Puy de Dôme mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches . This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half @-@ full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand , then contract upon descent .
In 1650 , German scientist Otto von Guericke constructed the first vacuum pump : a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui . He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell , with the density gradually declining with altitude . He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon .
Back in the 15th century , German theologian Nicolaus Cusanus speculated that the Universe lacked a center and a circumference . He believed that the Universe , while not infinite , could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained . These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno in the 16th century . He extended the Copernican heliocentric cosmology to the concept of an infinite Universe filled with a substance he called aether , which did not cause resistance to the motions of heavenly bodies . English philosopher William Gilbert arrived at a similar conclusion , arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void . This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers , including Aristotle , who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies moved .
The concept of a Universe filled with a luminiferous aether remained in vogue among some scientists until the early 20th century . This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate . In 1887 , the Michelson – Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth 's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the speed of light depending on the direction of the planet 's motion . However , the null result indicated something was wrong with the concept . The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned . It was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant , independent of the observer 's motion or frame of reference .
The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite Universe was the Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576 . But the scale of the Universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel . He showed that the star 61 Cygni had a parallax of just 0 @.@ 31 arcseconds ( compared to the modern value of 0 @.@ 287 ″ ) . This corresponds to a distance of over 10 light years . The distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble by measuring the brightness of cepheid variables in that galaxy , a new technique discovered by Henrietta Leavitt . This established that the Andromeda galaxy , and by extension all galaxies , lay well outside the Milky Way .
The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist Charles É . Guillaume in 1896 . Using the estimated radiation of the background stars , he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5 – 6 K. British physicist Arthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3 @.@ 18 K in 1926 . 1933 German physicist Erich Regener used the total measured energy of cosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2 @.@ 8 K.
The modern concept of outer space is based on the " Big Bang " cosmology , first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître . This theory holds that the observable universe originated from a very compact form that has since undergone continuous expansion . The background energy released during the initial expansion has steadily decreased in density , leading to a 1948 prediction by American physicts Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman of a temperature of 5 K for the temperature of space .
The term outer space was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart @-@ Wortley in her poem " The Maiden of Moscow " . The expression outer space was used as an astronomical term by Alexander von Humboldt in 1845 . It was later popularized in the writings of H. G. Wells in 1901 . The shorter term space is actually older , first used to mean the region beyond Earth 's sky in John Milton 's Paradise Lost in 1667 .
= = Formation and state = =
According to the Big Bang theory , the Universe originated in an extremely hot and dense state about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago and began expanding rapidly . About 380 @,@ 000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen — the so @-@ called recombination epoch . When this happened , matter and energy became decoupled , allowing photons to travel freely through space . The matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars , galaxies and other astronomical objects , leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space . As light has a finite velocity , this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe . This leaves open the question as to whether the Universe is finite or infinite .
The present day shape of the Universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe . These observations indicate that the observable universe is flat , meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point will remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe , except for local gravity . The flat Universe , combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating expansion of the Universe , indicates that space has a non @-@ zero vacuum energy , which is called dark energy .
Estimates put the average energy density of the Universe at the equivalent of 5 @.@ 9 protons per cubic meter , including dark energy , dark matter , and baryonic matter ( ordinary matter composed of atoms ) . The atoms account for only 4 @.@ 6 % of the total energy density , or a density of one proton per four cubic meters . The density of the Universe , however , is clearly not uniform ; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies — including very high density in structures within galaxies , such as planets , stars , and black holes — to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density , at least in terms of visible matter . Unlike the matter and dark matter , the dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies : although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass @-@ energy in the Universe , dark energy 's influence is 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way .
= = Environment = =
Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum . It has effectively no friction , allowing stars , planets and moons to move freely along their ideal orbits . However , even the deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter , as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter . By comparison , the air we breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter . The sparse density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered : the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 1023 km , or 10 billion light years . In spite of this , extinction , which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas , is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy .
Stars , planets and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction . Atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary : the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from the surrounding environment . The Earth 's atmospheric pressure drops to about 0 @.@ 032 Pa at 100 kilometres ( 62 miles ) of altitude , compared to 100 @,@ 000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) definition of standard pressure . Beyond this altitude , isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind . The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure , temperature and composition , and varies greatly due to space weather .
The temperature of the vacuum is measured in terms of the kinetic activity of the gas , as it is on Earth . However , the radiation that fills the vacuum has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas , meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium . All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang , which is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . ( There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background . ) The current black body temperature of the background radiation is about 3 K ( − 270 ° C ; − 454 ° F ) . The gas temperatures in outer space are always at least the temperature of the CMB but can be much higher . For example , the corona of the Sun has temperatures which range over 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 6 million K.
Outside of a protective atmosphere and magnetic field , there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic subatomic particles known as cosmic rays . These particles have energies ranging from about 106 eV up to an extreme 1020 eV of ultra @-@ high @-@ energy cosmic rays . The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV , with approximately 87 % protons , 12 % helium nuclei and 1 % heavier nuclei . In the high energy range , the flux of electrons is only about 1 % of that of protons . Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a health threat to space travelers . According to astronauts , like Don Pettit , space has a burned / metallic odor that clings to their suits and equipment , similar to the scent of an arc welding torch .
Despite the harsh environment , several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods . Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007 . Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1 @.@ 5 years . A strain of bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low @-@ Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment . The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life @-@ harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world . A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System , with potentially microorganism @-@ bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus , Earth , and Mars .
= = = Effect on human bodies = = =
Sudden exposure to very low pressure , such as during a rapid decompression , can cause pulmonary barotrauma — a rupture of the lungs , due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside of the chest . Even if the victim 's airway is fully open , the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture . Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses , bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues , and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to hypoxia .
As a consequence of rapid decompression , any oxygen dissolved in the blood will empty into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient . Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain , humans and animals will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes . Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6 @.@ 3 kPa , and this condition is called ebullism . The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation , but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture . Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels , so some blood remains liquid . Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit . The Crew Altitude Protection Suit ( CAPS ) , a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for Shuttle astronauts , prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa . Space suits are needed at 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss , while above 20 km ( 12 mi ) they are essential to prevent ebullism . Most space suits use around 30 – 39 kPa of pure oxygen , about the same as on the Earth 's surface . This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism , but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed .
Humans evolved for life in Earth gravity , and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on the health of the human body . Initially , more than 50 % of astronauts experience space motion sickness . This can cause nausea and vomiting , vertigo , headaches , lethargy , and overall malaise . The duration of space sickness varies , but it typically lasts for 1 – 3 days , after which the body adjusts to the new environment . Longer term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton , or spaceflight osteopenia . These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise . Other effects include fluid redistribution , slowing of the cardiovascular system , decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders , and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass , nasal congestion , sleep disturbance , and puffiness of the face .
For long duration space travel , radiation can pose an acute health hazard . Exposure to radiation sources such as high @-@ energy , ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue , nausea , vomiting , as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count . Over longer durations , symptoms include an increased risk of cancer , plus damage to the eyes , nervous system , lungs and the gastrointestinal tract . On a round @-@ trip Mars mission lasting three years , nearly the entire body would be traversed by high energy nuclei , each of which can cause ionization damage to cells . Fortunately , most such particles are significantly attenuated by the shielding provided by the aluminium walls of a spacecraft , and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers . However , the impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew . Further research will be needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures .
= = Boundary = =
There is no clear boundary between Earth 's atmosphere and space , as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases . There are several standard boundary designations , namely :
The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km ( 62 mi ) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics . This is used because at an altitude of about 100 km ( 62 mi ) , as Theodore von Kármán calculated , a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity in order to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself .
The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles ( 80 km ) as astronauts .
NASA 's Space Shuttle used 400 @,@ 000 feet ( 76 mi , 122 km ) as its re @-@ entry altitude ( termed the Entry Interface ) , which roughly marks the boundary where atmospheric drag becomes noticeable , thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with air surfaces .
In 2009 , scientists at the University of Calgary reported detailed measurements with a Supra @-@ Thermal Ion Imager ( an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions ) , which allowed them to establish a boundary at 118 km ( 73 mi ) above Earth . The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth 's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space , which can reach speeds well over 268 m / s ( 600 mph ) .
The altitude where the atmospheric pressure matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body is called the Armstrong line , named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong . It is located at an altitude of around 19 @.@ 14 km ( 11 @.@ 89 mi ) . At or above the Armstrong line , fluids in the throat and lungs will boil away . More specifically , exposed bodily liquids such as saliva , tears , and the liquids wetting the alveoli within the lungs will boil away . Hence , at this altitude the human body requires a pressure suit , or a pressurized capsule , to survive .
= = Legal status = =
The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework for international space law . It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states , and includes in its definition of outer space the Moon and other celestial bodies . The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty . It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space . The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR , the United States of America and the United Kingdom . As of January 1 , 2008 the treaty has been ratified by 98 states and signed by an additional 27 states .
Beginning in 1958 , outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly . Of these , more than 50 have been concerning the international co @-@ operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space . Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN 's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space . Still , there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space , and anti @-@ satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US , USSR and China . The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies ( including the orbits around such bodies ) over to the international community . However , this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices manned spaceflight .
In 1976 , eight equatorial states ( Ecuador , Colombia , Brazil , Congo , Zaire , Uganda , Kenya , and Indonesia ) met in Bogotá , Colombia . They made the " Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries , " also known as " the Bogotá Declaration " , where they made a claim to control the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country . These claims are not internationally accepted .
= = Earth orbit = =
A spacecraft enters orbit when it has enough horizontal velocity for its centripetal acceleration due to gravity to be less than or equal to the centrifugal acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity . For a low Earth orbit , this velocity is about 7 @,@ 800 m / s ( 28 @,@ 100 km / h ; 17 @,@ 400 mph ) ; by contrast , the fastest manned airplane speed ever achieved ( excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft ) was 2 @,@ 200 m / s ( 7 @,@ 900 km / h ; 4 @,@ 900 mph ) in 1967 by the North American X @-@ 15 .
To achieve an orbit , a spacecraft must travel faster than a sub @-@ orbital spaceflight . The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km ( 370 mi ) is about 36 MJ / kg , which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude . Spacecraft with a perigee below about 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) are subject to drag from the Earth 's atmosphere , which will cause the orbital altitude to decrease . The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite 's cross @-@ sectional area and mass , as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere . Below about 300 km ( 190 mi ) , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days . Once a satellite descends to 180 km ( 110 mi ) , it will start to burn up in the atmosphere . The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth 's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11 @,@ 200 m / s ( 40 @,@ 300 km / h ; 25 @,@ 100 mph ) .
Earth 's gravity reaches out far past the Van Allen radiation belt and keeps the Moon in orbit at an average distance of 384 @,@ 403 km ( 238 @,@ 857 mi ) . The region of space where the gravity of a planet tends to dominate the motion of objects in the presence of other perturbing bodies ( such as another planet ) is known as the Hill sphere . For Earth , this sphere has a radius of about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 km ( 930 @,@ 000 mi ) .
= = Regions = =
Space is a partial vacuum : its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and " winds " that dominate within them , and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond . Geospace extends from Earth 's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth 's magnetic field , whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space . Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause , whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium . Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy , where it fades into the intergalactic void .
= = = Geospace = = =
Geospace is the region of outer space near Earth . Geospace includes the upper region of the atmosphere and the magnetosphere . The Van Allen radiation belt lies within the geospace . The outer boundary of geospace is the magnetopause , which forms an interface between the planet 's magnetosphere and the solar wind . The inner boundary is the ionosphere . As the physical properties and behavior of near Earth space is affected by the behavior of the Sun and space weather , the field of geospace is interlinked with heliophysics ; the study of the Sun and its impact on the Solar System planets .
The volume of geospace defined by the magnetopause is compacted in the direction of the Sun by the pressure of the solar wind , giving it a typical subsolar distance of 10 Earth radii from the center of the planet . However , the tail can extend outward to more than 100 – 200 Earth radii . The Moon passes through the geospace tail during roughly four days each month , during which time the surface is shielded from the solar wind .
Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities , the motions of which are controlled by the Earth 's magnetic field . These plasmas form a medium from which storm @-@ like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth ’ s upper atmosphere . During geomagnetic storms two regions of geospace , the radiation belts and the ionosphere , can become strongly disturbed . These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics , disrupting telecommunications and GPS technologies , and can also be a hazard to astronauts , even in low Earth orbit . They also create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles .
Although it meets the definition of outer space , the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites . This region contains material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft . Some of this debris re @-@ enters Earth 's atmosphere periodically .
= = = = Cislunar space = = = =
The region outside Earth 's atmosphere and extending out to just beyond the Moon ’ s orbit , including the Lagrangian points , is sometimes referred to as cis @-@ lunar space .
= = = Interplanetary space = = =
Interplanetary space , the space around the Sun and planets of the Solar System , is the region dominated by the interplanetary medium , which extends out to the heliopause where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun . Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind , a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very tenuous atmosphere ( the heliosphere ) for billions of kilometers into space . This wind has a particle density of 5 – 10 protons / cm3 and is moving at a velocity of 350 – 400 km / s ( 780 @,@ 000 – 890 @,@ 000 mph ) . The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind . The discovery since 1995 of extrasolar planets means that other stars must possess their own interplanetary media .
The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum , with a mean free path of about one astronomical unit at the orbital distance of the Earth . However , this space is not completely empty , and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays , which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles . There is also gas , plasma and dust , small meteors , and several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy . A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the zodiacal light .
Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun . There are also magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter , Saturn , Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields . These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape , with the long tail extending outward behind the planet . These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources , creating belts of magnetic particles such as the Van Allen radiation belt . Planets without magnetic fields , such as Mars , have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind .
= = = Interstellar space = = =
Interstellar space is the physical space within a galaxy beyond the influence of each star on the plasma . The contents of interstellar space are called the interstellar medium . Approximately 70 % of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms ; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms . This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through stellar nucleosynthesis . These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a planetary nebula . The cataclysmic explosion of a supernova will generate an expanding shock wave consisting of ejected materials . The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably : the average is around 106 particles per m3 , but cold molecular clouds can hold 108 – 1012 per m3 .
A number of molecules exist in interstellar space , as can tiny 0 @.@ 1 μm dust particles . The tally of molecules discovered through radio astronomy is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year . Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur , including the formation of organic polyatomic species . Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions . Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold , dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium , resulting , for example , in the trihydrogen cation . An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant carbon monoxide to produce ionized carbon , which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions .
The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 parsecs ( pc ) of the Sun , which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System . This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the Local Bubble , which is characterized by a lack of dense , cold clouds . It forms a cavity in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy , with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders , such as those in the constellations of Ophiuchus and Taurus . ( The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more . ) This volume contains about 104 – 105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the astrospheres that surround these stars , with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium . The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7 @,@ 000 K and radii of 0 @.@ 5 – 5 pc .
When stars are moving at sufficiently high peculiar velocities , their astrospheres can generate bow shocks as they collide with the interstellar medium . For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock . In 2012 , data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer ( IBEX ) and NASA 's Voyager probes showed that the Sun 's bow shock does not exist . Instead , these authors argue that a subsonic bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium . A bow shock is the third boundary of an astrosphere after the termination shock and the astropause ( called the heliopause in the Solar System ) .
= = = Intergalactic space = = =
Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies . The huge spaces between galaxy clusters are called the voids . Surrounding and stretching between galaxies , there is a rarefied plasma that is organized in a galactic filamentary structure . This material is called the intergalactic medium ( IGM ) . The density of the IGM is 5 – 200 times the average density of the Universe . It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen ; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons . As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids , it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K , which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei ; this is why the IGM is ionized . At these temperatures , it is called the warm – hot intergalactic medium ( WHIM ) . ( Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards , 105 K is often called " warm " in astrophysics . ) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm – hot , rarefied state . When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments , it can heat up even more , reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so @-@ called intracluster medium .
= = Exploration and applications = =
For the majority of human history , space was explored by remote observation ; initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope . Prior to the advent of reliable rocket technology , the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through the use of balloon flights . In 1935 , the U.S. Explorer II manned balloon flight had reached an altitude of 22 km ( 14 mi ) . This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A @-@ 4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about 80 km ( 50 mi ) . In 1957 , the unmanned satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R @-@ 7 rocket , achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215 – 939 kilometres ( 134 – 583 mi ) . This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961 , when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1 . The first humans to escape Earth orbit were Frank Borman , Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the U.S. Apollo 8 , which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of 377 @,@ 349 km ( 234 @,@ 474 mi ) from the Earth .
The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1 , which performed a fly @-@ by of the Moon in 1959 . In 1961 , Venera 1 became the first planetary probe . It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly @-@ by of the planet Venus , although contact was lost before reaching Venus . The first successful planetary mission was the Mariner 2 fly @-@ by of Venus in 1962 . The first spacecraft to perform a fly @-@ by of Mars was Mariner 4 , which reached the planet in 1964 . Since that time , unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System 's planets , as well their moons and many minor planets and comets . They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space , as well as observation of the Earth . In August 2012 , Voyager 1 became the first man @-@ made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space .
The absence of air makes outer space ( and the surface of the Moon ) ideal locations for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum . This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope , allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago — almost to the time of the Big Bang — to be observed . However , not every location in space is ideal for a telescope . The interplanetary zodiacal dust emits a diffuse near @-@ infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets . Moving an infrared telescope out past the dust will increase the effectiveness of the instrument . Likewise , a site like the Daedalus crater on the far side of the Moon could shield a radio telescope from the radio frequency interference that hampers Earth @-@ based observations .
Unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit have become an essential technology of modern civilization . They allow direct monitoring of weather conditions , relay long @-@ range communications including telephone calls and television signals , provide a means of precise navigation , and allow remote sensing of the Earth . The latter role serves a wide variety of purposes , including tracking soil moisture for agriculture , prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs , detection of diseases in plants and trees , and surveillance of military activities .
The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes , such as those that require ultraclean surfaces . However , like asteroid mining , space manufacturing requires a significant investment with little prospect of an immediate return . An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit : $ 7 @,@ 000 – 23 @,@ 000 per kg in inflation @-@ adjusted dollars , according to a 2006 estimate . Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include non @-@ rocket spacelaunch , momentum exchange tethers , and space elevators .
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= Trondheim Airport Station =
Trondheim Airport Station ( IATA code : TRD ) , also known as Værnes Station ( Norwegian : Værnes holdeplass ) , is a railway station located within the terminal complex of Trondheim Airport , Værnes in Stjørdal , Norway . Situated on the Nordland Line , it serves both express trains and the Trøndelag Commuter Rail both operated by Norges Statsbaner . The station was opened on 15 November 1994 along with a new terminal at the airport , making it the first airport rail link in the Nordic Countries . The station cost NOK 24 million , and was built along the existing railway line . In each direction , the station handles one to two hourly commuter rail services , and three daily express services . Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes , while it is 9 hours and 5 minutes to Bodø . Access to the airport terminal is outdoors , but sheltered .
= = Facilities = =
The station is located at the terminal of Trondheim Airport , Værnes . The connection between the station and the airport is outside , but there is a roof for the whole distance . The platform is about 190 metres ( 620 ft ) from the check @-@ in at the terminal . The station is 33 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station , and located 5 @.@ 0 metres ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) above mean sea level . There is no manned ticket sale , but a vending machine for tickets is located in the airport terminal . Luggage trolleys are available , and the airport terminal offers an array of traveler services , such as dining , paid parking , restrooms , car rental , taxis , retailing , ATMs and kiosks . There is a single track at the station , but built in such a way that the it can easily be converted to become an island platform with two tracks . Work on a second track has not begun as of 2014 , but there is budget for double track between Hell and Værnes .
= = Service = =
The Norwegian State Railways operates both commuter and express trains to Trondheim Airport . In each direction , there are three daily express trains , one to Mo i Rana and two to Bodø . One of the Bodø @-@ trains is a night train . Travel time to Mo i Rana is 6 hours and travel time to Bodø is 9 hours and 5 minutes . The Mo i Rana @-@ service is operated with Class 93 trains , while the Bodø @-@ services are operated with Di 4 @-@ hauled trains .
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail offers hourly services in each direction : northbound to Steinkjer and southbound to Trondheim and Lerkendal . During peak hours , the frequency is doubled . Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes and to Lerkendal 51 minutes . Northwards , travel time to Levanger is 48 minutes , to Verdal 1 hour and 2 minutes , and to Steinkjer 1 hour and 26 minutes . The commuter rail is operated with Class 92 trains . From the airport , there is connection with local buses operated by Nettbuss . Klæburuten operates an airport coach to and from the city center of Trondheim every ten minutes from 4 in the morning until 9 in the evening . NOR @-@ WAY Bussekspress and TrønderBilene operate a coach service to Steinkjer and onwards to Namsos .
= = History = =
The railway past Værnes opened on 27 October 1902 as the Hell – Sunnan Line — today part of the Nordland Line . The plans for a railway station in the terminal of Værnes were launched in 1990 , along with the plans to build a second terminal at the airport . Construction of the new terminal started on 1 October 1992 . On 15 March 1993 , NSB announced that they would start a commuter train service between Steinkjer and Melhus , south of Trondheim . The service would give a half @-@ hour headway during peak hours between Stjørdal and Melhus , and a one @-@ hour headway onwards to Steinkjer . NSB stated that the concept was based on the success of the Jæren Commuter Rail and that they hoped to have a 70 % increase in ridership , in part due to the opening of the airport station . The concept would also take advantage of expansion of Trondheim Central Station that would co @-@ locate the main coach- and train terminals in Trondheim . The service would also give direct services along the Dovre Line to Oppdal and the Røros Line to Tynset . Estimates were that the railway would capture a 10 % ground transport market share . The commuter rail service started on 1 September 1993 .
Construction of the railway station started on 7 April 1994 , and cost NOK 24 million . The terminal opened on 15 November 1994 , the same day as the new airport terminal . Minister of Transport and Communications Kjell Opseth performed the official opening . NSB stated that their primary goal was not to compete with the four hourly airport coaches that operated to the hotels in Trondheim , but instead to provide services to communities in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and south of Trondheim . It was the first airport rail link to open in Northern Europe , with the closest integrated train station at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam , the Netherlands .
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= Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier =
Hazelwood School District et al. v. Kuhlmeier et al . , 484 U.S. 260 ( 1988 ) was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that public school curricular student newspapers that have not been established as forums for student expression are subject to a lower level of First Amendment protection than independent student expression or newspapers established ( by policy or practice ) as forums for student expression .
The case concerned the censorship of two articles in The Spectrum , the student newspaper of Hazelwood East High School in St. Louis County , Missouri , in 1983 . When the school principal removed an article concerning divorce and another concerning teen pregnancy , the student journalists sued , claiming their First Amendment rights were violated . A lower court sided with the students before the decision was later overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit .
In a 5 @-@ 3 decision rendered in 1988 , the Supreme Court overturned the circuit court decision with a majority opinion , determining that school administrators could exercise prior restraint of school @-@ sponsored expression , such as newspapers and assembly speeches , if the censorship is " reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns . " In this , school @-@ sponsored newspapers are considered limited public forums of expression .
The case and the earlier Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District are considered landmark decisions for defining the right to expression for students in public schools . While subsequent courts have varied significantly on when the Hazelwood decision applies , the case remains a strong precedent in the regulation of student speech . The New Voices bill of 2016 ( to date passed by 18 states ) is neglecting the Hazelwood decision , and returning to the Tinker precedent .
= = Background = =
= = = Facts of the case = = =
The case concerned The Spectrum , a student newspaper which was published as part of a journalism class at Hazelwood East High School in the Hazelwood School District in St. Louis County , Missouri . The Spectrum was written and edited as part of the Journalism II class at the public school , published roughly every three weeks during the 1982 – 1983 school year . About 4 @,@ 500 copies of the paper were distributed to students and community members during the year . The cost of printing the paper as well as supplies , textbooks , and a portion of the academic advisor 's salary were furnished by the district 's Board of Education , supplemented by newspaper sales . For that school year , the board supplied $ 4 @,@ 668 in printing costs , and the newspaper generated $ 94 @,@ 325 in revenue .
On May 10 , 1983 , Howard Emerson , the adviser to the journalism class , submitted page proofs of the May 13 issue of the newspaper to principal Robert Eugene Reynolds for approval , a practice which was customary at the time . Reynolds objected to two of the stories scheduled to run . One was a story concerning teen pregnancy , containing interviews with three students who had been pregnant . The story contained false names to keep the girls ' identities a secret , but Reynolds was concerned the pregnant students would still be identifiable from the text . Reynolds was also concerned the references to sexual activity and birth control were inappropriate for younger students at school . The second story concerned divorce and featured an interview with a student whose parents were divorced , in which she complained her father " wasn 't spending enough time with my mom , my sister , and I ... was always out of town on business or out late playing cards with the guys ... always argued about everything . " Reynolds , unaware that the name of the girl would also be changed , was concerned that her family should have been given an opportunity to respond within the story , or to consent to its publication .
Reynolds did not believe there was time to make the appropriate changes to the newspaper , and also that any delay in publication would mean the newspaper would not be published before the end of the school year . After consulting with his supervisors , Reynolds opted to publish a four @-@ page newspaper instead of a six @-@ page one , omitting the pages containing the two stories . Cutting two pages removed a total of seven articles from the paper . Reynolds did not tell the students about the decision , and they did not find out about it until the paper was delivered to the school .
In response , editor Cathy Kuhlmeier and reporters Leslie Smart and Leanne Tippett filed suit in January 1984 with the aid of the American Civil Liberties Union . Kuhlmeier later said the idea for the pieces came from old issues of The Spectrum and she had been looking to update them .
= = = Legal precedent = = =
Until the 1960s , administrative review of student publications was considered routine both at the high school and and collegiate level . Students and faculty advisers also had few alternatives . However , with the rise of the counterculture of the 1960s , student publications began to explore social issues with greater fervor , focusing on issues such as the Vietnam War , the civil rights movement , sexual orientation , and other issues considered sensitive at the time .
In 1969 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld that freedom of expression of students is protected under the First Amendment in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District ( 393 U.S. 503 ) . Following that precedent , at least 125 other court cases in courts across the country were decided in favor of student expression and against administrative censorship . Whenever an instance of censorship involved action from a government employee such as a school principal or a college dean , the courts held that First Amendment constitutional safeguards apply . Under this precedent , courts recognized student newspapers as public forums where student expression could only be restricted if they could prove substantial disruption of school activities was imminent . School administrators had been opposed to this interpretation . Two additional cases in following years , Healy v. James ( 408 U.S. 169 ) in 1972 and Papish v. University of Missouri Curators ( 410 U.S. 670 ) in 1973 , expanded the First Amendment rights of students on college campuses , but did not strongly define the status of student newspapers as a forum .
By the 1980s , however , with the end of the student protest era , school administrators sought to reassert their authority . The first case in the new trend , Bethel School District v. Fraser ( 478 U.S. 675 ) in 1986 , involved the discipline of a high school student for delivering a speech containing sexual innuendos , even though they were not obscene or disruptive in a legal sense . Overturning lower courts in the case , the Supreme Court clarified that the ruling of the Tinker case did not apply because the penalties imposed by the school were unrelated to a political viewpoint .
= = = Lower court decisions = = =
The case was introduced in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri . The students sought a declaration that their First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment rights had been violated by undue actions of a public official , as well as injunctive relief and monetary damages . After a bench trial , the district court denied the injunction and monetary damages . The court reached its decision in May 1985 , in which the district court held that school officials may restrain student speech in activities that " are an integral part of the school 's educational function , " as long as the decision has " a substantial and reasonable basis . " The court held that no violation of First Amendment rights had occurred .
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed the decision in January 1986 . The court held that , at the outset , The Spectrum was not only a part of the school program , but also a public forum . The newspaper was " intended to be and operated as a conduit for student viewpoint . " As a public forum , the court ruled , The Spectrum could not be censored unless " necessary to avoid material and substantial interference with school work or discipline ... or the rights of others . "
The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari in January 1987 , and the case was argued on October 13 , 1987 . On January 13 , 1988 , the court handed down its decision .
= = Supreme Court ruling = =
In a 5 @-@ 3 ruling , the Supreme Court overturned the decision of the circuit court . Its majority opinion set a precedent that school @-@ sponsored activities , including student newspapers and drama productions are not normally protected from administrative censorship by the First Amendment .
= = = Majority opinion = = =
The majority of the justices held that the principal was entitled to censor the articles . The majority opinion , penned by Associate Justice Byron White , stated officials never intended the school paper to be a public forum as were underground publications in cases past . White went on to say educators do not infringe on First Amendment rights when exercising control over student speech in school @-@ sponsored activities " so long as their actions are reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns . " The court established that the student publication could be regulated by school officials , and that they " reserved the forum for its intended purpose , as a supervised learning experience for journalism students . "
A school need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its basic educational mission , even though the government could not . ... ( Judicial action to protect students ' rights is justified ) only when the decision to censor a school @-@ sponsored publication , theatrical production or other vehicle of student expression has no valid educational purpose .
The decision overrode the precedent set in the Tinker case . The 1969 decision had permitted censorship of student speech only if it violated the rights of other students or if it threatened to cause a campus disruption . The majority opinion held that this case was different . The justices said the school administrators are not required to tolerate speech that is contrary to the school 's academic mission . The majority opinion continued :
and that requires a school to tolerate particular student speech — the question we addressed in Tinker — is different from the question whether the First Amendment requires a school affirmatively to promote particular student speech . The former question addresses educators ' ability to silence students ' personal expression that happens to occur on the school premises . The latter question concerns educators ' authority over school sponsored publications , theatrical productions , and other expressive activities that students , parents , and members of the public might reasonably perceive to bear the imprimatur of the school .
which protect student journalists , instead stating that , in absence of other rules barring administrative censorship , the First Amendment does not protect student publications . By 2010 seven states — Arkansas , California , Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Massachusetts and Oregon had such laws on their books , and another 13 states were considering them . In a footnote , the court also clarified that it did not see that the ruling necessarily applied at the collegiate level .
= = = Dissenting opinion = = =
Associate Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. wrote a dissenting opinion , in which he was joined by Associate Justices Thurgood Marshall and Harry Blackmun , who often took liberal positions on First Amendment issues . In his opinion , Brennan expressed concern about the message the majority opinion would send students .
The young men and women of Hazelwood East expected a civics lesson , but not the one the Court teaches them today ... Such unthinking contempt for individual rights is intolerable from any state official . It is particularly insidious from ( a school principal ) to whom the public entrusts the task of inculcating in its youth an appreciation for the cherished democratic liberties that our constitution guarantees .
= = Legacy = =
The case established the standard school personnel must meet before limiting students ' freedom of expression in secondary schools . As representatives of the state , school administrators can censor , restrain or publish school @-@ sponsored student expression if it interferes with the requirements of school discipline , interferes with students ' rights , interferes with academic propriety , generates health or welfare concerns , or is deemed obscene or vulgar . This extends to theatrical productions , public speeches in an assembly environment , and publications produces as part of curricular activity , such as a student newspaper . The majority termed these reasons " legitimate pedagogical concerns . "
The standard does not , however , apply to personal communication or non @-@ school @-@ sponsored communication , off @-@ campus publications and non @-@ school @-@ sponsored speech , unless it interferes with school discipline or the rights of others . The case establishes student newspapers as " limited public forums . " This means schools may exercise prior restraint as to " style and content " of a student paper so long as their action is " not unreasonable " , where there previously had to be compelling evidence to warrant censorship . Separate cases also established what constituted school activities , such as in @-@ class parties and art created by students at the behest of teachers .
Web @-@ based student publications not subsidized by the school have been one student response to the ruling . Some individual states have also responded with laws designating student newspapers as public forums and offering them greater First Amendment protection . Experts from the Student Press Law Center have contended that the case has meant fewer lawsuits regarding student censorship make it to court .
= = = Subsequent jurisprudence = = =
While the Supreme Court indicated the Hazelwood did not necessarily apply at the collegiate level , some federal appeals courts have held that it applied at college newspapers while other appeals courts have not . Courts have also been split on viewpoint @-@ based expression in schools , such as religion . A variety of cases have appeared citing the Hazelwood case , citing whether or not a school should have the ability to regulate student dress or speech that certain ethnic groups might find offensive . In other cases though , courts have used the Tinker decision to support student speech if it isn 't found to be disruptive or offensive .
A 1989 case , Alabama Student Party v. Student Government Assn . ( 867 F.2d 1344 ) , held that campus newspapers that are part of a curriculum might not enjoy first amendment protection . A notable 2005 U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit court decision , Hosty v. Carter ( 412 U.S. 731 ) , held that Hazelwood also applied to subsidized student media at the college level . That ruling , though controversial , found there was " no sharp difference between high school and college newspapers , " noting that some are financially subsidized or produced by journalism classes . Students ' rights to speech were further explored in the 2007 decision Morse v. Frederick ( 551 U.S. 393 ) which found the First Amendment did not protect student speech that could be " reasonably viewed as promoting drug use . "
A 2001 case in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit , Kincaid v. Gibson ( 236 F. 3d 342 ) , ruled that Hazelwood did not apply at the college level in that instance . The court found in that case that a student publication could not be censored if the censorship is not viewpoint @-@ neutral . The subsequent case Dean v. Utica dealt specifically with what defines a " legitimate pedagogical concern " as used in the Hazelwood case . That case found a school had censored speech wantonly .
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= Elias Zoghby =
Elias Zoghby ( January 9 , 1912 – January 16 , 2008 ) was the Melkite Greek Catholic Archbishop of Baalbek and a leading advocate of Catholic @-@ Orthodox ecumenism . He is best known for his ecumenical interventions during Vatican II and his 1995 Profession of Faith , known as the Zoghby Initiative , which attempted to re @-@ establish communion between the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church while maintaining communion with the Roman Catholic Church .
Zoghby 's views on topics such as Catholic – Orthodox " double communion " and dissolution of marriage were controversial . Critics labeled him the enfant terrible of his church , while supporters lauded him as an energetic visionary who sought to re @-@ unite the Eastern Churches .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and ministry in Egypt = = =
Elias Zoghby was born on January 9 , 1912 in Cairo . His mother , Hanne Ishak Yared , was a Melkite Greek Catholic and his father , Abdallah Mikail Zoghby , was an Antiochian Orthodox convert and former Maronite Catholic . The couple had recently immigrated from Lebanon and settled in Cairo 's Arb @-@ el @-@ Guenena neighborhood . The area had a Melkite church nearby which his parents attended . Elias and his siblings were baptized into the Melkite faith and raised in a devout household , attending liturgy daily , reading the bible together as a family and praying the Office every afternoon .
Zoghby related in Memoires that he first received a vocational call at age sixteen . With his parent 's blessing he left for seminary in the summer of 1928 , going to Jerusalem to study with the White Fathers at the Melkite seminary of Saint Anne . He was ordained a priest at Saint Anne Melkite Basilica in Jerusalem on July 20 , 1936 , following which he was appointed a professor of Arabic Literature and Mathematics at the seminary . He later returned to Cairo as a parish priest .
While in Egypt , Zoghby considered the issues of ecumenism and the schism between the Melkite Catholic and Antiochian Orthodox Churches . As he began to study both the historical roots of the separation and the modern divisions of Middle Eastern churches he came to the opinion that the schism was unjustifiable . He also began to question the domination of the so @-@ called Uniate churches by the See of Rome . Zoghby , along with other Melkite priests in Egypt such as George Hakim and Joseph Tawil , were influenced by Father Oreste Karame , who advocated the need for the Melkite Church to return to its proper traditions and work for communion with the Orthodox Church .
In 1951 he was elevated to archimandrite while serving in Alexandria . While there he was threatened with arrest for preventing the execution of a sentence passed by a Sharia tribunal . On August 27 , 1954 he was named auxiliary bishop of Antioch ; then , on September 2 , 1954 he was appointed Titular Archbishop of Nubia . Zoghby was formally consecrated bishop on November 21 , 1954 when he was elevated to Patriarchal Vicar for the See of Alexandria , Cairo and the Sudan .
As the leader of the Melkite church in Egypt Zoghby was a vocal proponent of rights for Christians , and opposed the limitations placed on them by that country 's Law of Personal Statutes . The Nasser regime imprisoned him on December 20 , 1954 for his public opposition to the statutes . Released shortly afterwards , he continued to serve as patriarchal vicar in Egypt .
= = = Vatican II and Baalbek = = =
Zoghby was one of the most active eastern Catholic bishops to participate at the Second Vatican Council , where he offered eleven interventions . While some of the interventions were pastoral in nature , a good number were ecumenical , focusing on the Eastern churches and their relationship with Western Christianity . Zoghby 's efforts helped shape the formation of Orientalium Ecclesiarum , although , to his disappointment , it did not adequately address the needs of the Eastern Catholic Churches or bridge the gulf between Orthodoxy and Catholicism . While Orientalium Ecclesiarum encouraged Eastern Catholics to uphold their traditions and values , Zoghby felt that it " turn [ ed ] a blind eye " to true intercommunion ( communicatio in sacris ) .
Following the Council he opposed the acceptance of a Roman cardinalate by Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV Sayegh , stating that the leader of an Eastern Catholic church should not hold a subordinate Latin @-@ rite office . In protest , Zohgby resigned his position as patriarchal vicar of Alexandria . Maximos IV died in 1967 ; his successor , Maximos V Hakim , was a friend of Zoghby 's and a fellow Egyptian . In August 1968 the Melkite Synod elected Zoghby archbishop of Baalbek to replace the recently deceased eparch , Joseph Malouf . Installed as archbishop there on September 9 , 1968 , he led the small eparchy during the Lebanese Civil War . During 1982 he was kidnapped by pro @-@ Iranian terrorists .
Zoghby retired on October 24 , 1988 at age 76 . He remained an active proponent of ecumenism following his retirement , urging the reunification of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Antiochian Orthodox Church . He died on January 16 , 2008 in Lebanon ; his funeral was held January 19 at St. Paul Basilica in Harissa .
= = Ecumenism and the Zoghby Initiative = =
Zoghby 's ecumenical initiatives gained visibility in May 1974 with the exchange of visits between the Melkite Catholic and the Antiochian Orthodox synods , which met simultaneously in Lebanon .
During the visit of the Melkite Catholic delegation to the Orthodox synod Zoghby drew attention to the fact that the original causes of separation between the groups had ceased to exist and the way was open for the " creation by stages of a real union between the two Churches , without waiting for the union of the Church of Rome and the Orthodox Churches . "
Afterwards , the churches agreed to form separate commissions for dialogue . Zogby outlined his views on the topic in his book Ecumenical Reflections , which was characterized by Vsevolod , the Orthodox Bishop of Scopelos , as an invitation " to ecumenical metanoia ... to recognize that where there is the fundamental common faith , held alike by Catholics and Orthodox , there is no defensible impediment to Eucharistic Communion . "
= = Views on dissolution of marriage = =
While attending Vatican II Zoghby spoke to Council on September 29 , 1965 about the trauma of the innocent spouse in cases of adultery . Zoghby suggested a solution which considers adultery and abandonment as causes for the dissolution of marriage :
" We know how much the Fathers of the Eastern Church tried to dissuade widowers and widows from a second marriage , thus following the Apostle ’ s advice , but they have never wished to deprive the innocent spouse who has been unjustly abandoned of the right to remarry . This tradition , preserved in the East , and which was never reproved during the ten centuries of union , could be accepted again and adopted by Catholics . Progress in patristic studies has indeed brought to the fore the doctrine of the Eastern Fathers who were no less qualified exegetes or moralists than the Western ones . "
The following month , Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV declared that , while " Archbishop Zoghby , like all Fathers of the council , enjoys full freedom to say what he thinks ... [ Zoghby ] speaks only for himself personally . With respect to the heart of the problem , the Church must hold fast to the indissolubility of marriage . "
= = Publications by Elias Zoghby = =
We Are All Schismatics ( Tous Schismatiques ? ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56125 @-@ 019 @-@ 6
A Voice from the Byzantine East . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56125 @-@ 018 @-@ 9 . This work of ecumenical theology and ecclesiology focuses on the role of the Eastern Catholic Churches in furthering the cause of Christian unity .
Ecumenical Reflections . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 892278 @-@ 06 @-@ 7 . Translated by Bishop Nicholas Samra , 1998
St. Mathiew , lu par un Eveque d 'Orient . Two volumes
Le Credo de l 'Amour . Anthology of poetry
Pour vivre notre foi . Anthology of poetry
Memoires . Un Eveque peu commode , dit @-@ on . Autobiographical reflections
Une Experience de Vie en Christ .
Quand la Tendresse divine se fait Mere .
Orthodox Uni , oui ! Uniate , non ! . Reproduced in Eastern Churches Journal , 2 : 3 ( 1995 )
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= Bo Xilai =
Bo Xilai ( born 3 July 1949 ) is a Chinese former politician . He came to prominence through his tenures as the mayor of Dalian and then the governor of Liaoning . From 2004 to November 2007 , he served as Minister of Commerce . Between 2007 and 2012 , he served as a member of the Central Politburo and secretary of the Communist Party 's Chongqing branch . On 22 September 2013 , Bo was found guilty of corruption , stripped of all his assets , and sentenced to life imprisonment .
The son of Bo Yibo , one of the Eight Elders of the Communist Party of China , Bo Xilai is one of the " princelings " of Chinese politics . He cultivated a casual and charismatic image in the media that marked a departure from the normally staid nature of Chinese politics .
While serving in Liaoning , Bo held an important niche in the Northeast Area Revitalization Plan . Bo initiated a campaign against organized crime , increased spending on welfare programs , maintained consistent double @-@ digit percentage GDP growth , and campaigned to revive Cultural Revolution @-@ era " red culture " . Bo 's promotion of egalitarian values and the achievements of his " Chongqing model " made him the champion of the Chinese New Left , composed of both Maoists and social democrats disillusioned with the country 's market @-@ based economic reforms and increasing economic inequality . However , the perceived lawlessness of Bo 's anti @-@ corruption campaigns , coupled with concerns about the image he cultivated , made him a controversial figure .
Bo was considered a likely candidate for promotion to the elite Politburo Standing Committee in CPC 18th National Congress in 2012 . His political fortunes came to an abrupt end following the Wang Lijun incident , in which his top lieutenant and police chief sought asylum at the American consulate in Chengdu . Wang claimed to have information about the involvement of Bo Xilai and his wife Gu Kailai in the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood , who allegedly had close financial ties to the two .
In the fallout , Bo was removed as the party chief of Chongqing in March 2012 and suspended from the politburo the following month . Bo 's dismissal exposed disunity within Communist Party ranks shortly before a leadership transition , and some observers suspected that it was because he threatened Xi Jinping 's future grip on power . He was later stripped of all his party positions , lost his seat at the National People 's Congress , and was eventually expelled from the party .
= = Early life = =
Bo Xilai was the fourth child and second son of prominent Communist Party leader Bo Yibo , one of the Eight Great Eminent Officials , who served as Minister of Finance in the early years of the People 's Republic of China but who fell from favor in 1965 for supporting more open trade relations with the West . When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966 , Bo Yibo was labeled a " rightist " and a " counterrevolutionary " and purged from his posts . He spent the ensuing twelve years in prison , where he was reportedly tortured . His wife , Hu Ming , was abducted by Red Guard in Guangzhou , and was either beaten to death or committed suicide .
Bo Xilai was seventeen years old when the Cultural Revolution began , and at the time attended the prestigious No. 4 High School in Beijing , one of the best in the country . In the early years of the Cultural Revolution , Bo is reported to have been an active member of the liandong Red Guard organization and may have at one point denounced his father .
As the political winds of the Cultural Revolution shifted , Bo and his siblings were either imprisoned or sent to the countryside , and Bo Xilai was locked up for five years . After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 , the members of the Gang of Four were officially blamed for the chaos of the Cultural Revolution , and Bo 's father was released . Bo Yibo was politically rehabilitated , and , in 1979 , became vice premier .
After his release , Bo Xilai worked at the Hardware Repair Factory for the Beijing Second Light Industry Bureau . He was admitted to the Peking University by public examination in 1977 . Unlike many of his contemporaries in the Chinese leadership who studied engineering , Bo majored in world history . In the second year of his studies , Bo enlisted in a Master 's program in international journalism at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , graduating with a master 's degree in 1982 . He joined the Communist Party in October 1980 .
= = Early political career = =
During the 1980s , the Bo family regained its political influence . Bo Yibo served successively as vice premier and vice @-@ chairman of the Central Advisory Commission . The elder Bo came to be known as one of the " eight elders " ( sometimes referred to as the " Eight Immortals " ) of the Communist Party and was instrumental in the implementation of market reforms in the 1980s . Although he favored more liberal economic policies , the elder Bo was politically conservative , and endorsed the use of military force against demonstrators during the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests . After the 1989 crackdown , Bo Yibo helped ensure the ascent of Jiang Zemin to succeed Deng Xiaoping as the leader of the Party and helped Jiang consolidate power in the 1990s . Bo Yibo remained a prominent figure in the party until his death in 2007 and was influential in shaping his son 's career .
After graduating from university , Bo was assigned to Zhongnanhai – the headquarters of the Communist Party – where he worked with the research office of the CPC Central Committee Secretariat and CPC Central Committee General Office . He soon requested a transfer to the provinces , and in 1984 was appointed deputy party secretary of Jin County ( modern day Jinzhou District , Dalian , Liaoning ) . In an interview with People 's Daily , Bo said that his family name created career obstacles . " For quite a long time people had reservations about me , " he said . Bo subsequently became deputy secretary and then secretary of the party committee of the Dalian Economic and Technological Development Zone and secretary of the Jinzhou party committee .
Rising again in rank within the party , he became a member of the Standing Committee of the Dalian Municipal CPC Committee , the city 's top decision @-@ making body , and became the Vice @-@ mayor of Dalian in 1990 . In 1993 , Bo became deputy Party secretary and mayor of Dalian .
= = Liaoning = =
= = = Mayor of Dalian = = =
Bo became acting mayor of Dalian in 1992 and formally assumed the post in 1993 . He remained mayor until 2000 . Bo served as Dalian 's deputy party secretary from 1995 . Bo was promoted to party chief in 1999 and served in that position until 2000 .
Bo 's tenure in Dalian was marked by the city 's phenomenal transformation from a drab port city to a modern metropolis , a ' showcase ' of China 's rapid economic growth . In the early 1990s , Bo took some credit for the construction of the Shenyang @-@ Dalian Expressway , China 's first controlled @-@ access freeway , winning accolades for the rapid expansion of infrastructure and for environmental work . Since Bo 's time in office , Dalian became known as one of the cleanest cities in China , having won the UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award in 1999 . In addition , Bo was an advocate for free enterprise and small businesses , and successfully courted foreign investment from South Korea , Japan , and Western countries . In contrast to his colleagues , he held press conferences at Chinese New Year , and developed a reputation among foreign investors for ' getting things done ' .
Bo spent seventeen years in the city of Dalian , a lengthy term in comparison to colleagues of the same rank , who are often transferred to different locales throughout their careers . Despite the accompanying economic growth and rise in living standards , Bo 's tenure in Dalian has sometimes been criticized as having been too focused on aesthetic development projects such as expansive boulevards , monuments , and large public parks . To make way for his large @-@ scale projects , Bo 's administration moved large numbers of local residents from downtown areas into new homes in the city 's outskirts . Dalian 's greenery was dubbed " Xilai Grass " . He also reputedly had a remote control in the Mayor 's office for the fountains on the city 's main square . In addition , he spearheaded the construction of a huabiao in the city . In 2000 , Bo was frontrunner for the post of Mayor of Shenzhen , based on his success in making Dalian the " Hong Kong of the North " . However it was suggested that Bo was too independent and outspoken for the post . The post went to Yu Youjun instead .
= = = 15th Party Congress = = =
During the 15th Party Congress in 1997 , Bo Xilai 's family launched an unsuccessful campaign to secure his promotion to become a member of the Central Committee of the CCP . Although nepotism was generally frowned upon in China , Bo Yibo 's ambitions for his son were well @-@ known . Bo Yibo advanced the idea that revolutionary elders should ' nominate ' their children to become high officials , and Bo Xilai was selected as his family 's ' representative ' over his older brother Bo Xicheng , ostensibly because of Xilai 's superior academic credentials , which included attendance at the elite Peking University and a master 's degree .
In order to secure Bo Xilai 's selection for promotion during the 15th Party Congress , the family launched a nationwide campaign to publicize his son 's " achievements " as mayor of Dalian . They commissioned author Chen Zufeng to pen a report portraying Bo as a man who is " as statesman @-@ like as Henry Kissinger , as environmentally conscious as Al Gore , and almost as beloved by the public as Princess Diana . " Despite the publicity campaign , Bo Xilai failed even to gain a seat in the Liaoning provincial delegation to the Party Congress . Ultimately , Bo Yibo helped him gain a seat with the Shanxi delegation , but the younger Bo was unable to secure a promotion .
In addition , Bo placed second @-@ last in the confirmation vote for membership in the 15th Central Committee . As he placed in the bottom 5 % of candidates , Bo was denied entry into the elite council , suffering a major political embarrassment . Bo 's failure to get elected was attributed to a general opposition to nepotism within the Party . Moreover , during his tenure in Dalian , Bo caused resentment for the amount of ' special favours ' that he procured for the coastal city at the expense of the rest of the province . His perceived partisan interests locked Bo 's kin in a factional struggle against Li Tieying , one of China 's central leadership figures , who may have created obstacles to his promotion .
= = = Provincial Governor = = =
In 2001 , a corruption scandal involving former Liaoning governor Zhang Guoguang provided an opportunity for Bo 's advancement . Prior to the 15th Party Congress , Bo Yibo and Bo Xilai assisted then @-@ party general secretary Jiang Zemin in preparing to force political rival Qiao Shi into retirement . The Bo family also supported Jiang 's " Three Stresses " ( San Jiang ) campaign in 1997 , which was intended to strengthen ideological conviction and promote internal unity in the Communist Party ; however , the campaign was generally seen as lacklustre by observers and not universally embraced even inside the party leadership . The Bos ' unwavering support for Jiang was said to have worked in Bo Xilai 's favour when the vacancy for Governor of Liaoning opened . Bo became acting governor in 2001 after the dismissal and arrest of Zhang Guoguang , and was officially confirmed as governor in 2003 . In his position as governor , which he held until 2004 , Bo gained membership to the Central Committee of the Communist Party .
During his tenure in Liaoning , Bo played a critical role in the promotion of the Northeast Area Revitalization Plan . Adopted in 2003 by party authorities , the policy aimed to strengthen economic development in the provinces of Liaoning , Jilin and Heilongjiang . Bo Xilai was particularly enthusiastic about the policy , stating his desire to see the Northeast become " China 's fourth economic engine " ( the others being the Pearl River Delta , Yangtze River Delta , and the Bohai Economic Region ) .
The Northeast was at one time known as the " cradle of industrialization " of China . In 1980 , industrial output for Liaoning alone was twice that of the Guangdong . However , the northeast was left behind amidst market reforms of the 1980s and 1990s , while Guangdong and other provinces along the South and East China Sea coasts prospered . Its economy — still largely tied to state @-@ owned enterprises — stagnated relative to other regions , with high unemployment rates . The revitalisation plan aimed to address this by reviving the region 's traditional industries , strengthening trade ties with and encouraging investment from South Korea and Japan , and experimenting with free trade zones in select cities . In 2004 , official media reported that foreign direct investment in Liaoning had nearly doubled since the launch in 2003 of the northeastern rejuvenation strategy .
Although Bo established a reputation as a comparatively clean politician during his tenures in Dalian and as governor of Liaoning , he was not immune to corruption allegations . In particular , Bo was the subject of critical investigative reports by Liaoning journalist Jiang Weiping , the whistleblower in the Mu and Ma corruption case in Liaoning – a scandal that Bo benefited from politically . While Bo was not directly involved in the scandal , Jiang accused Bo of providing political cover for his friends and relatives . Jiang was initially sentenced to eight years in prison on trumped @-@ up charges , for which Bo was criticized , but was released after five years under international pressure . Yang Rong , the former chief executive of Brilliance China Automotive who fled to the United States after getting embroiled in a dispute against state property authorities , accused Bo of interfering in his judicial proceedings in Beijing . In addition , Bo openly clashed with Wen Shizhen , then @-@ party secretary in Liaoning who was technically Bo 's superior . Wen reportedly criticized Bo for " developing China 's cities like Europe and its countryside like Africa , " and even held a party to celebrate Bo 's departure from Liaoning in 2004 .
Ethan Gutmann , citing Falun Gong allegations that Liaoning was the epicenter of organ harvesting from practitioners while Bo was governor , suggested that he may have used his involvement as a way of building up his political power . David Kilgour , who co @-@ wrote the Kilgour – Matas report on organ harvesting , accused Bo of playing a role . Separately , Falun Gong practitioners abroad filed over ten lawsuits against Bo alleging torture and crimes against humanity In 2009 , a Spanish court indicted Bo Xilai and four other officials for genocide against Falun Gong .
= = = 16th Party Congress = = =
At the 16th Party Congress in 2002 , Bo 's age , regional tenures , and patronage links fit the profile for a potential candidate to be groomed for the " 5th generation of leaders " that would assume power in 2012 . His chief competitors were seen as Xi Jinping , then party chief of Zhejiang , and Li Keqiang , a populist Tuanpai candidate who was the Governor of Henan . As with the 15th Party Congress five years earlier , the elder Bo lobbied for his son 's promotion . The Bo family enjoyed the patronage of Jiang Zemin . However , Bo Xilai 's unequivocal support for Jiang strengthened the reluctance of his political opponents to support his nomination . Ultimately , although Bo remained a top contender for higher promotion , Xi and Li remained the main candidates to succeed Hu Jintao as Paramount leader .
= = Minister of Commerce = =
When Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang Zemin as General Secretary in late 2002 , Bo 's career as a local official ended with his appointment to Minister of Commerce in Wen Jiabao 's cabinet to replace Lü Fuyuan , who retired for health reasons . Bo also earned a seat on the 16th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China .
Bo 's stint as Minister of Commerce significantly raised his international profile and generated media attention both in China and abroad . Described as good @-@ looking , articulate and open @-@ minded in his approach to problems , Bo 's rise from a municipal official to the central government generated great media fanfare and elevated his status to something of a ' political star . ' Bo 's political persona was considered a departure from the generally serious and conservative leadership in Beijing . With his youthful vigour , populism , and purported popularity with female reporters , Bo 's political rise had been compared to that of John F. Kennedy .
Bo presided over a continued rise in foreign investment in China as Minister of Commerce . His daily schedule was dominated by receiving foreign guests and dignitaries . By the time that he became Minister , he spoke relatively fluent and colloquial English . During a meeting with American officials , Bo reputedly told a struggling interpreter to stop translating because the Chinese officials could understand English and it was wasting time . In May 2004 Bo was one of the few ministers hand @-@ picked to accompany Premier Wen Jiabao on a five @-@ country trip to Europe . The trade policy of the United States toward China also sparked significant controversy . Bo maintained a conciliatory but assertive attitude as he attended talks in Washington . On his trips to the United States , he conducted substantive discussions with his American counterparts and signed agreements on intellectual property , the services sector , agricultural products , food safety , and consumer protection .
Bo also oversaw the restructuring of the Ministry , formed from the amalgamation of the National Economics and Commerce Bureau and the Department of International Trade . Bo sought to balance the amount of attention given to foreign investors and domestic commercial institutions . He began tackling the imbalance from the retail sector , whose success up to that point was largely dependent on foreign companies . He drew up plans to protect Chinese industries ' competitive position within a domestic market that was quickly being crowded out by foreign competition .
= = = 17th Party Congress = = =
At the 17th Party Congress in October 2007 , Bo gained a seat on the 25 @-@ member Politburo , effectively China 's ruling council . He was then tipped to leave the Ministry of Commerce and take over as party chief of Chongqing . Bo 's predecessor , political rival Wang Yang , was reassigned as party chief of Guangdong .
At the time , Chongqing was reeling from problems such as air and water pollution , unemployment , poor public health , and complications from the Three Gorges Dam . According to analysts , Hu wanted to transfer his ally Wang Yang out of Chongqing before these problems intensified . Bo was initially reluctant to go to Chongqing and was reportedly unhappy with his new assignment . He had hoped to become vice @-@ premier instead , but Premier Wen Jiabao and Vice @-@ premier Wu Yi argued against Bo 's promotion to vice @-@ premiership . In particular , Wu was critical of Bo 's penchant for self @-@ promotion , and Wen cited international lawsuits against Bo by Falun Gong adherents as a barrier to his holding higher office .
Bo took up the Chongqing post on 30 November , a month following the conclusion of the Congress , even though Wang Yang had vacated the position on 13 November . Whilst some saw this transfer as a ' banishment ' from the central government to the hinterlands to keep Bo 's perceived arrogance and high @-@ profile antics out of Beijing 's view , others considered it a promotion since being the party chief in one of the four direct @-@ controlled municipalities came with an ex officio seat on the Politburo .
= = Chongqing = =
= = = The Chongqing model = = =
Although Bo was initially unhappy about his reassignment in Chongqing , he soon resolved to use his new position as a staging ground for a return to higher national office . Bo made no secret of his desire to enter the nine @-@ member Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) during the 18th Party Congress in autumn 2012 , as all but two of the PSC members — including President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao — were expected to retire . The transition would be an opportunity for Bo to join the highest echelon of national leadership , likely as a replacement for ally Zhou Yongkang , secretary of the Central Political and Legislative Committee , serving as the head of the party 's security apparatus .
In Chongqing , Bo pioneered a new style of governance dubbed the " Chongqing Model " – a set of social and economic policies intended to address diverse challenges facing modern China following economic reforms .
The Chonqging model was characterized in part by increased state control and the promotion of a neo @-@ leftist ideology . Along with his police chief Wang Lijun , Bo launched a sweeping campaign against organized crime , and increased the security and police presence in the city . Critics noted these policies were accompanied by the erosion of the rule of law , and allegations surfaced of political and personal rivals being victimized amidst Bo 's anti @-@ corruption drive . As a means of addressing declining public morality , Bo launched a " red culture " movement to promote Maoist @-@ era socialist ethics . On the economic front , he actively courted foreign investment — much as he had done in Liaoning . The Chongqing model was also characterized by massive public works programs , subsidized housing for the poor , and social policies intended to make it easier for rural citizens to move to the city , thus reaping the benefits of urban status . Some have compared Bo 's governing style to Russian president Vladimir Putin .
The Chongqing model provided an alternate development paradigm that diverged from the policies preferred by those in the national leadership seen as favouring further reform such as Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao . Bo 's leadership in Chongqing dramatically raised his profile , both nationally and internationally . In 2010 , he was named as one of the ' World 's 100 Most Influential People in 2010 ' by Time . Observers noted that , in China 's non @-@ electoral political system , Bo 's high @-@ profile presence and bold political maneuvers essentially amounted to a public ' election campaign ' for the top leadership . However , he drew the ire of some of the country 's leaders ; President Hu and Premier Wen were reluctant to acknowledge Bo publicly , ostensibly due to a discomfort over his leadership style .
= = = = Organized crime = = = =
Bo 's tenure in Chongqing was dominated by a protracted war against organized crime and corruption known as dahei ( " striking the black " ) . Between 2009 and 2011 , an estimated 5 @,@ 700 people were arrested in the sweeping campaign that ensnared not only criminals , but also businessmen , members of the police force , judges , government officials , and political adversaries . The campaign was overseen by Chongqing police chief Wang Lijun , whom Bo had worked with previously in Liaoning .
Wen Qiang , one of the most prominent figures implicated in the trials , had been a prominent municipal official since the days of party chiefs He Guoqiang and Wang Yang . Wen , the former executive deputy commissioner of the Chongqing police force Public Security for 16 years , was tried and convicted of a litany of crimes and sentenced to death in a sensational headline @-@ grabbing trial . Contrary to the popular perception at the time that the campaign was part of Bo 's perceived penchant for self @-@ promotion , China observer Willy Lam suggested that such a large @-@ scale crackdown will have received approval from central authorities , including Hu Jintao , and that Bo became careful to not let Chongqing appear to be trying to ' set an example ' for the rest of the country so he could benefit from the success politically .
The dahei campaign earned Bo national recognition and widespread popularity in Chongqing — all the more because of the city 's historical reputation as a center for criminal activity . In contrast to often colorless and orthodox politicians , Bo gained the reputation as a party boss that " got things done . " The apparent success of dahei earned Bo ' rock star status ' , and resulted in calls to replicate the campaign on a nationwide scale . Through the campaign , Bo gained the support of a number of powerful members of the Politburo Standing Committee , including Wu Bangguo , Jia Qinglin , Li Changchun , Xi Jinping and Zhou Yongkang , all of whom visited Chongqing or praised Bo 's achievements sometime between 2010 and 2011 .
However , Bo 's campaign was criticized for running roughshod over judicial due process and eroding the rule of law . Individuals targeted in the campaign were arbitrarily detained by the authorities , with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 being sent to forced labor . Lawyers for the accused were intimidated and harassed , and in at least one case , sentenced to 18 months in prison . Allegations also surfaced over the use of torture to extract confessions . Moreover , assets seized during the campaign were allegedly redirected to help pay for Bo 's popular social housing programs . The Wall Street Journal reported that $ 11 billion went into government coffers through the campaign . Li Jun , a fugitive businessman , asserted that he became a target of Bo anti @-@ corruption drive as a result of a land dispute with the government . When he refused government demands to give up the land , he claims that he was abducted and tortured , and that $ 700 million worth of assets in his business were seized .
= = = = Red culture movement = = = =
During his time in Chongqing , Bo initiated a series of Maoist @-@ style campaigns to revive ' red culture ' and improve public morale . The initiative included the promotion of Maoist quotes , ' red ' songs , revolutionary television programming and operas , and initiatives to encourage students to work in the countryside , akin to the way students were required to do during the Down to the Countryside Movement of the Cultural Revolution . As part of the movement , Bo and the city 's Media Department initiated a " Red Songs campaign " that demanded every district , government department , commercial enterprise , educational institution , state radio and TV stations begin singing ' red songs ' praising the achievements of the Communist Party . Bo pledged to reinvigorate the city with the Marxist ideals reminiscent of the Mao era .
Prior to the 60th Anniversary of the People 's Republic of China celebrations , for instance , Bo sent out ' red text messages ' to the city 's 13 million cellphone users . According to Xinhua , Bo 's text messages were usually quotes from Mao 's Little Red Book , and include phrases such as " I like how chairman Mao puts it : The world is ours , we will all have to work together , " and " responsibility and seriousness can conquer the world , and the Chinese Communist Party members represent these qualities . " Bo and his team of municipal administrators also erected new Mao statues in Chongqing , while providing ' social security apartments ' to the city 's less well @-@ off . Some scholars have characterized this as an example of the revival of Maoism in the Chinese Communist ethos .
Reactions to the red culture movement were divided . Bo 's revival of Mao @-@ era culture and accompanying social welfare programs were popular within much of the middle to lower income strata of Chongqing society , and made Bo a star with both conventional Marxists and neo @-@ leftists . Bo won praise for returning the city to what some called China 's ' true socialist heritage ' by de @-@ emphasizing material wealth , and evoked nostalgia to the social egalitarianism that existed during Mao 's time . Some retirees were particularly inspired and said they wanted to pass on " revolutionary spirit " to their children , while others participated as a means to praise the Communist Party for the country 's economic progress .
The campaign also had many detractors . Some intellectuals and reformers criticized the campaign for being regressive , akin to " being drowned in a red sea " , and bringing back painful memories from the Cultural Revolution . Several mid @-@ level officials in the city committed suicide due to overwhelming pressure to organize events for the red songs campaign . Bo 's critics derisively referred to him as " little Mao " .
= = = = Social policies = = = =
A cornerstone of Bo 's Chongqing model involved a series of egalitarian social policies aimed to lessen the gap between rich and poor , and ease the rural @-@ urban divide . Bo promoted the notion of pursuing " red GDP " — an economic model embodying communist egalitarianism — and suggested that , if economic development were analogous to ' baking a cake ' , then the primary task should be to divide the cake fairly rather than building a larger cake .
To that end , the city reportedly spent $ 15 @.@ 8 billion on public apartment complexes for use by recent college graduates , migrant workers and low @-@ income residents . In 2007 , the cities of Chongqing and Chengdu were selected to run pilot projects intended to mitigate the rural @-@ urban divide and ease integration of rural residents into the cities . Under China 's hukou registration system , citizens were classified as either rural or urban — a distinction that determines not only where they could live , but also affected educational opportunities , health benefits , taxation , and property rights , effectively making them ' second class citizens ' . Of Chongqing 's 32 million residents , only 27 % held urban hukou as of 2007 . The 2007 project made it easier for rural residents to obtain urban status , a policy intended not only to help balance inequality , but also to enable the government to develop underused rural land . Under Bo 's leadership , Chongqing established " land exchanges " where rural villages could earn credits for maximizing farmland .
Bo 's approach to social policy was demonstrated during the November 2008 taxi strikes , which saw over 8 @,@ 000 taxi drivers take to the streets for two days in protests over high fees , unregulated competition and rising fuel costs . Similar protests in China were frequently suppressed — sometimes forcefully — with official media sometimes blaming labor unrest on criminal instigation . Bo 's government instead held a televised roundtable dialogues with the protesters and citizens , and agreed to allow the formation of a trade union . His handling of the situation earned him praise as a comparatively restrained and progressive leader .
= = = = Economic policies = = = =
Another major component of Bo 's Chongqing model concerned the city 's economic policies . Just as he had done in Liaoning , Bo ambitiously pursued foreign investment in the city , lowering corporate income tax rates ( 15 % compared to the 25 % national average ) , and sought to stimulate rapid urbanization and industrialization . He also carried on with policies initiated by his predecessors which focused on domestic consumption , rather than export @-@ led growth . During his tenure , Chongqing reported annual GDP growth far exceeding the national average . In 2008 , for instance , nationwide GDP growth was reported at 8 % , while Chongqing reported 14 @.@ 3 % ; the same year , foreign trade rose by 28 % , and bank loans were up 29 % .
Bo 's model of economic growth won national and international praise for seamlessly combining foreign investment and state @-@ led growth . However , Bo 's critics called the model of " red GDP " – subsidized infrastructure , housing and public works projects – unsustainable and a drain on the city 's budget . Some civil servants complained that they were not getting salaries on time . Chongqing received a disproportionately high share ( some $ 34 billion ) of stimulus money from Beijing in 2008 . Political rivals such as Bo 's predecessor Wang Yang also suggested that economic figures in Chongqing were " rigged " — artificially inflated through unnecessary construction and public works projects .
= = = Leadership style = = =
Although many of Bo 's campaigns earned popular support , especially from the city 's poor , his leadership style has been described as " propagandistic , " " ruthless , " and " arrogant " by subordinates and city officials , academics , journalists , and other professionals . Michael Wines of The New York Times wrote that although Bo was possessed of " prodigious charisma and deep intelligence , " these qualities were offset by a " studied indifference to the wrecked lives that littered his path to power ... Mr. Bo 's ruthlessness stood out , even in a system where the absence of formal rules ensures that only the strongest advance . " Bo placed onerous demands on government officials in the city , requiring them to be available to work all day and all night , seven days a week . He reportedly called subordinates to late @-@ night meetings , publicly criticized and humiliated those with whom he disagreed , and even hit underlings who failed to meet his demands . According to a psychologist quoted by the Daily Telegraph , since Bo Xilai assumed power , " depression , burn out and suicides have all risen among officials ... Officials now make up the largest share of patients [ seeking ] counselling in the city . "
In late 2009 , a popular investigative television show on China Central Television aired a critical story on Bo 's anti @-@ crime drive , expressing concern over the apparent disregard for legal due process . In response , Bo utilized his connections to have the show 's host temporarily banned from the airwaves , and its producer moved to another program . Others who opposed Bo 's initiatives were also met with retribution . Li Zhuang , a defense lawyer from Beijing , was sentenced to two and a half years in prison ( later reduced to 18 months ) in 2009 for attempting to defend one of the high @-@ profile targets of Bo 's crackdown . Cheng Li , a scholar at the Brookings Institution , said that " Nobody really trusts [ Bo ] : a lot of people are scared of him , including several princelings who are supposed to be his power base . "
= = = Alleged eavesdropping operations = = =
As part of Bo 's efforts to fight crime and maintain social and political stability in Chongqing , he initiated a major electronic surveillance operation . Wang Lijun , Chongqing 's police chief , served as the architect of the state @-@ funded project , which was described in official media as a " comprehensive package bugging system covering telecommunications to the Internet . " The system involved wiretaps , eavesdropping , and monitoring of internet communications , and was designed with the help of cybersecurity expert Fang Binxing , known for his pivotal role in the construction of China 's Great Firewall .
According The New York Times , the eavesdropping operations did not only target local criminals , but also the communications of top Chinese leaders , including those of the General Secretary , President Hu Jintao . One source connected to the Chinese leadership said that Bo tried to monitor nearly all central leaders who had visited Chongqing in order to better understand what they thought of him . In August 2011 , a phone call between Hu Jintao and anti @-@ corruption official Ma Wen was found to be wiretapped under Bo 's orders . The revelations about the eavesdropping operation resulted in intense scrutiny from the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection . It was also said to have sowed distrust and played a role in the falling out of Bo and his police chief Wang Lijun , who allegedly began to use the same eavesdropping methods against Bo himself . The operations were believed to have contributed to Bo 's downfall in 2012 .
= = = Death of Neil Heywood = = =
On 14 November 2011 , British citizen Neil Heywood was found dead in his Chongqing hotel room . At the time , local authorities declared he had died from alcohol over @-@ consumption , though his family noted that he was not a heavy drinker . The official cause of death was not scrutinized until several months later , when revelations emerged that Heywood 's death was a homicide , and Bo Xilai was implicated .
Heywood served as an intermediary linking western companies to powerful Chinese politicians . He was a long @-@ time associate of the Bo family : he reportedly shared a close personal relationship with Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , and had helped the couple 's son Bo Guagua earn admission to Harrow School in England . Heywood also allegedly served as a middleman for the family , helping them clandestinely move large sums of money overseas .
In October 2011 , Heywood reportedly had a business dispute with Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , when he demanded a higher commission for his services . The dispute escalated , with Heywood ultimately threatening to reveal the family 's business dealings and overseas assets , estimated to total in excess of $ 136 million . Heywood was then allegedly poisoned by Gu and an assistant . Gu would be convicted of the murder and receive a suspended death sentence in August 2012 .
= = Downfall = =
= = = Wang Lijun incident = = =
In early 2012 , the party 's Central Commission for Discipline Inspection bolstered its presence within Chongqing as the city 's leaders came under investigation . Much of the attention focused on Bo 's police chief , Wang Lijun , who may have been under investigation for his role in a corruption case in Liaoning . Growing scrutiny over the city 's wiretapping operation against senior leaders also likely fell mainly on Wang . Although details are scarce , several sources have suggested that Wang 's resentment against Bo grew amidst the investigations — resentment that was compounded when Wang realized that he and his wife had also been targets of wiretapping under Bo 's orders .
Moreover , Wang was privy to details of Neil Heywood 's death , and had reportedly attempted to voice his concerns to Bo about alleged poisoning . Around 16 January , Wang is believed to have confronted Bo over evidence that implicated Bo 's wife in the murder . Although Bo initially agreed to allow an inquiry , he then changed course and sought to obstruct investigations . Wang was abruptly demoted on 2 February to the far less prestigious position of Vice @-@ mayor overseeing education , science , and environmental affairs . Bo placed Wang under surveillance , and several of his close associates were reportedly taken into custody . Some reports allege that Bo may have been plotting to have Wang assassinated .
On 6 February 2012 , apparently fearing for his life , Wang traveled to the U.S. consulate in the nearby city of Chengdu , bringing evidence implicating Bo and his family in the Neil Heywood murder . According to reports , Wang sought and was denied asylum in the United States . He remained in the consulate for approximately 24 hours before leaving " of his own volition " and being taken into the custody of state security officials dispatched from Beijing . Local media in Chongqing announced that he was on a mental health @-@ related sick leave .
A day after Wang 's leave , several overseas Chinese @-@ language news websites posted an open letter allegedly penned by Wang , which sharply criticized Bo as a " hypocrite " and " the greatest gangster in China " and accused Bo of corruption . Without knowing what incriminating material Wang may have held against Bo , even Bo 's supporters in China 's top leadership were reluctant to vouch for him . Bo responded in an unusually open press conference during the 2012 National People 's Congress , acknowledging " negligent supervision " of his subordinates , saying he may have " relied upon the wrong person " .
= = = Removal from posts = = =
On 15 March , Bo was dismissed as Chongqing party chief and its related municipal posts , while temporarily retaining a seat on the Politburo . Due to the potentially destructive effects Bo 's dismissal would have on party unity , party elders were consulted on the matter . The decision was reportedly made at a meeting of the Politburo Standing Committee on 7 March , during which security tsar Zhou Yongkang cast a lone dissenting vote . On 14 March , Bo was reprimanded by Premier Wen Jiabao during the Premier 's annual press conference . Wen called the achievements of Chongqing " significant , " but the result of " multiple administrations , " i.e. , not just Bo himself . Wen also made numerous allusions to the damage wrought by the Cultural Revolution , an indirect rebuke of Bo 's efforts to revive " red culture " . Addressing high @-@ level political changes by a Premier to an open public forum was unprecedented . Political observers believe that Wen 's remarks and Bo 's downfall represented a consensus within the central leadership that Bo not only needed to shoulder the responsibility for the Wang Lijun scandal , but also represented a political triumph for the ' liberal reformer ' wing of the Communist Party .
On 10 April , Bo was suspended from the party 's Central Committee and its Politburo , pending investigation for " serious disciplinary violations . " Bo 's wife , Gu Kailai , was now a prime suspect in the inquiry into the death of British businessman Neil Heywood . The announcements , carrying criminal implications , served as something of a death knell for Bo 's political career .
On 28 September , the Politburo of the Communist Party of China adopted a decision to expel him from the party . The decision was ratified by a full plenary session of the Central Committee on November 4 . He was accused of major disciplinary violations and corruption charges during his tenure in Dalian , the Ministry of Commerce and Chongqing , including in relation to the Gu Kailai case .
On 26 October , the Standing Committee of the 11th National People 's Congress expelled him as a deputy to the national legislature , removing his final public post and setting the stage for his trial . When he was ejected from the Communist Party , the official announcement also mentioned that he had " had or maintained improper sexual relations with multiple women . " Rumors also spread that he had an affair with the star actress of Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon , Zhang Ziyi ; Zhang racked up significant legal bills attempting to sue the sources of the rumour for defamation . During the trial , Bo admitted that he had fallen out with his wife because of an affair he had in the 1990s , prompting her to move to the United Kingdom to be near their son , Guagua .
= = = Public reactions = = =
Bo 's downfall elicited strong reactions among the Chinese public and with commentators across the political spectrum . Leftist websites such as Utopia , Red China , and Maoflag were full of angry commentary over Bo 's dismissal . These websites were shut down for a period of " maintenance " shortly after . Leftist commentators voiced support for Bo : Kong Qingdong called Bo 's dismissal ' a plot by enemies of the state ' ; Sima Nan said associating Bo with the Cultural Revolution was a ' smear campaign ' ; Sima 's pro @-@ Bo microblogs were censored . Large numbers of sympathetic posts for Bo appeared in microblogs from Chongqing , and Dalian , where Bo was once mayor . The Global Times also wrote a sympathetic editorial . Liberal media reacted positively , criticizing Bo 's style of ' personality @-@ based rule ' as dangerous and regressive . Right @-@ leaning commentators said Bo 's downfall signified a ' correct orientation ' to China 's future development . Southern Media Group editor Yan Lieshan remarked that Bo correctly identified China 's problems but prescribed the wrong solution . Businesspeople whose assets were seized by Bo 's administration in Chongqing also reacted positively .
Bo 's dismissal caused political shockwaves unseen since the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , and exposing internal conflicts within Communist Party . In the weeks following 15 March , party authorities deliberated on Bo 's case . In the absence of official reports of the proceedings , microblogs churned out a flood of speculation , including rumours of a coup . In response , the authorities instructed newspapers and websites to strictly report only official releases , and arrested six people accused of ' rumourmongering ' .
Aware of its potentially divisive impact , authorities carefully controlled media coverage of Bo 's removal from office . State media reported ' pledges of loyalty ' to the party 's decision to disgrace Bo , including statements from the new Chongqing party authorities , Beijing municipal organs , and grassroots party members rallying to the party line . The party 's mouthpiece People 's Daily issued a front @-@ page editorial calling for unity behind the " correct decision " . The military held ' political education ' sessions on short notice , stressing unity and loyalty to the Party under the leadership of Hu Jintao . Bo 's downfall also affected his ally Zhou Yongkang , who had reportedly relinquished his operational control over Chinese security institutions and lost the right to influence who would succeed him at the 18th Party Congress .
= = = Trial = = =
In July 2013 , Chinese prosecution authorities charged Bo with bribery , abuse of power and corruption , paving the way for his trial . In the build @-@ up to the trial , Song Yangbiao , a prominent leftist supporter of Bo was detained by police after he urged people to protest against the trial . The verdict and sentence brought to close one of the most lurid political scandals in the history of Communist China and concluded Bo 's downfall . This was largely set in motion by his wife 's murder of a British businessman , followed by a defection of his top aide , who had information about the murder case , to a U.S. consulate just before a power transition . A few days before the trial , Wang Xuemei , a prominent forensic scientist who was vice director of the Chinese Forensic Medicine Association and of the Supreme Court 's Prosecutorial Research Center , resigned from her positions . Wang had publicly questioned the forensic evidence used in the trial of Bo 's wife Gu Kailai . Defense counsel for Bo was Beijing @-@ based DeHeng Law Offices , a corporate law firm with deep political connections to the state . A Wall Street Journal article on the law firm 's role in the trial described it as acting as an " intermediary " that facilitated between Bo , his relatives and prosecutors the negotiation of " an outcome acceptable to all sides in the run @-@ up to the trial — and to help ensure that the trial itself goes according to plan " .
On 22 August 2013 , the Jinan Intermediate People 's Court heard Bo 's case . The proceedings of the trial were being relayed in real @-@ time by the court 's official microblog account , though journalists covering the trial needed to belong to a pre @-@ approved list . Bo was charged with receiving 21 @.@ 79 million yuan ( US $ 3 @.@ 56 million ) from businessmen Xu Ming and Tang Xiaolin , which he denied . At the trial Xu Ming testified that he gave Bo 's wife Gu Kailai $ 3 @.@ 23 million in 2000 to buy a villa in France , and that he paid for their son Bo Guagua 's travel and credit card bills . Bo Xilai cross @-@ examined Xu and denied knowledge of many of the payments .
Bo 's trial concluded on 26 August 2013 . On 22 September , the court found him guilty on all counts , including accepting bribes and abuses of power , stripped him of all his personal assets , and sentenced him to life imprisonment . Not long after the trial , on 6 November , citizen activist Wang Zheng established the Zhi Xian Party , which supports Communist Party rule but criticizes it failing to uphold the constitution . Bo Xilai was elected the party 's " Chairman for life " .
Chinese attempts to confiscate a € 6 @.@ 95 million villa in Cannes , bought and held for Bo through intermediaries , are ongoing .
= = = Aftermath and epilogue = = =
After Bo was jailed , the aftermath of the events set off by the Wang Lijun incident continued to reverberate across the Chinese political landscape . Xi Jinping 's accession to power resulted in a series of major political changes with significant consequences . Bo 's erstwhile supporter Zhou Yongkang retired in 2012 , but was caught up in Xi Jinping 's anti @-@ corruption dragnet in 2013 , detained for investigation , and eventually sentenced to life in prison . In addition , Zhou was unable to select the successor to his office possibly as a result of his role in the Bo Xilai scandal . The head of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission , which Zhou headed , no longer held a seat on the Politburo Standing Committee following the 18th Party Congress , as the number of seats on the body were reduced from nine to seven . The anti @-@ corruption campaign following the 18th Party Congress became the biggest of its kind in the history of China under Communist rule . By 2014 , Bo had been branded by some media outlets outside of China as part of a so @-@ called " New Gang of Four " composed of disgraced officials Zhou Yongkang , Xu Caihou , and Ling Jihua .
Bo 's chief ideological rival , former Guangdong party chief Wang Yang , went on to become Vice @-@ Premier holding the portfolios of agriculture , commerce , and poverty reduction . Wen Jiabao , who was seen as Bo 's foremost critic in the top leadership , suffered significant public embarrassment himself over a New York Times article about his family 's vast empire of wealth whose release coincided closely with Bo 's dismissal . Huang Qifan , the mayor of Chongqing long seen as an ally of Bo , continued his political career basically unscathed . Wang Lijun was sentenced to fifteen years in prison for defection , corruption , and abuse of power .
= = Political alignment and affiliations = =
In the course of his career , Bo Xilai was the beneficiary of considerable patronage from former Communist Party leader Jiang Zemin . He is thus associated with Jiang 's faction , sometimes referred to as the " elitists , " that is generally known to favor a model that emphasizes free trade , economic development in the coastal regions , and export @-@ led growth . It is a coalition composed largely of " princelings " ( the children of high @-@ ranking former party leaders ) , business people , leaders of coastal cities , and members of the erstwhile " Shanghai clique " . By contrast , the " populist " coalition of Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao advocated more balanced economic development and improvements to China 's social safety net . The populist faction comprised rural leaders , socialist intellectuals , and several leaders who rose to prominence through their connections with the Communist Youth League .
While Bo was initially identified with the elitist bloc during his time in Liaoning and as Minister of Commerce , during his tenure in the interior city of Chongqing , he adopted a number of populist policies typically associated with the conservative left . Namely , he implemented social housing programs , gave residency status ( and therefore the associated social welfare benefits ) to rural migrant workers , and emphasized a need for a more balanced distribution of wealth . Although Bo relentlessly pursued technology , capital , and business opportunities , he also spearheaded a large number of government programs to help the working class and disadvantaged groups . Bo 's campaigns against corruption also allegedly seized the assets of private entrepreneurs , in turn allegedly funneling these funds into his own personal wealth , as well as ( more publicly ) state projects and welfare programs , effectively re @-@ asserting state control over wealth . He also sought to promote " red culture , " and mandated the revival of Mao @-@ era slogans and songs , evoking memories that were romantic to the conservative left , but painful to the liberal right of Chinese politics .
Bo 's policies in Chongqing ultimately made him a prominent figure among neo @-@ Maoists and leftists , and a representative of the conservative wing of the Communist Party . Although Bo did not favor the discontinuation of market economics or a return to Mao @-@ era policies , he was seen to advocate a strong role for the state in peoples ' lives . Bo 's anti @-@ corruption campaign , in particular , earned him a reputation for heavy @-@ handedness and authoritarian methods in crime and punishment . Bo 's policies put him in opposition to the more liberal and reform @-@ oriented faction , particularly Premier Wen Jiabao and Guangdong party chief Wang Yang , who favored the strengthening of rule of law and a continuation of political reform . To observers , Bo and Wang 's verbal jousting over the future direction of development marked an increasing polarization of Chinese politics into leftist and reformer camps .
= = Family = =
Bo 's first wife was Li Danyu , the daughter of former Beijing Party First Secretary Li Xuefeng . They wed in September 1976 and had a son , " Brendan " Li Wangzhi ( 李望知 ) , the following year . Their son graduated from Columbia University in 2001 . Li Danyu insisted that her son change his surname to Li following her divorce from Bo Xilai in 1984 . Li Wangzhi was reportedly low @-@ key and modest and was not commonly associated with his father during the latter 's political heyday . Li Wangzhi obtained a master 's degree in media studies and worked for a few years at Citibank , then worked for a law firm in Beijing ; he eventually went into private equity . Li had remarked publicly that his father 's arrest " destroyed his life " . In 2014 , Li released a statement on his microblog feed revealing that his father was doing well in prison and that medical treatment is available to him should he need it . Li wrote , " life is short ... if the law allows , I would like to see him more . Come to think of it , the only times I 've seen him [ since 2007 ] was at funerals , in the courtroom , or in prison . "
Bo married his second wife , Gu Kailai , in 1986 . Gu was a prominent lawyer and founder of the Kailai law firm in Beijing . She was said to have overcome a trying childhood during nationwide strife and worked her way to become a well @-@ regarded lawyer and prominent politician 's wife . Gu 's father , Gu Jingsheng , was a Communist revolutionary . Her mother , Fan Chengxiu , is a descendant of the renowned Song Dynasty chancellor and poet Fan Zhongyan . In 2013 , Gu was convicted of the murder of British businessman Neil Heywood after a dispute over money which purportedly escalated until he threatened her son 's life . She was sentenced to death with a two @-@ year reprieve , which is typically commuted to life imprisonment .
Bo Xilai drew criticism from others in the party for his high @-@ profile courting of media attention and using his family pedigree to further the interests of his wife and her law firm . Bo denied that his wife had profited from his position , saying that his wife had retired her legal practice while the couple lived in Dalian in the 1990s . Bo said that Gu " now basically just stays at home , doing some housework for me . " Jiang Weiping claimed that Gu served as Bo 's " gatekeeper " when Bo was the mayor of Dalian , regularly accepting gifts and bribes from property developers seeking access to him , and from Party officials seeking government appointments . There was speculation that Bo Xilai may have attempted to interfere with a corruption investigation into his wife prior to the Wang Lijun incident .
Bo and Gu have one son , Bo Kuangyi , who is better known as Bo Guagua . He attended Harrow School in the United Kingdom , and was later admitted to Balliol College , Oxford , where in 2006 he started studying for a degree in Philosophy , Politics and Economics . Guagua then went on to study public administration at Harvard 's Kennedy School of Government . Bo Guagua 's high @-@ profile and privileged lifestyle , including luxury cars and frequent social events , has provided tabloid fodder for Chinese @-@ language media . Both Guagua and his father had repeatedly denied allegations that Guagua was the ' playboy prince ' that he was often portrayed , claiming that Guagua got by on a modest allowance and attended social events to only to " broaden his horizons . " Asked how he could afford his son 's tuition fees on his estimated annual salary of $ 22 @,@ 000 , Bo replied that his son received " full scholarships " from the respective institutions . However , the veracity of this assertion has been questioned by several sources . Maclean 's reported that Bo 's family associate Heywood pulled strings to have Guagua accepted into Harrow , shortly after becoming involved with Bo .
Bo Xiyong , Bo Xilai 's eldest brother , is a vice @-@ chairman and executive director of Hong Kong @-@ listed China Everbright International , but he was purportedly listed under a pseudonym , ' Li Xueming ' . The company declined to confirm if Li Xueming and Bo Xiyong are one and the same .
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= Force =
In physics , a force is any interaction that , when unopposed , will change the motion of an object . In other words , a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity ( which includes to begin moving from a state of rest ) , i.e. , to accelerate . Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or a pull . A force has both magnitude and direction , making it a vector quantity . It is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F.
The original form of Newton 's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time . If the mass of the object is constant , this law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object , is in the direction of the net force , and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object
Related concepts to force include : thrust , which increases the velocity of an object ; drag , which decreases the velocity of an object ; and torque , which produces changes in rotational speed of an object . In an extended body , each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts ; the distribution of such forces through the body is the so @-@ called mechanical stress . Pressure is a simple type of stress . Stress usually causes deformation of solid materials , or flow in fluids .
= = Development of the concept = =
Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines , but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force . In part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes non @-@ obvious force of friction , and a consequently inadequate view of the nature of natural motion . A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion , even at a constant velocity . Most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton . With his mathematical insight , Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved @-@ on for nearly three hundred years . By the early 20th century , Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light , and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia .
With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light , particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms . The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed . Only four main interactions are known : in order of decreasing strength , they are : strong , electromagnetic , weak , and gravitational . High @-@ energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction .
= = Pre @-@ Newtonian concepts = =
Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the simple machines . The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount of work . Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids .
Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology . In Aristotle 's view , the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different " natural places " therein . Aristotle believed that motionless objects on Earth , those composed mostly of the elements earth and water , to be in their natural place on the ground and that they will stay that way if left alone . He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their " natural place " ( e.g. , for heavy bodies to fall ) , which led to " natural motion " , and unnatural or forced motion , which required continued application of a force . This theory , based on the everyday experience of how objects move , such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving , had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of projectiles , such as the flight of arrows . The place where the archer moves the projectile was at the start of the flight , and while the projectile sailed through the air , no discernible efficient cause acts on it . Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile 's path carries the projectile to its target . This explanation demands a continuum like air for change of place in general .
Aristotelian physics began facing criticism in Medieval science , first by John Philoponus in the 6th century .
The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei , who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus . Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the 17th century . He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force , for example friction .
= = Newtonian mechanics = =
Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force , and in doing so he found that they obey certain conservation laws . In 1687 , Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica . In this work Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics .
= = = First law = = =
Newton 's First Law of Motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force . This law is an extension of Galileo 's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force ( see a more detailed description of this below ) . Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium " natural state " in place of the Aristotelian idea of the " natural state of rest " . That is , the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity . By making rest physically indistinguishable from non @-@ zero constant velocity , Newton 's First Law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities . Specifically , in systems where objects are moving with different velocities , it is impossible to determine which object is " in motion " and which object is " at rest " . In other words , to phrase matters more technically , the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference , that is , in all frames related by a Galilean transformation .
For instance , while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity , the laws of physics do not change from being at rest . A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving . This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle . It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle 's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down . From the perspective of the person in the car , the vehicle and everything inside of it is at rest : It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction . Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest , the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable . Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest .
The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion , even those that are not strictly constant velocity . The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year . Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration , such as those free @-@ falling toward a gravitating object , were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames . This is why , for example , astronauts experience weightlessness when in free @-@ fall orbit around the Earth , and why Newton 's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments . If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid @-@ air next to himself , it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia . This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame . This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity .
= = = Second law = = =
A modern statement of Newton 's Second Law is a vector equation :
<formula>
where <formula> is the momentum of the system , and <formula> is the net ( vector sum ) force . In equilibrium , there is zero net force by definition , but ( balanced ) forces may be present nevertheless . In contrast , the second law states an unbalanced force acting on an object will result in the object 's momentum changing over time .
By the definition of momentum ,
<formula>
where m is the mass and <formula> is the velocity .
Newton 's second law applies only to a system of constant mass , and hence m may be moved outside the derivative operator . The equation then becomes
<formula>
By substituting the definition of acceleration , the algebraic version of Newton 's Second Law is derived :
<formula>
Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the reduced form above .
Newton 's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass . Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements . However , while kinematics are well @-@ described through reference frame analysis in advanced physics , there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass . General relativity offers an equivalence between space @-@ time and mass , but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity , it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales . With some justification , Newton 's second law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality ; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed .
The use of Newton 's Second Law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks , because it is essentially a mathematical truism . Notable physicists , philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of force include Ernst Mach , Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll .
Newton 's Second Law can be used to measure the strength of forces . For instance , knowledge of the masses of planets along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets .
= = = Third law = = =
Newton 's Third Law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects . The third law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies , and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body . Whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second body , the second body exerts a force − F on the first body . F and − F are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction . This law is sometimes referred to as the action @-@ reaction law , with F called the " action " and − F the " reaction " . The action and the reaction are simultaneous :
<formula>
If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system , then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since
<formula>
<formula>
This means that in a closed system of particles , there are no internal forces that are unbalanced . That is , the action @-@ reaction force shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of mass of the system to accelerate . The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other , the system itself remains unaccelerated . Alternatively , if an external force acts on the system , then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system .
Combining Newton 's Second and Third Laws , it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is conserved . Using
<formula>
and integrating with respect to time , the equation :
<formula>
is obtained . For a system that includes objects 1 and 2 @,@
<formula> ,
which is the conservation of linear momentum . Using the similar arguments , it is possible to generalize this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles . This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system . In general , as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass , it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained .
= = Special theory of relativity = =
In the special theory of relativity , mass and energy are equivalent ( as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object ) . When an object 's velocity increases , so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent ( inertia ) . It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity . Newton 's Second Law
<formula>
remains valid because it is a mathematical definition . But in order to be conserved , relativistic momentum must be redefined as :
<formula>
where
<formula> is the velocity and
<formula> is the speed of light
<formula> is the rest mass .
The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non @-@ zero rest mass <formula> moving in the <formula> direction is :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
where the Lorentz factor
<formula>
In the early history of relativity , the expressions <formula> and <formula> were called longitudinal and transverse mass . Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration , but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light . Note that <formula> is undefined for an object with a non @-@ zero rest mass at the speed of light , and the theory yields no prediction at that speed .
If <formula> is very small compared to <formula> , then <formula> is very close to 1 and
<formula>
is a close approximation . Even for use in relativity , however , one can restore the form of
<formula>
through the use of four @-@ vectors . This relation is correct in relativity when <formula> is the four @-@ force , <formula> is the invariant mass , and <formula> is the four @-@ acceleration .
= = Descriptions = =
Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls , this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces . As with other physical concepts ( e.g. temperature ) , the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise operational definitions that are consistent with direct observations and compared to a standard measurement scale . Through experimentation , it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian mechanics .
Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes dependent upon how strong the push or pull is . Because of these characteristics , forces are classified as " vector quantities " . This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction ( denoted scalar quantities ) . For example , when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object , it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result . If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force , the situation is ambiguous . For example , if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling , it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be . The two people could be pulling against each other as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction . In this simple one @-@ dimensional example , without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other . Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems .
Historically , forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces canceled each other out . Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector quantities : they have magnitude and direction . When two forces act on a point particle , the resulting force , the resultant ( also called the net force ) , can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition : the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram , gives an equivalent resultant vector that is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram . The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum , depending on the angle between their lines of action . However , if the forces are acting on an extended body , their respective lines of application must also be specified in order to account for their effects on the motion of the body .
Free @-@ body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system . Ideally , these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to determine the net force .
As well as being added , forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other . A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces , one pointing north , and one pointing east . Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force . Resolving force vectors into components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using magnitudes and directions . This is because , for orthogonal components , the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors . Orthogonal components are independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or direction of the other . Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient . Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable , since that force would then have only one non @-@ zero component . Orthogonal force vectors can be three @-@ dimensional with the third component being at right @-@ angles to the other two .
= = = Equilibrium = = =
Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero ( that is , the vector sum of all forces is zero ) . When dealing with an extended body , it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0 .
There are two kinds of equilibrium : static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium .
= = = = Static = = = =
Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics . Objects that are at rest have zero net force acting on them .
The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction . For example , an object on a level surface is pulled ( attracted ) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity . At the same time , surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force ( called the normal force ) . The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration .
Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction , generated between the object and the table surface . For a situation with no movement , the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration . The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object .
A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces , using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances . For example , an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the " spring reaction force " , which equals the object 's weight . Using such tools , some quantitative force laws were discovered : that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density ( widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights ) ; Archimedes ' principle for buoyancy ; Archimedes ' analysis of the lever ; Boyle 's law for gas pressure ; and Hooke 's law for springs . These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his Three Laws of Motion .
= = = = Dynamic = = = =
Dynamic equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic . Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an " absolute rest frame " did not exist . Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest . This was contrary to Aristotle 's notion of a " natural state " of rest that objects with mass naturally approached . Simple experiments showed that Galileo 's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest were correct . For example , if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow 's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity , Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it . Thus , in an Aristotelian universe , the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship . However , when this experiment is actually conducted , the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast , as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it . Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls , the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls . Thus , no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity .
Moreover , any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force ( resultant force ) . This is the definition of dynamic equilibrium : when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity .
A simple case of dynamic equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction . In such a situation , a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force . This results in zero net force , but since the object started with a non @-@ zero velocity , it continues to move with a non @-@ zero velocity . Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force . However , when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion .
= = = Forces in Quantum Mechanics = = =
The notion " force " keeps its meaning in quantum mechanics , though one is now dealing with operators instead of classical variables and though the physics is now described by the Schrödinger equation instead of Newtonian equations . This has the consequence that the results of a measurement are now sometimes " quantized " , i.e. they appear in discrete portions . This is , of course , difficult to imagine in the context of " forces " . However , the potentials V ( x , y , z ) or fields , from which the forces generally can be derived , are treated similar to classical position variables , i.e. , <formula> .
This becomes different only in the framework of quantum field theory , where these fields are also quantized .
However , already in quantum mechanics there is one " caveat " , namely the particles acting onto each other do not only possess the spatial variable , but also a discrete intrinsic angular momentum @-@ like variable called the " spin " , and there is the Pauli principle relating the space and the spin variables . Depending on the value of the spin , identical particles split into two different classes , fermions and bosons . If two identical fermions ( e.g. electrons ) have a symmetric spin function ( e.g. parallel spins ) the spatial variables must be antisymmetric ( i.e. they exclude each other from their places much as if there was a repulsive force ) , and vice versa , i.e. for antiparallel spins the position variables must be symmetric ( i.e. the apparent force must be attractive ) . Thus in the case of two fermions there is a strictly negative correlation between spatial and spin variables , whereas for two bosons ( e.g. quanta of electromagnetic waves , photons ) the correlation is strictly positive .
Thus the notion " force " loses already part of its meaning .
= = = Feynman diagrams = = =
In modern particle physics , forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by @-@ product of exchange of momentum @-@ carrying gauge bosons . With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity , it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum ( 4 @-@ momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics ) . The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force . Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be " fundamental interactions " . When particle A emits ( creates ) or absorbs ( annihilates ) virtual particle B , a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A ' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions . While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict , in full detail , the accurate result of such interactions , there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams . In a Feynman diagram , each matter particle is represented as a straight line ( see world line ) traveling through time , which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram . Matter and anti @-@ matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram . World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices , and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines . Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and , in the case of virtual particle exchange , are absorbed at an adjacent vertex .
The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules . For example , a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron , proton , and neutrino , an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force .
= = Fundamental forces = =
All of the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental interactions . The strong and weak forces are nuclear forces that act only at very short distances , and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles , including nucleons and compound nuclei . The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges , and the gravitational force acts between masses . All other forces in nature derive from these four fundamental interactions . For example , friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces , and the Pauli exclusion principle , which does not permit atoms to pass through each other . Similarly , the forces in springs , modeled by Hooke 's law , are the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return an object to its equilibrium position . Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces that arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference .
The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas . For example , Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation . Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism . In the 20th century , the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces ( all except gravity ) are manifestations of matter ( fermions ) interacting by exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons . This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak theory subsequently confirmed by observation . The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved Higgs mechanism , but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is incomplete . A Grand Unified Theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding unsolved problems in physics . Physicists are still attempting to develop self @-@ consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything . Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor , but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory .
= = = Gravitational = = =
What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton . Before Newton , the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects . Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the acceleration of every object in free @-@ fall was constant and independent of the mass of the object . Today , this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as <formula> and has a magnitude of about 9 @.@ 81 meters per second squared ( this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location ) , and points toward the center of the Earth . This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth 's surface is directly proportional to the object 's mass . Thus an object that has a mass of <formula> will experience a force :
<formula>
In free @-@ fall , this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight . For objects not in free @-@ fall , the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports . For example , a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force , since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground .
Newton 's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies , which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion , with falling motion observed on the Earth . He proposed a law of gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler 's laws of planetary motion .
Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances . In particular , Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law . Further , Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body . Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass ( <formula> ) and the radius ( <formula> ) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration :
<formula>
where the vector direction is given by <formula> , the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth .
In this equation , a dimensional constant <formula> is used to describe the relative strength of gravity . This constant has come to be known as Newton 's Universal Gravitation Constant , though its value was unknown in Newton 's lifetime . Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of <formula> using a torsion balance ; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing <formula> could allow one to solve for the Earth 's mass given the above equation . Newton , however , realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion , his law of gravity had to be universal . Succinctly stated , Newton 's Law of Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass <formula> due to the gravitational pull of mass <formula> is
<formula>
where <formula> is the distance between the two objects ' centers of mass and <formula> is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object .
This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the 20th century . During that time , sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet , moon , comet , or asteroid . The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed .
It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton 's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain . Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet ( Vulcan ) that would explain the discrepancies ; however , despite some early indications , no such planet could be found . When Albert Einstein formulated his theory of general relativity ( GR ) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury 's orbit and found that his theory added a correction , which could account for the discrepancy . This was the first time that Newton 's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative .
Since then , and so far , general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity . In GR , gravitation is not viewed as a force , but rather , objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space @-@ time – defined as the shortest space @-@ time path between two space @-@ time events . From the perspective of the object , all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever . It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space @-@ time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object 's curved path . Thus , the straight line path in space @-@ time is seen as a curved line in space , and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object . For example , a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola , as it is in a uniform gravitational field . Its space @-@ time trajectory ( when the extra ct dimension is added ) is almost a straight line , slightly curved ( with the radius of curvature of the order of few light @-@ years ) . The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as " gravitational force " .
= = = Electromagnetic = = =
The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force that existed intrinsically between two charges . The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction , was both attractive and repulsive ( there was intrinsic polarity ) , was independent of the mass of the charged objects , and followed the superposition principle . Coulomb 's law unifies all these observations into one succinct statement .
Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space . The electric field was based on using a hypothetical " test charge " anywhere in space and then using Coulomb 's Law to determine the electrostatic force . Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as
<formula>
where <formula> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge .
Meanwhile , the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents . It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb 's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel . Similar to the electric field , the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space . In this case , the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be
<formula>
where <formula> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and <formula> is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows . The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including , for example , those used in compasses . The fact that the Earth 's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth 's axis causes compass magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle .
Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge , a rule of vector multiplication called Lorentz 's Law describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field . The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge . This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force ( due to the electric field ) and the magnetic force ( due to the magnetic field ) . Fully stated , this is the law :
<formula>
where <formula> is the electromagnetic force , <formula> is the magnitude of the charge of the particle , <formula> is the electric field , <formula> is the velocity of the particle that is crossed with the magnetic field ( <formula> ) .
The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations , which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs . These " Maxwell Equations " fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges , and the interactions of the fields themselves . This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be " self @-@ generating " through a wave that traveled at a speed that he calculated to be the speed of light . This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum .
However , attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations , the photoelectric effect , and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe , proved troublesome . Through the work of leading theoretical physicists , a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics . This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics ( or QED ) , which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave – particles known as photons . In QED , photons are the fundamental exchange particle , which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force .
It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force . However , these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle . Since electrons are fermions , they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons . When the electrons in a material are densely packed together , there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all , so some of them must be in higher energy states . This means that it takes energy to pack them together . While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural force , it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states .
= = = Strong nuclear = = =
There are two " nuclear forces " , which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics . The strong nuclear force is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei while the weak nuclear force is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons .
The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics ( QCD ) . The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons , acting upon quarks , antiquarks , and the gluons themselves . The ( aptly named ) strong interaction is the " strongest " of the four fundamental forces .
The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles . However , a residual of the force is observed between hadrons ( the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei ) as the nuclear force . Here the strong force acts indirectly , transmitted as gluons , which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons , which classically transmit the nuclear force ( see this topic for more ) . The failure of many searches for free quarks has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable . This phenomenon is called color confinement .
= = = Weak nuclear = = =
The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons . Its most familiar effect is beta decay ( of neutrons in atomic nuclei ) and the associated radioactivity . The word " weak " derives from the fact that the field strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force . Still , it is stronger than gravity over short distances . A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed , which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 kelvins . Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang .
= = Non @-@ fundamental forces = =
Some forces are consequences of the fundamental ones . In such situations , idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight .
= = = Normal force = = =
The normal force is due to repulsive forces of interaction between atoms at close contact . When their electron clouds overlap , Pauli repulsion ( due to fermionic nature of electrons ) follows resulting in the force that acts in a direction normal to the surface interface between two objects . The normal force , for example , is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object . An example of the normal force in action is the impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface .
= = = Friction = = =
Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion . The frictional force is directly related to the normal force that acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact . There are two broad classifications of frictional forces : static friction and kinetic friction .
The static friction force ( <formula> ) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction ( <formula> ) multiplied by the normal force ( <formula> ) . In other words , the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality :
<formula>
The kinetic friction force ( <formula> ) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object . Thus , the magnitude of the force equals :
<formula>
where <formula> is the coefficient of kinetic friction . For most surface interfaces , the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction .
= = = Tension = = =
Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings that are massless , frictionless , unbreakable , and unstretchable . They can be combined with ideal pulleys , which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction . Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action @-@ reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string , any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object . By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set @-@ up that uses movable pulleys , the tension force on a load can be multiplied . For every string that acts on a load , another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load . However , even though such machines allow for an increase in force , there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load . These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the load is the same no matter how complicated the machine .
= = = Elastic force = = =
An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length . An ideal spring is taken to be massless , frictionless , unbreakable , and infinitely stretchable . Such springs exert forces that push when contracted , or pull when extended , in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position . This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676 , for whom Hooke 's law is named . If <formula> is the displacement , the force exerted by an ideal spring equals :
<formula>
where <formula> is the spring constant ( or force constant ) , which is particular to the spring . The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the force to act in opposition to the applied load .
= = = Continuum mechanics = = =
Newton 's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than three @-@ dimensional objects . However , in real life , matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object . For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow , contract , expand , or otherwise change shape , the theories of continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material . For example , in extended fluids , differences in pressure result in forces being directed along the pressure gradients as follows :
<formula>
where <formula> is the volume of the object in the fluid and <formula> is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all locations in space . Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in gravitational fields , winds in atmospheric science , and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight .
A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance : a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity . For so @-@ called " Stokes ' drag " the force is approximately proportional to the velocity , but opposite in direction :
<formula>
where :
<formula> is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object ( usually the cross @-@ sectional area ) , and
<formula> is the velocity of the object .
More formally , forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress – tensor with terms that are roughly defined as
<formula>
where <formula> is the relevant cross @-@ sectional area for the volume for which the stress @-@ tensor is being calculated . This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross @-@ sectional area ( the matrix diagonals of the tensor ) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross @-@ sectional area ( the off @-@ diagonal elements ) . The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all strains ( deformations ) including also tensile stresses and compressions .
= = = Fictitious forces = = =
There are forces that are frame dependent , meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non @-@ Newtonian ( that is , non @-@ inertial ) reference frames . Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force . These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating . Because these forces are not genuine they are also referred to as " pseudo forces " .
In general relativity , gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry . As an extension , Kaluza – Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions , which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious .
= = Rotations and torque = =
Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with torques . Mathematically , the torque of a force <formula> is defined relative to an arbitrary reference point as the cross @-@ product :
<formula>
where
<formula> is the position vector of the force application point relative to the reference point .
Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position , angular velocity for velocity , and angular momentum for momentum . As a consequence of Newton 's First Law of Motion , there exists rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque . Likewise , Newton 's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an analogous equation for the instantaneous angular acceleration of the rigid body :
<formula>
where
<formula> is the moment of inertia of the body
<formula> is the angular acceleration of the body .
This provides a definition for the moment of inertia , which is the rotational equivalent for mass . In more advanced treatments of mechanics , where the rotation over a time interval is described , the moment of inertia must be substituted by the tensor that , when properly analyzed , fully determines the characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation .
Equivalently , the differential form of Newton 's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque :
<formula> where <formula> is the angular momentum of the particle .
Newton 's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques , and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques .
= = = Centripetal force = = =
For an object accelerating in circular motion , the unbalanced force acting on the object equals :
<formula>
where <formula> is the mass of the object , <formula> is the velocity of the object and <formula> is the distance to the center of the circular path and <formula> is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center . This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path . Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object , and therefore do not change the speed of the object ( magnitude of the velocity ) , but only the direction of the velocity vector . The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path , and one that is tangential to the path . This yields both the tangential force , which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up , and the radial ( centripetal ) force , which changes its direction .
= = Kinematic integrals = =
Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables . For example , integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse :
<formula>
which by Newton 's Second Law must be equivalent to the change in momentum ( yielding the Impulse momentum theorem ) .
Similarly , integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force :
<formula>
which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy ( yielding the work energy theorem ) .
Power P is the rate of change dW / dt of the work W , as the trajectory is extended by a position change <formula> in a time interval dt :
<formula>
with <formula> the velocity .
= = Potential energy = =
Instead of a force , often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience . For instance , the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is present at the object 's location . Restating mathematically the definition of energy ( via the definition of work ) , a potential scalar field <formula> is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point :
<formula>
Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative . Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a potential while nonconservative forces are not .
= = = Conservative forces = = =
A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms . This means that for a closed system , the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system . The force , therefore , is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space , and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area .
Conservative forces include gravity , the electromagnetic force , and the spring force . Each of these forces has models that are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector <formula> emanating from spherically symmetric potentials . Examples of this follow :
For gravity :
<formula>
where <formula> is the gravitational constant , and <formula> is the mass of object n .
For electrostatic forces :
<formula>
where <formula> is electric permittivity of free space , and <formula> is the electric charge of object n .
For spring forces :
<formula>
where <formula> is the spring constant .
= = = Nonconservative forces = = =
For certain physical scenarios , it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials . This is often due to macrophysical considerations that yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates . For example , friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms , but manifests as a force model that is independent of any macroscale position vector . Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces , tension , compression , and drag . However , for any sufficiently detailed description , all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials .
The connection between macroscopic nonconservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics . In macroscopic closed systems , nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system , and are often associated with the transfer of heat . According to the Second law of thermodynamics , nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases .
= = Units of measurement = =
The SI unit of force is the newton ( symbol N ) , which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared , or kg · m · s − 2 . The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne , the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared , or g · cm · s − 2 . A newton is thus equal to 100 @,@ 000 dynes .
The gravitational foot @-@ pound @-@ second English unit of force is the pound @-@ force ( lbf ) , defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound @-@ mass in the standard gravitational field of 9 @.@ 80665 m · s − 2 . The pound @-@ force provides an alternative unit of mass : one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound @-@ force .
An alternative unit of force in a different foot @-@ pound @-@ second system , the absolute fps system , is the poundal , defined as the force required to accelerate a one @-@ pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared . The units of slug and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton 's Second Law .
The pound @-@ force has a metric counterpart , less commonly used than the newton : the kilogram @-@ force ( kgf ) ( sometimes kilopond ) , is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass . The kilogram @-@ force leads to an alternate , but rarely used unit of mass : the metric slug ( sometimes mug or hyl ) is that mass that accelerates at 1 m · s − 2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf . The kilogram @-@ force is not a part of the modern SI system , and is generally deprecated ; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing aircraft weight , jet thrust , bicycle spoke tension , torque wrench settings and engine output torque . Other arcane units of force include the sthène , which is equivalent to 1000 N , and the kip , which is equivalent to 1000 lbf .
See also Ton @-@ force .
= = Force measurement = =
See force gauge , spring scale , load cell
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= Sue Me , Sue You Blues =
" Sue Me , Sue You Blues " is a song written by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World . Harrison initially let American guitarist Jesse Ed Davis record it for the latter 's Ululu album ( 1972 ) , in gratitude to Davis for his participation in the Concert for Bangladesh . When writing the song , Harrison drew inspiration from the legal issues surrounding the Beatles during the early months of 1971 , particularly the lawsuit that Paul McCartney initiated in an effort to dissolve the band 's business partnership , Apple Corps .
The inclusion of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " on Material World marked a rare example of a secular composition on Harrison 's most spiritually oriented album . Recorded at the Beatles ' Apple Studio in London , the track features his extensive use of the dobro @-@ style resonator guitar , as well as musical contributions from Gary Wright , Nicky Hopkins , Klaus Voormann and Jim Keltner . The song 's musical mood and lyric recall aspects of old English square dance , a quality that some writers identify as mirroring the changing of sides amid the lawsuits relating to the Beatles ' break @-@ up . Some critics have compared the track with John Lennon 's " How Do You Sleep ? " ; Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone magazine described it as a " clever Lennonist diatribe " .
Harrison performed " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " throughout his 1974 North American tour , utilising a funk @-@ inspired arrangement that featured musicians Willie Weeks , Andy Newmark and Tom Scott . For these performances , Harrison modified the lyrics to reflect the former Beatles uniting against manager Allen Klein . The song 's title was a phrase that Harrison and commentators adopted when referring to Beatles @-@ related legal issues during the 1970s . A film clip containing Harrison 's 1971 demo of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " appeared on the DVD accompanying the 2006 remaster of Living in the Material World .
= = Background and composition = =
As third songwriter to Lennon and McCartney , George Harrison had written about his experiences regarding the disharmonious atmosphere within the Beatles during the late 1960s , in compositions such as " Not Guilty " , " I Me Mine " , " Wah @-@ Wah " and " Run of the Mill " . The latter two songs , which reflect on the failing friendships among the Beatles , appeared on Harrison 's critically acclaimed triple album All Things Must Pass , released in November 1970 , seven months after Paul McCartney 's departure had initiated the band 's break @-@ up . On 31 December of that year , McCartney filed suit against Apple Corps and his former bandmates at London 's High Court of Justice , in an effort to free himself from the legal obligations imposed on him by the Beatles ' partnership , and particularly from manager Allen Klein . Author Robert Rodriguez describes the situation as an " unfathomably sour turn of events " that " mystified " the public and angered fans of the Beatles .
Beginning on 19 February 1971 , the court heard reports from Harrison , John Lennon and Ringo Starr of McCartney 's attempts to control the band , and McCartney 's equally unflattering assessment of Klein . Although the other three former Beatles had presented a united front against McCartney since his April 1970 departure from the band , the recent publication of Lennon 's scathing comments to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner , about McCartney , Harrison and Starr , added to the ill @-@ feeling surrounding the group .
On 12 March , High Court judge Mr Justice Stamp ruled in McCartney 's favour , appointing London accountant James Spooner as Apple Corps ' official receiver . While Lennon reportedly unleashed his anger that day by throwing two bricks through the windows of McCartney 's St John 's Wood home , Harrison channelled his frustration into a new composition , " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " . Harrison biographer Simon Leng suggests that the song " takes a nearly impersonal overview of the Beatles ' self @-@ infliced legal wounds " . In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison describes the opening verse as being " vaguely based on the Square dance type of fiddle lyric " :
Well , you serve me and I 'll serve you
Swing your partners , all get screwed
Bring your lawyer and I 'll bring mine
Get together , and we could have a bad time
In Leng 's opinion , the song 's lyrics " revel in the certainty that lawyers are an easy target for general scorn and a quick way of securing a common denominator " . During the second verse , the line " It 's affidavit swearing time " reflects real @-@ life events – whereby Harrison , Lennon and Starr all submitted their statements to the court via affidavit – before Harrison concludes : " Now all that 's left is to find yourself a new band . " In the third verse , Harrison predicts the eventual outcome of the lawsuit :
Hold the block on money flow
Move it into joint escrow
Court receiver , laughs and thrills
But in the end we just pay those lawyers their bills
Author Ian Inglis identifies Harrison 's use of the plural form " we " in the lyric as evidence of his hope for " a shared and sensible outcome " for the former Beatles , since the situation " disadvantages them all " . While Harrison biographer Dale Allison interprets a degree of animosity towards the other Beatles in the song 's lyrics , Leng argues that they are directed solely at the legal profession . Inglis similarly dismisses the idea that Harrison was targeting his former bandmates ; instead , the song expresses " frustration rather than hostility " and addresses the " absurdity " of the situation . Inglis writes of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " : " It makes clear that amid the legal arguments , financial requirements , and technical language ... there are four former friends who are powerless to control events . "
Regarding the song 's square @-@ dance theme , Leng suggests that folk dancing 's cycle of about @-@ turns and to @-@ and @-@ fro movement reminded Harrison of the Beatles ' " seemingly endless , and pointless , legal orbits around one another " . The song 's lyrics are set against a blues @-@ based bottleneck riff , typical of Harrison 's work at the time with the dobro . Played in his favoured open E tuning , " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " was one of a number of bottleneck @-@ inspired Harrison compositions from the early 1970s .
The song title soon became part of regular Harrison parlance , as evidenced by his appearance on The Dick Cavett Show in November 1971 , when he used the phrase to goad Capitol Records boss Bhaskar Menon over delaying the release of the Concert for Bangladesh live album . Commentators similarly adopted " sue me , sue you blues " as a description for the litigation surrounding Harrison and his fellow ex @-@ Beatles throughout the 1970s .
= = Pre @-@ Living in the Material World recording history = =
= = = Harrison 's solo demo = = =
Harrison recorded a brief demo of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " , in the Delta blues style , which became available in the 1990s on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs . Leng describes this 1971 recording as " astonishing " and a " must " for inclusion on any forthcoming George Harrison anthology , with Harrison sounding like " a lost bluesman , bootlegged in Chicago " .
The demo was officially issued in September 2006 , on the DVD included in the deluxe edition of Harrison 's remastered 1973 solo album , Living in the Material World . The song is set to archival footage , showing images of Harrison 's National resonator guitar , over which his handwritten lyrics are superimposed . In the opinion of Music Box editor John Metzger , this version of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " " stings more than its studio counterpart " . Although the 2006 reissue lists it as an " acoustic demo version " , Harrison played electric slide guitar on the recording . The same film clip appears on the DVD exclusive to the Apple Years 1968 – 75 Harrison box set , released in September 2014 .
= = = Jesse Ed Davis 's version = = =
Harrison met Tulsa @-@ born guitarist Jesse Ed Davis through mutual friends , singer @-@ songwriter Leon Russell and drummer Jim Keltner , both of whom took part in the hastily arranged session for Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " charity single in July 1971 . Russell also assisted Harrison in recruiting personnel for the associated benefit concerts , held at Madison Square Garden in New York , and suggested Davis as a replacement for Eric Clapton , who was then dealing with a severe heroin addiction . Both Davis and Clapton ended up playing at the two shows , on 1 August . In gratitude to Davis , Harrison offered him " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " for inclusion on his second solo album , Ululu .
A former guitarist with blues singer Taj Mahal , Davis arranged the song as a Southern blues shuffle , creating a " beautiful version " in the words of music critic Thom Jurek . As on the 1971 demo , which Harrison had passed on to Davis , this version of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " omits the song 's third verse and , at just 2 minutes 45 seconds , it is significantly shorter than Harrison 's better @-@ known 1973 recording . Other musicians on Davis 's version include Keltner , Dr. John and Billy Rich . Like Keltner , Davis went on to work with all the former Beatles except McCartney during the 1970s , remaining close to Harrison and playing regularly with Lennon over the 1973 – 75 period .
Ululu was released in March 1972 , before which Atco Records had issued " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as the album 's advance single on 25 January . Davis co @-@ produced the recording with Grammy Award @-@ winning producer Albhy Galuten . In an interview with Los Angeles Free Press the following year , Davis expressed disappointment with his two albums on the Atco label and named " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as one of the few songs he liked .
= = Living in the Material World recording = =
Harrison returned to the song in December 1972 , during a break in the sessions for his Living in the Material World album , the start of which had been delayed by the various business and tax problems connected with his Concert for Bangladesh aid project . By this time , Harrison , Lennon and Starr had grown disaffected with manager Allen Klein and had chosen not to renew his contract . Once album sessions resumed in January 1973 , Harrison taped the basic track for " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " at the Beatles ' Apple Studio , in central London .
Harrison was backed on the recording by Keltner on drums , keyboard players Gary Wright and Nicky Hopkins , and bassist Klaus Voormann . These musicians provided the core line @-@ up throughout the Material World sessions , in a deliberate move by Harrison to work with a small band and pare down the production after the excesses of All Things Must Pass .
The recording begins with the song 's single @-@ chord riff , created by a combination of Hopkins ' low piano notes and Harrison 's dobro , before the rhythm shifts to what author Alan Clayson calls " downbeat hootenanny " over the verses . Leng identifies the rhythm as approximating the do @-@ si @-@ do dance step found in square dancing . Harrison takes the first solo , midway through the track , playing a second , overdubbed dobro , while Wright 's Wurlitzer electric piano leads the instrumental passage that closes the song . Contrasting with his more substantial presence on All Things Must Pass , " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " marks a rare instance where Wright 's keyboard work , rather than just Hopkins ' , features prominently on Living in the Material World .
Harrison completed the song 's vocals by late February , soon after his 30th birthday . He then travelled to Los Angeles for a series of Beatles @-@ related business meetings held at the offices of Apple 's US distributor , Capitol Records , primarily to discuss the upcoming Beatles compilations 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 . While these two double albums were intended to foil bootleggers , Doggett notes that the profits financed the Beatles ' litigation against Klein until well into 1974 .
= = Release = =
" Sue Me , Sue You Blues " was issued at the end of May 1973 as the second track on Living in the Material World , following the album 's lead single , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " . According to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , Harrison considered an alternative running order , whereby " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " was track 1 and " Give Me Love " opened side two of the album . In the UK cassette format , " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " was the opening track , followed by " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " .
The song 's inclusion marked the only secular composition on Material World . It also served as a rare foray into rock amid the album 's abundance of spiritually themed ballads and occasional acoustic @-@ based pop such as " Give Me Love " and " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " . Reflecting the album content , Tom Wilkes 's design for the record 's face labels contrasted a devout spiritual existence with life in the material world , by featuring a painting of Krishna and his warrior prince Arjuna on side one and a picture of a Mercedes stretch limousine on the reverse .
Regarded by some as the most level @-@ headed and musically consistent ex @-@ Beatle in mid 1973 , with " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " Harrison provided observers with another example in the band 's tradition of self @-@ referential songwriting . Leng has written of the public and the media " long [ ing ] for these further installments of ' the Beatles soap opera ' " , of which this song was " less paranoiac " than " How Do You Sleep ? " and " not as roseate " as Starr 's " Early 1970 " .
= = Reception = =
On release , Billboard magazine noted " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as a comment on " the Beatles and their mish @-@ mash " , while Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone described the track as " a biting slide @-@ guitar showcase for Harrison , its lyric a clever Lennonist diatribe against such monetary quarrels as those that ended the Beatles " . In their respective books discussing the former Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Nicholas Schaffner and NME critic Bob Woffinden likewise praised Harrison 's dobro playing , Schaffner likening it to the " vicious slide guitar work " Harrison had supplied for Lennon on " How Do You Sleep ? " Woffinden compared " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " with Harrison 's 1966 Beatles track " Taxman " , as a composition that showed its author 's " impatien [ ce ] with those who come between him and his money " , and for that reason , found it " rather out of place " on Material World . Recalling the album 's release in The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles , Michael Frontani writes : " Harrison 's slide @-@ playing is featured throughout , with the swamp @-@ drenched , nocturnal wails of ' Sue Me , Sue You Blues , ' in particular , demonstrating his grasp of the form . "
Among more recent reviewers , AllMusic 's Lindsay Planer draws parallels with Lennon 's compositions " How Do You Sleep ? " and " Steel and Glass " , and describes " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as a " scathing rocker " in which Harrison " forgoes his trademark arid wit for a decidedly more acerbic and direct approach " . To Zeth Lundy of PopMatters , " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " expresses Harrison 's " passive @-@ aggressiveness " . John Metzger views the lyrics as " ridiculously simplistic " and the track as " perhaps , the most bilious song that [ Harrison ] ever penned " .
AllMusic critic Bruce Eder and Chip Madinger and Mark Easter instead recognise humour in Harrison 's lyrics . Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham views this track and " Try Some , Buy Some " as " wry , reasonable digs at symptoms of what Harrison sees as symptoms of a diseased world " , while Hugh Fielder of Classic Rock magazine recognises the song 's place on its parent album , in that the legal wrangling " explains his retreat from the material world " . Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp considers " the sinewy ' Sue Me , Sue You Blues ' " to be among the highlights of Material World and a song that " rank [ s ] right alongside Harrison 's best work " .
Among Harrison biographers , Ian Inglis finds an additional comic element in the use of dobro and , like Leng , sees the do @-@ si @-@ do rhythm as an apt musical metaphor for the changing alliances occurring in the courtroom through the early 1970s . Another author who recognises " a good pinch of humour " in the song , Elliot Huntley describes " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as an " excellent " track , with a " magnificent steel guitar riff " . Leng praises the performance of all the musicians on the recording , particularly Keltner , and describes it as " one of Harrison 's most accomplished pieces " . " It speaks of a very confident , classy musician near the height of his powers " , Leng writes , while remarking on the contrast between Harrison in 1972 – 73 and the " resigned figure " he had portrayed in the Beatles ' 1970 documentary film Let It Be .
= = Live performance = =
During an interview midway through Harrison 's 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar , band leader Tom Scott described " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as having been a certain inclusion in the setlist from the start of rehearsals , along with " What Is Life " , " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and Lennon 's Beatles @-@ era composition " In My Life " . Harrison gave " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " a new musical arrangement , the track " reborn as horn @-@ driven funk " , Leng writes , via the all @-@ American rhythm section of Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark , and Scott 's three @-@ piece horn section . In a feature article for Rolling Stone that otherwise savaged the opening West Coast portion of the Harrison – Shankar tour , Ben Fong @-@ Torres wrote approvingly of its inclusion while bemoaning the paucity of other " familiar Beatles or Harrison songs " in the setlist .
The tour coincided with speculation about a possible Beatles reunion , as well as an agreement regarding the official dissolution of their partnership , which would be ratified following the receipt of all four members ' signatures in December 1974 . With Starr opting to sign in London , to avoid being subpoenaed by Klein upon entering the United States , Harrison and McCartney provided their signatures in New York on 19 December . Throughout the tour , Harrison changed a line in " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " to reflect the turnaround in his , Lennon 's and Starr 's allegiances over the previous two years – " Bring your lawyer and I 'll bring Klein " name @-@ checking the common enemy of all four ex @-@ Beatles by 1974 . Instead of a copy of the Bible , as in the studio versions of the song , Harrison now sang " Hold your Gita in your hand " .
Despite his plans for a live album and a concert film , no recording of this or any other Harrison song from the tour has ever received widespread official release . A noted performance of " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " appears on bootlegs from his show at Long Beach Arena , where , Leng writes , " the crowd was buzzing " , so " set [ ting ] the tone " for a series of successful concerts in America 's Southern states . During this Long Beach performance , on 10 November , Harrison followed his lyric about " find [ ing ] yourself a new band " with the quip " I think I 've got one of those ! " , reflecting his claim that he was having " too much fun " with his current musicians to consider a Beatles reunion .
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals , dobros , backing vocals
Gary Wright – electric piano
Nicky Hopkins – piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
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= Hurricane Cora =
Hurricane Cora was the first tropical cyclone of the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season to reach hurricane strength . Forming from a disturbance that exited the African coast on August 7 , the storm moved at an unusually high forward speed for a cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in August . The storm later reached hurricane strength and formed a well @-@ defined eye that lasted only 12 hours before the eye rapidly lost organization for unknown reasons , though the post @-@ season report on the storm mentions the possibility that its high speed caused the eye to dissipate . The storm moved west @-@ southwestward , weakening before making landfall on the island of Grenada . The storm lost its circulation and became a tropical wave on August 12 . The remnant crossed over Central America into the Pacific Ocean , where it reintensified , becoming Hurricane Kristy .
Cora was an unusual cyclone , maintaining an unusually low latitude for the Atlantic in August at high speeds , similar to the tracks of Tropical Storm Alma in 1974 and Tropical Storm Fran in 1990 . The hurricane was also upgraded into a hurricane based solely on satellite photography , the second time this occurred . Although it passed through the Windward Islands and the Lesser Antilles , only minor effects were reported . Cora was also responsible for altering weather conditions allowing for a takeoff of the historical flight of the Double Eagle II hot air balloon .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early August , a disturbance was observed in satellite images moving off the coast of Africa on August 4 . Moving westward along the Intertropical Convergence Zone at a forward speed of roughly 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) , the disturbance showed no signs of development until a cloud mass broke away from the ITCZ on August 6 . The separated mass began rapidly organizing , becoming Tropical Depression Three late on August 7 . The tropical depression continued to gain organization and was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 8 , receiving the name Cora .
The newly named tropical storm continued to grow , reaching hurricane strength later that day after developing a well @-@ defined eye , peaking early on August 9 with 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds , a minimum pressure of 980 mbar , and gale – force winds extending 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the center . The hurricane began to shift into a west @-@ southwest track while moving at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . The hurricane would continue in this direction throughout its lifespan . Only 12 hours after forming , the eye rapidly dissipated on satellite imagery for unknown reasons , although the hurricane 's high forward speed may have played a part . After becoming disorganized , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft — the first one to fly in the storm — reported that the cyclone had winds of only 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , the highest winds recorded in the storm . After the report , Cora was downgraded into a tropical storm early on August 10 . The dissipating storm continued on , striking the island of Grenada on August 11 as it weakened into a tropical depression . On August 12 , the depression weakened into a tropical wave near Aruba due to continental influence despite atmospheric conditions being favorable for development . The wave was notable in that it was almost completely devoid of any cloudiness or convection . The remnants of Cora crossed Central America and uneventfully continued westward until August 18 , when its remains contributed to the formation of Hurricane Kristy .
= = Impact , records , and naming = =
While passing through the Lesser Antilles , reports of squalls with wind speeds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were received from St. Lucia and Barbados . Rain was also reported , but totals were not large due to the storm 's quick passage . One death was attributed to Cora on St. Lucia when a 22 – year old stepped on a high tension power line that was downed by the winds from the storm in Castries . In addition , an industry on the island reported tree losses of two to four percent from the storm . No reports of damage were received from the other Windward Islands and damage on Grenada , if any , is unknown . Although it remained far to the south , Hurricane Cora affected weather conditions that reached as far north as Presque Isle , Maine , where balloonists Ben Abruzzo , Maxie Anderson , and Larry Newman were preparing to make the first ever transatlantic balloon flight on the Double Eagle II . The winds created by Cora 's influence would give the hot air balloon the northerly push required for takeoff according to Anderson . After six days , the Double Eagle II completed the flight , landing near Miserey , France . Cora also affected another record attempt when swimmer Diana Nyad was delayed due to the hurricane 's influence . The planned marathon swimming record attempt was for her to swim from Cuba to Florida , a total of 103 mi ( 166 km ) . The record attempt ultimately failed after 42 hours .
According to the preliminary report on the hurricane , neither track forecasts or intensity forecasts panned out for the storm . The track forecasts called for a path more northward than the actual track whereas following the development of the eye , intensity forecasts called for further strengthening until it became clear the cyclone was weakening . When it was upgraded to a hurricane on August 8 , Cora became the second hurricane to have been upgraded to that intensity based solely on satellite presentation after 1975 's Hurricane Doris . The hurricane was also the second of three storms in the season to reform or be reclassified as East Pacific storms . The other two were Tropical Storm Bess ( which became Hurricane Iva ) , and Hurricane Greta @-@ Olivia . Of these , only Greta maintained its circulation over land . This was the only time an Atlantic hurricane was named Cora .
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= Tropical Storm Erika ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Erika was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that had minor impacts in the Lesser Antilles . The fifth named storm of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season , Erika originated out of a tropical wave on September 1 near the Lesser Antilles . Although it was a disorganized system , it was immediately declared a tropical storm , rather than a tropical depression . Later that day , the system reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1004 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) . Increased wind shear caused the storm to weaken shortly thereafter , with Erika barely maintaining tropical storm @-@ status by September 2 . Later that day , the storm passed over the island of Guadeloupe and entered the Caribbean Sea . On September 3 , Erika weakened to a tropical depression as the low pressure center became fully displaced from convective activity . Later that day , the system degenerated into a remnant low before dissipating near Puerto Rico on September 4 .
Due to the storm 's low intensity , Erika produced little damage in the Lesser Antilles during its passage through the islands . Guadeloupe recorded up to 12 @.@ 1 in ( 310 mm ) of rain , leading to flooding and some landslides ; 12 @,@ 000 people on the island were left without power . Several other islands recorded moderate rainfall form the system before the tropical storm degenerated into a remnant low . In Puerto Rico , the cyclone 's remnants produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 7 @.@ 58 in ( 193 mm ) , that triggered flooding in several regions .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Erika originated from a tropical wave accompanied by disorganized shower and thunderstorm activity that moved off the west coast of Africa , near the Cape Verde Islands , on August 25 . The following day , convection surrounding the wave began to show signs of organization as it tracked westward across the Atlantic . By August 28 , an area of low pressure developed from the wave . Environmental conditions ahead of the low were favorable for further development of the system . Despite the favorable conditions , the low became increasingly disorganized on August 29 , with little convection remaining around the center of circulation . The next day , the system quickly became organized , with shower and thunderstorms developing around the center and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted that the low would likely become a tropical depression within 24 hours . Although convection was well @-@ organized , the system lacked a defined low @-@ level circulation center , leading to the NHC not issuing advisories on the system at that time .
On September 1 , a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission into the low found a closed circulation center and tropical storm @-@ force winds . Upon finding the low @-@ level circulation center , the NHC began monitoring the system as Tropical Storm Erika , the fifth named storm of the 2009 season . Erika was slightly disorganized due to moderate wind shear , with the center partially devoid of convection . However , with warm sea surface temperatures , the storm was forecast to intensify to a strong tropical storm within a few days . A mid @-@ level ridge to the north led to Erika maintaining a general westward track for most of its existence . Several hours after being classified , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1004 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) . However , the peak intensity was operationally placed at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) based on readings from reconnaissance missions . In post @-@ storm analysis of these readings , it was determined that the NHC had overestimated the wind speeds in an area of unusually heavy rains . By the morning of September 2 , Erika became significantly disorganized , and Hurricane Hunters reported the possibility that multiple circulation centers existed within the broader storm system .
Wind shear began to increase earlier than forecast models anticipated , causing the storm to weaken into a minimal tropical storm later that morning . Around 1830 UTC , the center of Erika passed over the island of Guadeloupe with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) as the storm entered the eastern Caribbean Sea . The circulation later became elongated and began to degenerate into a trough of low pressure . The NHC noted that due to the large size of the overall system , the center of Erika could reform elsewhere and restrengthen . Following a brief increase in convective activity , the storm slightly intensified before succumbing to wind shear once more . By the afternoon of September 3 , the center of Erika was fully devoid of convection and the NHC downgraded it to a tropical depression . Shortly after , the system degenerated into a remnant low , coinciding with the issuance of the final advisory from the NHC . The following day , the remnants approached the southern coast of Puerto Rico , producing heavy rainfall across the island . The system was last noted later on September 4 as it dissipated roughly 80 mi ( 140 km ) south of Puerto Rico .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the declaration of Tropical Storm Erika on September 1 , tropical storm watches were issued for St. Maarten , Antigua , Barbuda , St. Kitts , Nevis , Anguilla , St. Martin and Saint Barthélemy . The following day , all of the watches were upgraded to tropical storm warnings as Erika neared the Lesser Antilles . When the storm entered the Caribbean Sea , a tropical storm warning was issued for Dominica and tropical storm watches were for Puerto Rico , the U.S. Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands . Early on September 3 , the tropical storm watches were upgraded to warnings as Erika drifted through the eastern Caribbean . Later that day , the warnings for Dominica and Guadeloupe were discontinued . Shortly thereafter , all remaining warnings were canceled .
Exports from the Hovensa oil refinery in St. Croix , with a daily production of roughly 500 @,@ 000 barrels ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 ) , were canceled as ports across the island were closed . All businesses were shut down in Dominica on September 3 due to the storm . In Antigua and Barbuda , all schools and the local airport were closed as a precautionary measure . Two cruise ships , the Carnival Glory and a Royal Caribbean ship postponed their docking dates and stayed at sea for a few additional days . The islands of Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy were placed under an orange alert , the second @-@ lowest alert level , and Guadeloupe was placed under a yellow alert , the lowest alert level . In Puerto Rico , officials closed schools and government offices on September 4 and opened 433 shelters across the island . Officials in the Dominican Republic placed nine provinces under warnings as a precautionary measure . Nearby Haiti was also alerted of the possibility of heavy rains .
= = Impact = =
On September 3 , all governmental buildings in Dominica were closed due to flooding triggered by heavy rain from Erika . Landslides were reported in Petite Savanne resulting in road closures . In Guadeloupe , heavy rainfall from Erika , exceeding 7 @.@ 9 in ( 200 mm ) in several areas , produced flooding in Côte @-@ sous @-@ le @-@ Vent . The most significant rain was recorded on La Désirade at 12 @.@ 1 in ( 310 mm ) , of which a record 9 @.@ 4 in ( 240 mm ) fell in 24 hours . Sustained winds reached 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) on the island of Marie Galante . One rock slide occurred near Losteau , in Bouillante . Several roads became impassable due to flood waters . At the height of the storm , an estimated 12 @,@ 000 people were without power across the island . Up to 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of rain fell along the foothills in Trinidad . In St. Martin , a peak of 3 @.@ 7 in ( 94 mm ) of rain fell . In the United States Virgin Islands , up to 1 @.@ 61 in ( 41 mm ) of rain fell in a 24 ‑ hour span , resulting in minor flooding .
In Puerto Rico , the remnants of Erika produced significant amounts of rainfall , causing the rivers of La Plata , Loíza , and Caguitas to overflow their banks and trigger widespread flooding . A weather station in Naguabo recorded 7 @.@ 92 in ( 201 mm ) of precipitation . Several other areas recorded upwards of 4 in ( 100 mm ) . In the municipality of Guanica , several homes were flooded , leaving $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage . The most severe damage took place in the municipality of Las Piedras where $ 15 @,@ 000 was reported in flood losses . One river rose to a level of 29 @.@ 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 92 m ) , 7 @.@ 27 ft ( 2 @.@ 22 m ) above flood stage . Damage in Fajardo was estimated at $ 10 @,@ 000 after homes were inundated by flood waters . Additionally , flooding in Caguas resulted in $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage . In the Dominican Republic flood warnings were issued for the provinces of La Altagracia , El Seibo , Hato Mayor , Monte Plata , Samana , Duarte and Maria Trinidad Sanchez due the threat of continued rainfall and flooding .
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= Glencora Ralph =
Glencora Ralph ( born 8 August 1988 ) is an Australian water polo centre back / driver . She attended the Curtin University of Technology and is a dental therapist . She competes for the Fremantle Marlins in the National Water Polo League , and was on sides that won the league championship in 2003 , 2004 , 2006 and 2007 . She has been a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team on the junior and senior level . She has won gold medals at the 2011 Canada Cup and at the 2007 FINA Junior World Championships . She won silver medals at the 2010 FINA World League Super Finals and at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup . She won a bronze medal at the 2009 FINA World League Super Finals . She is one of seventeen players vying for thirteen spots on the national team to represent Australia in water polo at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal = =
Ralph was born on 8 August 1988 in Geraldton , Western Australia . She has three siblings , one of whom , Mercedes Ralph , has represented Australia on an international tour . She is 176 cm ( 5 ft 9 in ) tall , weighs 67 kilograms ( 148 lb ) and is right handed . In addition to water polo , she has also participated in competitive swimming but made the commitment to water polo because she found swimming boring . She has an associate degree in School Dental Therapy from the Curtin University of Technology and currently works as a dental therapist . She took time off from competing in water polo internationally in 2007 to complete her studies .
= = Water polo = =
Ralph took up water polo at the age of thirteen , with her first competition being the Melville Flippaball Competition . She has a water polo scholarship from the Western Australian Institute of Sport . She plays in the centre back / driver positions and prefers to wear cap number eight . As a young player , she would get up at 4 am to get to the pool to train .
= = = Club water polo = = =
Ralph 's water polo club is Melville Water Polo Club and she plays water polo for the Longmont Fremantle Marlins in the National Water Polo League . Her team won the National Water Polo League championship in 2003 , 2004 , 2006 and 2007 . She was with the team in 2007 as an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old . During 2010 , she was coached by Wendy Arancini , the mother of fellow senior national team member Zoe Arancini . In 2010 , in the finals tournament , she was named to the league final 's All Star team . Her team finished third , beating the Cronulla team 11 – 9 in the bronze medal match . She currently plays for the team with her sister Mercedes .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Ralph has represented Australia on the junior national level . She was a member of the junior national side at the 2007 FINA U20 World Championships in Porto , Portugal that won a gold medal . She was one of only two Western Australians on the team .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Ralph is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . She made her senior side debut in China in 2006 during the preliminary rounds of the FINA World League . She competed in another tournament for the senior side in 2006 because Melissa Rippon and Taniele Gofers were injured . She was a member of the 2009 team that finished third at the FINA World League Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia and sixth at the FINA World Championships in Rome , Italy . In 2010 , she was a member of the national team that competed in the preliminary rounds of the FINA World League in Japan from 21 – 23 May and in China from 26 – 28 May . Australia finished second in the tournament . In 2010 , she was a member of the Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand and earned a silver medal . She played in the game where Australia beat Greece by a score of 11 – 7 . She scored twice for the team during the third period . She competed Australia 's 10 – 8 defeat of Russia . In the third quarter of the match , she scored two goals . At the 2011 Canada Cup , she scored s goal in the first period in the gold medal match against China that the Australian team ended up winning . She was named a member of the All Star team for the 2011 Canada Cup . In July 2011 , she was a member of the Australian Stingers that competed in the 2011 FINA World Championships in Shanghai as a field player . In preparation for this tournament , she attended a team training camp in Perth , Western Australia . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Stingers . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years .
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= SMS Erzherzog Friedrich =
SMS Erzherzog Friedrich ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Friedrich " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 30 April 1904 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .
For most of World War I , Erzherzog Friedrich remained in her home port of Pula , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Friedrich was awarded to the French as a war prize in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Erzherzog Friedrich displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Erzherzog Friedrich carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute . The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Karl was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .
= = Service history = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Friedrich was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Friedrich took part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Friedrich and her two sister ships arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Friedrich and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . For the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Friedrich took part in and she spent the rest of their career at port in Pula . Following the end of World War I in November 1918 and the surrender of Austria @-@ Hungary , Erzherzog Friedrich was ceded as a war reparation to France in 1920 . She was later scrapped in 1921 .
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= Oryzomys dimidiatus =
Oryzomys dimidiatus , also known as the Nicaraguan oryzomys , Thomas 's rice rat , or Nicaraguan rice rat , is a rodent in the genus Oryzomys of the family Cricetidae . It is known from only three specimens , all collected in southeastern Nicaragua since 1904 . Placed in Nectomys upon its discovery , it was later classified in its own subgenus of Oryzomys and finally recognized as closely related to other species now placed in Oryzomys , including the marsh rice rat and Oryzomys couesi , which occurs in the same region .
With a head and body length of 110 to 128 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 0 in ) , Oryzomys dimidiatus is a medium @-@ sized rice rat . The upperparts are gray @-@ brown and the underparts are grayish , not buffy as in O. couesi . The tail is only slightly darker above than below . All three specimens were caught near water and the species may be semiaquatic , spending some time in the water . Its conservation status is currently assessed as " Least Concern " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first known specimen was obtained by W.G. Palmer in 1904 and the next year , Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural History described this animal as the holotype of a new species he named Nectomys dimidiatus . He placed it in the genus Nectomys , commenting that it was much smaller than but otherwise similar to previously known members of that genus . The species was listed as a Nectomys in taxonomic overviews in the next decades , including a 1944 review of the genus by Philip Hershkovitz .
After examining the holotype in London , Hershkovitz instead placed the species in the genus Oryzomys in 1948 . He remarked that it was an especially distinctive member of that genus , and hence classified it in its own subgenus Micronectomys . J. Hernández @-@ Camacho described a second species of Micronectomys , Oryzomys ( Micronectomys ) borreroi , from Colombia in 1957 . In 1970 , Hershkovitz treated O. dimidiatus in another publication and conceded that his name Micronectomys was a nomen nudum ( " naked name " ) because he had not explicitly mentioned characters differentiating it from other taxa in his 1948 publication . Nevertheless , he did not do anything to rectify the situation , and Micronectomys remains a nomen nudum . Hershkovitz also noted that while O. dimidiatus resembles a juvenile Nectomys in external anatomy , it is otherwise similar to the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) . He accepted O. borreroi as an Oryzomys , but did not think it closely related to O. dimidiatus . Six years later , Alfred Gardner and James Patton instead suggested that O. borreroi was a Zygodontomys , and in his 1991 review of that genus Robert Voss confirmed that it is the same as Zygodontomys brunneus .
A second specimen was obtained in 1966 and the find was published in 1971 by Hugh Genoways and Knox Jones , who noted that the species is closely similar to O. palustris . Later workers affirmed the relationship between O. dimidiatus , O. palustris and associated species like O. couesi . Fiona Reid reported in 1997 that a third specimen had been found . In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler and coworkers removed most of the species formerly placed in Oryzomys from the genus , because they are not closely related to the type species O. palustris , but kept O. dimidiatus as an Oryzomys .
Oryzomys dimidiatus is now recognized as one of eight species in the genus Oryzomys . O. dimidiatus is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes six other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . O. couesi occurs with O. dimidiatus in southeastern Nicaragua . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys is classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys dimidiatus is a medium @-@ sized rice rat , smaller than O. couesi , with thick , glossy fur and velvety underfur . The hairs on the back are about 6 mm in length . The upperparts are gray @-@ brown with some dark hairs , appearing darker overall than in O. couesi ; the color becomes more yellowish towards the sides . According to Thomas , a faint buff line extends from the sides to the inner sides of the hindlegs . The underparts are grayish , contrasting with the buffy underparts of O. couesi . The snout is short and the well @-@ haired ears are partly hidden by the fur . The hands and feet are off @-@ white or brownish above , not white as in O. couesi . The hindfeet show small interdigital webs , but they lack long tufts of hair on the digits and some of the pads are reduced or absent . The tail is about as long as the head and body and contains about 15 rings per centimeter . It is slightly darker ( grayish ) above than below ( whitish ) , but the difference in color is much less pronounced than in O. couesi .
Compared to that of Nectomys , the skull is lightly built and has narrow nasals and a broad , round braincase without conspicuous ridges on it . The zygomatic plate is broad . The incisive foramina ( perforations of the front part of the palate ) extend between the first molars and are broadest in their back halves . The broad mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate , is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities . The molar crowns are not as simplified as in Nectomys species , but the front cusps of the upper ( anterocone ) and lower first molar ( anteroconid ) are not divided in two . In addition to the main roots , the upper and lower first molars have smaller additional roots .
Measurements for the first two known examples are as follows ( in each case , the first measurement given is from the holotype , taken in 1904 , the second , from the specimen taken in 1966 ) : head and body length 125 and 118 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 and 4 @.@ 6 in ) , tail length 115 and 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 3 in ) , hindfoot length 27 and 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 1 in ) , ear length 13 and 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 and 0 @.@ 59 in ) , skull length 29 @.@ 8 and 29 @.@ 0 mm ( 1 @.@ 17 and 1 @.@ 14 in ) . The 1966 specimen weighed 46 @.@ 0 g ( 1 @.@ 62 oz ) and had testes 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) long ; these measurements were not recorded in the 1904 specimen . Reid , who mentioned the third specimen , reported a maximum head and body length of 128 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) , tail length of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , hindfoot length of 31 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) , and ear length of 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =
Oryzomys dimidiatus is known from three specimens collected in the lowlands of the South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region in southeastern Nicaragua . The first , an old male , was collected on November 5 , 1904 , in a banana plantation with very moist red clay on the Río Escondido near El Rama . The second , a young adult male , was caught on July 26 , 1966 , in dense cane on the south bank of the Río Mico at El Recreo , 15 km ( 9 mi ) west from the location of the first specimen , along with three other rice rats ( O. couesi , Melanomys caliginosus , and Oligoryzomys fulvescens ) , the cotton rat Sigmodon hirsutus , and the cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus brasiliensis . The third was caught at a stream near Bluefields . Reid suggested that the species is semiaquatic , spending some time in the water , like other Oryzomys .
= = Conservation status = =
The 2009 IUCN Red List assessed the conservation status of Oryzomys dimidiatus as " Least Concern " , noting that its distribution may be larger than currently known . Its population is presumed to be large and no threats to its habitat are known .
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= Teliko =
" Teliko " is the third episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Howard Gordon and directed by James Charleston . The episode originally aired in the United States on October 18 , 1996 , on the Fox network . It is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Teliko " earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , being watched by 18 @.@ 01 million people upon its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are called in to investigate the unexplained deaths of several African and African @-@ American people whose skin color has turned white as the result of either a rare medical disorder or a bizarre curse .
The episode features the second appearance by Laurie Holden as Marita Covarrubias , following her debut in the fourth season premiere " Herrenvolk " . Carl Lumbly guest stars as a social worker . Inspired by the topics of racial discrimination , " Teliko " explores xenophobia and prejudice . The make @-@ up effects in the episode were difficult to apply and took several hours to be completed . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , who compared the episode to older episodes of the series . The racial topics of the episode drew mixed attention .
= = Plot = =
On an international airline flight , an African man enters the bathroom , where he is attacked by a man exhibiting albino traits . The attacker leaves the bathroom with his normal black skin tone . After the plane lands in the United States , a flight attendant discovers the victim in the bathroom , devoid of his skin pigmentation .
Three months later , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) calls in Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and informs her that four African American men have been kidnapped in Philadelphia . One of them has been found dead exhibiting depigmentation . A specialist from the CDC believes that the men have died from a disease , and has requested Scully to investigate the case . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) joins Scully and has some of the evidence samples from Sanders ' autopsy analyzed by Agent Pendrell , who finds a seed from a rare West African passionflower . Mulder takes the seed to his UN informant Marita Covarrubias and asks for her help ; she provides him with information on the incident on the plane .
Meanwhile , Samuel Aboah ( Willie Amakye ) , an African immigrant who is seeking citizenship , attacks a young black man while he is waiting for a bus , kidnapping him . Investigating Kittel 's disappearance , Mulder finds a seed at the bus stop . They have Marcus Duff ( Carl Lumbly ) , a social worker who is helping Aboah apply for citizenship , cross @-@ reference the names from the flight with those applying for permanent residency or a work visa . This leads them to Aboah , who runs when they try to question him and is discovered after squeezing himself into a drainage pipe . Aboah appears to have no symptoms of disease when he is analyzed at a local medical center , but Scully plans to examine him more .
Mulder sees Diabra , a diplomat from Burkina Faso . Diabra tells him an old folk tale of the Bambara people about the Teliko , which were nocturnal " spirits of the air " . Meanwhile , Scully examines a PET scan of Aboah , which shows that he has no pituitary gland . Aboah escapes the hospital and meets Duff in a car ; he paralyses Duff in the same manner as his other victims and inserts a long metal object up his nose . A policeman finds Duff and requests an ambulance , and the police tell Mulder and Scully that they are sweeping the area for Aboah . Driving around , Mulder tells Scully that he thinks Aboah is the mythical Teliko . He stops at a demolition site , remembering that Pendrell found asbestos fibers on Sanders ' body . Mulder and Scully split up at the site ; Scully finds the missing men dead , and Mulder is pierced as Kittel was . Scully finds him , calls for medical help , and shoots Aboah . In her field journal , Scully writes that Aboah will stand trial if he lives long enough . She muses that Aboah 's condition and survival may be discovered by science , but humans have a fear of an alien among them which causes them to " deceive , inveigle , and obfuscate " .
= = Production = =
Writer and executive producer Howard Gordon was originally working on an episode about someone who appeared to be immortal , but after discussions with consulting producer Ken Horton he added in the notion of xenophobia and " melanin @-@ sucking albino vampires " . Series creator Chris Carter approved the storyline , but the first draft of the script was met with disapproval by the writing staff , and the story was restructured and rewritten . As the episode entered pre @-@ production , Carter asked Gordon to refine the script to give it a purpose , and it was then that Gordon came up with the theme of " deceive , inveigle , and obfuscate " . The same phrase is also uttered by Scully in the episode during her closing sentiments .
This replaces the usual " The Truth is Out There " tagline during the title sequence of the episode . Carter also came up with Aboah 's weapons used to extract the pituitary gland that he kept hidden in his esophagus . " Teliko " is Greek for " end " , though it is the name of a " spirit of the air " in African mythology which is sometimes thought to be an albino . Fellow writer John Shiban suggested that the Teliko emerge from the country of Burkina Faso based on his former job of programming foreign air @-@ mail rates for a computer software company .
Casting for the episode was difficult , as the production team wanted real Africans . They auditioned every one they could find , including an African theater troupe that was passing by . The role of Marcus Duff eventually went to Carl Lumbly , who was known for his role on CBS 's Cagney & Lacey . The role of Aboah went to Willie Amakye , a Ghanaian Olympic runner who had just returned to his home in Southern California from the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia . To appear albino , Amakye 's skin underwent several layers of cover @-@ up cream , layers of white powder , and a little pink powder for color . He also wore contacts for the transparent pink eyes . Amakye 's hair was dyed orange for post @-@ production special effects to change it back and forth from black and white . As revealed on his resident alien card , Aboah 's birthday is September 25 , a reference to the birthday of Gillian Anderson 's daughter .
" Teliko " ' s opening sequence makes use of an airplane cabin set built for the later season episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " , though the set 's hydraulic shaking rig had not been completed yet . Composer Mark Snow used African drums , flutes , and chants in his score for the episode . He also used samples from " The Bulgarian Women 's Chorus " , a recording known in Southern California in promotion for a local radio station . Compositions by Snow often utilized elements of African tribal drums , but " Teliko " features rather prominent usage .
= = Themes = =
" Teliko " explores the concept of the other , with the " other " representing characters of a different race . In the episode , the US and its culture are treated as the norm , wherein the African culture in the episode is depicted in an intimidating way . African folk tales , which are not often considered strange in their own nation , are shown in the episode as ominous and bizarre . The episode prominently features tribal music , and according to Allan F. Moore in his book Analyzing Popular Music , the usage of the episode reinforces a " dangerous but culturally dangerous slippage between the others . " The writer claimed that linking the supernatural ethnic character to the tribal music adds a more " exotic " feeling to the character .
By making the character seem more unnatural , it adds an " extraterrestrial " quality to him , making him seem even more unusual in nature . Charles D. Martin mused in The White African American Body that " blackness is clearly attached to racial identity " in the episode , commenting that the episode equates the cultural understanding of race to mere skin color . Martin cites Mulder 's joke about Michael Jackson as a self @-@ aware comment on " another contemporary white negro " which reinforces a stereotype .
Zoe Detsi @-@ Diamanti , in her book The Flesh Made Text Made Flesh , commented on the episode 's depiction of race . She argues that the episode makes the point that a " perfectly normal " black man looks a certain way , pointing out that the episode states that a black man is defined by a " certain skin pigment " . Any exception to this norm is depicted in a negative manner , with science being the only answer to unnatural phenomena . Dean Kowalski agreed with the analysis in The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , commenting that one of the main themes of the episodes revolved around science 's attempt to explain folk theories and paranormal phenomena . The episode 's antagonist Aboah , escapes the FBI by fitting into a dinner cart , a feat that was compared to slaves escaping in unconformable slave ships .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Teliko " originally aired on the Fox network on October 18 , 1996 . The episode marked the final time that an episode of the series aired on a Friday . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , with a 20 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 20 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Teliko " was seen by 18 @.@ 01 million viewers on first broadcast .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Teliko " a grade of " C – " , finding it similar to the first season episode " Squeeze " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave it a " B – " , also noting its similarity to " Squeeze " and finding that it had uncomfortable racial overtones . However , he did feel that the climax was " wonderfully tense " and " one of the better climaxes the show 's done " . Sarah Stegall awarded the episode two stars out of five , also noting the similarities to " Squeeze " . She criticized the depiction of Mulder and Scully , commenting that the two lacked quality scenes together . She did compliment the scene where Agent Pendrell is disappointed at not seeing Scully , describing it as the highlight of the episode . In his book The Nitpicker 's Guide for X @-@ Philes , author Phil Farrand pointed out an inconsistency in the episode ; before the timeline of the episode , Aboah only kills four men in three months , but during the duration of the episode he kills two men in a matter of days .
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= Tropical Storm Bret ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Bret was a short @-@ lived tropical storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season that made landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz , the first of four during the season . The second named storm of the season , Bret developed along a tropical wave on June 28 in the Bay of Campeche , and quickly intensified . Tracking to the west @-@ northwest , Bret moved ashore within 24 hours of forming , and dissipated shortly thereafter .
Bret was the first of six tropical cyclones ( three hurricanes , two of them major , and three tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico during the season . With the formation of the tropical storm on June 28 , the 2005 season became the first since 1986 with two storms in the month of June . The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 67 inches ) , which caused flooding and one drowning death . About 7 @,@ 500 people were affected , and damage totaled over 100 million pesos ( 2005 MXN , $ 9 @.@ 3 million 2005 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave accompanied by a weak surface low pressure area crossed Central America and eastern Mexico from June 24 through June 27 . An area of disturbed weather associated with the system moved into the Bay of Campeche early on June 28 , though initially unfavorable upper @-@ level wind shear and land interaction limited initial development . It tracked west @-@ northwestward at 8 – 16 km / h ( 5 – 10 mph ) , and after moving into open waters the organization of deep convection increased with curved banding features developing . Based on data from a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system , it is estimated it developed into Tropical Depression Two at 18 : 00 UTC on June 28 , while located about 100 km ( 62 mi ) northeast of the city of Veracruz . At the time of its first advisory , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Veracruz to Tampico .
About four hours after formation , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bret , upon which it attained a minimum central pressure of 1002 mbar . Shortly thereafter , its appearance on radar deteriorated , and convection warmed around the center . With a mid @-@ level anticyclone over Texas , Bret tracked steadily to the west @-@ northwest , and began to re @-@ organize just before moving ashore ; at 12 : 00 UTC on June 29 , the storm made landfall just southeast of Tuxpan with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . After crossing the coast , the storm quickly degenerated to tropical depression status , though Bret retained a well @-@ organized cloud pattern with deep convection . The center turned to the north @-@ northwest , and early on June 30 Bret dissipated inland over Mexico .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Bret produced heavy rainfall along its path , with a peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 47 inches ) recorded in El Raudal , Veracruz ; several other locations reported over 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation . The rainfall caused widespread flooding in Veracruz , especially in the city of Naranjos where an overflown river flooded portions of the city with 2 m ( 7 ft ) of water . Several other rivers reported river flooding .
By shortly after the passage of the storm , the government of Veracruz opened 6 @,@ 000 emergency storm shelters for impacted citizens . Floodwaters from the rainfall inundated scores of houses and cars , with a total of 7 @,@ 500 families in Veracruz directly affected by the storm . The Mexican Army , combined with the efforts of police officers and state officials , worked with amphibious vehicles to rescue families in flooded houses , of whom many waited on rooftops ; according to reports from the Civil Defense of the government of Veracruz , a person drowned in the city of Cerro Azul . Several people were reported missing , as well . Landslides from the flooding cut communications and left 66 villages temporarily isolated . Across Veracruz , the most affected localities were Naranjos , Chinampa de Gorostiza , Tamalín , Tantima , Benito Juárez , Tamiahua , and Tempoal de Sánchez . The government of Veracruz declared a state of emergency for 14 municipalities . Damage in the state totaled over 100 million pesos ( 2005 MXN , $ 9 @.@ 3 million 2005 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) ; the state government requested reconstruction aid amounting to the equivalent of the damage total .
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= Robbing the Cradle =
" Robbing the Cradle " is a level created by Ion Storm for their final video game , Thief : Deadly Shadows ( 2004 ) . Unlike other levels in the game , it features a strong survival horror theme , in addition to the stealth gameplay typical of the Thief series . Players traverse an abandoned , haunted orphanage and mental asylum called the Shalebridge Cradle , while attempting to free the soul of a young girl from the building 's captivity .
The level was designed by Jordan Thomas and Randy Smith , with a soundscape composed by Eric Brosius . Using theories of interactive horror design developed by Smith in 2000 , the team sought to create the scariest level ever to appear in a game . They took influence from works such as House of Leaves , Session 9 and the Silent Hill series , and they studied mental asylums and reportedly haunted buildings for inspiration .
" Robbing the Cradle " was widely praised , and it has been described by publications such as Computer & Video Games , PC Gamer UK and Bloody Disgusting as one of the scariest scenes in the history of video games . Jordan Thomas went on to create the " Fort Frolic " level in BioShock , and to serve as creative director for BioShock 2 . The positive reception of " Robbing the Cradle " inspired Eidos Montreal to create a similar asylum level in Thief ( 2014 ) .
= = Overview = =
" Robbing the Cradle " is the penultimate level of Thief : Deadly Shadows ( 2004 ) , a video game developed by Ion Storm . In addition to the stealth gameplay typical of the game , the level features a strong survival horror theme . " Robbing the Cradle " takes place inside the Shalebridge Cradle , a conscious , malevolent and abandoned orphanage and mental institution . It is patrolled by creatures called " Puppets " , the reanimated bodies of former inmates . Protagonist Garrett enters the building in hopes of solving a mystery related to a supernatural murderer , the Gray Lady . Once inside , he encounters the ghost of a deceased orphan , Lauryl , who was killed by the Gray Lady . She is trapped within the Cradle because it " remembers " her .
The Shalebridge Cradle is divided into two sections : the " Inner Cradle " and " Outer Cradle " . The player begins in the Outer Cradle , which is designed to terrify players , but which secretly contains no dangers or enemies . The Inner Cradle is roamed by Puppets . The building 's backstory is unveiled in a nonlinear fashion , via clues scattered within the level . The player must free Lauryl by locating and disposing of artifacts that allow the Cradle to remember her . However , after completing this objective , Garrett discovers that the Cradle has remembered him . To escape , the player travels back in time within the Cradle 's memory , while fleeing from silhouettes of the Cradle 's staff . The player ends the level by leaping from the Cradle 's highest window , which convinces the building that Garrett is dead .
= = Development = =
The central ideas behind " Robbing the Cradle " were conceived by Thief : Deadly Shadows project director Randy Smith in 2000 . Smith had designed a horror @-@ based level , " Return to the Cathedral " , in 1998 's Thief : The Dark Project . Although he had intended only to make it " atmospheric and suspenseful " , the level was widely held to be terrifying . In 2000 , Smith was in the process of being hired at Ion Storm to work on Deadly Shadows , and he was contacted by PC Gamer UK writer Kieron Gillen to discuss " Return to the Cathedral " . As the interview progressed via email , Smith developed a theory of horror design to retroactively explain the success of the level . His core concept was that players try to establish boundaries between safety and danger , and that fear results when these boundaries become unpredictable , or when the player is compelled to cross them " of their own free will " . Smith decided to consciously apply this theory in Deadly Shadows , and the result was " Robbing the Cradle " .
Smith 's goal with " Robbing the Cradle " was to create the scariest level ever to appear in a game , which would " knock ' Return to the Cathedral ' off the charts " . Designer Jordan Thomas joined the Deadly Shadows team in November 2001 , in part because of his interest in horror design . Smith worked with Thomas during the early planning of " Robbing the Cradle " , which was referred to at Ion Storm as the " haunted house " . Thomas explained that the key to their design was " dread " , which he described as the feeling of being " seven steps from the unspeakable " . Thomas drafted a level design based on this idea , while seeking to retain the stealth focus of other levels in Deadly Shadows . He saw " Robbing the Cradle " both as a level and as a test of the possibilities of interactive horror design . Smith later noted that his own biggest contributions were the level 's beats : he designed ways for players ' boundaries to be regularly violated , such as by forcing them to explore threatening areas . Thomas spent a large portion of his off @-@ hours working on the level , and Smith stated that Thomas was responsible for " all of the implementation " of the level 's theories .
The team worked to discover the causes and mechanics of fear , and they analyzed horror films for inspiration . " Robbing the Cradle " includes influences from the Silent Hill and System Shock series , from the films The Devil 's Backbone , Jacob 's Ladder and Session 9 , and from the books House of Leaves , From Hell and The Shining . Thomas applied psychological horror techniques that he hoped would stay with the player even after the level 's end . To generate fear , he used a combination of scripted sequences and unplanned , emergent factors . Every light source in the level dims and brightens at an imperceptibly slow speed , which Thomas hoped would create a " subconscious sense of breathing " and thereby make the Shalebridge Cradle feel like a living entity . Lights were programmed to flicker when approached by Puppets ; however , Puppets roam the level in real @-@ time , and so Thomas was unable to predict which lights would flicker at which times . He believed that this gave the player the feeling of being hunted .
Thomas explained that the Shalebridge Cradle 's design was based on " dozens of actual , existing Victorian hospitals and reputedly haunted buildings " . The Danvers State Hospital was a key influence , and Smith went with other members of the team to visit an abandoned asylum in Austin , Texas . Thomas gathered photographs by urban explorers and studied past methods of treating mental disorders , and he " read reams of patient and staff interviews " . Audio director Eric Brosius composed the Cradle 's soundscape , which Gillen later described as " a drunken miasma of sound [ ... that makes ] you uneasy until an unexpected noise splits asunder " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" Robbing the Cradle " was widely praised . It was the subject of a ten @-@ page feature by Kieron Gillen in PC Gamer UK , the first and only article dedicated to a single level in that magazine . Gillen hailed it as " one of the most brilliant and disturbing levels ever committed to PC " , and he believed that it was " probably the scariest level ever made " . Tom McNamara of IGN wrote that the level " just has to be experienced to be believed " , and he praised its sound design . He considered the level to be a high point of Deadly Shadows . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin called the level " remarkable " and " nerve @-@ wracking " , and IGN 's Shunal Doke noted in a retrospective feature that the level 's audiovisuals combine to " scare the living daylights out of you " . In April 2013 , the level was highlighted as " powerfully atmospheric " by Valve Corporation writer Marc Laidlaw .
Maximum PC included " Robbing the Cradle " in its list of the " Scariest Video Game Moments " , with the magazine 's Brittany Vincent noting that the level features " a frightful mixture of lobotomized patients , suffering spirits , and evil intentions " . Bloody Disgusting placed the level fourth in its " The 15 Scariest Moments in Non @-@ Horror Games " , and its staff wrote that the level " managed to burn itself into our minds forever , as well as creep us the hell out . " Writing for Official Xbox Magazine , Ryan McCaffery ranked Deadly Shadows fourth on his " My Top 5 Scariest Games of All @-@ Time " list , based solely on " Robbing the Cradle " . He considered the level to be " perhaps the single most brilliantly designed mission in a genius trilogy of games . " In a reader poll conducted by The Daily Telegraph , Deadly Shadows tied as the twelfth scariest video game , in large part because of " Robbing the Cradle " . The level led Computer & Video Games to place Deadly Shadows on its list " Fear Factor : The 12 Scariest Games Ever Made " . The magazine 's Iain Wilson wrote that the level is " considered one of the scariest levels ever created " .
After finishing work on Deadly Shadows , Jordan Thomas went to Irrational Games , where he designed the " Fort Frolic " section of BioShock . He later became the creative director of BioShock 2 . Because of tensions and disagreements within the Deadly Shadows team , Randy Smith was fired from Ion Storm near the end of the game 's production , and he founded Tiger Style with fellow Deadly Shadows designer David Kalina . Smith later wondered if the team had " overdone it " with " Robbing the Cradle " , and he stated , " I worry a little bit in retrospect about people who just wanted a ' sneaking around mansions and stealing stuff ' experience [ being ] forced into their deepest nightmares . " The positive reception of " Robbing the Cradle " inspired Eidos Montreal to create a similar asylum level in 2014 's Thief .
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= The Blue Lotus =
The Blue Lotus ( French : Le Lotus bleu ) is the fifth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from August 1934 to October 1935 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1936 . Continuing where the plot of the previous story , Cigars of the Pharaoh , left off , the story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who are invited to China in the midst of the 1931 Japanese invasion , where he reveals the machinations of Japanese spies and uncovers a drug @-@ smuggling ring .
In creating The Blue Lotus , Hergé exhibited a newfound emphasis on accuracy and documentation in his portrayal of foreign societies . He was heavily influenced by his close friend Zhang Chongren , a Chinese student studying in Belgium , and the work both satirises common European misconceptions about China as well as criticising the actions of the Japanese invaders . The Blue Lotus was a commercial success in Belgium and was soon serialised in France and Switzerland , while news of the book led to the Chinese political leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek inviting Hergé to visit China itself . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Broken Ear , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1946 , The Blue Lotus was re @-@ drawn and coloured in Hergé 's distinctive ligne @-@ claire style by the cartoonist and his team of assistants ; during this process a number of minor plot elements were changed . The Adventure introduces the recurring characters J.M. Dawson and Chang Chong @-@ Chen . The story was adapted for a 1991 episode of the Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin . Critical analysis of the story has been positive , with various commentators considering it to be one of Hergé 's finest works .
= = Synopsis = =
Staying at the palace of the Maharaja of Gaipajama in India , Tintin is approached by a visitor from Shanghai in China . The visitor supplies him with the name of Mitsuhirato , a Japanese businessman based in Shanghai , but before finishing his message is hit by a dart dipped in Rajaijah , the " poison of madness . " Tintin and his fox terrier Snowy travel to Shanghai to meet Mitsuhirato , who warns them that the Maharajah is in danger and that they should return to India . Surviving several attempts on his life by mysterious assailants , Tintin attempts to leave for India by boat , but is kidnapped . His abductors reveal themselves as members of a secret society known as the Sons of the Dragon , who are devoted to combating the opium trade . Their spokesman , Wang Chen @-@ Yee , explains to Tintin that Mitsuhirato is both a Japanese spy and an opium smuggler , and enlist Tintin in their fight to stop him . Tintin agrees , and spies on Mitsuhirato at the Blue Lotus opium den . Following the spy , he discovers him blowing up a Chinese railway . The Japanese government use this as an excuse to invade Northern China , taking Shanghai under its control .
Tintin is captured by Mitsuhirato , who plans to poison him with Rajaijah ; however , a member of the Sons of the Dragon swaps the poison for coloured water , and Tintin escapes unscathed . When Mitsuhirato discovers the deception , he convinces J.M. Dawson , the corrupt Chief of Police at the Shanghai International Settlement , to put a warrant out for Tintin 's arrest . Meanwhile , Tintin enters the Settlement in search for Professor Fang Hsi @-@ ying , an expert in poisons whom he hopes can develop a cure for Raijajah , but discovers that he has been kidnapped . Dawson 's police arrest Tintin and hand him over to the Japanese , who sentence him to death before he is rescued by Wang .
Travelling to Hukow with the ransom money for Fang , Tintin comes across a flood that has destroyed a village and rescues a young Chinese orphan , Chang Chong @-@ Chen . Chang accompanies Tintin to Hukow , where one of Mitsuhirato 's spies ambushes them ; they realise that it was a trap and that Fang was not there . Meanwhile , the detectives Thomson and Thompson are employed by Dawson to arrest Tintin , but fail on multiple occasions . Returning to Shanghai , Tintin intends to confront Mitsuhirato , and allows himself to be captured by him . Being held prisoner at The Blue Lotus , it is revealed that Mitsuhirato is working with the film director Rastapopoulos , who is the head of the international opium smuggling organisation that Tintin had previously battled in Cigars of the Pharaoh . However , Tintin formulates a plan , with Chang and the Sons of the Dragon appearing to rescue Tintin and Fang ; Rastapopoulos is arrested while Mitsuhirato commits seppuku . Fang develops a cure for Rajaijah , while Wang adopts Chang as his son .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels which was run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez . In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , about the exploits of fictional young Belgian reporter Tintin . Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union to act as anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) , to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) , and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ( Tintin in America ) . On 24 November 1932 , Le Petit Vingtième published a fictional interview with Tintin in which the reporter announced that he would travel to China via Egypt , India , Sri Lanka , and Indochina . This plotline resulted in Tintin in the Orient , the first part of which was an Adventure set in Egypt , Arabia , and India that Hergé later titled Cigars of the Pharaoh . Cigars ceased publication in Le Petit Vingtième in February 1934 , and Hergé next provided the standalone story Popol out West for the newspaper . The Blue Lotus was the second half of the Tintin in the Orient story that Hergé had begun with Cigars of the Pharaoh .
However , Hergé knew as little about China as he did about the Soviet Union or the Belgian Congo . At the time most Belgians held to a negative stereotype of China , viewing it as " a distant continent of a nation , barbaric , overpopulated , and inscrutable " , and Hergé had long believed this view . He had included Chinese characters in two previous Adventures , in both instances depicting them according to traditional European clichés . In Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , he included two pigtailed Chinese men hired by the Bolsheviks to torture Tintin , while in Tintin in America he featured two Chinese hoodlums who plotted to eat Snowy . Hergé learned a bit about the country from Albert Londres ' book China Madness , based on Londres ' experiences in the country . He was also influenced in his portrayal of China by the 1933 German film Flüchtlinge ( At the End of the World ) .
Learning of Hergé 's intention to set the next Adventure in China , Abbot Léon Gosset , a Roman Catholic chaplain to the Chinese students at the Catholic University of Louvain , contacted Hergé and asked him to be cautious in his depiction of the country . His students read Le Petit Vingtième and he thought it would be counterproductive if Hergé continued to propagate negative stereotypes about the Chinese people . Hergé was sensitive to Gosset 's ideas , and Gosset proceeded to put him in touch with two of his Chinese students , Arnold Chiao Ch 'eng @-@ Chih and his wife Susan Lin . He also gave him the address of a Chinese student a year Hergé 's junior , Zhang Chongren . The pair first met on 1 May 1934 , soon becoming close friends and spending every Sunday afternoon with each other for over a year . Zhang later commented that he and Hergé became akin to " two brothers " . A student of painting and sculpture at Brussels ' Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium , Zhang taught Hergé about Chinese artistic styles , giving him a set of traditional Chinese brushes and explaining to him the art of painting a tree and Chinese calligraphy , alongside explaining the tenets of Taoist philosophy . Both his artistic and philosophical training under Zhang would have a profound effect over Hergé .
Hergé had also gotten in contact with Father Édouard Neut , hosteller at the St. Andrew 's Abbey near Bruges . Neut had a special interest in China , and was excited by Hergé 's latest venture , commenting that it could contribute to " a work of inter @-@ racial understanding and true friendship between Orientals and whites " . He sent him two books , Father Thadée 's Aux origines du conflict mandchou ( On the Origins of the Manchu Conflict ) and Zheng Zheng 's Ma Mère ( My Mother ) , a first @-@ hand account of Chinese family life . He also sent Hergé a 1932 article discussing the differences between Chinese and Japanese cultures . At the time , Neut worked as the assistant of Lou Tseng @-@ tsiang , a Chinese Catholic who had moved to Belgium , where he published a book on the Japanese invasion and occupation of Manchuria , an area of northern China . Mainstream Western press was broadly sympathetic to the Japanese cause , viewing them as a bulwark against the Soviet Union , a view that Hergé was to eschew .
= = = Original publication , 1934 – 1935 = = =
The comic strip began serialisation in Le Petit Vingtième on 9 August 1934 as Les Aventures De Tintin Reporter En Extrême @-@ Orient ( The Adventures of Tintin in the Far East ) . It began serialisation in France in Cœurs Vaillants from 29 December 1935 , and later in the Swiss magazine L 'Écho Illustré . Alongside protagonists Tintin and Snowy , Hergé also included the detectives Thomson and Thompson in the story , who had been introduced in the previous story . He also alluded to the movie that Tintin had witnessed being filmed in Cigar , Rastapopoulos ' The Sheik 's House , having characters enter a cinema where it was being screened .
Hergé actively satirised typical European opinions of China in The Blue Lotus . He had Thomson and Thompson dress in what they perceived as traditional Chinese costume , as Mandarins , only to stand out in stark contrast to the actual clothing worn in China . He also had Gibbons , one of the story 's antagonists , express racist attitudes toward the Chinese , and made Tintin give a speech to Chang explaining western misunderstandings of the Chinese . He took " a radical view " by expressing a criticism of Western activity in China 's International Settlement , depicting it as extremely corrupt and only interested in its own commercial interests . He gained much of his information on such issues from Zhang , who informed him of the political events occurring in China from a Chinese perspective . Building on this information , Hergé 's depiction of the Japanese invasion was largely accurate , although it served as an outright attack on Japanese imperialism . Hergé depicted fictionalised versions of both the real @-@ life Mukden Incident , although he shifted its location nearer to Shanghai , and Japan 's walking out of the League of Nations . However , The Blue Lotus contained no mention of one of the central historical events of the period , the Long March of communist Mao Zedong .
Further devoting himself to greater accuracy , Hergé also made increasing use of photographs to draw from , such as of Chinese clothing , street scenes , and landscape . Hergé 's newfound emphasis on accuracy and documentation imbued the rest of the Adventures . While Hergé relied on nonsensical Arabic for the backgrounds in Cigars , for The Blue Lotus Zhang drew the many ideograms that appeared as street signs and advertisements throughout the story . Among these ideograms were those of a political nature , proclaiming slogans such as " Down with Imperialism " , " Abolish unfair treaties " , and " Down with Japanese merchandise " . Zhang also sketched out a number of images for Hergé , such as the outline of Wang 's house . Zhang 's signature was also included twice throughout the comic , reflecting his artistic contribution ; Hergé wanted to include Zhang 's name as co @-@ author . In gratitude , Hergé created the character of Chang in honour of his friend Zhang .
Upon realising the anti @-@ Japanese tone of the story , Japan 's diplomats stationed in Belgium issued an official complaint , conveyed to Hergé by Lieutenant @-@ General Raoul Pontus , president of the Sino @-@ Belgian Friendship Association . The diplomats threatened to take their complaint to the Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague . In learning of this , Zhang congratulated Hergé , stating that it would only further expose the actions of Japan in China to further international scrutiny and would make Hergé " world @-@ famous " . Hergé 's strip also came under criticism from a Belgian general , who commented , " This is not a story for children ... It 's just a problem for Asia ! " The story was nevertheless a commercial success , and Le Petit Vingtième organised a celebration to commemorate the return of Tintin from the Far East , sponsored by the L 'Innovation and Bon Marché department stores . Taking place at the Cirque Royal , it was attended by 3000 fans of the series , many of whom were Scouts , and involved an actor portraying Tintin who accompanied Hergé , the newspaper 's staff , a contortionist and a clown .
In September 1935 , Zhang returned to China at his family 's request . Hergé meanwhile set about preparing the strip for publication in book form through Casterman . Proud of this Adventure , he encouraged them to increase the level of marketing and advertising for the work . At their advice , he renamed the story from The Adventures of Tintin in the Far East to The Blue Lotus , commenting of this new title : " It is short , it sounds Chinese and it is mysterious . " At Casterman 's prompting , he also inserted a number of coloured plates throughout the work , and devised a new design for the front cover . The book was finally published in October 1936 . Hergé was pleased with the product , commenting , " I was just bowled over ! It is the height of luxury and my first thought was ' It 's much too good for children ! ' ... I was far from expecting that . " He sent a copy to Zhang , who replied to thank him . After news of its publication reached China , in 1939 political leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek , who had enjoyed The Blue Lotus , asked his wife Soong Mei @-@ ling to invite Hergé to visit them there , although he was unable to do so due to the impending Second World War . He finally took up her offer in 1973 , visiting her on the island of Taiwan .
= = = Second version , 1946 = = =
In the 1940s and 1950s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created . The Studios reformatted and coloured The Blue Lotus in 1946 . Little was actually changed for the 1946 edition , although many of the backgrounds were embellished . Minor alterations included replacing three highland Scotsman who briefly featured in the story with three Sikhs . The map that appears on the opening page was made smaller , while a reference to Sir Malcolm Campbell was removed . The European Palace Hotel was renamed The Continental , while Gibbons ' company was also renamed from the Americano @-@ Anglo Chinese Stell [ sic ] Company Limited to American and Chinese Steel Incorporated , and the drug smuggling ship known as the S.S. City of Doodlecastle was renamed the S.S. Harika Maru .
= = = Later publications = = =
Both Rastapopoulos and Dawson reappeared in the series 20 years later in The Red Sea Sharks . Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version in 1979 in a French @-@ language collected volume with Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Broken Ear , the second part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1985 , Casterman published a facsimile version of the original . Meanwhile , Methuen , the British publisher of The Adventures of Tintin , felt that the story was dated , and only published The Blue Lotus in 1983 , the year of Hergé 's death . The translation into English was undertaken by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper , although it lost the English accent of the British troops which was conveyed in the original French . The Adventures of Tintin also became popular in Japan , something Michael Farr thought indicated that the Japanese had not taken offence to Hergé 's portrayal of them in The Blue Lotus . After Hergé 's death , the original illustrated manuscript of The Blue Lotus was discovered at Studio Hergé , and was subsequently exhibited as the centrepiece of an exhibit commemorating the 60th anniversary of The Adventures of Tintin .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier commented that The Blue Lotus was " unarguably Hergé 's first masterpiece " . They felt that for the first time in the series , " one senses that the story has become important " as Tintin first expresses " a purpose , a mission " to his adventure . Commenting on the character Chang , they thought that he was an " endearing personality " despite having little relevance the plot , also believing that Dawson and Gibbons were the most loathsome characters in the Adventure . They compared the scene in which the Japanese invaded China with that in Tintin in America where the U.S. army force Native Americans off of their land , and praised the linear illustrations of the story , although also opined that the original black @-@ and @-@ white version was better than its colour counterpart . Overall , they awarded The Blue Lotus four stars out of five .
Harry Thompson noted that some people believed that Hergé 's depiction of the Japanese as buck @-@ toothed and inherently violent in The Blue Lotus was racist . He nevertheless thought that these accusations " stupidly " missed " the point of the story " , which was to counter widespread racist attitudes toward East Asians among Belgians . Due to the inclusion of actual historical events , he thought that the comic lacked the " timelessness " of other Adventures but that for 1934 it was " a marvelous piece of comic strip art " . Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline thought that the book combined " social realism " with the spirit present in the work of Charles Dickens and Alexandre Dumas .
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters thought that there was an obvious difference in The Adventures of Tintin before and after The Blue Lotus , and that it represented " an essential turning point both graphically and ideologically " as Hergé shifted from his former " classically right @-@ wing " ideas . Also feeling that the work was " exceptionally moving , " he noted that The Blue Lotus was far from Tintin in the Congo in its attitude to non @-@ Europeans , while other Belgian comic strips like Blake and Mortimer and Buck Danny would continue to perpetuate negative stereotypes of East Asians for decades . Elsewhere , he stated that it was the first Adventure where Hergé " really took control " of the story , also opining that it was the " most politically involved " entity in the series .
Michael Farr stated that there was a " general agreement " that The Blue Lotus was Hergé 's first masterpiece , being " better planned " than its predecessors and for the first time having " a carefully devised structure " . At the same time he thought that it retained the best qualities of the earlier works . Thinking it " much more serious " than Tintin 's prior Adventures , he nevertheless thought it " no less enjoyable " , being the first story to bring " emotion and tragedy " to the series . Farr thought that Hergé 's " total absorption " in his subject resulted in him gaining an " extraordinary feel " for it and allowed him to foresee future political events in China much like a " finely tuned " political commentator . He singled out the depiction of the Mukden Incident for particular praise , thinking it " a marvellous example of political satire " . Philippe Goddin thought that this depiction of the build @-@ up to invasion was " brilliantly " done , also comparing it to the scene of ethnic cleansing in Tintin in America .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy thought that The Blue Lotus showed evidence of Hergé 's " left @-@ wing counter @-@ tendency " that rejected his earlier right @-@ wing worldview . He believed that this was partly due to the influence of Zhang , who had destroyed Hergé 's " European absolutism " , and overall thought of it as " the most visually rich of all the Tintin books " . Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University thought that Wang signified the forces of good in the story while Rastapopoulos represented evil , and that the character Didi – who was poisoned with Raijaijah – inverted " the model of justice ruling the world of the Good " . He saw a similarity between Didi and Tintin , who both have " feline suppleness , a devotion to good causes , and the patience of an animal stalking its prey " . He furthermore argued that Didi 's desire to behead people when under the poison 's influence expressed his Oedipus complex and was a substitute for castration .
= = Adaptations = =
The Blue Lotus was adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin . In March 2013 , Steven Spielberg said that The Blue Lotus might be the basis for the third Tintin film in his film series that began with The Adventures of Tintin ( 2011 ) .
= = Cultural Influence = =
In the cult classic The Avengers ( TV Series ) in the final moments of the December 4 , 1968 episode " Look- ( stop me if you 've heard this one ) But There Were These Two Fellers ... " John Steed is seen reading " Le Lotus Bleu " . In three other episodes of The Avengers Steed is seen reading three other The Adventures of TinTin books .
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= Tago Mago =
Tago Mago is the third album by the German krautrock band Can , and was originally released as a double LP in 1971 by United Artists . It was the band 's second studio album and the first to feature Kenji " Damo " Suzuki after their previous vocalist , Malcolm Mooney , quit the band in 1970 to return to the United States .
Tago Mago has been described as Can 's most extreme record in terms of sound and structure . The album has received much critical acclaim since its release and has been cited as an influence by various artists .
= = Recording and production = =
After Malcolm Mooney left Can in 1970 ( according to some rumors , as a result of a nervous breakdown ) , the remaining members were left without a vocalist . Bassist Holger Czukay happened to meet Kenji " Damo " Suzuki when the latter was busking outside a cafe in Munich . He introduced himself as a member of an experimental rock band and invited Suzuki to join them . That evening , Suzuki performed with the band at the " Blow Up club " and subsequently became a member of Can .
Tago Mago was recorded in 1971 by Czukay in Schloss Nörvenich , a castle near Cologne . The band was allowed to stay there for a year without paying any rent by the owner , an art collector named Mr. Vohwinkel .
This was the first of Can 's albums to be made from not only regularly recorded music , but combined " in @-@ between @-@ recordings " , where Czukay secretly recorded the musicians jamming while waiting for various technical problems to be resolved . Czukay would edit these long , disorganized jams into structured songs . According to Czukay , the album was named after Isla de Tagomago , an island off the east coast of Ibiza . Recording was completed in three months .
It was originally released as a double LP in 1971 by United Artists . In September 2004 , the album , along with the majority of Can 's discography , was remastered and released as a hybrid SACD . The rerelease includes a booklet with commentary on the album by Bobby Gillespie of Primal Scream and David Stubbs , as well as previously unreleased photos of the band .
In 2011 , for the 40th anniversary of its release , the 2004 remaster was released again with an extra disc of previously unreleased 1972 live performances .
= = Single = =
The side @-@ long track " Halleluhwah " was shortened from 18 ½ to 3 ½ minutes for the B @-@ side of the single " Turtles Have Short Legs " , a novelty song recorded during the Tago Mago sessions and released by Liberty Records in 1971 . A different , 5 ½ -minute shortened version of " Halleluhwah " would later appear on the compilation Cannibalism in 1978 while the single 's A @-@ side remained out @-@ of @-@ print until its inclusion on 1992 's Cannibalism 2 .
= = Music = =
Julian Cope wrote in Krautrocksampler that Tago Mago " sounds only like itself , like no @-@ one before or after " , and described the lyrics as delving " below into the Unconscious " . Tago Mago finds Can changing to a jazzier and more experimental sound than previous recordings , with longer instrumental interludes and fewer vocals ; this shift was caused by the dramatic difference between Suzuki and the band 's more dominant ex @-@ singer Mooney . On the album , Can took sonic inspiration from sources as diverse as jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and from electronic avant @-@ garde music . The album was also inspired by the occultist Aleister Crowley , which is reflected through the dark sound of the album as well as being named after Isla de Tagomago , an island which features in the Crowley legend . Czukay reflects that the album was " an attempt in achieving a mystery musical world from light to darkness and return " . The group has referred to the album as their " magic record " . The tracks have been described as having an " air of mystery and forbidden secrets " . Tago Mago is divided into two LPs , the first of which is more conventional and structured and the second more experimental and free @-@ form .
" Paperhouse " , the opening track , is one of the shorter songs on the album . Allmusic critic Ned Raggett depicted the song as " beginning with a low @-@ key chime and beat , before amping up into a rumbling roll in the midsection , then calming down again before one last blast . " " Mushroom " is the following track , which Leone noted as having a darker sound than the previous song . " Oh Yeah " and " Halleluhwah " contain the elements that have been referred to as Can 's " trademark " sound : " Damo Suzuki 's vocals , which shift from soft mumbles to aggressive outbursts without warning ; Jaki Liebezeit 's manic drumming ; Holger Czukay 's production manipulations ( e.g. the backwards vocals and opening sound effects on ' Oh Yeah ' ) . " Both " Oh Yeah " and " Halleluhwah " use repetitive grooves .
The second LP features Can 's more avant @-@ garde efforts , with Roni Sarig , author of The Secret History of Rock calling it " as close as it ever got to avant @-@ garde noise music . " Featuring Holger Czukay ’ s tape and radio experiments , the tracks " Aumgn " and " Peking O " have led music critics to write that Tago Mago is Can 's " most extreme record in terms of sound and structure . " " Aumgn " features keyboardist Irmin Schmidt chanting rather than Suzuki 's vocals . The closing track , " Bring Me Coffee or Tea " , was described by Raggett as a " coda to a landmark record . "
= = Reception and influence = =
Tago Mago has been critically well received and is credited with pioneering various modern musical styles . Raggett called Tago Mago a " rarity of the early ' 70s , a double album without a wasted note " . In the book Kraftwerk : Man , Machine and Music , Pascal Bussy described the double LP as " hugely influential " . The album is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die in which it stated , " Even after 30 years Tago Mago sounds refreshingly contemporary and gloriously extreme . " Many critics , particularly in the UK , were eager to praise the album , and by the end of 1971 Can played their first show in the UK .
Various artists have cited Tago Mago as an influence on their work . John Lydon of the Sex Pistols and Public Image Ltd. called it " stunning " in his biography , Rotten : No Irish , No Blacks , No Dogs . Bobby Gillespie of Jesus and Mary Chain and Primal Scream said " The music was like nothing I 'd ever heard before , not American , not rock & roll but mysterious and European . " Mark Hollis of Talk Talk called Tago Mago " an extremely important album " . Marc Bolan listed Suzuki 's freeform lyricism as an inspiration . Jonny Greenwood and Thom Yorke of Radiohead cite the album as an early influence .
There have been attempts by several artists to play cover versions of songs from Tago Mago . The Flaming Lips album In a Priest Driven Ambulance contains a song called " Take Meta Mars " , which was an attempt at covering the song " Mushroom " . However , the band members had only heard the song once and didn 't have a copy of it at the time , so the song is only similar @-@ sounding and not a proper cover . The Jesus and Mary Chain have covered the song more faithfully to the original ; it was performed live and included on the CD version of Barbed Wire Kisses . British band The Fall recorded a song indebted to the Tago Mago track " Oh Yeah " entitled " I Am Damo Suzuki " , named after the Can singer , on their seminal 1985 LP This Nation 's Saving Grace . New York band The Mooney Suzuki were named after Can vocalists Malcolm Mooney and Damo Suzuki .
Remix versions of several Tago Mago tracks by various artists are included on the album Sacrilege .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Holger Czukay , Michael Karoli , Jaki Liebezeit , Irmin Schmidt and Damo Suzuki .
= = 40th Anniversary Edition = =
= = Personnel = =
Damo Suzuki – vocals
Holger Czukay – bass , engineering , editing
Michael Karoli – guitar , violin
Jaki Liebezeit – drums , double bass , piano
Irmin Schmidt – keyboards , vocals on " Aumgn "
= = = Production = = =
U. Eichberger – original artwork & design
Andreas Torkler – design ( 2004 rerelease )
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= Yugoslav monitor Vardar =
The Yugoslav monitor Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as SMS Bosna , but was renamed SMS Temes ( II ) before she went into service . During World War I she was the flagship of the Danube Flotilla , and fought the Serbian Army , the Romanian Navy and Army , and the French Army . She reverted to the name Bosna in May 1917 , after the original SMS Temes was raised and returned to service . After World War I , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Vardar .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , and along with her fellow monitor Sava , she laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border during the first few days of the invasion . The two monitors fought off several attacks by the Luftwaffe , but were forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , the monitors ' navigation was difficult , and they were scuttled by their crews on 11 April . Some of her crew may have been killed when a demolished bridge collapsed onto a tugboat after they abandoned ship . A number tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but most were obliged to surrender to the Germans at Sarajevo on 14 April . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , where they were captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = Description and construction = =
Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , and was laid down as Bosna at Linz in 1914 , as part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 1914 – 15 Naval Program . She was named after the river Bosna , but was renamed Temes ( II ) during construction , after the sinking of the original SMS Temes by a mine on the Sava River on 23 October 1914 . Along with her sister ship Sava , she had an overall length of 62 m ( 203 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 10 @.@ 3 m ( 33 ft 10 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) . Her displacement was 580 tonnes ( 570 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 91 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered using steam generated by two Yarrow boilers driving two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and the ship carried 75 tonnes ( 74 long tons ) of fuel oil . Its engines were rated at 1 @,@ 750 ihp ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) and she was designed to reach a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Her main armament was a twin gun turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L45 guns forward of the conning tower and a twin turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L10 howitzers aft of the conning tower . She also mounted twin 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / L26 anti @-@ aircraft guns , two 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) / L44 guns , and seven machine guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns was 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt and bulkheads 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , and her conning tower , gun turrets and cupolas were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Temes was completed on 9 July 1915 .
= = Career = =
= = = World War I = = =
Temes was commissioned into the Danube Flotilla in 1915 , and was in action against the Serbian Army at Belgrade in early October , when the Serbs evacuated the city in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . During the final river crossing and reinforcement of the resulting bridgehead , Temes provided close support . During this task , she attempted to draw fire away from the battle @-@ damaged monitor Enns but after receiving a direct hit in the crew quarters aft , she had to move out of range . She was run ashore to put out fires and stop leaks , before being towed out of the battle area by an armed steamer , and taken to Budapest for repairs .
In November 1915 , the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The geopolitical position of Romania was uncertain , with the Central Powers being aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the side of the Entente . To protect the 480 @-@ kilometre ( 300 mi ) Danubian border between Romania and Bulgaria , the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal . When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , having been joined by Temes after her repairs were completed . The monitors were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors , but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . The 1st Monitor Division , including Temes , was tasked with escorting supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . This was followed by forays of the Division both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled . On 9 May 1917 , she was renamed SMS Bosna as the original SMS Temes was due to return to service after a complete rebuild .
In April 1918 , Bosna , along with three other monitors , two patrol boats and a tug were formed into Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff . Flottenabteilung Wulff was sent through the mouth of the Danube and across the Black Sea to Odessa , where it spent several months supporting the Austro @-@ Hungarian troops enforcing the peace agreement with Russia . It returned to the Danube at the end of August , and was anchored at Brăila on 12 September . On 16 October , Bosna and the rest of the 1st Monitor Division sailed from Brăila to Belene . The Danube Flotilla then protected Austro @-@ Hungarian troops withdrawing towards Budapest , fighting French and irregular Serbian forces as they withdrew , and arrived on 6 November .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
Immediately after the armistice , Bosna was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in 1918 – 19 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye concluded in September 1919 , Bosna was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Vardar in 1920 . In 1925 – 26 , Vardar was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
On 6 April 1941 , the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began , and Vardar was based at Dubovac , as the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , responsible for the Romanian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division Dunavska . She was commanded by Poručnik bojnog broda Milivoj Kockar . On that day , Vardar and her fellow monitor Sava fought off several attacks by individual Luftwaffe aircraft on their base . Over the next three days , the two monitors laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border .
On 11 April , the two monitors were forced to withdraw from Dubovac towards Belgrade , during which they came under repeated attacks by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers . Vardar and her fellow monitor were undamaged , and anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade about 20 : 00 , where they were joined by the monitor Morava . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant there was insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , charges on the bridge accidentally exploded and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed .
After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Vardar and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac . Armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , they started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective , but the larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo by 14 April when they were obliged to surrender by German troops approaching the city . The Bay of Kotor was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= Jimmy Norman =
Jimmy Norman ( August 12 , 1937 – November 8 , 2011 ) was an American rhythm and blues and jazz musician and a songwriter . In his early career , Norman had a charting single of his own , " I Don 't Love You No More ( I Don 't Care About You ) " , as well as performing session work with Jimi Hendrix , but he is better known as a lyricist and songwriter . He wrote the expanded lyrics of the song " Time Is on My Side " , which became a hit for The Rolling Stones , and later in 1985 re recorded and produced by Stephen Vanderbilt featuring " St. Tropez " as the A side of a 45 released on the album " Home " throughout Europe . Norman composed a number of songs performed by well @-@ known musicians including Johnny Nash and Bob Marley . In 1969 he became involved with doo @-@ wop band The Coasters , first as a producer and then as a touring member . He was also recording independently , releasing a solo album in 1998 , the same year poor health forced him to retire from performance . Like many other musicians of his time , he was not financially prepared for retirement or heavy medical bills , and with few royalties for his writing soon found himself in economic crisis . With the assistance of charitable organization Jazz Foundation of America , Norman regained his feet and resumed performing , releasing his first wide distribution album in 2004 , Little Pieces . He performed in the Manhattan area until shortly before his death .
= = Early life and career = =
Born August 12 , 1937 as James Norman Scott in Nashville , Tennessee , Norman relocated to California as a teenager , beginning his career as a touring musician throughout the Midwest and southern regions of the United States before settling in New York . There , he wrote music for Broadway and performed . In 1962 , Norman released his biggest charting single , " I Don 't Love You No More ( I Don 't Care About You ) " , which reached # 21 on the Billboard " Black Singles " chart and # 47 on the " Pop Singles " chart .
= = Songwriting and session work = =
In 1964 , singer Irma Thomas went into the studio to record the single " Anyone Who Knows What Love Is ( Will Understand ) " . It was decided that the b @-@ side , a cover of Kai Winding 's " Time Is on My Side " , needed additional lyrics , since the only words in the original composition were " Time is on my side " and " You 'll come runnin ' back . " Norman was contacted and composed the rest of the lyrics to the tune . The Rolling Stones also recorded the song with Norman 's lyrics and released it as a single , which became the band 's first hit to break the top ten . The Rolling Stones ' releases did credit Norman as lyric writer for a number of years , but eventually his name was removed ; in the early 1990s , he was told by the publisher that the credit was not legally binding , as it had been a " clerical error " .
In 1966 , Norman recorded several tracks with Jimi Hendrix on session at Abtone Studio in New York : " You 're Only Hurting Yourself " , " Little Groovemaker " and " On You Girlie It Looks so Good " . The second of these songs was retooled under the title " Groove Maker " and has been included on a number of Hendrix releases . According to Black Gold : The Lost Archives of Jimi Hendrix , Norman — not Lonnie Youngblood as popularly supposed — was the primary performer besides Hendrix on this song . Jimi Hendrix – From the Benjamin Franklin Studios 3rd Edition Part 1 : The Complete Guide to the Recorded Work of Jimi Hendrix posits Youngblood on saxophone , but gives writing credit to Norman . Jimi Hendrix : Musician documents the confusion surrounding this and other Hendrix sessions of the time , including the difficulty in tracking contributions when they also rose from later manipulation of the material as Hendrix became famous . " You 're Only Hurting Yourself " and " Little Groovemaker " were first released under Norman 's name as Samar records single 112 in 1966 and never again released in original form . " On You Girlie It Looks so Good " remains unreleased .
In 1968 , Norman was visited by a young Bob Marley in his Bronx apartment . Norman had at that time written a number of songs for Johnny Nash , whose record label had just signed Marley , and Marley wanted to learn more about rhythm and blues . Along with Al Pyfrom , Norman 's co @-@ writer , and Marley 's wife Rita , the pair spent several days in a jam session that ultimately resulted in a 24 @-@ minute tape of Marley performing several of his own and Norman @-@ Pyfrom 's compositions . According to Reggae archivist Roger Steffens , the tape — which was lost among Norman 's possessions for decades — is rare for Marley in that it was influenced by pop music rather than reggae , highlighting a point in Marley 's career when he was still trying to find his path . Some of the songs from this early jam session were released on the Marley album Chances Are .
Following these sessions , Norman went to Kingston , Jamaica and spent more than half a year there , working in the studio with Marley and composing songs . A number of his compositions were recorded by Marley , Peter Tosh , Byron Lee and the Dragonaires , and Neville Willoughby . Some of the tapes recorded by Norman during his sessions with Marley have been commercially released as part of the Marley compilation album , Soul Almighty .
= = Coasters years = =
After producing a single for the doo @-@ wop band The Coasters in 1969 for Lloyd Price 's Turntable Records , Norman replaced Vernon Harrell as the regular substitute ( permanently , later on ) for Billy Guy in the group in the 1970s , touring with them until forced to retire by ill @-@ health in 1998 , the same year his album Tobacco Road was released by independent label Bad Cat Records . In interview , Norman cited the limited repertoire , noting that fans of the band were only interested in hearing hits like " Yakety Yak " , " Charlie Brown " and " Poison Ivy " ; " In 30 years we did maybe 10 songs . " Norman did have opportunity to deviate with other love songs from the 1950s , the era when The Coaster 's rose to fame .
During his time with the Coasters , Norman teamed up with Eddie Palmieri as lead vocalist in the group Harlem River Drive , which released a self @-@ titled album in 1971 .
= = Health and economic crisis = =
Norman suffered multiple heart attacks and respiratory disease which restricted him , impoverished , to his home in Manhattan . Though he had a successful career that allowed him at one point to own several clubs , he did not plan for retirement and , like many composers of his time , receives little to no royalties for his compositions . In 2002 , he told The Jamaica Observer with respect to the songs he wrote that were released by Marley , " Periodically , I get chump change , nothing big . A lotta people have been making money off of it , not me . " Norman attempted to get local work without success and , lacking health insurance and investment funds , was near the point of eviction when he came to the attention of the Jazz Foundation of America , which helps redress what The Crisis characterizes as the exploitation of " less savvy or uneducated performers " by record labels and other more powerful members of the music community .
= = Recovery and death = =
Wendy Oxenhorn , director of the Foundation , arranged for housekeeping and free medical care for Norman , as well as helping him plan for his future , providing back rent and negotiating with Norman 's landlord . In the course of that housekeeping , in July 2002 , Norman 's rare tape of his jam session with Marley was located in his apartment and placed on auction , retrieving considerably above its estimated value when auctioned at $ 26 @,@ 290 . During the same housekeeping session , Norman rediscovered old notebooks containing his compositions . Producer Kerryn Tolhurst recorded Norman performing the songs on a tape recorder in his apartment , taking the tapes into the studio later to add parts by other musicians . Judy Collins , whose drummer Tony Beard contributed to the project , released the resultant album under her own Wildflower label in 2004 . The project , titled Little Pieces , is the first album Norman has ever released with wide distribution . In 2006 , Little Pieces won in The 5th Annual Independent Music Awards for Best Blues Album .
In the 2000s , Norman has performed live . In 2003 , he performed a benefit concert for the Jazz Foundation at the Gilsey House in New York . In 2007 , he took part in the Jazz Foundation 's annual " Great Night in Harlem " , performing " Time Is on My Side " . As of 2007 , Norman was performing locally in Manhattan .
Norman died on November 8 , 2011 , in New York City after a long illness . He had held his last public performance on October 29 , 2011 , for the Jazz Foundation of America . Married three times , he was the father of two children .
= = Discography = =
= = = Chart singles = = =
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= Fourth Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Fourth Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between Australia and England . The match was played at Headingley Stadium at Leeds from 22 to 27 July with a rest day on 25 July . Australia won the match by seven wickets to take an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead . In successfully chasing a target of 404 , they set a new world record for the highest victorious runchase in Test history .
Needing to win the match to prevent an Australian series victory , England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . England continued to rearrange their team , making three changes in an attempt to find a combination that could challenge Australia , which made two changes forced by injury . Unlike the preceding Tests , England 's openers were able to withstand the Australian new ball attack , and the partnership of Len Hutton and Cyril Washbrook put on 168 for the opening stand . Washbrook fell for 143 in the last over of the day , but England clearly had the better of the play , ending at 268 / 2 by stumps . Australia 's bowlers were heavily criticised for their performance , which was seen as lethargic . The next day , England continued to amass runs , with Australia appearing unthreatening and unable to dislodge Bill Edrich and nightwatchman Alec Bedser , who batted until mid @-@ afternoon . Bedser and Edrich then fell in quick succession for 79 and 111 respectively as England then collapsed and lost 8 / 73 to be all out for 496 late in the day . The hosts were heavily criticised for the collapse , which was largely due to unforced errors . Among the Australian bowlers , the wickets were shared . Australia then reached 63 / 1 in reply at stumps on day two .
Australia were in early trouble on the third morning when English bowler Dick Pollard removed Arthur Morris and captain Donald Bradman in the same over to leave the score at 68 / 3 . However , Keith Miller ( 58 ) and Neil Harvey ( 112 ) launched a rapid counter @-@ attack , adding 121 runs in 90 minutes in a display praised for its aesthetic beauty . They were later supported by Sam Loxton ( 93 ) — who hit five sixes — and Ray Lindwall ( 77 ) , who both struck the ball powerfully . Australia ended the day at 457 / 9 , having added 394 runs in one day , and 102 runs for the last two wickets to that point .
Australia were bowled out for 458 early on the fourth morning after the rest day , and England set about extending their lead , adding 129 for the first wicket , until both openers fell without further addition . In the meantime the workload on the Australian bowlers was heavy as Ernie Toshack had broken down in the first innings and unable to participate further . Edrich and Denis Compton took the score to 232 / 2 until a late collapse saw England reach stumps at 362 / 8 . England batted on for two overs on the final day , declaring at 365 / 8 . Bill Johnston was the most successful bowler with 4 / 95 . This left Australia a target of 404 in less than a day , which would require a world record runchase , and allowed Yardley to use the heavy roller to break up the pitch , making batting even harder for the tourists . Most observers predicted an easy England win on a deteriorating surface . Australia started slowly , and Bradman joined Morris at 57 / 1 with 347 runs still needed in 257 minutes . They put together a stand of 301 in only 217 minutes , aided by erratic bowling , several missed catches and stumpings to help Australia to a win by seven wickets with 15 minutes remaining . Morris made 182 while Bradman was unbeaten on 173 . The England selectors were heavily criticised after the match for failing to include a leg spinner in the team to exploit the favourable conditions . For the third time in a row , the match set a new record for the highest attendance at a Test in England .
= = Background = =
Australia had proceeded through the first two months of their tour of England undefeated . After winning 10 of the first 12 games — the other two being drawn — eight of these by an innings , they won the First Test by eight wickets . Between the Tests , they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing against Yorkshire . They crushed England by 409 runs in the Second Test at Lord 's , Abefore defeating Surrey by ten wickets and crushing Gloucestershire by an innings and 363 runs , after amassing 774 / 7 declared , their highest score of the season . The Third Test was drawn amid rain interruptions that cost a day and a half of play ; England had been in a strong position , having been 316 runs ahead with seven wickets in hand in their second innings when rain came at the end of the third day . Australia proceeded to claim a ten @-@ wicket triumph over Middlesex in their only county game before the Fourth Test .
Australia made two changes for the Test at Headingley . Middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey replaced the injured opener Sid Barnes , who had collapsed while fielding during the Third Test after being hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot . Australia declined to replace Barnes with the reserve opener Bill Brown , instead opting to use vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett as a makeshift opener rather than in his customary position in the middle @-@ order . Harvey had scored an unbeaten 73 and a 95 in the recent tour matches against Surrey and Gloucestershire respectively . Ron Saggers replaced first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon behind the stumps . Tallon 's little left finger had swelled up after the Third Test , and he exacerbated the injury during the match against Middlesex . Former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised the Australians for opting to use only one spinner , pointing out that he and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , a left @-@ arm wrist spinner , had taken 17 wickets between them during the last Anglo @-@ Australian Test at Headingley in 1938 . O 'Reilly cited a further instance of an Ashes Test at the same venue in 1934 in which he and Clarrie Grimmett had significant success for Australia . He wanted at least one of the two leg spinners , Colin McCool or Doug Ring , to have played alongside off spinner Ian Johnson , the only specialist spinner to have played in the three preceding Tests .
England made three changes . George Emmett was dropped after making 10 and a duck on his debut , and Len Hutton was recalled to take his opening position after being controversially omitted after the Second Test . England 's leading batsman , Hutton had scored 74 in the First Test and made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , when none of his teammates passed 26 . O 'Reilly praised the decision and the England selectors for stopping " all nonsense and phoney tactics " . He further speculated that they would have done so irrespective of Hutton 's form to avoid the wrath of the parochial Yorkshire spectators at Headingley , but in any case he regarded the original axing as scapegoating for England 's two losses . O 'Reilly believed the English administrators were penalising Hutton for angering them rather than poor performance . The decision to recall Hutton was met with wide approval from the cricketing public .
Jim Laker , the off spinner , replaced his left arm finger @-@ spinning colleague Jack Young , who had taken 1 / 78 in the previous match against Australia for Middlesex , and totalled 3 / 174 in his two Tests in the series . Since his omission after the Second Test , Laker had taken 15 wickets in four matches for Surrey .
Middle @-@ order batsman Tom Dollery , who had made only 38 in three innings in the Second and Third Tests , was replaced by all @-@ rounder Ken Cranston . Playing mainly for Lancashire , Cranston had scored a century and four fifties , and taken 37 wickets in his last ten matches , but his previous outings against the tourists had not been successful . In two matches for the MCC and Lancashire against Australia , he had managed only 47 runs in three innings and a total of 2 / 109 . English commentator John Arlott said Cranston 's selection was an " indication that the selectors were again hankering after the non @-@ existent Test all @-@ rounder " . O 'Reilly regarded it as " the best team that the English selectors chose during the season " but felt they would be largely incapable of stopping an Australian series victory .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 22 July : Day One = =
As Australia were leading 2 – 0 after three Tests , England needed to win the last two matches to square the series . The hosts won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch , which was seen as being unhelpful to fast bowling . Despite saying the pitch would be more conducive to spinners , O 'Reilly described the playing strip as being " so green that it was difficult to decide where the out @-@ field ended and the pitch began " . Although fast , the outfield was bumpy in some parts . On some sections of the ground , there was a downward slope towards the edge of the playing arena , meaning the ball would accelerate downhill after being hit . At times the crowd spilled over the unfenced boundary , making the ground smaller than intended . All these factors meant scoring a boundary would be an easier task for the batsmen .
The England openers Cyril Washbrook and Len Hutton were given a loud reception as they walked out to bat , particularly the Yorkshire local Hutton . They had to face the Australian opening pair of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller without the aid of sightscreen . It was the first time some of the Australians had played in a first @-@ class match without a sightscreen , and those cricketers would later have to bat without its assistance . It was believed the Yorkshire administrators were reluctant to install a sightscreen as it would have taken up space and lowered the capacity of the ground , and thus the gate takings .
The large crowd roared boisterously as Hutton got off the mark with a single in the first over from Lindwall . At the other end , Miller bowled with less pace than normal and his opening over saw three full tosses . In Miller 's first over , Hutton scored the first boundary of the day , driving past mid @-@ off . Both Australian pacemen felt their legs for strained muscles , and after two overs O 'Reilly described as " very innocuous " , Miller was taken off . He was replaced by the left @-@ arm pace of Bill Johnston , who appeared to be having back problems . Johnston had bowled the most overs of any bowler on the tour and his loss would have meant a heavy workload for his remaining colleagues . Johnston 's apparent discomfort led onlookers to opine that he should have been given more rest in the county matches . The Australian bowlers appeared to be unsettled and Bradman made four bowling changes in the first 50 minutes of play .
Bradman thought his faster bowlers could not extract much bounce from the surface and soon removed the short leg fielder , and pursued a 6 – 3 off @-@ side field with three slips and a deep point , trying to encourage the English openers to cut through the vacant area between the slips and extra cover . However , they declined Bradman 's incentive and decided to bat in a low @-@ risk manner , favouring straight @-@ batted shots . After 80 minutes of batting , England 's openers reached 50 , the first time they had put on a half @-@ century in the series . Hutton and Washbrook appeared set for the long haul , and did not react to the applause . They continued on cautiously , and persisted in eschewing the cross @-@ batted cut and pull shots and relying on the safe accumulation of singles .
Hutton then edged a ball from left @-@ arm medium pacer Ernie Toshack through the slips , and was dropped by Lindsay Hassett on 25 after flicking the ball behind square leg from the medium pace of Sam Loxton . Hutton then hit a square drive past point and Washbrook pulled a ball along the ground past Harvey , who was patrolling the midwicket boundary . England were 88 without loss at the lunch interval , with Hutton and Washbrook on 46 and 41 respectively . After a slow start , they had scored at almost a run a minute after passing 50 , and five boundaries were hit from a spell of six overs by Lindwall .
Immediately after lunch , Lindwall made a confident appeal for leg before wicket ( lbw ) against Washbrook , but was not supported behind the stumps by a silent Saggers , and the umpire ruled against the tourists . At the other end , Hutton square drove Toshack for four , bringing up his fifty in 125 minutes . He followed this with another boundary in the same direction , and Washbrook back cut Lindwall for four more at the other end . This brought up England 's 100 , its first without loss for the series . Washbrook then on @-@ drove a ball to the boundary and brought up his half @-@ century , as Bradman pondered how to capture Australia 's first wicket . England brought up 150 without loss 30 minutes before tea , and continued unhindered by two brief rain interruptions . Up to this point , the Australian bowling had been loose and inaccurate .
In bright sunshine , Bradman called on the off spin of Ian Johnson , who had delivered only three overs to this point , the rest of the proceedings having been through fast bowlers . Seeking to stem the flow of runs , Bradman set a defensive ring field , with no slip in place . While Johnson bowled two consecutive maidens , Washbrook took 24 at the other end to reach 85 . O 'Reilly said Bradman 's defensive field settings " made the sorry admission of impotency " . Bradman then called for the new ball with the score on 164 , which Hutton on @-@ drove for four from Lindwall . This took the opening partnership to 168 , the best by England in the series . Washbrook refrained from the hook shot , which had caused him to lose his wicket on earlier occasions in the series . The partnership ended on the very next ball when Hutton went onto the front foot and was clean bowled by Lindwall , much to the dismay of the home crowd . Nevertheless , England had made a strong start , continuing their spirited showing in the previous Test . Washbrook was joined by Edrich , who had scored two 50s in the Third Test at Old Trafford after a lean start to the series . O 'Reilly said the hosts ' incoming batsmen had an ideal opportunity to amass a large score as " the Australian attack was completely at the mercy of the two Englishmen . It had lost all its sting and looked quite innocuous . "
Washbrook reached his century with the score on 189 / 1 ; he reached triple figures half an hour after tea , having batted for 230 minutes and 16 boundaries . Washbrook avoided cross @-@ batted shots and solidly defended shorter balls from the back foot , and profited from many over @-@ pitched balls , which he drove away for boundaries . It was a welcome return to form for the opener from Lancashire . He had scored six , one , eight , 37 and 11 in his first five innings of the series , and was dropped on 21 in the second innings of the Third Test before proceeding to an unbeaten 85 . After reaching his century , Washbrook began to play more expansively , driving in a manner that prompted Arlott to compare him to Frank Woolley .
Washbrook and Edrich batted until late in the first day , when the former was dismissed by Johnston for 143 in the last over before stumps , hitting a catch to Lindwall in the slips . His innings included 22 fours and the dismissal ended a second wicket partnership worth exactly 100 runs . Washbrook had been solid in his back foot defence and scored many runs from overpitched deliveries . Bedser was sent in as the nightwatchman , and he survived the last four balls from Johnston as England closed at 268 / 2 without further addition to the score , with Edrich , who played fluently as he had done in the previous Test , on 41 . England 's supporters were much buoyed with the situation at the end of the first day .
Former Test batsman Jack Fingleton , who covered the tour as a journalist , said Australia 's day went " progressively downhill " and described the efforts as the country 's worst day of bowling since World War II , citing the proliferation of full tosses . England had batted conservatively , steadily accumulating runs on a pitch unfavourable for fast bowlers , and Miller bowled placidly . Fingleton 's fellow journalist and former playing colleague O 'Reilly criticised the bowling display as the worst by the Australians on tour and said none of the bowlers could be excused . He lambasted the attack for operating " without object — hopelessly and meaninglessly " throughout the day . He decried the " so @-@ called attack " for being " so blatantly inaccurate both in direction in length " and likened it to what was on offer in " another monotonously uninteresting county match " . O 'Reilly criticised Bradman 's players for what he regarded as an overly casual and relaxed disposition in the morning , which gradually became more lethargic throughout the day as the home team strengthened their position . O 'Reilly speculated that the tourists had become complacent because of their comfortable 2 – 0 series lead .
= = 23 July : Day Two = =
The next day , England resumed hoping for more of what happened on the opening day . The ground was again full , with even more people squashed in than the previous day . The sun was obscured by heavy cloud cover , further hindering the visibility of a ground without a sightscreen . The two English batsmen were initially tentative and played and missed frequently , and only two singles were scored in the first 15 minutes of play . The England team frequently looked towards the sky ; as they needed to win the match and were in a good position , they hoped that time would not be lost to rain . Bradman set a deep @-@ set defensive field as he sought to have Lindwall and Johnston contain the batsmen before the third new ball became available . In all , England scored only five runs in the first half @-@ hour , as the two batsmen sought to survive and be set when the new ball was taken and the Australian attack advantaged . During this time the main threat to the batsmen was Lindwall , who bowled a spell at high pace and unsettled Edrich , who sparred at a number of balls . As soon as it was possible , Bradman took the new ball , and Bedser endeavoured to keep his wicket intact to shield Denis Compton and the other middle @-@ order batsmen from having to come in against a swinging ball . During this period Bedser did not attempt to exploit his strong physique to hit the ball hard . Continuing the defensive strategy of seeing off the new ball , it was not until the 48th minute of play that Edrich reached his 50 in 193 minutes , although he did miss several attempted cut shots that went past the outside edge . However , the hosts had seen off the new ball without losing a wicket . Bedser then glanced a ball for four ; England scored only 22 runs in the first hour .
After the new ball bowlers had finished their new ball spells , Bradman reverted to the slower bowlers , using run @-@ saving , defensive field settings . Immediately thereafter , Bedser targeted Toshack and hit three consecutive fours and a two in one over . Bradman immediately removed the left @-@ armer and replaced him with Johnson . The Australian captain set his infield rather deep , effectively allowing the batsmen to take easy singles . Bedser responded cautiously , surveying Johnson 's off spin for one over , before going on the attack in the next . He lofted Johnson into the leg side three times , yielding a six over long on and two fours , taking his score to 47 . Bedser then hit a ball back to the bowler Loxton , which was almost caught , before reaching 50 . Bradman also brought back a tired Miller to bowl medium pace off breaks , to no avail . England went to the lunch adjournment at 360 / 2 , with Edrich on 76 and Bedser on 52 . They had added 92 for the session , including 70 in the second hour . Lindwall had been the only bowler who caused much difficulty to the batsmen , particularly concerning Edrich , but the Englishmen dealt with his colleagues comfortably and Miller , nursing fitness concerns , was forced to bowl medium @-@ paced off breaks .
Edrich and Bedser continued to amass runs after the break , and Lindwall appealed for lbw for the fourth time while Saggers remained silent . The pair brought up their century partnership as England scored 22 runs in the 30 minutes after lunch . Johnson came on , and Edrich lofted him for six to reach 96 . Edrich then hit a long hop from the part @-@ time wrist spin of Arthur Morris for four to reach his century . Bedser joined the attack and lifted Morris high over square leg for six , and Bradman replaced him with Toshack , who bowled a maiden . O 'Reilly said that during the partnership , only Lindwall appeared capable of threatening the batsmen . He said Lindwall " kept slogging away , tirelessly retaining his pace and enthusiasm long after the other members of the attack had lost all signs of hostility … Bradman could not afford to spare him from doing much more than his share of the galley @-@ slave work . " O 'Reilly decried Lindwall 's workload as excessive and potentially harmful to his longevity . However , against the run of play , Bedser was out caught and bowled by Johnson after almost three hours of batting , ending a 155 @-@ run stand for the third wicket . His on @-@ drive was intercepted by the bowler , who dived across the pitch to his right @-@ hand side to complete the catch . Bedser had struck eight fours and two sixes in a Test best of 79 . He appeared upset by his dismissal , patting the ball back to the bowler when he could have hit it decisively . Edrich attempted to pull a Johnson long hop to the leg side , targeting the large gap between square leg and mid @-@ on , but only ballooned the ball to Morris , who completed the catch diving forwards at wide mid @-@ on . This came after only three runs after Bedser 's dismissal and left the score at 426 / 4 . Edrich had batted for 314 minutes in compiling 111 , with 13 fours and a six .
With two new batsmen — Compton and Jack Crapp — at the crease , Australia quickly made further inroads . Toshack bowled Crapp for five with an inside @-@ edged half volley to leave England at 447 / 5 . With this , Bradman took the new ball , and Compton exploited its hardness to score quickly . However , after the shine wore off and the ball went soft , Compton could not score for 25 minutes . O 'Reilly decried Compton 's " helpless " effort in failing to dispatch the tired Australian bowling as " the worst Test innings I have seen him play " .
After Compton and captain Norman Yardley had added 26 for the sixth wicket , the former edged Lindwall down the leg side , and Saggers completed his first Test catch to leave England at 473 / 6 . O 'Reilly speculated that Compton 's inability to make progress against the bowling deflated his colleagues . Playing in his second Test of the summer , Loxton bowled Ken Cranston for 10 to claim his first Ashes wicket , leaving England at 486 / 7 . Cranston opted to not play at a ball that went straight into his leg stump . Loxton then removed Godfrey Evans and Jim Laker in quick succession as England fell to 496 / 9 . Evans fell meekly , prodding a ball straight to Hassett at silly mid @-@ on , prompting O 'Reilly to deem Loxton " lucky to be on deck when the English tail were falling over themselves in their nervous speed to commit hara @-@ kiri " . In contrast , Laker edged Loxton down the leg side and it took a diving , low catch from Saggers to complete the dismissal . Umpire Baldwin asked his colleague Chester at square leg to confirm the ball had carried on the full before sending Laker back to the pavilion . Miller then bowled Yardley to end England 's innings at 496 . The home side had batted for 192 @.@ 1 overs and lost their last eight wickets for the addition of 73 runs . Loxton took 3 / 55 while Lindwall and Johnson both took two apiece . However , the late wickets came at a cost for Australia , who lost the services of Toshack to a knee injury .
The collapse was heavily condemned . Fingleton said England " encountered something [ ascendancy over Australia ] which they had not known in post @-@ war cricket with Australia and did not know how to handle it " . O 'Reilly called the capitulation a " disgustingly bad show " . He asked what " was there to make bowlers ... pulverize the carefully chosen cream of English batting on a perfect wicket ? " before concluding that the collapse was caused by " an unfortunate absence of concentration " rather than the opposition bowling . Both thought England had wasted an opportunity to put themselves in an unassailable position .
With Barnes injured , Hassett moved up from the middle order to open the innings with Morris . Using the new ball , Bedser removed Morris , who chipped the ball in the air to Cranston at mid @-@ wicket and fell for six to leave Australia at 13 / 1 . This brought Bradman to the crease and he was mobbed by the spectators on a ground where he had scored two triple centuries in Tests in 1930 and 1934 . Many spectators surged onto the playing arena to greet Bradman , and he doffed his baggy green and raised his bat to acknowledge them . Fingleton wrote " on this field he [ Bradman ] has won his greatest honours ; nowhere else has he been so idolatrously acclaimed " .
Bradman got off the mark from his first ball , which Compton prevented from going for four with a diving stop near the boundary . Hassett was restrained while Bradman attacked , taking three fours from one Edrich over . Bradman was 31 and Hassett 13 as the tourists reached stumps at 63 / 1 . The Australian captain did the majority of the scoring in the late afternoon , adding 31 in a partnership of 50 . The tourists batted with little discomfort on a pitch that was still offering even bounce at a gentle pace .
= = 24 July : Day Three = =
On the third morning , play resumed under hot and humid conditions . There had been rain on the pitch at 07 : 00 , and Bradman resumed proceedings by taking a single from a Bedser no ball . In same over , one ball reared from the pitch and moved into Bradman , hitting him in the groin , causing a delay as he recovered from the pain and recomposed himself before play resumed . In the second over of the day , Pollard got the second ball to lift . Caught out by the unexpected bounce , Hassett was unable to get out of the way and edged the ball to Crapp in the slips for 13 . Miller came to the crease and drove his first ball for three runs , bringing Bradman on strike for the fourth ball of the over . Pollard then pitched a ball in the same place as he did to Hassett , but this time it skidded low off the pitch , deviated back in and knocked out Bradman 's off stump for 33 . According to O 'Reilly , Bradman backed away from the ball as it cut off the pitch with a noticeable flinch . O 'Reilly attributed Bradman 's unwillingness to get behind the ball to the blow inflicted on him by Bedser in the previous over and the rearing ball that dismissed Hassett .
Sensing the importance of the two quick wickets , in particular that of Bradman , who had been so productive at Headingley , the crowd erupted . Australia were struggling at 68 / 3 as Harvey , playing his first Ashes Test and the youngest member of the squad at the age of 19 , walked out bareheaded to join Miller at the crease . The tourists were more than 400 behind , and another wicket would expose the lower order and give England the opportunity to take a large first innings lead . Harvey told his senior partner " What 's going on out here , eh ? Let 's get stuck into ' em " . He got off the mark by forcing the ball behind point .
The pair launched a counterattack , Miller taking the lead . He hoisted off spinner Laker 's first ball over the square leg fence for six . Miller shielded Harvey from Laker , as his younger partner was struggling against the off breaks that were turning away from him , including one that spun and bounced sharply to beating the outside edge . Miller drilled one off @-@ drive off Laker for four , and after mis @-@ hitting the next , much to the amusement of the crowd , hit the off spinner flat over his head , almost for six into the sightscreen . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , and Harvey joined the fightback in the next over , hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker , the second of which almost cleared the playing area . He struck another boundary to reach 44 , while Miller 's score stayed on 42 . After half an hour of play , the early morning life in the pitch appeared to have died out .
Miller then lifted Laker for another six over long off , hitting a spectator in the head . The English captain , noted for his ability to break partnerships with his occasional bowling , brought himself on . Miller responded by striking a four over long on from Yardley 's bowling to reach 54 . He drove the next ball through cover for four . The English skipper responded by stacking the leg side with outfielders and bowled outside leg stump , challenging Miller to attempt another hit for six . Yardley bowled a half @-@ volley outside leg stump and the batsman obliged , but edged the ball off the back of his bat onto wicket @-@ keeper Evans ' head and was caught by a forward @-@ diving Edrich at short fine leg .
The partnership had yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes , and was likened by Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack to a " hurricane " . Fingleton said he had never " known a more enjoyable hour " of " delectable cricket " . He acclaimed Miller 's innings as " one of the rarest gems in the Test collection of all time " and " a moment to live in the cricket memory " . O 'Reilly said Miller and Harvey had counter @-@ attacked with " such joyful abandon that it would have been difficult , if not absolutely impossible , to gather from their methods of going about it that they were actually retrieving a tremendously difficult situation " . The crowd was in raptures at both the batting and Edrich 's catch . Arlott said " two of the greatest innings of all Test cricket were being played " , and praised Miller for elevating " cricket to a point of aesthetic beauty " .
Loxton came in to join Harvey at 189 / 4 , who continued attacking , unperturbed by Miller 's departure . Cranston came on and Harvey square drove and then hooked to deep square leg for two consecutive boundaries . Yardley moved a man from fine leg to the location where the previous hook had gone ; Harvey responded by glancing a ball to where the fine leg fielder had been , collecting three more runs . Australia thus went to lunch at 204 / 4 , with Harvey on 70 .
After lunch , Australia scored slowly as Loxton struggled to find his fluency against the bowling . Yardley took the new ball in an attempt to trouble the batsmen with extra pace , but instead , Loxton began to settle in . The Australian lofted Pollard to the leg side , almost for six , and hit three fours off a subsequent Pollard over . Harvey accelerated as well , and 80 minutes into the middle session , reached his century to a loud reception as Australia passed 250 . He had taken 177 minutes and hit 14 fours . Loxton then dominated the scoring in a display of power hitting . He brought up his 50 by hitting Cranston into the pavilion for six , eliciting spontaneous applause from the English players . The century stand yielded 105 runs in only 95 minutes . Harvey was out for 112 from 183 balls , bowled by Laker while playing a cross @-@ batted sweep . His shot selection prompted Bradman to throw his head back in disappointment . Nevertheless , it was an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket , and Harvey 's fast scoring helped to wrest the match back from England 's firm control . O 'Reilly said the innings was one of " no inhibitions ... completely unspoiled by any preconceived plan to eliminate any particular shot " . He added that it was " the very mirror of truth in the batting art " , " delightfully untrammeled by the scourage of good advice or any other handicapping influence " , and deemed Harvey 's innings to be most pleasing he had seen since Stan McCabe 's 232 at Trent Bridge in 1938 .
Harvey 's departure at 294 / 5 brought the first of the bowlers , Johnson , to the crease . This did not deter Loxton , who was particularly severe on Laker , lifting the off spinner for four more sixes , two over the leg side followed by consecutive off drives into the gallery . On each occasion , umpire Chester walked to the edge of the playing field and tried to inspect where the ball landed amongst the crowd , trying to see if the point of impact was beyond the original playing arena . They were ruled as sixes in any case and some thought Chester 's actions to be more for theatrical than umpiring purposes . Laker refused to be deterred by the aggressive batting and continued to bowl normally by pursuing defensive off or leg theory . Johnson scored 10 before falling with the score at 329 / 6 , hitting Laker to Cranston .
Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall replaced Johnson at the crease . Fifteen runs later , Yardley bowled Loxton for 93 , who appeared disappointed at playing such a wild cross @-@ batted swing with a maiden Test century beckoning . Saggers came in and only managed five in his first Test innings before being stumped after being lured out of his crease by Laker , who was still bowling in an attacking manner and flighting his deliveries , undeterred by the sixes Loxton had hit from him , rather than bowling leg theory . This left Australia at 355 / 8 ten minutes before tea , with only Johnston and Toshack remaining .
Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 in an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively . He particularly liked to use his feet to get to the ball on the half @-@ volley so he could hit lofted drives . Of the 103 added for the last two wickets , Johnston and Toshack managed only 25 between them . Johnston accompanied Lindwall for 80 minutes , before Toshack lasted the last 50 minutes until stumps , with Johnston as his runner . Australia were 457 / 9 at stumps , with Lindwall on 76 and Toshack on 12 . During Lindwall 's partnership with Johnston , Yardley bowled himself for over an hour , failing to bring on a frontline bowler in his stead despite being unable to dislodge the batsmen . Lindwall farmed the strike by trying to hit boundaries and twos during the over , but Yardley did not resort to the tactic of setting a deep field to yield a single to Lindwall to get the tailenders on strike . Despite Toshack and Johnston 's lack of familiarity with having and acting as a runner respectively , and the resulting disorders in running between the wickets , Lindwall was able to manipulate the strike so he faced most of the balls . Lindwall 's partners were able to survive against the English pacemen , leading O 'Reilly to lament the absence of leg spinner Doug Wright , whose guile and flight was held in high regard by the Australians . O 'Reilly thought Yardley may have bowled himself in an attempt to contain the Australians rather than dismiss them before the close of play , so his openers would not have to bat for a short period before stumps when the visitors ' attack could have made inroads . However , Yardley was neither able to contain nor dismiss the Australian tail .
= = 26 July : Day Four = =
Sunday was a rest day , and the match resumed on Monday morning . In the third over of the day , Lindwall was the last man out at 458 , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Bradman 's men had added only one run to its overnight score of 457 / 9 . Bedser took the final wicket as Lindwall edged , and Crapp took the catch low down in the slips with his left hand . Bedser ended with 3 / 92 and Laker 3 / 113 , while Pollard and Yardley ended with two wickets each . England 's use of Cranston as an all rounder had not been successful ; he conceded almost four runs per over without taking a wicket . Although England only had a slight lead , Australia had the disadvantage of being a bowler short due to Toshack 's injury . This meant Johnston and Johnson among the slower bowlers were left to exploit the wearing pitch .
For the remainder of the fourth day , England set about extending their lead . Early in the innings , the capacity crowd encroached substantially onto the ground and the umpires spent eight minutes trying to force them back to the edge of the official playing area , but they again spilled over . Initially , Hutton and Washbrook played cautiously to see off the new ball before trying to lift the run rate . Lindwall 's first two overs were maidens , but Hutton and Washbrook scored 21 runs from his next five overs , while taking only five from Miller 's six overs . The English batsmen attacked the bowling and reinforced their aggressive strokeplay with quick running . England reached lunch at 72 / 0 with Hutton on 40 and Washbrook on 28 . Washbrook was particularly confident and Bradman decided to not risk Johnson in the morning session .
The afternoon session continued with further spectator encroachments . After lunch , Bradman set defensive fields with the intent of restricting the scoring , and used his remaining bowlers in short spells to conserve their energy , expecting a long day in the field . The absence of Toshack also meant Loxton had a substantial workload with the ball . The English batsmen continued to accelerate , and when Bradman finally brought Johnson into the attack , they targeted him . Washbrook hit a straight six from Johnson , and Hutton followed suit to take England from 98 to 104 . For the second time in the match , the English openers had put on a century stand , and the shot also brought up Hutton 's 50 in 125 minutes . This feat made Hutton and Washbrook the first pair to make century opening partnerships in both innings of a Test on two occasions ; they had done this for the first time against Australia in the Fourth Test at the Adelaide Oval in 1946 – 47 . Bradman replaced Johnson with Lindwall immediately , and Washbrook responded by cutting the paceman for four to reach his half @-@ century . Lindwall responded with two bouncers . Washbrook then hooked one a short ball from Johnston and got a top edge , but Bradman failed to take the catch .
Washbrook then attempted another hook from Johnston towards deep square leg . Connecting with the middle of the bat , he imparted much power on the ball , which flew flat and never went more than six metres above the ground . Harvey quickly moved in across the outfield from the square leg fence and bent over to catch the ball at his ankles while still on the run . Fingleton called it " the catch of the season — or , indeed , would have been had Harvey not turned on several magnificent aerial performances down at The Oval [ in an earlier match against Surrey ] " . O 'Reilly doubted " whether any other player on either side could have made the distance to get to the ball , let alone make a neat catch of it " . He further said the " hook was a beauty and the catch was a classic " .
Johnson then removed Hutton for 57 without further addition to the total , caught by Bradman on the run , leaving England at 129 / 2 . The Yorkshire batsman went for a lofted shot and mistimed it high in the air after being beaten in flight , and the Australian captain ran backwards from mid @-@ on to complete the catch . This meant the two new batsmen at the crease , Edrich and Compton , were still yet to score , and the second new ball was only six overs away , so they had to preserve their wickets while conditions were at their most favourable for Australia 's fast bowlers . During a slow period in which only 15 runs came in half an hour , Edrich and Compton were pinned down by defensive field settings with no slips in place . After 45 minutes , Compton premeditated a charge down the pitch and hit Johnson to the leg side for a boundary . The pair accelerated , Compton taking risks in cutting Johnson against the spin . Australia took the new ball and each batsman hit a boundary to bring up the fifty partnership , which took an hour . Worried by the substantial and hazardous craters he and the other bowlers had created in the pitch while following through on the left @-@ hand side of the crease , Lindwall changed to bowling from around the wicket and was warned by umpire Baldwin for running on the pitch , before reverting to over the wicket , although he delivered from the edge of the crease to avoid the holes . O 'Reilly said Baldwin 's warning to Lindwall had played into Australia 's hands as the bowler 's follow through from around the wicket was accentuating a rough patch outside the right @-@ hander 's off stump , which the English bowlers could target when Bradman 's men had to chase the target . Compton then hit boundaries with hooks and pulls from Lindwall and Johnston and England went to tea at 209 / 2 . Compton was on 42 and Edrich 33 .
After the interval , Bradman continued with his strategy of rotating his bowlers in short spells , and set a defensive , well @-@ spread field for Johnson 's bowling . Edrich hit three consecutive boundaries from Johnson before lofting a fourth ball into the crowd for six . He then passed his half @-@ century — his fourth consecutive Test score in excess of 50 — before Lindwall trapped him lbw for 51 to leave England at 232 / 3 , ending a third @-@ wicket partnership of 103 . Crapp came in and added 18 before he was bowled by Lindwall , inside edging an attempted forcing stroke through the off side from the back foot . This left England at 260 / 4 , and precipitated a mini @-@ collapse . Yardley deliberately lifted Lindwall over the vacant slips region and reached seven before he fell to Johnston , caught by a leaping Harvey while attempting a lofted shot . Johnston then had Cranston caught behind for a duck with only a further run added to leave England at 278 / 6 , a lead of 316 . Evans came in and edged his first ball through the slips at a catchable height for four . Compton drove Lindwall for a boundary but then fell to Johnston for 66 , caught by Miller at cover . England were 293 / 7 with no recognised batsmen remaining , having lost 4 / 33 . Wicket @-@ keeper Evans was joined by Bedser , and the pair added 37 before Miller removed the latter . Laker came in and helped Evans to add a further 32 as England reached 362 / 8 at the close of the fourth day . Evans — mainly through boundaries — had helped England to add 69 runs in the last 45 minutes of play .
= = 27 July : Day Five = =
England batted on for five minutes during the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 365 / 8 , with Evans unbeaten on 47 . Johnston had the pick of the bowling figures , with 4 / 95 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller at the start of the morning , which would help break up the wicket and make it more likely to spin . Bradman had done a similar thing during the previous Ashes series in Australia before setting England a target . The hosts needed to beat Australia to avoid a series defeat . Bradman elected to not have the pitch rolled at all , demonstrating his opinion that such a device would make the surface less favourable for batting .
The declaration left Australia with a victory target of 404 runs . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , and the local press wrote them off , predicting their dismissal by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket expected to favour the spinners . In addition , most of the Australian onlookers present at the ground thought their team had no chance of victory . Morris and Hassett started slowly , making only six runs in the first six overs on a pitch offering spin and bounce . It appeared they were playing carefully at first before deciding whether to try to achieve the target at a later point . In Bedser 's second over , the third of the innings , Morris chipped the ball in the air towards mid @-@ wicket , in a similar manner to his first innings dismissal , but this time the ball evaded Cranston . After 15 minutes Australia had only scored 10 runs .
After Bedser had bowled three overs , Yardley introduced Laker in his place in the seventh over to exploit the spin . An attacking field , with two slips and a gully , was put in a place , but Laker bowled inaccurately and the Australian openers took 13 runs from his first over . Hassett hit a four and took a single to give Morris the strike . Morris hit a four , was beaten by a bouncing ball that hurried off the pitch and then hit another boundary . Despite this over , only 44 runs came in the first hour , meaning that 360 runs were needed in 285 minutes . After his poor first over , Laker had settled down and conceded only two runs from his next six overs . The frustrated crowd heckled the Australian openers for their slow scoring and Morris was ironically applauded after taking a single . Evans then missed a leg @-@ side stumping opportunity against Hassett , and Bedser beat each of the Australians with extra bounce . During his early spell , Laker " was getting at least one ball every over to turn considerably " .
Noting Laker 's ability to extract substantial turn from the pitch , Yardley brought on the part @-@ time left @-@ arm unorthodox spin of Compton , who bowled inaccurately although with some turn . Morris struck two fours in Compton 's first over to register Australia 's 50 in 64 minutes . Compton 's next over was more potent ; he deceived Morris , who danced down the pitch and missed the ball , but Evans fumbled the stumping opportunity . At the time , Morris was on 32 and Australia at 55 / 0 . Laker beat Morris in the next over with an off break that spun a foot , and in the succeeding over , Hassett was dismissed by Compton with the score at 57 . Compton had caught Hassett 's leading edge and dived forward in his follow through to catch the ball one @-@ handed just above the ground .
Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes . After receiving another rapturous welcome from the Headingley spectators in his last innings at the ground , the Australian captain signalled his intentions by hitting a boundary from Compton and another off the first ball he faced from Laker , cover driving against the spin . Bradman reached 12 in six minutes .
Yardley then called upon the occasional leg spin of Hutton in an attempt to exploit the turning wicket . The latter had taken only four wickets in the 1947 English season and had never dismissed an Australian batsman in ten Tests against such opponents . As Australia were still behind the required run rate , Yardley could afford to take risks and sacrifice some runs if he got wickets in return . Morris promptly joined Bradman in the counter @-@ attack , hitting three consecutive fours from Hutton 's first over , which Fingleton described as " rather terrible " due to the errant length . This over took Morris to 51 . After an economical over from Compton , Bradman took two fours off Hutton 's next over before almost holing out to Yardley . Despite the near miss , the 20 runs from Hutton 's two inaccurate overs had allowed Australia to reach 96 / 1 from 90 minutes .
In the next over , Compton bowled a googly to deceive Bradman , who expected the ball to turn in . However , it went the other way , took the outside edge and ran away past slip for four . Bradman leg glanced the next ball for another boundary , before again failing to read a googly on the third ball of the over . This time the edge went to Crapp , who failed to hold on to the catch . The sixth ball of Compton 's over beat Bradman and hit him on the pads . Compton had control of Bradman for the over , but went unrewarded . At the other end , Morris continued to plunder Hutton 's inaccurate leg breaks , and Australia reached lunch at 121 / 1 , with Morris on 63 and Bradman on 35 . Hutton had conceded 30 runs in four overs , and in the half hour preceding the interval , Australia had added 64 runs . Both Morris and Bradman had been given lives . Although Australia had scored at a reasonable rate , they had also been troubled by many of the deliveries and were expected to face further difficulty if they were to avoid defeat .
Upon resumption , Compton continued as Yardley attempted to exploit the turning wicket . However , Compton was not a regular bowler and he sent down a series of ill @-@ directed full tosses and long hops that were easily dispatched for runs . Morris struck seven fours in two overs of what Fingleton called " indescribably bad bowling " . This included six fours in eight balls . As Morris continued to attack , Compton began to crack under the pressure and his inaccuracy increased . The part @-@ time bowler had generated trouble for the batsmen by tossing the ball up and beating the bat or inducing edges , but Morris counterattacked with drives . Compton tried to hold back his length to avoid being driven but the Australian opener pounced on the shorter balls . Morris reached the 90s just 14 minutes after the interval and hit another boundary to reach his century in a little over two hours . Morris had added 37 runs since lunch , mainly from Compton 's wayward offerings , while Bradman had only added three .
The onslaught prompted Yardley to take the new ball and replace Compton with his pacemen . Bradman reached 50 in 60 minutes and then aimed a drive from Cranston 's bowling , but sliced it in the air to point . Yardley dived forward and got his hands to the ball , but failed to hold on . Australia reached 202 — halfway to the required total — with 165 minutes left , after Morris dispatched consecutive full tosses from Laker . England began to become demoralised and their fielding continued to deteriorate . Bradman hooked two boundaries , but suffered a fibrositis attack , which put him in significant pain . Drinks were taken while Bradman was being treated , and Morris had to shield his captain from the strike until the pain had subsided . Australia reached 250 shortly before tea with Morris on 133 and Bradman on 92 . Bradman then reached his century in 147 minutes as the second @-@ wicket stand passed 200 .
Morris was given another life on 136 when Laker dropped him while fielding at square leg from Compton 's bowling . Bradman was given another life at 108 when he advanced two metres down the pitch to Laker and missed , but Evans fumbled the stumping opportunity with the batsman far out of his ground . Australia reached tea at 292 / 1 with Morris on 150 . The pair had added 171 during the session . Morris was eventually dismissed by Yardley for 182 , after hitting a tired @-@ looking shot to mid @-@ off , having partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes . He struck 33 fours in a 290 @-@ minute innings . This brought Miller to the crease with 46 runs still required . Miller struck two boundaries and helped take the score to 396 before falling lbw to Cranston with eight runs still needed . Harvey came in and got off the mark with a boundary that brought up the winning runs . Australia had won by seven wickets , setting a new world record for the highest successful Test runchase , with Bradman unbeaten on 173 in only 255 minutes of batting with 29 fours .
The attendance of 158 @,@ 000 was the highest for any cricket match on English soil and the takings were 34 @,@ 000 pounds . The crowd remains a record for a Test in England .
= = Aftermath = =
After the Fourth Test , the Australians had five tour matches before the final Test . They defeated Derbyshire by an innings , before having a washout against Glamorgan . The Australians then defeated Warwickshire by nine wickets , before drawing with Lancashire , who hung on with three wickets in hand on the final day . This was followed by a two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , which was drawn after rain washed out the second day . During this period , Barnes returned to action after recuperating from his rib injury . Toshack also recovered to play against Lancashire , but injured himself again and was ruled out of the remainder of the tour .
Following Australia 's unlikely win at Headingley , the England selectors were widely condemned for their failure to choose a specialist wrist spinner to exploit the turning pitch . This was cited as a reason for the hosts ' loss , as the part @-@ timer Compton was able to trouble the batsmen and generate opportunities for wickets , only to see them foregone because of missed catches and stumpings . In response , the English selectors made four changes to the team for the Fifth Test , one of these being the inclusion of leg spinner Eric Hollies . Their frequent changes to the team meant the hosts used a total of 21 players for the five Tests , and the repeated changes to personnel resulted in heavy criticism .
Despite Hollies being able to trouble most of their batsmen , Australia completed the Test series with a convincing innings victory in the Fifth Test to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match , and Australia only had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the tour undefeated . They secured three consecutive innings victories against Kent , the Gentlemen of England and Somerset . They proceeded to take first innings leads of more than 200 against the South of England and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , but both matches were washed out . The last two matches were two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland , both won by an innings . Bradman 's men thus completed the tour undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
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= Childers Incident =
The Childers Incident of 2 January 1793 marked the opening shots between British and French forces during the French Revolutionary Wars , the first phase of a 23 @-@ year @-@ long war between the two countries . Following the French Revolution of 1789 , diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the French Republic had steadily deteriorated and France was in political and social turmoil . One of the strongest hotbeds of republican activity was the principal Atlantic naval base of the French Navy at Brest in Brittany , the scene of a significant mutiny in 1790 .
On 2 January a small British warship , the 14 @-@ gun brig HMS Childers under Commander Robert Barlow , was ordered to enter the Roadstead of Brest to reconnoitre the state of readiness of the French fleet . As Childers entered the Goulet de Brest , the vessel came under fire from French batteries flying the tricolour . Although Barlow clearly identified his brig as a neutral British vessel the fire continued until he was able to withdraw . Although Childers had been struck by a 48 lb ( 22 kg ) cannonball , none of the crew were wounded . The incident was of itself inconsequential , with minimal damage and no casualties on either side , but it marked a symbolic moment in the deterioration of relations between Britain and France in the approach to war , which broke out on 1 February 1793 .
= = Background = =
Following the French Revolution of 1789 relations between the newly declared French Republic and its European neighbours sharply deteriorated . In April 1791 , the Declaration of Pillnitz was jointly issued by the Austria and Prussia stating their support for King Louis XVI . In February 1792 Austria and Prussia formally allied and the French Legislative Assembly responded on 20 April 1792 by declaring war on Austria . This first conflict , known as the War of the First Coalition , began on land as other than France the principal European seapowers remained neutral . The arrest of the French king in August 1792 and the expansion of the war into Northern Italy brought about the start of the naval war in the Mediterranean Sea .
Britain had remained neutral throughout the first stages of the war . Although unsympathetic to the violence and upheaval of the French Revolution , Britain 's Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was unwilling to go to war alongside the absolutist monarchies of Eastern Europe . Nevertheless , the Royal Navy had made extensive preparations for war should it occur , starting with the Spanish Armament of 1790 . The French Atlantic Fleet however was in poor condition : the principal fleet base at Brest in Brittany had been the scene of a significant mutiny in 1790 and by 1791 desertion rates among French naval officers were running at more than 80 % . Despite its strong republican politics and command difficulties , the fleet itself was very strong , having been expanded and improved during the 1780s – indeed the tax rises to pay for the French Navy had been one of the causes of the original Revolution in 1789 .
= = Childers incident = =
The strength of the French Atlantic fleet was a major cause of concern to the British Admiralty , and in late 1792 orders were issued for the small British brig , the 14 @-@ gun HMS Childers under Commander Robert Barlow , to enter the Roadstead of Brest and investigate the state of readiness of the French fleet .
On 2 January 1793 , Childers was approaching the entrance to the roadstead under overcast skies and with a light , unreliable breeze . The only entrance to Brest harbour is through a narrow waterway known as the Goulet de Brest . The Goulet lies between the Pointe du Petit Minou and the Pointe du Portzic on the north shore and the îlot des Capucins and the Pointe des Espagnols on the Roscanvel peninsula to the south . Due to its importance as the entrance to Brest , the shores of the Goulet were heavily fortified . As Childers entered the Goulet one of the forts covering the entrance from the southern shore fired a shot at a distance of 0 @.@ 75 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 39 km ) which passed over the brig into the sea beyond .
Assuming this warning shot had been fired in the belief that his brig , which was not flying a flag , may be an enemy vessel , Barlow ordered the British naval ensign and the pennant of the Channel Fleet run up . Thus clearly identified as a neutral British warship , Barlow allowed Childers to drift closer inshore with the tide . The French battery responded by raising tricolour flags and red pennants , a move copied by the other batteries covering the Goulet . Having drifted much closer to two batteries Childers suddenly came under heavy fire , the batteries containing very large 48 @-@ pounder cannon .
Under fire and with the wind too calm for sailing , Barlow ran out oars to try and pull his brig away from the French batteries . The diminutive size of his vessel made it a difficult target and he was soon able to take advantage of a fresh breeze to withdraw from the crossfire . A single shot struck the brig , smashing into one of the 4 @-@ pounder cannon on deck and breaking it into three pieces , although none of the crew were wounded by the strike .
= = Aftermath = =
Having successfully withdrawn Childers from danger , Barlow returned to Britain on 4 January after battling a strong gale in the Channel . Anchoring at the small Cornish port of Fowey , Barlow took an express coach directly to the Admiralty in London , arriving on 11 January carrying the 48 lb ( 22 kg ) cannonball as evidence of the incident and what British historian William James called the " strong spirit of hostility on the part of the new republic " . Historian Edward Pelham Brenton , writing in 1825 , noted however that French hostility on this occasion was justified , commenting that " in the then troubled state of Europe Childers and her captain had no business to be prying into the equipments at Brest within gunshot of the forts : if we had seen a French vessel of war running from the Needles to St Helens , and making observations , I suspect we should , at such a crisis , have taken the liberty to bring her to action . "
On 24 January the French ambassador was expelled in response to the execution of Louis XVI in Paris on 21 January and on 1 February the National Convention declared war on Great Britain . The naval campaign in the Atlantic began in earnest in March 1793 , when a French battle squadron briefly put to sea before a mutiny forced it to return . The war between Britain and France begun in the Goulet on 2 January 1793 was to last , with a 14 @-@ month break in 1802 – 1803 , until 1815 .
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= AMX @-@ 30 =
The AMX @-@ 30 is a main battle tank designed by GIAT and first delivered to the French Army in 1966 . The first five tanks were issued to the 501st Régiment de Chars de Combat ( Tank Regiment ) in August of that year . The production version of the AMX @-@ 30 weighed 36 metric tons ( 40 short tons ) , and sacrificed protection for increased mobility . The French believed that it would have required too much armour to protect against the latest anti @-@ tank threats , thereby reducing the tank 's maneuverability . Protection , instead , was provided by the speed and the compact dimensions of the vehicle , including a height of 2 @.@ 28 metres . It had a 105 mm gun , firing a then advanced high explosive anti @-@ tank warhead known as the Obus G. The Obus G used an outer shell , separated from the main charge by ball bearings , to allow the round to be spin stabilized by the gun without affecting the warhead inside . Mobility was provided by the 720 horsepower ( 540 kW ) HS @-@ 110 diesel engine , although the troublesome transmission adversely affected the tank 's performance .
In 1979 , due to issues caused by the transmission , the French Army began to modernize its fleet of tanks to AMX @-@ 30B2 standards , which included a new transmission , an improved engine and the introduction of a new fin @-@ stabilized kinetic energy penetrator . Production of the AMX @-@ 30 also extended to a number of variants , including the AMX @-@ 30D armored recovery vehicle , the AMX @-@ 30R anti @-@ aircraft gun system , a bridge @-@ layer , the Pluton tactical nuclear missile launcher and a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile launcher .
It was preceded by two post @-@ war French medium tank designs . The first , the ARL 44 , was an interim tank . Its replacement , the AMX 50 , was cancelled in the mid @-@ 1950s in favor of adopting the M47 Patton tank . In 1956 , the French government entered a cooperative development program with Germany and Italy in an effort to design a standardized tank . Although the three nations agreed to a series of specific characteristics that the new tank should have , and both France and Germany began work on distinctive prototypes with the intention of testing them and combining the best of both , the program failed as Germany decided not to adopt the new French 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) tank gun and France declared that it would postpone production until 1965 . As a result , both nations decided to adopt tanks based on their own prototypes . The German tank became known as the Leopard 1 , while the French prototype became the AMX @-@ 30 .
As early as 1969 , the AMX @-@ 30 and variants were ordered by Greece , soon followed by Spain . In the coming years , the AMX @-@ 30 would be exported to Saudi Arabia , Venezuela , Qatar , the United Arab Emirates , Cyprus and Chile . By the end of production , 3 @,@ 571 units of AMX @-@ 30s and its variants had been manufactured . Both Spain and Venezuela later began extensive modernization programs to extend the life of their vehicles and to bring their tanks up to more modern standards . In the 1991 Gulf War , AMX @-@ 30s were deployed by both the French and Qatari armies . Qatari AMX @-@ 30s saw action against Iraqi forces at the Battle of Khafji . However , France and most other nations replaced their AMX @-@ 30s with more up @-@ to @-@ date equipment by the end of the 20th century .
= = Background = =
Although the occupation of France during World War II temporarily interrupted French development of armoured fighting vehicles , clandestine research allowed the French to quickly recover lost ground after its liberation in mid @-@ 1944 . During the occupation , the French had secretly worked on an armour program that was , in 1944 , taken over by the state workshop Atelier de Construction de Rueil ( ARL ) , resulting in the design and production of the ARL 44 , which began production in 1946 . The tank was powered by a Maybach HL @-@ 230 575 horsepower ( 429 kW ) engine , and armed with a 90 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) tank gun . Although the 48 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 53 @-@ short @-@ ton ) vehicle was comparable to contemporary battle tanks in firepower and engine power , it suffered from distinct disadvantages , including an antiquated track design . While 600 were planned , only 60 were ultimately produced by 1950 . That year , these were issued to the French Army 's 503rd Tank Regiment . Given that the ARL 44 had been considered only a stop @-@ gap vehicle for the French Army 's armoured forces since inception , work on a new tank had begun as early as March 1945 .
Development of the new tank was offered to five separate manufacturers : Atelier de Construction d 'Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux ( AMX ) , Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée ( FCM ) , Renault , Societe Lorraine de Dietrich ( SLD @-@ Lorraine ) and Societé d 'Outillage Mécanique et d 'Usinage d 'Artillerie ( SOMUA ) . The new vehicle was based on the new post @-@ war requirement for a single battle tank . The new vehicle was designated the AMX 50 . Its hull and suspension were similar to that of the German Panther tank , which had been used by the French Army in the immediate post @-@ war . The French government 's specifications for the new tank were strongly influenced by both the Panther tank and the heavier Tiger I ; specifically , the French Army was looking for a tank with the protection of the former and the firepower of the latter . Although the design borrowed from German tanks , including the Maybach 1 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 750 kW ) engine , based on an earlier model , and the torsion bar sprung road wheels , the AMX 50 also included a number of unique features . For example , it included an oscillating turret , mounted on trunnions , which was the first of its kind . The oscillating turret consisted of two parts , one of which was mounted on the trunnions of the lower part , attached to the turret ring . The main gun was attached to the upper part , facilitating gun elevation and depression , as well as simplifying the fire control equipment and the installation of the automatic loading system . Of the three contractors , Renault withdrew from the program , while in early 1946 the French government selected AMX and SOMUA to continue the development . The prototypes were designated M4s , and AMX completed its prototype in 1949 , while SOMUA would not be finished until 1956 . AMX 's first prototype was armed with a 90 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) cannon , although a second prototype was fitted with a larger 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun in July 1950 Although it was intended to put the AMX 50 into production as the standard medium tank of the Western European Union , financial reasons and the arrival of military aid from the United States in the form of 856 M47 Patton tanks caused the original program to be abandoned . In 1951 it was decided to turn the program into a heavy tank project with an even larger 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) tank gun ; though three prototypes were built , this too was abandoned in 1956 , mainly due to a failure to design a powerful enough engine .
With the demise of the 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) AMX 50 program in 1951 , France temporarily officially abandoned the thought of producing a medium tank . It was expected that West Germany would soon be allowed to rearm , and the Germans had appeared to entertain the concept of equipping their forces with a host of low @-@ cost light , but relatively powerfully armed tanks , their quantity compensating for a lack of full armament parity with the latest medium tanks . The prospect of delivering many thousands of these to the Germans induced the French to adopt the idea and plan to create light tank " Type 67 " armoured divisions , for which the AMX @-@ 13 / 105 was specially designed . A private enterprise design aimed at fulfilling the same requirement was the somewhat larger Char Batignolles @-@ Châtillon . A derived medium tank prototype of the latter , made in 1955 , proved that it was possible to produce a tank with a first @-@ rate gun and frontally protected with 80 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) steel equivalence within a weight constraint of 30 metric tons ( 33 short tons ) . This revived interest in the medium tank concept .
In 1956 , the WEU defence workgroup FINBEL ( named after France , Italy , Netherlands , Belgium and Luxembourg ) , founded in 1953 and consisting of representatives of the various General Staffs , drafted a set of specifications for a new medium tank to eventually replace their American and British tanks . That same year , Germany joined the workgroup , turning it into FINABEL ( the added " A " standing for Allemagne , " Germany " in French ) and on 27 October 1956 at Colomb @-@ Béchar a bilateral agreement was concluded between France and Germany to collaborate in building a tank . Though the other FINABEL nations did not formally participate , the type was called Europa @-@ Panzer to indicate its common European nature , and experts from all countries were involved in the design process . The specifications ( FINABEL 3A5 ) for the new tank called for a lightweight and mobile battle tank , setting the weight limit to 30 metric tons ( 33 short tons ) and compromising the ability to heavily armour the vehicle . French and German engineers , during a conference in Bonn on 12 February 1957 , defined the requirements for the future tank . This included a maximum width of 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 @.@ 3 ft ) , a height of 2 @.@ 15 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) and a 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) tank gun , to be developed by the Franco @-@ German military research institute at Saint Louis . The new tank would have an air @-@ cooled , petrol engine , a torsion bar suspension with hydraulic shocks , a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of at least 30 horsepower ( 22 kW ) / metric ton and a road range of at least 350 kilometres ( 220 mi ) . In May , Italy joined the project , though only nominally , without any material contribution , because after the war it had no tank design bureaus . That same year , on 28 November , the French and German ministries of defence in Paris agreed upon a contract which would allow both countries to produce two prototypes separately . The next year , however , the project suffered a first setback when Charles de Gaulle took power in France , creating the Fifth Republic : the Paris treaty had as its main point developing a common nuclear weapon and on 17 June 1958 de Gaulle decided to refuse Germany and Italy the atomic bomb , to avoid antagonizing the USA and United Kingdom . This made Germany lose much interest in a common tank project also .
The French prototypes were developed and produced by the Atelier de Construction d 'Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux , under the direction of General Joseph Molinié of the Direction des Études et Fabrications d 'Armements ( DEFA , the later Direction Technique des Armements Terrestres ) and AMX head engineer Heissler , The first prototype was completed in September 1960 and tested from February 1961 ; the second , with an improved range finder and track was tested in July 1961 . These first vehicles had a very rounded turret , in a deliberate imitation of the Soviet T @-@ 54 , and Sofam petrol engines . Another seven , with an improved sleeker turret cast , were manufactured between 1961 and 1963 . Work on the German prototypes was carried out by two teams , including Team A composed of Porsche , Maschinenbau Kiel , Luther & Jordan and Jung @-@ Jungenthal . Team B was made up by Ruhrstahl , Rheinstahl @-@ HANOMAG and Henschel . Wood mock @-@ ups were completed in 1959 , while the first two prototypes were finished by 1961 ( completed by Team A ) .
= = Development history = =
De Gaulle decided that France , though formally remaining a member , would no longer participate in the NATO military organization . This caused a rift between France and West Germany , which then started to emphasize standardization with American equipment , especially in armament , and to follow the new NATO policy to use multifuel diesel engines . German defence minister Franz Josef Strauss began to oppose the common tank project . In July 1963 , the defence committee of the German Bundesrat decided to procure a purely national tank . In response , the same month the French government decided likewise .
Comparative trials were nevertheless held at Mailly @-@ le @-@ Camp , Meppen , Bourges and Satory between five French and five German prototypes between August and October 1963 , under Italian , Dutch , Belgian and American supervision . The French type had received a separate national designation : AMX 30 . The trials indicated that the German type , on 1 October also getting its own name Leopard , had a better mobility and acceleration . The French government decided that it could not procure a new tank until 1965 , while the Germans refused to adopt the Franco @-@ German 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) tank gun , in lieu of the British Royal Ordnance L7 , of which they had already ordered 1 @,@ 500 in the autumn of 1962 , their plan having failed for Rheinmetall to produce in Germany a common type of munition of sufficient quality . Suggestions to save the project by combining the French turret with the German chassis failed . As a result , the program was cancelled and the French and Germans definitely decided to adopt their two separate tanks .
The prototypes of the AMX @-@ 30 weighed 32 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 35 @.@ 8 short tons ) , and were compact , with a width of 3 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 ft ) , comparable only to the Swiss Panzer 61 , and a height of 2 @.@ 28 meters ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) , comparable only to the Soviet T @-@ 55 . In contrast to the AMX 50 , the AMX @-@ 30 was issued a conventional turret , because it was found that it was more difficult to seal oscillating turrets from radioactive dust and against water when the tank was submerged . Oscillating turrets also had a large ballistic weakness in the area of the skirt and turret ring . Originally , the first two prototypes were powered by a 720 horsepower ( 540 kW ) spark ignition engine , named the SOFAM 12 GSds . Later , a multi @-@ fuel diesel engine was adopted , developed by Hispano @-@ Suiza . The seven 1963 prototypes of the AMX @-@ 30 were later rebuilt with the new diesel engine . Two further prototypes , meant to be direct preproduction vehicles , were delivered in November 1965 . Besides the diesel engines , they had changed hull and turret casts and different gun mantlets ; the latter would again be changed in the production vehicles .
The first production versions of the AMX @-@ 30 , named AMX 30B to distinguish them from the AMX 30A prototypes , were completed in June 1966 , manufactured with a welded and cast hull and a fully cast turret . The production version of the tank had a combat weight of 36 metric tons ( 40 short tons ) . The AMX @-@ 30 's survivability was based on its mobility ; French engineers believed that the tank 's mobility would have been compromised had they added enough steel plating to protect against modern anti @-@ tank threats , including high explosive anti @-@ tank warheads ( HEAT ) . As a result , the type had the thinnest armour of any main battle tank produced at the time . The turret has a maximum armour thickness of 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , the armour sloped at 70 degrees on the front plate and 23 degrees on the side , offering protection against 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) armour piercing projectiles . The Line @-@ of @-@ Sight armour values are : 79 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) for the front of the hull ; 59 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 3 in ) for the forward sides of the hull ; 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) for the rear sides and rear of the hull ; 15 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) for the hull top and bottom ; 80 @.@ 8 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 18 in ) for the turret front ; 41 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 63 in ) for the turret sides ; 50 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) for the turret rear and 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) for the turret top . Further protection is offered by a nuclear , biological and chemical protection suit , including a ventilation system .
One of the unique features of the AMX @-@ 30 was the Obus à Charge Creuse de 105 mm Modèle F1 ( Obus G ) HEAT projectile and its main gun , the Modèle F1 , a monoblock steel 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) cannon . HEAT warheads suffer when spin stabilized , a product of rifled barrels , causing the French to develop the Obus G , ( Gresse ) . This projectile was composed of two major parts , including the outer shell and a suspended inner shell , divided by ball bearings . This allowed the projectile to be spin @-@ stabilized , and therefore more accurate than a normal fin @-@ stabilized HEAT @-@ round , while the inner shell did not move , allowing the warhead to work at maximum efficiency . The warhead , containing 780 gram hexolite , could penetrate up to 400 millimeters ( 16 in ) of steel armour and was effective against tanks at up to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) . As it combined a good accuracy with a penetration that was independent of range , it has been considered an " ideal round " for its day The AMX @-@ 30 was also designed to fire the OCC F1 Mle.60 high explosive projectile , the SCC F1 training warhead and the OFUM PH @-@ 105 F1 smoke round . The main gun was coupled with a 380 @-@ millimeter ( 15 in ) recoil brake , which had a maximum extension of 400 millimeters ( 16 in ) , and could depress to − 8 degrees or elevate to 20 degrees . The turret 's firepower was augmented by a coaxial 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) M2 Browning machine gun . The tank commander also made use of a 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine gun on the turret roof . The vehicle carried 50 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) projectiles , 748 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) rounds and 2 @,@ 050 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) bullets . The tank commander was issued a cupola which offered ten all @-@ around direct @-@ vision episcopes , and a binocular telescope with 10x magnification . The commander was also given an optical full @-@ field coincidence range finder . The gunner was given a telescoping gun sight and two observation periscopes .
The production version of the AMX @-@ 30 was fitted with Hispano @-@ Suiza 's HS @-@ 110 diesel engine , located in the rear of the hull . The 28 @.@ 8 liters ( 1 @,@ 760 cu in ) engine could be replaced on the field in 45 minutes , and produced 720 horsepower ( 540 kW ) , offering the tank a maximum velocity of 65 kilometers per hour ( 40 mph ) on roads . The fuel efficient engine , in conjunction with a total fuel capacity of 970 liters ( 260 U.S. gal ) , gave the AMX @-@ 30 a maximum road range of up to 600 kilometers ( 370 mi ) . The engine 's drive is taken through a Gravina G.H.B.200C twin @-@ plate centrifugal clutch . The gearbox was an AMX 5 @-@ SD @-@ 200D , with five forward gears and five reverse gears . This transmission was heavily influenced by that of the German Panther tank and was based on a project which had begun in 1938 . The transmission was one of the AMX @-@ 30 's major faults and caused a variety of mechanical problems , including that the driver would have to manually change gears at specific times , even if the tank was moving over rough terrain . The tank 's weight is distributed over five double , aluminum @-@ alloy , rubber @-@ tyred road wheels on either side , propelled on 570 @-@ millimeter ( 22 in ) wide tracks . The tank could ford 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 1 @.@ 4 yd ) deep water obstacles without preparation , up to 2 meters ( 2 @.@ 2 yd ) with minor preparation , and up to 4 meters ( 4 @.@ 4 yd ) with full preparation . Full preparation for water operations consisted of the addition of a snorkel tube , the installation of blanking plates , carried on the front of the hull , over the engine compartment 's air intake louvers , and the installment of infra @-@ red driving equipment , including a searchlight . In 1969 a single special dive training vehicle was adapted , nicknamed the AMX 30 Gloutte ( from French faire glouglou , " gurgle " ) , without engine and tracks , that over a ramp could quickly be lowered into a reservoir by a winch ; it was equipped with an escape tube .
= = = Modernization = = =
During the production run , many improvements were implemented . These included gun stabilization from 1971 , and from 1972 replacing the original coaxial heavy machine gun with a dual purpose 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) autocannon against light armour and helicopters , with the ability to depress to − 8 degrees and elevate to 40 degrees . All French army vehicles were eventually brought to this newer standard ; the designation remained AMX 30B .
Beginning as early as 1973 , only seven years after the beginning of production , the French began a research program for a future modification of the tank . The project was to result in a AMX 30 Valorisé ( " upgraded AMX @-@ 30 " ) . In June 1979 , the French Army decided to both build new and modernize existing AMX @-@ 30s with an improved fire control system and a new transmission , and designated them AMX @-@ 30B2s . The first new production vehicles were taken into service in January 1982 . Improvements to the COTAC APX M @-@ 508 fire control system included the installation of a laser rangefinder and a low @-@ light TV ( LLTV ) . The main gun 's lethality was improved with the introduction of a new armour piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot ( APFSDS ) . The original engine was exchanged for an improved variant , known as the HS @-@ 110 @.@ 2 , producing 680 horsepower ( 510 kW ) . The poor transmission was replaced with the semi @-@ automatic SESM ENC200 transmission ( now RENK France ) , with a torque converter . The suspension was improved by adopting new torsion bars and shocks , which increased the vertical deflection range of the road wheels , thereby improving the tank 's off @-@ road mobility . From 1998 , the French army started to replace the engines of its remaining AMX @-@ 30 tanks and variants with 500 Renault Mack E9 750 hp engines .
In the nineties , a reactive armour package , named BRENUS or Brennus , was developed for the AMX @-@ 30B2 , but was issued only to two tank regiments , which in peacetime were combined into the 1er / 2e Chasseurs , that were part of France 's rapid reaction force ; the other two regiments using the AMX @-@ 30 , the 2e / 5e Dragons , only had their tanks adapted for a possible relatively quick upgrade , in case of an emergency . The BRENUS system used 112 GIAT BS ( Brique de Surblindage ) G2 explosive reactive boxes with a total weight of 1 @.@ 7 metric tons ( 1 @.@ 9 short tons ) , offering a protection equivalent to 400 millimeters ( 16 in ) of steel at 60 ° . Recently , the AMX @-@ 30 has also been used as a testbed for several stealth technologies , including air cooling of hull surfaces and the use of visual camouflage . This prototype is known as the Démonstrateur Furtif à Chenille . Its hull and turret are fully covered by a superstructure built of angled plates made of radar absorbent material .
= = = Comparison to contemporary tanks = = =
= = Variants = =
The AMX @-@ 30 has a number of different variations , including a number of other armoured vehicles based on the same chassis . A simplified version of the tank , without the infra @-@ red searchlight and periscopes and a less complex commander 's cupola was developed for export , known as the " basic AMX @-@ 30 " . This version also came devoid of the pressurized air filtering system , and moved the smaller 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) machine gun into the coaxial position and the larger 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) M2 to the turret roof . Another version was considered for the French Army , adopting a 142 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) tank gun able to fire the supersonic ACRA ( Anti @-@ Char Rapide Autopropulsé ) anti @-@ tank guided missile , as well as high explosive rounds . A prototype was finished in 1967 with a new cast turret , wide enough to hold the much larger armament . However , the high costs of the missiles forced the French Army to abandon the program in 1972 . The vehicles based on the chassis include an armoured recovery vehicle , a bridgelayer , a self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft vehicle , a tactical nuclear missile launcher and a self @-@ propelled artillery piece .
The armoured recovery vehicle , known as the AMX @-@ 30D ( AMX @-@ 30 Dépanneur @-@ Niveleur ) , was designed to recuperate or help maintain vehicles in the field . Work on the AMX @-@ 30D began in 1966 , as the French Army researched developing a recovery vehicle to be issued to units receiving the AMX @-@ 30 tank . A prototype was produced and delivered for experimentation in 1971 , and in February 1973 the first of a pre @-@ series of five vehicles was delivered . That same year , another 100 AMX @-@ 30Ds were ordered , and these began production in 1975 . The recovery vehicle includes a winch powered by the vehicle 's engine , with the ability to pull a maximum of 35 metric tons ( 39 short tons ) of weight . The vehicle also has a 80 @-@ meter ( 87 yd ) heavy towing cable , while an auxiliary winch has another 120 @-@ meter ( 130 yd ) towing cable , able to tow up to 20 metric tons ( 22 short tons ) when working over the front of the AMX @-@ 30D . In the latter case the vehicle must be supported by removable props , which are carried on the vehicle , and the bulldozer blade must be lowered on the ground . The crane can lift up the 3 @.@ 29 metric tons ( 3 @.@ 63 short tons ) power pack and the 10 metric tons ( 11 short tons ) turret . Instead of a turret , the AMX @-@ 30D is fitted with a superstructure , and weighs 36 metric tons ( 40 short tons ) , although with the extra power pack it can weigh up to 40 metric tons ( 44 short tons ) . The vehicle can protect itself with a 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) machine gun . The driver 's visibility is aided by the inclusion of three M @-@ 223 episcopes . The AMX @-@ 30D has a maximum on @-@ road velocity of 60 kilometers per hour ( 37 mph ) and a maximum road range of 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) .
The AMX @-@ 30 bridgelayer , or Poseur de pont , consists of the AMX @-@ 30 's chassis with a box @-@ like superstructure , supporting a scissor @-@ type folding bridge . The 22 @-@ meter ( 24 yd ) long bridge can span 20 @-@ meter ( 22 yd ) gaps . The bridge has a width of 3 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 @.@ 4 yd ) , but can be increased to 3 @.@ 95 meters ( 4 @.@ 32 yd ) through the use of appliqué panels . It can support weighs of up to 46 metric tons ( 51 short tons ) . Bridgelayer development began as early as 1963 , although it was not until June 1967 that development began on a prototype . Although a prototype designated AMX @-@ 30H was finished in 1968 , it was not until 1971 that the vehicle was evaluated . At the end of the evaluations in September 1971 , a pre @-@ series of five vehicles was ordered , resulting in a new period of evaluations beginning on 16 October 1972 . In 1975 , the AMX @-@ 30H was declared standard in the French Army , although none of these vehicles were ever ordered .
The self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft gun began development in 1969 to provide this type of vehicle to the French Army and for export . Although ultimately none were ordered for France , in 1975 Saudi Arabia ordered an improved version , denominated the AMX @-@ 30SA . Developed to defend against low @-@ altitude attacks , the system included two Hispano @-@ Suiza 30 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) 831 A automatic guns , coupled to an Oeil @-@ noir fire control system . This system had already been installed on the AMX @-@ 13 , in lieu of a heavier chassis , using a turret designated the S 401 A. Although this particular vehicle began production in 1962 , the appearance of the AMX @-@ 30 offered a larger chassis to which the S 401 A turret could be mounted on , providing superior mobility . The heavier AMX @-@ 30 also provided a more stable platform for the guns , and allowed the system to carry much more ammunition ( 1 @,@ 200 rounds , as compared to the 600 carried by the AMX @-@ 13 version ) . The guns were designed to fire in 5 @-@ round or 15 @-@ round bursts , with a cyclic rate of fire of 650 rounds per minute . They were controlled by an analogue computer , receiving information from a Doppler radar , which could be folded into an armoured box when not in use to protect from damage . The radar depended on visual tracking , and so could only work in clear weather .
Three missile systems were developed to be mounted on the AMX @-@ 30 chassis . Recognizing the need for tactical nuclear missile mobile launchers , the French Army began developing the Pluton missile in 1963 . In 1964 , the program was suspended and instead the French Army opted for a missile with a longer range , able to be mounted on the AMX @-@ 30 . A contract to develop the system was established in 1968 . The first prototype was soon delivered and testing occurred between July and August 1970 , followed by the production of a second prototype in 1971 . Two more prototypes were fabricated in 1972 . The next year , the vehicle was put into mass production and by 1 May 1974 four of these vehicles had been delivered to the 3rd Artillery Regiment . The missile itself weighs 2 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 6 short tons ) and is 7 @.@ 6 meters ( 8 @.@ 3 yd ) long . Using a simplified inertial guidance system and a solid propellant rocket motor , the Pluton has a maximum range of 120 kilometers ( 75 mi ) . The second missile system is the AMX @-@ 30R ( Roland ) surface @-@ to @-@ air missile launching system , which began development in 1974 . Five vehicles of a pre @-@ series were completed by 1977 and then evaluated , prompting the order of 183 vehicles that same year . The Roland includes a rectangular superstructure , taller than that of both the AMX @-@ 30D and the Pluton , which houses the radar system and mounts two launching tubes on either side , with an autoloading system feeding from an eight missile reserve inside the superstructure . The Roland 's exploration radar has a detection range of 16 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . The third missile system , called the AMX @-@ 30SA , was developed in 1975 for Saudi Arabia , to fire the SA @-@ 10 Shahine , developed and manufactured by Thomson @-@ CSF ; the launching vehicle was heavily based on the AMX @-@ 30R .
The canon automoteur de 155 GCT ( for Grande Cadence de Tir , fast rate of fire ) was developed based on the AMX @-@ 30 chassis to provide tactical artillery support to units in the French Army , who refer to it as the AuF1 . The 155 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) howitzer was 40 calibers long , and was autoloaded allowing it a rate of fire of eight rounds per minute , with a maximum range of 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) with the LU211 round . The turret enables the gun to have an elevation of up to 66 degrees , and allows it to traverse a full 360 degrees . The vehicle carries 42 rounds of ammunition , with combustible cartridge cases . The origins of the decision to design a self @-@ propelled howitzer can be traced back to 1969 , with the first prototype completed in 1972 . By 1979 , seven prototypes had been produced , and six pre @-@ series vehicles , followed by the production of 110 vehicles . This order was later increased to 190 .
The first prototype of an improved AMX @-@ 30 for the export market , known as the AMX @-@ 32 , was unveiled in June 1979 . Originally intended as an alternative for the AMX @-@ 30B2 , and deliberately imitating the spaced armour concept the Germans had successfully implemented on the Leopard 1A3 and A4 , the AMX @-@ 32 fielded greater armour protection to offer increased survivability against anti @-@ tank guided missiles . A 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) autocannon was included as the main gun 's coaxial weapon , and a 7 @.@ 62 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) machine gun attached to the roof . However , no orders were ever placed .
= = Production = =
AMX @-@ 30 production occurred at the Atelier de Construction de Roanne in the town of Roanne . This heavy manufacturing factory was built during World War I to produce artillery shells , although by 1952 the factory had begun producing armoured fighting vehicles . Before producing the AMX @-@ 30 , for example , it had made 1 @,@ 900 AMX @-@ 13s and variants . The Roanne factory was responsible for final assembly , most components were made elsewhere : the powerplant by the Atelier de Construction de Limoges , the full armour set by the Ateliers et Forges de la Loire , the turret by the Atelier de Construction de Tarbes , the cannon by the Atelier de Construction de Bourges , the cupola and machine @-@ gun by the Manufacture d 'Armes de Saint @-@ Étienne and the optics by the Atelier de Construction de Puteaux ; all these again used many subcontractors . In a series of corporate mergers under state guidance , most of these firms would eventually be concentrated into GIAT .
Originally , 300 AMX @-@ 30s were ordered by the French Army , and by 1971 the order had been increased to 900 , divided between eight batches , including all variants based on the chassis . Beginning in 1966 , ten AMX @-@ 30s were assembled per month , and the first five were issued in August 1966 to the 501st Régiment de Chars de Combat . Monthly production grew to 15 – 20 tanks as new factories began to manufacture components of the vehicle and existing factories increased their production potential . However , in April 1969 , production was again reduced to ten per month . By 1971 , about 180 vehicles were in service ; in 1975 delivery began of the last 143 units of the final eighth batch of the original order . In 1985 , the number of AMX @-@ 30s had risen to 1 @,@ 173 . By the end of production , France had accepted 1 @,@ 355 AMX @-@ 30s into service , including 166 brand @-@ new AMX @-@ 30B2s . Another 493 tanks were refitted and modernized to AMX @-@ 30B2 standards ; originally 271 new and 820 refitted vehicles had been planned . The French Army also accepted a large number of variants , including 195 self @-@ propelled howitzers , 44 AMX @-@ 30 Pluton tactical nuclear missile launchers , 183 AMX @-@ 30Rs , 134 AMX @-@ 30Ds and 48 engineer vehicles ( AMX @-@ 30EBG ) . The last 35 new battle tanks were in 1989 ordered by Cyprus and the last new variant vehicles , a batch of twenty GCTs , in 1994 by France .
In the late 1990s , the French Army began to accept the new Leclerc main battle tank to replace the antiquated AMX @-@ 30 . The first units to be outfitted with the new tank were the 501st and 503rd tank regiments , followed by the 6th and 12th Cuirassier Regiments .
= = Export = =
Having in February 1964 decided to produce its own battle tank , Israel at first considered licence production of AMX @-@ 30 hulls , while importing the turrets from France . Favoring heavier armour over mobility , Major @-@ General Israel Tal discontinued negotiations with France when the United Kingdom agreed to allow licensed production of the Chieftain tank , in 1966 .
France eventually also failed to obtain orders from the remaining two FINABEL nations , Belgium and the Netherlands : the Dutch did not even test the type and the Belgians ordered the Leopard when France refused to allow partial component production of the AMX @-@ 30 in Belgium , fearing it would increase the unit cost .
Less expensive and easier to maintain , the AMX @-@ 30 has been preferred over the Leopard 1 by less affluent or developed nations .
In 1969 , the Greek military junta agreed to procure a total of 190 AMX @-@ 30s and 14 AMX @-@ 30Ds , making Greece the first foreign nation to purchase the French tank . Throughout the 1960s , Spain had considered both the AMX @-@ 30 and the Leopard 1 to complement their existing fleet of M47 and M48 Patton tanks . Ultimately , Spain opted for the AMX @-@ 30 for a variety of reasons , including British unwillingness to sell the L7 tank gun to a fascist regime and the French offer to allow the AMX @-@ 30 to be manufactured in Spain . Spain ordered 19 tanks in 1970 , and later agreed to manufacture another 180 tanks in Spain . In 1979 , Spain began the production of a second batch of 100 tanks , completing a total of 299 AMX @-@ 30s issued to the Spanish Army ; these were designated AMX @-@ 30Es . Spain also procured 10 AMX @-@ 30Ds and 18 AMX @-@ 30Rs . As production of the AMX @-@ 30E ended in 1979 , the Spanish Army was already looking for a modernization program to improve the quality of the tank 's mobility . In 1987 , the Spanish Army began a six @-@ year modernization program which brought 150 tanks up to AMX @-@ 30EM2 standards and modified another 149 tanks to AMX @-@ 30EM1 standards . The former was a much more complete upgrade , which saw improvements to the tank 's mobility through the adoption of a new engine and gearbox , as well as to the tank 's firepower , with the development of a new kinetic energy penetrator and the introduction of a far more complex and accurate fire control system for the tank 's gunner , amongst other things . The AMX @-@ 30EM1 was termed a " reconstruction " and only saw improvements to the tank 's mobility by adopting a new transmission and renovating much of the vehicle 's worn out systems , such as the brakes , indicators and controls . These rebuilt AMX @-@ 30s were soon replaced by M60 Patton tanks procured from the United States in the early 1990s , while its fleet of AMX @-@ 30EM2s was later replaced by the B1 Centauro anti @-@ tank vehicle .
In 1972 , France was able to gain a contract with Saudi Arabia over the purchase of 190 AMX @-@ 30S ' , designed for the desert environment of the Middle Eastern nation . Named the Palmier Contract , Saudi Arabia 's tanks were delivered between 1973 and 1979 , while 59 AMX @-@ 30Ds were exported between 1975 and 1979 , 12 AMX @-@ 30Ps between 1977 and 1979 , and finally 51 self @-@ propelled howitzers , delivered between 1979 and 1980 . Between 1979 and 1981 , Saudi Arabia also received 52 AMX @-@ 30SAs and later 50 AMX @-@ 30C1 Shanine @-@ 2s delivered in two batches , between 1980 and 1989 . By the 21st century , 50 % of Saudi Arabia 's AMX @-@ 30 fleet were in storage , given that the AMX @-@ 30 lacked the capabilities to deal with more modern threats , such as against Iraqi T @-@ 62s and T @-@ 72s , and Israeli Merkava tanks . These were largely displaced by an order for 315 M1A2 Abrams tanks in 1989 , and the acquisition of 450 M60A3 Patton tanks . Although Saudi Arabia planned to procure more M1 tanks , it was unable to do so for financial reasons and the AMX @-@ 30 has still not been retired .
Venezuela originally placed an order for 142 tanks in 1972 , although this was later reduced to 82 and four AMX @-@ 30Ds . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Venezuela adopted a modernization plan for its deprecated AMX @-@ 30s , opting to replace the original engine with a new Continental AVDS @-@ 1790 @-@ 5A diesel engine , producing 908 horsepower ( 677 kW ) and exchanging the existing transmission with an Allison CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A . Venezuelan AMX @-@ 30s received new fuel tanks , increasing the tank 's road range to 720 kilometers ( 450 mi ) , while firepower was improved through the adoption of a modern Lansadot MkI fire control system and Ballistic computer from Elbit Systems . In 1977 , France and Qatar signed an agreement which garnered France another 24 AMX @-@ 30s sold , which would rise to 54 when Qatar ordered a further 30 AMX @-@ 30B2s in 1987 . The United Arab Emirates placed an order in 1977 for 64 tanks and a single armoured recovery vehicle , to complete an armoured brigade , in 1977 . Due to political issues between Chile and Argentina , the former placed an order for 46 tanks , although this was later cut short to 21 when the contract was canceled by the French government in 1981 . In 1982 , Cyprus acquired a total of 16 AMX @-@ 30B2s and a single AMX @-@ 30D , and later ordered another 36 AMX @-@ 30B2s . Total production of the AMX @-@ 30 and variants totaled 3 @,@ 571 units .
Later many used vehicles were resold to other nations : in 2005 Cyprus had 102 AMX @-@ 30s ( obtained from Greece ) and 52 AMX @-@ 30B2s ; Bosnia 32 AMX @-@ 30s ( from the UAE ) . French strength had dwindled to about 250 AMX @-@ 30B2s .
= = Combat history = =
Qatari AMX @-@ 30s saw combat during the Gulf War at the Battle of Khafji , where on 30 January 1991 they counter @-@ attacked in an attempt to retake the city of Khafji from Iraqi forces which had occupied it the night before . During the action , Qatari AMX @-@ 30s knocked out three Iraqi T @-@ 55s and captured four more . At least one Qatari AMX @-@ 30 was lost during the battle .
The French participation in the Gulf War , codenamed Opération Daguet , saw the deployment of the 6e Division Légère Blindée ( " 6th Light Armoured Division " ) , referred to for the duration of the conflict as the Division Daguet . Most of its armoured component was provided by the AMX @-@ 10RCs of the cavalry reconnaissance regiments , but a heavy armoured unit , the 4e Régiment de Dragons ( " 4th Dragoon Regiment " ) was also sent to the region with a complement of 44 AMX @-@ 30B2s . Experimentally , a new regimental organisational structure was used , with three squadrons of thirteen tanks , a command tank and six reserve vehicles , instead of the then normal strength of 52 units . Also six older AMX @-@ 30Bs were deployed , fitted with Soviet mine rollers provided by Germany from East German stocks , and named AMX 30 Demin . The vehicles were all manned by professional crews , without conscripts . The Daguet Division was positioned to the West of the Coalition forces , to protect the left flank of the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps . This disposition gave the French commander greater autonomy , and also lessened the likelihood of encountering Iraqi T @-@ 72s , which were superior both to the AMX @-@ 10RCs and the AMX @-@ 30B2s . With the beginning of the ground offensive of 24 February 1991 , French forces moved to attack its first target , " Objective Rochambeau " , which was defended by a brigade from the Iraqi 45th Infantry Division . A raid by Gazelle helicopters paved the way for an attack by the 4e Régiment de Dragons . Demoralized by heavy coalition bombardments , the Iraqi defenders rapidly surrendered . The following day , the 4e Dragons moved on to their next objective , " Chambord " , where they reported destroying ten tanks , three BMPs , fifteen trucks and five mortars with the assistance of USAF A @-@ 10s , and capturing numerous prisoners . The final objective was the As @-@ Salman air base ( " Objective White " ) , that was reported captured by 18 : 15 , after a multi @-@ pronged attack , with the 4e Dragons attacking from the South . In all , the AMX @-@ 30s fired 270 main gun rounds .
= = Operators = =
= = = Current operators = = =
Bosnia and Herzegovina 50 units
Cyprus 52 units plus 6 AMX @-@ 30D ARV 's
Nigeria 16 units
Qatar 30 units – to be replaced by Leopard 2
Tunisia ND units AMX @-@ 30S ( Ex.Saudi )
Venezuela 80 AMX @-@ 30V2 units from 82 AMX @-@ 30B purchased and 4 AMX @-@ 30D after upgrade ( status unknown )
United Arab Emirates 45 units ( stored )
= = = Former operators = = =
France
Iraq 5 AMX @-@ 30D delivered in 1981 , 85 AMX AuF1 delivered in 1983 / 1985 . No longer operational , and out of usage in the Iraqi Army
Saudi Arabia
Spain
Greece 190 units , some transferred to Cyprus
Chile
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= Music of Final Fantasy I and II =
The music of the video games Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu , who would go on to be the exclusive composer for the next seven Final Fantasy games . Although they were composed separately , music from the two games has only been released together . All Sounds of Final Fantasy I • II , a compilation of almost all of the music in the games , was released by DataM / Polystar in 1989 , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing in 1994 . Symphonic Suite Final Fantasy , an arranged album of music from the two games by Katsuhisa Hattori and his son Takayuki Hattori was released by DataM in 1989 , and re @-@ released by NTT Publishing / Polystar in 1994 . Final Fantasy & Final Fantasy II Original Soundtrack , another arranged album , this time by Nobuo Uematsu and Tsuyoshi Sekito , was released in 2002 by DigiCube and again in 2004 by Square Enix .
The music was well received by critics ; reviewers have praised the quality and power of the original pieces , and reacted favorably to the arranged soundtracks . Several tracks , especially " Opening Theme " , " Main Theme " and " Matoya 's Cave " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series , as well as having been published in arranged and compilation albums by Square Enix and outside groups .
= = Concept and creation = =
When Uematsu was working at a music rental shop in Tokyo , a woman working in the art department for Square , which would later become Square Enix , asked if he would be interested in creating music for some of the titles they were working on , and he agreed . Uematsu considered it a side job , and he did not believe it would become any sort of full @-@ time job . He said it was a way to make some money on the side , while also keeping his part @-@ time job at the music rental shop . Before joining Square , he composed music for television commercials . While working at Square , he met Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi , who asked him if he wanted to compose music for some of his games , which Uematsu agreed to . Sakaguchi gave him a few instructions , such as that the game needed a " battle " music and a " town " music , but left the remainder of the composing to Uematsu , aside from informing him of the specific technical limitations of the Famicom . Several pieces from Final Fantasy I and Final Fantasy II have been reused in different forms throughout the series , especially the " Prelude " , " Opening Theme " , " Battle " , " Victory " and " Chocobo " themes .
= = All Sounds of Final Fantasy I • II = =
All Sounds of Final Fantasy I • II is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy I and Final Fantasy II , composed , arranged , and performed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans 49 tracks and covers a duration of 62 : 32 . It was first released on February 28 , 1989 , by DataM / Polystar , and subsequently re @-@ released on March 25 , 1994 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number H25X @-@ 20015 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCR @-@ 5251 . Tracks 1 and 49 are arranged versions of tracks which appeared in both of the games , tracks 2 @-@ 21 are from Final Fantasy I , and 22 @-@ 47 are from Final Fantasy II . Track 48 , " Dungeon " , was composed for Final Fantasy II , but was not used in the game ; it was later used in Final Fantasy VI under the name " The Magic House " .
All Sounds of Final Fantasy I • II was moderately well received by critics such as Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan , who felt that it had " the same power today that it had 18 years ago " , although he also felt that it was much weaker than Uematsu 's later works with many of the themes " simplistic and undeveloped " . Patrick Gann of RPGFan , on the other hand , praised the album for what he considered to be good music and the rush of nostalgia it brought with it , and was especially pleased with the two arranged tracks . Aaron Lau of Soundtrack Central agreed with the sentiments expressed by Gann , and stated that the arranged tracks alone were worth buying the album for . Romil Balibalita of Soundtrack Central , however , felt that while the soundtrack was good , it was " only worth one or two listens " and recommended it for fans of the original versions of video game music . Nick of Square Enix Music Online said that the album was " an acquired taste " and recommended it primarily to fans of Nobuo Uematsu interested in his earlier work .
= = Symphonic Suite Final Fantasy = =
Symphonic Suite Final Fantasy is an arranged soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy I and Final Fantasy II , composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Katsuhisa Hattori and his son Takayuki Hattori , and performed by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra . It spans 7 tracks and covers a duration of 39 : 49 . It was first released on July 25 , 1989 , by DataM , and subsequently re @-@ released on March 25 , 1994 , by NTT Publishing / Polystar . The original release bears the catalog number H28X @-@ 10007 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCR @-@ 5253 . The music itself is a recording of a concert given by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra in the Gohanda temporary hall in Tokyo .
Symphonic Suite Final Fantasy was very well received by reviewers , with Patrick Gann saying that " the music itself is brilliant " and that " the arrangements are stunning " while remarking not only on the nostalgia inherent in the music but also the combination of the choir and orchestra . Other reviewers such as Chris and Simon from Square Enix Music Online agreed , terming the album " an orchestral masterpiece amassed with some of the best quality and most subtle attempts of arranging available in the Final Fantasy series ' discography " and " technically accomplished and on scale that was rarely done at the time of making " , respectively . Isaac Engelhorn of Soundtrack Central also enjoyed the album , calling it " wonderful " and his favorite Final Fantasy arranged album , although he did take issue with the length of the album , as well as the sound quality .
= = Final Fantasy & Final Fantasy II Original Soundtrack = =
Final Fantasy & Final Fantasy II Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of video game music from the PlayStation version of the games , Final Fantasy Origins . The soundtrack contains versions of the original game music arranged to take advantage of the PlayStation 's sound hardware . The tracks were composed by Nobuo Uematsu and arranged by Nobuo Uematsu and Tsuyoshi Sekito . It spans 65 tracks on two disks and covers a duration of 1 : 42 : 30 . It was first released on October 23 , 2002 , by DigiCube , and subsequently re @-@ released on September 23 , 2004 , by Square Enix . The original release bears the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10071 @-@ 2 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10032 @-@ 3 . The first disk contains music from Final Fantasy I by Nobuo Uematsu , while the second disk contains Final Fantasy II by Tsuyoshi Sekito .
Final Fantasy & Final Fantasy II Original Soundtrack reached # 87 on the Japan Oricon charts and was well received , with Luc of Square Enix Music Online approving of Tsuyoshi Sekito 's influence on the arrangements and recommending the album to hardcore fans of Final Fantasy .
Track list
= = Legacy = =
The Black Mages , a band led by Nobuo Uematsu that arranges music from Final Fantasy video games into a rock music style , have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy I. These are " Battle Scene " from the album The Black Mages , published in 2003 and " Matoya 's Cave " from the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 . They have also arranged a track from Final Fantasy II , " Battle Scene II " , in their The Black Mages album . Lyrical versions of " Matoya 's Cave " from Final Fantasy I and " Main Theme " from Final Fantasy II , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " Main Theme " from Final Fantasy I and " Finale " from Final Fantasy II , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
The music of Final Fantasy I and II has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the games . Additionally , several pieces from the games were performed as part of a medley by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , while a different medley of tunes from the two games were performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . " Main Theme " from Final Fantasy I was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 concert in Tokyo . A concerto suite of music from Final Fantasy I was performed on July 9 , 2011 at the Symphonic Odysseys concert , which commemorated the music of Uematsu . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy I and II music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
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= Blackout ( Britney Spears album ) =
Blackout is the fifth studio album by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was released on October 25 , 2007 , by JIVE Records and the Zomba Label Group . Opting to re @-@ establish her music career after her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) , she began planning the project in 2006 . Work continued into 2007 , during which time Spears ' much @-@ publicized personal struggles , including several instances of erratic behavior and her divorce from Kevin Federline , overshadowed her professional endeavors .
Blackout represents a musical departure from Spears ' earlier work , featuring a foreboding and atmospheric tone in terms of musical and lyrical direction . She collaborated with producers including Danja , Bloodshy & Avant , Sean Garrett , and The Neptunes in several recording studios around the United States , including Spears ' home in Los Angeles , with the intention of creating uptempo , high @-@ energy music . Their efforts resulted in a primarily electropop , dance @-@ pop , and R & B record , which sees additional influences from euro disco , dubstep , and funk . The lyrical themes revolve around fame , media scrutiny , sex , and clubbing .
Upon its release , Blackout received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who complimented it as Spears ' most progressive and consistent album . The Times named it as the fifth best pop album of the decade . In 2012 , the album was added to the library and archives of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
Blackout was originally scheduled to be released on November 13 in the United States , though it was ultimately rush @-@ released after several unauthorized internet leaks . It was expected to debut at number one on the US Billboard 200 , but debuted at number two with first @-@ week sales of 290 @,@ 000 copies after a last @-@ minute rule change . Consequently , Blackout is distinguished as Spears ' first studio album not to debut in the number @-@ one position in the United States , although it was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for exceeding one million shipments . The record charted in the top @-@ ten of several national charts internationally , and has attained several certifications worldwide . By the end of 2008 , Blackout had sold 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , although some sources claim between 3 @.@ 1 million – 3 @.@ 2 million .
Three singles were released from Blackout . Its lead single " Gimme More " peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and charted strongly internationally . Follow @-@ up singles " Piece of Me " and " Break the Ice " respectively peaked at numbers 18 and 43 in the United States , and experienced moderate success worldwide . Unlike her previous records , Spears did not heavily promote Blackout ; her only televised appearance for Blackout was a universally @-@ panned performance of " Gimme More " at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background and development = =
In November 2003 , while promoting her fourth studio album In the Zone , Spears told Entertainment Weekly that she was already writing songs for her next album and was also hoping to start her own record label in 2004 . Henrik Jonback confirmed that he had written songs with her during the European leg of The Onyx Hotel Tour , " in the bus and in her hotel room between the concerts . " Following her marriage with Kevin Federline in October 2004 , Spears announced through a letter on her official website that she was going to " take some time off to enjoy life . " However , on December 30 , 2004 , she made a surprise appearance at Los Angeles radio station KIIS @-@ FM to premiere a rough mix of a new midtempo track , " Mona Lisa " . Spears had recorded the song live with her band while on tour , and dedicated it to all the " legends and icons out there . " The lyrics lament the fall of Mona Lisa , calling her " unforgettable " and " unpredictable " , and cautions listeners not to have a " breakdown " . She also revealed she wanted the song to be the first single of her upcoming album , tentatively titled The Original Doll , and hoped to release it " probably before summertime [ 2005 ] , or maybe a little sooner than that . " In January 2005 , Spears posted another letter on her website , saying ,
I think I should rephrase myself from my previous letters when I was talking about taking a ' break ' . What I meant was I am taking a break from being told what to do . ... It 's cool when you look at someone and don 't know whether they are at work or play since it 's all the same to them . The things I 've been doing for work lately have been so much fun , because it 's not like work to me anymore . I 've been even more ' hands on ' in my management and the business side of things , and I feel more in control than ever .
A representative for JIVE Records stated that although Spears was working in the studio , " no album is scheduled at the moment " and " there are no plans to service ' Mona Lisa ' to radio . " " Mona Lisa " was released in a bonus CD included in the DVD of Britney & Kevin : Chaotic . ( 2005 ) . Spears gave birth to her first son , Sean Preston , on September 14 , 2005 . In an interview with People in February 2006 , Spears explained that she was anxious to resume her career , commenting she missed " traveling [ ... ] the road , seeing different places and being with the dancers and having fun . That feeling of being on the stage , knowing it 's your best – I love that . I needed a break . I needed to be hungry again . " When asked about her next album , she said she had been experimenting in her home studio with live musicians , stripping down her sound and playing the piano . Spears wanted the album to represent her Louisiana roots , explaining that she grew up listening to blues . " When I was little , I would listen to myself [ ... ] But the record label signs you , and you 're just thankful to get a hit song . You can 't really show off your voice and where you came from . I would like to try to have more influences of that sound . Not that I 'm going to be like frickin ' Tina Turner . But you never know " , she stated . She also said that she hoped the album would reinvigorate the current pop scene , adding that " It 's been boring . Nothing 's been wow to me . " On May 9 , 2006 , Spears announced she was pregnant with her second son . A few days later , producers such as J. R. Rotem and Sean Garrett told MTV News they were working with Spears . On September 12 , 2006 , Spears gave birth to her second child , Jayden James . She filed for divorce from Federline on November 7 , 2006 , citing irreconcilable differences . After the divorce , her partying and public behaviour drew attention from the worldwide media , and ended with two separate stints at rehab facility Promises in February 2007 . Her manager Larry Rudolph released a statement on March 20 , 2007 , saying that she " successfully complet [ ed ] their program . "
= = = The M + M 's Tour = = =
The M + M 's Tour was the fifth concert tour by Britney Spears . She started rehearsing for a show at House of Blues venues in secret , and pulled out of a surprise performance on April 25 , 2007 , at Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce . After a marquee reading " The M + M 's " at the House of Blues in San Diego , appeared in late April 2007 , media sources identified the act as Spears , and the show quickly sold out . The tour began in San Diego and marked the first time Spears performed live since The Onyx Hotel Tour in June 2004 . The show featured Spears accompanied by four female back @-@ up dancers performing shortened versions of five songs , including hits such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Toxic " . It displayed choreographed dance numbers and only one costume change . During the performance of " Breathe on Me " from In the Zone , a male audience member participated onstage . The opening performance received mixed reviews from critics . Some said that Spears looked happy and in great shape , while others deemed the show as subpar . Although seen as inferior to her previous efforts , it was a great experience for Spears , who seemed to love returning to stage in a simple setting . Scalpers outside the San Diego venue sold tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 .
= = Recording = =
Earnest recording of the album began in 2006 , according to a Spears ' representative . Spears first met Rotem in Las Vegas , Nevada in March 2006 , and enlisted him to work on the album after listening to Rihanna 's " SOS " . They wrote and recorded four songs together , including " Everybody " and " Who Can She Trust " . In July 2006 , she started working with Danja , who contacted songwriters such as Keri Hilson , Jim Beanz , Marcella Araica and Corte Ellis to work with him . The team wrote seven tracks for Spears : " Gimme More " , " Break the Ice " , " Get Naked ( I Got a Plan ) " , " Hot as Ice " , " Perfect Lover " , " Outta This World " and " Get Back " . Danja explained that the creative process was not difficult at first since he was " left to do pretty much whatever I wanted to " , and " if she felt it , she was gonna ride with it . If she didn 't , you ’ d see it in her face . " Hilson wrote " Gimme More " with Spears in mind after Danja played her the instrumental , saying , " I just started singing , ' Give me , Give me , ' and added a little more in and just having fun and messing around really . " Spears began recording with them at Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas in August 2006 , while she was seven months pregnant with Jayden James . Recording continued at Spears ' house in Los Angeles , three weeks after she gave birth . Hilson commented that " She gave 150 percent . [ ... ] I don ’ t know any other mother that would do that . " Danja added that despite all her problems in her personal life , " As far as her work ethic , I haven 't seen anybody come in like that and do what you go to do . " Regarding the sound of the album , He deemed it as bigger , more mature and " a new Britney " , explaining , " I come from hip @-@ hop , so it 's underlined with [ it ] , but I throw it down . "
Kara DioGuardi , co @-@ producer of " Heaven on Earth " and co @-@ writer and co @-@ producer of " Ooh Ooh Baby " worked with Spears while she was pregnant with her second child . DioGuardi said that Spears " worked really hard " and called her " unstoppable " . In September 2006 , Rotem told MTV News that him and Spears were trying to innovate the current sound of radio at the moment , exemplifying Nelly Furtado 's " Promiscuous " . In November 2006 , Spears recorded " Radar " with Ezekiel Lewis and Patrick M. Smith of The Clutch at Sony Music Studios in New York City . Lewis had wanted to work with her for a long time and was motivated to produce something for her that was going to " help her project become a great project to come back with " . Smith stated that the team tried to create a record " for the Britney Spears that we know and love " and that it did not " touch on anything that was really dealing with all the stuff that she was dealing with . " Both commented that although Spears arrived late to the recording sessions , she caught them off guard with her efficiency and professionalism , with Lewis adding , " It was absolutely nuts , and she took directions very well . [ ... ] I don ’ t know what I was expecting because we went in to cut that record the day after she filed divorce from Kevin . " T @-@ Pain , who co @-@ wrote " Hot as Ice " , was in the studio with Spears in February 2007 , and stated that one of the three songs they recorded was finished in only an hour . He said that he " thought she was going to be sitting on the couch eating Doritos or nachos or something [ ... ] but she came in , shook my hand , gave me a hug and went right in the booth . She got in there and put it down . "
" Heaven on Earth " was written by Nicole Morier , Nick Huntington and Michael McGroarty , the latter two known as Freescha . Although Morier had been writing songs with Greg Kurstin and other artists , she felt she " hadn 't really found [ her ] niche " until she wrote " Heaven on Earth " , which she described as " a very honest song " . After she played the song to her publisher , they met with Spears and her A & R Teresa LaBarbera @-@ Whites , who both loved it . Morier described " Heaven on Earth " as the song that transformed her career . Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg , known as Bloodshy & Avant , co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced four tracks : " Piece of Me " , " Radar " , " Freakshow " and " Toy Soldier " . When the album was considered to be finished , they were persuaded by LaBarbera Whites to work on a new track . Winnberg commented that it had always been " an unwritten rule " to not write songs about Spears ' personal life , since " Sweet Dreams My LA Ex " , an answer song to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , was rejected by her record label . However , the duo wrote " Piece of Me " with Klas Åhlund anyway as an answer to Spears ' critics , and sent it to the singer who " loved it " . Winnberg stated , " We knew that the song broke all the rules we had , [ ... ] When she came to the studio , she was extremely psyched , had learned the lyrics by heart in the car , and recorded the song on half an hour . " Before the album 's release , LaBarbera @-@ Whites told MTV News that the album " shows a lot of growth as a performer . [ ... ] She was very involved in the songs and how they turned out . It 's her magic that turns these songs into what they are . " Among the producers who worked on Blackout but did not make the album were Scott Storch , Dr. Luke and Ne @-@ Yo .
= = Composition = =
Danja stated that Spears ' objective was to make a fun , danceable album with uptempo , high @-@ energy music , saying , " She wanted to stay away from being personal . It 's fun , it 's basic and there 's nothing wrong with that . It 's about feeling good , celebrating womanhood . " The album opens with the first single " Gimme More " , an upbeat dance @-@ pop and electropop song with influences of disco and funk . The song opens with a spoken intro in which Spears says the line " It 's Britney , bitch " . The lyrics appears to be about dance and sex , although they are actually about the media 's fascination with her private life , as noted in the lines " Cameras are flashin ' while we 're dirty dancin ' / They keep watchin ' , keep watchin ' " . The next song and second single , " Piece of Me " runs through a down @-@ tempo dance beat and consists of over @-@ the @-@ top vocal distortions , causing a split sound effect and making it difficult to discern which voice is Spears ' . It talks about fame and is written like a biography retelling her mishaps , while she sings in a nearly spoken manner . The third track of the album , " Radar " , is an electropop and Euro disco song which features distorted synthesizers emulating sonar pulses , that received comparisons to those of Soft Cell 's " Tainted Love " ( 1981 ) . In the lyrics , Spears lets the subject know he is on her radar , while she lists the qualities the man has .
The fourth song and third single " Break the Ice " opens with Spears singing the lines " It 's been a while / I know I shouldn 't have kept you waiting / But I 'm here now " . The song features a choir and Keri Hilson singing background vocals sounding almost like a duet . Hilson explained the song is about " two people , a girl and a guy , [ ... ] and the girl is saying , ' You 're a little cold . Let me warm things up and break the ice . ' " After the chorus , the bridge begins with Spears saying " I like this part " mimicking Janet Jackson in " Nasty " ( 1986 ) . The album 's fifth track , " Heaven on Earth " , is a Euro disco love song with new wave influences . It is inspired by Donna Summer 's " I Feel Love " ( 1977 ) , with three vocal lines taking place over the beat . Nicole Morier commented that the song was written from a very dark place , saying , " I was thinking of someone and thinking they were so perfect and that I have all these imperfections . [ ... ] I think what 's touching about it is that it 's from the perspective of someone who feels like they really need this person just to feel safe and feel good . " Spears named the song her favorite from Blackout . The sixth track , " Get Naked ( I Got a Plan ) " is an uptempo R & B song about sex . It is constructed as a duet between Spears and Danja , who sings the chorus with his voice distorted to sound like a decaying moan . Spears contributes a series of gasps , sighs and chants and her voice is also distorted . The seventh track , " Freakshow " , is built around the ' wobbler ' effect of dubstep . Spears sings about dancing and being in the spotlight in lyrics such as " Make them other chicks so mad / I 'm ' bout to shake my ass / Watch that boy " . During the bridge , her vocals are pitched down low , making her sound masculine .
After " Freakshow " is Blackout 's eight track , " Toy Soldier " , an R & B song reminiscent of Destiny 's Child that showcases a military drumroll and Spears singing about needing a new lover . In " Hot as Ice " , an R & B song featuring background vocals by T @-@ Pain , she sings in a higher register , " I 'm just a girl with the ability to drive a man crazy / Make him call me ' mama , ' make him my new baby . " Blackout 's tenth track " Ooh Ooh Baby " contains a flamenco guitar and blends the beat from Gary Glitter 's " Rock and Roll " ( 1972 ) and the melody of The Turtles ' " Happy Together " ( 1967 ) . In the lyrics , she sings to a lover " Touch me and I come alive / I can feel you on my lips / I can feel you deep inside " . Kara DioGuardi said she was inspired by the relationship between Spears and her first son in the studio , saying , " I would look at the two of them , the way they looked at each other and the way she would hold the baby . It kind of struck me as interesting . At times it 'd be about a kid at times about a lover . " " Perfect Lover " an R & B song , has a propulsive , clattery belly @-@ dance beat in which Spears sings lyrics such as " Tick @-@ tock / Tick @-@ tock / Come and get me while I 'm hot " . The twelfth track is " Why Should I Be Sad " , a midtempo R & B song directed to her ex @-@ husband Kevin Federline . One of the bonus tracks , " Everybody " , samples Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " ( 1983 ) . It features Spears singing about the dancefloor in a breathy lower register .
= = Release and artwork = =
In June 2007 , Spears posted a message on her official website asking for assistance with a title for the album . Among the options were OMG Is Like Lindsay Lohan Like Okay Like , What If the Joke Is on You , Down Boy , Integrity and Dignity . On October 6 , 2007 , JIVE Records announced through a press release that the album would be titled Blackout , referring to " blocking out negativity and embracing life fully . " Blackout was set to be released on November 13 , 2007 . However , JIVE announced on October 10 , 2007 , that the release date would be moved up two weeks , to October 30 , 2007 , due to unauthorized leaks . The following day , Zomba Label Group filed a lawsuit against Perez Hilton claiming he illegally obtained and posted on his gossip blog at least ten songs and unfinished demos of the album . Zomba representatives alleged the posts had taken place over the course of the previous three months , and requested real and punitive damages as well as legal costs . On June 30 , 2009 , the parties submitted a stipulation to dismiss the case , pursuant to an undisclosed settlement agreement . The following month , The District Court judge dismissed the case , with prejudice .
The cover sleeve and images were shot by Ellen von Unwerth . The cover was released by JIVE Records on October 12 , 2007 . It features Spears sporting black hair and wearing a white fedora . A reviewer for the Ottawa Citizen felt the design was " horrendous " . The centerfold pictures feature Spears and a priest in suggestive poses in a confessional . The first image shows Spears , who wears a cross and fishnet stockings , sitting on the priest 's lap , while in the second one she leans suggestively against the confessional with the priest sitting on the other side of the partition . After the album was released , the Catholic League 's director of communications Kiera McCaffrey stated that the group considered the photos a " cheap publicity stunt " to promote the album and condemned Spears for " mocking a Catholic sacrament " . McCaffrey added , " All we see is how troubled this girl is now , especially with her family , losing her kids , with her career on a downward slide . And now she 's put out this album and this is her tactic to promote it ? " Gil Kaufman of MTV said that the images were reminiscent of Madonna 's music video for " Like a Prayer " ( 1989 ) . The booklet also contains pictures of empty chairs with ripped tabloid pages and still images from the music video for " Gimme More " . The album does not include a thank @-@ you list , unlike her previous albums .
= = Critical reception = =
Blackout received mixed to positive reviews from most music critics . The album holds a score of 61 out of 100 ( indicating " generally positive reviews " ) based on 24 critical reviews , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor of AllMusic , said the album " is state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art dance @-@ pop , a testament to skills of the producers and perhaps even Britney being somehow cognizant enough to realize she should hire the best , even if she 's not at her best . " A reviewer from Blender deemed it as " her most consistent [ album ] , a seamlessly entertaining collection of bright , brash electropop . " Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly commented that while the album is not poetry , " there is something delightfully escapist about Blackout , a perfectly serviceable dance album abundant in the kind of bouncy electro elements that buttressed her hottest hits . " A reviewer for NME said that the heavily treated vocals make Spears sound robotic , adding that " it could really do with a few more human touches . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Ewing called " Get Naked ( I Got a Plan ) " the centerpiece of the album , and added that " like most of Blackout , is superb modern pop , which could probably only have been released by this star at this moment . Britney as walking catastrophe makes for great car @-@ crash copy and her record can fit into that if you want it to . " Mike Schiller of PopMatters said that " Right down to its utterly garish cover , Blackout is utterly disposable and ultimately forgettable . " Melissa Maerz from Rolling Stone explained that Blackout " is the first time in her career that she 's voiced any real thoughts about her life " and that " she 's gonna crank the best pop booty jams until a social worker cuts off her supply of hits . " Rob Sheffield of the same magazine described Blackout as " one of the most influential albums in modern pop " .
Slant Magazine writer Sal Cinquemani compared the album unfavorably to In the Zone , saying that although Blackout " scores well , and its hotness quotient is remarkably high , [ it ] isn 't much of a step forward for Britney following 2003 's surprisingly strong In the Zone , for which she received a writing credit on a majority of the songs ( as opposed to a scant three here ) . " Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club said Blackout " counts both as a significant event and as a disquieting aberration that couldn 't be more mysteriously manufactured or bizarrely ill @-@ timed " in which " every song counts as markedly progressive and strange . " Alexis Petridis from The Guardian called it " a bold , exciting album : the question is whether anyone will be able to hear its contents over the deafening roar of tittle @-@ tattle . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said , " The electronic beats and bass lines are as thick as Ms. Spears 's voice is thin , and as the album title suggests , the general mood is bracingly unapologetic . " Peter Robinson of The Observer stated that Spears " delivered the best album of her career , raising the bar for modern pop music with an incendiary mix of Timbaland 's Shock Value and her own back catalogue . " The Phoenix 's Ellee Dean said the album " may be more a tribute to the skills of the A @-@ list producers who guided her through the disc than to any of her own talents . But at least she was smart enough to accept that guidance . " In his consumer guide for MSN Music , critic Robert Christgau gave the album a B + and said that " From ' Gimme More ' ' s ' It 's Britney bitch ' hiya to ' Piece of Me ' ' s single @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year sonics , from ' Ooh Ooh Baby ' ' s ' feel you deep inside ' to ' Perfect Lover ' ' s ' touch me there , ' this album is pure , juicy , plastic get @-@ naked . "
= = Commercial performance = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , Blackout sold 124 @,@ 000 copies during its first day of availability in the United States . Jessica Letkemann of Billboard compared the sales favorably to those of the number @-@ one album of the previous week , Carrie Underwood 's Carnival Ride , which sold 49 @,@ 000 copies . Letkemann also estimated that Blackout would possibly debut at the top of the Billboard 200 . On November 6 , 2007 , Billboard announced that even though The Eagles 's first @-@ week sales of Long Road Out of Eden had handily surpassed Spears , they would not debut at the top of the charts because of rules forbidding albums exclusively sold at one retail outlet ( Walmart in this case ) from entering the Billboard 200 . The magazine 's senior analyst and director of charts Geoff Mayfield explained he was frustrated by the situation , saying " I can believe the Eagles sold more , but I 'm not seeing anything that verifies for me that they outsold her and anything we see otherwise might be from people with a stake in suggesting that . " During the afternoon of the same day , Walmart issued a press release announcing that Long Road Out of Eden had sold 711 @,@ 000 copies . At night , it was announced through an article on Billboard.biz that after an agreement with Nielsen SoundScan , Billboard would allow exclusive album titles that were only available through one retailer to appear on the charts , effective that same week . Hence Long Road Out of Eden would top the Billboard 200 , while Blackout would debut at number two , with sales of 290 @,@ 000 copies . It became Spears ' first studio album to not debut at number one . The album , however , set the record as the biggest selling digital album debut by a female artist in one week at the time . Following the release of Circus in December 2008 , Blackout re @-@ entered the chart at number one @-@ hundred ninety eight , with sales of 4 @,@ 600 copies . As of March 2015 , the album has sold over 1 million copies in the United States .
In Canada , Blackout debuted atop of the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of 29 @,@ 000 units . It became her first number @-@ one album there since Britney in 2001 . It was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia and New Zealand , Blackout debuted at number three and eight in the official charts , respectively . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) indicating shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . Blackout debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart with sales of 42 @,@ 000 units , only behind Long Road Out of Eden . It stayed on the chart for twenty @-@ eight weeks . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , the album debuted at the top of the Irish charts , replacing Magic by Bruce Springsteen . Blackout also debuted at number @-@ one in the European Top 100 Albums , holding off Long Road Out of Eden and Eros Ramazzotti 's e ² from reaching the top of the chart . The album had consistent performance across the European region , hitting the top ten in ten markets , including debuting at number four in Switzerland , number six in Austria , Italy and Denmark , and number ten in Germany and Portugal . According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , the album was the thirty @-@ second best selling album of 2007 . By the end of 2008 , Blackout had sold 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
" Gimme More " was released as the album 's lead single . The song received mixed reviews from critics , who praised the music but some criticized Spears ' overly @-@ processed vocals . " Gimme More " peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her fifth top ten hit and also her second highest @-@ peaking single at the time . It also peaked at the top of the charts in Canada and reached top five positions in fourteen countries . The accompanying music video premiered on October 5 , 2007 . It displayed Spears as a stripper and featured a break from Spears ' highly choreographed music videos . It received mixed to negative reviews from critics , who panned Spears ' pole dancing as well as the lack of storyline .
" Piece of Me " was released as the second single from the album . Critics gave the song positive reviews , praising its production and defiant lyrics , while citing it as one of the highlights from Blackout . Rolling Stone ranked the song at number fifteen on their list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . It peaked at number one in Ireland and reached top ten positions in Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , Finland , New Zealand , Sweden and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it became the second single from the album to have peaked at the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart . The music video , directed by Wayne Isham , portrayed Spears ' life at the time and showed her with her friends disguising themselves in order to confuse the paparazzi . Isham 's concept was to have Spears confidently parodying her situation . It received mixed reviews from critics , most arguing her body was digitally altered . The video was nominated in three categories at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards and won all of them , including Video of the Year .
" Break the Ice " was released as the third and final single from Blackout . It received positive reviews from music critics , who deemed it as a strong electronic track of the album . The song was a moderate success , reaching the top ten in Belgium , Canada , Finland , Ireland and Sweden and charting within the top forty in Australia , New Zealand and many European countries . In the United States , the song reached number forty @-@ three on Billboard Hot 100 , while peaking at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . An accompanying music video , directed by Robert Hales , was released on March 12 , 2008 . The anime video was based on the superheroine character of Spears ' " Toxic " music video , and portrays her destroying a highly secured laboratory with several clones , including one of herself . " Radar " was originally planned to be released as the third single from Blackout , according to Ezekiel Lewis of The Clutch . " Break the Ice " was released instead and " Radar " was chosen as the fourth single . However , the release was scrapped when Spears began recording new material for her sixth studio album , Circus . It was later released as the fourth single and a bonus track from that album .
= = Promotion = =
After days of media speculation , it was confirmed on September 6 , 2007 that Spears would open the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at the Pearl Theatre in the Palms Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas on September 9 , 2007 . It was also announced that she was going to perform " Gimme More " , with a magic act from illusionist Criss Angel in some parts of the performance . However , the bit is thought to have been rejected by the show 's organisers at the last minute . The performance began with Spears lip synching the first lines of Elvis Presley 's 1958 song " Trouble " . " Gimme More " began , and the camera panned out to reveal Spears wearing a black , jewel @-@ encrusted bikini and black boots . She was accompanied by male and female dancers dressed in black outfits . Several pole dancers danced in smaller stages around the audience . The performance was universally panned by critics . Jeff Leeds of The New York Times said that " no one was prepared for Sunday night 's fiasco , in which a listless Ms. Spears teetered through her dance steps and mouthed only occasional words in a wan attempt to lip @-@ synch her new single " . Vinay Menon of the Toronto Star commented Spears " looked hopelessly dazed . She was wearing the expression of somebody who had been deposited at the Palms Casino Resort by a tornado , one that promptly twisted away , taking her clothing and sense of purpose . [ ... ] [ She was ] lumbering , in slow motion , as if somebody had poured cement into her streetwalker boots " . David Willis of BBC stated her performance would " go down in the history books as being one of the worst to grace the MTV Awards " .
Unlike Spears ' previous albums , Blackout was not heavily promoted through magazine interviews , talk @-@ show appearances or televised performances besides the performance at the Video Music Awards and was not accompanied by a tour either . On November 27 , 2007 , MTV launched the contest " Britney Spears Wants a Piece of You " , in which fans could direct a separate video for " Piece of Me " , using footage of interviews and performances from Spears . Using the MTV Video Remixer , fans could mix and create a mash up of the footage . The winning video premiered on TRL on December 20 , 2007 , and MTV , JIVE Records and Spears herself picked the winner . The winner also received a Haier Ibiza Rhapsody device along with a one @-@ year subscription to Rhapsody , as well as Spears ' entire discography released in the United States .
= = Legacy = =
When Blackout was released , Spears ' behaviour in public began to clash with her image . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that Spears was an artist that always relied on her " carefully sculpted sexpot @-@ next @-@ door persona " , but for Blackout " those images [ we ] re replaced by images of Britney beating cars up with umbrellas , wiping her greasy fingers on designer dresses , and nodding off on @-@ stage , each new disaster stripping away any residual sexiness in her public image . " Erlewine added that the album served as a soundtrack " for Britney 's hazy , drunken days , reflecting the excess that 's splashed all over the tabloids " , while noting that the album had a coherence that the public Spears lacked . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said Spears became a spectral presence in her own album , explaining that when compared to her previous records , " [ she ] cuts a startlingly low profile on Blackout [ ... ] Even when she was being marketed as a clean @-@ cut ex @-@ Mouseketeer , and even when she was touring the country with a microphone that functioned largely as a prop , something about her was intense . " Tom Ewing of Pitchfork Media compared the relationship between Spears and Blackout with American television series Twin Peaks , saying that what made the show " so great wasn 't the central good @-@ girl @-@ gone @-@ bad story , it was the strangeness that story liberated . And Britney 's off @-@ disc life is both distraction from and enabler for this extraordinary album " .
Critics also referred to the high expectations of the album 's direction and quality . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian elaborated that when faced with a public image in freefall , an artist has two options : making music " that harks back to your golden , pre @-@ tailspin days " to " underlin [ e ] your complete normality " or " to throw caution to the wind : given your waning fortunes , what 's the harm in taking a few musical risks ? " Petridis commented that Spears opted for the latter and the results were " largely fantastic . " Ewing said that " eleven successive tracks of hard , defiant , envelope @-@ pushing dance @-@ pop " may have been what he expected from Spears , but " on paper and on precedent you might have expected an apologetic ballad or two ; a song about her kids , maybe ; a high @-@ profile guest star , [ ... ] You don 't get any of those things and I 'd like to think Britney had the sense to avoid them herself . " Ewing noted that after " Freakshow " leaked online , a dubstep forum thread on the song hit seven pages in 24 hours , generating mixed reactions and exemplifying that " it still seems [ that ] when the mainstream borrows underground music , [ it ] brings it into the wider pop vocabulary . " He also attributed the quality of every track of Blackout to economic reasons , since one of the main causes album sales began to suffer during the digital era is due to the " unbundling " of albums in online stores – making it easier for consumers to buy some tracks rather than the entire album . Ewing explained that " The Revolver blueprint for pop albums – every track good , every track a potential hit – makes more sense than ever . Especially if a star can keep sonically up @-@ to @-@ date in a fast @-@ moving market . "
Reviewers noted the use of Auto @-@ Tune in Spears ' voice . Ewing said that Blackout serves as a reminder of how instantly recognizable Spears ' vocals are , saying that " treated or untreated : her thin Southern huskiness is one of the defining sounds of 00s pop . " He noted that the album " is a masterclass in autotune and vocal treatment as a studio instrument , disrupting and jamming the songs as much as it helps them . " While reviewing Spears ' demo of " Telephone " , Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone compared it to " Piece of Me " , " proving yet again how much impact Britney has had on the sonics of current pop . People love to make fun of Britney , and why not , but if ' Telephone ' proves anything , it 's that Blackout may be the most influential pop album of the past five years . " In June 2012 , " Blackout " was added to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's musical library and archive .
= = Accolades = =
Blackout was ranked by Rolling Stone at number fifty on their list of the 100 Best Albums of 2007 . The album topped Billboard 's Reader 's Choice poll as the best album of the year . Spears won by 37 % of the votes , and over 16 @,@ 000 votes were cast . Blackout won International Album of the Year at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards , and Album of the Year at the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards . The Times named it as the fifth best pop album of the decade . The album also appeared on Rolling Stone 's end of the decade poll , where it was voted the seventh best album of the decade by readers . On their ranking of the best albums from the 2000s ( decade ) , Stylus Magazine included " Blackout " at number 54 . The album also appeared on The Guardian writers ' favourite albums ever list .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
^ c signifies a remixer
^ d signifies an additional producer
" Everybody " contains a sample from " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " , as written by Annie Lennox and Dave Stewart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Blackout adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Joe Wilson ( Australian footballer ) =
Joseph Francis " Joe " Wilson ( 27 September 1870 – 7 December 1912 ) was an Australian sportsman who was prominent during the late 19th century . Originally from Launceston , Tasmania , he was educated at Launceston Grammar School and played Australian rules football and cricket for the school 's firsts aged only 15 . In addition to his school sports , Wilson played football for the Launceston Football Club in the Northern Tasmanian Football Association ( NTFA ) and cricket for several senior Launceston clubs . He established himself as one of Launceston 's best all @-@ round sportsmen by the time he completed high school ; he was a prominent member of Launceston Football Club 's consecutive NTFA premiership teams of 1888 and 1889 , and he regularly represented Northern Tasmania in cricket and football .
Wilson moved to Melbourne in 1890 after being offered a banking job on the condition he play for the Melbourne Football Club , which competed in the Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) , and the Melbourne Cricket Club ( MCC ) . He played for the cricket club for four seasons , but was never consistently selected in the first XI . Wilson 's most notable performances for the MCC were the final match of the 1892 – 93 season when he was part of a last @-@ wicket partnership that secured the premiership for Melbourne and a match against a touring English XI where he took the wickets of three Test cricketers .
As a footballer , Wilson was known for his marking and versatility — he was as a utility who could be positioned as a forward , defender or follower . He quickly established himself as one of Melbourne 's best players and represented Victoria in his second season with the club . Melbourne had been one of the weaker sides in the competition when he joined , but the recruitment of Wilson and several other prominent players began to steadily turn the club around . By the mid @-@ 1890s , Melbourne was a regular contender for the VFA premiership and in 1893 and 1894 they finished runners @-@ up , both times to powerhouse Essendon . Towards the end of the 1895 season , the Melbourne captain , Eddie Fox , retired and Wilson was appointed his replacement for the remainder of the year . He continued in the role for a further season before retiring at the end of 1896 .
= = Early life = =
Joe Wilson was educated at Launceston Grammar School . A talented junior sportsman , he regularly represented the school in football and cricket . He is first recorded playing football for the school 's firsts in 1885 , which is around the same time he first played for Launceston Football Club 's seconds . The following summer he played cricket for his school and the Our Boys Cricket Club first XI . In one match for Our Boys , his batting was described by the Launceston Examiner as " the feature of the game " . In March 1886 , Wilson dominated a match between his school and Horton College — he made 154 runs in his team 's first innings , at the time the second highest individual score ever recorded at the Launceston Cricket Ground , and then took 17 wickets , including a hat @-@ trick , for only 28 runs in Horton 's two innings . At the conclusion of the cricket season , Wilson won two trophies from the Our Boys club — for highest individual score and highest batting average .
In June 1886 , Wilson played his first match for Launceston Football Club 's senior team , in a non @-@ premiership game against Latrobe . He spent most of the season in the seconds and kicked one goal for the year . The next cricket season he again played for Our Boys and his school . On Boxing Day 1886 , Wilson represented Northern Tasmania in the annual North v South match in Hobart . After a match in February 1887 , Launceston 's Daily Telegraph described Wilson as " from his present form , [ ... ] fit for any eleven in Tasmania " . At the conclusion of the cricket season , Wilson again represented Northern Tasmania , this time against the touring Melbourne Cricket Club ( MCC ) .
Wilson played several matches for Launceston 's firsts during the 1887 football season . In a match against Holebrook , he was named among the team 's best players . Wilson played for his school during the 1887 – 88 cricket season and , in one match against Esk , took five wickets for 67 runs ( 5 / 67 ) . Later that season he also played for Launceston Cricket Club in a game against Esk . In April 1888 , he represented his school in rowing .
For the 1888 season , Wilson was made captain of the Launceston Grammar School football team . He also became a leading player for the Launceston Football Club . Wilson kicked two of his team 's three goals in a school match against Horton College , and was named in Launceston 's best players in several games , including matches against South Launceston and City that counted towards the premiership . In a match that was to decide the premiership , against South Launceston , Wilson put in a creditable performance . The game ended in a draw , which left the teams even on the ladder , and a subsequent game was scheduled for two weeks later . In that match , Wilson kicked one of Launceston 's five goals as they ran out two @-@ goal victors to win their first Northern Tasmanian Football Association ( NTFA ) premiership . He was named in Launceston 's best players for the match by the Launceston Examiner . For the following cricket season , Wilson moved to play with St. Leonards .
= = = After high school = = =
In one of the early matches of the 1889 football season , Wilson was best on ground in Launceston 's win against City . It was reported in June 1889 by The Colonist that Wilson had moved to Hobart and was likely to join Railway Football Club in the Southern Tasmanian Football Association ( STFA ) . However , before completing the move , Wilson changed his mind and elected to keep playing for Launceston . When Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) side South Melbourne toured in July , Wilson represented the NTFA against them — he was named one of the local side 's better players in a six @-@ goal loss . Launceston won their second consecutive premiership that year . In a game towards the end of the season , En Avant of The Colonist described Wilson 's marking as " a treat to witness " .
Wilson played for Tamar Cricket Club during the 1889 – 90 season . He again represented Northern Tasmania in the annual North v South match , playing an innings that was said to " please all lovers of the game " . In another representative match , he played for a combined Northern Tasmania side against the touring Victorians ; Wilson made 45 runs against a bowling attack that included Test cricketers Harry Trott and Eugene Palmer .
= = Melbourne = =
= = = Move to Melbourne = = =
In April 1890 , it was announced in The Colonist that Wilson was leaving Launceston to move to Melbourne . He had been recruited by Major Wardill , the secretary of the Melbourne Cricket Club , who offered Wilson a " lucrative position " at a Melbourne branch of the National Bank of Australasia if he came to play for the cricket club and the Melbourne Football Club , with which the cricket club had a close affiliation . On his departure from Tasmania , he was described as " the best all @-@ round cricketer and footballer in the North " .
Wilson made his debut for the Melbourne Football Club on 24 May in a match against Ballarat that did not count towards the VFA premiership . He had an immediate impact , kicking the first goal of the match . Wilson made his VFA debut a week later , playing as a follower in a match against South Melbourne . Writing in The Australasian , Markwell was complimentary of Wilson 's performance , saying he gave South trouble . In the round 8 match against Geelong , Wilson scored what was described as a " splendid goal " .
Wilson began playing with the Melbourne Cricket Club in the 1890 – 91 season . He played two premiership matches early in the season , against Port Melbourne and Richmond , but scored only 13 runs in two innings and was not called upon to bowl . He did not play in another senior premiership game until the next season . In a match against Wesley College in March 1891 , he played a high quality innings , scoring 121 runs . Several weeks later , while playing for MCC 's seconds against South Melbourne 's seconds , he took 13 wickets for 61 runs . The Tasmanian noted that it was pity he had not played that well earlier in the season , or he probably would have secured a permanent place in the first XI .
= = = Breaking through = = =
By the 1891 football season , Wilson was considered one of the best players in Melbourne 's team . In June 1891 , he was named among Melbourne 's best players in a win over St Kilda and was one of four Melbourne players to represent Victoria in an intercolonial match against South Australia . While reviewing the round 15 match between Melbourne and Geelong , Markwell wrote that Wilson was a particular crowd favourite due to his fair play . Wilson kicked a goal during the round 17 match against South Melbourne and was noted as being part of " a talented combination of followers " for Melbourne . In his review of the 1891 season , Follower listed Wilson among Melbourne 's followers who had " worthily held their own " throughout the year .
After a disappointing initial season for the MCC , Wilson 's 1891 – 92 season was much more productive . A regular in the firsts , he was described as batting " soundly and freely " in a match against Carlton and made a " highly spoken of performance " against South Melbourne , where he scored 47 runs and was Melbourne 's leading wicket @-@ taker with three . Wilson played a total of four premiership matches for Melbourne that season and also represented them against Lord Sheffield 's touring English XI . In that match Wilson took the wickets of George Bean , George Lohmann and William Attewell , all Test cricketers . In the final match of the Victorian cricket season , to decide the pennant between Melbourne and South Melbourne , Wilson was selected for MCC , but did not get a chance to bat and only bowled four overs in a weather @-@ affected match that ended in a draw — the premiership defaulted to South Melbourne because they had a slightly higher average during the season .
Wilson was again one of Melbourne 's better players for the 1892 football season . In a round 14 match against Fitzroy , Wilson kicked three of the Redlegs ' six goals in a one @-@ goal victory . Two weeks later , he was described as " performing meritoriously " in a game where he also kicked a goal . In the third @-@ last game of the season , Melbourne drew a match away to a poor Collingwood team . Markwell wrote in The Australasian that Wilson and Dolly Christy , who had both missed the match , were sorely missed . Melbourne finished the season in fourth position on the ladder , their highest finish since 1886 , though Markwell thought the result was disappointing when considering the calibre of players the club had recruited . He named Wilson as one of the team 's " most deserving " players for the year .
The 1892 – 93 season was Wilson 's most productive in Victorian cricket . He played six senior premiership matches and took 10 wickets at an average of 22 @.@ 20 , including an innings of 3 / 40 against South Melbourne where he dismissed first @-@ class players Willie Over and Albert Rains . Melbourne played against Fitzroy in the final match of the season to decide the premiership . Fitzroy batted first and made 282 , with Wilson taking 3 / 56 from 18 @.@ 2 overs , including the wickets of Victorian players Thomas Hastings and George Beacham . Melbourne had only to pass Fitzroy 's first innings total to secure the premiership , but were in a perilous situation at 9 / 237 when Wilson came in at number 11 . He joined James O 'Halloran to put on a partnership of 48 , of which Wilson contributed 24 , which was just enough to surpass Fitzroy 's score . Writing for The Australasian , Felix observed that , although Wilson was not as comfortable at the crease as his partner O 'Halloran , he still put in a performance that was " deserving of mention " and that several of the fours he hit off Beacham " had to be seen to be appreciated " . Fitzroy got to 5 / 60 in their second innings before stumps was called and the result was declared a draw , enough for Melbourne to win the premiership . Wilson took one wicket from his two overs , that of Albert Fox .
Melbourne began the 1893 football season strongly , winning their first eight matches . Wilson missed the first match of the year , but returned for the Redlegs ' round 2 victory over Port Melbourne . He missed the following week 's clash against St Kilda due to work commitments , which The Sportsman jokingly called " a new experience for bank clerks " . In Melbourne 's victory over South Melbourne on 17 June , Markwell reported in The Australasian that Wilson 's performance was " meritorious " . Coming in to round 9 , both Melbourne and Essendon had both won their first eight matches and the contest between the two was highly anticipated . In front of about 25 @,@ 000 spectators at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground , the two teams put on what Observer of The Argus called a great match . Melbourne kicked away early to lead by five goals to one at half time , but Essendon , who had won the past two premierships , fought back , kicking four goals to nil in the second half for the match to finish in a thrilling draw . Observer called Wilson a " first @-@ class Red man " and noted that he " [ held ] his marks well " while playing in the backline .
The Redlegs went on to win their next four games , including a match against Collingwood where Wilson played as a forward and kicked two of the team 's four goals in the absence of their main goalkicker William Smith . A week later against Fitzroy , Wilson again played forward and kicked two goals , including one from over 60 yards ( 55 m ) out , in a two @-@ goal win . Wilson was one of Melbourne 's best in the round 13 game against Williamstown , according to the North Melbourne Advertiser . The next week Melbourne met Essendon for the second time that season . Each side had won all their matches for the year so far , except for the drawn game between the two teams earlier in the year . The Age wrote that the match had been eagerly awaited and that nearly 30 @,@ 000 spectators attended , including hundreds of people from places as far away as Bendigo and Ballarat . In a contrast to the two sides ' first meeting , it was the Same Olds who started strongest and they led by four goals to one at half time . Wilson had one of the opening shots on goal of the game , but was only able to register a behind . Melbourne began to come back in the second half and Wilson set up Mickey Roche to kick the Redlegs ' second goal of the match . At three @-@ quarter time , Melbourne were still three goals in arrears and they came out playing some of their best football of the year — O 'Loughlin kicked a goal midway through the quarter and then several players , including Wilson , had unsuccessful shots on goal . Ernest Howes scored the Reds ' fourth goal , but it was too late for Melbourne as the siren to end the game sounded only seconds later .
Melbourne bounced back the next week with a win over Carlton , but lost the week after at home to Geelong , despite leading by five goals to one at quarter time . This opened up a two @-@ win advantage for Essendon at the top of the ladder . Reviewing the match , Markwell wrote that Wilson had played better games , but that he worked as hard as anyone on the ground and was " singularly unselfish " . Melbourne dropped more points with a round 17 draw against South Melbourne and when the Redlegs played another draw two weeks later , this time against St Kilda , The Argus declared the premiership race all but over . Wilson recovered from a form slump to kick both of Melbourne 's goals in the St Kilda match , but it was not enough to get the Redlegs over the line . He was again in the best players in Melbourne 's round 20 win over Carlton . The Reds closed out the season with two more wins , but it was not enough to catch Essendon who remained undefeated and Melbourne finished runners @-@ up . In his appraisal of the season , Markwell named Wilson in his best dozen Melbourne players .
Wilson 's last season for the Melbourne Cricket Club came in 1893 – 94 . He missed the first two premiership matches of the season , but after top scoring with 47 and taking two wickets in a non @-@ premiership match against Fitzroy , Wilson was selected for the third match , against North Melbourne . Wilson took 1 / 72 in the first innings against North , the wicket being that of Isaac Drape , and scored 27 runs batting an number 10 . He was not called upon to bat or bowl in the second innings . Wilson was retained in the side for the next match against Carlton . He batted at 11 in the first innings and was on 0 not out when the innings closed . Wilson was not required to bowl or bat again in what ended up being his final match for the MCC . In total , he played 14 matches for Melbourne for a return of 138 runs at a batting average of 10 @.@ 61 and 15 wickets at a bowling average of 30 @.@ 73 .
= = = Post @-@ cricket retirement = = =
According to Observer , Wilson almost retired from football too , and it was only " with difficulty " that he was persuaded to continue training . He missed the first four games of the 1894 premiership season , during which Melbourne struggled and lost two . Wilson made his first appearance that year in round 5 against Richmond ; Observer wrote that Wilson 's return was an " agreeable surprise " and that his marking in particular was impressive . He kicked one goal in a game Melbourne won nine goals to eight . The Redlegs faced Essendon the next week , who were again top of the table . Melbourne lost by four goals to six , largely due to their inaccuracy kicking for goal . Wilson was said by Markwell to " come under favourable notice " while playing in defence that match . Melbourne responded the next week to defeat Port Melbourne in game where Wilson 's leadership and direction was praised and Observer commented that he was " as useful a man as Melbourne had " . He was switched into attack for the round 8 victory over Carlton and Markwell wrote that Wilson was " frequently troublesome " .
Melbourne continued on their winning way with a round 11 win against South Melbourne . Wilson played forward and kicked three of Melbourne 's nine goals in a comprehensive victory . The Redlegs ' winning streak stretched to eight games ; during this time Wilson 's forward play was at various times described as " clever " , " busy " and a " shining example of unselfishness " . Melbourne 's good form came to a grinding halt in the reverse fixture against Essendon . They were comprehensively defeated by the Same Olds who secured their fourth consecutive premiership . The Reds ' forwards were roundly criticised by Observer , but Wilson was praised as the " only one of them who played a decent game " . Melbourne won two of their remaining three games to finish runners @-@ up for the second consecutive year .
Wilson began the 1895 season much as he had finished 1894 , playing in the forward line and often receiving praise from football journalists . Melbourne defeated South Melbourne in their first game of the season and Markwell wrote that he did " a lot of serviceable work " . In round 3 , the Reds were finally able to defeat Essendon after falling short four times in the previous two years , although the match was said to be of poor quality . Wilson was one of the Redlegs ' goalkickers . The club 's vice @-@ captain , O 'Loughlin , returned to Queensland in June and Wilson was elected to replace him . In his first match after being appointed , against North Melbourne in round 6 , Wilson was said to do " every honour to the distinction " as he played his best game of the season and kicked a goal to help Melbourne remain undefeated . Melbourne played Richmond the next week and won again with Wilson this time described as a " brilliantly consistent worker " . Their winning run continued through to round 9 as the Reds defeated Williamstown by a goal ; Wilson was " the pick of Melbourne 's forwards " that match according to Markwell . Melbourne 's undefeated run came to an end the next week , in a loss to Fitzroy . Due to the absence of many of Melbourne 's regular followers in round 14 against Essendon , Wilson was required to play in that position . The Redlegs lost the match , but Wilson was named one of Melbourne 's best on the day .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Eddie Fox , who had been Melbourne 's captain for six of the last seven seasons , retired from football in late August . Wilson was named captain in his stead at what was a difficult time , the Redlegs having lost their last two matches . In his first game in charge , against North Melbourne , Wilson was said to have " showed much judgment in disposing his men " . Melbourne won the match four goals to two and Wilson also had a good individual game playing in a variety of positions . The Reds finished the season having won three of their four games under Wilson 's captaincy , which was enough to finish third on the ladder , two wins away from Fitzroy in top spot .
Wilson remained captain for the 1896 season , though he missed the first four matches of the year due a suspension he had incurred at the end of the previous season . He returned to the side for round 5 against Williamstown and played up forward in a comfortable 11 @-@ goal win . In Melbourne 's round 7 win over St Kilda , Markwell wrote that Wilson was " distinctly at his best " . And in a round 11 victory against North Melbourne , the same journalist wrote that he had the " soundest judgement " of all forwards on the field . Wilson played " excellently " in the Reds ' defeat of Carlton the next week ; Markwell remarked upon his desire " to annihilate the men in blue " . He kicked his first goal of the season in round 15 , a two @-@ goal win over Collingwood , and finished the day with two majors . Markwell observed that Wilson 's " judgment and coolness " went a long way to Melbourne winning their round 16 encounter with Essendon . Melbourne finished the season in fourth place on the ladder . Though they never seriously challenged for the premiership , it was noted that the club had bad luck through suspension and injury , and when they got their best team on the field they could challenge anyone . In his review of the season , Markwell named Wilson one of Melbourne 's best half dozen players .
Wilson retired from football at the conclusion of the 1896 season . In 1897 he played bowls instead of football . After his retirement , he was remembered as being " solidity itself " for Melbourne . In his native state he was mentioned alongside Fred McGinis , William Smith , Colin Campbell and George Vautin as players who left Tasmania and more than held their own against the mainland 's best .
= = Later life = =
Wilson worked for the National Bank of Australasia for 23 years at various suburban Melbourne branches , including East Collingwood , Clifton Hill , Boort and finally Footscray . He had a unique record of never missing a morning 's work with the bank . Wilson was married to Elizabeth Mackey , the daughter of a wine and spirits merchant . On 7 December 1912 , Wilson died at his home in Footscray of a heart ailment he had been suffering from for a year . He was survived by his wife and a child . He was buried at Footscray Cemetery .
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= SM U @-@ 22 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 22 or U @-@ XXII was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 22 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 22 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . The submarine was laid down in mid 1915 and launched in January 1917 . The still unfinished U @-@ boat sank in the harbor at Fiume in June but was raised , repaired , and relaunched in October . After her commissioning in November , U @-@ 22 patrolled off the Po River estuary and , later , in the northern Adriatic out of Trieste .
After undergoing months of repairs for her failed electric motor in mid 1918 , U @-@ 22 returned to duty and patrolled off the Montenegrin coast out of Cattaro in August . At Cattaro at the end of World War I , U @-@ 22 was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . U @-@ 22 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 22 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 22 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Hungarian UBAG yard in Fiume . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 22 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes ( 191 short tons ) surfaced and 210 tonnes ( 231 short tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 22 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 22 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 22 was laid down at Fiume in mid 1915 and launched on 27 January 1917 , the last of the four U @-@ 20 @-@ class boats to be launched . On 10 June , while not yet complete , the U @-@ boat sank in the harbor at Fiume . Raised from her resting point at a depth of 9 meters ( 30 ft ) the following day , U @-@ 22 underwent four months of repairs . She was launched again on 6 October .
= = Service career = =
On 18 November 1917 the U @-@ boat sailed for Pola , where she was commissioned as SM U @-@ 22 on 23 November under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Josef Holub . The 31 @-@ year @-@ old Galician had been assigned to U @-@ 22 in February and had been in charge of sister boat U @-@ 21 from June 1916 until his assignment to U @-@ 22 .
Holub led U @-@ 22 out on her first patrol when they departed Pola on 5 December for duty off the Po estuary . After returning to Pola on 10 December , Holub led U @-@ 22 on another Po estuary tour from 15 to 17 December . On 29 December , Holub was transferred to U @-@ 27 . His replacement was Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Sterz . It was the first U @-@ boat command of the 25 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pergine , Tyrolia ( in present @-@ day Italy ) .
On 3 January 1918 , Sterz returned U @-@ 22 to the Po estuary for a third patrol there . While in the area , an enemy submarine was spotted but no attack could be made because of bad weather ; the same bad weather forced U @-@ 22 to put in at Rovigno the following day . Setting out from Rovigno on 5 January , U @-@ 22 unsuccessfully attacked an Italian torpedo boat and two steamships . After a return to Rovigno on 6 January , Sterz steered his boat to the submarine base at Brioni . Ten days later , U @-@ 22 headed to Trieste , where she conducted patrols in the northern Adriatic . On 5 February , U @-@ 22 avoided being hit by seven bombs dropped by an enemy airplane . Departing the northern Adriatic in late April , U @-@ 22 was headed for Cattaro when her electric motor failed . After a quick stop at Cattaro , U @-@ 22 returned to Pola for three months of repairs .
After returning to service in August , U @-@ 22 operated out of Catttaro , patrolling off the Montenegrin coast over the next two months . On 17 October , the boat returned to Cattaro , where she remained until the war 's end . She was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 22 had no wartime successes .
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= Boardwalk Empire ( episode ) =
" Boardwalk Empire " is the pilot episode of the HBO crime drama Boardwalk Empire . Written by series creator Terence Winter and directed by Martin Scorsese with a budget of $ 18 million , the episode introduces the character of Nucky Thompson , played by Steve Buscemi , as the corrupt treasurer of Atlantic City who is involved in gambling and bootlegging in 1920 . The show used a large ensemble cast and a specially constructed boardwalk set to re @-@ create the Prohibition and Jazz Era , and was based on Boardwalk Empire : The Birth , High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City by Nelson Johnson . Filming for the pilot took place at various locations in and around New York City in June 2009 . The episode first aired in the United States on September 19 , 2010 .
The episode opens with bootleggers being ambushed , and then moves to a Temperance rally two days earlier during which Nucky Thompson attracts the attention of a pregnant woman who later seeks assistance from Thompson for her husband , Schroeder . In a night club the day after the rally , we are introduced to other characters , including Thompson 's brother , Eli , the town sheriff , and Jimmy Darmody , a political assistant . Thompson makes a deal to supply alcohol to four gangsters , including Arnold Rothstein who agrees to use his own men to transport the alcohol . Meanwhile Schroeder drunkenly tangles with Thompson , and then beats his ( Schroeder 's ) wife into a miscarriage . The next day , Darmody plots with Al Capone to rob Rothstein 's incoming whiskey shipment . The episode returns to the ambush and we see Capone and Darmody shoot all the bootleggers and run off with the whiskey , with Darmody later giving Thompson a share of the heist .
David Hinkley of the New York Daily News awarded the episode five stars , saying " Watching HBO 's new ' Boardwalk Empire ' is like sitting in your favorite tavern and hearing someone say , ' Drinks are on the house . ' Friends , it doesn 't get much better . " Paige Wiser of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it " ... an event not to be missed , " and praised Buscemi in particular , calling his performance " fascinating . " The episode gained a 2 @.@ 0 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 and garnered 4 @.@ 81 million viewers . This was the highest rated premiere for a HBO series since the pilot of Deadwood in March 2004 . Following this successful debut , HBO immediately renewed the series for a second season .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in the year 1920 . A group of bootleggers smuggle Canadian Club whisky from boats into the United States but two men in ski masks later ambush their trucks and hold them at gunpoint . The scene then cuts to three days prior , as Atlantic County treasurer Enoch " Nucky " Thompson delivers the keynote address at a Women 's Temperance League rally on the eve of Prohibition . He inspires the all @-@ female audience with his rags @-@ to @-@ riches story and anti @-@ alcohol rhetoric .
Nucky leaves the rally early and promptly heads to Babette 's Supper Club , where a raucous gathering of elected officials , including Atlantic City 's mayor and Nucky 's brother , Sheriff Elias " Eli " Thompson , are celebrating the onset of Prohibition and the lucrative bootlegging opportunities it will bring . Nucky lays out the logistics and introduces his driver James " Jimmy " Darmody , who has just returned after serving in World War I , and appoints him an assistant to Paddy Ryan , a young ward boss who is part of Nucky 's political machine . As midnight strikes and Prohibition officially goes into effect , the partygoers in the club all toast the " death " of alcohol and merrily continue the party . Moody and uncomfortable , Jimmy quickly leaves .
The following morning , Jimmy and Angela , his common @-@ law wife , discuss their future . She wants him to return to his studies at Princeton , but he believes this will take too long and decides to continue working for Nucky . Meanwhile , Thompson meets Margaret Schroeder , a pregnant member of the Temperance League . When she asks about a job for her husband , Nucky gives her a wad of money and has Jimmy drive her home .
As night falls , Jimmy and Nucky visit Mickey Doyle 's funeral parlor , a front for distilling alcohol . Mickey pranks Jimmy by giving him a drink of formaldehyde , and Jimmy attacks him , nearly compromising the operation . Scolded by Nucky , Jimmy demands more important work and implies that the war has matured him . Nucky at first cajoles him but ultimately challenges Jimmy to make his own opportunities .
Afterwards , Nucky dines with four major mob figures , New York 's Arnold Rothstein and Lucky Luciano and Chicago 's Big Jim Colosimo and Johnny Torrio , who agree to start buying Nucky 's seaborne liquor shipments . Rothstein requests some alcohol for a friend 's wedding and Nucky agrees to sell him his latest shipment , on the condition that Rothstein 's own men pick it up . Rothstein asks to defer payment until the next day . As Jimmy waits for Nucky outside , he befriends Torrio 's driver , Al Capone .
The next day , Rothstein , a well @-@ known card shark and cheat , takes Nucky 's casino for over $ 90 @,@ 000 . Nucky arrives and gets Rothstein to leave with his winnings , less the cost of the whiskey shipment . As he leaves , Hans Schroeder , Margaret 's jealous and abusive husband , confronts Nucky . When Nucky sees Hans gambling with the money he had given Margaret earlier , he beats him and has him thrown out . That night , the drunken Hans severely beats Margaret , causing her to miscarry .
The day of the heist arrives . Jimmy recruits Capone to hijack Rothstein 's whiskey shipment . The episode returns to the conclusion of the opening robbery , in a montage interspersed with scenes from a comedy routine performed by Eddie Cantor attended by Nucky and his mistress . Capone , startled by a deer , opens fire on the surrendering smugglers . Jimmy and Capone kill them all and flee with the stolen trucks . At the same time , only three miles away , a team of federal agents raid Mickey 's funeral parlor .
With Eli 's help , Nucky deduces that Jimmy had met with agents the day before and informed on Mickey and therefore must also be involved in the simultaneous robbery . When confronted , Jimmy admits that he counted on Nucky 's forgiveness and again asks for his help with more aggressive criminal enterprises , claiming that the war has left him with no future other than violence . Jimmy seals Nucky 's complicity by presenting him with a share of the take and warns Nucky that Nucky can no longer afford to be " half a gangster . "
Nucky learns about Margaret 's hospitalization . He has Eli kidnap Hans . Scenes showing Eli and his deputies taking Hans out to sea and beating him to death are interspersed with the assassination of Colosimo in his Chicago restaurant . A radio reports that the police have named Hans as the suspect in the murder of Rothstein 's men , implying that Nucky will continue to protect Jimmy . The episode ends with Nucky delivering flowers to a recovering and widowed Margaret .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Emmy Award winner Terence Winter , who had served as executive producer and writer on the critically acclaimed HBO series The Sopranos , was hired to adapt the novel Boardwalk Empire : The Birth , High Times , and Corruption of Atlantic City on June 4 , 2008 . Winter had been interested in creating a series set in the 1920s , feeling that it had never properly been explored before . It was for this reason that he decided to focus his adaption of the novel on the Prohibition era section . On September 1 , 2009 , it was announced that Academy Award @-@ winning director Martin Scorsese would direct the pilot . It would be the first time he had directed an episode of television since an episode of Steven Spielberg 's Amazing Stories in 1986 . The production would be very ambitious , with some even speculating it would be too large scale for television . " I kept thinking ' This is pointless . How can we possibly afford a boardwalk , or an empire ? ' " says creator Terence Winter . " We can 't call it ' Boardwalk Empire ' and not see a boardwalk . " The production would eventually build a 300 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 91 m ) boardwalk in an empty lot in Brooklyn , New York at the cost of five million dollars . Despite a reported budget of up to $ 50 million , the pilot 's final budget came in at $ 18 million .
On why he chose to return to television , Scorsese said " What 's happening the past 9 to 10 years , particularly at HBO , is what we had hoped for in the mid @-@ Sixties with films being made for television at first . We 'd hoped there would be this kind of freedom and also the ability to create another world and create longform characters and story . That didn 't happen in the 1970s , 1980s and in the 1990s I think . And of course ... HBO is a trailblazer in this . I 've been tempted over the years to be involved with them because of the nature of long @-@ form and their development of character and plot . " He went on to praise network HBO by saying , " A number of the episodes , in so many of their series , they 're thoughtful , intelligent [ and ] brilliantly put together ... It 's a new opportunity for storytelling . It 's very different from television of the past . "
= = = Casting = = =
" Scorsese is an actor magnet , " commented Winter . " Everybody wants to work with him . I had all these pictures on my wall and I thought , ' I 'd really better write some good stuff for these people . ' " In casting the role of Nucky Thompson ( based upon real @-@ life Atlantic City political boss Enoch L. Johnson ) , Winter wanted to stray from the real life Johnson as much as possible . " If we were going to cast accurately what the real Nucky looked like , we 'd have cast Jim Gandolfini . " The idea of casting Steve Buscemi in the lead role came about when Scorsese mentioned wanting to work with the actor , whom Winter knew well having worked with him on The Sopranos . Winter sent the script out to Buscemi , who responded very enthusiastically . " I just thought , ' Wow . I 'm almost sorry I 've read this , because if I don 't get it , I 'm going to be so sad . ' My response was ' Terry , I know you 're looking at other actors ' ... and he said , ' No , no , Steve , I said we want you . ' " Explained Scorsese , " I love the range he has , his dramatic sense , but also his sense of humor . "
The casting of Buscemi was soon followed by Michael Pitt , best known for his role in the Bernardo Bertolucci film The Dreamers . He was soon joined by Kelly Macdonald , Vincent Piazza and Michael Shannon , who had just received an Oscar nomination for his role in the Sam Mendes film Revolutionary Road .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the pilot took place at various locations in and around New York City in June 2009 . In creating the visual effects for the series , the company turned to Brooklyn @-@ based effects company Brainstorm Digital . Says Glenn Allen , visual effects producer for Boardwalk Empire and co @-@ founder of Brainstorm , " It 's our most complex job to date . Everything is HD now , so we have to treat it like a feature film . " " Anytime you get to work on a period piece , it 's more fun , " comments visual effects artist Chris " Pinkus " Wesselman , who used archival photographs , postcards , and architectural plans to recreate the Atlantic City boardwalks as accurately as possible . " We got to explore what the old Atlantic City was really like . The piers were one of the toughest parts because every summer they would change – new houses , new advertisements . " It took two months for the firm to complete all the visual effects for the pilot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The pilot episode received acclaim from television critics . TV Guide 's Matt Roush praised the marriage of Scorsese and Winter , saying it " ... brilliantly marries Martin Scorsese 's virtuosic cinematic eye to Terence Winter 's panoramic mastery of rich character and eventful story , " and finished his review by stating " It 's the most purely — and impurely — enjoyable storytelling HBO has delivered in ages , like a movie that you never want to end . " Variety 's Brian Lowry praised the show for returning network HBO to top form , saying " This is , quite simply , television at its finest , occupying a sweet spot that — for all the able competition — still remains unique to HBO : An expensive , explicit , character @-@ driven program , tackling material no broadcast network or movie studio would dare touch ... For those wondering when the channel would deliver another franchise to definitively put it on top of the world , Ma , the wait is over : Go directly to " Boardwalk . " " " One of the unexpected joys of " Boardwalk Empire , " though , lies in the way the show revels in the oddities of its time , peeling back the layers of polite society to reveal a giddy shadow world of criminals and politicians collaborating to keep the liquor flowing , " says online magazine Salon 's Heather Havrilesky who went on to call the pilot " breathtaking . " Roberto Bianco from USA Today said in his review that Boardwalk Empire was " Extravagantly produced , shockingly violent and as cold and hard as ice , Boardwalk Empire brings us back to the world 's former playground at the start of Prohibition — and brings HBO back to the forefront of the TV @-@ series race . "
However , not all critical reviews were favorable . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker felt that the series too closely echoed The Sopranos , and went on to say that " ... the first episode alone cost nearly twenty million dollars @-@ and it looks authentic in a way that , paradoxically , seems lifeless . You 're constantly aware that you 're watching a period piece , albeit one with some vivid scenes and interesting details . " Chris Barsanti from PopMatters affords the show six out of ten , remarking that the series " .. doesn 't begin in the most thought @-@ proving manner ... " and added that the character of Jimmy Darmody is a " dud " and Michael Pitt gives " a one @-@ note performance . " Aaron Riccio of Slant praised the series overall ( awarding it three and a half stars ) , but commented that the show was " too big " and had too many subplots . " The plots that Boardwalk Empire does settle on are too complex for a single episode , " he said , " ... while this style of drawn @-@ out , season @-@ long storytelling can work the writers don 't establish enough tension up front to carry the back @-@ heavy narrative . "
= = Accolades = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its original airing at 9 pm , " Boardwalk Empire " gained a 2 @.@ 0 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 and garnered 4 @.@ 81 million viewers . The episode was re @-@ played twice that night , once at 10 : 15 pm and again at 11 : 30 pm Taking these broadcasts into account , a total of 7 @.@ 1 million Americans viewed the episode on the night of its original broadcast , and is the highest rated premiere for an HBO series since the pilot of Deadwood in March 2004 . Following this successful debut , HBO immediately renewed the series for a second season .
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= Milan Lucic =
Milan Lucic ( pronounced [ mǐlan lûːt ͡ ʃit ͡ ɕ ] ; born June 7 , 1988 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who is currently playing for the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He played major junior hockey with the Vancouver Giants in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) for three seasons and captured a Memorial Cup , while being named tournament MVP in 2007 . He was selected 50th overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft and made the Bruins ' roster as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old in 2007 – 08 . Three years later , he won a Stanley Cup with the Bruins . He spent the first eight seasons of his NHL career with Boston prior to joining Los Angeles in June 2015 .
Internationally , he captained the Canadian national junior team at the 2007 Super Series . Lucic plays physically in the style of a power forward .
= = Early life = =
Lucic was born in East Vancouver to Serbian couple Dobrivoje " Dobro " Lučić and Snežana Kesa . His father , a longshoreman , emigrated from Yugoslavia ( now Bosnia and Herzegovina ) when he was 27 , while his mother arrived from Yugoslavia ( now Croatia ) with her family at the age of two . He has a younger brother named Nikola and an older brother named Jovan . His maternal uncle , Dan Kesa , is a retired NHL right winger who played for the Vancouver Canucks , Pittsburgh Penguins , Tampa Bay Lightning , and Dallas Stars .
Growing up , Lucic attended Killarney Secondary in Vancouver . He was a fan of the hometown Vancouver Canucks and has singled out power forward Todd Bertuzzi as one of his favourite players when following the team . At the age of 15 , he was diagnosed with Scheuermann 's disease , a condition that can cause the upper back to curve and has given Lucic a hunched @-@ over posture .
Lucic played minor hockey ( VMHA ) in Vancouver , but nearly quit the sport after being passed up in the 2003 WHL Bantam Draft . He was invited to play for the Coquitlam Express of the Junior A British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) , but was further demoralized when he initially failed to make the team out of rookie camp . He agreed to play , instead , for the Junior B Delta Ice Hawks , but later played his way onto the Express after five games .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Lucic began his junior career with the Coquitlam Express of the BCHL in 2004 – 05 . In the same season , he made his major junior debut with the Vancouver Giants , his hometown Western Hockey League ( WHL ) team , playing in one regular @-@ season game and two playoff games . He joined the Giants full @-@ time in 2005 – 06 , scoring 19 points in 62 games . He added seven points in 18 playoff games to help the Giants to a WHL title and an appearance in the 2006 Memorial Cup . In the off @-@ season , he was selected 50th overall by the Boston Bruins in the second round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft . Bruins management had considered taking Lucic earlier in the second round with the 37th overall pick , but chose defenceman Yuri Alexandrov instead . Bruins Director of Scouting Scott Bradley admitted he did not expect Lucic to still be available with the 50th pick , adding , " We were fortunate to get him . "
The following season , in 2006 – 07 , Lucic emerged as one of the Giants ' leaders , finishing first in team scoring with 68 points in 70 games . He added 19 points in 22 post @-@ season games as the Giants lost the WHL Finals to the Medicine Hat Tigers in seven games . Despite losing the WHL title , Vancouver appeared in the 2007 Memorial Cup as tournament hosts . Lucic and the Giants met Medicine Hat once more in the tournament final , capturing the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) title by a 3 – 1 score . Lucic assisted on Michal Řepík 's tournament @-@ winning goal with five minutes to play in regulation . He finished the tournament tied for the lead in scoring with Řepík ( with more goals , Řepík was awarded the Ed Chynoweth Trophy as leading scorer ) and earned the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as tournament MVP .
Nearly four years after his last junior game , Lucic was honoured by the Giants prior to a game against the Chilliwack Bruins on February 25 , 2011 . Dubbed " Milan Lucic Night , " he was added to the club 's Ring of Honour , showcasing the top Giants alumni of all @-@ time . The first 500 game @-@ attendees were also given free Lucic bobblehead dolls . As part of the team 's ten @-@ year anniversary , he was also voted by fans as the team 's best player of all @-@ time .
= = = Professional = = =
= = = = Boston Bruins ( 2007 @-@ 2015 ) = = = =
In the 2007 off @-@ season , Lucic signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Bruins on August 2 . He had been chosen as the Giants ' next team captain , but made the Bruins ' 2007 – 08 opening roster out of training camp . He played in his first career NHL game on October 5 , 2007 , a 4 – 1 loss to the Dallas Stars , in which he fought opposing forward Brad Winchester . His first goal came a week later on October 12 against Jonathan Bernier , a game winner , in an 8 – 6 win against the Los Angeles Kings . By also fighting Kings forward Raitis Ivanāns and notching an assist , he recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick ( an unofficial statistic constituting a goal , an assist and a fight in one game ) . Unsure of whether the Bruins would keep him or return him to junior , he stayed in a downtown hotel in Boston to start the season . However , Lucic made enough of an impression during his first set of games with the Bruins , showing grit and consistent willingness to fight ( he recorded 13 fighting majors in his rookie season ) , that they decided to keep him in the lineup . Bruins management informed the Giants prior to Lucic 's tenth game , accounting for the NHL 's nine @-@ game maximum for junior @-@ eligible players to stay with their NHL club without initiating their contract . He was chosen to participate in the 2008 NHL YoungStars Game and finished his rookie campaign with eight goals and 27 points . Towards the end of the season , he was voted by Bruins fans for the team 's Seventh Player Award for exceeding expectations . Matched up against the first @-@ seeded Montreal Canadiens in the opening round , Lucic scored his first Stanley Cup playoff goal in Game 3 on April 13 , 2008 . He finished his first NHL post @-@ season with two goals as the Bruins were eliminated by the Canadiens in seven games .
Early into the 2008 – 09 season , Lucic recorded his first career NHL hat @-@ trick and added an assist in a 5 – 4 win against the Atlanta Thrashers on October 25 , 2008 . Later that week , Lucic made a much @-@ publicized return to his hometown in a game against the Vancouver Canucks , which featured a picture of him as a baby on the back page of Vancouver 's The Province newspaper . Earlier in the year , Lucic 's 2007 Memorial Cup ring had been stolen from his home in East Vancouver on July 10 , 2008 . In a private ceremony before the game against the Canucks , he was presented a replacement ring by Vancouver Giants ownership .
Lucic was chosen to his second YoungStars Game in January 2009 . However , he did not compete for the sophomores in Montreal due to an undisclosed upper @-@ body injury . Near the end of the season , on April 4 , 2009 , Lucic was awarded the Bruins ' Eddie Shore Award for hustle and determination . He finished his second NHL season improving to 17 goals and 42 points in 72 games , while playing predominantly on a line with the Bruins ' top centre , Marc Savard .
Entering the 2009 playoffs with the Bruins as the first seed in the Eastern Conference , Lucic received a one @-@ game suspension after delivering a cross @-@ check to the head of Montreal Canadiens forward Maxim Lapierre in Game 2 of the first round . While the Bruins argued that Lucic used predominantly his glove , rather than his stick , the League held its decision . After serving his suspension , Lucic and the Bruins went on to eliminate the Canadiens , advancing to the second round against the Carolina Hurricanes , who the Bruins lost to in seven games . Lucic added nine points in ten games in the playoffs .
With the 2009 – 10 season marking the final year of his original entry @-@ level contract , it was announced on October 6 , 2009 , that Lucic had been signed to a three @-@ year , US $ 12 @.@ 25 million contract extension with the Bruins through to the 2012 – 13 season . The deal is structured at US $ 4 million for the first two seasons and US $ 4 @.@ 25 million in the third , a raise from his US $ 685 @,@ 000 base salary in 2009 – 10 . Ten days later , on October 16 , he suffered a broken finger requiring surgery in a game against the Dallas Stars while hitting defenceman Stéphane Robidas . Lucic returned to the Bruins lineup on November 19 , but was injured again four games later , suffering a sprained ankle in a game against the Minnesota Wild on November 25 . His left leg had buckled from underneath him while reaching behind him to receive a pass from teammate Dennis Wideman . Missing an additional 18 games , Lucic was limited to 50 contests in his third NHL season . His play was perceived by Head Coach Claude Julien to have suffered following the two injuries ; he recorded nine goals and 20 points to finish the regular season . He added nine points in 13 playoff games as the Bruins were eliminated in the second round by the Philadelphia Flyers . They became the third team in NHL history to lose a playoff series after having led three games to none . All five goals Lucic scored in the playoffs were recorded in the second round , including two in the deciding seventh game , which the Bruins lost 4 – 3 .
In the second month of the 2010 – 11 season , Lucic recorded a natural hat @-@ trick on November 18 , 2010 , during a 4 – 0 win over the Florida Panthers . Later in the campaign , he was fined $ 3 @,@ 500 by the NHL for his actions during a game against Atlanta on December 23 . After Lucic was hit by opposing defenceman Freddy Meyer , teammate Andrew Ference engaged Meyer in a fight . In the ensuing scrum , Lucic punched Meyer as the two were being restrained by referees , resulting in a match penalty . Three days following the game , Lucic received a $ 2 @,@ 500 fine for his punch and an additional $ 1 @,@ 000 for an obscene gesture he had made to players on the Thrashers ' bench immediately afterwards . In January 2011 , he missed three games with a shoulder injury . Lucic completed the season with a career @-@ high 30 goals , 32 assists and 62 points in 79 games . He led the Bruins in goal @-@ scoring while tying for the points lead with centre David Krejčí . Entering the 2011 playoffs as the third seed in the East , the Bruins eliminated the Montreal Canadiens , Philadelphia Flyers and Tampa Bay Lightning in the first three rounds , en route to the Stanley Cup Finals against Vancouver . Although Lucic scored below his regular @-@ season pace during the post @-@ season with 12 points ( five goals and seven assists ) in 25 games , he helped the Bruins to their first Stanley Cup since 1972 , as the team defeated the Canucks in Game 7 of the Finals . It was later reported that Lucic was playing through a couple of injuries during the playoffs . During the Eastern Conference Finals , he suffered a broken toe after blocking a shot from teammate Tyler Seguin during practice . He also struggled with a sinus infection , which was part of a larger problem in his right nostril that traced back to the end of the 2009 – 10 season and caused improper breathing . Lucic underwent surgery in the off @-@ season to repair the sinus .
In August 2011 , Lucic had his customary day in possession of the Stanley Cup , which he spent in Vancouver . While it is traditional for players to host public celebrations with the trophy in their hometowns , Lucic chose to keep the day private , explaining that " I grew up a Canucks fan . I know how it is . " Following the Canucks ' defeat in the Finals , fans had staged an hours @-@ long riot in Downtown Vancouver . More personally , posters of Lucic at a local cultural community centre were defaced . Also , an appearance by Lucic at a Greek festival in Vancouver sparked a public brawl ; The Vancouver Sun reported that Lucic did not throw any punches . While Lucic 's day with the Cup was private , many of his functions were held in public venues , which were reportedly well received by passers @-@ by . He brought the trophy to his hometown church , St. Archangel Michael Serbian Orthodox Church in Burnaby , for a gathering of approximately 350 people and on a harbour cruise with friends and family . He finished the day atop Grouse Mountain , the same place where he and his Vancouver Giants teammates took the Memorial Cup after their CHL victory in 2007 . Months later , in February 2012 , the church he brought the trophy to was vandalized .
A month and a half into the 2011 – 12 season , Lucic received considerable attention for a hit against opposing goaltender Ryan Miller during a game against the Buffalo Sabres . Miller had come out of his net to play a puck that Lucic last touched midway between the centre line and the Sabres ' blue line . As Miller shot the puck towards the end @-@ boards , Lucic collided with him heavily , knocking him to the ice . Miller was diagnosed with a concussion and was sidelined for several games ; he also heavily criticized Lucic for his actions and called him a " gutless piece of shit " in post @-@ game comments . The day after the hit , the NHL held a hearing with Lucic and later announced that he would not be suspended for the play , citing that the minor penalty for charging that was assessed during the game was sufficient . A few weeks after this incident , he received a one @-@ game suspension for an illegal hit on Philadelphia forward Zac Rinaldo . Lucic hit Rinaldo from behind during a battle for the puck along the boards , although he was not seriously injured on the play . A short time into the 2013 – 14 season , Lucic scored his first @-@ ever NHL overtime goal to break a 2 – 2 tie game at home against the visiting Columbus Blue Jackets .
= = = = Los Angeles Kings ( 2015 @-@ 16 ) = = = =
On June 26 , 2015 , Lucic was traded to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for goaltender Martin Jones , Colin Miller and the 13th overall pick ( Jakub Zboril ) in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft . Lucic excelled during his season with the Kings , playing a strong 2 @-@ way game while posting 20 goals , 35 assists for 55 points during the regular season . Lucic also added 3 assists in 5 games in the NHL Playoffs .
= = = = Edmonton Oilers ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = = =
As an unrestricted free agent , on the opening day of free agency , Lucic agreed to a 7 @-@ year $ 42 million contract with the Edmonton Oilers on July 1 , 2016 . Lucic will wear # 27 with the Oilers , as # 17 was retired by the Oilers .
= = International play = =
In the off @-@ season following Lucic 's MVP performance at the 2007 Memorial Cup , he was named team captain of Canada for the 2007 Super Series against Russia . The series , an eight @-@ game competition between Canada and Russia 's under @-@ 20 teams , commemorated the 35th anniversary of the historic 1972 Summit Series . He recorded three assists as Canada won the series with seven wins and a tie .
Two years later , Lucic was invited to Canada 's summer orientation camp in Calgary for the 2010 Winter Olympics . He was not , however , chosen to the final roster . Lucic was also invited to the orientation camp for the 2014 Winter Olympics , but again did not make the final roster .
= = Personal life = =
Lucic married his longtime girlfriend Brittany Carnegie in the summer of 2012 . The couple has two daughters , Valentina and Nikolina .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Major junior = = =
= = = NHL = = =
* Did not play due to injury
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
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= 2005 Azores subtropical storm =
The 2005 Azores subtropical storm was the nineteenth nameable storm of the record @-@ breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It was not officially named by the National Hurricane Center as it was operationally classified as a non @-@ tropical low . The storm developed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean out of a low @-@ pressure area that gained subtropical characteristics on October 4 . The storm was short @-@ lived , crossing over the Azores later on October 4 before becoming extratropical again on October 5 . No damage or fatalities were reported . After being absorbed into a cold front , the system went on to become Hurricane Vince , which affected the Iberian Peninsula .
Months after the hurricane season , when the National Hurricane Center was performing its annual review of the season and its named storms , forecasters Jack Beven and Eric Blake identified this previously unnoticed subtropical storm . Despite its unusual location and wide wind field , the system had a well @-@ defined center convecting around a warm core — the hallmark of a subtropical storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The system originated out of an upper @-@ level low just west of the Canary Islands on September 28 . The low organized itself over the next several days , producing several bursts of convection . While remaining non @-@ tropical with a cold core it moved gradually west to northwest . On October 3 , it became a broad surface low about 400 nautical miles ( 460 mi , 740 km ) southwest of São Miguel Island in the Azores . Early on October 4 , convection increased as the surface low organized itself , and the system became a subtropical depression . Around the same time , the depression turned northeast into a warm sector ahead of an oncoming cold front and strengthened into a subtropical storm . The system continued to track northeast and strengthened slightly , reaching its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as it approached the Azores that evening . After tracking through the Azores , the storm weakened slightly as it moved to the north @-@ northeast . Through an interaction with the cold front early on October 5 the subtropical storm became extratropical . The system was fully absorbed by the front later that day . The newly absorbed system would separate from the dissolving frontal system and become Subtropical Storm Vince on October 8 .
At the time , the system was not believed to have been subtropical . However , there were several post @-@ season findings that confirmed that the system was indeed a subtropical storm . The first was the cloud pattern , in which it had deep convection around the center and was better organized with a well @-@ defined center of circulation . In addition , the system had a warm core more typical of tropical cyclones as opposed to the cold core of extratropical cyclones . The warm @-@ core nature also meant that there were no warm or cold fronts attached to the system , as temperatures did not change ahead of and behind the system until the unrelated cold front passed the Azores . Satellite imagery suggested that the system was briefly a tropical storm as the warm core was found ; however , the widespread wind field and the presence of an upper @-@ level trough confirmed that it was merely subtropical .
= = Impact , classification , and records = =
Tropical storm @-@ force winds were reported across parts of the Azores , primarily on the eastern islands . The strongest winds were reported on Santa Maria Island , where 10 @-@ minute sustained winds reached 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) with gusts to 59 mph ( 94 km / h ) . Ponta Delgada faced 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) winds , with the peak recorded gust being 52 mph ( 85 km / h ) . No damage or fatalities were reported .
The storm was not classified as a subtropical storm until April 10 , 2006 , after a reassessment by the National Hurricane Center . Every year , the NHC re @-@ analyzes the systems of the past hurricane season and revises the storm history frequently if there is new data that was operationally unavailable . If the storm had been operationally recognized it would have been named Subtropical Storm Tammy , and storms forming after October 4 would have been moved one name down the list . Hurricane Wilma would have been given the name Alpha : a name that , had it been retired like Wilma was , could not be replaced by an " alternate " Greek letter , as is the convention with names on the standard A – W list . When the system strengthened into a subtropical storm on October 4 , it was the earliest the 19th tropical or subtropical storm of the season formed . The old record was held by an unnamed storm in the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , which formed on October 25 , 1933 . It was also only the fourth time that 19 storms formed in a season .
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= Taxiride =
Taxiride is an Australian rock band . Formed in 1997 , the band consists of lead singer Jason Singh , guitarists Dan Hall and Tim Wild , and drummer Sean McLeod .
Prior to formation , the four founding members of Taxiride — Singh , Wild , Hall , and Tim Watson — had been playing in cover bands around Melbourne , travelling around in a yellow Ford Falcon EB ex @-@ taxi . The quartet recorded an EP , which a taxi @-@ driving friend of theirs helped promote . They took their name from the experience had by passengers hearing their music on a taxi ride . After their music was heard by an executive from record label Warner , the band signed a contract and released their debut album , Imaginate , in 1999 . This was followed by 2002 's Garage Mahal . Both albums were certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . 2005 's Axiomatic did not follow in the success of its predecessors .
Taxiride 's musical style has changed significantly over the course of their career — what began as a pop / pub rock band on their first two albums moved to a much more heavy sound on later works . Throughout their history , the band has had multiple lead singers and songwriters on the majority of their songs . As of 2006 , the future of Taxiride has been uncertain . They have continued to tour , mostly as the supporting act for larger names , however Singh is now working on a solo album and Taxiride 's website states that the band is on a hiatus .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early work ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
Prior to forming Taxiride , Tim Watson , Tim Wild , Jason Singh , and Dan Hall had each played in cover bands across Melbourne . Watson and Wild began writing together in 1997 in Camberwell , Melbourne , and soon recruited Singh as an additional vocalist . The trio invited Hall , whom Wild first encountered busking , to join the group , and he accepted . The band named themselves Taxiride because they had given some of their early work to a friend of theirs , a taxi driver , who had tested these songs on passengers . The group produced a demo at Melbourne 's Secret Sound Studios , and used it to land a contract with Warner in Australia . Meanwhile , a friend of the group passed their work onto a Sire Records executive in the U.S. , who signed them despite the group being unknown .
= = = Pop success ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
In 1998 , Taxiride relocated to Ocean Way Recording studios in Los Angeles to work with producer Jack Joseph Puig on their debut album . Imaginate , released on 1 June 1999 in the U.S. and 18 October in Australia , reached number one on the ARIA Albums Chart , with debut single " Get Set " reaching number eight on the ARIA Singles Chart , number 41 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and number 36 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . " Get Set " won the 1999 ARIA Award for " Breakthrough Artist - Single " and was nominated for " Best Pop Release " , while Imaginate was nominated for " Breakthrough Artist - Album " and " Highest Selling Album " in 2000 . Imaginate was certified double platinum , indicating an excess of 140 @,@ 000 sales .
Taxiride wrote the majority of the album in a studio , and the final product generally used songs that band members had worked on individually . Imaginate earned a mediocre reception from critics . Steve Kurutz of Allmusic gave it three stars , calling the album a " slick ... bid for pop radio " . The use of a sitar on " Get Set " was praised , as was the Beatles influence and Puig 's production . To promote the album , Taxiride toured Australia , America , Japan , and Europe , with the album selling well in all areas . Despite the album 's success , Hall , then lead singer , left the band to work independently and with his other pet project , Airway Lanes . Hall said he was unhappy with " the pop direction the band was taking " .
Following Hall 's departure , the band recruited drummer Sean McLeod and bass guitarist Andy McIvor , and began work on their second album . Garage Mahal was released on 5 August 2002 , and produced three singles : " Creepin ' Up Slowly " , " How I Got This Way " , and " Afterglow " . All three songs charted in Australia ; " Creepin ' Up Slowly " was the most successful at number six , also reaching number 19 in New Zealand . In 2002 , Garage Mahal and " Creepin ' Up Slowly " were certified platinum by ARIA .
Much of Garage Mahal was written on the road , while touring , and as such had a different sound from the band 's prior work . Most of the writing was done in two places ; Mount Macedon in Victoria , and Palindrome Studio in Venice Beach , California , the home of producer Fred Maher . Mixing was done by David Way and Mike Shipley . Despite the change in sound , the band were still seen as purely a pop band — Australian Musician magazine claimed this was because they spent too much time overseas . Gary Glauber of PopMatters praised the album , noting it had not lost the quality of its predecessor , although it was a good deal heavier . Glauber reported on the overall high quality of songs , noting that " almost any of these songs could work as a single " , and calling the lyrics of " Creepin ' Up Slowly " " perpetually catchy " . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald said that the band did not hold back in their aim for American radio , calling the lyrics overly generic , and arguing the band only focused on their mainstream image .
= = = Independent and acoustic ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =
Watson left Taxiride in 2003 , and the band began work on a new album . They decided to release independently after splitting up with Warner Music , and recorded at Wild 's Melbourne home for a total of 12 months . During that time , the band collaborated with vocalist Chris Bailey ( The Saints lead singer ) and Hall , who took time out from working with Airway Lanes . Taxiride 's third album , Axiomatic , was released on 5 September 2005 , shortly after the first single , " Oh Yeah " . It would be the only song to chart from the album , reaching number 40 in Australia . To support the album , the band toured India as part of VH1 's Rock Rumble .
In creating Axiomatic , Taxiride worked independently , moving away from record labels in an attempt to make an album that would better reflect the music they wanted to produce . The band 's prior albums were described by Singh as being Americanised , and the band now wanted to make " an Australian record " . Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin influences were common ; " Oh Yeah " was recorded using a vocoder , which was popular in the 1970s . The album was described as containing " heavier rock sounds " than its predecessors .
Following the release of Axiomatic , Wild and Singh began to write new songs , accompanied by Hall . The band 's first live album , Electrophobia , was released on 16 September 2006 on Australian record label Liberation . It features songs from the band 's first three albums , all recorded in a standalone session in a Melbourne church on 26 May 2006 . The production was arranged by Rob John ( producer for Led Zeppelin and The Tea Party ) .
Andy McIvor left the band in 2006 , and is now playing with former Australian crawl member James Reyne
= = Musical style = =
Taxiride is primarily a pop rock band , also drawing influences from pub rock . On Electrophobia , they showed a different side , playing acoustic music for the first time . The band 's style has progressed over their career ; the pop direction the band took in the Imaginate era caused Hall to leave the group , only to return for heavier rock collaborations in the Axiomatic days . Allmusic 's Ed Nimmervoll said that the band distanced themselves from the boy band generation , comparing them to Crosby , Stills , Nash , & Young . Steve Kurutz , in reviewing Imaginate , related the album to the pop work of boy bands The Beatles , The Beach Boys , and The Everly Brothers , labeling the album as a bid for pop radio .
The International Herald Tribune 's Mike Zwerin noted the band 's style of having " four lead singers , four potential front men " — Imaginate 's strength was in their collective sound , argued Zwerin . On Garage Mahal , Taxiride had three active singer @-@ songwriters , with their strong opinions on musical content clashing frequently . Singh told Dan Grunebaum of Metropolis Tokyo that the arguments came about " because we were very passionate about what goes down onto tape " , and so they were resolved by recognising the overall goal of the band 's work .
= = Band member timeline = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Imaginate ( 1999 )
Garage Mahal ( 2002 )
Axiomatic ( 2005 )
Live albums
Electrophobia ( 2006 )
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= Steph Davies =
Stephanie Ann Davies , commonly known as Steph Davies , ( born 21 October 1987 ) is an international cricketer who has represented the England women 's cricket team in four One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) . A right @-@ arm medium @-@ fast bowler and right @-@ handed attacking batsman , she has played for Somerset women since 2001 .
After making her county debut for Somerset at the age of 13 , Davies quickly progressed into the England development and youth sides . She toured Australia with England Under @-@ 19s aged 15 and after two successful European tournaments , she captained the England Under @-@ 21s to victory in the 2006 Under @-@ 21 European Championships . After more matches for the development squad , and a number of tour matches for England , she made her ODI debut during the 2007 – 08 tour of Australia and New Zealand , playing the fifth and final one @-@ day match against Australia , and three of the five matches against New Zealand . Following this , she continued to be involved in the England Academy , but has not made any further ODI appearances . In 2009 , she took on the captaincy of Somerset .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years = = =
After watching cricket with her father , Davies began playing Kwik cricket , and then played age @-@ group cricket for local boys ' teams , including Mountain Ash and Mid Glamorgan . At the age of 13 , she took part in a women 's trial match , and was selected to play with the older women cricketers in the South West of England . At this time , she began to play women 's cricket for Somerset Wanderers as well as her boys ' matches . She soon progressed into the Somerset county side , making her debut that same year , aged 13 against Lancashire . She played four of Somerset 's five Women 's County Championship matches in 2001 , and claimed her first wicket for the side in the third of these , trapping Derbyshire 's Jane Morris leg before wicket during an economical spell in which she conceded only five runs off four overs .
Davies progressed quickly into the England development squad , representing them in a 2002 match against British Universities Sports Association . She also played a match for Wales , helping her native country defeat Scotland by seven wickets . Although she did not appear for Somerset in the County Championship during the season , she did help Somerset Wanderers reach the semi @-@ final of the ECB Women 's National Knockout . In 2002 , she made her first appearance in the Super Fours — a competition in which the England selectors place the 48 leading players into four teams — playing one match for the Knight Riders .
= = = England Under @-@ 19 debut = = =
She was chosen as part of the England Under @-@ 19s squad to tour Australia during the English winter of 2002 – 03 , in which the England side took part in the Women 's Australian Under @-@ 19 Championships . Davies had little impact in the competition , claiming two wickets from her nine overs , and scoring eleven runs during her two innings . She also played in one of the two matches against the Australia Under @-@ 19s side , bowling six overs in which she claimed one wicket .
In 2003 , Davies was again selected for the Super Fours competition , appearing in three matches for the Braves without standing out . She played five County Championship matches for Somerset , moving up the batting order ; after batting at number four in her first match of the season , she was promoted to open the innings for the remainder of the season . The move proved profitable , she passed her previous highest total during her first match in the new position , scoring 35 against Middlesex , and after a couple of lower totals , she made her highest score in women 's List A cricket when she scored 70 against Hampshire . Despite this move she remained in the lower order on her next international appearance , a 50 @-@ over contest for the England development squad which served as a warm @-@ up for the touring South Africa national women 's cricket team . She claimed three wickets during her seven overs as the English side won by seven wickets .
Twenty20 cricket was introduced into the English women 's domestic game for the first time in 2004 as part of the Super Fours competition . Playing her first match of this format , Davies took four wickets for Braves , helping them to a 12 run victory in the semi @-@ final of the competition . Davies had some success in the 50 @-@ over tournament ; although she only claimed two wickets in her four matches , she boasted the third lowest economy rate . She continued to open the batting for Somerset , but did not pass 50 runs in a match during her four matches for the county . Upon the conclusion of the English domestic season , Davies travelled to Ireland as part of the England squad to compete in the 2004 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships . Davies played two different roles for England during the tournament ; in the first match she was used purely as an opening batsman , scoring 25 runs off 27 balls to help chase down a small Scotland total of 57 in under 10 overs . In the subsequent two matches , she batted as part of the middle order , and bowled at least five overs in each match . Against the Netherlands , she bowled very economically , finishing with figures of 1 / 5 off her 5 @.@ 3 overs . England won all three of their matches to win the competition .
During 2005 , Davies passed 50 twice , making 65 against Nottinghamshire and 51 against Berkshire in the second half of the season . Due to her improved performances with the bat in the previous season , Davies was promoted to bat slightly higher in the order for the Braves , playing two matches at number five and two at number three . At the close of the season , she played for England A women in a match against the senior England side , scoring 8 runs after opening the batting . She was then selected as part of the England Development Squad to compete in the 2005 Women 's European Championship in Wales . As with her appearances in the Under @-@ 21 European Championship , her role altered from match to match . On the two occasions on which she was asked to bat , she scored 23 at number three against Ireland , and 31 opening the innings against Netherlands . She finished the tournament as the leading bowler in terms of wickets , bowling average and economy . In total she claimed nine wickets in her four matches , coming at an average of 5 @.@ 88 . The highlight of her bowling came in the match against Scotland , when Davies collected four wickets in 6 @.@ 2 overs , conceding just five runs during this time .
Davies had a reasonably quiet 2006 domestic season with both bat and ball . In four 50 @-@ over matches for Somerset she scored 34 runs at an average of 8 @.@ 50 , and took four wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 75 , taking a wicket in each match . Davies was again selected for the Super Fours , this time playing for the Emeralds . She made 74 runs at 14 @.@ 80 in five matches with a highest score of 29 , but was ineffective with the ball , taking 2 wickets at 74 @.@ 00 . Davies performed well for England A during a match against the touring Indian side , restricting the visitors to just fifteen runs off her ten overs , taking two wickets as she did so . Opening both the batting and bowling for England in this match , she then added an unbeaten 27 , albeit off 77 balls , to help England A secure victory via the Duckworth – Lewis method . She was named as captain of the England Under @-@ 21 side for the 2006 Women 's European Under @-@ 21 Championships , and led her side to three large victories to retain the competition title . She finished the tournament near the top of both the batting and bowling averages charts , boosted by her performance against Ireland , in which she took three wickets for just six runs conceded in her bowling duties , and followed it up with a score of 31 as her side chased a low Irish total of 69 to win .
= = = Full international debut = = =
In June 2007 , Davies made her first appearance for the senior England side , albeit in a non @-@ international match against an England Cricket Board Invitational XI . She was not required to bat or bowl in the match , which England won by five wickets . As the English summer continued , she played three matches for the England development squad , making scores of 34 and 18 in matches against South Africa , and 15 against England . In November 2007 , she was named as part of the England squad which travelled to Australia and New Zealand , her first tour as a member of the senior England side . She was selected to play in two of the three warm @-@ up matches on the tour , but did not make her ODI debut until the fifth and final match of the series . Coming on to bowl as the first change , Davies claimed four wickets in her first international innings , trapping Lisa Sthalekar , Kate Blackwell and Leonie Coleman leg before wicket , and having Kirsten Pike stumped off the last ball of the innings . Despite her performance , Australia won the match by 41 runs . After playing the only warm @-@ up match in New Zealand , in which she scored 25 from the lower order , Davies missed the first ODI , returning for the second . She bowled six wicket @-@ less overs in this match , and was not required to bat as England chased down the hosts total for the loss of only one wicket . Her bowling was used slightly more in the next match , claiming the wicket of Amy Satterthwaite during her nine overs . As with the previous match , her batting was not required as England reached the required target with six wickets remaining . She added one more wicket the fourth ODI , but there was no result as the match was washed out , leaving Davies without a batting innings during the series .
In September 2007 , Davies started studying Sport and Physical Education at the University of Wales Institute , Cardiff , meaning that she had to juggle her cricket career with her academic studies in 2008 . She represented England sides twice , both in early August , playing for the academy against Ireland and for the development squad the following day against the senior England side . As an MCC Young Cricketer , she was also selected to play in an MCC side against India later in the same month . She played five Somerset 's six County Championship matches , her best performance of the season coming against Warwickshire , when she claimed a wicket and scored 25 runs to help her county to victory . She also made one appearance in the Super Fours for Rubies .
= = = Somerset captain = = =
Davies was named Somerset captain for the 2009 season , taking over from Hannah Lloyd , who continued to play for the side . In her first match as captain — against Surrey on 10 May 2009 — she scored a half @-@ century , and shared a 128 @-@ run partnership with fellow opener Sophie Le Marchand , helping her side to a 21 run victory . That score remained her best of the season , and in a rebuilding season for the county , she finished as the leading run @-@ scorer , with 217 . She also finished the season as Somerset 's most economical bowler , and her seven wickets meant that she trailed only Izzy Westbury among wicket @-@ takers . She continued to play for both England Academy and MCC Young Cricketers , and represented the academy in two Twenty20 matches against Pakistan prior to the 2009 ICC Women 's World Twenty20 . She continued as captain in 2010 , and in Somerset 's opening fixture of the season , against Berkshire , she claimed her fourth List A four @-@ wicket haul .
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= Widerøe Flight 710 =
Widerøe Flight 710 , commonly known as the Torghatten Accident ( Norwegian : Torghatten @-@ ulykken ) , was a controlled flight into terrain into the mountain of Torghatten in Brønnøy , Norway . The Widerøe @-@ operated de Havilland Canada Dash 7 crashed on 6 May 1988 at 20 : 29 : 30 during approach to Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy . All thirty @-@ six people on board LN @-@ WFN were killed ; the crash remains the deadliest accident of the Dash 7 and in Northern Norway . The direct cause of the accident was that the aircraft had descended from 500 meters to 170 meters ( 1 @,@ 500 – 550 ft ) at 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) instead of 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) from the airport .
An investigation found several shortcomings in the airline 's operating procedures , in particular lack of proper cockpit communication and mutual control of the descent and approach plans . This was in part caused by the airline electing to not follow the Sterile Cockpit Rule and that a passenger was sitting in a cockpit jump seat during the flight . The investigating commission also found lack of proper pilot training in the airline . Flight 710 was the second of four Widerøe accidents between 1982 and 1993 , all of which revealed shortcomings in the airline 's operations and internal control .
= = Flight = =
The accident aircraft was a four @-@ engine de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 7 Dash 7 Series 102 , with serial number 28 , built in 1980 . It was bought used by Widerøe in 1985 and registered as LN @-@ WFN on 8 November 1985 . Its certificate of airworthiness was last renewed on 4 November 1987 and was valid until 30 November 1988 . The aircraft had operated 16 @,@ 934 hours and 32 @,@ 347 cycles prior to its last flight . The last A @-@ check took place on 15 April 1988 , after which the aircraft had flown 147 hours and 30 cycles . The 58 @-@ year @-@ old captain held a D @-@ certificate issued 8 April 1981 and was last renewed on 11 December 1987 . He took his initial license in 1949 and had worked as a pilot in Widerøe since 1 April 1960 . At the time of his last renewal , he had flown 19 @,@ 886 hours , of which 2 @,@ 849 hours were with the Dash 7 . He had completed periodical flight training with the Dash 7 on 8 March 1988 . He had just come home from a six @-@ week vacation in Spain .
The first officer was 31 years old and held a C @-@ certificate which limited him to being first officer on the Dash 7 . The certificate was issued on 5 January 1987 and had been valid for the Dash 7 since 23 February 1988 . He had started his flight training in 1977 and had completed it in the United States in 1979 . He was hired as a pilot for Widerøe on 6 February 1986 , where he had originally served on the de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter . He was checked out as first officer on the Dash 7 in February 1988 . He had a total flight time of 6 @,@ 458 hours , of which 85 were on the Dash 7 . The flight attendant was 28 years old and had worked for Widerøe since 1983 .
The aircraft had been used during the morning of 6 May on a multi @-@ leg flight from Bodø Airport to Trondheim Airport , Værnes and back . It had then flown back to Trondheim where it changed crew . They had arrived at Trondheim with a flight at 18 : 50 on 5 May and left the hotel in Trondheim at 16 : 15 on 6 May . Flight 710 was scheduled to fly from Trondheim via Namsos Airport , Høknesøra ; Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy ; and Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka . It departed Værnes at 19 : 23 , one and a half hours after scheduled , because of technical problems with another different aircraft . Flight 710 had a crew of three : a captain , a first officer and a flight attendant . The aircraft was packed and therefore a jump seat in the cockpit was used by a passenger , bringing the number of people on board to 52 .
The aircraft made a stop @-@ over at Namsos , where sixteen of the passengers disembarked . This reduced the number of passengers on board to thirty @-@ three , but the passenger occupying the jump seat continued to sit there on the next leg . The captain was the flying pilot for the segment . The aircraft departed Namsos at 20 : 07 and contacted Trondheim Air Traffic Control Center ( ATCC ) at 20 : 13 to receive permission to ascend to flight level 90 ( FL 90 ) , which was received . During the flight , the passenger in the jump seat held a conversation with the captain and asked several questions regarding the operations . The first officer did not participate in this discussions , and it was he who conducted radio contact with air traffic control and the airline 's operations ' center .
The first officer contacted the airline at 20 : 16 and informed that they expected to arrive at 20 : 32 . At 20 : 20 : 29 , the aircraft asked permission from Trondheim ATCC to switch to Brønnøysund Aerodrome Flight Information Service ( AFIS ) , which was granted . The aircraft announced at 20 : 20 : 42 that they would start the descent and would switch to Brønnøysund AFIS . Contact was made at 20 : 22 : 34 , at which time the aircraft announced it was 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) from the airport and at FL 80 . AFIS informed that there were no known aircraft in the area and that runway 22 was in use ; wind was 5 knots ( 9 km / h ; 6 mph ) from southeast , 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ; 6 mi ) visibility , a light shower and 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . At 20 : 23 : 22 the first officer held a 62 @-@ second conversation with the airline ordering a taxi for one of the passengers so he could reach his connecting ferry .
The captain asked for the descent checklist at 20 : 24 : 24 . The fasten seat belt sign was switched on and the flight attendant started the process of preparing the cabin for landing . At 20 : 24 : 46 the captain , as part of the checklist , informed the first officer that they would go down to 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) at Torghatten and then down to 170 meters ( 550 ft ) . This was followed first by a partially unreadable conversation between the captain and the first officers , which included if they were to fill fuel , and then an unreadable conversation between the captain and the jump seat passenger . The direction of the VHF omnidirectional radio range ( VOR ) and distance measuring equipment ( DME ) at Brønnøysund was checked at 20 : 26 : 37 .
The approach checklist was started at 20 : 27 : 01 , at which time the aircraft 's altitude reached 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 500 ft ) . The first point on the checklist were not readable , but the last three were . At 20 : 27 : 32 the captain asked for flaps and landing gear , which were immediately deployed by the first officer and resulted in the aircraft gaining 70 meters ( 200 ft ) of altitude . The landing gears were confirmed locked at 20 : 28 : 00 . Four seconds later the passenger asked the captain if there were reserve systems which could be used if the landing gear did not deploy properly . At this point the aircraft started the descent from 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 500 ft ) .
AFIS asked for the aircraft 's position at 20 : 28 : 10 , and the first officer responded at 20 : 28 : 13 that it was 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 mi ) away . He asked AFIS for a wind check , and AFIS responded that it was from 220 degrees and 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 mph ) . The first officers confirmed the information at 20 : 28 : 24 . The aircraft reached 170 meters ( 550 ft ) altitude and remained at that height for the rest of the flight . A short conversation was initiated by the passenger at 20 : 28 : 55 . Three seconds later , the captain asked for " 25 degrees flaps and props fully fine " . This was confirmed by the first officer two seconds later . The pre @-@ landing checklist was completed between 20 : 29 : 04 and : 19 .
The autopilot had been used since 25 seconds after take @-@ off from Namsos and was used for the remainder of the flight . From 20 : 29 : 21 all four engines showed increasing torque and immediately before the crash the aircraft had shifted its angle from − 2 @.@ 5 degrees to 5 degrees . At 20 : 29 : 29 the ground proximity warning system showed ' minimum ' . The aircraft crashed into the western side Torghatten at 20 : 29 : 30 at 170 meters ( 560 ft ) elevation .
The aircraft flew into the mountain at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees , with the starboard side towards the mountain . The aircraft was ascending at a seven @-@ degree angle , plus / minus one degree . The tip of the starboard wing was the first to hit the mountain , followed by engine number four ( the right @-@ most ) . The engine was immediately torn off and the aircraft started to rotate . The aircraft started being torn in the back rib of the starboard wing . Then the nose and port wing from engine number two ( the inner ) hit a depression in the mountain @-@ face , causing engine number one to loosen from its nacelle and the port wing to break between the engines . At the same time the aircraft 's body was broken in two . The aircraft 's forward movement stopped , the wreck pieces rotated with the vertical stabilizer away from the mountain @-@ side , the port wing caught on fire and exploded and the rest of the aircraft fell down the slope . On the way down , the starboard wing caught on fire .
= = Cause = =
The commission found that the direct cause of the crash was that the approach was started 4 nautical miles ( 7 km ; 5 mi ) too early and that the aircraft therefore came below the height of the terrain . No specific reason for the early approach was found , although there were several non @-@ compliance by the crew members to regulations and procedures . Specifically , the commission pointed to the lack of internal control which would have identified operation shortcomings and the lack of proper cockpit procedures , especially regarding callouts . There were no technical faults to the aircraft , and the pilots had full control of the aircraft at the time of the collision , making it a controlled flight into terrain .
Interviews with random pilots in Widerøe showed that the airline had shortcomings in its training procedures , in part because it lacked a Dash 7 simulator . There was a culture in the airline to divert from cockpit procedures and cooperation . The flight plans often made procedures for mutual control of procedures impractical , and they were commonly skipped . The commission was of the impression that Widerøe 's transition from an all @-@ Twin Otter airline to also operate the more demanding Dash 7 was not properly carried out , which had resulted shortcomings in the training and operating procedures . All checklists during the flight were followed correctly . However , the pilots did not elect a method of double @-@ control of the descent and approach , such as by using briefings and callouts .
The pilots had several non @-@ compliances to regulations in their descent . This included using " Torghatten " during the captain 's briefing , despite no marking on the map using this name , nor one being located close to the mountain . The aircraft was supposed to have flatted out at 750 meters ( 2 @,@ 500 ft ) , but instead this took place at 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 500 ft ) . The next descent was started at 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 mi ) instead of 4 nautical miles ( 7 km ; 5 mi ) from the airport and the aircraft thus came under permitted altitude .
The aircraft was using instrument flight rules ( IFR ) and Torghatten was covered in fog . The visibility was within the permitted range of IFR . The commission found five errors on Widerøe 's maps which could have influenced the accident . This included a formulation which gave the impression that DMR was not in use ; a closed " Torget " marker beacon was still on the maps ; a vertical flight plan from Lekan was not included ; the height limitations in the accident area were noted through comments rather than through a graphical presentation ; and confusion as to when the timing of final approach should start . The commission also criticized the airline for its checklists instructing the pilots to one of VHF channels to the company frequency during descent , at a time when non @-@ safety @-@ related communication is unwanted .
Because the aircraft was fully booked , a passenger was allowed to sit in the jump seat in the cockpit . The passenger had no connection with the airline , but was granted permission by the captain via acquaintance in the airline . Several of the other passengers were employees in Widerøe and should — according to the airline 's rules — instead have been seated there . From Namsos to Brønnøysund there were available seats in the cabin , but the jump seat passenger continued to sit in the cockpit . The commission felt that the passenger 's conversation with the captain drew his attention and concentration away from his duties at a critical point of the flight . This also disrupted communication between the two pilots , resulting in the mutual control being disrupted .
= = Salvage and investigation = =
The aircraft crashed into Torghatten , which is located 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ; 6 mi ) south @-@ west of Brønnøysund Airport . The mountain is 271 meters ( 888 ft ) tall and is a distinct height in an area which is otherwise rather flat . The aircraft hit the western side of the mountain at a point where the terrain is forty degrees steep . The center line of the flight path is 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) from Torghatten . The wreck was spread over an area 60 to 100 meters ( 200 to 330 ft ) below the point of impact .
AFIS made several attempts to call up the aircraft . It received a call from a resident close to Torghatten which said they had heard aircraft noise followed by a crash . Brønnøysund Fire Department and an ambulance helicopter with a doctor was dispatched to Torghatten . The rescue work was made difficult by low clouds , small fires and explosions . The terrain was difficult and the lack of daylight made assisting the situation difficult . A helicopter with medical personnel and the airport direct arrived at 21 : 25 , while a meeting place for the next of kin was established at the airport . At 23 : 30 the police stated that there was no hope of finding survivors and the scene changed from a search to an investigation scene . Due to the fog it was not possible to verify that all people had been killed until the next day . Seventy @-@ five people from the Home Guard participated in the salvage .
The Accident Investigation Board Norway was informed about the accident at 21 : 10 . Four members of the investigation commission were appointed , consisting of leader Lieutenant General Wilhelm Mohr , Pilot Hallvard Vikholt , Lieutenant Colonel Asbjørn Stein and Chief @-@ of @-@ Police Arnstein Øverkil . Because of poor weather conditions , the commission was not assembled in Brønnøy until 15 : 00 on 7 May . The same day the National Criminal Investigation Service arrived to assist AIBN . Six people appointed by the Canadian Aviation Safety Board , including representatives from de Havilland Canada and Pratt & Whitney Canada , were sent to aid the investigation . Four representatives from Widerøe were available for consultation with the commission . The investigation commission was later supplemented by Psychologist Grethe Myhre and Øverkil replaced by Arne Huuse .
The VOR / DME system was tested by the Civil Aviation Administration on 7 May and found to be working correctly . AIBN established a base of operations at the hangar at Brønnøysund Airport and used a helicopter to freight the pieces of the wreck there and bodies to Trondheim University Hospital for identification . Technical investigations started on 9 May . The aircraft was equipped with a flight data recorder and a cockpit voice recorder . Both were found intact and were decoded at the Air Accidents Investigation Branch in the United Kingdom . Improper use of the microphone made it difficult to hear the captain 's voice , but it was possible to reconstruct the conversations and line of events . A memorial service was held on 10 May and was attended by Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland . The last Home Guard personnel concluded their work on 11 May and the police concluded their investigations at Torghatten on 13 May .
In May 2013 the investigation board was made aware of that two passengers had each their Mobira NMT @-@ 450 mobile telephone with them on the flights . As this had not been mentioned in the original report , AIBN conducted a review of the issue and especially if the telephones could have influenced the vertical navigation . They concluded in December that this was not the case , as there were no indications of interferences and that there are no instances where electromagnetic interference has been a contributing cause to an aviation accident .
= = Aftermath = =
Flight 710 was the second fatal and write @-@ off accident of a Dash 7 , and remains the deadliest . It was at the time the third @-@ deadliest aviation accident in Norwegian history , after the Holtaheia Accident in 1961 and Braathens SAFE Flight 239 in 1972 . It has since been relegated to the fourth @-@ deadliest by Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 . It remains the deadliest accident in Northern Norway .
The commission recommended that Widerøe update its maps for Brønnøysund , review and improve its landing procedures , improve its internal control procedures to ensure that pilots follow the airline 's flight operation regulations , and introduce the Sterile Cockpit Rule . The commission recommended that the Civil Aviation Administration change the flight paths at Brønnøysund to increase the altitude around Torghatten . Flight 710 was the second of four fatal Widerøe accidents which occurred between 1982 and 1993 . In the first accident , Flight 933 , a poor cockpit culture had also been discovered , but little was followed up , in part because of a conspiracy theory which surfaced regarding a collision with a fighter jet . Also in the following two major Widerøe accidents , Flight 893 in 1990 and Flight 744 in 1993 , the investigation uncovered operational shortcomings .
The press had an aggressive coverage of the accident . Several major press organizations attended the memorial service , and newspapers published close @-@ up pictures of crying next of kin on their front pages . The Norwegian Press Complaints Commission , a committee appointed by the newspapers themselves , acquitted Dagbladet after a complaint for their aggressive image use . However , the accident coverage started an internal debate among journalists about their coverage of major accidents . The conclusion was that private sorrow was not to be covered in the media and since the media has had a strict self @-@ enforcement of such a policy .
Brønnøysund Airport installed the SCAT @-@ I satellite @-@ based landing system on 29 October 2007 . Avinor 's Steinar Hamar stated at the opening ceremony that the system would have prevented both Flight 710 and Flight 744 at Namsos Airport in 1993 . The roll @-@ out , taking place at most of Avinor 's regional airports , is scheduled for completion in 2013 .
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= 2012 Budweiser Shootout =
The 2012 Budweiser Shootout was the first exhibition stock car race of the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . It was held on February 18 , 2012 at the Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida , before a crowd of 82 @,@ 000 . The 82 @-@ lap race was won by Kyle Busch of the Joe Gibbs Racing team . It was Busch 's first victory in the event ; Tony Stewart finished second and Marcos Ambrose came in third .
Pole position driver Martin Truex , Jr. was immediately passed by Jeff Gordon before the first turn , and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. led at the end of the first lap . On the ninth lap , a multiple @-@ car accident prompted the first caution flag . Sixteen laps later the second caution was issued , with Jamie McMurray leading . During the caution period , all teams made pit stops . On lap 62 Gordon reclaimed the lead , holding it until he was involved in an accident ( the race 's final caution ) . Stewart took the lead , holding it until the final lap when Busch passed him to win . Five cautions were issued during the race , which saw twenty @-@ six lead changes by thirteen different drivers and attracted 7 @.@ 46 million television viewers .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daytona International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Michigan International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . Its standard track is a four @-@ turn , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) superspeedway . Daytona 's turns are banked at 31 degrees , and the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) is banked at 18 degrees .
The Budweiser Shootout was created by Busch Beer brand manager Monty Roberts as the Busch Clash in 1979 . The race , designed to promote Busch Beer , invites the fastest NASCAR drivers from the previous season to compete . The race is considered a " warm @-@ up " for the Daytona 500 . It was renamed the Bud Shootout in 1998 . The name changed to the Budweiser Shootout in 2001 , and it was rebranded the Sprint Unlimited in 2013 .
Thirty @-@ three drivers were eligible to compete in the race , including the top 25 in the 2011 championship standings and previous winners at Daytona ( including the Daytona 500 and the Coke Zero 400 ) . Kurt Busch was the defending champion . The race was scheduled to be 75 laps long , with two segments of 25 and 50 laps separated by a ten @-@ minute pit stop . During the pit stop , teams could change tires , add fuel , and make normal chassis adjustments but could not change springs , shock absorbers or rear ends . Work could be done in the garage or on the pit road . Caution and green @-@ flag laps were counted in the race .
After the two @-@ car style draft ( also called tandem racing ) dominated races held on restrictor plate tracks during 2011 , NASCAR reduced the size of the radiators from five liters to two liters and the air intakes were moved towards the car 's fascia section . The size of the restrictor plate was reduced by 1 ⁄ 64 inch ( 0 @.@ 4 mm ) and the cars were required to run with softer springs and a smaller rear spoiler . These changes were intended to reduce the effectiveness of two @-@ car style drafting and to make the cars more challenging to turn . Sprint Cup Series director John Darby stated NASCAR wanted to be able to allow teams more options with drafting and hoped the difference in speeds between tandem drafting and pack style racing would be reduced .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Two practice sessions were held on Friday afternoon . The first session lasted 45 minutes ; the second , scheduled for 60 minutes , was shortened to ten because of rain . Matt Kenseth had the fastest time ( 44 @.@ 607 seconds , five @-@ thousandths of a second faster than Jeff Burton ) in the first session ( where drivers tried out pack and tandem drafting ) . David Ragan ( with a time of 44 @.@ 966 seconds ) was third , ahead of Jamie McMurray , Ryan Newman , and Denny Hamlin . Brad Keselowski was seventh , within one second of Kenseth 's time . Tony Stewart and Kurt Busch collided near the end of the session , beginning a chain @-@ reaction accident involving cars driven by A. J. Allmendinger , Keselowski and Kyle Busch ; Keselowski , Allmendinger , and Kyle and Kurt Busch were required to use their backup cars . Stewart was taken to the track 's infield care center where he was treated for minor injuries and later released . McMurray was fastest in the second practice session , ( where twelve drivers took part ) with a time of 45 @.@ 524 seconds . Juan Pablo Montoya was second , ahead of Greg Biffle and Kasey Kahne . Marcos Ambrose was fifth fastest , with a time of 46 @.@ 037 seconds . Hamlin , Michael Waltrip , Joey Logano , Kenseth , and Carl Edwards rounded out the top ten positions .
The 25 drivers determined their starting positions by lot , a feature that is unique to the event . Martin Truex , Jr. drew the pole position , with Kyle Busch , Keselowski , McMurray and Ragan rounding out the first five positions . Kurt Busch drew sixth place and Biffle drew seventh , ahead of Dale Earnhardt , Jr. and Allmendinger in eighth and ninth . Logano , Edwards , Burton , Newman , and Jeff Gordon drew the next five positions . Tony Stewart , who drew fifteenth , was followed by Hamlin , Clint Bowyer , Jimmie Johnson , Kahne , and Waltrip for the first 20 spots . Ambrose , Kevin Harvick , Kenseth , Paul Menard , and Montoya drew the last five positions in the race . Once the lot was completed , Truex commented , " I haven 't been in this race in a few years . I absolutely hated being down here ( those years ) and watching this race , so it 's cool just to be in it and to get the pole is icing on the cake . "
= = = Race = = =
The 2012 Budweiser Shootout was the first exhibition race of the season , and was televised live in the United States by Fox , which began at 8 : 10 pm EST . Tim McNeil of First Methodist Church began the pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Country music group Little Big Town performed the national anthem , and Petty 1st Class Officer William Kimberl , Petty 1st Class Officer Andres Reyes and Petty Officer 2nd Class Aaron Schwartz from the United States Armed Forces gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Keselowski , Allmendinger , and Kyle and Kurt Busch had to move to the rear of the grid because they had switched to their backup cars .
McMurray accelerated faster than Truex off the line ( leading him at the first turn ) , but by the end of the first lap Earnhardt had the lead . Three laps later , McMurray reclaimed the lead ; one lap later , Logano passed him . On lap six , Truex briefly reclaimed the lead before Harvick passed him . Three laps later a multiple @-@ car collision between turns one and two , involving Waltrip , Menard , Martin , Ragan , Kenseth , and Montoya , triggered the first caution of the race and the pace car . The race restarted on lap sixteen , with Earnhardt leading Harvick and Truex . On the seventeenth lap , McMurray passed Harvick on the backstraightaway to move into the lead . One lap later , Truex took the lead for a lap before he was passed by Kurt Busch . On the 21st lap , McMurray moved back into second place ; two laps later McMurray passed Truex to reclaim the lead , with Edwards moving into second .
On lap 25 , Gordon passed Edwards between the third and fourth turns to move into second place and a second caution was issued shortly afterward . After the caution , all the teams made a ten @-@ minute pit stop before the restart . McMurray led Gordon , Edwards , Johnson , and Biffle in the first lap of the rolling start before Gordon took the lead ; one lap later , Edwards passed Kyle Busch to move into second place . On lap 28 , Biffle , assisted by team mate Edwards , passed Gordon to take the lead . Bowyer experienced oversteer on lap 29 , but regained control of his car . Two laps later , Bowyer spun sideways after he was hit by teammate Truex leaving the tri @-@ oval ; a third caution was issued , during which most of the leaders , including Biffle , made pit stops for fuel and tires . Earnhardt led the field back up to speed at the restart . McMurray reclaimed the lead on lap 38 ; Earnhardt tried to pass underneath McMurray going into the third turn two laps later , but McMurray kept the position . Truex passed McMurray on lap 44 , with help from Earnhardt . By the 47th lap , Harvick had moved into the lead position ; Kyle Busch collided with the wall , escaping with minor damage to the front of his car . He passed McMurray to reclaim the lead one lap later , with Gordon taking over first place by the start of lap 50 . One lap later McMurray , aided by team mate Harvick , regained the lead .
The fourth caution was issued on lap 54 when Ambrose made contact with Logano , causing a multiple @-@ car collision involving Earnhardt , Kenseth , and Truex . Most of the leaders made pit stops during the caution . During lap 55 Harvick and Logano drove to their garages , retiring from the race . Biffle led at the lap 61 restart before Gordon reclaimed the lead , with Johnson moving into second place . Ten laps later , Kyle Busch took the lead until Stewart passed him two laps later . On lap 74 , Kyle Busch lost control of his car which caused Gordon to hit the wall ; his car rolled over , prompting the fifth and final caution . Kurt Busch , Johnson and McMurray were caught up in the wreck . The race restarted on lap 81 , for a green – white – checker finish ( extending the race to 82 laps ) with Stewart leading Ambrose , Bowyer and Keselowski until Ambrose ( with assistance from Keselowski ) passed him . On the final lap , Stewart reclaimed the lead ( with help from Kyle Busch ) before Busch passed him to win the race . The margin of victory was 0 @.@ 013 seconds , the closest in the history of the event . Ambrose finished third , Keselowski fourth and Hamlin fifth . Biffle , Newman , Bowyer , Edwards and Montoya rounded out the top ten finishers in the race .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Kyle Busch appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first victory of the season ; the win earned him $ 198 @,@ 550 . He said , " I don 't know how many times I spun out and didn 't spin out . Amazing race . It was fun to drive when I wasn 't getting turned around " , and , " Stab and steer , stab and steer , That 's what you do . And some brakes . There are brakes involved , too . I thought I was clear ... and I tried going down slowly , and Jimmie just must have been there a little bit , turned me sideways and got me on the apron — scared everybody half to death , including me . " Stewart , who finished second , said , " I actually had fun racing at Daytona again , which I haven 't had for a while . I don 't know what the consensus is from everybody else , but I had more fun as a driver tonight than what we 've had in the past . " Ambrose , who finished third in the race , explained , " It 's definitely a lot more fun , more entertaining for the fans , and more in control for the drivers . "
According to Ragan , who was involved in the race 's largest accident , " Everybody was real racy and I just got into the back of Menard . You get a good run , and you 're pushing a little bit , and I guess he was pushing whoever was in front of him . And when you 've got the meat in between the sandwich , you usually get wrecked . " Harvick blamed the accident on drivers who had little experience of pack racing : " The biggest problem is the tandem racing has been so easy for these guys to stay attached that some of them haven 't raced in pack racing . It 's going to take a lot more patience from a lot of guys who haven 't done this before . " Nevertheless , Menard thought that the pack style of racing would be a good combination for the Daytona 500 and believed it would be " chaotic " and " exciting " . Four days after the race , NASCAR announced that the pressure relief values in the engine would be increased from 25 psi ( 1 @.@ 7 bar ) to 28 psi ( 1 @.@ 9 bar ) after some drivers complained of overheating issues while they were running in packs . The race had a television audience of 7 @.@ 46 million viewers .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
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= Miss Independent ( Kelly Clarkson song ) =
" Miss Independent " is a song by American pop artist Kelly Clarkson . It served as the lead single from her debut studio album , Thankful ( 2003 ) . Written by Clarkson , Christina Aguilera , Rhett Lawrence , and Matt Morris , with Lawrence serving as producer , it was released by RCA Records on April 10 , 2003 . The track was initially intended for Aguilera 's fourth album , Stripped ( 2002 ) , but was later given to Clarkson when the song was left unfinished at the time of Stripped ’ s development .
" Miss Independent " is a pop rock song with R & B influences . It tells of a story of an independent woman who finally allows herself to lower her emotional and communication barriers to fall in love . Its theme of self @-@ sufficiency would later served as a template for Clarkson 's subsequent releases . The song generally received positive response from music critics , while criticism targeted the song 's similarity to Aguilera 's material .
The song became a commercial success , it helped in presenting Clarkson 's " girl next door " image to the public and contributed in eliminating her " American Idol " persona . In the United States , it peaked at number 1 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart and peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also attained a top ten position in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom . It was eventually certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and was nominated Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Liz Friedlander , and featured Clarkson singing at a house party . She has performed the song in several live performances , premiering it in the second season of American Idol , and has included it in set lists in most of her concert tours .
= = Background and release = =
American record producer Rhett Lawrence first offered the song " Miss Independence " to American R & B trio Destiny 's Child whom later turned down the offer to record the song . Lawrence then collaborated with Christina Aguilera and Matt Morris to record it for Aguilera 's fourth studio album Stripped ( 2002 ) as " Miss Independence " . Aguilera ultimately decided not to include it for the album , leaving it half @-@ finished without the bridge . Lawrence , Clarkson 's then manager Simon Fuller and music mogul Clive Davis suggested that Clarkson contribute lyrics to the song , and record it for her debut album Thankful ( 2003 ) . One of Clarkson 's A & R managers , Keith Naftaly , suggested to re @-@ title it as " Miss Independent " . The song was released by RCA Records on April 10 , 2003 , ten days ahead of the Thankful ’ s release . In 2009 , it was made available for purchase as a downloadable content ( DLC ) for the Rock Band , Rock Band 2 , and Lego Rock Band video games .
In an interview on Total Request Live , Aguilera revealed that upon hearing Clarkson 's version of the track , she became miffed that RCA , which was also her record label , decided to release it without her permission - however she also praised Clarkson 's vocal performance . She told Clarkson on the air , " if the song was to go to anyone I 'm glad that it went to you because you gave it justice . " In 2010 , Clarkson told the Bournemouth Daily Echo that " I had to argue with the record label to the point of literally crying to get " Miss Independent " on the album , then they released it as my debut single and it was a hit . "
= = Composition = =
" Miss Independent " is a R & B @-@ styled pop rock song . Katherine St Asaph of Popdust noted that " it ’ s the closest Kelly Clarkson ’ s come to R & B. " Clarkson credited that Aguilera 's rhythmic style has heavily influenced the song . She remarked , " You can hear a lot of her influence in " ' Miss Independent " , especially the hook . And once you hear the song , it 's constantly in your head . Believe me , I cannot get it out ! " Rachell Kipp of Associated Press wrote that " Miss Independent " " sounds like a half @-@ baked remake of Aguilera 's " Dirrty " ( 2002 ) " The song has a length of three minutes and 35 seconds and is written in the key of D major , Clarkson 's vocal range spans from F ♯ 3 to F ♯ 5 . The lyrics tells the story of an independent woman who was apprehensive about being in a relationship in fears of being rejected , she finally allows herself to break her emotional and communication barriers when she begins to fall in love . Clarkson revealed that she finds herself similar to the titular " Miss Independent " . She said , " It 's very funny when the song came into play with me ... ' cause at that certain time of my life , I was actually going through that kind of thing , " Clarkson said . " I 've always been real guarded about work and career . It wasn 't even with , like , guy relationships , it was just , like , friends and just letting people in , you know ? And so it was kinda weird ' cause I was going through that same thing at the same time , so it was very easy for me to write the bridge to the song . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Miss Independent " has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who lauded Clarkson for distancing herself from her American Idol persona , but criticism targeted the song 's resemblance to some of the song 's on Stripped — particularly on " Dirrty " and " Fighter " ( 2002 ) . On its release , Brian Hiatt of Entertainment Weekly noted that " its hard R & B sound may shock fans who embraced the mellow " A Moment Like This . " " Miss Independent " begins with Clarkson singing in a throaty moan over a bangin ' hip @-@ hop beat , then bursts into a power @-@ chord @-@ propelled , disco @-@ diva chorus that 's not unlike Britney Spears ' " Stronger " . " Rolling Stone wrote , " " A Moment Like This " was exactly the sort of treacly by @-@ the @-@ numbers ballad critics expected of a TV @-@ contest winner ; that 's probably why its assertive follow @-@ up , " Miss Independent , " was such a surprise . " AllMusic 's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it " managed to make Kelly Clarkson seem younger and hipper without slutting her up like Christina Aguilera ( who , ironically , co @-@ wrote " Miss Independent , " the first single from Thankful ) while retaining a strong sense of melodic songcraft . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the song " gives Clarkson the youthful edge she desperately needs to balance out the Adult Contemporary goo of songs like " Anytime " and " A Moment Like This . " Cinquemani also added , " " Miss Independent " is no " Dirrty , " but it proves that if anyone can out @-@ sing Aguilera , it 's Clarkson . " On March 5 , 2013 , Billboard ranked the it the number sixteen in its list of " Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time " .
Howard Cohen of The Baltimore Sun wrote , " The R & B @-@ styled stomper " Miss Independent " , sounds like the fat removed from Aguilera 's meatier " Fighter " - which could well be the case , since she co @-@ wrote both tunes . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today was more critical of the song , calling it " breathless " and " colorless " . She also added that the song " sounds less like the edgy , strong @-@ but @-@ vulnerable @-@ woman number it purports to be than the Christina Aguilera throwaway it basically is . " The song received a nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 Grammy Awards , but lost out to Aguilera 's " Beautiful " . It was also nominated for Choice Summer Song at the 2003 Teen Choice Awards .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Miss Independent " debuted at the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 23 on the week ending May 3 , 2003 . It then debuted on the Pop Songs chart for the week ending May 10 , 2003 , eventually topping the chart for six weeks beginning on the week ending June 28 , 2003 . The song debuted on the main Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending May 17 , 2003 at number 61 , eventually reaching at number 9 on the week ending July 19 , 2003 , becoming her second Top Ten single in the United States . It also charted on Adult Pop Songs and Adult Contemporary charts at number 14 and number 28 , respectively . The single 's success came out at the time when the Billboard charts were relying to more R & B and rhythmic stations than pop stations . As of April 2010 , " Miss Independent " has sold over 759 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States . It was certified Gold by Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2006 .
Internationally , the song also became a commercial success , becoming Clarkson 's first single to chart outside of North America . In Australia , it debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 17 on August 2003 , it eventually peaked at number 4 after Clarkson performed it at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5 , 2003 . It eventually became her highest @-@ charting single in Australia along with " Since U Been Gone " ( 2004 ) before being overtaken by " Mr. Know It All " , which topped the chart in 2011 . In the United Kingdom , " Miss Independent " debuted at the UK Singles Chart on August 2003 . It the Netherlands , the song debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 27 , eventually peaking at number 9 . The song also charted in Austria , Germany , Ireland , Sweden , and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles by Liz Friedlander , who didn 't know Clarkson at the time . Friedlander remarked , " Honestly , I never watched American Idol , so I didn 't have a preconceived notion of her . " She said about the video , " The song is explosive and young and has some cool electronic beats , so we took the visual style from the music . " Clarkson added " It 's gonna be more Kelly Clarkson the artist , not [ Kelly Clarkson ] from ' American Idol . " The video features Clarkson performing at a house party in reverse , starting from the morning after and working its way back to the previous night , where she appears attracted to a " surfer " whom she keeps seeing in mirrors . Friedlander adds , " And in the end — maybe — they get together . " It premiered on MTV on June 2 , 2003 . The video received three nominations at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards — Best New Artist in a Video , Best Pop Video , and Viewer 's Choice Award .
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson premiered " Miss Independent " on the second season of American Idol in May 2003 . Throughout 2003 , she performed it on various television events , including the inaugural season of Australian Idol , The Late Show with David Letterman , and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn . She also performed the song in sports events , notably at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5 , 2003 . Since then , she has included the song in her set lists on tour , even naming her first co @-@ headlining tour , the Independent Tour ( 20040 , after the song . In 2012 , she performed a medley of her songs at the 40th Anniversary American Music Awards , beginning with " Miss Independent " , continuing to " Since U Been Gone " , " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " , and " Catch My Breath " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Chrono ( series ) =
The Chrono ( クロノ ) series is a video game franchise developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) . It began in 1995 with the time travel role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger , which spawned two continuations , Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki and Chrono Cross . It was produced in 1995 by Kazuhiko Aoki and directed by Akihiko Matsui , Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita . A promotional anime called Dimensional Adventure Numa Monjar and two ports of Chrono Trigger were also produced . As of March 31 , 2003 , Chrono Trigger was , with 2 @.@ 65 million units , Square Enix 's 12th best @-@ selling game ( based on copies shipped ) ; Chrono Cross was , with 1 @.@ 5 million units , the 24th . As of March 2011 , the two games have sold over 5 @.@ 3 million units . Chrono Trigger has placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGN 's " top 100 games of all time " lists — 4th in 2002 , 6th in early 2005 , 13th in late 2005 , 2nd in 2006 , 18th in 2007 , and 2nd in 2008 . The music of the series has been very highly regarded and enjoyed wide popularity . The games have been subject to extremely positive reviews .
= = Concept and creation = =
Chrono Trigger was produced in 1995 by Kazuhiko Aoki and directed by Akihiko Matsui , Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita . The development of the game was dubbed the " Dream Project " , because it was headed by a " Dream Team " composed of supervisor Hironobu Sakaguchi , of Final Fantasy fame , as well as freelance supervisor Yuji Horii and character designer Akira Toriyama , both of Dragon Quest fame . Yuuji Horii worked on the general outline of the story ; as a fan of time travel fictions , such as the TV series The Time Tunnel , he focused on a theme of time travel for Chrono Trigger . The outline was then finalized by story planner and script writer Masato Kato .
In 1996 , Masato Kato and several other members of the Chrono Trigger staff worked on a minor project for the Super Famicom Satellaview extension , titled Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki . Initially , the game was intended to be a short , original text @-@ based adventure developed in three months with almost no planning . Nevertheless , by the end of the development , Masato Kato had connected the game 's plot and characters to Chrono Trigger , turning it into a side story . Since the platform of the game was not mainstream , the connections were however left blurred on purpose and were not advertised on the game 's release .
In 1999 , a continuation of Chrono Trigger , titled Chrono Cross , was announced . Although the " Dream Team " members did not participate in Chrono Cross , the game was developed mostly by the same staff as the first installment . In terms of basic system and gameplay , producer Hiromichi Tanaka made it clear that the new installment was not a sequel to Chrono Trigger ; rather , the game designers ' approach was to make the " gameplay evolve with the hardware " , creating a completely new game while restructuring the former style so as to maximize the performance of the console . The gameplay focuses on the theme of parallel worlds rather than time travel , although the latter is still deeply involved in the game 's plot . In terms of storyline , Chrono Cross was described by director and scenario writer Masato Kato as " not a Chrono Trigger 2 " , but " a result of a pulled trigger " , " another Chrono " .
= = Games = =
= = = Chrono Trigger = = =
Chrono Trigger is a role @-@ playing video game which was released on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System on March 11 , 1995 in Japan and on August 22 , 1995 in North America . The game 's story follows a group of young adventurers led by Crono , who are accidentally transported through time and learn that the world will be destroyed in the distant future . Vowing to prevent this disaster , they travel throughout history to discover the means to save the planet . Chrono Trigger was ported to the PlayStation in 1999 as a standalone title in Japan and in 2001 as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles compilation in North America . A third version was released for the Nintendo DS handheld platform on November 20 , 2008 . It is regarded today as one of the greatest games ever made .
Additionally , three Chrono Trigger @-@ related applications were released the same year for the Super Famicom Satellaview extension . Chrono Trigger inspired several sequels and expansion packs or add @-@ ons ; the first were three titles released for the Satellaview in 1995 . They included Chrono Trigger : Jet Bike Special , a racing game based on a minigame from the original ; Chrono Trigger : Character Library , featuring profiles on characters and monsters from the game ; and Chrono Trigger : Music Library , a collection of music from the game 's soundtrack . The contents of Character Library and Music Library were later included as extras in the PlayStation rerelease of Chrono Trigger .
= = = Radical Dreamers = = =
Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki ( literally " The Jewel That Cannot Be Stolen " ) is a Japanese @-@ exclusive text @-@ based game released in 1996 through the Super Famicom Satellaview extension . The player takes on the role of Serge , a young adventurer accompanied by Kid , a teen @-@ aged thief , and Gil , a mysterious masked magician . It is a side story to Chrono Trigger wrapping up a loose end from its predecessor 's plot .
= = = Chrono Cross = = =
Chrono Cross was released on the PlayStation on November 18 , 1999 in Japan and on August 15 , 2000 in North America . The story is partly a remake of Radical Dreamers , and as such replaces it as Chrono Trigger 's successor . The protagonist Serge , faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child , struggles to uncover his past and meets Kid , a thief seeking the mysterious Frozen Flame artifact . Serge and Kid 's fates are ultimately revealed to find their roots in the events of Chrono Trigger .
= = = Chrono Break = = =
Chrono Brake and Chrono Break are the names of two trademarks owned by Square Co . ; the first applied in Japan on November 5 , 2001 , and the second registered in the United States on December 5 of the same year . The registrations were preceded by a press report in which Hironobu Sakaguchi mentioned that the Chrono Cross team was interested in developing a new game in the Chrono series , and that script and story ideas were being considered . However , Square did not publish further news , and the American trademark Chrono Break was eventually dropped on November 13 , 2003 .
= = Dimensional Adventure Nu @-@ Mamonja = =
Dimensional Adventure Nu @-@ Mamonja ( 時空冒険ヌウマモンジャ ～ , Jikū Bōken Nūmamonjā , lit . " Time and Space Adventures : Nu @-@ Mamonja " ) is a 16 @-@ minute humoristic and promotional Chrono Trigger anime which was broadcast at the Japanese V @-@ Jump Festival of July 31 , 1996 . It was created by Production I.G , and written by Hiroshi Izawa and Akihiro Kikuchi , while Itsuro Kawazaki served as director , Tensai Okamura as animation director , and Riho Nishino as character designer .
The anime takes place in the same setting as Chrono Trigger during the night before the beginning of the game 's events . It follows two monsters from the game , a Nu and a Mamo ( called Kilwala in the English version of the game ) , voiced by Chafurin and Mayumi Tanaka respectively , through various adventures . These all take place in the " Millennial Fair " , the festival at the beginning of Chrono Trigger , which in the anime has been infested by a festive gathering of monsters coming through portals . They meet several characters from the game , including Johnny and Gonzalez ( called Gato in the English version of the game ) . The anime ends with a scene from the following morning after the monsters have all left , in which Crono and Lucca can be seen . The credits show Nu and Mamo parodying scenes from the game .
The anime was followed by a manga series of the same name published in V Jump starting in 1996 . The series follows Mamo and Nu , who are joined by Johnny and Spekkio ( in the form of a frog ) , as they continue their adventure through time . They meet various characters from Chrono Trigger along the way , including Masamune , Lavos , Gaspar , Ozzie , Slash and Flea . In 1998 , the chapters of the series were released as a tankōbon .
= = Music = =
The music of the Chrono series was mainly composed by Yasunori Mitsuda . Chrono Trigger was the first game for which he had served as composer . However , after Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers , Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu was brought onto the project to compose ten songs . At the time of the game 's release , the quantity of its tracks and sound effects were unprecedented . Additionally , a one @-@ disc acid jazz arrangement called The Brink of Time was also released . Mitsuda went on to compose the soundtrack for Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki , which was never commercially released as an album .
In 1999 , Yasunori Mitsuda , now a freelance composer , returned to score the soundtrack for Chrono Cross after being contacted by Masato Kato . Mitsuda decided to center his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , as selected by Masato Kato , sang the ending song , " Radical Dreamers ~ Le Trésor Interdit " . Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Certain songs were ported from the score of Radical Dreamers , while other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from both Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers .
In 2006 , Yasunori Mitsuda arranged versions of music from the Chrono series for Play ! video game music concerts , presenting the Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross main themes , as well as " Frog 's Theme " , and " To Far Away Times " .
= = Reception = =
The Chrono series has been very successful in game rankings and sales . Chrono Trigger sold more than 2 @.@ 36 million copies in Japan and 290 @,@ 000 abroad , reaching two million in sales in only two months . It ended 1995 as the third best @-@ selling game of the year behind Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation and Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . The game was met with substantial success upon release in North America , and its rerelease on the PlayStation as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles package topped the NPD TRSTS PlayStation sales charts for over six weeks . The Chrono Trigger DS remake has shipped 490 @,@ 000 copies in Japan and 220 @,@ 000 in North America as of December 2008 . Chrono Cross also sold well , shipping 850 @,@ 000 and 650 @,@ 000 units in Japan and abroad respectively . It was re @-@ released once in the United States as a Greatest Hits title and again as part of the Japanese Ultimate Hits series .
Chrono Trigger has placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGN 's " top 100 games of all time " lists — 4th in 2002 , 6th in early 2005 , 13th in late 2005 , 2nd in 2006 , 18th in 2007 , and 2nd in 2008 . GameSpot included Chrono Trigger in " The Greatest Games of All Time " list released in April 2006 , and it also appeared as 28th on an " All Time Top 100 " list in a poll conducted by Japanese magazine Famitsu . Nintendo Power 's 100th issue placed it eighteenth on their " 100 Best Nintendo Games of All Time " , and in their twentieth anniversary issue named it the fifth best Super NES game . Chrono Cross was also well @-@ received by reviewers ; GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10 , one of only seven games in over 40 @,@ 000 games listed on Gamespot to have been given the score , and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000 . IGN gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 7 , and Cross appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list .
The music of the series has been very highly regarded and enjoyed wide popularity . IGN termed the Chrono Trigger soundtrack " one of the best videogame soundtracks ever produced " and said that the music was a large part of the game 's ability to " capture the emotions of the player " . It furthermore called the soundtrack " some of the most memorable tunes in RPG history " . The game itself won the " Best Music in a Cartridge @-@ Based Game " award in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 1995 video game awards . The soundtrack for Chrono Cross won the Gold Prize for Sony 's PlayStation Awards of 2000 . IGN , in their review of the game , termed the soundtrack " a brilliant score " that " does wonders in stirring the emotional strings of the players as they 're playing through the game " . In a separate piece about Japanese RPG composers , IGN named Yasunori Mitsuda the second best out of ten behind Nobuo Uematsu .
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= Giveamanakick =
Giveamanakick — typeset as giveamanakick and abbreviated as GAMAK — are an Irish rock music duo from Limerick . The two band members were Stephen Ryan ( Steveamanakick ) , the vocalist and guitarist , and Keith Lawler ( Giveamanakeith ) , the drummer .
Giveamanakick performed regularly in Ireland , toured the United Kingdom with The Undertones and also performed in Germany during their existence . The duo featured at festivals such as Electric Picnic , Indie @-@ pendence and Hard Working Class Heroes and also took part in the 2fm 2moro 2our . They released three albums ; Is it ok to be loud , Jesus ? ( 2003 ) , We Are the Way Forward ( 2005 ) and Welcome to the Cusp ( 2008 ) before the end was announced in August 2009 .
Remaining in Limerick throughout the existence of Giveamanakick , the duo were declared " the best hard @-@ rock band in the country " by rock critic Eamon Sweeney and received the approval of Hot Press , No Disco 's Leagues O 'Toole and Fight Like Apes .
= = History = =
Giveamanakick formed in 2001 following the demise of Tooth . Left with several songs , Ryan performed as a solo artist with an electric guitar . One night , he encountered Keith Lawler , who played guitar in another band at the time , and Lawler began drumming with Ryan . In 2002 , the duo released a split single with Mr. Creosote titled " Darko Filopovic " , a song which would later feature as the final track on their debut album . By 2003 , they had supported several more established acts , including Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Rocket from the Crypt . In 2003 , there were reports that the duo 's debut album , titled Is it ok to be loud , Jesus ? , would be released on a label called Larry Gogan Records but this later emerged to be a joke published by a fledgling Foggy Notions . The duo 's debut album was in fact published on 3 July 2003 with that same title by the independent label Out On A Limb Records as the label 's first release , with Giveamanakick having finished recording it in January that year . It received two out of five stars in a review by RTÉ 's Tom Grealis who wrote , " this is what happens when rawness comes without any real sense of purpose " . The Hot Press reviewer said listening to the album was " something akin to being battered round the head with a plank of wood for half an hour " but , nonetheless , " bloody fantastic " .
A second album , We Are the Way Forward , was recorded over an eight @-@ day period and released by Out On a Limb in 2005 . It received three from five stars in a review by RTÉ 's Harry Guerin who said : " you 'll get what you paid for from their stomp and swing " . Phil Udell 's Hot Press review gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of five stars , saying it " gives you that much sought after visceral thrill " and that the duo " wrote it , recorded it , fucked off . A classic " . Their live performances also came in for increasing critical acclaim . When Eamon Sweeney of the Irish Independent attended a show by The Presidents of the United States of America in May 2006 , his review stated that they " were well and truly blown off the stage by the support band " who were Giveamanakick . Stephen Ryan has said in several interviews that their early Sunday morning performance at Electric Picnic in 2006 was " one to remember " with so many festival @-@ goers coming to view them . He described the performance as a " bit of a blur " as they " pretty dumbfounded by the reaction " and the idea of " playing with some of our musical heroes such as Dinosaur Jr. and Deftones was a dream come through [ sic ] " .
In 2007 , Giveamanakick toured Germany before beginning to record their follow @-@ up album . They did the 2fm 2moro 2our with The Flaws and Messiah J & The Expert . In October that year , rock critic Eamon Sweeney , bemoaning the lack of original Irish music that year , singled out Giveamanakick as " the best hard @-@ rock band in the country " and said they " could teach all those Dublin chancers with stupid haircuts and no ideas a thing or two " .
Giveamanakick were described as a " promising act " for 2008 by Eamon Sweeney of the Irish Independent in January of that year . They performed several Irish dates in January that year . Their third album , Welcome to the Cusp , was recorded over a ten @-@ day period in Letterkenny , County Donegal and released on 2 May 2008 on the duo 's own label , Monkeyheart Recordings . It received three from five stars in a review by RTÉ 's Harry Guerin who described the music as " immediate and memorable " . Other publications called it " the best Irish record of 2008 " . The track " Brittle Bones " , released as the second single from the album , marked the first use of an acoustic guitar by the duo . Ryan claimed that Welcome to the Cusp was the album which " most accurately represents what the Giveamanakick sound actually is " and described the songs as " possibly the most structurally challenging ones so far " .
Giveamanakick performed a nationwide tour following the release of Welcome to the Cusp , including a date at Indie @-@ pendence in August 2008 . Prior to their Friday night performance at Electric Picnic in 2008 , Tony Clayton @-@ Lea , writing in The Irish Times , recommended festival @-@ goers to see them , remarking that " despite keeping a profile lower than a Dachshund 's belly , Giveamanakick have managed to keep things grooving along by virtue of their innate boisterousness and musical flash @-@ bang @-@ wallop " .
In September 2008 , Giveamanakick played Hard Working Class Heroes , at which the organisers selected them alongside acts such as The Blizzards and Heathers to play the CMJ Festival in New York the following month . On 3 April 2009 , the duo appeared on Phantom FM alongside Royseven to perform cover versions of Nirvana songs . Giveamanakick 's end came with an announcement on 17 August 2009 . The final shows are scheduled to take place in Cork , Dublin , Galway and Limerick in November and December 2009 . \ \ In June 2013 , it was announced that giveamanakick were to reform for one night only to celebrate their label 's 10th birthday .
= = Style = =
The duo were described as " noise rock 's version of The Odd Couple " by RTÉ . Ryan once described himself as a " Beastie Boys fanatic " and the duo were compared to acts such as Pixies . His lyrics regularly featured references to popular culture . However , the opening track on their debut album , titled " Ger Canning " , was not a reference to the broadcaster of the same name . They wrote self @-@ described pop songs , where " Keith hits his drums really hard and I [ Steve Ryan ] like my guitars turned up very loud but we do this with a pop sensibility " , and employed techniques such as using gas masks to distort their vocals when playing live , performing with streamers and encouraging their audience to disorientate themselves by clapping their own ears . They lived in Limerick throughout their existence , citing a positive music scene , the humour and the hurling as being some of their reasons for liking their home city .
= = Members = =
Stephen Ryan was the guitarist and vocalist . He is originally from Castletroy . He grew up in a background of traditional music , listened to The Beatles on his father 's record player , learned how to play the keyboard at the age of ten , the guitar at the age of fifteen and joined a band called Tooth in his early twenties . He has also performed as Windings .
Keith Lawler was the drummer . He is from Parteen , Co . Clare . He liked Nirvana when he was fourteen years of age , and learned how to play the guitar when he was a teenager but began to learn the drums at the age of sixteen when he realised that there was a surplus of guitarists in his area . Tooth used to rehearse near his house and he often listened to them from outside . Two of his cousins were already drummers , having performed with The Charming and The Cranberries .
= = Discography = =
Giveamanakick released three albums .
Is it ok to be loud , Jesus ? ( 2003 )
We Are the Way Forward ( 2005 )
Welcome to the Cusp ( 2008 )
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= SMS Dresden ( 1907 ) =
SMS Dresden ( " His Majesty 's Ship Dresden " ) was a German light cruiser built for the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the lead ship of her class . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906 , launched in October 1907 , and completed in November 1908 . Her entrance into service was delayed by accidents during sea trials , including a collision with another vessel that necessitated major repairs . Like the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers upon which her design was based , Dresden was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two torpedo tubes .
Dresden spent much of her career overseas . After commissioning , she visited the United States in 1909 during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration , before returning to Germany to serve in the reconnaissance force of the High Seas Fleet for three years . In 1913 , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Division . She was then sent to the Caribbean to protect German nationals during the Mexican Revolution . In mid @-@ 1914 , she carried the former dictator Victoriano Huerta to Jamaica , where the British had granted him asylum . She was due to return to Germany in July 1914 , but was prevented by the outbreak of World War I from doing so . At the onset of hostilities , Dresden operated as a commerce raider in South American waters in the Atlantic , then moved to the Pacific Ocean in September and joined Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron .
Dresden saw action in the Battle of Coronel in November , where she engaged the British cruiser HMS Glasgow , and at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December , where she was the only German warship to escape destruction . She eluded her British pursuers for several more months , until she put into Robinson Crusoe Island in March 1915 . Her engines were worn out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers , so the ship 's captain contacted the local Chilean authorities to have Dresden interned . She was trapped by British cruisers , including her old opponent Glasgow . The British violated Chilean neutrality and opened fire on the ship in the Battle of Más a Tierra . The Germans scuttled Dresden and the majority of the crew escaped to be interned in Chile for the duration of the war . The wreck remains in the harbor ; several artifacts , including her bell and compass , have been returned to Germany .
= = Design = =
Dresden was 118 @.@ 3 meters ( 388 ft 1 in ) long overall with a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 53 m ( 18 ft 2 in ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 268 t ( 4 @,@ 201 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two Parsons steam turbines , designed to give 14 @,@ 794 shp ( 11 @,@ 032 kW ) for a top speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The engines were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . Dresden carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 700 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . She had a crew of 18 officers and 343 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 300 yd ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The secondary battery comprised eight 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 55 guns , with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes , mounted on the deck . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
Dresden was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Comet . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906 and launched on 5 October 1907 . The Oberbürgermeister of her namesake city , Otto Beutler , christened the ship . Fitting @-@ out work then commenced , and Dresden was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 14 November 1908 . Following her commissioning , Dresden began her sea trials . On 28 November she accidentally collided with and sank the Swedish galeas Cäcilie outside Kiel . Dresden 's starboard propeller shaft was shoved in 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) , and she required six months of repair work . She resumed sea trials in 1909 , but a turbine accident necessitated further repairs , which lasted until September .
Although Dresden had not completed the required testing , her trials were declared over on 7 September , as she had been ordered to visit the United States . The purpose of the voyage was to represent Germany at the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York ; Dresden was joined by the protected cruisers Hertha and Victoria Louise and the light cruiser Bremen . Dresden left Wilhelmshaven on 11 September and stopped in Newport , where she met the rest of the ships of the squadron . The ships arrived in New York on 24 September , remained there until 9 October , and arrived back in Germany on 22 October .
Dresden then joined the reconnaissance force for the High Seas Fleet ; the following two years consisted of the peacetime routine of squadron exercises , training cruises , and annual fleet exercises . On 16 February 1910 , she collided with the light cruiser Königsberg . The collision caused significant damage to Dresden , though no one on either vessel was injured . She made it back to Kiel for repairs , which lasted eight days . Dresden visited Hamburg on 13 – 17 May that year . From 14 to 20 April 1912 , she was temporarily transferred to the Training Squadron , along with the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl and the light cruiser Mainz . For the year 1911 – 12 , Dresden won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery amongst the light cruisers of the High Seas Fleet . From September 1912 through September 1913 , she was commanded by Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Fritz Lüdecke , who would command the ship again during World War I.
On 6 April 1913 , she and the cruiser Strassburg were sent from Kiel to the Adriatic Sea , where she joined the Mittelmeer @-@ Division ( Mediterranean Division ) , centered on the battlecruiser Goeben and commanded by Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Konrad Trummler . The ships cruised the eastern Mediterranean for several months , and in late August , Dresden was ordered to return to Germany . After arriving in Kiel on 23 September , she was taken into the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) for an overhaul that lasted until the end of December . She was scheduled to return to the Mediterranean Division , but the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) reassigned Dresden to the North American station to protect German interests in the Mexican Revolution . The cruiser Bremen , then in North American waters , was also due to return to Germany , but her intended replacement , Karlsruhe , had not yet entered service . On 27 December 1913 , Dresden departed Germany and arrived off Vera Cruz on 21 January 1914 , under the command of Fregattenkapitän Erich Köhler . The United States had already sent a squadron of warships to the city , as had several other countries .
The Admiralstab ordered Hertha , which had been on a training cruise for naval cadets , to join Dresden off Mexico . Bremen was also recalled to reinforce the German naval contingent ; after arriving , she was tasked with transferring European nationals to German HAPAG liners . Dresden and the British cruiser HMS Hermione rescued 900 American citizens trapped in a hotel in Vera Cruz and transferred them to American warships . The German consul in Mexico City requested additional forces , and so Dresden provided a landing party of a maat ( Junior Petty Officer ) and ten sailors , armed with two MG 08 machine guns . On 15 April 1914 , Dresden steamed to Tampico on Mexico 's Caribbean coast . That month , the German @-@ flagged merchant ship SS Ypiranga arrived in Mexico , carrying a load of small arms for the regime of Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta . The United States had put an arms embargo into effect in an attempt to reduce the violence of the civil war . The US Navy intercepted Ypiranga on 21 April . Dresden arrived , confiscated the merchantman , and pressed her into naval service to transport German refugees out of Mexico . Despite the American embargo , the Germans delivered the weapons and ammunition to the Mexican government on 28 May .
On 20 July , after the Huerta regime was toppled , Dresden carried Huerta , his vice president , Aureliano Blanquet , and their families to Kingston , Jamaica , where Britain had granted them asylum . Upon arriving in Kingston on the 25th , Köhler learned of the rising political tensions in Europe during the July Crisis that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . By this time , the ship was in need of a refit in Germany , and met with her replacement , Karlsruhe , in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti , the following day . Lüdecke , who had arrived in command of Karlsruhe , traded places with Köhler aboard Dresden . The Admiralstab initially ordered Dresden to return to Germany for overhaul , but the heightened threat of war by the 31st led the staff to countermand the order , instead instructing Lüdecke to prepare to conduct Handelskrieg ( trade war ) in the Atlantic .
= = = World War I = = =
After receiving the order to remain in the Atlantic , Lüdecke turned his ship south while maintaining radio silence to prevent hostile warships from discovering his vessel . On the night of 4 – 5 August , he received a radio report informing him of Britain 's declaration of war on Germany . He chose the South Atlantic as Dresden 's operational area , and steamed to the Brazilian coast . Off the mouth of the Amazon River , he stopped a British merchant ship on 6 August . The ship , SS Drumcliffe , whose captain professed to know nothing of Britain 's entry into the war , was permitted to proceed unmolested in accordance with the rules set forth in the Hague Convention of 1907 . Dresden rendezvoused with the German collier SS Corrientes , a converted HSDG vessel . The cruiser moved to the Rocas Atoll on the 12th , along with the HAPAG steamers Prussia , Baden , and Persia . After departing the atoll , en route to Trinidade , Dresden caught the British steamer SS Hyades ; Lüdecke took off the ship 's crew and then sank the merchantman . Dresden captured the British collier SS Holmwood on 24 August and sank her after evacuating her crew . After arriving in Trinidade , she rendezvoused with the gunboat Eber and several steamers .
On 26 August , while steaming off the mouth of the Río de la Plata , she caught two more British steamers , but the poor condition of Dresden 's engines curtailed further operations . On 5 September , Dresden put into Hoste Island for engine maintenance until the 16th . While the ship was there , the HAPAG steamer Santa Isabel arrived from Punta Arenas with news of the war , and the heavy merchant traffic off the western coast of South America . Lüdecke decided to steam there , and on 18 September Dresden passed the Strait of Magellan . While en route , Dresden encountered the French steamer SS Ortega ; Lüdecke refrained from attacking the transport ship , since she had fled into neutral waters . After steaming up the Chilean coast , she stopped in the Juan Fernández Islands , where she made radio contact with the light cruiser Leipzig , which was operating on the Pacific coast of South America . Dresden saw no further success against British shipping , and on 12 October , she joined Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron , which had crossed the Pacific and was coaling at Easter Island . The following day , Lüdecke was promoted to Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) .
On 18 October , Dresden and the East Asia Squadron , centered on the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , departed Easter Island for the South American coast . They arrived at Más a Fuera island on 26 October . The following evening , the German cruisers escorted the auxiliary cruiser SS Prinz Eitel Friedrich and the merchant ships SS Yorck and SS Göttingen to Chile . The flotilla arrived off Valparaiso on 30 October , and the following evening , von Spee received intelligence that a British cruiser was at the Chilean port of Coronel . Von Spee decided that his squadron should ambush the cruiser — HMS Glasgow — when it was forced to leave port due to Chile 's neutral status , which required belligerent warships to leave after twenty @-@ four hours . Von Spee did not realize that Glasgow was in the company of Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock 's 4th Cruiser Squadron , which also included the armored cruisers Monmouth and Good Hope and the auxiliary cruiser Otranto .
= = = = Battle of Coronel = = = =
Early on the morning of 1 November , von Spee took his squadron out of Valparaiso , steaming at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) south toward Coronel . At around 16 : 00 , Leipzig spotted the smoke column from the leading British cruiser . By 16 : 25 , the other two ships had been spotted . The two squadrons slowly closed the distance , until the Germans opened fire at 18 : 34 , at a range of 10 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 400 yd ) . The German ships engaged their opposite numbers , with Dresden firing on Otranto . After Dresden 's third salvo , Otranto turned away ; the Germans claimed a hit that caused a fire , though Otranto reported taking no damage . Following Otranto 's departure , Dresden shifted her fire to Glasgow , which was also targeted by Leipzig . The two German cruisers hit their British opponent five times .
At around 19 : 30 , von Spee ordered Dresden and Leipzig to launch a torpedo attack against the damaged British armored cruisers . Dresden increased speed to position herself off the British bows , and briefly spotted Glasgow as she was withdrawing , but the British cruiser disappeared in the haze and gathering darkness . Dresden then encountered Leipzig ; both ships initially thought the other was hostile . Dresden 's crew was loading a torpedo when the two ships confirmed each other 's identity . By 22 : 00 , Dresden and the other two light cruisers were deployed in a line that searched unsuccessfully for the British cruisers . Dresden had emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
On 3 November , von Spee took Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg back to Valparaiso for provisioning and to consult with the Admiralstab . Neutrality laws permitted only three belligerent warships in a port at a given time . Dresden and Leipzig remained with the squadron 's colliers in Más a Fuera . Von Spee returned to Más a Fuera on 6 November , and detached Dresden and Leipzig for a visit to Valparaiso , where they also restocked their supplies . The two cruisers arrived on 12 November , left the following day , and met the rest of the squadron at sea on 18 November . Three days later , the squadron anchored in St. Quentin Bay in the Gulf of Penas , where they coaled . The Royal Navy had deployed Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee 's pair of battlecruisers , Invincible and Inflexible , to hunt down the German squadron . They left Britain on 11 November , and arrived in the Falkland Islands on 7 December . There , they joined the armored cruisers Cornwall , Kent , and Carnarvon , and the light cruisers Glasgow and Bristol .
On 26 November , the German East Asia Squadron left St. Quentin Bay , bound for the Atlantic . On 2 December , they caught the Canadian sailing ship Drummuir , which was carrying 2 @,@ 750 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 710 long tons ; 3 @,@ 030 short tons ) of high @-@ grade Cardiff coal . The following morning , the Germans anchored off Picton Island , where they unloaded the coal from Drummuir into their own auxiliaries . On the morning of 6 December , von Spee held a council aboard Scharnhorst to discuss their next moves . With the support of the captains of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , he successfully argued for an attack on the Falklands to destroy the British wireless station and coal stocks there . Lüdecke and the captains of Leipzig and Nürnberg all opposed the plan , and were in favor of bypassing the Falklands and proceeding to the La Plata area to continue to raid British shipping .
= = = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = = =
On the afternoon of 6 December , the German ships departed Picton Island , bound for the Falklands . On 7 December , they rounded Tierra del Fuego and turned north into the Atlantic . They arrived off the Falklands at around 02 : 00 ; three hours later , von Spee detached Gneisenau and Nürnberg to land a party ashore . By 08 : 30 , the ships were approaching Port Stanley , when they noticed thick columns of smoke rising from the harbor . After closing to the harbor entrance , they quickly realized they were confronted by a much more powerful squadron , which was just getting up steam . Von Spee immediately broke off the operation and turned east to flee before the British ships could catch his squadron . By 10 : 45 , Gneisenau and Nürnberg had rejoined the fleet , and the German auxiliaries were detached to seek shelter in the maze of islands off Cape Horn .
The British ships set off in pursuit , and by 12 : 50 , Sturdee 's two battlecruisers had overtaken the Germans . A minute later , he gave the order to open fire at the trailing German ship , Leipzig . Von Spee ordered the three small cruisers to try to escape to the south , while he turned back with Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in an attempt to hold off the British squadron . Sturdee had foreseen this possibility , and so had ordered his armored and light cruisers to pursue the German light cruisers . The battlecruisers quickly overwhelmed von Spee 's armored cruisers , and destroyed them with heavy loss of life . Dresden , with her turbine engines , was able to outpace her pursuers , and was the only German warship to escape destruction . Lüdecke decided to take his ship into the islands off South America to keep a steady supply of coal available .
On 9 December , she passed back around Cape Horn to return to the Pacific . That day , she anchored in Sholl Bay , with only 160 t ( 160 long tons ; 180 short tons ) of coal aboard . Oberleutnant zur See ( lieutenant at sea ) Wilhelm Canaris convinced the Chilean naval representative for the region to permit Dresden to remain in the area for an extra twenty @-@ four hours so enough coal could be taken aboard to reach Punta Arenas . She arrived there on 12 December , and received 750 t ( 740 long tons ; 830 short tons ) of coal from a German steamer . The Admiralstab hoped that Dresden would be able to break through to the Atlantic and return to Germany , but the poor condition of her engines precluded this . Lüdecke instead decided to attempt to cross the Pacific via Easter Island , the Solomon Islands , and the Dutch East Indies and raid commerce in the Indian Ocean . Dresden took on another 1 @,@ 600 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal on 19 January . On 14 February , Dresden left the islands off the South American coast for the South Pacific . On 27 February , the cruiser captured the British barque Conway Castle south of Más a Tierra . From December to February , the German liner Sierra Cordoba had supplied Dresden and had accompanied her northward to a final coaling at Juan Fernández Islands just before the cruiser was sunk .
On 8 March , Dresden was drifting in dense fog when lookouts spotted Kent , which also had her engines off , about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) away . Both ships immediately raised steam , and Dresden escaped after a five @-@ hour chase . The strenuous effort depleted her coal stocks and overtaxed her engines . Lüdecke decided that his ship was no longer operational , and determined to have his ship interned to preserve it . The following morning , she put into Más a Fuera , dropping anchor in Cumberland Bay at 8 : 30 . The following day , Lüdecke received by wireless the Kaiser 's permission to let Dresden be interned , and so Lüdecke informed the local Chilean official of his intention to do so .
= = = = Battle of Más a Tierra = = = =
On the morning of 14 March , Kent and Glasgow approached Cumberland Bay ; their appearance was relayed back to Dresden by one of her pinnaces , which had been sent to patrol the entrance to the bay . Dresden was unable to maneuver , owing to her fuel shortage , and Lüdecke signaled that his ship was no longer a combatant . The British disregarded this message , as well as a Chilean vessel that approached them as they entered the bay . Glasgow opened fire , in violation of Chile 's neutrality ; Britain had already informed Chile that British warships would disregard international law if they located Dresden in Chilean territorial waters . Shortly thereafter , Kent joined in the bombardment as well . The German gunners fired off three shots in response , but the guns were quickly knocked out by British gunfire .
Lüdecke sent the signal " Am sending negotiator " to the British warships , and dispatched Canaris in a pinnace ; Glasgow continued to bombard the defenseless cruiser . In another attempt to stop the attack , Lüdecke raised the white flag , which prompted Glasgow to cease fire . Canaris came aboard to speak with Captain John Luce ; the former strongly protested the latter 's violation of Chile 's neutrality . Luce simply replied that he had his orders , and demanded an unconditional surrender . Canaris explained that Dresden had already been interned by Chile , and thereafter returned to his ship , which had in the meantime been prepared for scuttling .
At 10 : 45 , the scuttling charge detonated in the bow and exploded the forward ammunition magazines . The bow was badly mangled ; in about half an hour , the ship had taken on enough water to sink . As it struck the sea floor , the bow was torn from the rest of the ship , which rolled over to starboard . As the rest of the hull settled below the waves , a second scuttling charge exploded in the ship 's engine rooms .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Most of the ship 's crew managed to escape ; only eight men were killed in the attack , with another twenty @-@ nine wounded . The British auxiliary cruiser HMS Orama took fifteen severely wounded men to Valparaiso ; four of them died . The destruction of his ship had left Lüdecke in shock , and so Canaris took responsibility for the fate of the ship 's crew . They remained on the island for five days until two Chilean warships brought a German passenger ship to take the men to Quiriquina Island , where they were interned for the duration of the war . Canaris escaped from the internment camp on 5 August 1915 and reached Germany exactly two months later . On 31 March 1917 , a small group of men escaped on the Chilean barque Tinto ; the voyage back to Germany lasted 120 days . The rest of the crew did not return to Germany until 1920 .
The wreck lies at a depth of 70 meters ( 230 ft ) . In 2002 , the first survey of the wreck was done by a team led by James P. Delgado for the Sea Hunters documentary produced by the National Underwater and Marine Agency . The team included the archaeologist Dr. Willi Kramer , the first German to visit the wreck since she sank 88 years before . Dresden lies on her starboard side pointed north , toward the beach . The wreck is heavily damaged ; much of the upper works , including the bridge , the masts , the funnels , and many of the guns have been torn from the ship . The bow has been cut off by the scuttling charges detonated by the ship 's crew , and sits upright on the sea floor . The stern is also badly damaged , with the main deck blasted away and many shell holes in the ship 's side . Some of the damage to the aft of the ship appears to have been done by an undocumented salvage operation before Delgado 's survey . According to German records , Dresden was carrying gold coins from their colony at Tsingtau ; Delgado speculated that this salvage work was an attempt to retrieve these .
In 1965 , the ship 's compass and several flags were recovered and returned to Germany , where they are held at the German Naval Academy Mürwik in Flensburg @-@ Mürwik . In 2006 , Chilean and German divers found and recovered Dresden 's bell , which is now in Germany . CS Forester 's novel Brown on Resolution , and two subsequent movies , were inspired by the Dresden 's escape and subsequent destruction .
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= Para @-@ swimming classification =
Para @-@ swimming classification is a function @-@ based classification system designed to allow for fair competition in disability swimming . The classes are prefixed with " S " for freestyle , butterfly and backstroke events , " SB " for breaststroke and " SM " for individual medley events . Swimmers with physical disabilities are divided into ten classes based on their degree of functional disability . Those with visual impairments are placed in three additional classes . A final class , S14 , is reserved for swimmers with intellectual disabilities .
Swimming was one of the first organised sports for people with disabilities , and was contested at the first Summer Paralympics in 1960 . Both the rules for the sport and approval of classifications were the responsibility of the Fédération International de Natation Amateur ( FINA ) until 1992 , when the International Paralympic Committee took over the governance of classification . As of 2012 , people with visual , physical and intellectual disabilities are eligible to compete in the sport . The classification system was originally based on medical criteria , but has since moved to one largely based on functional disability to make para @-@ swimming more competitive . The sport is currently moving towards an evidence @-@ based classification system .
= = Definition = =
Para @-@ swimming classification is based on a system in which functional criteria are assessed . Athletes who have different physical disabilities may compete in the same class so long as their functional impairments are similar . In swimming , amputations of the arms below the elbow have a significant impact on functional ability . As a result , swimming classifications differ from athletics classifications . Swimmers are divided into ten classes based on degree of functional disability : S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 , S7 , S8 , S9 and S10 . The most severely affected are in class S1 ; these swimmers are normally use wheelchairs outside of the pool . Classes are prefixed with the letter " S " for freestyle , butterfly and backstroke events , while those prefixed with " SB " are for breaststroke , and those with " SM " for individual medley events . This is because different strokes require the use of different muscle groups . In the case of the breaststroke , for example , the hand and the hip play a crucial role . Because of this , a swimmer may compete in one class for one stroke and a different class for another . It also means that swimmers with cerebral palsy , spinal cord injuries and limb deficiencies may compete against each other . For the individual medley , the class assigned is the mean average of the classes assigned for each individual stroke ( rounded to the nearest whole number with .5 rounding up ) .
There are three additional classes , S11 , S12 and S13 , for visually impaired swimmers . The lower number indicates a greater degree of impairment : class S11 swimmers are blind or nearly blind , and compete in blacked @-@ out goggles . They each have a " tapper " who uses a pole or " bonker " to warn the swimmer that they are approaching the end of the pool . The visual classifications are based on medical classification , and not on functional mobility . A final class , S14 , is for intellectually disabled swimmers . This class was dropped for the 2004 Summer Paralympics and the 2008 Summer Paralympics , but was restored for the 2012 Summer Paralympics .
The general rules for Paralympic swimming are based on those intended for able @-@ bodied competitors . The rules regarding strokes , turns and the length of time that swimmers may remain under water are similar to those for the Olympic Games . Events take place in a standard 50m pool . Swimmers may dive in or start in the water . Swimmers may not use any assistive technology while competing .
= = Governance = =
Swimming was one of the eight sports contested in the first Paralympics , the 1960 Summer Paralympics in Rome . Both the rules for the sport and for the approval of swimmers ' classifications were set by the Fédération International de Natation Amateur ( FINA ) . In 1992 , the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) formally became the governing body for disability swimming . Four different sporting bodies , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) , International Sports Federation of the Disabled ( ISOD ) , International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( ISMWSF ) and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) , assisted the IPC in governing swimming at the 1992 Summer Paralympics . The IPC Classification Code and IPC Swimming govern the classification process . Classification of swimmers is performed by classifiers that are recognised by the IPC .
= = History = =
The earliest classification system for para @-@ swimming was created during the 1940s . At this time , swimmers were classified based on their medical conditions . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , the classification system was set up as a series of " handicaps " . In an effort to clearly describe disabilities and promote fairness , the number of classifications ballooned . This made organizing competitive events difficult as there were too few people in each classification ; international events for people with disabilities were said to have as many winners as competitors . At the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , the number of eligible classes was so great that 60 gold medals were awarded in one swimming event .
In 1974 , the Disabled of the German State of North Rhine - Westfalia ( BSNW ) developed a swimming classification system that stayed in use until 1982 . This system had seven classifications . There was a CP class for athletes with hemispasticity who would also compete in the same class against competitors who were single arm above the elbow amputees , had double @-@ arm dysmelia type ectromelia , had single arm paralysis or had a fixed shoulder joint . There was an intellectual disability class called Class J , and a Class H for people with severe disabilities . BSNW classification events included swimming races from 50 to 1500 metres . The system was later expanded to include nine classes before it was discontinued . The BSNW system did not gain international support , and only was used inside Germany . It was discarded because of a need to have athletes classified for international competitions .
In 1983 , classification for swimmers with cerebral palsy was governed by CP @-@ ISRA . There were five cerebral palsy classifications . Class 1 competitors could compete in the 25 metre freestyle event with flotation devices with or without flotation devices . Class 2 competitors could compete in the same events , but only against class 2 competitors . That year , 80 to 85 per cent of all competitors with cerebral palsy competed in the same classification in international competitions .
Classification for swimming relied on a points system to assess the severity of physical disability without considering athlete functionality specifically as it applied to the ability to swim a particular stroke . This caused problems because certain types of disability had a greater negative impact on swimming than others , and the point system did not directly address functional ability . Toto address this , in 1990 point consideration was eliminated for disability types that did not impact performance . The IPC decided to reduce the number of classifications , and to try to fix classification so that competitors could have more certainty in which classification they would compete in before attending an event . This was a major change , as previously , athletes would be classified immediately before , and even during , an event . As a result , the number of swimming classifications dropped from 31 at Seoul in 1988 to 10 at the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona .
Going into the 1992 Summer Paralympics , the International Coordinating Committee and the Technical Committee of the IPC push for a move towards a functional classification system . This came to a head at the November 1989 meeting of the Barcelona Olympics Organising Committee ( Comite Organitzador Olimpic Barcelona - COOB ) , when a discussion started about what events and classifications should be eligible for the Games . A study by the organising committee and the Polytechnic University of Catalonia in the lead @-@ up to the meeting looked at the results of recent international competitions . It proposed a series of classes , based on the competitive results , for use in Barcelona . COOB insisted that such a system be implemented to ensure the sport at the Paralympic Games was serious and competitive , instead of recreational . The suggestions were implemented for sports such as swimming and athletics . The Games were the first ones where swimmers of different types of disabilities competed against each other , swimmers had a guaranteed right to appeal their classification .
The move to functional classification coincided with the rise of sports science . The first detailed international swimming sport science project was conducted at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul . This was followed by a similar project at the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona . These studies provided an increasingly detailed understanding of the factors involved in high performance swimming . Henceforth sports science became the driver of both performance and classification .
Ahead of the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney , changes were made in classification for the breaststroke , bringing the total number of functional classifications down from ten that had competed in Atlantathe to nine . Swimmers who had been classified as SB10 at the 1996 Summer Paralympics in Atlanta opted not to compete in Sydney . Several former SB8 and SB9 swimmers moved down a class to compete , and made the finals in their classifications . The IPC 's Olympian aspiration to become an premier elite international sporting competition still fell short . In Sydney , 561 gold medals were awarded in 18 sports , compared with 300 in 28 sports at the 2000 Summer Olympics .
= = Classification process = =
During the classification process , classifiers evaluate factors including whether a swimmer 's physical limitations require him or her to start in the water , and how the swimmer enters the water in competition . A two @-@ person panel that includes at least one person with a medical background handles classification at international competitions . Classifiers are required to be familiar with the type of disability they are classifying , whether physical , visual or intellectual . Classification by national sports bodies mirrors the international classification process , conducted by nationally @-@ recognised IPC classifiers . For Australian competitors , for example , classification is managed by the national sport federation , Swimming Australia , with support from the Australian Paralympic Committee . There are three types of classification available for Australian competitors : provisional , national and international . The first is for club @-@ level competitions , the second for state and national competitions , and the third for international competitions .
Internationally , all classification is handled in English but athletes are allowed to have an interpreter present during the process . Swimmers are required to disclose any medications they regularly use , and provide detailed records of their medical history if a classifier deems them relevant . They are allowed to have someone familiar with their swimming limitations present during the process . The process includes a physical assessment , observation assessment , and a functional assessment that may include performance in the pool . Swimmers with visual impairment do not require the functional and observational components of assessment . If a swimmer intentionally misrepresents his or her disability , he or she is barred from the classification process for a minimum of two years , and is unable to compete .
If swimmers do not agree with their classifications , they can appeal through the IPC Board of Appeal on Classification , which is the body recognised by IPC Swimming . Formal processes exist for how to do this in both non @-@ competition and competition periods . Classification assessment took roughly 30 to 45 minutes at the 1996 Summer Paralympics . Classification for blind swimmers only lasted about 15 minutes .
= = Classification at the Paralympics = =
All disability types were eligible to participate at the 1992 Summer Paralympics . The IPC oversaw classification based on functional disability . General and functional classification took place in the Paralympic Village , with functional swimming classification taking place on the same dates at the Piscines Bernat Picronell . The process became a contentious issue at the Paralympics because of on @-@ the @-@ spot reclassifications that resulted in changes to the competition schedule . On @-@ the @-@ spot classification or re @-@ classification was viewed as a negative aspect of the 1996 Summer Paralympics , and the Paralympic movement overall . At the 2000 Summer Paralympics , 54 assessments were conducted , resulting in 13 class changes . There was one Paralympic New Status ( PNS ) protest and two Paralympic Permanent Status ( PPS ) protests by a national Paralympic committee , with one classification upheld and two denied . Six classification appeals were lodged for swimming at the 2000 Summer Paralympics involving four athletes , resulting in two class changes . For the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio , the International Paralympic Committee had a zero classification at the Games policy . This policy was put into place in 2014 , with the goal of avoiding last minute changes in classes that would negatively impact athlete training preparations . All competitors needed to be internationally classified with their classification status confirmed prior to the Games , with exceptions to this policy being dealt with on a case by case basis . In case there was a need for classification or reclassification at the Games despite best efforts otherwise , swimming classification was scheduled to take place at the Olympic Aquatics Stadium , with visually impaired swimmers getting classified from September 4 to 6 and all other swimmers being classified from September 3 to 5 . For sportspeople with physical or intellectual disabilities going through classification or reclassification in Rio , their in competition observation event is their first appearance in competition at the Games .
= = Future = =
Going forward , disability sport 's major classification body , the IPC , is working on improving classification to be more of an evidence @-@ based system , as opposed to a performance @-@ based system , so as not to punish elite athletes whose performance makes them appear in a higher class compared to competitors who train less .
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= Francis B. Wai =
Francis Brown Wai ( April 14 , 1917 – October 20 , 1944 ) was a captain in the United States Army and received the Medal of Honor for actions during the recapture of the Philippines from Japan in 1944 . As a youngster , Wai liked to surf and he played several sports in high school and college . He graduated from college with a degree in finance . Although he initially planned to work with his father , he joined the Hawaii National Guard , commissioned a lieutenant . Wai was sent with his unit to fight in World War II and he was killed during the U.S. amphibious assault on Leyte , Philippines .
He was initially awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the United States ' second highest decoration for valor . After an extensive review of awards in 2000 , his medal was upgraded to the Medal of Honor . To date , Wai is the only Chinese American and one of only two Asian American officers to receive the medal .
= = Early life = =
Wai was the child of a Native Hawaiian mother and a Chinese father . Growing up , he often surfed with Duke Kahanamoku , regarded as the father of surfing , and Buster Crabbe , who later became an actor . He attended the Punahou School in Honolulu where he earned athletic letters in track , football and baseball . He went to college at the Sacramento Junior College before transferring to UCLA . At UCLA , he was a four sport athlete and graduated in 1939 with a bachelor 's degree in Banking and Finance . He intended to work alongside his father in real estate and banking but instead joined the military upon the outbreak of World War II .
= = Military service and death = =
After his graduation , Wai enlisted in the Hawaii National Guard and was called into active duty before the United States ' entrance into World War II . He received a commission as an officer and completed Officer Candidate School in 1941 . His commission was rare at a time when few Asian Americans were allowed to serve in combat leadership roles . He was eventually assigned to the 34th Infantry Regiment of the 24th Infantry Division with the rank of Captain . The 24th Division , based at Schofield Barracks , Oahu , was among the first American units to be involved in the Pacific Theater , exchanging fire with Japanese aircraft during the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = = Operation Reckless = = =
In May 1943 , Captain Wai deployed to Australia with the 24th Infantry Division and by September 19 , 1943 , the unit was at Camp Caves , near Rockhampton , on the eastern coast of Australia . Wai and the rest of the unit began intensive combat training . With training completed , the division moved to Goodenough Island on January 31 , 1944 , to prepare for Operation Reckless , the amphibious invasion of Hollandia , Netherlands New Guinea ( now Jayapura , in the Papua province of Indonesia ) .
The 24th landed at Tanahmerah Bay on April 22 , 1944 and seized the Hollandia Airdrome despite torrential rain and marshy terrain . Shortly after the Hollandia landing , the division 's 34th Infantry Regiment moved to Biak to reinforce the 41st Infantry Division . Wai 's regiment captured the Sorido and Borokoe airdromes before returning to the division on Hollandia in July . In two months , Wai and his unit had crossed New Guinea and recaptured three airdromes from the Japanese .
= = = Leyte = = =
After occupying the Hollandia area , Wai was assigned to X Corps of the Sixth United States Army in preparation for the invasion of the Philippines . On October 20 , 1944 , his division was paired with the 1st Cavalry Division within X Corps , and the two divisions made an assault landing at Leyte . When Captain Wai landed at Red Beach , the Japanese forces stationed on the island concentrated their fire on the waves of incoming troops from gun positions located in a palm grove bounded by submerged rice paddies . When Wai arrived on the beach in the fifth wave , he found the soldiers there to be leaderless , disorganized , and pinned down on the open beach . Assuming command , he moved through the rice paddies , without cover . His demeanor and example inspired the other men to follow him . With deliberate disregard of his own personal safety , he advanced without cover to draw Japanese machine gun and rifle fire , thus exposing the locations of the entrenched Japanese forces . Systematically , the Japanese positions were assaulted and overcome . Wai was killed leading an assault against the last Japanese pillbox in the area . For his actions during the landing on Leyte , Wai was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . After the war , his remains were interred at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii . His grave can be found in section Q , grave 1194 .
= = Military awards and honors = =
In 1996 , amid allegations of prejudicial treatment of Asian Americans in uniform in World War II , Congress directed Louis Caldera , then Secretary of the Army , to conduct a full review of military records . The review concluded that 22 Asian Americans , including Wai , did not receive full consideration for the Medal of Honor and in 2000 , Wai 's Distinguished Service Cross was upgraded to the Medal of Honor .
Of those whose medals were upgraded , Wai was one of only two who did not belong to the predominantly Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat Team / 100th Infantry Battalion ; the other being Rudolph B. Davila of the 7th Infantry . At a White House ceremony June 20 , 2000 , President Bill Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to 22 Asian Americans whose Distinguished Service Crosses were upgraded to the Medal of Honor .
During the course of his short military career , Wai earned eight awards and decorations .
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Rank and organization : Captain , U.S. Army , Headquarters , 34th Infantry Place and date : Leyte , Philippine Islands , October 20 , 1944 Entered service at : Honolulu , Hawaii Born : Honolulu , Hawaii
Citation :
" Captain Francis B. Wai distinguished himself by extraordinary heroism in action , on 20 October 1944 , in Leyte , Philippine Islands . Captain Wai landed at Red Beach , Leyte , in the face of accurate , concentrated enemy fire from gun positions advantageously located in a palm grove bounded by submerged rice paddies . Finding the first four waves of American soldiers leaderless , disorganized , and pinned down on the open beach , he immediately assumed command . Issuing clear and concise orders , and disregarding heavy enemy machine gun and rifle fire , he began to move inland through the rice paddies without cover . The men , inspired by his cool demeanor and heroic example , rose from their positions and followed him . During the advance , Captain Wai repeatedly determined the locations of enemy strong points by deliberately exposing himself to draw their fire . In leading an assault upon the last remaining Japanese pillbox in the area , he was killed by its occupants . Captain Wai 's courageous , aggressive leadership inspired the men , even after his death , to advance and destroy the enemy . His intrepid and determined efforts were largely responsible for the rapidity with which the initial beachhead was secured . Captain Wai 's extraordinary heroism and devotion to duty are in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit on him , his unit , and the United States Army . "
Wai was inducted into the UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame on October 11 , 2014 .
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= Battle of Arcadiopolis ( 970 ) =
The Battle of Arcadiopolis was fought in 970 between a Byzantine army under Bardas Skleros and a Rus ' army , the latter also including allied Bulgarian , Pecheneg and Magyar contingents . In the preceding years , the Rus ' ruler Sviatoslav had conquered Bulgaria , and was now menacing Byzantium as well . The Rus ' force had been advancing through Thrace towards Constantinople when it was met by Skleros ' force . Having fewer men than the Rus ' , Skleros prepared an ambush and attacked the Rus ' army with a portion of his force . The Byzantines then feigned retreat , and succeeded in drawing off the Pecheneg contingent into the ambush , routing it . The remainder of the Rus ' army then panicked and fled , and suffered heavy casualties from the pursuing Byzantines . The battle was important as it bought time for the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes to settle his internal problems and assemble a large expedition , which eventually defeated Sviatoslav the next year .
= = Background = =
In 965 or 966 , a Bulgarian embassy visited the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas ( r . 963 – 969 ) at Constantinople to receive the annual tribute that had been agreed by the two powers as the price of peace in 927 . Phokas , flush and self @-@ confident from a series of victories against the Arabs in the East that had led to the recovery of Crete , Cyprus and Cilicia , refused to comply , and even had the envoys beat up . He followed this up with a show of military strength , by sending a small force to raze a number of Bulgarian border posts in Thrace .
It was a clear declaration of war , but Nikephoros ' forces were largely preoccupied in the East . Thus the emperor turned to the traditional Byzantine expedient of turning one of the peoples living further north , in modern @-@ day Ukraine , against Bulgaria . He sent an ambassador , the patrikios Kalokyros , to Sviatoslav , ruler of the Rus ' with whom the Byzantines had maintained close relations . Sviatoslav enthusiastically responded , and invaded Bulgaria in 967 or 968 in a devastating raid , before returning home to defend his capital against a Pecheneg attack . This forced the Bulgarian tsar , Peter I , to the negotiating table , agreeing to terms favourable to Byzantium . However , this brief sojourn also awakened in Sviatoslav the desire to conquer Bulgaria and establish his own realm there . He returned in force in July or August 969 and conquered the country within a few months .
Nikephoros ' scheme had backfired dramatically : instead of peace , a new and formidable foe had appeared in the Balkans , and a large part of the Bulgarian nobility appeared to side with the Rus ' prince . The emperor , however , was murdered in December 969 , and it fell to his successor , John I Tzimiskes ( r . 969 – 976 ) , to deal with the Rus ' threat . Sviatoslav now turned his sights on Byzantium , and to John 's entreaties for peace he allegedly answered that the Empire should abandon its European territories to him and withdraw to Asia Minor . Tzimiskes himself was preoccupied with consolidating his position and with countering the unrest of the powerful Phokas clan and its adherents , and delegated the war in the Balkans to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Domestic of the Schools Bardas Skleros , and to the eunuch stratopedarches Peter . They were to winter in Thrace and raise an army , whilst sending spies to discover Sviatoslav 's intentions .
At the news of this , a powerful Rus ' force , along with many Bulgarians and a Pecheneg contingent , was sent south over the Balkan Mountains . After sacking the last major Bulgarian stronghold of Philippopolis ( modern Plovdiv ) , they bypassed the heavily defended city of Adrianople and turned towards Constantinople . The size of the Rus ' army , and whether it comprised the entirety of Sviatoslav 's forces or just a division , is unclear . John Skylitzes , for instance , implies that this was the entire Rus ' army , numbering an incredible 308 @,@ 000 men , but the contemporary Leo the Deacon reports that it was a detachment of " over 30 @,@ 000 men " ; conversely , the Russian Primary Chronicle gives the entire Rus ' army under Sviatoslav at some 30 @,@ 000 , whilst numbering the Rus ' at Arcadiopolis at only 10 @,@ 000 , faced with 100 @,@ 000 Byzantines . It is clear , however , that the Byzantines were considerably outnumbered , and that the Rus ' force at Arcadiopolis included significant numbers of Bulgarians , as well as allied contingents of Pechenegs and " Turks " ( i.e. Magyars ) .
= = The battle = =
Skleros then quickly assembled a force of ten to twelve thousand men and set out to meet the Rus ' . The two armies met near Arcadiopolis ( modern Lüleburgaz in Turkish Thrace ) , some 80 km west of Constantinople . The two primary accounts on the Byzantine side differ on the preliminaries of the battle : Leo the Deacon reports that Skleros sent a scouting detachment ahead under the patrikios John Alakaseus , and then gave battle after only a day , but the later chronicle of Skylitzes reports that for a few days , Skleros with his men remained within the walls of Arcadiopolis as the Rus ' encamped nearby , and refused to come out and meet them in battle despite their repeated challenges for him to do so . According to Skylitzes , the Rus ' quickly became convinced that the imperial army was too afraid to face them ; consequently they roamed about the countryside plundering , neglected their camp defences and spent their nights in heedless revelry .
Skleros eventually set out from the city , and divided his forces into three groups : two divisions were placed in ambush on the wooded sides of the road leading towards the Rus ' camp , while another , probably some 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 men , was placed under himself ( or Alakaseus in Skylitzes ' account ) and went forth to attack the Rus ' host . The Byzantine detachment quickly came into contact with the Rus ' army , and charged the Pecheneg contingent . The Byzantines executed a gradual orderly retreat , turning at intervals to charge back at the pursuing Pechenegs , who had thus become separated from the main body of the Rus ' army . This conflict was fierce and bloody , taxing the discipline and endurance of the small Byzantine force . According to Leo the Deacon , at one point one of the Pechenegs charged Bardas himself and delivered a sword blow on his helmet , which was deflected by the metal without doing harm . Bardas ' young brother Constantine came to his rescue , killing the Pecheneg .
When the two opposing forces reached the place of the ambush , Bardas ordered the trumpets blown and the two concealed Byzantine divisions attacked the Pechenegs from the flanks and the rear . Cut off from aid and surrounded , the Pechenegs began to panic and flee . One of their leaders tried to rally his men , but he was attacked by Bardas Skleros himself , who killed him with a single sword @-@ blow that reportedly cut him in two from his head down to the waist , through the Pecheneg 's helmet and cuirass . The loss of the Pecheneg commander turned the battle into a complete rout , and panic spread to the Bulgarian contingent following behind the Pechenegs , which also suffered heavy casualties in the general chaos . The Byzantine casualties in the battle were low ( Skylitzes speaks of 25 dead and Leo of 55 ) although they lost many horses to the Pecheneg arrows , while the losses of the Rus ' force , although certainly lower than Leo 's claimed 20 @,@ 000 , were still significant , probably running into several thousands .
= = Aftermath = =
The Byzantines were unable to exploit this victory or pursue the remnants of the Rus ' army , since Bardas Phokas rose in revolt in Asia Minor . Bardas Skleros and his men were consequently withdrawn to Asia Minor , whilst Sviatoslav restricted his forces to the north of the Balkan Mountains . In the spring of the next year , however , with Phokas ' rebellion subdued , Tzimiskes himself , at the head of his army , advanced north into Bulgaria . The Byzantines took the Bulgarian capital Preslav , capturing the Bulgarian tsar Boris II , and confined the Rus ' in the fortress of Dorostolon ( modern Silistra ) . After a three @-@ month siege and a series of pitched battles before the city walls , Sviatoslav conceded defeat and abandoned Bulgaria .
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= Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga =
Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga , known in Japan as Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner ( Digital Devil Saga アバタール ・ チューナー , Dejitaru Debiru Sāga Abatāru Chūnā ) is a duology of role @-@ playing video games developed by Atlus for the PlayStation 2 . They are a spin @-@ off of the Megami Tensei series . The first Digital Devil Saga was released in Japan in 2004 , North America in 2005 and Europe in 2006 . Its direct sequel , Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga 2 ( Digital Devil Saga アバタール ・ チューナー2 , Dejitaru Debiru Sāga Abatāru Chūnā Tsū , lit . Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner 2 ) , released in 2005 in Japan and North America , and 2007 in Europe . The games were published in Europe by Ghostlight and in other regions by Atlus .
Digital Devil Saga follows the Embryon , a tribe who fight against six other tribes in a digital world called the Junkyard . After being infected with a demon virus that grants them demonic powers , the Embryon must fight with and devour the other tribes to ascend to " Nirvana " . During the conflict , they shelter a woman named Sera , who has the power to calm their demonic powers . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , having escaped into the devastated real world , the Embryon are caught up in the fight against the Karma Society , who are intimately linked to the source of the disaster . The gameplay of both titles feature third @-@ person navigation of playble characters around to @-@ scale environments , and turn @-@ based gameplay against demonic monsters and human enemies .
Digital Devil Saga began development pre @-@ 2002 under the working title New Goddess . The game 's concept and original draft were written by Japanese author Yu Godai , but she withdrew from the project for personal reasons , and was replaced by Atlus scriptwriter Tadashi Satomi . The gameplay concept of the characters transforming into demons was based on an unused idea for Shin Megami Tensei . The second game began development immediately after the first , with the main development effort going into refining and improving the gameplay . While their commercial performances varied , both games were praised by critics for their story , graphics and gameplay . Since release , the game has inspired a mobile prequel , and Godai wrote a series of novels based on her original premise for the story .
= = Gameplay = =
In the Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga role @-@ playing games , players take control of the characters Serph , Heat , Argilla , Gale and Cielo , with the characters Sera and Roland becoming playable in Digital Devil Saga 2 . These characters are able to transform into a demon form , which is their main form in battle . Characters navigate to @-@ scale environments , fighting enemies in both random encounters and story @-@ focused boss battles . After each battle , experience points are awarded to characters . Character abilities are governed by Mantra Grids , a system where Mantras are bought using the in @-@ game currency Macca , then mastering them using gaining Atma Points gained from defeated enemies . The maximum number of abilities that a character can learn is eight . If two or more characters equip a certain ability , they can perform a stronger version of it through a combo . Each character can learn abilities from one of four categories : Physical , Magic , Shield and Auto .
The Digital Devil Saga games use a turn @-@ based battle system , with three allied characters fighting in battle . Both player characters and enemies are governed by a mechanic called the Press Turn system : each character has a symbol representing a turn . The character can forfeit a turn to allow the next character an action ; turns cannot be passed more than once . If an enemy 's weakness is exploited or a character lands a critical hit , an extra turn is gained ; if a character resists an attack , a turn is lost . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , characters will sometimes enter battle in a half @-@ transformed " berserk " mode , which increases attack power while locking away magic skills and lowering a character 's defense . While battle is focused around strengthening characters ' demon forms , they can also fight in their human forms using conventional weapons , and can equip ammunition . A human character can perform a combo with one in demon form . The magic system uses nine magic attributes . Ice and Lightning magic have a chance of causing the " freeze " and " stun " status , while Expel magic reduces an enemy 's hit points by a certain percentage , and Death magic causes an instant kill . Status magic can inflict status effects on enemies .
Each time a character 's experience level raises , they receive stat boosts . While the protagonist can assign stat points at will , the other main characters each have certain specializations . Money is also dropped , which can be used to buy supplies from merchants . Atma is gained after each battle , but a greater amount is gained from eating enemies . If an enemy is " frightened " , the amount of Atma is further increased . Characters can also be afflicted with a status ailment if they overeat . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , special Karma Ring items can be assigned to characters to grant stat boosts . Fitting different gems dropped from defeated enemies granting specific stat boosts and effects . Effects range from granting free status buffs on the player party to casting ailments on enemies . Importing save data from the first game enables some skills and abilities learned during the first game to be transferred to the characters that learned them .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The first Digital Devil Saga takes place in the Junkyard , a combat simulator program divided between six tribes where it always rains : the Embryon , Vanguards , Solids , Maribel , Brutes and Wolves . Each tribe holds a particular territory , and initially are devoid of emotions : the only common ground is a great tower at the Junkyard 's center called the Karma Temple , which acts as a meeting place for all the tribe leaders . The following game is set on Earth , which has been devastated by a phenomenon known as the " Black Sun " , a manifestation of God 's anger . The survivors of humanity are ruled by the Karma Society .
The main protagonists of the Digital Devil Saga duology are silent protagonist Serph ( サーフ , Sa @-@ fu ) , leader of the Embryon ; and Sera ( セラ ) , a woman who can commune with God . The other Embryon are the kind Argilla ( アルジラ , Arujira ) ; the hot @-@ tempered Heat ( ヒート , Hito ) the light @-@ hearted Cielo ( シエロ , Shiero ) ; and the highly logical Gale ( ゲイル , Geiru ) . The main antagonist is Angel ( エンジェル ) , who is Sera 's intersexual biological parent . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , two new main characters are introduced : Rolad , the alcoholic leader of the Lokapala resistance group ; and Madame Margot Cuvier , head of the Karma Society . All the main characters barring Cuvier become infected with the demon virus , a condition that causes them to turn into demonic beings and lust after human flesh .
= = = Plot = = =
During a border skirmish between the Embryon and the Vanguards , a demon virus is introduced that infects everyone in the Junkyard : branded with a mark representing their " Atma " and gradually awakening to basic emotions , the people of the Junkyard must devour their foes to satiate their demonic hunger or risk going berserk . Sera , a so @-@ called cyber shaman , arrives suffering from amnesia and is taken in by the Embryon , revealing herself capable of calming their hunger with her singing . The Embryon first become conscious of their new powers when they meet the surviving Vanguard : during their time there , they are forced to kill the Vanguards ' leader Harley . Serph is then summoned to the Karma Temple along with the surviving tribe leaders . Once they are assembled there , a female being calling itself Angel orders the tribes to conquer their neighbors and ascend the Temple 's tower to " Nirvana " , bringing Sera as proof of their achievements . The Embryon decide to ally with the Maribel as a means of defeating the stronger tribes .
After gaining the trust of the Maribel 's leader Jinana , they are betrayed by her second @-@ in @-@ command Bat , who allies with the Brutes along with the Solids ' leader Mick . Jinana , having refused to eat as she needed to , goes berserk and must be killed . The Solids then capture Sera , leading the Embryon into a fight to the death against Mick . They also successfully trick the Brutes ' forces and Bat into a booby @-@ trapped ship , killing them . During this time , the Wolves are subdued by the Brutes , whose leader Varin has awakened memories of a former life where he was known as " Colonel Beck " , and unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Angel to release him from the Junkyard . With help from the Wolves ' deposed leader Lupa , the Embryon infiltrate the Brutes ' castle , but Lupa is killed after going berserk . After fighting Varin , he accuses Sera of being a monster before he dies . Sera regains her memories and runs to the Karma Temple with the Embryon in pursuit . There , Sera faces the human form of Angel , who threatens to delete the Junkyard with a computer virus if Sera does not return to the real world with her . The Embryon arrive and successfully fight Angel , but in the process release the computer virus . The Embryon , Sera and Angel only just escape as the Junkyard is destroyed .
In Digital Devil Saga 2 , the Embryon appear in the real world , which is slowly being destroyed by the Black Sun : the only ones able to survive the sun 's rays are those infected with the demon virus . Serph , Cielo , Argilla and Gale learn that Sera is the captive of Angel and Madame Cuvier at the Karma Society headquarters . With the help of Roland and a young by named Fred , the group infiltrate the Karma Society 's building . While they attempt to rescue Serah , Angel plans to subvert Cuvier and use the demon virus to create a society ruled by the strong . The Embryon are also faced by Heat , who is working with Cuvier on the promise of Sera 's safety . Reaching the EGG , a man @-@ made replica of God , the party rescue Sera , but Heat appears and wounds Serph . Both fall into the EGG , and God begins absorbing the Earth 's data : in the chaos , Angel kills Cuvier , while the remaining Embryon and Sera , now able to assume a demon form herself , shut down the Power Plant in an unsuccessful attempt to stop the EGG . In the process , both Roland and Argilla are killed by a powerful demon . Returning to the EGG so Sera can speak with God , they are confronted by Heat , who has fused with the EGG and gone berserk . Inside the EGG , Serph is met by a higher being calling itself Schrödinger , who reveals the truth about what happened .
The Karma Society was founded to study God , who was losing his faith in humanity due to their behavior . Sera was the only survivor of a group of children with the ability to communicate with God . To hide from the pain of the experiments , Sera created an artificial environment that would become the Junkyard , populating it with benign versions of Karma Society staff : these artificial beings would become the Junkyard 's five tribes . The original Serph manipulated Sera for his own ends while the original Heat attempted to protect her : when Sera saw Serph killing Heat when linked to the EGG , God felt her pain and attacked Earth . The original Serph was overwhelmed by a flood of data and became a demon before being killed . Now knowing the truth , Serph escapes from the EGG , killing Heat in the process . Sera then decides to head for a secondary Karma facility to communicate with God : on the way , Gale dies defeating Angel , and Cielo sacrifices himself so Sera and Serph can reach the transmission site . As Sera begins transmission , the base is destroyed , killing her and Serph . Their data travels to the sun and merges into a new being called Seraph . Aided by the data of the Embryon , Seraph confronts God , fighting an avatar of him to prove humanity 's worth . Upon victory , Seraph achieves enlightenment and travels with Schrödinger to new worlds , while God restores the sun and Earth . At the game 's end , it is shown that the Embryon , Angel , and aspects of Sera and Serph have reincarnated , with a grown Fred acting as their caretaker .
= = Development = =
Production on the initial Digital Devil Saga started prior to the beginning of active development on Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne in 2002 . During production , it was known under the working title New Goddess . The project was formed in part to make the Megami Tensei series accessible to a broader audience while staying true to its roots . The games were directed by Katsura Hashino , a new director who had worked in lesser roles in previous Megami Tensei titles . The design director was Makoto Kitano , while the movie director was Ichirō Itano , a noted anime director . Itano was responsible for storyboarding and character movement choreography . The team was divided into multiple divisions , each in charge of different aspects of the game 's design . The original story was written by Japanese novelist Yu Godai , but due to personal reasons she withdrew from the project before the full scripts were written . Her role was filled by Tadashi Satomi , who had previously written scripts for the first three Persona games . Satomi 's role as story writer necessitated discussions with other teams assigned to the game . Due to characters having dialogue in the field , the team needed to have extensive notes prepared . The battle system was taken from that used in Nocturne , but with elements added to both differentiate it from other Megami Tensei games and incorporate the game 's themes . During development of Digital Devil Saga , the team were faced with repeated problems with fitting the entire experience on a single DVD : the amount of data was estimated to be two times that of Nocturne .
Production of Digital Devil Saga 2 began immediately after the release of the first game . To tease it prior to its official announcement , a large number of unfinished plot threads and vague hints relating to the main characters ' previous lives were incorporated into the first game . For Digital Devil Saga 2 , the team expanded upon the systems implemented in the first game . Due to extra features added , the team sometimes felt that they could not fit it all on a single disc . The main priority was to ensure smooth motion and a quick transfer into battles and cutscenes . The game 's setting was inspired in Satomi 's mind by the frequent reporting of natural disasters and outbreaks of diseases around the world . Another theme he incorporate was the inherent contradiction of wanting to avoid violence while being forced to fight others in order to survive . According to Satomi , while the first game 's motif was " rain " , the second game 's was " sun " . Itano returned to his role as storyboarder and movement choreographer . A large amount of work was done to refine the gameplay experience , such as opening up the character customization system . The team used player feedback from the first game 's systems to make their adjustments . For both games , Atlus received additional development support for artwork assets from Kusanagi Corporation .
= = = Character design = = =
The character and demon designs were done by regular series artist Kazuma Kaneko . At the start , Kaneko was given the instruction to give the characters tribal uniforms instead of normal clothes , and an Atma tattoo somewhere on their body to signify their demon power . The uniforms signified their eternal conflict within the Junkyard . To help bring individuality to the main characters , Kaneko create slight variations in them , such as giving them hoods or capes . The grey tribal uniforms were created so the main characters ' key colors would stand out . Serph , as the player character and silent protagonist , was given few personality traits and designed with a stern expression . The aspect that separated him from other silent protagonist within the Megami Tensei series was that his name was spoken by the other characters rather than chosen by the player . To emphasize the fact that the world of Digital Devil Saga was unlike the typical setting for Megami Tensei titles , he gave all the characters hair and eye colors that would be naturally impossible in the real world . The only one not to have a strange hair color was Sera , signifying her unique status . The characters ' demon forms were designed to be animal @-@ like , signifying their urge to eat . They were given prominent mouths as demons , as the idea was that they would eat their foes when in demon form . Their eyes were removed as they stood out too much . Each character was designed around a specific elemental theme , which both flowed into the gameplay and matched an individual 's personality : an example of this is Heat , who has an angry personality and uses Fire as his primary element .
Kaneko was the first to propose the game 's concept , which was then worked on by other staff members . The initial game 's themes were defined as " awakening " and " change " , referenced in how the characters gradually awoke to their emotions and the static environment of the Junkyard was drastically changed . The Junkyard was designed to emphasize the desperation of the characters during their awakening . The concept behind the demon transformations originated during the development of Shin Megami Tensei . Kaneko , who worked on Shin Megami Tensei , had wanted the game 's Chaos Hero to regularly switch between his human and demon forms . The idea did not appear in the finished game , but eventually reemerged and became the base for Digital Devil Saga 's gameplay . The game 's character models were created based on development knowledge from Nocturne . Creating the models proved difficult due to the need to extensively use level of detail while staying true Kaneko 's distinctive designs . While Nocturne was defined by its " static " feel , the team wanted Digital Devil Saga to have a feeling of motion to contrast Nocturne . Makoto Kitano was responsible for creating 3D representations of the game 's demons , A noted element was the design of Cerberus , which combined elements of the three @-@ headed version first designed for Devil Summoner : Soul Hackers and the shape of sharks . One of the additional challenges was the fact that it was the first Megami Tensei title to feature extensive voice acting , inspired by the need to fully express the game 's themes and story . Before the official voice actors were cast , Atlus staff provided the characters ' voices . Due to the wish to appeal to a wider audience than previous Megami Tensei games , the proposed amount of violence and graphic imagery was cut down .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Digital Devil Saga was principally composed by Shoji Meguro , who had worked on multiple previous Megami Tensei titles . Some tracks from the first game were composed by Kenichi Tsuchiya . While he had previously been restricted in his music quality by the limited storage space of the CD medium , Meguro was able to play half the tracks using real @-@ time streaming . For the sound compression , Meguro used ATRAC3 compression software . Using the software , Meguro was able to fit in high @-@ quality music alongside the sound effects and voice track . Nevertheless , he needed to make some compromises on tracks .
For the first game , Meguro made heavy use of guitar music , taking his inspiration from music of the 1960s and 70s . It was meant to represent the vicious new nature of the environment , and of how the main protagonists gradually awoke to their humanity . Tsuchiya was in charge of environmental tracks that deviated from the normal layout and feel of the Junkyard . The game 's battle theme , " Hunting " , was originally going to be the boss theme , but its instrumentation was wrong and so it was changed to the normal battle theme . For the second game , Meguro changed the original 's dark tone to give it a harsher feel and techno instrumentation , reflecting the state of the real world and clashing with the views of the main characters . He also reached out to an external firm to help with fitting in more complicated tracks with less loops , getting round some of the limitations he faced with the first game .
Multiple theme songs were created for the games . The first game 's opening theme , " Pray " , was sung by Sera 's voice actress Houko Kuwashima . " Pray " also formed the core musical theme for the games . For the North American version , the opening theme was changed to " Danger " , composed by electronic band Etro Anime . The song , described as a " melancholy track " , was designed to blend with the constant rain of the Junkyard . The opening theme for Digital Devil Saga 2 was " Alive " : it was written by Meguro , sung by Kayoko Momota , and had backing vocals by Yumi Kawamura . The ending theme song is " Time Capsule " by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter As . The song was used in television commercials advertising the game in Japan , and was the singer 's debut single .
= = Release = =
Digital Devil Saga first announced in the Japanese director 's cut version of Nocturne in February 2004 . The game 's formal title had only been decided upon shortly before its reveal . As part of the game 's promotion in Japan , entertainer and model Mayuko Iwasa appeared in live @-@ action advertisements in the role of Sera , and promoted the game at events . An eight @-@ megabyte PlayStation 2 memory card was sold that featured artwork of Serph and his demon form . Digital Devil Saga 2 was officially announced at the 2004 Tokyo Game Show . To promote Digital Devil Saga 2 , a special DVD containing selected music tracks and movie material was created as an over @-@ the @-@ counter giveaway for the initial print of the game . Both Digital Devil Saga games were re @-@ released by Atlus in 2006 as part of their " Atlus Best Collection " budget release series .
Digital Devil Saga was officially announced for the west at the 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo for release in the winter of that year . It was subsequently delayed into 2005 , and a delux edition which would include a box for containing both Digital Devil Saga games was announced as a consolation . The second game 's release window was officially announced at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo , to be published in North America by Atlus . The game arrived in stores in North America a week earlier than originally scheduled . Both Digital Devil Saga games were published in Europe by Ghostlight .
As the original version featured a cast of well @-@ known anime voice actors , the localization team sought out well @-@ known English voice actors for the dub , and took extra care with syncing the English dialogue with the original characters ' lip movements . Digital Devil Saga was the first Megami Tensei project to feature an extensive voice acting element . During localization , localization project manager Yu Namba made a spelling error during one of the early cutscenes where the name of Serph 's demon form was shown : the demon 's name was displayed as " Varna " , when it was actually " Varuna " . The error was not spotted until it was too late , and so remained in the game . One of the main concerns was to keep the characters ' personalities intact when shifting from Japanese to English dialogue : a cited example of how this change was accomplished was Cielo , who was given a Jamaican accent to express the character 's easy @-@ going and friendly personality . After the release of Nocturne , the " Shin Megami Tensei " moniker was attached to the Digital Devil Saga games to help with marketing .
= = Reception = =
By the end of 2004 , the first game sold 153 @,@ 421 units in Japan , coming in at the 81st best @-@ selling title in Japan for that year . The second game sold 90 @,@ 812 units in Japan by the end of 2005 , becoming the 144th best @-@ selling game for 2005 . Digital Devil Saga did not manage to meet its projected sales targets in Japan , and contributed to the company 's console division posting a substantial loss for the 2004 / 2005 financial year , resulting in several staff members being laid off . According to a representative of Atlus USA , the games ' sales performances in 2005 were " absolutely fabulous " . In Europe , it was stated by its publisher that the first game had sold above expectations in the region . Upon their re @-@ release on PlayStation Network , the games appeared in the top ten rankings in North America and Europe .
Digital Devil Saga received positive critical reception : aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic show ratings of 80 % and 78 / 100 respectively . General praise went to the story , characters and gameplay . The high difficulty , issues with repetition and pacing , and the cliffhanger ending drew criticism . Famitsu cited the game 's significant shift away from the hardcore mechanics of the main series , positively noting the freedom of character customization . The reviewer for 1UP.com , despite missing the demon fusion systems from earlier Megami Temsei titles , thoroughly enjoyed the game , calling it " a great Final Fantasy alternative " . Jeremy Dunham of IGN said that " Despite its repetition and unfinished storyline , [ Digital Devil Saga ] still has plenty to like " , citing its plot and battle system . GameSpot 's Bethany Massimilla said that Digital Devil Saga 's combat and world design made it a compelling title worthy of the Shin Megami Tensei moniker . RPGamer 's Derek Cavin said that Digital Devil Saga " manages to be a good game , despite its flaws " . Eurogamer 's Rob Fahey said that players expecting a traditional role @-@ playing game would be disappointed , while stating that Digital Devil Saga delivered a generally positive impression while avoiding many cliches of the RPG genre . John McCarroll of RPGFan generally enjoyed his time with the game despite issues with camera control , praising the positive mixture of gameplay and story elements .
Digital Devil Saga 2 received an even better reception : its aggregate scores from GameRankings and Metacritic were 83 % and 83 / 100 respectively . While critics generally cited a necessity for knowledge of the first game , the story and gameplay were generally cited as an improvement over the original . Famitsu was again fairly positive , enjoying the story and characters , while also noting the accommodations for first @-@ time players . Dengeki PlayStation was highly positive about the game , praising its story and gameplay additions , though saying that the two games were a little too similar , and that people who had not played the first game would be confused by the story and character relations . 1UP.com 's Shane Bettenhausen said that while the game shared many similarities with its predecessor , it was not as repetitive as other games such as the .hack series , and was still a good game . Masimilla said that Digital Devil Saga 2 had managed to realize the first game 's storytelling ambitions , enjoying the experience despite noting some design flaws . Fahey said that the game was " everything that an excellent sequel should be " , generally praising its mechanical and narrative improvements over Digital Devil Saga . Cavin said that it improved on nearly every aspect of the original game , recommending it to players of RPGs . McCarroll said " [ Digital Devil Saga 2 ] is easily the finest game I 've had a chance to play this year and stands to be one of the great games of this generation " .
= = Legacy = =
In its reviews , RPGFan named both Digital Devil Saga games as " Editor 's Choice " . In 2011 , Digital Devil Saga and its sequel Digital Devil Saga 2 ended up topping the site 's " Top 20 RPGs of the Last Decade " list . Kurt Kalata , writing for 1UP.com in an article concerning the controversial content of the Megami Tensei series , made mention of Digital Devil Saga due to its examination of the ethics of eating others to survive .
= = = Related media = = =
A manga spin @-@ off of Digital Devil Saga titled Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner - Shinen no Matou was published in Japan in 2005 by Jive . The manga revolves around a separate group of characters within the Junkyard . A five @-@ volume light novels series titled Quantum Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner ( クォンタムデビルサーガ アバタールチューナー ) have been authored by Yu Godai in 2011 . While she had left the project early , her contract with Atlus enabled her to write her own work based on the premise . The novels are Yu 's alternate take on her own story , redone without any of the restrictions involved with a video game narrative .
Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner : A 's TEST Server ( デジタル ・ デビル ・ サーガ アバタール ・ チューナー A 's TEST Server ) , a mobile role @-@ playing game , was developed by Interactive Brains for mobile phones and published by Atlus and Bbmf through the Megaten α service . Using gameplay systems similar to the console games , the story is an original narrative set within the Digital Devil Saga universe : when Serph awakens in an enormous tower with no memories , he and the other Embryon must explore the towers with Sera 's help to recover his memories .
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= History of the New York Giants =
The history of the New York Giants , an American football team which currently plays in the NFL 's National Football Conference , comprises more than 80 seasons . The Giants were founded in 1925 by Tim Mara in the then five @-@ year @-@ old NFL . Mara owned the team until his death in 1959 , when it was passed on to his sons , Wellington and Jack . During their history , the Giants have won eight NFL championships , four of which came in Super Bowls .
In just its third season , the team finished with the best record in the league at 11 – 1 – 1 and was awarded the NFL title . In a 14 @-@ year span beginning in 1933 , New York qualified to play in the NFL championship game eight times , winning twice ( 1934 and 1938 ) . They did not win another championship until 1956 , aided by several future Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford , linebacker Sam Huff , and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown . From 1958 to 1963 , the Giants played in the NFL championship game five times , but failed to win . The 1958 NFL Championship game , in which they lost 23 – 17 in overtime to the Baltimore Colts , is credited with increasing the popularity of the NFL in the United States .
The Giants registered just two winning seasons from 1964 to 1980 and were unable to advance to the playoffs . From 1981 to 1990 , the team qualified for the postseason seven times and won Super Bowls XXI and XXV . The team 's success during the 1980s was aided by head coach Bill Parcells , quarterback Phil Simms and Hall of Fame linebackers Lawrence Taylor and Harry Carson . New York struggled throughout much of the 1990s as Parcells left the team , and players such as Simms and Taylor declined and eventually retired . They returned to the Super Bowl in 2000 , but lost to the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV . The Giants upset the heavily favored New England Patriots in Super Bowls XLII and XLVI .
= = Timeline = =
Season by season timeline of the New York Giants franchise including the team name , changes of Home Field , Postseason Championships Seasons , and coaches throughout the years .
= = Birth and success : 1925 – 1930 = =
The Giants were founded in 1925 by original owner Tim Mara with an investment of $ 500 . Legally named " New York Football Giants " ( which they still are to this day ) to distinguish themselves from the baseball team of the same name , they became one of the first teams in the then five @-@ year @-@ old National Football League . In 1919 , Charles Stoneham , the owner of the New York Giants baseball team , had organized and promoted a professional football team to be called the New York Giants . The team folded before its first game .
The New York Football Giants played their first game against All New Britain in New Britain , Connecticut on October 5 , 1925 .
Although the Giants were successful on the field in their first season , going 8 – 4 , their financial status was a different story . Overshadowed by baseball , boxing , and college football , professional football was not a popular sport in 1925 . They were in dire financial straits until the eleventh game of the season , when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town , attracting over 73 @,@ 000 fans . This gave the Giants a much needed influx of revenue , and perhaps altered the history of the franchise .
New York finished 11 – 1 – 1 in 1927 . Their league @-@ best defense posted 10 shutouts in 13 games . New coach Earl Potteiger led the team into a late @-@ season game against Chicago with first place on the line . New York won 13 – 7 in what lineman Steve Owen called " the toughest , roughest football game I ever played . " Then they won their final two regular season games to secure their first championship .
Following a disappointing 4 – 7 – 2 season the next year , Potteiger was replaced by LeRoy Andrews . Before the 1929 season , Mara purchased the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines , including star quarterback Benny Friedman . The Wolverines had finished in third place the year before . Led by Friedman , New York 's record soared to 13 – 1 – 1 . However , their lone loss was a 20 – 6 setback in November to the Green Bay Packers , and by virtue of this win , and their 12 – 0 – 1 record , won the NFL title . Following the season , Mara transferred ownership over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors . At the time , Jack was just 22 , and Wellington only 14 .
In 1930 , the quality of the professional game was still in question , with many claiming the college " amateurs " played with more intensity . In December 1930 , the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All @-@ Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City . It was also an opportunity to establish the superiority of the pro game . Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with other Notre Dame legends , and told them to score early , then defend . But from the beginning , it was a one @-@ sided contest , with Benny Friedman running for two Giants touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another . Notre Dame failed to score . When it was over , Rockne told his team , ' " [ t ] hat was the greatest football machine I ever saw . I am glad none of you got hurt . " The game raised $ 115 @,@ 183 for the homeless , and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game .
= = Steve Owen era : 1931 – 1953 = =
The Giants hired All @-@ Pro offensive tackle Steve Owen to be their new player @-@ head coach prior to the 1931 season . He coached the team for the next 23 years , including two NFL championships , and was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1966 . Owen never had a contract with the Mara family ; he coached his entire tenure on a handshake basis .
Before the 1931 season , New York acquired center Mel Hein , who also played the linebacker position . He would go on to a fifteen @-@ year NFL career in which , as a center , he became an All @-@ NFL First Team selection eight times , and the only offensive lineman ever named league MVP . Friedman quit the team following the season when Mara denied him an ownership stake , telling him " I 'm sorry ... but the Giants are for my sons . " New York struggled in 1931 and 1932 , finishing with a combined record of 11 – 12 – 3 .
The Giants acquired University of Michigan All @-@ American quarterback Harry Newman and versatile free agent halfback Ken Strong before the 1933 season . New York finished 11 – 3 , first in the new Eastern Division . Newman led the NFL in passes completed ( 53 ) , passing yards ( 973 ) , touchdown passes ( 11 ) , and longest pass completion ( 78 yards ) , with his passing yardage total setting an NFL record . New York 's resurgence was led by some of the league 's best linemen , such as Ray Flaherty and future Hall of Famers Red Badgro , and Hein . They advanced to play in the league 's first official championship game in Chicago 's Wrigley Field versus the Bears , where they lost 23 – 21 in a game which had six lead changes .
In the 1934 NFL Championship Game , the Giants defeated previously unbeaten Chicago 30 – 13 at the Polo Grounds on an icy field with temperatures peaking at 25 degrees . Before the game , team treasurer John Mara talked with Owen and team captain Flaherty about the field conditions . Flaherty suggested the Giants wear sneakers on the frozen field , as he had played in a game under similar circumstances at Gonzaga , and the sneakers proved to be effective . Mara dispatched equipment manager Abe Cohen to get as many sneakers as he could get . Due to traffic and the inability to find any athletic goods stores open on Sunday , Cohen was unable to return before the game started , and the Giants , wearing conventional footwear , trailed 10 – 3 at the end of the first half . Realizing time was short , Cohen went to Manhattan College — where he had a key to the equipment and locker rooms — and returned to the Polo Grounds at halftime with nine pairs of basketball sneakers , saying that " nine pairs was all I could get . " Players donned the sneakers and New York , after allowing Chicago another field goal late in the 3rd quarter , responded with 27 unanswered points in the 4th quarter to win their first NFL Championship game . The game would come to be known as " The Sneakers Game " , and the 27 points the Giants scored in the 4th quarter set a single – quarter championship game scoring record that stood for decades . After the game , offensive tackle Len Grant expressed his sincere gratitude by stating " God bless Abe Cohen . "
The Giants were unable to repeat as champions in 1935 , as they fell to the Detroit Lions 26 – 7 in the NFL Championship game . The Lion staked a 13 – 0 lead before the Giants were able to cut the lead to 13 – 7 in the 3rd quarter . However , the Lions defense helped their team score two late touchdowns with a blocked punt and an interception .
The Giants were so successful from the latter half of the 1930s until the United States ' entry into World War II , that according to one publication , " [ f ] rom 1936 to 1941 the New York Giants annually fielded a collection of NFL all @-@ stars . " They added their third NFL championship in 1938 with a 23 – 17 win over Green Bay . The Giants blocked two Green Bay punts to establish an early advantage before the Packers came back to take a 17 – 16 lead . However , in the 4th quarter , Ed Danowski threw a 23 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Hank Soar , and the Giants defense held the Packers scoreless .
The Giants made the championship game again the next year , but lost in a rematch to the Packers , 31 – 16 . They also advanced to the championship game in 1941 , losing to the Bears 37 – 9 . Both games were close early before their respective opponents went on an offensive surge to break the game open late . In 1944 , the Giants reached the championship game , where they faced the Green Bay Packers for the third time in ten seasons . They lost again , this time 14 – 7 as Ted Fritsch scored two touchdowns , and the Packers defense was able to hold on to the lead despite a 4th @-@ quarter touchdown by the Giants . By 1946 , Mara had given over complete control of the team to his two sons . Jack controlled the business aspects , while Wellington controlled the on @-@ field operations . In 1946 , the Giants again reached the Championship game , for the eighth time in 14 seasons . However , they were beaten by the Sid Luckman @-@ led Bears , 24 – 14 .
Before the 1948 season , the Giants signed defensive back Emlen Tunnell , the first African American player in team history , and later the first African American inducted into the Hall of Fame . They struggled from 1947 to 1949 , never finishing above .500 , but came back with a solid 10 – 2 record in 1950 . However , they lost to the Cleveland Browns , who they had beaten twice in the regular season , 8 – 3 in the 1950 divisional playoff game . In 1949 , halfback Gene " Choo @-@ Choo " Roberts scored a league high 17 touchdowns , and in 1950 , he set a team record that would stand for over 50 years , when he rushed for 218 yards on November 12 .
= = Jim Lee Howell and the Hall of Famers : 1954 – 1958 = =
Following the 1953 season , an important transition in Giants history occurred . After being the team 's coach for 23 years , Steve Owen was fired by Wellington and Jack Mara , and replaced by Jim Lee Howell . Wellington later described the move by calling it " the hardest decision I 'd ever made " . New York went 7 – 5 in 1954 under Howell . In their 31st and final season playing their home games at the Polo Grounds in 1955 , they went 5 – 1 – 1 over their final seven games to finish 6 – 5 – 1 . They were led by rejuvenated running back Frank Gifford , who played the entire season solely on offense for the first time in several years .
The Giants won their fourth NFL Championship in 1956 . Playing their home games at Yankee Stadium for the first time , New York won the Eastern Division with an 8 – 3 – 1 record . In the NFL Championship Game on an icy field against the Chicago Bears , the Giants wore sneakers as they had 22 years previous . They dominated the Bears , winning 47 – 7 . The 1956 Giants featured a number of future Hall of Fame players , including Gifford , Sam Huff , and Roosevelt Brown . Equally notable , the team featured as its coordinators future Hall of Fame head coaches Tom Landry ( defense ) and Vince Lombardi ( offense ) .
= = = The Greatest Game Ever Played : 1958 = = =
The Giants had another successful year in 1958 . They tied for the Eastern Division regular season title with a 9 – 3 record by defeating the Cleveland Browns 13 – 10 on the last day of the regular season . They beat the Browns again a week later in a one @-@ game playoff to determine the division winner . They advanced to play the Baltimore Colts in the NFL Championship Game . This game , which would become known as " The Greatest Game Ever Played " , is considered a watershed moment in league history , and marked the beginning of the rise of professional football into the dominant sport in the American market . The game was competitive . The Giants got off to an early 3 – 0 lead , then the Colts scored two touchdowns to take a 14 – 3 halftime lead .
In the 3rd quarter , New York 's defense made a goal line stand , which became a turning point in the game . New York , who had trouble mounting drives to that point , then had a 95 @-@ yard drive which culminated in a touchdown , making the score 14 – 10 . They drove again in the 4th quarter , with quarterback Charlie Conerly throwing a 15 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Frank Gifford to take the lead , 17 – 14 .
The Colts put together one last drive with less than two minutes left . The standout player was receiver Raymond Berry , who caught three passes for 62 yards , the last one for 22 yards to the New York 13 @-@ yard line . With seven seconds left in regulation , Steve Myhra kicked a 20 @-@ yard field goal to tie the score 17 – 17 , sending a game to overtime for the first time in NFL history .
After winning the coin toss and receiving the ball , the Giants offense stalled and was forced to punt . From their own 20 , the Colts drove the ball to the New York 1 @-@ yard line , where Alan Ameche ran for a touchdown to give the Colts the championship , 23 – 17 .
= = More success : 1959 – 1963 = =
New York 's success continued in the 1960s . They finished 9 – 3 in 1959 and faced the Colts in a championship game rematch . They lost again , this time in a far less dramatic game , 31 – 16 . Led by quarterback Y.A. Tittle and head coach Allie Sherman , the Giants won three consecutive Eastern Division titles from 1961 – 1963 . In 1961 , they were beaten 37 – 0 by the Packers . In 1962 , they went into the championship game with a league @-@ best 12 – 2 record and a nine – game winning streak , but they lost to the Packers again , 16 – 7 .
The Giants finished with an 11 – 3 record in 1963 and faced the Bears in the NFL championship game . On an icy field in Chicago , the Giants ' defense played well , but the Bears newly invented zone defense intercepted Tittle five times and battered him throughout the game . Sherman resisted calls from players such as linebacker Sam Huff to replace the struggling Tittle . The Giants defense held the Bears in check , but they lost 14 – 10 , their third straight NFL Championship Game defeat .
The Giants ' run of championship game appearances combined with their large market location translated into financial success . By the early 1960s , the Giants were receiving $ 175 @,@ 000 a game under the NFL 's television contract with CBS — four times as much as small @-@ market Green Bay , which was one of the most successful teams of the era . However , in the league 's new contract , the Maras convinced the other owners that it would be in the best interest of the NFL to share television revenue equally , a practice which is still current , and is credited with strengthening the league .
= = Wilderness years begin : 1964 – 1972 = =
After the 1963 season , the team fell apart . A roster filled with mostly older veterans plus some bad personnel moves ( e.g. the dispatching of Rosey Grier , Sam Huff , and Don Chandler ) lead to a quick exit from the top of the standings . The Giants finished 2 – 10 – 2 in 1964 , beginning an 18 @-@ season playoff drought .
The seasons of 1964 through 1980 in team history have often been referred to as " the wilderness years " for several reasons : 1 ) The franchise lost its status as an elite NFL team by posting only two winning seasons , against twelve losing and three .500 seasons during this span ; 2 ) The Giants became a " team of nomads , " calling four different stadiums home in the 1970s ( Yankee Stadium , the Yale Bowl , Shea Stadium , and finally Giants Stadium in 1976 ) ; 3 ) New York tried several head coach and quarterback combinations during this period , but with almost no success ( from 1964 to 1983 , no coach or starting quarterback could boast even a .500 record ) . The team rebounded with a 7 – 7 record in 1965 , ( mostly due to the acquisition of quarterback Earl Morrall during the offseason ) before compiling a league @-@ worst 1 – 12 – 1 record and allowing over 500 points on defense in 1966 . This season also included a 72 – 41 loss to the rival Washington Redskins at D.C. Stadium in the highest @-@ scoring game in league history . Interest in the team was waning , especially with the rapid rise of the New York Jets , with their wide @-@ open style of play and charismatic quarterback Joe Namath .
The Giants acquired quarterback Fran Tarkenton from the Minnesota Vikings before the 1967 season in exchange for their 1st- and 2nd @-@ round draft picks , and showed improvement . They finished 7 – 7 in 1967 and were 7 – 3 through ten games in 1968 . Leaving them one game behind Capitol Division leader Dallas . However , New York dropped its final four games to again finish 7 – 7 . Notably , in 1968 , one of Tarkenton 's favorite targets , wide receiver Homer Jones made the Pro Bowl ; it wasn 't until 2010 that another Giants receiver , ( Steve Smith ) , would make the Pro Bowl . Through the 2007 season , no other Giants receiver has been selected for the Pro Bowl . Jones ' average of 22 @.@ 3 yards per reception for his career is still an NFL record .
During the 1969 preseason , the Giants lost their first meeting with the Jets , 37 – 14 at the Yale Bowl in New Haven , Connecticut . Following the game , Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman and replaced him with former Giants fullback Alex Webster . On opening day of the 1969 regular season , Tarkenton led New York to a 24 – 23 victory over his former team , the Vikings , by throwing two touchdown passes in the 4th quarter . The Giants went 6 – 8 that season . They showed marked improvement in 1970 ; after an 0 – 3 start , they rebounded to finish 9 – 5 , narrowly missing the playoffs by losing their final game to the Los Angeles Rams . Tarkenton had one of his best seasons as a Giant and made his fourth straight Pro Bowl . Running back Ron Johnson was also selected to the Pro Bowl ; the halfback ran for 1 @,@ 027 yards , becoming the first Giant to gain 1 @,@ 000 yards rushing in a season .
In 1971 , Johnson missed most of the season with a knee injury , and New York dropped to 4 – 10 , resulting in Tarkenton being traded back to the Vikings . The Giants rallied somewhat in 1972 to finish 8 – 6 . Journeyman quarterback Norm Snead ( acquired in the trade for Tarkenton ) led the league in completion percentage and had his best season . Other standouts and Pro Bowl selections that year were running back Johnson , who rushed for 1 @,@ 182 yards ( breaking his own team record ) and caught 45 passes , tight end Bob Tucker , who followed up his 1971 NFC @-@ leading 59 @-@ catch season with 55 in 1972 , and defensive stars Jack Gregory and John Mendenhall . The Giants boasted the top offense in the NFC and after a season @-@ finishing 23 – 3 win at Dallas to secure their second winning campaign in three years , the future looked bright . However , after the 1972 season , New York would endure one of the worst periods in its history .
= = Leaving New York : 1973 – 1978 = =
Desiring their own home stadium , in 1973 , the Giants reached an agreement with the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority to play their home games at a new , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , dedicated football stadium . Later named Giants Stadium , it was to be built at a new sports complex in East Rutherford , New Jersey .
As the complex was being built , and their current home at Yankee Stadium was being renovated , they would be without a home for three years , and dubbed " the orphans of the NFL . " Their final full season at Yankee Stadium was 1972 . After playing their first two games there in 1973 , the Giants played the rest of their home games in 1973 , as well as all of their home games in 1974 , at the Yale Bowl in New Haven , Connecticut . This was done out of a desire to have their own home field , as opposed to having to share Shea Stadium with the Jets . However , between access problems , neighborhood issues , the fact that the Yale Bowl was not ideally suited for pro football ( the stadium did not have lights , nor does it today ) , the age of the stadium ( built in 1914 ) , and the lack of modern amenities , the Giants reconsidered their decision and agreed to share Shea Stadium with the Jets in 1975 . New York left the Yale Bowl after losing all seven home games played there in 1974 and compiling a home record of 1 – 11 over that two @-@ year stretch .
One of the bright spots in this era was tight end Bob Tucker . From 1970 through 1977 , Tucker was one of the top tight ends in the NFL . He amassed 327 receptions , 4 @,@ 376 yards , and 22 touchdowns during his years as a Giant .
Despite their new home and heightened fan interest , New York still played subpar football in 1976 and 1977 . In 1978 , the Giants started the year 5 – 6 and on November 19 , 1978 , played the Philadelphia Eagles at home with a chance to solidify their playoff prospects . However , the season imploded in one of the most improbable finishes in NFL history . The Giants led 17 – 12 and had possession of the ball with only 30 seconds left . They had to just kneel the ball to end the game , as the Eagles had no time outs . However , instead of kneeling the ball , offensive coordinator Bob Gibson ordered New York quarterback Joe Pisarcik to hand the ball off to fullback Larry Csonka . Csonka was unprepared to receive the handoff , and the ball rolled off his hip and bounced free . Eagles safety Herman Edwards picked up the loose ball and ran , untouched , for a score , giving the Eagles an improbable 19 – 17 victory . This play is referred to as " The Miracle in the Meadowlands " among Eagles fans , and " The Fumble " among Giants fans .
In the aftermath of the defeat , Gibson was fired , and the Giants lost three out of their last four games to finish out of the playoffs for the 15th straight season , leading them to let coach John McVay go as well . However , following the 1978 season came the steps that would , in time , return New York to the pinnacle of the NFL .
= = Building a champion : 1979 – 1985 = =
New York decided to hire a general manager for the first time in franchise history following the 1978 season . The search grew contentious and fractured the relationship between owners Wellington and Tim Mara . Finally , the Maras asked NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to step in with a recommendation . Rozelle recommended George Young , who worked in personnel for the Miami Dolphins and had been an assistant coach for the Baltimore Colts . Young was hired , but the rift between the Maras lasted for several years .
Young hired San Diego Chargers assistant Ray Perkins as head coach and drafted unknown quarterback Phil Simms from Morehead State to the surprise of many . New York continued to struggle , finishing 6 – 10 in 1979 and 4 – 12 in 1980 . With the 2nd overall pick in the 1981 draft , the Giants selected linebacker Lawrence Taylor . The impact that Taylor had on the Giants ' defense was immediate . He was named the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year and NFL Defensive Player of the Year , becoming , to date , the only rookie to ever win the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award . His arrival raised the Giants linebacking corps — which already included future Hall of Famer Harry Carson and Pro Bowler Brad Van Pelt — into one of the NFL 's best . It also predicated New York 's transformation from allowing 425 points in 1980 to 257 in 1981 . They went 9 – 7 and defeated the Eagles in the first round of the playoffs , 27 – 21 , then lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 38 – 24 in the divisional playoffs .
In the strike @-@ shortened 1982 season , the Giants lost their first two games before the strike , and their first game upon returning . They won their next three games to even their record at 3 – 3 . Perkins then announced that he was leaving to take the head coaching job at Alabama after the season , and the team lost the next two games , effectively eliminating them from the playoffs ( despite defeating the Eagles in the season finale to go 4 – 5 ) . Taylor remained a bright spot , repeating as the league 's Defensive Player of the Year . Young chose Bill Parcells , the Giants ' defensive coordinator , as the team 's new head coach .
Parcells first year proved difficult . In his first major decision , he named Scott Brunner as his starting quarterback over Phil Simms . At first , it appeared his decision was justified , especially after a 27 – 3 Monday night victory over Green Bay gave New York a 2 – 2 record . But then they lost 10 of their final 12 games . Parcells ignored fans ' protests and stuck with Brunner for most of the year , although Jeff Rutledge saw considerable late @-@ season action . Simms finally played in a week six game against the Eagles , only to suffer a season – ending thumb injury .
Simms won the starting job back in 1984 , and Brunner was traded . The Giants had a resurgent season , highlighted by a second @-@ half stretch where they won five of six games . Despite losing their last two to finish 9 – 7 , they still made the playoffs . In the first round , they defeated the highly favored Los Angeles Rams 16 – 13 on the road before losing 21 – 10 to the eventual Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers . Simms threw for 4 @,@ 044 yards , making him the first Giant to pass for 4 @,@ 000 yards in a season .
The Giants success continued in 1985 by going 10 – 6 . The defense carried the team and led the NFL in sacks with 68 . They won their first @-@ round playoff game , 17 – 3 over the defending champion 49ers . It was New York 's first postseason win at home since 1958 , and their first ever at Giants Stadium . In the divisional playoffs , they lost 21 – 0 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears . Many of the players that would play key roles on New York 's Super Bowl teams emerged in 1985 . Joe Morris became the feature back , running for 1 @,@ 338 yards , scoring 21 touchdowns , and making the Pro Bowl . Second @-@ year receiver Lionel Manuel led the Giants with 49 receptions , and rookie tight end Mark Bavaro had 37 catches . Simms threw every pass for New York for the second consecutive season , and passed for over 3 @,@ 800 yards . Defensive end Leonard Marshall recorded 15 @.@ 5 sacks , and Taylor added 13 .
= = Back on top : 1986 – 1990 = =
= = = 1986 : Super Bowl Champions = = =
New York entered the 1986 season as one of the favorites to win the Super Bowl . They had their first test in a Monday Night game against the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys . They lost at Texas Stadium , 31 – 28 . However , they won their next five in a row and 14 of their last 15 , to finish the season with a 14 – 2 record . One of the signature plays of the season occurred during a Monday Night game in December . Here is a description of the play taken from a Monday Night Football broadcast in 2005 : " On December 1st , 1986 ... with the Giants trailing , ( Mark ) Bavaro catches an innocent pass from Phil Simms over the middle . It takes nearly seven 49ers defenders to finally drag him down , some of which are carried for almost 20 yards , including future Hall of Famer Ronnie Lott . Bavaro ’ s inspiring play jump starts the Giants , who win the game and eventually the Super Bowl . " New York 's defense allowed 236 points during the season , second fewest in the NFL , and Taylor set a team record with 20 @.@ 5 sacks . He won a record third Defensive Player of the Year Award , and was named league MVP .
The Giants defeated San Francisco 49 – 3 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs , then Washington 17 – 0 in the NFC Championship Game . The Giants advanced to play the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXI in front of 101 @,@ 063 fans at the Rose Bowl . After falling behind 10 – 9 at halftime , they came back to beat the Broncos 39 – 20 . Simms was named the game 's MVP after completing 22 of 25 ( 88 % ) of his passes — a Super Bowl record .
= = = 1987 – 1989 = = =
In 1987 , the Giants lost their first two games before the players strike . Unlike the players strike five years previous , NFL owners made a decision to use replacement players , but still lost all three replacement games , putting them at 0 – 5 when the strike ended . Though the Giants went 6 – 4 over their final 10 games , they finished out of the playoffs at 6 – 9 . Bright spots for the season included tight end Mark Bavaro , who led the team in catches with 55 , and three New York 's linebackers making the Pro Bowl — Taylor , Carson , and Carl Banks .
New York 's 1988 season got off to a turbulent start due an offseason scandal involving Taylor . Taylor had abused cocaine , violating the NFL 's substance abuse policy and was suspended for the first four games of the season . Taylor 's over @-@ the @-@ edge lifestyle was becoming an increasing concern for fans and team officials . After his return , however , Taylor recorded 15 @.@ 5 sacks in 12 games . The intense worry and scrutiny would prove to be for naught as for the rest of his career Taylor would pass his drug tests .
Predictably , the Giants struggled to start the season . They were 2 – 2 when Taylor returned from his suspension . With Taylor back and playing well , however , they won six out of their next eight games . After two straight losses , the Giants won their next three contests to set up a win @-@ or @-@ go @-@ home game against the Jets in the season finale . The Jets defeated the Giants 27 – 21 . When the Eagles beat the Cowboys , and the 49ers lost to the Rams later that night , the Eagles won the NFC East and the Rams clinched the final Wild Card berth . The Giants finished on the outside looking in despite a 10 – 6 record , because in the tiebreakers , they were swept in the season series by Philadelphia and had a worse conference record than the Rams .
The Giants ' 12 – 4 record in 1989 was the NFC 's second @-@ best ( only to San Francisco 's 14 – 2 record ) They lost their divisional playoff game in overtime to the Rams , 19 – 13 . The highlight of the game was wide receiver Flipper Anderson 's catch of the game winning touchdown pass . After catching the ball , Anderson made a long run to the end zone , silencing the crowd in attendance . In 1989 , free @-@ agent acquisition Ottis Anderson ran for 1 @,@ 023 yards and caught 28 passes . Rookie Dave Meggett also emerged as a threat on third downs and special teams , catching 34 passes for 531 yards , and making the Pro Bowl .
= = = 1990 : Champions again = = =
The Giants won their first 10 games of the 1990 season , setting a record for the best start in the team 's history . The San Francisco 49ers also got off to a strong start , matching New York with their own 10 – 0 start . Although both teams lost their next game , their Week 13 matchup was still eagerly anticipated . The Giants held the 49ers ' vaunted offense to seven points , but scored just three themselves .
New York won the following week against Minnesota before facing the Buffalo Bills in their regular season home finale . Despite holding a significant advantage in time of possession , they lost 17 – 13 , for their third loss in four games . To compound New York 's problems , Phil Simms went down with an injury that would sideline him for the rest of the year . His replacement , Jeff Hostetler , was an unproven career backup , who had thrown a mere 68 passes coming into the season .
The Giants won their final two games to secure a 13 – 3 record and a first @-@ round playoff bye as the NFC 's # 2 seed . They defeated Chicago 31 – 3 in the Divisional Playoffs , setting up a rematch with the 49ers in San Francisco for the NFC Championship . As they had in Week 13 , the Giants ' defense held San Francisco 's offense in check . In the game 's waning moments , nose tackle Erik Howard caused a Roger Craig fumble , and Taylor recovered it . New York drove downfield into San Francisco territory , and on the game 's last play , kicker Matt Bahr hit a 42 @-@ yard field goal to defeat the 49ers , 15 – 13 .
The win set up another rematch , this time in the Super Bowl against the Buffalo Bills .
= = = = Super Bowl XXV = = = =
Super Bowl XXV took place amidst a background of war and patriotism . The Persian Gulf War had begun less than two weeks previous , and the nation rallied around the Super Bowl as a symbol of America . The Giants got off to a quick 3 – 0 lead ; however , the Bills scored the next 12 points . The Giants responded by running a nearly eight @-@ minute drive , which culminated in a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Hostetler to Stephen Baker .
The Giants received the second @-@ half kickoff and mounted a record @-@ setting drive . The opening drive ran for over nine minutes ( a Super Bowl record ) and culminated in a 1 @-@ yard touchdown run by Ottis Anderson , giving the Giants a 17 – 12 lead . On the first play of the 4th quarter , the Bills ' Thurman Thomas ran for a 31 @-@ yard touchdown that put Buffalo back in front , 19 – 17 . On the ensuing possession , the Giants drove down to the Buffalo 4 @-@ yard line , and Bahr made a 21 @-@ yard field goal , which gave the Giants a 20 – 19 lead . Both teams exchanged possessions before the Bills began one final drive , driving down to the Giants 29 @-@ yard line to set up what would be a potential game @-@ winning 47 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Scott Norwood . In what would become the game 's signature moment , Norwood 's attempt missed wide right , and the Giants won their second Super Bowl , 20 – 19 .
The Giants set a Super Bowl record for time of possession with a mark of 40 : 33 , and Ottis Anderson was named MVP of the game after rushing for 102 yards and a touchdown .
= = = End of an era = = =
The 1990 season marked the end of an era . After the Super Bowl , defensive coordinator Bill Belichick left to become head coach of the Cleveland Browns . Parcells also decided to leave the Giants in the spring of 1991 to pursue a career in broadcasting . In addition , there was an ownership change in what had been one of the most stable front offices in professional sports . In February 1991 , Tim Mara was diagnosed with cancer , and he sold his 50 % interest in the team to Bob Tisch for a reported $ 80 million . This marked the first time since their inception in 1925 that the Giants had not been wholly owned and controlled by the Mara family .
= = After Parcells – The Handley era : 1991 – 1992 = =
Following the departure of Parcells and Belichick — who many people saw as the likely successor to Parcells — the surprise choice as head coach was running backs coach Ray Handley . Handley , however , was a somewhat reluctant coach , whose approach stood in stark contrast to the passionate and emotional style employed by Parcells .
As with Parcells eight years previous , one of Handley 's first major decisions involved replacing Phil Simms as starting quarterback . Jeff Hostetler was named the team 's starter . Though the Giants won their opening game in an NFC Championship Game rematch against the 49ers , 16 – 14 , they lost three out of their next four games to drop to 2 – 3 . Though they rallied to finish the season 8 – 8 , and Simms reclaimed his starting job later in the year , the excitement that surrounded the Giants the previous year was gone . One of the few promising young players to emerge on the team was second – year running back Rodney Hampton , who led the Giants in rushing with 1 @,@ 059 yards .
Through the 1991 season , it was clear that the team 's core players on defense had aged quickly . This deterioration continued in 1992 , when Lawrence Taylor ruptured his Achilles tendon in the team 's tenth game , and the Giants promptly lost six out of their last seven games to finish the year 6 – 10 . The defense continued its descent , finishing 26th in the league in points allowed after leading the league in that category in 1990 . Handley , who had become unpopular with both players and fans , was fired after the end of the regular season .
= = Dan Reeves takes over : 1993 – 96 = =
Handley was replaced by former Denver Broncos head coach Dan Reeves , who led the Broncos to three Super Bowls in four years , one against the Giants . After his dismissal from the Broncos , Reeves took the unusual step of lobbying for the job . After being rebuffed by a number of candidates , George Young was pleased that someone with Reeves 's credentials wanted the job .
Reeves ' impact was immediate . As Parcells had done in 1984 , Reeves named Simms his starting quarterback . The defense returned to form , and allowed more than 20 points once all season . With two regular season games left , the Giants were 11 – 3 and appeared poised for a first @-@ round playoff bye . They were upset by a Phoenix Cardinals team , who came into the game with just five wins , 17 – 6 , in the next @-@ to @-@ last week of the season , setting up a winner – take – all contest against Dallas in the final regular season game . Though the Giants played well , it was Emmitt Smith 's memorable performance with a separated shoulder that led the Cowboys to a 16 – 13 overtime win , giving the Cowboys a sweep of the season series and home @-@ field advantage throughout the NFC Playoffs . Despite the loss , the Giants made the playoffs as a Wild Card and won their first @-@ round game , 17 – 10 over the Vikings . However , they were defeated by the San Francisco 49ers 44 – 3 in the divisional playoffs . Simms played in all 16 games , completing nearly 62 % of his passes , and threw for over 3 @,@ 000 yards and 15 touchdowns . Simms , Hampton , offensive linemen Jumbo Elliot and center Bart Oates made the Pro Bowl , and Reeves was named Coach of the Year by the Associated Press . After the season , Lawrence Taylor and Phil Simms , the two biggest figures of the late 1980s and early 1990s Giants teams , retired .
Before the 1994 season , Reeves named Dave Brown , who had been a # 1 supplemental draft choice in 1992 , the Giants starting quarterback . Though Brown led the Giants to wins in their first three games , they lost their next seven . The Giants recovered to win their last six games of the season , but missed the playoffs . During the winning streak , they never allowed more than 20 points in a game .
The Giants regressed to a 5 – 11 record in 1995 . Much of the blame for the Giants ' poor performance was placed on Brown . He put up lackluster numbers for the second straight year . Though the Giants defense still played well , and young players like Michael Strahan and Jessie Armstead began to emerge , the Giants inspired tepid interest league @-@ wide and sent no players to the Pro Bowl for the second straight year .
The Giants had another losing season in 1996 , finishing 6 – 10 . Though Brown again started every game for the Giants , he turned in one of the worst seasons of any starting quarterback in the NFL , throwing for just 12 touchdowns against 20 interceptions . The Giants ' offense was one of the worst in the NFL and , unlike in previous years , the defense was unable to carry the team . After missing the playoffs for three consecutive seasons , Reeves was fired .
= = Jim Fassel era = =
= = = 1997 – 1999 = = =
The Giants hired former Arizona Cardinals offensive coordinator Jim Fassel as their head coach before the 1997 season . With the team 's offense floundering once again and a 2 – 3 record after five games , Fassel turned to inexperienced Danny Kanell as the starting quarterback over Dave Brown . The Giants experienced a resurgent season , finishing 10 – 5 – 1 and winning the NFC East . They hosted a first – round playoff game against the Minnesota Vikings . The Giants led the Vikings for most of the game , including 22 – 13 in the 4th quarter , but following a muffed onside kick , the Vikings booted a last @-@ second field goal to win 23 – 22 . Following the season , George Young left the Giants . He was replaced by Ernie Accorsi , a veteran general manager who had successful stints building the Baltimore Colts and Cleveland Browns .
The Giants regressed to an 8 – 8 record in 1998 . The strength of the team during the season was their defense , which featured two Pro Bowlers in Armstead and Strahan . However , the offense continued to struggle . Dave Brown had been released before the season and replaced by Kanell and Kent Graham . However , neither quarterback provided Pro Bowl @-@ caliber play . Before the 1999 season , the Giants signed quarterback Kerry Collins . Collins had been the first – ever draft choice of the Carolina Panthers , and in his second season , led them to the NFC Championship game . However , problems with alcohol abuse , conflicts with his teammates , and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers . Although many people questioned the wisdom of Accorsi and the Giants giving Collins a $ 16 @.@ 9 million contract , Accorsi was confident in Collins ' abilities .
In 1999 , Tiki Barber emerged as a solid pass – catching running back , catching 66 passes . Wide receiver Amani Toomer also had a breakout season , accumulating over 1 @,@ 100 yards receiving and six touchdowns , and Ike Hilliard finished just shy of 1 @,@ 000 yards receiving . The defense rebounded , ranking 11th in the league , and Armstead and Strahan again were selected to the Pro Bowl . Though the Giants stood at 7 – 6 and poised for a playoff berth , they lost their final three games to miss the playoffs .
= = = 2000 : Super Bowl season = = =
The 2000 season was considered a make @-@ or @-@ break year for Fassel . The conventional wisdom was that Fassel needed to have a strong year and a playoff appearance to save his job . After back @-@ to @-@ back losses at home against the St. Louis Rams and Detroit Lions , the Giants fell to 7 – 4 , and their playoff prospects were in question . At a press conference following the loss to Detroit , Fassel guaranteed that " [ t ] his team is going to the playoffs . " The Giants responded , winning the next week 's game against Arizona and the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12 – 4 and earn a bye and home @-@ field advantage as the NFC 's top seed .
The Giants won their first playoff game against the Eagles , 20 – 10 , and then defeated the Vikings 41 – 0 in the NFC Championship game . They advanced to play the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV . Though the Giants kept the game close early and went into halftime down only 10 – 0 , the Ravens dominated the second half . The Ravens ' defense harassed Kerry Collins all game long , and he had one of the worst games in Super Bowl history . Collins completed only 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and four interceptions , and the Ravens won the game , 34 – 7 . The Giants ' only score came on a Ron Dixon 97 @-@ yard kickoff return for a touchdown late in the 3rd quarter . On the ensuing kickoff , the Ravens ' Jermaine Lewis scored a touchdown on an 84 @-@ yard return .
= = = 2001 – 2003 = = =
The Giants were unable to build on their Super Bowl appearance . They ended the 2001 season 7 – 9 and out of the playoffs for the third time in four seasons . Collins continued his success as the team 's quarterback , throwing for over 3 @,@ 700 yards and 19 touchdowns , and Strahan broke the NFL record by recording 22 @.@ 5 sacks In 2002 , Collins had one of the best seasons of his career , throwing for over 4 @,@ 000 yards , and Barber rushed for 1 @,@ 386 yards and caught 69 passes for 597 yards . Rookie tight end Jeremy Shockey caught 74 passes for a total of 894 yards . The team started 6 – 6 , but made the playoffs as a wild card by winning their last four regular season games .
In the wild card playoffs , the Giants built a 38 – 14 3rd @-@ quarter lead against San Francisco . However , the 49ers rallied , scoring a field goal , and three touchdowns to take a 39 – 38 lead with a minute left in the game . Collins then drove the Giants down to the 49ers 23 @-@ yard line with six seconds left , setting up a potential game winning 41 @-@ yard field goal attempt for Matt Bryant . On the final play of the game , 40 @-@ year @-@ old long snapper Trey Junkin — who had just been signed for this playoff game — snapped the ball low , and punter Matt Allen could not spot the ball properly for the attempt . Allen picked the ball up and threw an unsuccessful pass downfield to offensive lineman Rich Seubert as time expired , and the Giants lost 39 – 38 .
The Giants started the 2003 season 4 – 4 , but lost their final eight games . With two games remaining in the season , Jim Fassel requested a meeting with team management , and asked , if he was to be fired , that they do so now rather than wait until the end of the season . Management complied with his request , formally firing Fassel on ( or around ) December 17 , 2003 , but allowing him to coach the team 's final two games .
= = Eli Manning and Tom Coughlin era : 2004 – Present = =
= = = 2004 – 2006 = = =
After a brief search , Ernie Accorsi hired former Jacksonville Jaguars coach Tom Coughlin to be the Giants ' head coach . Coughlin was considered a disciplinarian , in contrast to the departed Fassel , whose lenient style was criticized in his final years with the club . Accorsi coveted quarterback Eli Manning , brother of Peyton and son of Archie , in the 2004 NFL Draft . Manning had indicated before the draft that he did not want to play for the San Diego Chargers , who held the top pick . The Chargers drafted him nonetheless , and then traded him to the Giants for their first round picks in 2004 and 2005 . The Giants released Kerry Collins , who was unhappy with a backup role , and signed veteran quarterback Kurt Warner . The plan was for Warner to be the starter , while the team groomed Manning to ultimately take over the job . After losing to the Eagles in the 2004 season opener , the Giants , with Warner at quarterback , won five of their next six games , making them 5 – 2 . After losing two close games , to the Bears and Cardinals , to drop to 5 – 4 , Coughlin announced that Manning would start the rest of the season . Manning struggled , and the Giants did not score more than 14 points in their next four games . He performed better later in the season , but the Giants finished the season 6 – 10 . Barber established a career high in rushing with 1 @,@ 518 yards . He also had 52 catches and a total of 15 touchdowns .
The Giants started 4 – 2 in 2005 . Then , on October 25 , patriarch Wellington Mara died after a brief illness at the age of 89 . Mara had been involved with the Giants since he was nine years old , when he worked for them as a ball boy . Except a tour of duty in the military during World War II , Mara spent his entire adult life with the team . He was beloved by many of the players , and was noted for making an effort to get to know each of them . The Giants dedicated their next game to Mara , and defeated the Redskins 36 – 0 . Just twenty days after Mara 's death , on November 15 , the other Giants Executive Officer , Bob Tisch , died at the age of 79 . The Giants honored Tisch by defeating the Eagles 27 – 17 in their next game . Barber set a new team single @-@ game rushing record with 220 yards , and the team 's single @-@ season record with 1 @,@ 860 yards in a victory over the Kansas City Chiefs . The Giants finished 11 – 5 and hosted the Carolina Panthers in the wild card playoffs , but lost 23 – 0 .
The Giants regressed to an 8 – 8 record in 2006 . The season was characterized by inconsistent play , criticism of the coaching by the media and players , and Manning 's struggles . They won five straight following a 1 – 2 start , giving them a two @-@ game lead in the NFC East , but they lost six of their last seven games , and the players publicly clashed with Coughlin . One of the team 's worst losses was a 24 – 21 defeat to Tennessee , in which the team surrendered a 21 @-@ point 4th @-@ quarter lead . Following a season @-@ ending win at Washington , the Giants made the playoffs as a wild card in spite of their record , but were defeated 23 – 20 by Philadelphia .
Barber led the Giants with 1 @,@ 662 yards rushing and over 2 @,@ 000 yards from scrimmage , Manning threw for 3 @,@ 244 yards and 24 touchdowns , and Jeremy Shockey led the team in receptions . Defensively , the team struggled against the pass ( 28th in the league ) and gaining a consistent pass rush ( tied for 23rd in the league in sacks ) .
= = = 2007 : Third Super Bowl Championship = = =
In 2007 , the Giants made the playoffs for the third consecutive season . In a September game against the Eagles , they tied the NFL record for most sacks in a game by sacking Philadelphia quarterback Donovan McNabb 12 times , with Osi Umenyiora recording six of those sacks . They became the third NFL franchise to win 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons 31 – 10 in October . That same month , they also played in the NFL 's first regular season game outside of North America , in London 's Wembley Stadium , where they beat Miami 13 – 10 . They ended the regular season 10 – 6 and defeated Tampa Bay 24 – 14 in the first round of the playoffs , earning Manning and Coughlin their first playoff victories with the Giants . The next week , the Giants won their ninth consecutive road game by beating the top @-@ seeded Dallas Cowboys 21 – 17 . In the NFC championship game , Lawrence Tynes kicked an overtime field goal to give them a 23 – 20 road victory over the Green Bay Packers .
In Super Bowl XLII , the Giants defeated the previously unbeaten New England Patriots 17 – 14 . The signature play of the game came on a 3rd @-@ and @-@ 5 , with the Giants on their own 44 @-@ yard line , down 14 – 10 , and 1 : 15 remaining in the 4th quarter . Manning dropped back to pass , but was surrounded by New England pass rushers . Escaping three tackles , he threw a long pass to David Tyree , who caught the ball against his own helmet , while being covered by Patriots safety Rodney Harrison . Four plays later , Manning threw the game @-@ winning touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress with 35 seconds left . Manning won the game 's MVP award by completing 19 of 34 passes for 255 yards and two touchdowns . The Giants ' win is considered one of the biggest upsets in Super Bowl history .
Michael Strahan retired after the game as the team 's all @-@ time leader in sacks .
= = = 2008 – 2015 = =
The Giants ' 12 – 4 record in 2008 earned them a first @-@ round bye in the playoffs . They won 11 of their first 12 games before stumbling to lose four of their last five , including a 23 – 11 loss to the Eagles in the NFC Divisional Playoffs . Manning threw for 3 @,@ 238 yards , 21 touchdowns , and 10 interceptions , and was named to the Pro Bowl after the season . Other standouts included Brandon Jacobs and Derrick Ward who both rushed for 1 @,@ 000 yards ( who helped the Giants lead the NFL in rushing yards ) ; Justin Tuck , who led the team with 12 sacks ; and Antonio Pierce , who was the team 's leading tackler . The Giants featured a balanced offense with no receiver topping 600 receiving yards .
The Giants won their first five games in 2009 , but lost their next four . After beating the Atlanta Falcons in overtime , they lost badly to Denver on Thanksgiving . They defeated Dallas 31 – 24 in Week 13 , then lost 45 – 38 to Philadelphia the next week . At 8 – 6 , they still had a chance to make the playoffs , but losses to Carolina and Minnesota to finish the season left them out of the playoffs at 8 – 8 .
In the spring of 2010 , construction on the New Meadowlands Stadium ( now MetLife Stadium ) was completed , and the Giants and Jets opened it in August with their annual preseason game . In the regular season , they won their home opener against Carolina , 31 – 18 , avenging their late @-@ season loss from the previous year . They went on the road to play Indianapolis in the second " Manning Bowl " in Week 2 . Peyton outplayed Eli ( who threw for just 161 yards ) in a 38 – 14 Colts victory . Discipline became a growing problem for the Giants during the season . In the Colts game , Jacobs threw his helmet into the stands , and in the next game , offensive tackle David Diehl ripped off the helmet of Tennessee Titans cornerback Cortland Finnegan .
During the 2011 preseason , the Giants lost tight end Kevin Boss , wide receiver Steve Smith , guard Rich Seubert , linebacker Keith Bulluck , wide receiver Derek Hagan , and Pro Bowl center Shaun O 'Hara to free agency . However , the 2011 season also saw the emerging of second @-@ year wide receiver Victor Cruz and second @-@ year tight end Jake Ballard . The Giants opened the season against the Washington Redskins on the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks , with both New York City and Washington being a target of the attacks . The Redskins beat the Giants 28 – 14 , but the Giants won their next three games , against the Rams , Eagles , and Cardinals . After a loss against the Seattle Seahawks because of an Eli Manning interception , they went on another three @-@ game winning streak . A key victory was an upset of the New England Patriots 24 – 20 at Gillette Stadium . The victory ended the Patriots ' NFL record home @-@ game winning streak , after a touchdown pass from Manning to Ballard with 15 seconds left . However , the Giants seemed to hit a wall after the midpoint of the season . Marred by inconsistent game play , questionable play @-@ calling , and injuries , the team struggled and lost their next three games . The Giants broke their losing streak and regained their position atop the NFC East with a tightly contested 37 – 34 victory over the Dallas Cowboys on December 11 . Soon after , the Giants lost to the Redskins again , but they avenged their defeat by beating their cross @-@ town rival New York Jets , also knocking the Philadelphia Eagles out of playoff contention , leaving them with a tiebreaker versus the Cowboys . On a cold night in New Jersey , the Giants defeated the Cowboys 31 – 14 in Week 17 to clinch the NFC East and thus their NFL record 31st playoff appearance , breaking their tie with the Cowboys at 30 .
In the first round of the playoffs , the Giants defeated the Atlanta Falcons 24 – 2 . After giving up an early safety in the first half , Eli Manning threw three consecutive touchdowns . Running backs Ahmad Bradshaw and Brandon Jacobs combined for 172 yards rushing , a season @-@ high for the Giants . With the victory , the Giants advanced to the second round against the top @-@ seeded Green Bay Packers .
The following week , the Giants defeated the Packers 37 – 20 . Manning threw for 330 yards and three touchdowns , two of them to wide receiver Hakeem Nicks . This earned the Giants a spot in the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers . They won that game in overtime , 20 – 17 with Lawrence Tynes scoring the game @-@ winning field goal as he did four years earlier in the same game against the Green Bay Packers .
The New York Giants won Super Bowl XLVI against the New England Patriots by a score of 21 – 17 . The winning touchdown drive began with a 38 @-@ yard reception by receiver Mario Manningham . As in Super Bowl XLII , Eli Manning was the game 's MVP , defeating Tom Brady for a second time in the Super Bowl .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Despite winning 2 Super Bowl championships in 5 years , the 2012 ( 9 @-@ 7 ) , 2013 ( 7 @-@ 9 ) , and 2014 ( 6 @-@ 10 ) seasons saw the Giants missing the playoffs 3 years in a row . A bright spot of the 2014 season was rookie Odell Beckham Jr . , who burst onto the scene catching 91 passes on 132 targets , for 1 @,@ 305 yards and 12 touchdowns , and in doing so winning Offensive Rookie of the Year .
The Giants struggled in 2015 , finishing 6 @-@ 10 again and third in the NFC East . Quarterback Eli Manning threw for a career high 35 touchdown passes and also set career highs in attempts and completions . After the season , head coach Tom Coughlin resigned after 12 seasons .
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= The Tic Code =
The Tic Code ( also known as Lessons in the Tic Code ) is a drama film directed by Gary Winick and written by Polly Draper . It tells of a single mother , the relationship she forms with a jazz musician who has Tourette syndrome , and her young son — a jazz piano prodigy — also with the disorder . The musician and the boy form a friendship , and the film is loosely based upon the experiences of Draper 's jazz musician husband Michael Wolff , who provided the film 's score . Draper , star of Thirtysomething , portrays the mother and Gregory Hines plays the musician with Christopher George Marquette as the boy .
Principal photography took place in 1997 in New York City . The Tic Code appeared at several film festivals in 1998 and 1999 , where it won a number of awards . It received a limited theatrical release in the United States on August 4 , 2000 , and a DVD release in February 2001 . Critical response to the film was generally favorable .
= = Plot = =
The film tells the story of a young boy , Miles Caraday ( Marquette ) , a jazz piano prodigy who has Tourette syndrome , and his divorced mother Laura Caraday ( Draper ) . Miles has a school friend , Todd ( Desmond Robertson ) who seems not to be bothered by Miles ' condition . Miles wants to become a jazz pianist against the wishes of his classical @-@ oriented instructor Miss Gimpole ( Carol Kane ) . At a local nightspot , Miles becomes friends with a jazz saxophonist , Tyrone Pike ( Hines ) , who also has Tourette 's but has learned ways to cover up his condition .
In the film , Tyrone tells Denny Harley who bullies Miles that the reason they both tic is :
Tyrone : [ ... ] because we both know the code .
Denny : [ ... ] Code , what code ?
Tyrone : [ ... ] ' the tic code ' .
Denny : So you and Miles made this whole thing up ?
Tyrone : No , the C.I.A. did ; a lot of people know about it now .
= = Filming = =
The Tic Code was in development for five years before finally being made . Principal photography took place on location in New York City in 1997 , on a budget of US $ 2 million . The film was directed by Gary Winick , who took over after original director Norman René died during pre @-@ production . It was written by Polly Draper , who also produced alongside Karen Tangorra , Midge Sanford , Sarah Pillsbury and Larry Meistrich . Draper based the screenplay on the experiences of her noted jazz musician husband Michael Wolff , who has Tourette syndrome . Wolff 's involvement as co @-@ producer ensured the cooperation of jazz club The Village Vanguard , which granted the production permission to use its name and exterior shots of the building . Herman Leonard loaned his collection of photographs of famous jazz musicians , and the Blue Note jazz club allowed its name to be used on fake fliers . Wolff also provided the film 's piano score , to which Alex Foster also contributed by providing the soundtrack for scenes of Hines ' playing the saxophone .
= = Post production = =
The Tic Code appeared at the first Newport International Film Festival in June 1998 . It was subsequently shown at the Wine Country Film Festival in July – August 1998 , and at the Hamptons International Film Festival in October 1998 . It also appeared at several film festivals in 1999 , including the Vancouver Reel to Real Festival on March 3 , 1999 , the Berlin International Film Festival , and the Giffoni Film Festival . On April 2 , 1999 , the film aired on the Starz ! television network . The distribution rights were subsequently picked up by insurance company @-@ backed film library Chaross Pictures , which buys independent films that have run into financial difficulty . The rights were sold to Lions Gate Entertainment in May 1999 . Lions Gate gave The Tic Code a limited theatrical release in the United States , opening on August 4 , 2000 . It grossed US $ 205 @,@ 000 from nine theaters and closed on October 5 , 2000 .
= = Cast = =
Gregory Hines plays Tyrone Pike , a jazz saxophonist and Laura 's boyfriend . Hines also studied Wolff to imitate his ticcing and develop the character . During filming , Hines committed himself to spending a full day as a Touretter ; after being stared at by a taxi driver , Hines reflected that he had not considered how embarrassing the disorder could be . He also studied tapes of Alex Foster to learn how to finger the saxophone .
Polly Draper plays Laura Caraday , Miles ' single mother .
Christopher Marquette plays Miles Caraday , a young jazz piano prodigy with Tourette Syndrome . Marquette learned how to play the piano from Wolff . He also studied ticcing from Wolff and watched videotapes , including the documentary Twitch and Shout , to perfect his technique . In preparation for the role , Marquette practiced ticcing in public .
The film also features Desmond Robertson as Todd , Miles ' friend ; Carol Kane as Miss Gimpole , Miles ' music instructor and teacher ; Robert Iler as Denny Harley , a bully ; Bill Nunn and Tony Shaloub as bartenders Kingston and Phil ; Camryn Manheim as Mrs. Lily Swensrut , one of Laura 's customers ; and James McCaffrey as Michael Caraday , Laura 's ex @-@ husband . Wolff cameos as Sound Engineer # 2 .
= = Awards and reception = =
The Tic Code received generally favorable reviews from film critics . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 77 % of critics gave the film a positive write @-@ up , based upon a sample of 26 , with an average score of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 64 , based on 17 reviews .
In 1998 , the film won the Audience Award for Most Popular Feature at the Hamptons International Film Festival . It also received a " special recognition " award from the festival jury . Polly Draper won the Bronze Gryphon award for Best Actress at the Giffoni Film Festival , and Christopher George Marquette won the Bronze Gryphon award for Best Actor . In 1999 , the film won the Crystal Bear award at the Berlin International Film Festival . The film also took the Best Overall Film award at the first Vancouver Reel to Reel Festival .
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= Herbert Ernest Hart =
Brigadier General Sir Herbert Ernest Hart KBE , CB , CMG , DSO , VD ( 13 October 1882 – 5 March 1968 ) was an officer in the New Zealand Military Forces who served during the Second Boer War and the First World War . He later served as the Administrator of Western Samoa and worked for the Imperial War Graves Commission .
Hart volunteered for the Ninth New Zealand South African Contingent , which was raised for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War . By the time the contingent arrived in South Africa , the war was largely over . He saw extensive action during the First World War as a volunteer with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , first at Gallipoli and then on the Western Front . By the end of the war , he had advanced in rank to brigadier general , commanding a number of brigades in the New Zealand Division .
Trained as a lawyer before the war , Hart returned to New Zealand to resume his legal practice after his discharge from the New Zealand Expeditionary Force . He later served as Administrator of Western Samoa from 1931 to 1935 and was knighted for his services in this role . From 1936 to 1943 , he worked in the Middle East for the Imperial War Graves Commission , a task made difficult by the outbreak of the Second World War and the subsequent fighting in the region . Following his retirement in late 1943 , he became involved in Rotary International . He died at his home in Masterton on 5 March 1968 .
= = Early life = =
Hart was born at Taratahi , a small community near Carterton in the Wairarapa region . His father , William , was a farm labourer and the grandson of John Hart , a three @-@ time Premier of South Australia . One of four children , he was educated firstly at Dalefield School , and then Carterton School . After finishing his formal education he worked for his uncle , an auctioneer and land broker , while also studying bookkeeping .
In 1900 , Hart 's brother Walter travelled to South Africa for service with the Fourth Contingent in the Second Boer War . This inspired Hart to volunteer for the Eighth New Zealand South African Contingent , but his application was declined . However , he , along with another brother , George , successfully enlisted for the Ninth Contingent . The minimum age for volunteers was 20 and he falsified his age to enlist . By the time he reached South Africa in April 1902 , the war was effectively over . He was discharged in July 1902 with the rank of lance sergeant but travelled to England instead of returning to New Zealand with the rest of the contingent .
Hart eventually returned to New Zealand in early 1903 . Shortly after his return he married Minnie Renall , the daughter of a farmer . The couple would have four children , one of whom died in infancy . He resumed working at his uncle 's business and eventually became a director of the company . However , rather than pursue bookkeeping as a career , he commenced legal studies . He qualified as a solicitor in 1907 , becoming a partner in a Carterton practice which he had joined the previous year .
Hart was also active in the Volunteer Force . It was common practice in the Volunteer Force for the men of a unit to elect their officers although they were sometimes directed by their superiors to vote for certain candidates . Hart was duly elected a lieutenant in the Carterton Rifle Volunteers . When the Volunteer Force was abolished in 1910 and replaced with the Territorial Force , which was organised more like a conventional military , he chose to continue his service . He was well regarded by his superiors and was promoted to captain in 1911 . When he was promoted to major the following year , he was the youngest officer with that rank in his battalion . He was serving with the 1st Battalion of the 17th ( Ruahine ) Regiment when the First World War broke out .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , Hart immediately volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) , which was being raised for service in the war on Britain 's behalf . He was appointed second in command of the Wellington Infantry Battalion , under Lieutenant Colonel William Malone . The battalion embarked from Wellington in October 1914 for Egypt , and upon arrival , was primarily engaged in training before it was deployed along the Suez Canal late in January 1915 to support Indian troops stationed to guard against a rumoured Turkish attack . Three weeks of sentry duty ensued for the battalion before returning to Cairo .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
At this stage of the war , the Allied forces were preparing for the Gallipoli Campaign , which was part of a plan conceived by the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , to seize control of the Dardanelles . This would leave the Turkish capital , Constantinople , vulnerable to attack . The New Zealand and Australian Division , under the command of Major General Alexander Godley ( also commander of the NZEF ) , was being formed for the campaign , and Hart 's battalion was attached to the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , one of the two infantry brigades ( the other was the Australian 4th Brigade ) that formed the bulk of the division . In April , the division embarked for Gallipoli and the Wellington Battalion was landed at Anzac Cove on the afternoon of 25 April , and made its way up to Plugge 's Plateau .
The battalion was involved in defending against Turkish attacks on Walker 's Ridge on 27 April . Hart was wounded in the thigh while supervising the establishment of defensive positions . His wounds necessitated his evacuation to Alexandria the following day . He was later awarded a Distinguished Service Order for his leadership of the battalion during this action .
Hart was promoted to lieutenant colonel while recovering from his wounds in England . He returned to the Dardanelles in September 1915 as commander of the Wellington Battalion , Malone having been killed in action in early August during the Battle of Chunuk Bair . The battalion had been decimated during the battle but remained in the line manning positions at ' The Apex ' , a knoll near Chunuk Bair . Along with the rest of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , the battalion was transferred to the Greek island of Lemnos on 14 September for a period of rest and recuperation while it was also being built up with reinforcements from New Zealand . While on Lemnos , Hart commanded the brigade for a 12 @-@ day period when its nominal commander , Brigadier General Francis Earl Johnston , was hospitalised .
Hart led the battalion back to Gallipoli in early November , where it returned to its former positions at " The Apex " . With no major offensive operations conducted since its return , he and his battalion eventually evacuated the peninsula in December , with Hart amongst the last of his unit to leave on 19 December .
= = = Western Front = = =
Returning to Egypt , Hart was heavily involved with the training of his command , which included a substantial number of replacements . He was also required to divest a number of his more experienced officers and non @-@ commissioned officers to help with the formation of the 2nd Battalion of the Wellington Regiment . His battalion was subsequently re @-@ designated as the 1st Battalion , Wellington Regiment , while the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was reformed as the 1st Infantry Brigade . The brigade was one of the three infantry brigades to make up the newly formed New Zealand Division , intended for service on the Western Front and it was duly shipped to France in April 1916 .
The division was initially based near Armentières and Hart 's battalion was among those manning the trenches in the sector . The battalion had to contend with artillery and repelling localised attacks and raids by the opposing Germans . Hart organised a counter @-@ raid to be conducted by his battalion , and this was successfully executed on 1 July . The division would remain in the Armentières sector until August 1916 , at which stage it was withdrawn for use in the forthcoming Somme Offensive in September . Hart led his battalion during the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette and the subsequent period in the trenches , and was mentioned in despatches for his work during this time . He also had spells as temporary commander of the brigade while Johnston was on leave , and from December 1916 to January 1917 was in command of 3rd New Zealand ( Rifle ) Brigade .
In March 1917 , Hart was promoted to brigadier general and appointed commander of the newly formed 4th Infantry Brigade . The new brigade was intended for service with the New Zealand Division . After a brief training period in England , the brigade was transferred to France for further training and a period in the front line . In October , it saw service during the successful attack on the Abraham Heights on the Gravenstafel Spur in what was known as the Battle of Broodseinde and was commended for its services by both Godley , still commanding the NZEF , and the commander of the New Zealand Division , Major General Andrew Russell . The brigade was in reserve for the subsequent First Battle of Passchendaele , and , apart from a brief period in training , would remain in the Ypres sector until January . He was mentioned in despatches for his work with the 4th Infantry Brigade while it was on the front line .
Hart was made commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade when the 4th Brigade was disbanded in February 1918 . He was mentioned in despatches for his work with the 4th Infantry Brigade while it was on the front line . His new brigade absorbed many of the soldiers of his previous command . However , on 18 February , just two weeks after taking command , he was badly gassed during an artillery barrage on his headquarters . The barrage , using a mixture of high explosive and mustard gas shells , also incapacitated most of his staff . Temporarily blinded , he was evacuated to a hospital in the rear and then to Étaples . After recovering his sight , which took about a week , he was dispatched to the south of France to convalesce .
Upon recovery from the effects of his gassing , and aided by the temporary presence of his wife Minnie , Hart returned to England and was placed in command of the New Zealand reserves at Sling Camp in Bulford . Here he was responsible for the training of reinforcements and casualties who were regaining fitness . On 3 June , his leadership of the 4th Brigade was honoured with an appointment as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , although he took little personal satisfaction in the recognition .
Hart 's duties at Sling Camp ended in July , when he was recalled to France to take over command of the 3rd New Zealand ( Rifle ) Brigade . He led the brigade through the Hundred Days Offensive , which included an action during the Second Battle of Bapaume that impressed his commanding officer , Russell . During the battle , Hart 's headquarters was again shelled with mustard gas . After his previous experience of being gassed , Hart found the shelling ' annoying ' . The brigade also participated in the capture of Le Quesnoy in November 1918 . This was a difficult assignment for the presence of civilians in the walled town meant that artillery could not support the attack . Instead a small party was able to scale the walls and put flight to the Germans defending that section . This allowed the remainder of the attacking force to enter the town , which quickly surrendered . A few days later , the mayor of Le Quesnoy presented Hart with the French flag that was raised over the town on the day it was captured from the Germans .
After the armistice that ended the war , Hart led the brigade into Germany for occupation duties with the remainder of the New Zealand Division . His headquarters was based near Cologne and in January 1919 , played host to the Prince of Wales . The division itself was in the process of demobilising , with around 1 @,@ 000 men returning to New Zealand via England every week , and the Rifle Brigade was disbanded in early February . Hart was twice mentioned in despatches during his period in command of the Rifle Brigade . In mid @-@ February he received his orders to return to New Zealand and he duly left England on 12 March 1919 .
Hart arrived in his home town of Carterton to a hero 's welcome on 25 April 1919 , five years to the day after being landed at Gallipoli . The guest of honour at several receptions held around the Wairarapa over the next several days , he made a point of acknowledging the role played by the ordinary soldier in the eventual victory over the Germans while downplaying his own contributions . He was eventually discharged from the NZEF in late May 1919 . His services in the war were subsequently recognised with his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath . The French government also awarded him with the Croix de guerre .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Upon discharge from the NZEF , Hart resumed legal work in his Carterton practice . However , within a few months , he moved his family to Masterton and established a new law firm . He became involved with the charity organisation Rotary International and set up the Masterton chapter of Rotary in 1925 . He maintained an association with the military ; after an initial spell in the reserve of officers , he resumed his involvement with the Territorial Force and served as commander of the 2nd ( Wellington ) Infantry Brigade for several years . He was eventually returned to the reserve of officers in 1925 . To acknowledge his long military career , he was awarded the Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers ' Decoration ( VD ) and appointed honorary colonel of his old Territorial Force unit , the Hawkes ' Bay Regiment ( formerly 17th ( Ruahine ) Regiment ) . He retired from the military in 1930 .
Hart was a longtime advocate for the welfare of former soldiers and was active in the Returned Services Association ( RSA ) . The organisation later awarded Hart the Gold Badge , its highest honour , for his advocacy on the behalf of former servicemen .
= = = Western Samoa = = =
In 1930 , Hart applied for and was appointed to the position of Administrator of Western Samoa , which was controlled by New Zealand under a mandate from the League of Nations . This was a difficult period for the colony as many of its citizens wanted independence . The Mau movement in particular was agitating for self @-@ determination and employed tactics of civil disobedience as a means of opposing the New Zealand administration . After some heavy @-@ handed management of protestors by his predecessor had resulted in several deaths amongst the movement , Hart made progress in improving relationships with the Mau when he took up his position in 1931 . He also returned some financial stability to the colony which had struggled during the Great Depression . Hart was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his services in Samoa shortly before completing his term as administrator and returning to New Zealand in July 1935 .
= = = Imperial War Graves Commission = = =
In 1936 , Hart accepted a position in the Middle East with the Imperial War Graves Commission ( now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) . This position was usually the preserve of an Australian or New Zealander due to the number of dead from these two countries buried in the area . Although his new position of Deputy Controller of the Eastern District was nominally based in Jerusalem , he and his wife initially moved to Cairo because of the Arab revolt against the British Mandate in Palestine . It was not until March 1937 , after the conditions in Palestine had sufficiently improved , that the couple moved to Jerusalem . They were later joined by their daughter , Bettina , who was married to a British Army officer also based in Jerusalem .
Hart 's new role involved overseeing the upkeep of the cemeteries and memorials established by the Commission in the Middle East , Turkey and Greece . Ensuring the maintenance of these places required extensive travel , and his duties also became more difficult when Italy joined in the Second World War in June 1940 and conflict broke out in the Middle East . This required the creation of an organisation responsible for the graves of Allied personnel killed in the region . Consequently , Hart became Assistant Director , Graves Registration and Inquiry Section for the Middle East , in addition to his existing Commission duties . His new position entailed him becoming a serving officer in the British Army as a lieutenant , but with the acting rank of brigadier . He set up grave registration units , new cemeteries and organised the relocation of existing graves in remote areas to the new cemeteries . This work struck a personal note when his nephew was killed during the Second Battle of El Alamein in late 1942 . Early the following year Hart visited the El Alamein battlefield and the nearby cemetery , the establishment of which was partly due to the infrastructure he helped put in place , to lay flowers at his nephew 's grave .
Although he found the work satisfying , Hart retired from the Commission in September 1943 . His wife , daughter , and Merrilyn , his granddaughter who had been born in Jerusalem , had left for New Zealand earlier that month . He followed a few weeks later once his successor at the Commission arrived . His work with the Graves Registration section had finished a year earlier .
= = Later life = =
Settling back in the Wairarapa , Hart resumed his involvement with Rotary . He served a spell as president of the North Island district of Rotary , and attended overseas conventions . During the 1960s , there was a growing argument that the First World War was an unnecessary conflict . In speeches that he made during his community and RSA duties , he continued to advocate the importance of the war in countering Imperial German aggression . He attended reunions of his former units , including the Wellington Infantry Regiment and the Rifle Brigade . He had assisted the authors of the histories of both formations in the years after the First World War . In 1955 , in honour of the 40th anniversary of the formation of the Rifle Brigade , Hart presented the flag which he had been given by the mayor of Le Quesnoy following its capture from the Germans in 1918 to Wellington Cathedral .
With age , Hart 's involvement in community affairs decreased but he remained physically active , regularly playing golf and bowls . He died at his home in Masterton on 5 March 1968 , his wife having predeceased him by nearly 18 months , and was buried with full military honours . The last surviving senior officer of the NZEF at the time of his death , he was well regarded by both the men he had commanded during the war and his superior officers .
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= 2007 Scottish Challenge Cup Final =
The 2007 Scottish Challenge Cup Final was an association football match between Dunfermline Athletic and St Johnstone , held on 25 November 2007 at Dens Park in Dundee . It was the 17th final of the Scottish Challenge Cup since it was first organised in 1990 to celebrate the centenary of the Scottish Football League .
St Johnstone progressed through four knock @-@ out rounds to reach the final whilst Dunfermline Athletic contested only three after receiving a random bye into the second round . The 2007 final was Dunfermline 's second appearance in a cup final in six months having lost the previous season 's Scottish Cup final in May , however , it was the club 's first Challenge Cup final . The match was St Johnstone 's second appearance in the final of the tournament having lost in 1996 . The tournament was contested by clubs below the Scottish Premier League with both clubs from the First Division .
St Johnstone took a 3 – 0 lead within the first 30 minutes with a penalty kick from Paul Sheerin and goals from Peter MacDonald and Kenny Deuchar . Scott Wilson scored for Dunfermline after 37 minutes to make it 3 – 1 at half time . In the 70th minute , Stephen Glass scored the final goal of the game for Dunfermline from a penalty to make it 3 – 2 . St Johnstone 's victory was the first time the club had won a national cup trophy in its 123 @-@ year history .
= = Route to the final = =
The competition was a knock @-@ out tournament and in 2007 was contested by the 30 teams that played in the First , Second and Third Divisions of the Scottish Football League . The first round draw was split into two geographical regions with 15 teams in each : north / west and south / east . In each regional draw , teams were paired at random and the winner of each match progressed to the next round and the loser was eliminated . Dunfermline Athletic and Partick Thistle received random byes into the second round , at which stage the regional format ended and all remaining teams entered the same draw .
= = = Dunfermline Athletic = = =
Dunfermline Athletic entered the second round after receiving a bye in the first round draw and faced the First Division club and previous season 's runners @-@ up , Clyde , at Broadwood Stadium . Mark Burchill scored first for Dunfermline in the 26th minute with Ruari MacLennan equalising for Clyde one minute into the second half . Owen Morrison scored Dunfermline 's second goal after 57 minutes before he and Burchill both scored again to make it 4 – 1 and win the match .
In the quarter @-@ finals Dunfermline faced Airdrie United , a competitor in the Second Division , away from home at the Excelsior Stadium . The score was goalless at half time but Burchill 's two goals in the second half after 54 and 81 minutes respectively sealed a 2 – 0 win to progress to the semi @-@ finals . With four teams left in the tournament Dunfermline were drawn to play Ayr United , also of the Second Division , at home at East End Park . Similar to the previous round , the scoreline was 0 – 0 for most of the game before Glass scored a late winner for Dunfermline in the 83rd minute to win 1 – 0 and send Dunfermline into their first Challenge Cup final .
= = = St Johnstone = = =
St Johnstone entered the north / east section of the first round draw and were paired with Second Division club Raith Rovers away from home at Stark 's Park . Paul Sheerin scored the first goal of the game for St Johnstone in the 13th minute from a penalty kick . The scoreline remained that way until the 89th minute when Andy Tod scored a late equaliser for Raith Rovers to force extra time to be played . The score stayed 1 – 1 for the 30 minutes of extra time so the winner was decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out , which St Johnstone won 5 – 4 to progress to the second round . In the second round St Johnstone faced the defending champions Ross County , also away from home , at Victoria Park . Kenny Deuchar scored the first goal for St Johnstone in the 14th minute before Andy Jackson scored the game 's only other goal in the 49th minute to secure a 2 – 0 win and advance to the next round .
St Johnstone played another Second Division club , Brechin City , at home at McDiarmid Park in the quarter @-@ finals , taking a four @-@ goal lead in the first half : Kenny Deuchar scored twice and Andy Jackson and David Weatherston made it 4 – 0 shortly before half time . In the second half , Calum Smith pulled a goal back for Brechin City in the 57th minute to make it 4 – 1 which was how the score remained and St Johnstone progressed to the semi @-@ finals . With four teams left in the tournament , St Johnstone travelled to Cappielow to face fellow First Division club Greenock Morton . Both teams scored early in the match ; Andy Jackson for St Johnstone in the 10th minute and Brian Graham for Greenock Morton two minutes later to make it 1 – 1 . In the second half , St Johnstone scored two more goals from Peter MacDonald and Rocco Quinn to win 3 – 1 and advance to the final for the first time since losing in 1996 to Stranraer .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Venue = = =
The 2007 final was hosted at Dens Park in Dundee which had been Dundee F.C. ' s home since it was opened in 1889 . The match was the first time Dens Park hosted a national cup final since the Scottish League Cup in 1980 . St Johnstone were allocated approximately 4 @,@ 200 tickets and supporters occupied the Bob Shankly Stand and part of the Main Stand . Dunfermline fans were initially allocated the Bobby Cox Stand , the South Enclosure and the remainder of the Main Stand , but it was decided by the Scottish Football League to leave the South Enclosure unused after Dunfermline returned all tickets for the enclosure due to lack of ticket sales . Dunfermline Athletic travelled around 47 miles ( 75 @.@ 6 km ) to the venue whereas Perth @-@ based St Johnstone travelled approximately 22 miles ( 35 @.@ 4 km ) .
= = = Analysis = = =
In order to reach the final , Dunfermline played three matches ; one at home at East End Park and two away from home . Dunfermline scored seven goals and conceded only one in the rounds before the final , keeping two clean sheets in the process . St Johnstone contested four matches before the final ; one at home at McDiarmid Park and the other three away , scoring ten goals , conceding three and keeping only one clean sheet .
Both teams were competing in the Scottish First Division at the time of the final and despite being ranked at opposite ends of the league table , St Johnstone in third and Dunfermline in ninth , both teams were in relatively bad form . St Johnstone had drawn seven games from thirteen and were nine points behind second placed Dundee ; whilst Dunfermline had won only three games in thirteen and were two points off the bottom of the table . The match was the first time the clubs had met in the Challenge Cup , however , they had already played each other twice in the season in the First Division ; both matches ended in 0 – 0 draws .
Three days before the final , St Johnstone 's manager Owen Coyle was announced as the new manager of English Championship club Burnley , and so assistant manager Sandy Stewart was appointed as caretaker manager for the final ; he accepted an offer to join Coyle at Burnley after the match .
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
The beginning of the match was dominated by St Johnstone and after 13 minutes they were awarded a penalty kick by referee Eddie Smith when Dunfermline midfielder Stephen Simmons collided with St Johnstone 's Steven Anderson in the penalty area . Paul Sheerin took the penalty kick and scored beyond Dunfermline 's goalkeeper , Paul Gallacher , by hitting the ball into the bottom @-@ left corner of the goal to score his seventh penalty of the season . Just several minutes after the first goal St Johnstone had an opportunity to score again when Kenny Deuchar had an attempt on goal after a pass from Rocco Quinn ; the header beat goalkeeper Gallacher but went just wide of the goalpost . In the 19th minute , however , St Johnstone did score their second goal when Peter MacDonald struck a left @-@ footed volley from 12 yards out which Dunfermline 's goalkeeper Gallacher failed to stop . St Johnstone 's early dominance coupled with Dunfermline 's poor defending resulted in St Johnstone scoring a third goal after only 30 minutes ; forward Andy Jackson passed the ball to Derek McInnes who then played the ball to Deuchar who moved past defender Sol Bamba in the penalty area and scored past the opposing goalkeeper from eight yards out to make it 3 – 0 . Four minutes after the third goal , Dunfermline manager Stephen Kenny made the first substitution of the match , replacing defender Calum Woods with Darren Young . In the 37th minute , shortly after the substitution , Dunfermline scored when Scott Wilson 's header beat St Johnstone goalkeeper Alan Main . Dunfermline 's form changed for the better after their first goal and they almost scored again just before half time when substitute Young 's goal @-@ attempt rebounded off the goalpost .
= = = Second half = = =
Only 40 seconds into the second half , Quinn almost restored St Johnstone 's 3 @-@ goal advantage but his attempt on goal rebounded off the goalpost despite beating the goalkeeper . In the 59th minute , Dunfermline defender Danny Murphy was the first player to be cautioned by the referee , receiving a yellow card for bringing Quinn to the ground whilst tackling for the ball . In the 64th minute , Dunfermline made their second substitution ; Michael McGlinchey was replaced by Jim Hamilton and he had an almost immediate impact on the match , earning a penalty kick after being pushed by Anderson . Referee Smith initially awarded a free kick on the edge of the penalty area but changed his mind amid complaints from Dunfermline players and awarded a penalty kick instead . Stephen Glass took the penalty kick , hitting the ball past goalkeeper Main into the top corner of the goal to make the score 3 – 2 . Dunfermline continued to pressure for an equalising goal and almost did so when St Johnstone defender Goran Stanić nearly scored an own goal after mis @-@ hitting the ball but it rebounded off the crossbar . Despite Dunfermline 's late improvement in form , St Johnstone held on to win the match and claim the first national cup trophy in their 123 @-@ year existence .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
After the match , St Johnstone caretaker manager Sandy Stewart declared his interest in becoming the permanent manager but admitted he had already been offered the job as assistant manager to Owen Coyle at Burnley , which he later confirmed . Reflecting on his decision to go to Burnley , Stewart mentioned : " It was a tricky decision ... but , football @-@ wise , I just felt it was too good an opportunity to turn down . " Dunfermline manager Stephen Kenny praised his team 's efforts after the game but admitted that poor defending had resulted in the defeat . Kenny was sacked as manager a week later due to continuing poor league results and was replaced by player Jim McIntyre .
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