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= Okehampton Castle =
Okehampton Castle is a medieval motte and bailey castle in Devon , England . It was built between 1068 and 1086 by Baldwin FitzGilbert following a revolt in Devon against Norman rule , and formed the centre of the Honour of Okehampton , guarding a crossing point across the West Okement River . It continued in use as a fortification until the late 13th century , when its owners , the de Courtenays , became the Earls of Devon . With their new wealth , they redeveloped the castle as a luxurious hunting lodge , building a new deer park that stretched out south from the castle , and constructing fashionable lodgings that exploited the views across the landscape . The de Courtenays prospered and the castle was further expanded to accommodate their growing household .
The de Courtenays were heavily involved in the 15th century Wars of the Roses and Okehampton Castle was frequently confiscated . By the early 16h century the castle was still in good condition , but after Henry Courtenay was executed by Henry VIII the property was abandoned and left to decay , while the park was rented out by the Crown . Parts of the castle were reused as a bakery in the 17th century , but by the 19th century it was completely ruined and became popular with Picturesque painters , including J. M. W. Turner . Renovation work began properly in the 20th century , first under private ownership and then , more extensively , after the castle was acquired by the state . In the 21st century it is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 1066 @-@ 1296 = = =
Okehampton Castle was built between 1068 and 1086 following the Norman conquest of England by Baldwin FitzGilbert . William the Conqueror defeated the Anglo @-@ Saxon forces at the battle of Hastings in 1066 , but violence continued to flare up periodically for several years after the invasion . Baldwin FitzGilbert , a Norman lord , was responsible for putting down a rebellion in Devon in 1068 . He was probably given extensive lands in the county at this time , and by the time of Domesday Book in 1086 he was noted as the owner of the Honour of Okehampton and well as the Sheriff of Devon and Constable of Exeter Castle . The Honour of Okehampton was a grouping of around 200 estates across Devon , guarded by several castles , including Baldwin 's main castle - or caput - at Okehampton , and those owned by his tenants , including Neroche and Montacute .
Baldwin 's castle was positioned to protect an important route from Devon into Cornwall , including two fords that formed a crossing point over the West Okement River , and to control the existing town of Ocmundtune . The castle was protected by a castle @-@ guard system , in which lands were given out to Baldwin 's tenants in exchange for their contributing to the castle 's garrison . Baldwin also established a new town near the castle about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away , complete with a market and a mill to grind grain . This town eventually dominated the older Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement and became known as Okehampton .
On Baldwin 's death the castle was inherited by his daughter , Adeliza , but the family appear to have taken little interest in the property . Okehampton Castle does not seem to have played a part in the civil war from 1139 and 1153 known as the Anarchy .
In 1173 Oakhampton Castle passed to Renaud de Courtenay in marriage ; his son , Robert de Courtenay married the daughter of William de Redvers , the Earl of Devon . The castle continued to have military utility and was requisitioned by Richard I between 1193 and 1194 to assist in the royal defence of Devon . The de Courteneys carried out some building work at the castle , installing new structures in the castle bailey . Robert was followed by his son John de Courtenay and by 1274 , when John 's son Hugh de Courtenay had inherited the property , the castle was reported to comprise only " an old motte which is worth nothing , and outside the motte a hall , chamber and kitchen poorly built " , although this may underestimate the extent and condition of the castle .
= = = 1297 @-@ 1455 = = =
The Redvers family line ran out in 1297 , and as a result Hugh 's son , another Hugh de Courtenay , inherited the Redvers family lands , later being confirmed as the Earl of Devon . Hugh 's main seat was at Tiverton Castle , but Hugh and his father redeveloped Oakhampton Castle , expanding its facilities and accommodation to enable it be used as a hunting lodge and retreat . Extensive building work turned the property into a luxurious residence .
As part of this development , the family created a large , new deer park around the castle , replacing the older , unenclosed hunting grounds . Deer parks were an important status symbol in this period , and many nobles who acquired power and wealth for the first time chose to undertake similar projects . Creating the park , which spread out from the south of the castle to cover 690 hectares ( 1 @,@ 700 acres ) , required clearing away the older settlements around the castle and abandoning various fields and pastures . These settlements , comprising long houses built in warmer climate of the 12th and early 13th century , may already have become less sustainable due to the onset of the cooler climate that began to emerge at the end of the 13th . Land near the castle , later called Kennel Field , was used to hold required the packs of dogs for hunting .
Once the castle 's deer park was established , intensively farmed fallow deer became common on the lands , although wild boar , foxes and hare were also hunted . Like other rural castles , the occupants of Okehampton Castle consumed a relatively large amount of venison , a prestige meat during the period . Some of this would have come from the surrounding deer park , but prime cuts of venison , such as the haunches , were also brought in specially from other locations . Excavations have shown that in addition to fish from large ponds in the park , Okehampton Castle also imported fish from the coast , over 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away , with hake , herring , plaice and whiting being most commonly eaten .
The Courtenays continued to own Okehampton for many years , the property passing through Hugh 's son , Hugh , to his grandson Edward and then his great @-@ grandson , another Hugh de Courtnenay . The size of noble households expanded during the period , and by the 1380s , when Edward controlled the castle , his " familiars " , or extended household , could be up to 135 strong . In the late 14th and early 15th centuries Okehampton Castle 's facilities were extended further , probably to accommodate these increased numbers .
= = = 1455 @-@ 1900 = = =
In the 15th century , however , the Courtenays were embroiled in the civil conflict in England known as the Wars of the Roses between the rival alliances of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists . Thomas de Courtenay fought for the Yorkists , but reconciled himself with the Lancastrians . His son , Thomas , died following his capture by the Yorkists at the battle of Towton in 1461 . Edward IV confiscated Okehampton Castle , which was later returned to the family by the Lancastrian Henry VI . John Courtenay died fighting for the Lancastrians at the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 and the castle and earldom was again confiscated . When Henry VII took the throne at the end of the conflict in 1485 , however , the earldom and Okehampton were returned to Edward Courteney .
Edward 's son , William , enjoyed a turbulent political career , during which time the castle was again confiscated for a period , and his son , Henry , was executed by Henry VIII in 1539 and his properties confiscated , permanently breaking the link between the Courtenay family and the castle . After his death , a survey praised the castle as having " all manner of houses of offices " , but from this time onwards the castle appears to have been abandoned and left to decay , although there is evidence that the lead and some of the stonework was taken for use on other projects . The castle 's deer park was rented out by the Crown after Courtenay 's execution .
Ownership of the castle remained important , however , as from 1623 onwards ownership carried the right to appoint Okehampton 's two Members of Parliament . Despite the battle of Sourton Down being fought in 1643 near Okehampton during the English Civil War , the castle played no part in the conflict . A bakehouse was established in the castle in late @-@ 17th century , reusing parts of the western lodgings . The deer park was disemparked during the 18th century , reverting to farmland .
In the 18th century , the castle became a popular topic for painters interested in the then fashionable landscape styles of the Sublime and the Picturesque . Richard Wilson painted the castle in 1771 , dramatically silhouetting the keep against the sky , producing what historian Jeremy Black describes as a " calm , entranching and melancholic " effect . Thomas Walmesley 's rendition went further , depicting Oakhampton Castle surrounded by an imaginary , Italianate lake in 1810 . Thomas Girtin painted the castle in 1797 , as did his friend J. M. W. Turner in 1824 . Sir Vyell Vyvyan conducted some minor repairs to the castle during the 19th century .
= = = 20th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
In the early 20th century Okehampton Castle was bought by a local man , Sydney Simmons , who between 1911 and 1913 cleared away the vegetation that had grown over the castle and conducted some repairs to the stonework . Simmons passed the castle to the Okehampton Castle Trust in 1917 , who carried out limited repairs over the coming decades . The Ministry of Public and Works took over the site in 1967 and extensive restoration work was subsequently carried out . Extensive archaeological investigations were carried out in the 1970s at the site by Robert Higham . In the 21st century , the castle is operated as a tourist attraction by English Heritage . It is protected under law as an ancient monument and as a grade I listed building .
= = Architecture = =
Okehampton Castle was built along a long , thin rocky outcrop , rising up from the surrounding countryside . The stream that runs around the north side of the castle would have been more substantial in the medieval period and provided additional protection on that side , while the south side of the castle would have probably overlooked water @-@ logged fields . The castle was mostly built from local stone , with aplite from nearby Meldon and some beerstone from south @-@ east Devon ; the interior and exterior stonework would have originally been rendered with lime plaster . The castle 's final design involved a visitor entering from the barbican in the north @-@ east , along a long passageway up the hill , into the bailey . On the south @-@ west side of the bailey lay the motte , mounted by the keep .
The castle 's structure shows the results of its redesign at the start of the 14th century , using two very different forms of architecture . Seen from the north , where the main road carrying the general public made its way past , the castle had what Oliver Creighton terms a " martial facade " of traditional military defences , with narrow windows and towering defences . Seen from the deer park on the south of the property , however , the castle 's lodgings and accommodation were on full display , with low walls and large windows . A similar architectural dichotomy can be seen at Ludlow and Warkworth Castles . The park was effectively fused with the south side of the castle , with the chase running right up to the property . From the two large windows of the eastern lodgings , it would have been possible to gaze out across the parklands and appreciate the extensive views without seeing any trace of rural settlements or the nearby town . The result , as historian Stephen Mileson describes , would have been " stunning " .
The barbican was built at the beginning of the 14th century and contained a guard @-@ room on the first floor . The barbican contains numerous putlog holes from its construction , although these would have been masked by exterior plasterwork in the medieval period . A passageway led up from the barbican to the gatehouse , probably originally guarded by a drawbridge and containing the accommodation for the castle 's constable .
The castle bailey contained a number of buildings by the 14th century . On the north side were the Great Hall , the buttery and the castle kitchens , the former lit by a large decorative window and partitionedfrom the kitchen and buttery by a wooden screen . Above the buttery was a luxurious solar , or apartment . On the south side of the bailey were the western lodgings , well @-@ equipped accommodation for guests , built by in @-@ filling part of the ditch between the motte and the bailey , and later converted into a bakery . A chapel and accommodation for the castle 's chaplain lay alongside , and the chapel has remaining plaster work , which shows that the walls were painted with red lines to resemble ashlar cut stone . On the far side of the chapel were the eastern lodgings , whose detailing mirrored those at Tiverton Castle , another de Courtenay property built in the same period .
The motte , on the far side of the bailey , is predominantly made up of a natural rock outcrop , strengthened further with earth from the construction of the rest of the castle ditches . It stands up to 32 metres ( 105 ft ) high and measures 29 @.@ 5 metres ( 97 ft ) by 15 @.@ 5 metres ( 51 ft ) at the top . The motte is separated from the main castle by ditches in a similar way to the motte at Windsor Castle . On top of the motte is the castle keep , originally built in the 11th century , with massive stone walls at least one storey high and possibly as high as three storeys , and then redeveloped as a two storey structure with a rectangular addition on the western side in the early 14th century . The 11th century parts of the keep make use of granite stone , probably taken from the river bed of the West Okement . The 14th century keep had two sets of lodgings on the upper floor , similar in style to those in the bailey , and a turret containing a staircase , some of which still survives .
The keep is unusual both for the period and for Devon as a whole , being a very strong defensive structure , albeit without any independent source of water or facilities to support a garrison in the event of a siege . Other rectangular 11th century keeps in Devon existed , including at Exter and Lydford , and were typically associated with the king or major nobles . Few were built on top of fresh mottes , as at Okehampton , and this may have been made possible in this case because the motte was largely natural and therefore able to support the heavy weight .
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= California State Route 56 =
State Route 56 ( SR 56 ) is an east – west state highway in the U.S. state of California . It runs 9 @.@ 210 miles ( 14 @.@ 822 km ) from Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in the Carmel Valley neighborhood of San Diego to I @-@ 15 . The eastern terminus of the highway is also the western end of the Ted Williams Parkway . SR 56 serves as an important connector between I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 15 , being the only east – west freeway between SR 78 in north San Diego County , several miles away , and SR 52 near Marine Corps Air Station Miramar . It is also named the Ted Williams Freeway , after the San Diego @-@ born baseball player .
SR 56 was added to the state highway system in 1959 as Legislative Route 278 , and was renumbered SR 56 in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Plans in 1964 were to connect SR 56 to the north end of SR 125 and continue east to SR 67 , but these plans did not come to fruition . The eastern end from Black Mountain Road to I @-@ 15 was completed in 1993 ; the western end from I @-@ 5 to Carmel Creek Road was completed in 1995 after several lawsuits filed by the Sierra Club and other community groups . The two ends were not connected until the middle portion of the freeway was completed in 2004 . The delay was largely due to funding issues and environmental concerns .
= = Route description = =
Eastbound SR 56 begins as a ramp from the northbound I @-@ 5 's local bypass lanes . The interchange is not complete ; southbound I @-@ 5 traffic must exit to Carmel Valley Road before entering SR 56 . Westbound traffic on SR 56 merges into the southbound I @-@ 5 local bypass lanes , which provide access to I @-@ 805 . Continuing east , the route then has a diamond interchange at Carmel Creek Road , which provides access to the nearby San Diego Jewish Academy , and proceeds eastward through a residential area . After passing milepost 2 , the freeway has another diamond interchange with Carmel Country Road south of the community of Torrey Hills .
SR 56 meets Carmel Valley Road and curves northward , passing Canyon Crest Academy before turning southeastward . The route passes over McGonigle Creek before intersecting Camino Del Sur , which serves the nearby Westview High School . Southeast of Camino Del Sur , SR 56 curves back east , passing under Carmel Mountain Road without an exit . The route encounters exits with Black Mountain Road and Rancho Peñasquitos Boulevard in Rancho Peñasquitos in a primarily residential area before meeting its terminus at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 15 . Past the bridge over I @-@ 15 , the road continues as Ted Williams Parkway .
SR 56 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System ; it is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2014 , SR 56 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 32 @,@ 000 between I @-@ 15 and the eastern terminus at Ted Williams Parkway , and 81 @,@ 000 between Carmel Creek Road and Carmel Country Road , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the freeway .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and initial construction = = =
Planning for SR 56 started in 1956 , according to San Diego Councilwoman Barbara Warden . The route was first added to the California State Highway System in 1959 as Legislative Route Number 278 ( LRN 278 ) . The routing ran from LRN 2 , which later became US 101 , all the way east to LRN 198 , which is now SR 67 . In the 1964 state highway renumbering , LRN 278 was renumbered SR 56 and was designated to run from I @-@ 5 to SR 67 . On December 30 , 1980 , the City of Poway included SR 56 in their city plan extending all the way east through the city to a northern extension of SR 125 . In 1983 , both the cities of San Diego and Poway supported the extension of SR 56 all the way to SR 67 , although Poway wanted the route moved and had reservations about the freeway ending in their city . Nevertheless , as of 2014 there are no plans to construct the portion of SR 56 east of I @-@ 15 ; several arterial roads connect the eastern end of the SR 56 freeway with SR 67 , including Ted Williams Parkway , Twin Peaks Road , Espola Road ( CR S5 ) , and Poway Road ( CR S4 ) .
Citizens began to lobby for the construction of SR 56 in 1986 , in a similar action to efforts for SR 52 . As far back as 1987 , the Sierra Club opposed the use of sales tax revenue to build the freeway because of environmental concerns . A public forum was held on April 10 , 1990 , in Rancho Peñasquitos . Since funds were not available for constructing the middle of the route , many opposed the construction of the eastern part of SR 56 as a " road to nowhere " . Opposition to the western end of the freeway related to concerns about destruction of " farmland , marshland , and willow scrubland " , the habitat of the endangered least Bell 's vireo . The San Diego City Council voted against such widening of Carmel Valley Road on April 12 , citing the environmental concerns . Caltrans rejected other routes , and insisted on ending the freeway at I @-@ 5 and Carmel Valley Road . The council reversed its decision on May 8 ; after the public gave several opinions on the matter , Caltrans agreed to set aside 69 acres ( 28 ha ) for environmental mitigation , and $ 2 million ( about $ 4 @.@ 67 million in 2015 dollars ) was to be set aside for the purchase of land for a park near the San Dieguito River .
In June 1990 , the Del Mar Terrace Conservancy and the Carmel Valley Coalition sued the San Diego City Council to require them to move the western terminus of SR 56 closer to Sorrento Valley . On August 1 , the City of San Diego received a petition in which more than 45 @,@ 000 people requested that the City Council overturn their decision or refer it to a public referendum . The City Council backed down and rescinded the appropriate zoning changes on August 7 , in efforts to keep the city from having to run a special election . They also approved the plans for the eastern portion between Black Mountain Road and I @-@ 15 . Meanwhile , the Carmel Valley Coalition sued the city as well . The California Coastal Commission approved the construction on September 13 , and several local residents representing both sides of the debate attended the meeting in Marina del Rey .
Construction on the predecessor of SR 56 began on November 16 , 1987 , the Newland @-@ California Company paying for the work as a local developer . Around 1990 , the North City Parkway was completed as a two @-@ lane road between Rancho Peñasquitos Boulevard ( then Peñasquitos Boulevard ) and I @-@ 15 , along the proposed route of SR 56 . The first official segment of the freeway from Black Mountain Road to I @-@ 15 was constructed next , beginning on July 25 , 1991 by Daley Corporation and W.R. Connelly Inc . This was scheduled to open in May 1993 , at a cost of $ 13 million ( about $ 29 @.@ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) .
Opposition to the western segment ( from I @-@ 5 to Carmel Valley Road ) persisted . By 1991 , the Del Mar Terrace Conservancy filed an appeal with the 4th District Court of Appeals after losing the lawsuit to the city of San Diego and Caltrans . The Sierra Club had also sued the California Coastal Commission . On July 16 , 1992 , the Sierra Club withdrew its lawsuit after the City of San Diego agreed to work to keep the Peñasquitos Lagoon flowing to the ocean and to restore a wetland area . Following the Sierra Club 's settlement , the City of Del Mar raised an objection to the club 's decision to accept a settlement , since the city had given a $ 7 @,@ 000 contribution ( about $ 15 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) to the case . The Sierra Club agreed to return the money in August 1992 .
The Del Mar Conservancy suit continued , and the plaintiffs requested a court order to stop construction . This lawsuit claimed that the state and city had not done enough environmental studies and mitigation . The 4th District Court of Appeals denied an appeal on October 23 . In 1993 , citizens complained that funds were being diverted from a recreational park to build the freeway , possibly hindering the development of a new elementary school . The segment was finally completed at a projected cost of $ 27 @.@ 2 million ( about $ 57 @.@ 4 million in 2015 dollars ) , opening to traffic by 1995 . The ramps connecting SR 56 to I @-@ 5 were opened between 1997 and 1998 ; traffic was diverted onto Carmel Valley Road in the meantime .
The freeway is named after Ted Williams , a Hall of Fame baseball player born in San Diego who played for the Boston Red Sox during his 21 @-@ year career . The San Diego City Council also considered naming SR 56 after the former governor and San Diego mayor Pete Wilson . The Council voted 7 @-@ 1 to name it after Williams on May 12 , 1992 . Since Williams was still alive , the State of California had to approve the name . Lionel Van Deerlin alleged that Councilwoman Abbe Wolfsheimer nominated Wilson for the honor as political ammunition against Councilman Ron Roberts . Williams came to Mt . Carmel High School on July 12 , 1992 , for the freeway dedication . Kevin McNamara , who had worked with the government to get the name approved despite opposition , was charged $ 15 @,@ 000 ( about $ 33 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) for the highway signs when the name was official . The freeway was officially named after Ted Williams in 1993 by the Legislature .
= = = Filling the gap = = =
A 5 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) gap in the freeway remained , nevertheless . Concerns about the missing funds for the freeway date back to 1990 . Since the proposed route passed through the open area between Carmel Valley and Rancho Peñasquitos , revenue from the Proposition A sales tax hike could not be used . In 1993 , a " Citizens United for State Route 56 " group was commissioned to work on the funding issues . Two years later , County Supervisor Pam Slater briefly proposed making SR 56 a toll road in order to raise funds for construction . The city of San Diego agreed to pay $ 25 million ( about $ 48 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) , and the state indicated that it would contribute $ 20 million .
Highway 680 was a planned county route that would have run from Encinitas to Rancho Bernardo . The San Diego County Board of Supervisors cancelled the plans in February 1994 , respecting the wishes of the city of Encinitas . There were concerns that some of the traffic from this proposed route would now travel on SR 56 instead . On May 17 , 1994 , $ 20 million ( about $ 40 @.@ 2 million in 2015 dollars ) allocated to Highway 680 was given to the SR 56 project .
In January 1998 , the State Transportation Improvement Program approved a $ 245 million allocation ( about $ 415 million in 2015 dollars ) for the expansion , and hopes were to finish construction by 2000 , with traffic projected to decrease by 20 percent on I @-@ 15 . There were environmental concerns that fostered consideration of four northern alternatives . One of them was chosen in June 1998 by the San Diego City Council , amid concerns that by moving the route away from " environmentally sensitive canyons " , the freeway would be closer to residences . Some of those living in Rancho Glens Estates sued the city over these concerns in August .
Construction began on the missing portion of SR 56 on October 21 , 1999 , amid allegations of a missing Army Corps of Engineers permit , at an estimated cost of $ 111 million ( about $ 179 million in 2015 dollars ) . The California Coastal Commission approved the extension on May 10 , 2000 , after residents lost two lawsuits relating to the proximity of the freeway . Caltrans was required to install a drainage system because of the wetlands ; this requirement was similar to a court ruling for a project in the Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve . At this time , the completion was estimated to occur in 2004 , at a cost of $ 151 million ( about $ 231 million in 2015 dollars ) . In October 2000 , Carmel Valley Road was extended to Black Mountain Road , providing a paved alternative until SR 56 was completed ; commuters had to travel on a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) unpaved road , one of the only roads between I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 15 in North County .
Local developers contributed $ 21 million ( about $ 31 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) for the construction of the interchange at Camino Ruiz , and construction began on July 11 , 2001 . An open house was held on the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) portion of the freeway between the Camino Ruiz ( renamed Camino del Sur ) interchange and the Black Mountain Road interchange on April 5 , 2003 . The road was scheduled to open on April 12 , 2003 , and was projected to decrease the traffic on city streets coming from the extended Carmel Valley Road .
The city of San Diego constructed SR 56 from Black Mountain Road to Carmel Mountain Road , and Caltrans built the remaining portion of the route to Carmel Creek Road . The bridges were still under construction in November 2000 on the city portion . San Diego mayor Dick Murphy commissioned the San Diego Freeway Congestion Strike Team to attempt to accelerate stalled freeway projects such as SR 56 in 2001 . In May 2001 , the City Council allocated another $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( about $ 7 @.@ 64 million in 2015 dollars ) to purchase land to build the freeway . Critics stated that the construction of SR 56 was a short @-@ term solution , and that traffic would return by 2020 .
FCI Constructors Inc. and W.R. Connelly Inc. won the contract for the Caltrans portion of the new freeway at a bid of $ 50 @.@ 2 million ( about $ 73 @.@ 4 million in 2015 dollars ) , with completion scheduled for 2004 . The freeway was built with two lanes in each direction , additional land being available to expand to three lanes if necessary . The project continued on schedule through the 2003 California budget crisis , receiving $ 4 @.@ 3 million from the state in 2003 . In 2004 , there were citizen complaints about the lack of a sound wall to reduce the freeway noise in private residences . It took until July 19 , 2004 , to join the west and east ends of the freeway ; a public festival was held on the freeway on July 17 . The cost of completing the middle 5 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) segment was reported at $ 220 million in 2004 ( about $ 293 million in 2015 dollars ) . Citizens complained in 2008 that the bike path along SR 56 was difficult to access from the northern side of the interchange with El Camino Real ; however , funding issues prevented the construction of a paved path at the time .
= = = Ramps and bypasses = = =
The construction of a " dual freeway " at the western end was scheduled to begin in early 2002 , referring to the two carriageways needed for each direction of the freeway . It would require drivers to use the new local lanes to access eastbound SR 56 from I @-@ 5 or I @-@ 805 . The project would allow for trucks to use the new lanes to assist in merging with traffic . The northbound lanes were scheduled to open in February 2006 . The southbound I @-@ 15 to westbound SR 56 ramp was improved in a construction project in 2005 .
Concerns about the lack of a ramp from westbound SR 56 to northbound I @-@ 5 date back from 1988 , because of a projected increase of traffic on local Carmel Valley streets . Planning for the missing ramps at the western end of SR 56 was under way in 2008 , despite nearby homeowner opposition . Caltrans agreed not to destroy homes in late June 2008 , but concerns about noise and funding remained . On June 13 , 2012 , Caltrans held a public forum to discuss five proposals to address the missing ramps at the western terminus :
build the westbound to northbound ramp and the southbound to eastbound ramp ,
add additional lanes to both SR 56 and I @-@ 5 @,@
only build the westbound @-@ to @-@ northbound ramp and add lanes to southbound I @-@ 5 and eastbound SR 56 @,@
build the westbound @-@ to @-@ northbound ramp and add lanes on SR 56 only , or
build nothing at all .
A Final Environmental Document is scheduled to be released in the middle of 2016 . In the meantime , Caltrans studies have begun relating to widening the route to three lanes in each direction , as called for by the 2050 regional plan .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in San Diego , San Diego County .
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= Tropical Storm Nicholas ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Nicholas was a long @-@ lived tropical storm in October and November of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming from a tropical wave on October 13 in the central tropical Atlantic Ocean , Nicholas slowly developed due to moderate levels of wind shear throughout its lifetime . Deep convection slowly organized , and Nicholas attained a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 17 . After moving west @-@ northwestward for much of its lifetime , it turned northward and weakened due to increasing shear . The storm again turned to the west and briefly restrengthened , but after turning again to the north Nicholas transitioned to an extratropical cyclone on October 24 . As an extratropical storm , Nicholas executed a large loop to the west , and after moving erratically for a week and organizing into a tropical low , it was absorbed by a non @-@ tropical low . The low continued westward , crossed Florida , and ultimately dissipated over the Gulf Coast of the United States on November 5 .
Nicholas had no impact as a tropical cyclone , and impact from the low that absorbed the storm was limited to rainfall , gusty winds , and rough surf . Nicholas extended the above average levels of tropical cyclone activity throughout the 2003 season , and was one of fourteen seasons to reach fourteen storms . The low that absorbed the storm nearly developed into a tropical cyclone , which would have been called Odette . However , moderate wind shear prevented further development .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Tropical Storm Nicholas can be traced to a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on October 9 . It moved westward , and developed a broad area of low pressure along the wave on October 10 . Convection organized around the low early on October 12 while located 800 miles ( 1300 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde islands . As upper level winds became more favorable , the system became better organized , though the circulation center initially remained located to the west of the area of heavy showers . The surface circulation of the large circulation envelope moved towards a position near the western edge of the deepest convection , and it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Nineteen late on October 13 while located 1 @,@ 030 miles ( 1 @,@ 660 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands .
Located within an area of moderate southwesterly wind shear , the depression was slow to organize ; early on October 14 , a clear center was not depicted on Infrared satellite imagery . The depression moved to the west @-@ northwest and gradually strengthened into Tropical Storm Nicholas late on October 14 while located 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 930 km ) east of the Windward Islands . On October 15 , deep convection became much better organized , though the center of Nicholas remained displaced from the deepest of the shower activity . Despite the shear , the storm continued to strengthen as it moved to the west @-@ northwest , a motion caused by a mid @-@ level ridge to its north . On October 16 , Nicholas transitioned from a sheared , unorganized system to a more organized system , as a result of banding features and improvement in its convective pattern due to lesser amounts of vertical shear and a healthier anticyclone over the storm . Nicholas continued to strengthen , and attained a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 17 while located 875 miles ( 1 @,@ 410 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Dvorak estimates suggested Nicholas potentially attained hurricane status , though microwave images of the storm showed a sheared system without any evidence of an eye feature .
Shortly after peaking in strength , Nicholas weakened due to increasing southwesterly wind shear , and the center of circulation briefly became exposed from the deep convection . In response to a break in the subtropical ridge , the storm turned to the north on October 18 . Nicholas turned more to the west on October 20 , and later on the winds in the storm decreased to minimal storm strength . Convection diminished greatly , though Nicholas unexpectedly re @-@ strengthened as deep convection refired . After reaching winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , the storm again weakened due to increasing shear , and after turning to the northwest Nicholas degenerated into a tropical depression on October 23 . Nicholas tracked northward in response to a break in the subtropical ridge , and on October 24 , after degenerating to a remnant low pressure area , Nicholas lost what tropical characteristics it retained and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant storm executed a large anticyclonic loop , resulting in a westward motion and a brief re @-@ intensification into an extratropical storm on October 29 . The storm continued to the west along a warm front associated with a non @-@ tropical low to its southwest , and executed a second anticyclonic loop to the south . On October 30 , convection increased over the low @-@ level circulation of what was left to Nicholas , and the National Hurricane Center indicated a potential for tropical or subtropical development as it moved towards warmer waters . The system executed a small cyclonic loop , and on October 31 the system organized into a tropical low . It turned westward towards a non @-@ tropical low , and on November 1 the remnants of Nicholas was absorbed by the low .
On November 1 , convection increased in the complex system that absorbed the remnants of Nicholas , and the National Hurricane Center indicated the system could develop into a tropical or subtropical cyclone at any time . The low continued quickly westward , generating only sporadic convection , and crossed Florida on November 3 . After entering the Gulf of Mexico , it turned to the west @-@ northwest , and without organizing it made landfall in southeast Louisiana on November 4 . It continued inland , and quickly weakened over Louisiana and Mississippi on November 5 .
= = Impact , records , and naming = =
The non @-@ tropical low that absorbed Nicholas dropped locally heavy rainfall across the Bahamas and southern Florida , as well as in portions of the northern Gulf Coast . Gusty winds from the low produced heavy surf and rip currents along the east and west coast of Florida , and a wind gust of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) was recorded in Cape Canaveral as a rainband from the system moved ashore . The low also resulted in two to four foot ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) swells along the East Coast of the United States . Overall , no damage or deaths were associated with Nicholas or the low that absorbed it .
Operationally , the National Hurricane Center determined if the non @-@ tropical low that absorbed Nicholas developed into a tropical or subtropical storm , it would be named Odette . In post @-@ season analysis , the center considered classifying the system as an unnumbered tropical depression , though lack of sufficient characteristics of a tropical depression prevented the classification . If Nicholas had attained hurricane status , it would have been one of eight tropical cyclones to reach hurricane status in October in the deep tropical Atlantic since 1900 .
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= The Boat Race 1975 =
The 121st Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1975 . Cambridge won their seventh race in eight years by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes and 27 seconds . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Christopher Davidge .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the 30th Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1974 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 67 victories to Oxford 's 52 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The umpire for the race was Christopher Davidge , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1949 , 1951 and 1952 races , and was a non @-@ rowing Oxford University Boat Club president for the 1950 race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
In the month leading up to the race , Cambridge 's crew saw some significant changes , including the removal of David Sturge ( who had rowed in the 1973 race ) due to glandular fever . However , the Cambridge boat club president Steve Tourek was circumspect : " Cambridge might be slower than planned but still fast enough to beat Oxford . " On 24 March 1975 , Cambridge beat Oxford 's record time ( set five days earlier ) between Hammersmith Bridge and the Mile Post by two seconds . The following day , Oxford 's coach Dan Topolski revealed that the Oxford reserve crew , Isis , had equalled the record time , downplaying Cambridge 's efforts : " Shows how fast conditions really were yesterday . " Cambridge coach Lou Barry remarked of his charges : " this is a fast crew " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 75 lb ( 86 @.@ 8 kg ) , 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained two former Blues in boat club president Nick Tee and stroke Graham Innes , while Cambridge saw Nick Bradley , Henry Clay and Tourek return from the 1974 boat . Although the British international rower David Sturge was replaced through illness prior to the race , the Light Blues also saw international @-@ standard rowers Alistair Christie and James Macleod in the crew , both of whom had withdrawn from selection for the 1974 race to represent Great Britain . Only two competitors in the race were registered as " overseas " Blues , Oxford 's number five John Hutchings and his counterpart and Tourek , both from the United States .
= = Race = =
Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourite ; according to the author and former rower Dickie Burnell , although Oxford had some " useful new recruits " no @-@ one " outside their immediate camp thought they could win . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Oxford took an early lead , but by the Mile Post , Cambridge had recovered to lead by two seconds . Extending their lead , the Light Blues gained a clear water advantage by Harrods Furniture Depository and moved in front of the Dark Blue boat . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge five seconds ahead , Cambridge held a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lead which they defended against a number of Oxford pushes . Midway round the Surrey bend , Oxford 's bow man Andrew Baird 's oar came out of its gate , allowing Cambridge to increase their lead by another length . A seven @-@ second lead at Chiswick Steps was extended to nine seconds by Barnes Bridge , and along the final bend , Cambridge pushed their lead further out to nearly four lengths , passing the finishing post in 19 minutes 27 seconds , thirteen seconds ahead of their rivals . It was Cambridge 's seventh victory in the previous eight years , having lost to Oxford in 1974 .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their first win since the 1966 race . In the 30th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , winning their 13th consecutive race .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Baird claimed " I might have caught a crab , but I do not really know what happened . " Cambridge number six MacLeod said of the Dark Blues : " They kept coming at us time and time again . I was only sure of victory in the last mile of the race . " Christopher Dodd , writing in The Guardian was impressed : " The contest had a rare element ... it was a race nearly all the way , and was not all over in the first 20 stokes as has so often been the case in recent years . " Burnell suggested it was a race for the aficionados : " This was surely one of those so common Boat Races , which are hard fought all the way , yet never exciting from the point of view of the average spectator . "
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= Pathala Bhairavi =
Pathala Bhairavi ( English : The Goddess of the Netherworld ) is a 1951 Indian bilingual fantasy film written by Pingali Nagendrarao and directed by Kadiri Venkata Reddy . The film was produced by B. Nagi Reddy and Aluri Chakrapani under the banner Vijaya Vauhini Studios . It was co @-@ written by Kamalakara Kameswara Rao and features N. T. Rama Rao , S. V. Ranga Rao and K. Malathi in the lead roles . Pathala Bhairavi is based on Kasi Majilee Kathalu , written by Madhira Subbanna Deekshitulu , though it was also partially inspired by the story of Aladdin .
The film centres on the lives of two strangers — the son of a gardener named Thota Ramudu who has to amass wealth equal to that of the king of Ujjain to marry his daughter Indumathi , and a sorcerer who has to sacrifice an intelligent and brave young man to Goddess Pathala Bhairavi to gain access to a statuette which can grant any wish . The sorcerer tries to sacrifice Ramudu but gets killed by the latter who wins the statuette and fulfils his goals . When the sorcerer comes back to life and kidnaps Indumathi along with the statuette and all of his wealth , Ramudu fights back for them and kills the sorcerer before marrying Indumathi .
Although principal photography only took eight to nine months , the production phase continued for a whole year starting from 5 February 1950 until 8 February 1951 , due to the film being shot simultaneously in Telugu and Tamil . Ghantasala composed the film 's music and Marcus Bartley served as the cinematographer . The film was edited by the duo C. P. Jambulingam and M. S. Money , while Madhavapeddi Gokhale and Kaladhar were the film 's art directors . The Telugu version was released on 15 March 1951 , and the Tamil version on 17 May 1951 . Both the versions were released with a final reel length of 5 @,@ 227 metres ( 17 @,@ 149 ft ) .
Upon release , Pathala Bhairavi received critical acclaim and was commercially successful , becoming the first Telugu film to have a direct run of 200 days . It is considered to be a breakthrough film for both Rama Rao and Ranga Rao , and was also the only South Indian film to be screened at the first International Film Festival of India held at Mumbai on 24 January 1952 . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , CNN @-@ News18 included Pathala Bhairavi in its list of " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= = Plot = =
The queen of Ujjain is keen for her daughter Indumathi ( alias Indu ) to marry her brother Surasena , a timid and mentally unstable person . When the gardener 's son ' Thota ' Ramudu beats Surasena at a concert for irritating the common people , he is summoned by the king to the court . His boldness leaves a considerable impression , but when Ramudu declares his love for Indu a day before his death sentence for meeting Indu secretly , the king is reminded of the astrologers ' prediction that only a brave man can save her from a wicked sorcerer . He then challenges Ramudu to amass wealth equal to that of his to marry Indu , to which Ramudu agrees . He is released from prison .
Ramudu meets a Nepali sorcerer during the latter 's magic show in a street . The sorcerer , who is ordered by Goddess Pathala Bhairavi during his prayers to sacrifice an intelligent and brave young man before her to be granted a statuette which grants any wish , feels that Ramudu is suitable for the sacrifice . While taking a holy bath in the nearby pond , Ramudu kills a crocodile that immediately transforms into a woman after being killed . The woman informs Ramudu that he had freed her from a hermit 's curse and also reveals the sorcerer 's intentions . Just before the sacrifice , Ramudu sacrifices the sorcerer and wins the statuette , consequently amassing the wealth equal to that of the king . In return , the king lives up to his promise and accepts Indu 's wishes to marry Ramudu .
The sorcerer 's apprentice Sadajapa discovers his master dead at the Pathala Bhairavi 's shrine and brings him back to life with the help of Sanjeevani . Upon resurrection , the sorcerer makes a deal with Surasena , who was about to commit suicide , to bring the statuette in exchange of everything Ramudu has , including Indu . Surasena agrees and steals the statuette , then handing it over to the sorcerer which changes the fate of Ramudu and Indu , leaving the former penniless . Ramudu pledges to bring Indu his wealth back and leaves for the sorcerer 's lair along with his cousin , Anji .
While they are unable to locate the sorcerer 's lair , Indu refuses the sorcerer 's proposal to marry him . With the help of the statuette , the sorcerer brings Ramudu to his lair and tortures him in front of Indu with a hope that she would succumb to his proposal to marry him . Posing as an assistant , Ramudu shaves the sorcerer 's beard , making him lose his powers . Afterwards , Ramudu finds the statuette and wishes to bring the palace back to Ujjain . In a fight between Ramudu and the sorcerer mid @-@ way in the sky , the latter dies when Ramudu throws him out . The palace is back in Ujjain and Surasena apologises to both Ramudu and Indu before uniting them . While Anji marries Indu 's best friend , the film ends with the marriage of Ramudu and Indu with the elders ' blessing .
= = Cast = =
Male actors
N. T. Rama Rao as Thota Ramudu
S. V. Ranga Rao as Nepala Mantrikudu i.e. the Nepali sorcerer
Chilakalapudi Seetha Rama Anjaneyulu as the King of Ujjain
Relangi Venkata Ramaiah as Surasena
Valluri Balakrishna as Anji
B. Padmanabham as Sadajapa
Female actors
K. Malathi as Indumati
T. G. Kamala Devi as a Veera Katha performer
Hemalatamma Rao as Indumati 's mother
Girija as Pathala Bhairavi
Surabhi Kamalabai as Kanthamma
Krishna Kumari as an Angel
Savitri as a dancer in the song " Ranante Rane Ranu "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After making their debut with Shavukar ( 1950 ) , B. Nagi Reddy and Aluri Chakrapani of Vijaya Vauhini Studios signed Kadiri Venkata Reddy later in the year to make a folklore film . The film was based on a story from Kasi Majilee Kathalu , written by Madhira Subbanna Deekshitulu . Pingali Nagendrarao adapted the content and wrote the film 's story . Kamalakara Kameswara Rao and Venkata Reddy worked on the film 's screenplay . Nagendrarao was also inspired from the story of Aladdin . Vijaya Vauhini Studios team worked for three to four months on the film 's script and Ujjain in the state of Madhya Pradesh was chosen as the story 's backdrop . Pathala Bhairavi was made as a bilingual film , shot in Telugu and Tamil simultaneously with both the versions having the same title . The Tamil version 's dialogues were written by Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass .
Tatineni Prakash Rao , who went on to make his directorial debut with Palletooru ( 1952 ) , worked as an assistant director for the film . Kasinadhuni Viswanath also joined the film 's crew as an assistant director , along with K. Raghava as the film 's action choreographer . Marcus Bartley was recruited as the film 's cinematographer and the duo C. P. Jambulingam and M. S. Money edited the film . Madhavapeddi Gokhale and Kaladhar were the film 's art directors . Ghantasala composed the film 's music . Chalapathi Rao and Jagannadham were the production executives .
= = = Casting = = =
Initially , Venkata Reddy had Akkineni Nageswara Rao in mind for the lead role . He later wanted to cast Raja Reddy in the lead role but replaced him with N. T. Rama Rao in the last minute , who made his debut by playing a minor character in Mana Desam ( 1949 ) . Rama Rao was eventually signed as a part of his four @-@ film contract with Vijaya Vauhini Studios after Venkata Reddy was impressed with Rama Rao when he met him on the sets of Samsaram ( 1950 ) . With this film , Rama Rao became the first actor to have acted in two languages simultaneously .
Mukkamala was initially considered for the role of the sorcerer , the film 's antagonist . But with Rama Rao being signed as the protagonist , Venkata Reddy wanted to cast an actor without an image , thus S. V. Ranga Rao was signed . Ranga Rao wore costumes reminiscent of a Shakespeare 's anti @-@ hero and used the catchphrase " Sahasamsayara Dimbhaka " ( Be adventurous man ) . He used the same persona that he used for playing Shylock when he was a stage @-@ artist . Muthudhuta Peethambaram , who joined Vijaya Vauhini Studios in 1945 , helped Ranga Rao take on the appearance of a 105 @-@ year @-@ old man with the use of make @-@ up . Haribabu assisted Peethambaram in the make @-@ up process .
Malathi , who had earlier acted in Venkata Reddy 's Bhakta Potana ( 1942 ) , was signed to play the female lead role — Indumathi , the princess of Ujjain . Girija played the titular role of goddess Pathala Bhairavi . Relangi Venkata Ramaiah and Balakrishna were signed to play supporting roles ; the former playing the role of the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Indumathi 's father played by Chilakalapudi Seeta Rama Anjaneyulu and the latter playing Rama Rao 's sidekick . Padmanabham was signed to play a supporting role as well . Savitri did a short dance sequence in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Pathala Bhairavi was the first big budget film produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios . Although principal photography only took eight to nine months , the production phase continued for a whole year starting from 5 February 1950 until 8 February 1951 , due to the film being shot simultaneously in Telugu and Tamil . Pasumarthi Krishnamurthy conducted the choreography for the song sequences . Major portions of the film were shot in large sets and many trick shots were used by Bartley during the process . Both versions were filmed using an Arri 11 CBR Camera .
For scenes in the film that featured the moon in the background , a circle was drawn on a screen which was lit to make it look like the moon . Though having other lights were not possible , Bartley made sure that all the characters in such scenes had their shadows away from the moon . Despite this , many of the transformations of elements in this film were shown using dissolve techniques . No lights were hidden behind the painted moon , as a source for lighting .
= = Themes = =
According to K. N. T. Sastry in his book Alanati Chalana Chitram , the film begins with the theme of Dhairye Sahase Lakshmi ( Bravery gives wealth ) which is present throughout the film . While the characters of Rama Rao and Ranga Rao epitomise heroism , the character of the princess played by Malathi epitomises innocence and sensuality . Pathala Bhairavi sets up an opposition between the worship of Rama by the protagonist 's mother and the worship of Pathala Bhairavi by the sorcerer ; the former being a frequent one inhabited in a domestic space while the latter being an uncivilised one .
According to Azim Premji University liberal studies faculty member S. V. Srinivas , Pathala Bhairavi was a blend of folklore and social drama . Srinivas stated that the depiction of the goddess Pathala Bhairavi before Ramudu sacrifices the sorcerer was reminiscent of the representation of Poleramma worship by dalits in the film Mala Pilla ( 1938 ) . He added that Pathala Bhairavi " ratifies certain social relationships by presenting them as natural and given " and " at the same time , some other practices are presented as inhuman and uncivilised " .
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack of Pathala Bhairavi was composed by Ghantasala , the lyrics of which were written by Pingali Nagendrarao and Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass for the Telugu and Tamil versions respectively . The sound mixing process was supervised by A. Krishnan and Siva Ram . It was processed by N. C. Sen Gupta and was orchestrated by A. Krishnamurthy . The songs were composed using Mohana , Bhimpalasi and Sindhu Bhairavi ragas , with " Prema Kosamai Valalo Padene " and " Kanugona Galano " notably being modulated on the same raga . The soundtrack was released on 1 December 1950 . Also , a digitally remastered version was released and marketed by HMV in 2003 ; the album cover depicts a still image from the film featuring Rama Rao and Malathi .
Relangi Venkata Ramaiah sang the comedy song " Vinave Bala Naa Prema Gola " which was filmed on himself . A costly Hammond organ was specially imported for this film which was played by Master Venu . For the Hindi dubbed version , T. G. Kamala Devi sang the song " Sunloji Sardaro " ( " Ithihasam Vinnaara " in Telugu ) and Jikki sang the song " Bindiya Chamke " ( " Vagaloi Vagalu " in Telugu ) . The latter became the first Telugu film singer to record a song for a Hindi film with this Hindi dubbed version of Pathala Bhairavi . The soundtracks of both the versions were critically acclaimed and achieved cult status .
= = Release = =
The Telugu version of Pathala Bhairavi was released on 15 March 1951 , whereas the Tamil version was released two months later on 17 May 1951 . Both versions were released with a final reel length of 5 @,@ 227 metres ( 17 @,@ 149 ft ) and were given a " U " ( Universal ) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification with a run time of 195 minutes . Both versions were commercially successful , with the Telugu version completing a theatrical run of 100 days . Pathala Bhairavi became the first Telugu film to run continuously for 175 days , and the first Telugu film to have a direct run of 200 days . It completed the 175th day of its theatrical run in a total of 13 theatres .
S. S. Vasan acquired the film 's Hindi dubbing rights and reshot two song sequences – " Ithihasam Vinnara " and " Vagaloi Vagalu " in colour . The Hindi dubbed version was commercially successful . Pathala Bhairavi was the only South Indian film to be screened at the first International Film Festival of India held at Mumbai on 24 January 1952 . Sahitya Surabhi organised a programme at the Visakha Public Library in Vishakhapatnam on 7 March 2015 on the eve of the 64th anniversary of this film 's release and writer Rambhatla Nrusimha Sastry attended the programme as the chief guest .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Pathala Bhairavi received positive reviews from critics . Pesum Padam praised the music and technical features of the film and mentioned that the film " has many good features to its credit " . CNN @-@ News18 stated that the film was full of " mysteries and twists " , and " this Telugu film has a screenplay which is not only fast but is also able to engage the audiences " , adding that the way Rama Rao managed to bring out the innocence of the character is a " lesson in acting " . M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu stated that this film 's story was made into a " grand spectacle by the genius that Kadiri Venkata Reddy was , with excellent technical support " adding that he " mesmerised the audience with a smooth narrative " . He also praised the film 's cinematography , sound designing and art direction .
In his book Alanati Chalana Chitram , K. N. T. Sastry stated that Venkata Reddy deserves full credit for this film 's excellence and praised the performances of Rama Rao , Malathi and Ranga Rao in particular . In his book The Best of Tamil Cinema , 1931 to 2010 , G. Dhananjayan stated that the film attracted both children and old people for its grandeur and theme and praised the actors ' performances , Ghantasala 's music , Bartley 's cinematography and the art direction . In July 2010 , Hemanth Kumar of South Scope called Pathala Bhairavi a film that " took an entire generation by storm " and praised its special effects in particular , which Kumar felt were ahead of their time . In his book One Hundred Indian Feature Films : An Annotated Filmography , Srivastava Banerjee gave a polarised review of the film by calling it " an extraordinarily meaningless modern myth " .
= = Cancelled plans of digitisation and colourisation = =
In late November 2007 , a Hyderabad @-@ based company named Goldstone Technologies acquired the film negative rights of 14 Telugu films produced by Vijaya Vauhini Studios , including Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Pathala Bhairavi , to release their digitally re @-@ mastered versions in colour . After the success of the digitised and colourised version of Mayabazar released in January 2010 , its makers announced that Pathala Bhairavi would be the next film to be remastered and re @-@ released in colour . However Goldstone Technologies decided not to remaster the remaining 14 films including Pathala Bhairavi , saying that most of the producers who sold the rights of the negatives to TV channels lost control over them , adding that there were also a lot of legal issues over ownership and copyright issues whenever other producers try to do something on their own .
= = Legacy and impact = =
Pathala Bhairavi achieved cult classic status and is remembered for the actors ' performances along with the film 's technical aspects , in particular its cinematography by Bartley and dialogue by Nagendrarao and Ramaiah Dass . The lines " Nijam Cheppamantara Abaddham Cheppamantara " ( " Shall I say the truth ? or shall I lie ? " ) , " Sahasamsayara Dhimbaka " ( " Be adventurous man ! " ) , " Naruda Yemi Nee Korika " ( " O Human , what you want ? " ) became popular and phrases such as " dingari " ( " servant " ) and " dimbhaka " ( " fool " ) later became a part of Telugu vernacular . The film 's story is regularly staged as a play by Surabhi theatre group , known as Sri Venkateswara Natya Mandali .
During a programme Telugu Cinema Prasthanam organised by the film society of Vishakhapatnam , writer include actor Ravi Kondala Rao placed Pathala Bhairavi among other cult films like Raja Harishchandra ( 1913 ) , Bhakta Prahlada ( 1932 ) , Mala Pilla , Devadasu ( 1953 ) and Lava Kusa ( 1963 ) during a speech on the role of Telugu cinema in the hundred years of Indian cinema . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , CNN @-@ News18 included Pathala Bhairavi in its list , " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
The film is considered to be a breakthrough film for both Rama Rao and Ranga Rao . Rama Rao later starred in other folklore films like Chandirani ( 1953 ) , Rechukka ( 1954 ) and Jayasimha ( 1955 ) ; all of which were commercially successful . When the film 's unit was travelling by train to attend the 100th day celebrations of Pathala Bhairavi at Bellary , the then Union Home Minister C. Rajagopalachari was travelling in Madras Mail . When both the trains happened to halt at Guntakal , people who had come to greet Rajagopalachari rushed to the other platform to have a glimpse of the film 's unit , which left Rajagopalachari amazed by the popularity that the film had attained .
Pathala Bhairavi 's success prompted Vijaya Vauhini Studios to produce the Hindu mythological epic bilingual film Mayabazar , also directed by Venkata Reddy . The entire technical crew of Pathala Bhairavi was selected for Mayabazar . It went on to achieve cult status in Telugu cinema for its use of technology . It also inspired other filmmakers to make films based on fairy tales like Kanavaney Kankanda Deivam ( 1955 ) and Guna Sundari ( 1955 ) in Tamil which were commercially successful .
Pathala Bhairavi inspired Vijaya Productions along with its collaborator Chandamama to produce Bhairava Dweepam ( 1994 ) directed by Singeetham Srinivasa Rao starring Rama Rao 's son Nandamuri Balakrishna in the lead along with Roja . In the pre @-@ climax sequences of the Telugu film Okkadu ( 2003 ) , when Obul Reddy ( played by Prakash Raj ) is about to murder Ajay ( played by Mahesh Babu ) , the latter compares the former with Ranga Rao 's character in Pathala Bhairavi who was murdered by Rama Rao 's character . The film 's story was used as a play in the Telugu film Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum ( 2012 ) , which was based on the Surabhi theatre group .
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= Small shelly fauna =
The small shelly fauna or small shelly fossils , abbreviated to SSF , are mineralized fossils , many only a few millimetres long , with a nearly continuous record from the latest stages of the Ediacaran to the end of the Early Cambrian period . They are very diverse , and there is no formal definition of " small shelly fauna " or " small shelly fossils " . Almost all are from earlier rocks than more familiar fossils such as trilobites . Since most SSFs were preserved by being covered quickly with phosphate and this method of preservation is mainly limited to the Late Ediacaran and Early Cambrian periods , the animals that made them may actually have arisen earlier and persisted after this time span .
Some of the fossils represent the entire skeletons of small organisms , including the mysterious Cloudina and some snail @-@ like molluscs . However , the bulk of the fossils are fragments or disarticulated remains of larger organisms , including sponges , molluscs , slug @-@ like halkieriids , brachiopods , echinoderms , and onychophoran @-@ like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods .
One of the early explanations for the appearance of the SSFs – and therefore the evolution of mineralized skeletons – suggested a sudden increase in the ocean 's concentration of calcium . However , many SSFs are constructed of other minerals , such as silica . Because the first SSFs appear around the same time as organisms first started burrowing to avoid predation , it is more likely that they represent early steps in an evolutionary arms race between predators and increasingly well @-@ defended prey . On the other hand , mineralized skeletons may have evolved simply because they are stronger and cheaper to produce than all @-@ organic skeletons like those of insects . Nevertheless , it is still true that the animals used minerals that were most easily accessible .
Although the small size and often fragmentary nature of SSFs makes it difficult to identify and classify them , they provide very important evidence for how the main groups of marine invertebrates evolved , and particularly for the pace and pattern of evolution in the Cambrian explosion . Besides including the earliest known representatives of some modern phyla , they have the great advantage of presenting a nearly continuous record of Early Cambrian organisms whose bodies include hard parts .
= = History of discovery = =
The term " small shelly fossils " was coined by Samuel Matthews and V. V. Missarzhevsky in 1975 . It is quite a misnomer since , as Stefan Bengtson says , " they are not always small , they are commonly not shelly – and the term might equally well apply to Pleistocene periwinkles . " Paleontologists have been unable to invent a better term and have vented their frustration in parodies such as " small silly fossils " and " small smellies " . The term is often abbreviated to " small shellies " or " SSF " .
The great majority of all the morphological features of later shelled organisms appear among the SSFs . No @-@ one has attempted a formal definition of " small shelly fauna " , " small shelly fossils " or other similar phrases .
Specimens and sometimes quite rich collections of these fossils were discovered between 1872 and 1967 , but no @-@ one drew the conclusion that the Early Cambrian contained a diverse range of animals in addition to the traditionally recognized trilobites , archaeocyathans , etc . In the late 1960s Soviet paleontologists discovered even richer collections of SSFs in beds below and therefore earlier than those containing Cambrian trilobites . Unfortunately the papers that described these discoveries were in Russian , and the 1975 paper by Matthews and Missarzhevsky first brought the SSFs to the serious attention of the non @-@ Russian @-@ reading world .
There was already a vigorous debate about the early evolution of animals . Preston Cloud argued in 1948 and 1968 that the process was " explosive " , and in the early 1970s Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould developed their theory of punctuated equilibrium , which views evolution as long intervals of near @-@ stasis " punctuated " by short periods of rapid change . On the other hand , around the same time Wyatt Durham and Martin Glaessner both argued that the animal kingdom had a long Proterozoic history that was hidden by the lack of fossils .
= = Occurrence = =
Rich collections have been found in China , Mongolia , Kazakhstan , Australia , and Antarctica ; and moderately diverse ones in India , Pakistan , Iran , Europe and North America . There are different views about the time range of the SSFs . The Russian discoveries of the late 1960s were assigned to the Tommotian age of the Cambrian period , and for some time the term " small shelly fauna " was applied only to that age . On the other hand , Bengston includes in " SSF " Ediacaran fossils like Cloudina and post @-@ Tommotian fossils like Microdictyon from the Maotianshan Shales lagerstätte . SSFs have been found in layers that also contain fossil trilobites . The mass extinction at the end of the Cambrian period 's Botomian age was thought to have wiped out most of the SSF , with the exception of the halkieriids , wiwaxiids and Pojetaia .
= = Mode of preservation = =
Small shelly fossils are typically , although not always , preserved in phosphate . Whilst some shellies were originally phosphatic , in most cases the phosphate represents a replacement of the original calcite . They are usually extracted from limestone by placing the limestone in a weak acid , typically acetic acid ; the phosphatized fossils remain after the rock is dissolved away . Preservation of microfossils by phosphate seems to have become less common after the early Cambrian , perhaps as a result of increased disturbance of sea @-@ floors by burrowing animals . Without this fossil @-@ forming mode , many small shelly fossils may not have been preserved – or been impossible to extract from the rock ; hence the animals that produced these fossils may have lived beyond the Early Cambrian – the apparent extinction of most SSFs by the end of the Cambrian may be an illusion . For decades it was thought that halkieriids , whose " armor plates " are a common type of SSF , perished in the end @-@ Botomian mass extinction ; but in 2004 halkieriid armor plates were reported from Mid Cambrian rocks in Australia , a good 10 million years more recent than that .
= = Minerals used in shells = =
Small shelly fossils are composed of a variety of minerals , the most important being silica , calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate . The minerals used by each organism are influenced by the chemistry of the oceans the organism first evolved in , but then continue to be used even if the ocean chemistry changes . For example , in the Ediacaran period and the Nemakit – Daldynian age of the Cambrian , those animals that used calcium carbonate used the form called aragonite . On the other hand , animals that first appeared in the following Tommotian age used another form , calcite .
A recently discovered modern gastropod that lives near deep @-@ sea hydrothermal vents illustrates the influence of both earlier and contemporary local chemical environments : its shell is made of aragonite , which is found in the earliest fossil molluscs ; but it also has armor plates on the sides of its foot , and these are mineralized with the iron sulfides pyrite and greigite , which had never previously been found in any metazoan but whose ingredients are emitted in large quantities by the vents .
Methods of constructing shells vary widely among the SSF , and in most cases the exact mechanisms are not known .
= = Evolution of skeletons and biomineralization = =
Biomineralization is the production of mineralized parts by organisms . Hypotheses to explain the evolution of biomineralization include physiological adaptation to changing chemistry of the oceans , defense against predators and the opportunity to grow larger . The functions of biomineralization in SSFs vary : some SSFs are not yet understood ; some are components of armor ; and some are skeletons . A skeleton is any fairly rigid structure of an animal , irrespective of whether it has joints and irrespective of whether it is biomineralized . Although some SSFs may not be skeletons , SSFs are biomineralized by definition , being shelly . Skeletons provide a wide range of possible advantages , including : protection , support , attachment to a surface , a platform or set of levers for muscles to act on , traction when moving on a surface , food handling , provision of filtration chambers and storage of essential substances .
It has often been suggested that biomineralization evolved as a response to an increase in the concentration of calcium in the seas , which happened around the Ediacaran – Cambrian boundary , and that biomineralization 's main benefit was to store harmlessly minerals that might have disrupted organisms ' internal processes . For example , Mikhail A. Fedonkin suggested that an increase in the length of food chains may have contributed , as animals higher up the food chain accumulate greater amounts of waste products and toxins relative to their size , and biomineralization may have been a way of isolating excess carbonates or silicates consumed with prey . However , biomineralizing a skeleton is a fairly expensive way to dispose safely of excess minerals , as the main construction cost is the organic matrix , mostly proteins and polysaccharides , with which minerals are combined to form composite materials . The idea that biomineralization was a response to changes in ocean chemistry is also undermined by the fact that small shelly fossils made of calcite , aragonite , calcium phosphate and silica appeared virtually simultaneously in a range of environments .
Organisms started burrowing to avoid predation at around the same time . Jerzy Dzik suggested that biomineralization of skeletons was a defense against predators , marking the start of an evolutionary arms race . He cited as another example of hardened defenses from this time the fact that the earliest protective " skeletons " included glued @-@ together collections of inorganic objects — for example the Early Cambrian worm Onuphionella built a tube covered with mica flakes . Such a strategy required both anatomical adaptations that allowed organisms to collect and glue objects and also moderately sophisticated nervous systems to co @-@ ordinate this behavior .
On the other hand , Bernard Cohen argued that biomineralized skeletons arose for " engineering " reasons rather than as defenses . There are many other defensive strategies available to prey animals including mobility and acute senses , chemical defenses , and concealment . Mineral @-@ organic composites are both stronger and cheaper to build than all @-@ organic skeletons , and these two advantages would have made it possible for animals to grow larger and , in some cases , more muscular — in animals beyond a certain size , the larger muscles and their greater leverage produce forces all @-@ organic skeletons are not rigid enough to withstand . The development of modern brachiopods includes a progression from all @-@ organic to mineral @-@ organic composite shells , which may be a clue to their evolutionary development . The evolution of rigid biomineralized exoskeletons may then have started an arms race in which predators developed drills or chemical weapons capable of penetrating shells , some prey animals developed heavier , tougher shells , etc .
Fedonkin suggested another explanation for the appearance of biomineralization around the start of the Cambrian : the Ediacara biota evolved and flourished in cold waters , which slowed their metabolisms and left them with insufficient spare energy for biomineralization ; but there are signs of global warming around the start of the Cambrian , which would have made biomineralization easier . A similar pattern is visible in living marine animals , since biomineralized skeletons are rarer and more fragile in polar waters than in the tropics .
= = Evolutionary significance = =
In some locations , up to 20 % of Cloudina fossils show borings , holes that are thought to have been made by predators . The very similar shelly fossil Sinotubulites , which is often found in the same locations , was not affected by borings . In addition , the distribution of borings in Cloudina suggests selection for size – the largest holes appear in the largest shells . This evidence of selective attacks by predators suggests that new species may have arisen in response to predation , which is often presented as a potential cause of the rapid diversification of animals in the Early Cambrian .
The small shellies provide a relatively continuous record throughout the early Cambrian , and thus provide a more useful insight into the Cambrian explosion than instances of exceptional preservation . Although most of the SSFs are difficult to identify , those assigned positions in modern taxa , or in their stem groups of evolutionary " aunts " or " cousins " , enable scientists to assess the pattern and speed of animal evolution on the strength of the small shelly evidence . Such an assessment shows that the earliest small shellies are the most basal . As time goes on , they can be placed in the stem group to an ever smaller clade . In other words , the earliest ( Ediacaran ) small shellies can be tentatively considered diploblastic , in other words made of two main tissue layers . Later shellies are more convincingly triploblastic , as all " higher " animals are . Subsequently the Helcionellids are the first shelly fossils that can be placed in the stem group to a phylum ( mollusca ) . As one looks at more recent SSFs , the arguments for stem group placements become stronger , and by the Atdabanian , some SSFs can be assigned to the crown group of a modern phylum , echinoderms . This gives the impression that the first SSF animals , from the late Ediacaran , were basal members of later clades , with the phyla subsequently appearing in a " rapid , but nevertheless resolvable and orderly " fashion , rather than as a " sudden jumble " , and thus reveals the true pace of the Cambrian explosion .
= = Types of small shelly fossil = =
= = = Ediacaran forms = = =
The few collections of SSF from the Ediacaran period have a limited range of forms Fully and partially mineralized tubes are common and form a really mixed collection : the structures and compositions of their walls vary widely ; specimens have been classified as members of a wide range of clades including foraminiferans , cnidarians , polychaete and pogonophoran annelids , sipunculids and others . Cloudina ’ s " tube " , which was 8 to 150 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 to 5 @.@ 91 in ) long , consisted of nested cones that were mineralized with calcium carbonate but left unmineralized gaps between the cones . Sinotubulites built long thin tubes that were more flexible but probably had mineralized ridges .
Namapoikia was probably either a sponge or a coral @-@ like organism , and built dwellings up to 1 metre ( 39 in ) across out of calcium carbonate .
Spicules are spines or star @-@ like combinations of spines , made of silica , and are thought to be the remains of sponges .
Namacalathus , which may have been a cnidarian , closely related to jellyfish and corals , built goblet @-@ like dwellings with stalks up to 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . This type of shape is known as a " stalked test " , since " test " in biology means a roughly spherical shell .
= = = Cambrian forms = = =
In finds from the early Cambrian , tubes and spicules become more abundant and diverse , and new types of SSF appear . Many have been attributed to well @-@ known groups such as molluscs , slug @-@ like halkieriids , brachiopods , echinoderms , and onychophoran @-@ like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods . A multitude of problematic tubular fossils , such as anabaritids , Hyolithellus or Torellella characterize the earliest Cambrian Small Shelly Fossil skeletal assemblages .
Most of the Cambrian SSF consists of sclerites , fragments that once made up the external armor of early animals , such as Halkieria or " scale worms " . Fairly complete and assembled sets , which are rare , are called " scleritomes " . In many cases the body shapes of sclerites ' creators and the distribution of sclerites on their bodies are not known . The " coat of mail " generally disintegrated once the animal died , and its fragments became dispersed and sometimes fossilized . Reconstructing these elements usually relies upon a fully articulated fossil being found in an exceptionally preserved lagerstätte . Such discoveries may in turn enable paleontologists to make sense of other similar fragments , such as those labelled Maikhanella .
Many sclerites are of the type called " coelosclerites " , which have a mineralized shell around a space originally filled with organic tissue and which show no evidence of accretionary growth . It is not clear whether coelosclerites evolved independently in different groups of animals or were inherited from a common ancestor . Halkieriids produced scale- or spine @-@ shaped coelosclerites , and complete specimens show that the animals were slug @-@ shaped , and had cap @-@ shaped shell plates at both ends in addition to the sclerites . Chancelloriids produced star @-@ shaped composite coelosclerites . They are known to have been animals that looked like cacti and have been described as internally like sponges , although they may have been more closely related to halkieriids .
Some sclerites are mineralized with calcium phosphate rather than calcium carbonate . Tommotiids have a wide range of sclerite shapes and internal structures , and may in fact represent a polyphyletic set of lineages , in other words they may have independently developed phosphatic scleritomes rather than inheriting them from a common ancestor . On the other hand , they may be closely related to the ancestors of modern brachiopods , animals that at first sight look like bivalve molluscs , but brachiopods stand on fleshy stalks and their internal anatomy is different . Some sclerites and small pieces of " debris " are regarded as the remains of echinoderms . Other phosphatic sclerites include tooth @-@ shaped , hook @-@ shaped and plate @-@ like objects , mostly of unknown origin . However it is known that some , including Microdictyon , were produced by lobopods , animals that looked like worms with legs and are thought to be close to the ancestors of arthropods .
Univalved and bivalved shells are fairly common . Some cap @-@ shaped shells are thought to be the only sclerite covering their creators , while others are known to be parts of a more complex armor system like Halkieria ’ s . The Helcionellids are thought to be early molluscs with somewhat snail @-@ like shells . Some have horizontal " exhaust pipes " on the concave edges of their shells , and there is debate about whether these pointed forwards or backwards . Hyoliths left small conical shells . These animals may have been molluscs or worm @-@ like Sipuncula . Other molluscan univalved shells have been found in Canada . Some bivalve shells have been found with both parts still joined , and include both brachiopods and bivalve molluscs . Fossils have been found that resemble the opercula ( " lids " ) used by snails to close the openings in their armor , and are attributed to hyoliths , small animals that had conical shells and may have been molluscs or worm @-@ like Sipuncula .
Small arthropods with bivalve @-@ like shells have been found in Early Cambrian beds in China , and other fossils ( Mongolitubulus henrikseni ) represent spines that snapped off bivalved arthropod carapaces .
= = = Post @-@ Cambrian forms = = =
SSFs after the Cambrian start to pick up more recognizable and modern groups . By the mid @-@ Ordovician , the majority of SSFs simply represent larval molluscs , mostly gastropods .
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= Wyntoon =
Wyntoon is the name of a private estate in rural Siskiyou County , California , owned by the Hearst Corporation . Architects Willis Polk , Bernard Maybeck and Julia Morgan all designed structures for Wyntoon , beginning in 1899 .
The land , sited at two sharp bends in the McCloud River , was named by financial adviser Edward Clark for the local Native American tribe of the Wintun people . Beginning as a humble fishing resort , the land was improved by a series of people , notably San Francisco attorney Charles Stetson Wheeler , his client Phoebe Apperson Hearst , and her son William Randolph Hearst who disputed with his cousin over ownership . Prominent structures , noted for their architecture , have been built on the land , some lost to fire , while other multimillion @-@ dollar buildings were planned , but not built . Famous visitors to Wyntoon include Clark Gable , Charles Lindbergh , Joseph P. Kennedy , Sr. and his son John F. Kennedy .
= = Justin Sisson 's fishing resort = =
The earliest known inhabitants of the area of Wyntoon were the Winnemem Wintu tribe of Native Americans , a subgroup of the Wintun people .
In the 1880s , outdoorsman , guide , hunter and trapper Justin Hinckley Sisson came to the area and established a hotel , restaurant and tavern at the foot of Mount Shasta . He advocated for a railroad line to be extended northward from Redding to his location , and was successful . Construction of the Central Pacific Railroad through the Siskiyou Trail began in the mid @-@ 1880s , and Sisson bought 120 acres ( 49 ha ) in its path . The railroad was completed in 1887 and brought miners , hunters , fishermen , loggers , naturalists and tourists . With his wife , the former Miss Lydia Field , Sisson operated the inn , and he led various groups of hunters , geologists and mountain climbers . With profits from his successful business , Sisson acquired large parcels of land including the tract which would become Wyntoon . He established the town of Sisson surrounding his inn , and he built a fishing resort a half @-@ day 's ride away on the McCloud River , at an elevation between 2 @,@ 700 and 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 820 and 910 m ) , some 16 miles ( 26 km ) distant . Popular with hunters and fishermen , it became known as " Sisson 's @-@ on @-@ the @-@ McCloud " .
Justin Sisson died in 1893 . In 1924 the town of Sisson was renamed Mount Shasta , California .
= = Charles S. Wheeler 's hunting lodge = =
In 1899 , Sisson 's widow sold the McCloud River fishing resort site to Charles Stetson Wheeler , a wealthy attorney from San Francisco . This parcel lay in the Cascade Range of mountains , south by southeast of Mount Shasta . Wheeler called this holding the Wheeler Ranch , and he built a hunting lodge on the river at Horseshoe Bend — its cornerstone was laid in 1899 . The multi @-@ wing lodge , dramatic with its stone walls and slate roof , was designed by San Francisco architect Willis Polk , and included an 800 @-@ book library with room for hundreds of Native American baskets . Wheeler directed Polk to give the lodge a " fish tower " — a high study with a view , and two windows which were aquariums containing local trout . A Latin inscription over the entrance indicated this room was a temple to fishing : piscatoribus sacrum . Polk 's design was pictured in July 1899 in The American Architect and Building News which described it as a " California Mountain Home " . Sir Banister Fletcher included the building in a list of Shingle Style architecture . The layout of the structure , a " rambling group of masses " , snaked through the trees , curving to follow the bend in the river , the curve creating a courtyard with a circular drive and a central fountain . The dining room enjoyed a three @-@ sided view of the river , and diners could take the air on a wraparound porch . The porch opened to the river in a flight of wooden steps leading down to an octagonal gazebo pierced and supported by a large tree , overhanging the tumbling waters . Massive fireplaces and heavy timbers gave the impression of a medieval estate interior . Polk 's use of stone and wood on the exterior achieved a sense of compatibility with the land , celebrating the setting 's primal beauty .
The Wheeler family stayed at the ranch many a summer . In 1900 , Wheeler invited his client Phoebe Hearst to visit Wheeler Ranch with his family for the summer . Hearst asked if she could purchase the land , but Wheeler declined . Insistent , Hearst came to an arrangement whereby she would purchase a 99 @-@ year lease on part of the land , and she also purchased adjoining land held by Edward Clark , her financial adviser , who called it Wyntoon for the local Wintu tribe . Hearst applied the name Wyntoon to the combination of Clark 's former holdings and her new lease , and in 1901 contracted for a magnificent seven @-@ story house to be built . Wheeler was displeased with the extravagant plans , as he and Hearst had previously agreed her building would be modest . However , he did not stop her .
Wheeler retained the part of Wheeler Ranch that was not leased to Hearst , including The Bend . In 1911 , Wheeler invited Austro @-@ Hungarian artist and naturalist Edward Stuhl and his wife Rosie to live on the property ; they made extensive studies of plant and animal life in the area , and collected many hundreds of specimens . Stuhl , an avid mountain climber , published Wildflowers of Mount Shasta from his base at Wheeler Ranch . After Wheeler 's death in 1923 , Stuhl served as custodian of the ranch . William Randolph Hearst bought Wyntoon outright from its 99 @-@ year lease in 1929 , and in 1934 bought all of Wheeler Ranch and The Bend , a combined total of 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 ha ) .
= = Phoebe Hearst 's castle = =
Phoebe Hearst , upon signing the 99 @-@ year lease , decided to build a very grand residence . She hired Bernard Maybeck to design one in the Gothic style of a Rhine River castle . The structure was mainly complete in 1902 , and cost Hearst $ 100 @,@ 000 . Maybeck hired Julia Morgan to assist in the design .
The castle 's layout was fitted to the slope of the site , and to a semicircle of six tall conifers . Its footprint was 120 by 56 feet ( 37 by 17 m ) ; an underground cellar was 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high , and ran the length of the building , containing stores and a central heating furnace supplying steam throughout the building . The central tower made of stone reached to a height of 75 feet ( 23 m ) . A plumbed room entered from the outside allowed fishermen and hunters to clean their catch and themselves . Six floors of sleeping rooms were contained in the central tower ; each bedroom entered from landings along the main spiral staircase carved of stone . The exterior of the tower was thick load @-@ bearing crowning wall topped with a steeply angled roof to hold the weight of snow , and to shed excess snow . Glazed Paris @-@ green tile from the Netherlands surfaced the roof , providing " a misty color like the holes between the branches in the trees in the forest . " Bluish @-@ gray basalt volcanic stone was quarried from local lava flows ; it supplied the strength of the massive walls .
The living room , 80 by 36 feet ( 24 by 11 m ) , had at one end an alcove framing a stained glass window , a copy of the 13th century one in Lorenzkirche in Nuremberg , the reproduction fabricated in the Netherlands . The room 's apex was 36 feet high — a meeting of steeply angled wooden beams resting on 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) thick stone walls . A tall fireplace separated the alcove from the majority of the living room ; a large man could stand in its opening . Another fireplace warmed the other end of the living room . Tapestries hung from the stone walls to add a medieval appearance . Frederick Meyer made furniture for this room , and for all Wyntoon , in European vernacular style .
Maybeck designed a dining hall much like the living room , with Gothic stone walls and high peaked roof , and two opposing fireplaces , but its Gothic tables were unusually placed against the walls leaving the center area open . Benches were provided for diners to sit . The kitchen wing , 40 by 40 feet ( 12 by 12 m ) , adjoined the dining room , connected through a wide butler 's hall . Staff were provided rooms in the kitchen wing . Its foundation of cut stone reached to the top of the ground floor ; the second story 's wall was of rubble stone . The roof was topped by light gray slate . Initial critical reactions to the kitchen wing 's exterior appearance led Hearst to surround it with shrubbery .
Phoebe Hearst also built other structures including The Gables — a storybook dwelling for overflow guests — and a " Honeymoon Cottage " . The castle was habitable in 1902 , completely finished in 1904 . It was featured in American Homes and Gardens in 1906 , a three @-@ page spread ; the same space given the house in Architectural Review in 1904 . The writer in Architectural Review criticized the quaint wooden carvings which gave the impression of " pastry and perfume " , but praised the most important aspects of the structure :
" The dark height of the room , the unobstructed archways , the deep blues , reds and yellows of the cathedral window , to which time had given maturity , the tapestries , the little flicker of fire , and the roaring of the river outside ; and you satiated , tired and inspired by the day 's trip among hazel , dogwood , great aged pines , rocks , cascades , great trunks of trees fallen years ago — a disheveled harmony — here you can reach all that is within you . "
Hearst summered at Wyntoon and raised her son 's children there when he was not watching them . William Randolph Hearst and his wife Millicent produced five sons from 1904 to 1915 — each one spent summer months at Wyntoon with grandmother . The boys ' father sent instructions about their upbringing , writing after the eldest boy George Randolph Hearst was nearly washed down the McCloud , that the boys needed " a severe warning about the river " . Hearst occasionally entertained her society friends and acquaintances at Wyntoon , bringing selected guests up north from the Panama – Pacific International Exposition of 1915 . At her death in 1919 , she willed Wyntoon to her niece Anne Apperson Flint , along with a Cadillac car and $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Flint moved in with her husband , Joseph Marshall Flint , M.D , a former Yale professor of surgery . During this time , architect Julia Morgan designed four structures which were built at Wyntoon : a superintendent 's residence and a separate servant 's quarters in 1924 , and in 1925 , a stables building holding a caretaker 's house erected near a " Swiss Chalet " which was built for higher @-@ status domestic staff .
= = William Randolph Hearst 's projects = =
From his mother 's will , William Randolph Hearst received the bulk of the family inheritance , including the 270 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 110 @,@ 000 ha ) ranch in San Simeon , the 900 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 360 @,@ 000 ha ) Babicora Ranch in Mexico , a fruit orchard in Butte County , and various mining and industrial stocks , the whole worth around 5 – 10 million dollars . Wyntoon , however , was given to his cousin Anne Apperson Flint in his mother 's will , and Hearst was angered over this . He refused to return to Flint any of the art objects from Wyntoon that had been loaned to the Palace of Fine Arts for an exhibit . In 1925 after years of acrimonious negotiation , he bought Wyntoon from Flint for $ 198 @,@ 000 , but he remained forever embittered toward his cousin .
In the winter of 1929 – 1930 , Maybeck 's Wyntoon masterpiece burned down , possibly from a kitchen fire . Time magazine reported Hearst 's losses at $ 300 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 , including portions of his art collection . In early 1930 , Hearst contracted to have Morgan design an even larger castle as replacement . Morgan was already working for Hearst on Hearst Castle in San Simeon and nearly finished with The Hacienda near King City .
Morgan collaborated with her early mentor and teacher Maybeck on plans for an eight @-@ story Bavarian Gothic @-@ style castle with two great towers and more minor turrets , some 61 bedrooms proposed for Wyntoon 's largest building project . Hearst instructed Arthur Byne , his art agent based in Madrid , to find likely buildings he could purchase for their stonework , to give Wyntoon an ancient air . In December 1930 , Byne discovered Santa Maria de Ovila , a 700 @-@ year @-@ old Cistercian monastery , and Hearst paid $ 97 @,@ 000 for it . The monastery was taken apart and removed illegally , but the Spanish government was changing hands and was not effective in stopping Hearst 's hired men . Some 10 @,@ 000 stones were shipped to a warehouse in San Francisco at a total cost of about $ 1 million .
Another old structure removed from Europe was proposed for Wyntoon : the great tithe barn of Bradenstoke Priory in England . Most of the priory had been used by Hearst to refurbish St Donat 's Castle in Wales in the late 1920s , but the tithe barn had been crated and shipped to San Simeon for possible use there . Hearst proposed that the unused Bradenstoke barn be incorporated into his great castle , and had Morgan study the possibilities .
In the Spring of 1931 , Morgan offered several designs for Hearst 's consideration , all of them using the stones of the Spanish monastery on the ground floor , reinforced by steel girders to take the weight of the upper floors . Portions of the monastery were considered as a library , an " armory " , and a living room . The final proposal from Morgan included an indoor swimming pool constructed from the monastery 's old church . The 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) long swimming pool featured changing rooms and lounges in the old side chapels , shallow water for wading in the apse , 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) deep water in the central plunge , and a diving board where the altar had been .
In July 1931 as a steam shovel was making ready to level enough land to accommodate the great castle , Hearst put a stop to all his construction plans . The Great Depression had greatly diminished his income , and he could not pay for his $ 50 million project at Wyntoon while at the same time indulging his expansion at San Simeon . Abandoning the massive castle idea , Hearst instead asked Morgan to design a " Bavarian Village " with multiple half @-@ timbered buildings in the medieval style of Germany or Austria . Hearst sent Morgan to Europe to study suitable buildings ; she brought fine artist Doris Day with her to investigate architectural inscriptions and painting styles . In 1932 , Morgan put together a master plan for Wyntoon . It described a group of guesthouses with romantic names such as Cinderella House , Fairy House and Bear House , arranged not in a cramped medieval style but symmetrically around a common green in the Beaux @-@ Arts style . These three @-@ story structures with steeply gabled roofs were completed in 1933 . Swiss artisan Jules Suppo and his assistants carved much of the German Gothic decorations . Day painted fine inscriptions and exterior decorative patterns . Hungarian illustrator Willy Pogany painted exterior murals depicting Russian and Germanic fairy tales such as those from the Brothers Grimm , but Pogany 's versions were bright , humorous and cheerful , not dark and grim .
Downstream of the Bavarian Village , Morgan 's plan called for a selection of leisure activities . A swimming pool with a pool house was to be near tennis courts and a croquet lawn , and a dining hall called " The Gables " would be equipped to show films . Though San Simeon could house perhaps 30 to 50 guests , the expanded Wyntoon plan could accommodate 100 for a weekend .
In 1934 , Hearst bought all of Wheeler Ranch . Polk 's structure " The Bend " was torn down except for one wing containing the master bedroom . This wing held the cornerstone engraved " The Bend – 1899 " . The rest of the building was redesigned by Morgan in Gothic Revival style and rebuilt from 1935 to 1941 using many of its original stones .
On January 1 , 1935 , photographer Peter Stackpole 's images of Wyntoon were published in Life magazine , showing Hearst relaxing at Wyntoon with friends . Hearst 's communications office at Wyntoon was shown in the photos ; it was built next to Bear House to keep him abreast of current events . This office was fitted into a shingle @-@ covered bungalow built to house Joe Willicombe , Hearst 's private secretary . The structure served as the " nerve center " of Hearst 's publishing empire , with three round @-@ the @-@ clock operators minding the telegraph facilities and the telephone switchboard .
In mid @-@ 1937 , Hearst was forced by bankruptcy to sign over all of his holdings to a group of trustees called the Conservation Committee . Wyntoon was included , it was estimated the prior year to be worth $ 300 @,@ 000 . Headed by New York Judge Clarence J. Shearn , the trustees slashed Hearst 's costs and halted the smaller side projects at San Simeon and Wyntoon which had kept so many contractors busy . Wyntoon was maintained only by a skeleton staff paid for by the Hearst Corporation . Hearst never hosted more than 14 guests at Wyntoon after the bankruptcy . From 1938 to 1940 , Hearst 's art collections were cataloged and sold , including items from Wyntoon . Hearst was made to pay rent out of his allowance when he stayed at any of his properties .
After the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , blackout conditions were imposed on San Simeon because of its nearness to the ocean and associated likelihood of Japanese shelling , so before Christmas Hearst moved to Wyntoon with his lover , actress Marion Davies . There , the two lived in Bear House at the river 's edge with their pet dachshunds . Davies ' cherished dachshund named Gandhi , 15 years old , fell gravely ill during this time ; a veterinarian was called and the animal put down by injection . Distraught , Davies raged through Bear House , later writing : " I broke everything I could lay my hands on . " Hearst 's favorite dog Helen died in his arms at Wyntoon ; he buried her on a hillside covered with flowers , the spot marked by a stone inscribed , " Here lies dearest Helen – my devoted friend . "
During the Wyntoon residency of Hearst and Davies , they received fewer visitors than they had at San Simeon , because it was more remote . They spent much time together , and Davies picked up sewing again after years of no practice . She sewed silk fabric into ties for Hearst . He wrote her a poem or a short note every night , which he slipped under her door for her to see in the morning . Over the 1943 – 1944 winter , with snow and ice transforming the outdoor scenery , Wyntoon hosted actor Clark Gable , film directors Louis B. Mayer and Raoul Walsh , columnist Louella Parsons , cartoonist Jimmy Swinnerton and his wife , aviator Charles Lindbergh and his family , the former president 's daughter Anna Roosevelt and her husband John Boettiger ( who worked for Hearst ) , and millionaire industrialist Joe Kennedy who brought his 26 @-@ year @-@ old son " Jack " , the future president . Jack surprised Hearst by swimming in the freezing McCloud .
= = Today = =
Hearst 's trustees reorganized the Hearst Corporation in 1943 , installing Richard E. Berlin as president . Under Berlin , Wyntoon was made to turn a profit — the old 50 @,@ 000 @-@ acre Wheeler Ranch holding and adjoining parcels adding up to 67 @,@ 000 acres ( 27 @,@ 000 ha ) were logged and replanted with more tree seedlings , the operation generating about $ 2 million annually by 1959 .
In the late 1980s , architects Blunk Demattei Associates ( BDA ) began working with the Hearst Corporation to complete the interior of " Angel House " whose construction had been halted in the late 1930s . BDA next began to remodel the one original bedroom wing of Polk 's " The Bend " . There , the second and main bedroom wing ( finished in the 1950s in Tudor style ) burned down on December 30 , 1992 , and BDA was contracted to rebuild it . Sensitive to the problem of recreating the ambiance , BDA used Sugar Pine paneling in keeping with other rooms on site , wrought iron from Poland and from local blacksmiths , stones quarried locally , and Renaissance @-@ era fireplaces .
Today , the estate is owned by the Hearst Corporation , and is not open to the public . Wyntoon is located at approximately 41 ° 11 ′ 21 ″ N 122 ° 03 ′ 58 ″ W. It is north of Lake McCloud , a man @-@ made lake completed in 1965 , and about 9 miles ( 14 km ) due east of Dunsmuir , California . Energetic kayakers willing to endure dangerous rapids can view the estate from the Upper McCloud River during spring and summer snowmelt .
The estate is grandfathered in the law as a " senior rights holder " to use an unlimited amount of water from the adjoining McCloud River .
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= 8701 =
8701 is the third studio album by American singer Usher ; it was first released on August 7 , 2001 , by Arista Records . Recording was handled by several producers including The Neptunes , Jermaine Dupri , Babyface , Kevin " She 'kspere " Briggs , Mike City , Bryan Michael Cox , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . It was intended for an October 31 , 2000 release under the title All About U , the album was delayed numerous times , following the leak of several tracks onto the online music store Napster . Usher subsequently recorded new tracks and released the album under the new title , 8701 , which is derived from Usher singing for the first time in his local church in 1987 and the album 's release date of 2001 .
8701 takes inspiration from multiple artists , including Donny Hathaway , Stevie Wonder , Marvin Gaye , and Michael Jackson . It follows the theme of Usher 's relationship experience , along with the emotions of love and heartache . Usher promoted the album by embarking on the supporting tour , Evolution 8701 Tour in 2002 , to which it he performed in forty @-@ four shows across North America . He also made appearances in television shows , including Live ! with Kelly and Total Request Live . 8701 produced two Billboard Hot 100 number one singles – " U Remind Me " and " U Got It Bad " stayed on top for four and fives weeks , respectively .
The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart , with 210 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It has sold over 4 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , receiving a 4 × platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; worldwide sales stand at over eight million . 8701 received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised Usher 's vocals and development as an artist , but were ambivalent towards some of the album 's material . The album earned Usher numerous awards , including two Grammy Awards , three Billboard Music Awards and a BET Award .
= = Background = =
Usher had initially planned to release the album entitled All About U , as his third studio album on October 31 , 2000 . The album was to follow his successful My Way ( 1997 ) which to date , has sold over seven million copies . On March 13 , 2000 , multiple tracks from the album had leaked on to online music store Napster several months prior to its release , including " T.T.P. " , " U R the One " and " Pop Ya Collar " . Following the event , the album 's release was delayed twice , on December 5 , 2000 to July 17 , 2001 . During the taping of MTV Icon Janet Jackson special , Usher explained that he returned to the studios to record new songs , stating " I didn 't want that to be the way my record was remembered or the way I would present that to my fans [ ... ] It turned out a lot better " while adding that tracks that were available for download on the site were not going to be included on the new album . With new tracks produced , Usher 's publicist announced a new name for the album , under the title 8701 , who claims that it is " practically a new album " . The origin of its new name was initially unknown , with speculation that it subsides with its US release of August 7 , 2001 ( 8 / 7 / 01 ) , though Usher 's publicist claimed that this was purely coincidental , and was not the reasoning for the title . Usher hinted that it was derived after something significant to him , and he would disclose it in the upcoming months . Eventually , his spokesperson revealed that the ' 87 ' segment of the title refers to the year 1987 , when Usher sang in public for the first time at his church in Atlanta , with the ' 01 ' referring to the year 2001 .
= = Recording = =
8701 was recorded in the United States , in the cities of Los Angeles , New York , Minneapolis and Atlanta . The album 's production was handled by several producers including The Neptunes , Jermaine Dupri , P. Diddy — who had produced the majority of Usher 's previous album , My Way — Babyface , Kevin " She 'kspere " Briggs , Mike City , Bryan Michael Cox and Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . Both Jam and Lewis were asked by Usher 's mother , and then manager , to contribute to 8701 's production , during the 2000 MTV Music Awards . According to Jam , his mother had said " Oh my God , Usher 's got this track and we thought you guys would be perfect to produce it " . Several months later , Jam and Lewis produced the song " Separated " , to which the producers then turned in to L.A. Reid , who liked the track , and asked them to produce more . Following this , Usher asked both producers to create a song similar to their 1985 " Tender Love " , performed by R & B vocal group Force MDs . Though he wanted it to be his own unique record , which contains a small similarity , to which Jam and Lewis created " Can U Help Me " . Following the completion of 8701 , Jam and Lewis were sent back to the studio by Reid to revamp the album 's second single " U Remind Me " , explaining " we already know he can dance , and he 's got the style and that whole thing . But I want people to just go , he can sing .
= = Composition = =
In an interview with MTV , Usher commented that lyrically , 8701 represents his " soul " , and elaborated by explaining that he was inspired by love and heartache ; " I listen to a lot of Donny Hathaway 's , Stevie Wonder 's , Marvin Gaye 's and Michael Jackson 's earlier records , those Motown greats . There 's a little bit of all of that in the album . I really appreciate what music was back then as well as in the early ' 90s when you had artists like Troop and Jodeci , and Michael Jackson was in his prime . " Usher explained that the album 's lyrics also reflect on what has been going on with his relationship ; 8701 is predominantly an R & B album . " Can U Help Me " , is about a deep relationship to which Usher experienced . " U Don 't Have to Call " is a hip @-@ hop song inspired by Jackson , while " U Got It Bad " is an R & B slow @-@ jam . About " U Got It Bad " , Kyle Anderson of MTV wrote that it makes use of the acoustic guitar and a " slow @-@ burning bassline " throughout . The album 's lead single " U Remind Me " is also an R & B track , and its lyrics is based on meeting a woman who reminds Usher of an ex @-@ girlfriend , and therefore cannot date her .
= = Singles = =
" Pop Ya Collar " was released from Usher 's previously intended third studio album All About U as the first single . Following the song 's leak on online music store Napster , along with several other tracks , it was added to some editions of 8701 . It entered and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart , but achieved less success in the United States , with a peak of number sixty on the Billboard Hot 100 and number twenty @-@ five on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . 8701 's first official single was " U Remind Me " , released on June 19 , 2001 . The song sold nearly 100 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week ; it received positive reviews from most critics , who cited it as a highlight from the album . The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 , for four consecutive weeks . " U Remind Me " also reached the top five in several countries , including France , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , New Zealand , the United Kingdom and Australia . It has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " I Don 't Know " , featuring rapper @-@ producer P. Diddy , was planned as the album 's second single . It was receiving radio play prior to the release of " U Remind Me " peaking at # 68 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and a video was to be produced in Los Angeles , directed by the latter artist .
The album 's second single was instead " U Got It Bad " , released on September 4 , 2001 . The song , like its predecessor , topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart , for five weeks . It remained number one for one week , before being replaced by Nickelback 's " How You Remind Me " for four weeks . The song then returned to the top , replacing the latter for four more weeks . " U Got It Bad " also achieved chart success in other territories , reaching the top five in New Zealand , Australia and the UK . The song has been certified gold by both the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " U Don 't Have to Call " was released as the third single , on January 12 , 2002 . It impacted the Hot 100 , peaking at number three , and the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , at number two . It was released with P. Diddy 's " I Need a Girl ( Part One ) " in the UK as a B @-@ side single , and reached number four . " U @-@ Turn " was released as the album 's 4th single , on April 30 , 2002 as an international single . It reached the top @-@ ten in Belgium and Australia . " Can U Help Me " was released as the album 's final single , on August 20 , 2002 . It peaked at # 57 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and # 30 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart .
= = Release and promotion = =
Usher initially planned to release his third studio album on October 31 , 2000 under the title All About U , but due to the leak of multiple tracks several months prior to the date , it was delayed . First to December 5 , 2000 it was delayed again to July 17 , 2001 . In regards to this , Usher commented that " Pushing the record back was a risk , but I thought it would build anticipation " . 8701 's final release date was August 7 , 2001 , on Arista Records , in the United States , United Kingdom , Australia and Canada . On the day of release of the album in the United States , to which Arista labelled as " Usher day " , Usher performed the album 's lead single " U Remind Me " on the show Live ! with Regis and Kelly . He also performed the single during the 2001 BET Awards and the United We Stand : What More Can I Give concert at RFK Stadium in Washington D.C. , which was held in tribute to the victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . Usher appeared on Total Request Live , attended an auto @-@ graph signing session in a Virgin mega store , and a listening session for the album in the Planet Hollywood restaurant . Usher performed " U Got It Bad " at the 2001 American Music Awards , and again on June 16 , 2002 at the Tweeter Center along with " U Don 't Have to Call " during his concert .
= = Critical reception = =
8701 received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 67 , based on 11 reviews . NME 's Lucy O 'Brien commended Usher for producing a more mature album , that " reflects his emotional experience " writing " Versatility is the key here : staccato beats with mellifluous melody , rich slow @-@ jams and edgy harmonies – but woven through with Usher 's own perspective . A winner . " BBC Online 's Christian Hopwood also favoured the album , commenting on how Usher has developed " his producing , singing and song writing skills to a new level " noting his contribution to twelve of the seventeen tracks . Dan Leroy of Yahoo ! Music declared the album an improvement " over Usher 's " old " new album " — All About You — and depicted it as his best work to @-@ date . Leroy credited the production groups The Neptunes and Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , depicting that they have done " some of their best work " on the album . J. D. Considine of Blender commented that the album " does what it 's supposed to , giving Usher a grown @-@ up R & B sound without reducing his boyish charm " . Kathryn McGuire of Rolling Stone described Usher 's vocals as " velvety " and further wrote that " Amid all the playboy pouting and preening , Usher 's vocals are impressively adaptable [ ... ] . McGuire noted the album 's primary fault is that " Usher never surrenders his meticulously groomed veneer " , with every track being formulaic , or " radio @-@ safe " .
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted the distinction between several of the album 's songs with Janet Jackson 's , while comparing Usher 's vocals to that of another Jackson member , Michael Jackson " [ ... ] bring out the other Jackson in Usher , bolstering falsetto vocal bridges on " I Don 't Know " and " U Don 't Have to Call " that are undeniably Pop Royalty . " Vibe 's Jason King complimented some of the material on the album , but was disappointed with the " heavyweight producers " not producing any " masterpieces " . Stephen Erlewine of Allmusic gave a positive opinion on Usher 's development , writing " He looks good , his material is smooth and seductive , and he has a nice voice , even if he tends to favor melisma " . Erlewine also labelled the album as " a classy , seductive affair " but was ambivalent towards its material , due to the lack of memorable tracks . Entertainment Weekly 's Josh Tyrangiel said that the tracks " blend harmlessly together " , but was ambivalent towards the quality of the songs produced after Usher 's four @-@ year hiatus .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album earned Usher numerous accolades . At the 44th Grammy Awards he won his first Grammy , for Best R & B Vocal Performance Male ( for " U Remind Me " ) . The following year , at the 45th Grammy Awards , he won the award again , for " U Don 't Have to Call " . As an act Usher won several awards , including three Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Awards in 2002 , for Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Artist , Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Male Artist and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Artist , and a BET Award for Best R & B Artist . At the 2002 Soul Train Music Awards , the album earned him an award for Male R & B / Soul Album . In December 2009 , the album and its single , " U Got It Bad " , were ranked as some of the best records of the 2000 – 2009 decade . The former was positioned at number sixty @-@ three and the latter at number fifteen , respectively , on the Billboard 200 and Hot 100 Decade @-@ End Charts . In 2008 , " U Got It Bad " was ranked as one of the all @-@ time Hot 100 songs , positioned at number ninety @-@ nine .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number @-@ four on the US Billboard 200 Chart selling 210 @,@ 000 copies in its first week ; it was the second highest debut of the week , behind Isley Brothers ' Eternal . The album exceeded its predecessor 's sales , My Way ( 1997 ) , which debuted at number fifteen selling 66 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week . Eighteen weeks after the release of 8701 , it had sold 1 @.@ 94 million copies , and was predicted to be on pace to out @-@ sell My Way , which sold 1 @.@ 32 million units during the same period . On the week of February 25 , 2002 8701 's total sales stood at 3 @.@ 2 million and it was charted at number eleven on the Billboard 200 . By March 9 , 2010 the album had sold 4 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , and had received a 4 × platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
The album debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart , and spent three weeks on the chart . It topped the UK Albums Chart on the week ending August 21 , 2001 , and remained on it for forty @-@ seven weeks before dropping out . The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . On the Australian Albums Chart , 8701 peaked at number seven , and remained on the chart for forty @-@ three weeks . It was certified 2 × platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The album debuted in the top five on the Danish Albums Chart and Belgium Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) . It debuted in the top ten in several countries , including New Zealand , The Netherlands , Switzerland and Norway . By November 2010 , the album had sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
( * ) Denotes co @-@ producer .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for 8701 adapted from Allmusic .
David Ashton – assistant engineer
Babyface – guest artist
Dave Barry – guest artist
Bryan @-@ Michael Cox – instrumentation , producer
Jermaine Dupri – guest artist
Kevon Edmonds – guest artist
Brian Garten – engineer
Kevin Guarnieri – assistant engineer , engineer
Jimmy Jam – guest artist
Kelis – guest artist
Terry Lewis – guest artist
Puff Daddy – performer , primary artist , featured artist , guest artist
David Rideau – engineer
Usher – primary artist , vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Armenian Quarter =
The Armenian Quarter ( Arabic : حارة الأرمن , Harat al @-@ Arman ; Hebrew : הרובע הארמני , Ha @-@ Rova ha @-@ Armeni ; Armenian : Հայոց թաղ , Hayots t 'agh ( traditionally ) ; currently mostly known as Երուսաղէմի հայկական թաղամաս , Yerusaghemi haykakan t 'aghamas ) is one of the four quarters of the walled Old City of Jerusalem . Located in the southwestern corner of the Old City , it can be accessed through the Zion Gate and Jaffa Gate . It occupies an area of 0 @.@ 126 km ² ( 126 dunam ) , which is 14 % of the Old City 's total . In 2007 , it had a population of 2 @,@ 424 ( 6 @.@ 55 % of Old City 's total ) . In both criteria , it is comparable to the Jewish Quarter . The Armenian Quarter is separated from the Christian Quarter by David Street ( Suq el @-@ Bazaar ) and by Habad Street ( Suq el @-@ Husur ) from the Jewish Quarter .
The Armenian presence in Jerusalem dates back to the fourth century AD when Armenia adopted Christianity as a national religion and Armenian monks settled in Jerusalem . It is thus considered the oldest living diaspora community outside the Armenian homeland . The quarter developed gradually around the St. James Monastery — which dominates the quarter — and took its modern shape by the 19th century . The monastery houses the Armenian Apostolic Church 's Jerusalem Patriarchate , which was established as a diocese in the seventh century . The patriarchate is the de facto administrator of the quarter and acts as a " mini @-@ welfare state " for the Armenian residents . The Armenian community has been in decline since the mid @-@ 20th century and according to Bert Vaux , is in immediate danger of disappearing .
Although formally separate from Greek Orthodox and Latin ( Catholic ) Christians , the Armenians consider their quarter to be part of the Christian Quarter . The three Christian patriarchates of Jerusalem and the government of Armenia have publicly expressed their opposition to any political division of the two quarters . The central reasons for the existence of a separate Armenian Quarter is the miaphysitism and distinct language and culture of the Armenians , who , unlike the majority of Christians in Jerusalem ( also in Israel and Palestine ) , are neither Arab nor Palestinian . However , for all intents and purposes , the Armenians living in the Armenian Quarter are considered Palestinians by Israel and the United Nations ( UN ) . They have faced many of the same restrictions on their lives as have the Palestinians .
= = Location and borders = =
The Armenian Quarter is located in the southwestern corner of Jerusalem 's Old City . The quarter can be accessed through the Zion Gate and Jaffa Gate . According to a 2007 study published by the International Peace and Cooperation Center the quarter occupies an area of 0 @.@ 126 km ² ( 126 dunam ) , which is 14 % of the Old City 's total . The Armenian Quarter is formally separated from the Christian Quarter by David Street ( Suq el @-@ Bazaar ) and by Habad Street ( Suq el @-@ Husur ) from the Jewish Quarter .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the early fourth century Armenia , under king Tiridates III , became the first country to adopt Christianity as a state religion . A large number of Armenian monks are recorded to have settled in Jerusalem as early as the fourth century , after the uncovering of Christian holy places in the city . However , the first written records are from the fifth century . Jerusalem is thus considered the oldest living diaspora community outside the Armenian homeland . Armenian churches were constructed during that period , including the St. James Monastery . The latter was last expanded in the mid @-@ 12th century . An Armenian scriptorium was in operation by the mid @-@ fifth century . A secular community composed of merchants and artisans was established in the sixth century in the Zion Quarter , where an Armenian street existed ( Ruda Armeniorum ) .
= = = Byzantine , Arab , and Mamluk periods = = =
In the First Council of Dvin ( 506 ) , the Armenian Church broke off from the rest of Christianity by rejecting the dual nature of Christ , which was agreed upon in the Council of Chalcedon of 451 . Thus the Armenians found themselves in direct confrontation with the Byzantine Empire . Emperor Justinian I persecuted the Monophysite Armenians , forcing them to leave Jerusalem .
A seventh @-@ century Armenian chronicler mentioned the existence of seventy Armenian monasteries in Palestine , some of which have been revealed in excavations . The Byzantines ceded Jerusalem to the Rashidun Caliphate after a siege in 637 . Until this point , Jerusalem had a single Christian bishop . In 638 , Armenians established their own archbishop , Abraham I. He was officially recognized by Rashidun Caliph Umar . The foundation of the Armenian migration to Jerusalem thus solidified . In the 12th century , around one thousand Armenians moved to Jerusalem with the Crusaders , presumably mainly from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia .
In 1311 , during Mamluk rule , Archbishop Sarkis ( 1281 – 1313 ) assumed the title of patriarch according to a decree by Sultan al @-@ Nasir Muhammad . In the 1340s , the Armenians were permitted to build a wall around their quarter . This signified that the Mamluk rulers felt that the quarter did not pose a threat . Destroying city walls and fortifications had been a staple of Mamluk governance in order to prevent the Crusaders from returning and reestablishing their rule . The Mamluk government also engraved the following declaration in Arabic on the western entrance to the quarter :
The order of our master Sultan Jaqmaq [ has been issued ] which stipulates that the taxes levied [ ahdaiha ] recently by the town governor ( ? ) regarding the payment by the Armenian enclosure [ dayr alarmani ] be cancelled , ... and it has been requested that this cancellation be recorded in the Honored Books in the year 854 of the Hijra ( 1451 C.E. ) . Anyone who renews the payment or again takes any tax of extortion is damned , son of the damned , and the curse of Allah will be upon him .
Jerusalemite historian Mujir al @-@ Din provided a detailed description of pre @-@ Ottoman Jerusalem in 1495 in which he mentioned Dir el @-@ Arman ( Monastery of the Armenians ) or Kanisat Mar Ya 'qub ( St. James Cathedral ) .
= = = Ottoman period = = =
During Ottoman rule , Jerusalem developed into a cosmopolitan city . There was religious tolerance and an Ottoman administration existed to sort out religious differences between the rival Christian churches and Muslims . Israeli historians Kark and Oren @-@ Nordheim wrote in 2001 : " The Armenian Quarter , although Christian , represented a distinct ethnic group with its particular language and culture , intent on retaining separate identity and unity , minimizing the contacts with Arabs and the Ottoman authorities for fear of persecution . " However , the Armenian community in Jerusalem was Arabic @-@ speaking ( in addition to Armenian or European languages ) and self @-@ identified with Palestinian society .
In 1538 , the current walls of Jerusalem were completed on the orders of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . These walls , along with the internal walls built by the Armenians , determined the outline of the quarter . In the 1562 – 63 record , only 189 Armenians were counted , whereas 640 were counted by the Ottomans in 1690 , an increase of 239 % . According to the chronicler Simeon Lehatsi only some twelve Armenian families lived in Jerusalem in 1615 – 16 . The significant increase in the population in 1690 is attributed to urbanization experienced by the Armenians and other Christians . Thus Armenians came to make up 22 @.@ 9 % of Jerusalem 's Christians by 1690 , becoming the second largest Christian community .
In the 19th century , most of the Armenian and Christian quarters had " European @-@ style gable roofs " as opposed to the domes preferred in the Muslim and Jewish quarters . In 1833 the Armenians established the city 's first printing press . A seminary was opened in 1857 . In 1855 the first photographic workshop in Jerusalem was founded in the Armenian Quarter . Schools for boys ( 1840 ) and girls ( 1862 ) were united in 1869 under the name Holy Translators ' School and became the first coeducational school in Jerusalem .
In 1883 , 102 Armenian families ( 8 % ) constituted the third largest Christian community in the Old City after the Greek Orthodox and Catholic ( Latin ) communities . Besides these residents , in the same year , 46 Armenian priests and monks and 55 servicemen lived within the St. James Monastery . According to the 1905 Ottoman census in the Old City , the Armenian Quarter had a population of 382 , of which Armenians ( 121 ) comprised less than one @-@ third ( 31 @.@ 7 % ) . Jews ( 127 ) made up 33 @.@ 2 % , other Christians ( 94 ) 24 @.@ 6 % and Muslims ( 40 ) 10 @.@ 5 % . The Jews , who numbered a little more than the Armenians , inhabited the eastern part of the Armenian Quarter , which in the second half of the nineteenth century , became the western part of the Jewish Quarter .
= = = World War I , British , and Jordanian periods = = =
Prior to World War I , there were some 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 Armenians in Palestine , mostly in Jerusalem . Jerusalem was captured by the British in 1917 during the war . Thousands of Armenian Genocide survivors from Cilicia ( Adana Vilayet ) found refuge in the quarter from 1915 and onward . In 1925 , around 15 @,@ 000 Armenians are believed to have lived in all of Palestine , with the majority in Jerusalem . During the British Mandate period , the number of Armenians is estimated to have reached up to 20 @,@ 000 . However , the 1931 British census showed only 3 @,@ 524 Armenians in all of Palestine .
In 1947 , around 1 @,@ 500 Armenians from Palestine repatriated to Soviet Armenia as part of the Soviet government 's efforts to boost Armenia 's population by a large @-@ scale repatriation of ethnic Armenians , mostly from the Middle East . This marked the beginning of the long @-@ term decline of the Armenian community of Jerusalem . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , the Armenian Quarter was damaged by bombs . It housed many Armenians from around Palestine . An Armenian civil guard , armed with what Der Matossian describes as " makeshift weapons " , was formed to defend the quarter . Over 40 Armenians died during the war .
= = = Israeli period = = =
Jerusalem 's Old City came under Israeli control in the aftermath of the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 . However , the Armenian patriarchate is the de facto administrator of the quarter and acts as a " mini @-@ welfare state " for the Armenian residents . The Arab @-@ Israeli conflict significantly impacted the quarter 's politically uninvolved Armenian population . A 1992 article published by the Catholic Near East Welfare Association stated that " Armenians in Jerusalem try to maintain good relations with Arabs and Israelis , but they do not deny that their community has been affected by tensions in the city . "
= = = = Issues = = = =
A major obstacle for the Armenians residing in the Armenian Quarter is their Jordanian citizenship ( from before 1967 ) , because of which the Israeli government considers them " permanent residents " — the same status as Palestinians . The Jerusalem Post wrote in 2005 that the Israeli bureaucracy " considers Jerusalem Armenians to be Palestinians , which means endless delays in getting documents , and hassles at the airport . " A map published by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) in November 2015 indicated the Armenian Quarter in the color reserved for Palestinian communities . According to Armenian researcher Tamar Boyadjian , because Armenians are considered Palestinians for all legal purposes they have difficulty obtaining travel and marriage documents . Graham Usher , a Palestine @-@ based foreign correspondent of several Western newspapers , wrote in 2000 in a publication of the Beirut @-@ based Institute for Palestine Studies that the Armenians " were burdened with the status of being Palestinian ' residents ' but ethnically Armenian . And indeed their lives , properties and heritage have been bound by the same Israeli constraints as their Palestinian compatriots . " The Economist also wrote in 2000 that Armenians have faced restrictions on their lives similar to those imposed on the Palestinians , such as prevention of construction of new buildings in the Armenian Quarter . The limited space in the overpopulated district makes housing expensive and according to Boyadjian , " Most Armenians , given their current income , simply cannot afford to maintain their primary residence there . "
= = = = Jewish settlement = = = =
During the Jordanian occupation of the eastern Jerusalem ( 1948 @-@ 1967 ) , no Jews were allowed to live in the Old City . Since the start of Israeli occupation of the Old City in 1967 , the Jewish Quarter has expanded by some 40 % and by 2000 , 71 ( 12 % ) or 81 ( 14 % ) of the 581 properties in the Armenian Quarter were owned by Jews . The Armenian community is concerned that the Jewish Quarter " will expand as the number of Jews in the Old City continues to grow while the Armenian population withers . " The location of the Armenian Quarter athwart the main access roads between the Israeli @-@ controlled West Jerusalem and the holy sites within the Jewish Quarter and the Western Wall has made Armenian properties a prime real estate in Israeli eyes . According to Reuters , the Armenian Patriarchate " share [ s ] a view held by the mostly Muslim Palestinians — that Israel 's designation of the whole city as capital of the Jewish state means its control of residence and building permits is being used to press Arabs and other non @-@ Jews to give up and leave . " Israeli sovereignty over the Armenian Quarter would be , according to Usher , the " worst future imaginable " for the Armenian community . Members of Jerusalem 's Armenian community have voiced concerns about the Israeli government 's policies and commitment to preserving their community 's presence in the Old City .
= = Demographics = =
Writing in 2000 , Graham Usher estimated that the Armenian Quarter had a population of 1 @,@ 200 . According to a 2007 study , the quarter housed 2 @,@ 424 people ( 6 @.@ 55 % of Old City 's total ) .
= = = Armenian population = = =
= = = = Decline = = = =
Armenians began emigrating from Jerusalem 's Old City in the mid @-@ 20th century , since the 1948 Arab – Israeli War due to being in the middle of the conflict between Arabs and Jews , and what Daphne Tsimhoni characterized as " their feeling of loneliness " . The lack of a longstanding political solution to the Israeli – Palestinian conflict for Jerusalem has been cited as the main cause of the decrease in the number of Armenians in the Old City , which fell by almost half from 1 @,@ 598 in 1967 to 790 in 2006 . Meanwhile , the Muslim population increased from 16 @,@ 681 to 27 @,@ 500 and the Jewish population from 0 ( after their expulsion under Jordanian occupation ) to 3 @,@ 089 . The exodus of the Armenians intestified following the breakout of the First Intifada in 1987 . According to Tsolag Momjian , the honorary Armenian consul in Jerusalem , as of 2009 around 600 Armenians lived in the Armenian Quarter ( out of the total 2 @,@ 000 Armenians in all of Jerusalem ) . Two articles , published in 2010 and 2011 , put the number of Armenians in the Armenian Quarter as low as 500 .
Despite the drastic decline in the number of Armenians , Israeli scholar Daphne Tsimhoni wrote in 1983 that " the existence of their church headquarters in Jerusalem provides for the continued presence of some clergy and a certain number of laity . " On the contrary , American linguist Bert Vaux argued in 2002 that the Armenian community of Jerusalem is " in immediate danger of disappearing — the wealthy move into other parts of Jerusalem , and the closed environment in the Armenian Quarter spurs many to move to Beirut or the West . " Armenian author Matthew Karanian wrote about the Armenian community of Jerusalem in 2010 as follows :
The survival of the community is today in peril . The population is dwindling . ... If the Old City were divided up today , the Armenians might barely command one street . They certainly would not lay claim to an entire Quarter , as they have for centuries .
= = = = Subgroups = = = =
Haytayan identifies three groups subgroups of Armenians living within the Armenian Quarter The first group includes monks and clergymen ( around 50 ) , who live within the monastery . Lay people are divided into two groups : those living within the monastery compound , and those living in the Armenian Quarter , but outside of the monastery walls . Around two @-@ thirds of lay persons reside within the monastery walls . Locally known as vanketsi ( վանքեցի , lit . " those from the convent " ) , they number up to 700 people . They do not pay rent ( or pay symbolic amount ) to the patriarchate . Those living outside of the monastery walls are called kaghakatsi ( քաղաքացի , lit . " city @-@ dwellers " ) . Their ancestry goes back centuries . They only pay municipal taxes .
Bert Vaux identifies two subgroups of Armenians :
k ‘ ałak ‘ ac ‘ is ( " citizens " or " city dwellers " ) are the indigenous Armenian @-@ speaking inhabitants of the quarter . They live outside the monastery walls , and attend the Church of the Holy Archangels ( Hreshtakapetats ) .
k ‘ ałt ‘ agans ( " [ im ] migrants " ) are ancestors of Armenians from various parts of the Ottoman Empire who moved to Jerusalem following the 1915 genocide . They attend services at the cathedral of St. James . According to Vaux , " In the period immediately after their arrival they were referred to by the k ‘ ałak ‘ ac ‘ is as zuwar , the Arabic word for ‘ visitors ’ . The k ‘ ałt ‘ agans in turn are reported to have labelled the k ‘ ałak ‘ ac ‘ is as p ‘ is arab ‘ dirty Arab ’ . The two groups each remained wary of the other for some time , and in fact did not intermarry on a significant scale until after World War II . Relations subsequently improved . "
= = = = Language = = = =
The Armenian dialect spoken in Jerusalem is highly distinctive , because it was geographically relatively isolated from the rest of the Armenian @-@ speaking world . Arabic has a significant influence on it , while Hebrew has little to none , having been introduced to the region in the 20th century . Those Armenians whose ancestors came from Turkey following the 1915 genocide speak Turkish @-@ influenced Western Armenian .
= = Landmarks and institutions = =
= = = Armenian = = =
= = = = Religious = = = =
Cathedral of St. James ( Սուրբ Յակոբեանց վանք , Surb Hakobeants vank ) is thought to have been founded in the 4th century , but the current structure dates to the 12th century .
St. Toros Church ( Սուրբ Թորոս եկեղեցի , Surb T 'oros yekeğetsi ) . According to local tradition , the church was built between 1270 and 1289 by Hethum I , the Armenian King of Cilicia in memory of his son , Toros , who was killed in a battle . The church was renovated to its current state in 1727 .
Church of the Holy Archangels ( Սրբոց Հրեշտակապետաց եկեղեցի , Srbots Hreštakapetats yekeğetsi ; Deir Al Zeitoun ) was founded in the 12th century probably on the ruins of an ancient church in the 4th century .
= = = = Educational = = = =
The Alex and Marie Manoogian Seminary was founded in 1975 through financing of Armenian @-@ American businessman and philanthropist Alex Manoogian .
Sts . Holy Translators ' School ( Սրբոց թարգմանչաց վարժարան , Srbots t 'argmančats varžaran ) contains a kindergarten , elementary and secondary schools with a total of around 150 students ( as of 2000 ) .
= = = = Cultural = = = =
The St. James Press ( տպարան Սրբոց Յակոբեանց , tparan Srbots Hakobeants ) was founded in 1833 .
Helen and Edward Mardigian Museum of Armenian Art and Culture was opened in 1969 . Its exhibits consist of historical and religious artifacts , such as rugs , coins , copper cauldrons , ceramic tiles , a map , a replica of Johannes Gutenberg 's printing press , etc .
Calouste Gulbenkian Library , founded in 1925 through financing of British @-@ Armenian businessman and philanthropist Calouste Gulbenkian , for whom it is named . Officially opened on 23 October 1932 , it is considered " one of the world 's most comprehensive Armenian intellectual resource centers " with its 100 @,@ 000 book collection . On its opening day , it contained 25 @,@ 037 volumes ( 14 @,@ 518 in Armenian and 11 @,@ 519 in other languages ) . Three decades later , in 1963 , the number reached around 50 @,@ 000 .
St. Toros Manuscript Library , founded in 1897 , holds 3 @,@ 890 inventoried and cataloged Armenian manuscripts , making it the second largest in the world , after the Matenadaran in Yerevan , Armenia . In 1931 , the number of cataloged manuscripts stood at 2 @,@ 720 .
= = = = Other = = = =
Armenian Garden
= = = Other ( non @-@ Armenian ) = = =
Churches
The Syriac Orthodox St. Mark 's Monastery is located on Ararat St. The Assyrians / Syriacs share the Armenians 's miaphysitism and " hence tended to prefer to live under the ' umbrella ' of the larger and stronger Armenian community . "
The Greek Orthodox Church of Saint George
Christ Church , a 19th @-@ century Anglican church
The Maronite Church ( also known as St. Maroun 's House ) , the only Maronite place of worship in Jerusalem
Other
Tower of David ( Citadel )
= = Political status and views = =
The international community , namely the United Nations General Assembly , considers East Jerusalem of which the Old City is part , to be " Occupied Palestinian Territory " .
= = = Armenian views = = =
The " quiet political consensus " among the Armenians of Jerusalem , according to The Economist , is that the Old City should be " neither Palestinian nor Israeli but rather an international ' space ' , governed by representatives of the three faiths ... and protected by the United Nations and other international bodies . " According to Graham Usher , many Armenians cautiously identify with the Palestinian struggle , but few of them " would advocate exclusive Palestinian sovereignty over the Old City . " Furthermore , Armenians consider the Armenian Quarter to be part of the Christian Quarter . This stance was reaffirmed by Armenia 's Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian , who in late 2000 stated that Armenia was against the separation of the Armenian and Christian Quarters .
= = = U.S. Old City division proposal = = =
At the 2000 Camp David Summit , U.S. President Bill Clinton proposed the division of the Old City , according to which the Armenian Quarter would be put under de jure Israeli sovereignty along with the Jewish Quarter , while the Palestinians would be granted a " certain degree of sovereignty " over the Christian and Muslim Quarters . Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak conditionally embraced the proposal .
= = = Palestinian views = = =
Palestinian leaders have publicly declared that they consider the Armenian Quarter to be a part of Palestine and will not relinquish it to Israel . Yasser Arafat , rejected the US proposal at the 2000 Camp David Summit for the Old City 's division and stated : " The Armenian quarter belongs to us . We and Armenians are one people . " He told Clinton , " My name is not Yasir Arafat , it is Yasir Arafatian , " making his name sound Armenian . " I will not betray my Armenian brothers , " Arafat said about leaving the Armenian Quarter under Israeli rule . Commenting on his statements , historians Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin wrote that " there was no reason to believe that the Armenians preferred his control [ over Israeli control ] . "
In a 2011 , meeting with leaders of various Christian communities in Ramallah Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas stated : " The Palestinian leadership sticks to its position that considers the Armenian Quarter an integral part of east Jerusalem , the capital of the independent Palestinian state . "
According to the Palestine Papers , leaked by Al Jazeera in 2011 , chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat proposed a geographical division of the Old City at an October 2009 meeting , according to which Israel would acquire sovereignty over the entire Jewish Quarter and " part of the Armenian Quarter . "
= = = Israeli and Jewish views = = =
Israel maintains that all of Jerusalem ( " complete and united " ) , including the Old City , is its capital according to the 1980 Jerusalem Law .
In a 1975 article , Rabbi Yakov Goldman called for Israeli sovereignty over all of Old Jerusalem and wrote of the Armenian Quarter in particular :
In the Armenian Quarter only one sector is actually occupied by the Armenian compound . The Armenian compound has a wall around it enclosing the big cathedral and its adjoining buildings . The rest of the quarter had to have a name . It wasn 't Jewish , it wasn 't Moslem , it wasn 't Christian . So they applied to this section the name of its neighbor Armenian — simply a convenient fiction .
= = = Christian views = = =
The Armenian , Greek Orthodox and Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem sent a " strongly worded " letter to the negotiators at the 2000 Camp David Summit , stating : " We regard the Christian and Armenian Quarters of the Old City as inseparable and contiguous entities that are firmly united by the same faith . "
Pope Benedict XVI , during his 2009 visit to St. James Cathedral , stated :
From the first Christian centuries , the Armenian community in Jerusalem has had an illustrious history , marked not least by an extraordinary flourishing of monastic life and culture linked to the holy places and the liturgical traditions which developed around them . This venerable Cathedral Church , together with the Patriarchate and the various educational and cultural institutions attached to it , testifies to that long and distinguished history .
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= Lynn Hill =
Carolynn Marie " Lynn " Hill ( born January 3 , 1961 ) is an American rock climber . Widely regarded as one of the leading competitive sport climbers in the world during the late 1980s and early 1990s , she is famous for making the first free ascent of the difficult sheer rock face of The Nose on El Capitan in Yosemite Valley , and for repeating it the next year in less than 24 hours . She has been described as both one of the best female climbers in the world and one of the best climbers of all time . One of the first successful women in the sport , Hill shaped rock climbing for women and became a public spokesperson , helping it gain wider popularity and arguing for gender equality . Hill has publicized climbing by appearing on television shows and documentaries and writing an autobiography , Climbing Free : My Life in the Vertical World .
Hill was a gymnast early in life , nearly broke a world record lifting weights , and ran competitively . She took to climbing at a young age , showing a natural aptitude for the activity , and became a part of the climbing community in Southern California and Camp 4 in Yosemite Valley . She traveled around the United States during the early 1980s climbing increasingly difficult routes and setting records for first female ascents and for first ascents . From 1986 to 1992 Hill was one of the world 's most accomplished sport climbers , winning over thirty international titles , including five victories at the Arco Rock Master . This coincided with the era when the leading female climbers caught up with the leading men . In 1992 , Hill left competitive climbing and returned to her first love : traditional climbing . She set for herself the challenge of free climbing The Nose of El Capitan , her greatest climbing feat . Hill continues to climb and has not stopped taking on ambitious climbs . As of 2013 , she was a sponsored athlete for the Patagonia gear and clothing company and owned a small business that offered climbing courses .
= = Early years = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Born in Detroit , Michigan , Hill grew up in Fullerton , California . She is the fifth of seven children ; her mother was a dental hygienist and her father an aerospace engineer . She was an active child who climbed everything from trees to street lights . Starting at age eight , she learned gymnastics but disliked the way girls " had to smile and do cutesy little routines on the floor " . Thus , even though she was part of a successful YMCA gymnastics team that competed in southern California and performed in halftime shows for the California Angels , she quit at the age of 12 . In her autobiography , Hill describes feeling " resistant to rules " , an attitude she identified as both normal for her age and influenced by the era in which she grew up : " My awareness of issues like women 's rights and the struggle for racial freedom began to grow " . She even questioned the chores assigned in her family , noting the differences between the boys and girls — the boys had weekly tasks while the girls had daily tasks . During high school , Hill took up gymnastics again and became one of the top gymnasts in her state , a skill that eventually contributed to her climbing success . In particular , the ability to conceptualize a series of complex movements as small , distinct ones and to thrive under pressure gave Hill a significant edge .
= = = Introduction to climbing = = =
In 1975 , her sister and her sister 's fiancé , Chuck Bludworth , took Hill on her first climbing trip ; she was hooked , leading from the first day . For Hill , this activity became an escape from the emotional turmoil of her parents ' divorce , and " by her late teens she identified less with her imperfect family in Orange County than with an ' imperfect family of friends ' at climbing areas " . Hill took her first trip to Yosemite , a central destination for climbers , at the age of 16 , where she was introduced to the climbers at Camp 4 . There she met Charlie Row , her first boyfriend . Their romance flourished ; with him she climbed her first 5 @.@ 11 and first big wall .
As a young teenager , Hill climbed in southern California , primarily in Joshua Tree National Park . She earned money for day trips out to the park by working at a Carl 's Jr . Bludworth initially taught her climbing culture ; he subscribed to magazines and read books which Hill then devoured . She was influenced in particular by Yvon Chouinard 's ethic of " leaving no trace " on the rock . Moreover , the climbing of Beverly Johnson captured her imagination , particularly Johnson 's 10 @-@ day solo of Dihedral Wall on El Capitan . As Hill explains in her autobiography , " I was awed , but not just by the know @-@ how and hard work she 'd put into her ascent . It was the courage and confidence that it took to put herself on the line , to do something on the cutting edge — to climb one of the world 's greatest big walls in one of the most challenging ways possible : solo . She had succeeded and she 'd given women climbers like me enormous confidence to be ourselves and not feel limited by being a minority in a male @-@ dominated sport . "
Hill attended Fullerton College in the late 1970s , but she did not have a strong interest in any academic subject ; instead she was focused on climbing . In the summers of 1976 – 78 and the early 1980s Hill frequently camped at Camp 4 in Yosemite Valley , becoming part of the climbing community centered there and joining the search and rescue team . In her autobiography , Hill describes the community as " a ragged occupying army , annoying park rangers by eluding camp fees , overstaying their welcome , and comporting themselves like gypsies " . As Hill describes it , climbing in the late 1970s and early 1980s was " something that people who were outcasts in society did , people who were not conformists " . As she had earlier , Hill worked in order to be able to climb . One summer , she writes , she survived in Camp 4 on only $ 75 . In her autobiography , she describes how climbers eked out a life at the camp , recycling cans to pay for climbing ropes and subsisting on condiments and left @-@ over food from tourists . However , Hill remembers " these dirt @-@ poor days ... [ as ] among the best and the most carefree of my life , and though my friends were often scoundrels , I felt their friendship convincingly . "
Beverly Johnson had previously started to bridge the gender gap at Camp 4 , but it remained strongly male @-@ dominated . The community was particularly homosocial ; its major historian calls it " edgy " rather than " oppressive " and argues that there was pressure on women to perform to men 's standards and that " women had to contend with an army of men trying to maintain Camp 4 as a guy 's domain " . There was no coherent female climbing community ; rather , female climbers tended to adopt the masculine attitudes of their compatriots . In her autobiography , Hill writes that climbing " back then was directed by a fraternity of men , and there was little encouragement of , or frankly , inclination for women to participate . Yet women climbers were out there . " For example , from age 18 to 22 , Hill climbed with Mari Gingery every weekend , completing an ascent of The Nose and then the first female @-@ only ascent of The Shield on El Capitan over a period of six days .
Hill learned the essence of her climbing technique from the Stonemasters group during this time . She adopted the attitudes of traditional climbing , a style of climbing which emphasizes using removable protection rather than bolts ( which scar the rock ) and rewards climbers who climb a new route from bottom to top without stopping or starting over . She also became a dedicated free climber , which emphasizes climbing an entire route without hanging on the rope or relying on equipment to skip difficult sections . Early on she was a fearless climber but after " a few death @-@ defying experiences on routes with long run @-@ outs " she learned to be wary of falling .
Hill climbed with and became involved with climber John Long at the end of the 1970s . Their relationship began in the summer of 1978 when she heard him recite a poem he had written about a female climber and what kind of man she wanted.Hill and Long climbed together and worked out together , lifting weights and running . It was at his suggestion that she attempted to break the world record for the bench press in her weight class ( 105 pounds ( 48 kg ) ) ; however , while she could easily lift 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) while training , in competition she froze . Hill and Long spent the winter of 1981 in Las Vegas , Nevada climbing during the day and working nights at " dead end jobs " like pizza waitress .
The following year Hill and Long moved from Las Vegas to Santa Monica , California where she attended Santa Monica College ( SMC ) and majored in biology . She was recruited by the track coach even though she had no competitive running experience . After training for a few months , she placed third in the 1500 meters and fourth in the 3000 meters at the state meet , helping SMC to win the state championship . To make ends meet , she worked at an outdoor store , as a gym teacher , and occasionally appeared on daredevil television shows .
In 1983 , Hill was interviewed by Ultrasport . They offered her a free flight to New York for the interview and as part of the trip she was taken to the Shawangunks , a famous nearby climbing area . Finding she liked the climbing environment and yearning for some new challenges , she decided to stay and moved to New Paltz , New York . At the same time , Long was preparing for a journey to Borneo and embarking on a career as a writer . The couple went their separate ways but remained friends . After moving to New York , Hill attended the State University of New York at New Paltz and graduated with a degree in biology in 1985 .
= = Climbing career = =
Hill started to participate in climbing competitions in the mid @-@ 1980s , but one of her first significant accomplishments was in 1979 . She became the first person to free climb Ophir Broke in Ophir , Colorado , which has a difficulty rating of 5.12d and was the hardest route ever climbed by a woman at that time . It was the hardest crack climb in Colorado at the time and there were only one or two harder ones in Yosemite . Long was amazed by her feat . He has said " that 's when I knew for certain that this woman had extraordinary talent " . The regional guidebook credits Long with the first free ascent of the route ; Hill speculates the reason for this is that at the time she was an unknown climber and known only as Long 's partner and protege . In her autobiography , Hill explains that it was during this climb that she realized it is not a person 's size or strength but ability to be creative on the rock that is important : " The big lesson for me ... was to realize that despite what appeared to be a limitation due to my small stature , I could create my own method of getting past a difficult section of rock . John 's size and power enabled him to make long reaches and explosive lunge moves that were completely out of my range . I , on the other hand , often found small intermediate holds that John couldn 't even imagine gripping ... Short or tall , man or woman , the rock is an objective medium that is equally open for interpretation by all . "
Living near the Shawangunks during her college years , Hill pioneered many new free climbing routes . In 1984 at The Gunks she performed an on @-@ sight first ascent of Yellow Crack ( 5.12c ) and Vandals ( 5.13a ) ; Vandals was the most difficult route on the East Coast at the time and the area 's first climb of its grade . Her lead of Yellow Crack was a very dangerous ascent , her climbing partner at the time Russ Ruffa calling it " one of the boldest leads I 've ever seen ... I had tried leading it . I knew you had to totally commit to doing the moves , otherwise the chance of surviving would be minimal . Those are the moments that really stand out — when you see someone totally on the edge . " It was her climb of Vandals that led Hill to reconsider her climbing style ; rather than begin the climb again every time she fell or leaned on the rope for support , she hung on the rope in her harness to gain more information about the climb . As she writes in her autobiography , " In one moment I had , to some degree , thrown out years of climbing philosophy ... The subtle advantage of hanging on the rope to figure out the crux moves gave me the added information that helped me learn and eventually succeed on the route . The old style of climbing suddenly seemed rigid , limited , and contrived . " That year , she performed a series of impressive feats , leading Tourist Treat on @-@ sight with only one fall , " perhaps the most difficult first ascent in the north country at the time " . She was arguably " the best climber in the Gunks " , as local climbing legend Kevin Bein called her , and " no man was climbing significantly better " than her .
= = = Competitive career = = =
As a result of Hill 's impressive climbs in The Gunks , she was invited to climb in Europe in 1986 . The French Alpine Club invited a group of elite American climbers to climb in the Verdon Gorge , Fontainebleau , and Buoux . Hill felt an immediate affinity for French culture and climbing . She particularly enjoyed climbing on the limestone common in France because it has many pockets and edges , producing " wildly acrobatic climbs " with low risk . Moreover , these types of climbs are ideal for people of small stature , like Hill . She tried sport climbing in France for the first time that year . Inspired and intrigued by European climbing culture , she returned later and took part in Arco e Bardonecchia Sportroccia ' 86 , the second edition of the first international sport climbing competition , which later became the Rock Master annual event . The event was divided into two stages , one in Arco and one in Bardonecchia , Italy . She competed against other women on extremely difficult routes , gaining points for style and speed . She lost to Catherine Destivelle in a " disputed ruling " but won in the following year . Destivelle in her autobiography , reckons she won that year because she planned to climb fast from the beginning , as speed was decisive in case of equality , which she doubts Hill was aware of when starting the competition . In an interview , Hill has said that this first competition was " disorienting " because she did not understand the language , the " format " or the " judging " nor did the organizers of the competition . " There were a lot of politics involved , a lot of nationalism and disorganization . The rules seemed to change during the event . I remember asking about the disparity between prize money for men and women . The only response I got was , ' If the women climb without their tops , then we 'll pay them the same . ' " However , she continued with competition climbing because she found it stimulating to climb with " other strong women " . In one interview , Hill said that " if there wasn 't a Catherine Destivelle or Luisa Iovane ... or whoever there , then it would be anticlimactic . " Destivelle became Hill 's main competition in the late 1980s while Isabelle Patissier emerged to challenge her in the early 1990s .
She became a professional climber in 1988 and the subsequent interviews , photoshoots and media appearances led to her becoming a spokesperson for climbing . As Hill explained , competition climbing is " such a different activity than going out and climbing on rock ... You 're in front of all these people ... You 're there to perform . " From the beginning of her sport climbing career , Hill was aware that the sport was evolving and growing . For example , she pointed out in an interview that some competition organizers would chop down trees and alter rocks just for the sake of a competition ; she could foresee that competitions would all eventually take place on artificial walls for environmental reasons .
Throughout the early 1980s , Hill had remained a traditionalist , but after her 1986 trip to Europe , she started adopting many sport climbing techniques . For instance , she had resisted hang @-@ dogging ( hanging on the rope at any point during the climb ) , holding with the philosophy that it was cheating , but after experimenting with it during her ascent of Vandals , she found it a useful way to learn challenging climbs . During the mid @-@ 1980s , there was great tension in the climbing community between traditionalists and new sport climbers . There was even a " Great Debate " in 1986 at the American Alpine Club at which a panel of all @-@ star participants — including Hill — were invited to discuss the merits of the two different styles , especially sport climbing that required the insertion of fixed bolts into the rock . Hill has argued that " the purpose of climbing is to adapt yourself to the rock . You work on yourself to overcome the obstacle of the rock ... I believe climbers should leave the rock as unaltered as possible ... you have a responsibility not only to put in safe bolts but to put them in logical places — to do the least possible alteration of the rock to establish the best possible experience for others " .
From 1986 to 1992 Hill was one of the world 's top sport climbers , winning over thirty international titles , including five victories at the Arco Rock Master . This coincided with the era when the leading female climbers caught up with the leading men . In 1990 , at the final stage of the World Cup Final , she was one of three competitors and the only woman to reach the top of the wall — and the only climber to complete the hardest move . As Joseph Taylor writes in his history of climbers of Yosemite , " at that moment Lynn Hill was arguably the best climber in the world , male or female " . Hill describes this as her most satisfying win because her competition — Isabelle Patissier — received information on how to do the final climb from the men who had already finished it . Moreover , Hill was starting with zero points in the competition because she had made a mistake in the previous competition , so she had to win big or not at all ( the World Cup consisted of a series of competitions in which the participants were given points for a variety of climbing techniques ) . " It took all of my effort and concentration to pull through the route . The moves I had to make were really spectacular , but I managed to do them . I was so excited to get to the top ... I proved a point about women and what we 're capable of — a lot of the best men had fallen off that route . " As a professional climber , Hill was able during this time to support herself by doing what she loved ; she made approximately half of her income from climbing competitions and half from sponsorships .
In January 1990 , Hill set another landmark by becoming the first woman to redpoint a 5 @.@ 14 ( that is , she practiced free climbing the route before she was able to successfully climb it ) , Masse Critique in Cimaï , France . J.B. Tribout , who first ascended the route , challenged Hill , saying no woman would ever be able to climb it — Hill completed it in fewer tries than Tribout , after " nine days of exhausting effort " . In 1992 , it was described as the hardest rock climb ever made by a woman .
Hill has experienced only one major accident in her climbing career . On May 9 , 1989 , she fell during a climb in Buoux , France ; after forgetting to tie a safety rope , she fell 85 ft ( 25 m ) into a tree , and was knocked unconscious , dislocated her left elbow and broke a bone in her foot . She had been training hard for the World Cup and had to stop competing for a few months to recover ; she was devastated to miss the first World Cup in the sport . However , only six weeks after her fall , she was back climbing .
= = = The Nose = = =
Hill did not regard sport climbing to be real climbing and felt out of place on the professional indoor climbing World Cup circuit , so she left in 1992 and went back to traditional rock climbing . As she explained in an interview , " the thing I didn 't like too much towards the end was how focused it was on just indoor climbing and training . I didn 't start out training on artificial walls , and that 's not really ever something that I wanted to do as a full @-@ time profession " . In her autobiography , she also comments on the " bad sportsmanship , rule bending , and monumental egos that infested the competitions " . She looked for different challenges and set herself the task of free climbing ( that is , using climbing aids only to protect her from falls ) The Nose , a famous route on El Capitan in Yosemite Valley .
Asked why she was motivated to climb The Nose , Hill has said :
At the end of my competition career I felt like things were evolving more towards the indoor format and it really wasn 't how I started to climb and it didn 't represent the values of climbing in a complete way and so I decided I would do something like this as a retirement gesture . John Long said ' hey Lynnie you should go up and try to free climb The Nose ' . So it just happened to be the perfect goal for me and I liked the fact this climb was in Yosemite because I remember going there and just seeing the valley and it was just mind blowing how beautiful it was . I couldn 't imagine a more beautiful place anywhere in the world . For me The Nose was much bigger than me , it wasn 't about me , it wasn 't about my ego , my gratification it was actually something that I wanted to do . I felt like I had a chance and that if I could do that it would be a really big statement to people to think about . You don 't have to be a man to do something that 's ' out there ' as a first ascent . Obviously people tried to do that route and they failed on it and so if a lot of good climbers have come and tried to do it and failed and a woman comes and does it first it 's really meaningful . That was my underlying motivation .
Hill first attempted to free climb the The Nose in 1989 with Simon Nadin , a climber she had met at the World Cup that year . Although he had never climbed big walls , she felt at ease around him and both had a background in traditional climbing ; they both shared a desire to free climb The Nose and agreed within hours of meeting to try the feat together . Their attempt to free climb The Nose failed . Four years later , in 1993 , together with her partner Brooke Sandahl , she became the first person , male or female , to free climb the route . Hill 's original climbing grade for the " Free Nose " was 5.13b. One of the most difficult pitches — Changing Corners — she rated at a 5.13b / c , but she wrote in her autobiography that " rating the difficulty of such a pitch is almost impossible " and " the most accurate grade would be to call it ' once , or maybe twice , in a lifetime ' " . The rock face is nearly blank and there are next to no holds ; to ascend the section , Hill had to use a " carefully coordinated sequence of opposite pressures between [ her ] feet , hands , elbows , and hips against the shallow walls of the corner " as well as turn her body completely around .
The next year , in 1994 she surpassed this achievement , by becoming the first person to free climb the entire route in a single 24 @-@ hour period . Usually the climb takes four to six days ( Hill had previously done it in four ) and most climbers are aid climbing ; that is , most climbers allow themselves to use mechanical aids to assist their climbing rather than just their own skill and bodies .
Hill wanted to join her effort with that of making a film that " would convey the history and spirit of climbing " . Hill started endurance training in the spring for her summer ascent of the The Nose , aiming to be able to on @-@ sight a 5.13b after climbing all day . She trained in Provence and tested herself against Mingus in the Verdon Gorge , making the first on @-@ sight free ascent of the route without a fall while simultaneously being the first woman to on @-@ sight a 5.13b.
In her autobiography , Hill explains how she had " underestimated " how complicated climbing The Nose in a day would be with a film crew . Endless complications arose , such as the American coproducer backing out at the last minute , the soundman and cameraman refusing to rappel down the summit because they were afraid , and minor technical problems such as dead batteries . Hill herself had to coordinate many of the logistics because the producer had abandoned the project . Her first attempt to free climb The Nose in a day was plagued with problems . She ran out of chalk after 22 pitches , very nearly ran out of water and was taxed by the intense heat . She tried again soon after . On September 19 at 10pm , she and her partner Steve Sutton , began the ascent again , this time without a film crew . After 23 hours , she had free climbed the entire route . In his book on the changing culture of Yosemite climbers , Joseph Taylor explains that Hill 's ascent of The Nose demonstrates how climbing in the Yosemite Valley had altered from its origins in 1960s counterculture to become a " consumable experience " . Hill staged what he describes as a " spectacle " , filming the event " to capture the spontaneity of her one @-@ day ascent " , but she was only successful when not surrounded by a film crew .
The " Free Nose " and the " Free Nose in a day " remained unrepeated over 10 years after Hill 's first ascents — despite numerous attempts by some of the best big wall climbers in the world . Over time , a consensus grade of 5.14a / b has emerged for the most difficult pitch , known as pitch 27 or Changing Corners , a fact which cements her Free Nose ascents as two of the most impressive achievements in climbing history . At the time , climbing legend Yvon Chouinard called it " the biggest thing that has ever been done on rock " and Alexander Huber later wrote that this climb " passed men 's dominance in climbing and left them behind " . He also regarded her statement upon completing the climb of " It goes , boys ! " as reasonable although other climbers regarded it as provocative . The Nose saw a second free ascent in 1998 , when Scott Burke summitted after 261 days of effort . Then , on October 14 , 2005 , the team of Tommy Caldwell and Beth Rodden also free climbed The Nose , and on October 16 , 2005 , Caldwell did it in less than 12 hours .
= = = World traveler = = =
In 1995 , Hill joined The North Face climbing team and was paid to travel around the world to climb . She first visited Kyrgyzstan 's Karavshin Valley to climb with Alex Lowe , Kitty Calhoun , Jay Smith , Conrad Anker , Greg Child , Dan Osman , and Chris Noble . They camped for a month and were cut off from the world , without even a radio . In her autobiography , Hill writes that " such isolation made me feel vulnerable " . Hill was not used to mountain climbing ( as opposed to rock climbing ) and the unpredictability of it unnerved her , with its increased risk of storms and rock slides . Furthermore , she liked focusing on the style of ascending rather than just summitting ; she realized on this trip that her style of free climbing was not conducive to summitting or mountain climbing . Rather than pursue ever higher climbs , therefore , she chose to climb in new places , such as Morocco , Vietnam , Thailand , Scotland , Japan , Madagascar , Australia , and South America ; many of these climbs were filmed and helped promote climbing in general .
Hill started offering climbing camps in five locations in the United States in 2005 , with plans for more . For US $ 2 @,@ 000 , participants received five days of an " immersive adventure camp " , including one @-@ on @-@ one coaching from Hill and other famous climbers . As of 2012 Hill was living in Boulder , Colorado and still travelling widely . From Boulder she runs a small business offering climbing courses and also works as a technical adviser for various climbing gear companies . As of 2013 , Hill was a sponsored athlete for the Patagonia gear and clothing company . While Hill used to easily obtain sponsorships , in 2010 she said in an interview that she was " too old " to obtain shoe sponsorships .
= = = Gender politics = = =
Hill repeatedly tells a story from when she was 14 years old and bouldering in Joshua Tree : she succeeded on a route when a man came over and commented how surprised he was that she could do the route because even he could not . " I thought , well , why would you expect that you automatically could do it ? Just because I was a small girl , was I not to be able to do it ? It was a memorable experience because it occurred to me then that other people had a different view of what I should or shouldn 't be capable of doing . I think that people should just do whatever they can do or want to do . It shouldn 't be a matter of if they 're a man or a woman . It shouldn 't be a matter of one 's sex . "
Long an advocate for gender equality in climbing , Hill has argued that men and women can climb the same routes : " I think they should have women compete on the same climbs as the men , and if the women can 't do the climbs , then they shouldn 't be competing " . For example , she argued that both sexes compete on the same routes in World Cup competitions . However , Hill later revised her view , noting that while she could and did compete with men " spectators want to see people get to the top . And since most women aren 't climbing at the same level as the top men , it 's necessary to design a route that 's a little easier for women " . In answer to a question about whether or not women " will ever equal or surpass men in climbing " , Hill gave a detailed response , focused on body composition , size , and psychology , explaining that climbing " favors people with high strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratios [ s ] " , less body fat , and greater height , articulating that such characteristics often favor men but that women " have the advantage of being relatively light , with the capacity for tremendous endurance " . She explained that " theoretically somebody as short as me could be the best in the world because it doesn 't depend so much on height now ... And it 's a psychological thing more than a physical thing . "
Hill experienced discrimination throughout her climbing career and in an interview with John Stieger in Climbing , she pointed out that despite her success and prowess at climbing , this was a problem for her . She pointed to sexist remarks from male climbers who believed particular routes were impossible for female climbers and the fact that " there 's a lot less importance and prestige placed on women in climbing , no matter what your ability is " . Hill has also commented extensively about how American culture encourages women to be passive and to forego developing muscles , which makes it harder for them to excel at climbing . She lamented this trend and was happy that her family and friends had allowed her to be the " tomboy " she wanted to be . Hill has explained that when competing she is not competing against men or women but with people 's expectations of what women can do .
Hill has been credited with bringing many women into rock climbing . The 1980s saw a large influx of women into the sport , in part because more women were visible in it and in part because Title IX funding mandated equal access for boys and girls to athletic programs in public schools . In answer to a question about her position as a role model for women climbers , Hill responded that she felt " responsible to communicate something that touches people , that inspires them , that gives them a sense of passion " . Climber John Long explains that Hill " was a prodigy and everyone knew as much ... Twenty years ago , no female had ever climbed remotely as well as the best guys , so when Lynn began dusting us off — which she did with maddening frequency — folks offered up all kinds of fatuous explanations . Some diehards refused to believe a woman , and a five @-@ foot article at that , could possibly be so good . Out at Josh , it was said Lynn shone owing to quartz monzonite 's superior friction , which catered to her bantam weight . In Yosemite , her success apparently hinged on midget hands , which fit wonderfully into the infernal thin cracks . On limestone , she could plug three fingers into pockets where the rest of us managed two . In the desert Southwest , she enjoyed an alliance with coyotes — or maybe shape @-@ shifters . Even after a heap of World Cup victories , it still took the climbing world an age to accept Lynn as the Chosen One , and perhaps her legacy was never established , once and for all , till she free climbed the Nose . "
= = Media = =
Hill has participated in various television productions , such as Survival of the Fittest , which she won four seasons in a row , from 1980 to 1984 ; she beat Olympic athletes at rope climbing and cross @-@ country running . It was rock climbing legend and personal hero Beverly Johnson who first asked Hill to compete . The inaugural year of the competition , the first prize for the men in the competition was US $ 15 @,@ 000 and for the women , US $ 5 @,@ 000 . Angered , Hill asked for parity , arguing that since the women were competing in four events and the men six , the women should at least be awarded $ 10 @,@ 000 . She proposed a boycott to the other female competitors , negotiating a deal with the producer that the prize money would be raised the next year and she could compete again . In her autobiography , Hill writes that she heard a rumor that NBC canceled the women 's half of the show because the producers could not find anyone to beat her . She " became increasingly aware of how few women were pushing the limits of climbing and endurance like I was , and of how my passion had led me very much into a man 's world " . During the early 1980s Hill also appeared on The Guinness Game , That 's Incredible ! , and Ripley 's Believe it or Not . She describes her feat of climbing over a hot @-@ air balloon at 6 @,@ 000 feet for That 's Incredible ! as " perhaps the most ridiculous stunt I ever did " . Despite the earlier television appearances Hill attributes her fame to a 1982 poster for the company Patagonia that showed a photograph of her climbing .
In 1999 , Hill appeared in Extreme , an IMAX film on adventure sports . For that production , she and Nancy Feagin had been filmed the previous May crack climbing in Indian Creek Valley in Utah . She also appeared in Vertical Frontier , a documentary about competitive climbing in California 's Yosemite Valley .
In 2002 , Hill collaboratively wrote an autobiography , Climbing Free : My Life in the Vertical World , with mountaineer and writer Greg Child , published by W.W. Norton & Company . As she describes the process , " He would take my writings and organize them , and he encouraged me to elaborate on certain elements . He emphasized that telling the story is what 's important , so he really helped me think about what I wanted to say , and figure out who my audience was . " Hill explained in an interview that writing about past events was easier because she had had time to reflect on them . She wanted to " convey the history and culture of free climbing " , specifically how it became as specialized as it is today . She felt that she had a unique perspective to offer , both as someone who climbed at a particular moment in climbing history and as a woman : " And I wonder if a male writer would have presented that information differently . I think the book is important from that stand point [ sic ] , because I am a woman , and there are not many female viewpoints on climbing , or the history of climbing , out there . " Writing about climbing in the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s was dominated by men . As accomplished American climber and writer Rachel de Silva explains , the six major American climbing magazines published fewer than 12 articles a year by or about women during the 1980s despite women comprising 40 % of climbers . It was not until 1990 that the first women @-@ centric climbing books appeared .
= = Personal life = =
Hill met fellow Gunks climber Russ Raffa on her first trip to New York and by 1984 he had become " her constant companion " . On October 22 , 1988 , the two married ; however , their relationship ended in March 1991 in part because Hill wanted children and because the couple rarely saw each other . At the same time , Hill moved to Grambois , France , to pursue her climbing career ; she settled there because of the world @-@ class climbing areas in the Lubéron region and the many friends she had there . While living and climbing in Europe , Hill became fluent in both French and Italian .
Hill met her partner as of 2004 , chef Brad Lynch , on a climbing trip in Moab , Utah , and at the age of 42 , she gave birth to a son . Hill has spoken frequently about how having a child lessened the amount of time she had for climbing but not her love for it . As she said in one interview , " I feel that right now , it doesn 't have to be all about me and my experiences . I was ready to begin a new role ; to face new challenges and adventures as a mother . It 's a good learning experience adjusting to the sacrifices that need to be made . "
= = Notable ascents = =
1979 , Ophir Broke II 5.12d , Telluride , Colorado − First free ascent and first female ascent of the grade , with John Long
1979 , Pea Brain 5.12d , Independence Pass , Colorado − First free ascent and first female ascent of the grade , with John Long
1979 , Stairway to Heaven III 5 @.@ 12 , Tahquitz Peak , California − First free ascent , with John Long and Tim Powell
1980 , Coatamundi Whiteout II 5 @.@ 12 , Granite Mountain , Arizona − First free ascent , with John Long and Keith Cunning
1981 , Hidden Arch 5.12a , Joshua Tree , California − First free ascent
1981 , Levitation 29 IV 5.11a , Red Rock , Nevada − First free ascent , with John Long and Jorge and Joanne Urioste
1982 , Blue Nubian 5 @.@ 11 , Joshua Tree , California − First free ascent
1984 , Yellow Crack 5.12R / X , Shawangunks − First free ascent
1984 , Vandals , 5.13b , Shawangunks − First ascent
1984 , Organic Iron 5.12c , Shawangunks − First ascent
1985 , Organic Iron 5.12c , Shawangunks − First free ascent , with Russ Raffa
1987 , Girls Just Want to Have Fun 5 @.@ 12 X , Shawangunks − First free ascent
1988 , The Greatest Show on Earth 5.12d , New River Gorge , West Virginia − First free ascent
1989 , Running Man 5.13d , Shawangunks − First free ascent
1990 , Masse Critique 5 @.@ 14 , Cimaï , France , − First woman to redpoint a 5 @.@ 14
1992 , Simon 5.13b , Frankenjura , Germany − First female onsight of the grade
1993 , The Nose 5.14a / b , El Capitan , Yosemite − First to free climb with partner Brooke Sandahl
1994 , Mingus V 5.13a , 12 pitches , Verdon Gorge , France − First free ascent , onsight
1994 , The Nose 5.14a / b , El Capitan , Yosemite − First to free climb in 24 @-@ hour period
1995 , Clodhopper Direct IV 5 @.@ 10 + , Central Pyramid , Kyrgyzstan − First ascent , with Greg Child
1995 , Perestroika Crack V 5.12b , Peak Slesova , Kyrgyzstan − First free ascent , with Greg Child
1995 , West Face V 5.12b , Peak 4810 , Kyrgyzstan − First free ascent , with Alex Lowe
1997 , Tete de Chou 5.13a , Todra Gorge , Morocco − First ascent
1998 , Midnight Lightning V8 , Camp 4 , Yosemite − First female ascent
1998 , King Cobra V8 , Camp 4 , Yosemite − First female ascent
1998 , To Bolt or Not to Be 5.14a , Smith Rocks , Oregon − First female ascent
1999 , Scarface 5.14a , Smith Rocks , Oregon − First female ascent
1999 , Bravo les Filles VI 5.13d A0 , 13 pitches , Tsaranoro Massif , Madagascar − First ascent , with Nancy Feagin , Kath Pyke , and Beth Rodden
2004 , Viva la Liberdad 5.12b , Vinales , Cuba − First ascent
2004 , Sprayathon 5.13c , Rifle , Colorado − First female ascent
2005 , West Face , Leaning Tower , V 5.13b / c , Yosemite − First female free ascent , with Katie Brown
= = Competitions = =
1986 , Grand @-@ Prix d 'Escalade , Troubat , winner
1987 , Rock Master , Arco , Italy , winner
1987 , World Indoor Rock Climbing Premier , winner , Grenoble , France
1988 , Rock Master , Arco , Italy , winner
1988 , International Climbing competition , winner , Marseille , France
1988 , Masters Competition , winner , Paris , France
1989 , Rock Master , Arco , Italy , winner
1989 , Masters Competition , winner , Paris , France
1989 , German Free Climbing Championships , winner
1989 , International Climbing competition , winner
1989 , World Cup , winner , Lyon , France
1990 , Rock Master , Arco , Italy , winner
1990 , World Cup , winner ( tied with Isabelle Patissier from France ) , Lyon , France
1990 , International Climbing competition , winner
1992 , Rock Master , Arco , Italy , winner
= = Awards = =
1984 – American Alpine Club Underhill Award
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= 1861 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1861 Atlantic hurricane season occurred during the first year of the American Civil War and had some minor impacts on associated events . Eight tropical cyclones are believed to have formed during the 1861 season ; the first storm developed on July 6 and the final system dissipated on November 3 . Six of the eight hurricanes attained Category 1 hurricane status or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , of which three produced hurricane @-@ force winds in the United States . No conclusive damage totals are available for any storms . Twenty @-@ two people died in a shipwreck off the New England coast , and an undetermined number of crew members went down with their ship in the July hurricane . Based on maximum sustained winds , the first and third hurricanes are tied for the strongest of the year , although the typical method for determining that record — central barometric air pressure — is not a reliable indicator due to a general lack of data and observations .
Four tropical storms from 1861 had been previously identified by scholars and hurricane experts , but three more were uncovered in modern @-@ day reanalysis . Known tracks for most of the systems are presumed to be incomplete , despite efforts to reconstruct the paths of older tropical cyclones . Three systems completely avoided land . They all had an effect on shipping , in some cases inflicting severe damage on vessels . A storm in September , referred to as the " Equinoctial Storm " , hugged the East Coast of the United States and produced rainy and windy conditions both along the coast and further inland . The last storm of the season followed a similar track , and affected a large Union fleet of ships sailing to South Carolina for what would become the Battle of Port Royal . Two vessels were sunk and several others had to return home for repairs . Ultimately the expedition ended in a Union success .
= = Timeline = =
= = Methodology = =
Prior to the advent of modern tropical cyclone tracking technology , notably satellite imagery , many hurricanes that did not affect land directly went unnoticed , and storms that did affect land were not recognized until their onslaught . As a result , information on older hurricane seasons was often incomplete . Modern @-@ day efforts have been made and are still ongoing to reconstruct the tracks of known hurricanes and to identify initially undetected storms . In many cases , the only evidence that a hurricane existed was reports from ships in its path . Judging by the direction of winds experienced by ships , and their location in relation to the storm , it is possible to roughly pinpoint the storm 's center of circulation for a given point in time . This is the manner in which three of the eight known storms in the 1861 season were identified by hurricane expert José Fernández Partagás 's reanalysis of hurricane seasons between 1851 and 1910 . Partagás also extended the known tracks of most of the other tropical cyclones previously identified by scholars . The information Partagás and his colleague uncovered was largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , with some slight adjustments . HURDAT is the official source for such hurricane data as track and intensity , although due to a sparsity of available records at the time the storms existed , listings on some storms are incomplete .
Although extrapolated peak winds based on whatever reports are available exist for every storm in 1861 , estimated minimum barometric air pressure listings are only present for the three storms that directly affected the United States . Two hurricanes during the year made landfall on the mainland United States , and as they progressed inland , information on their meteorological demise was limited . As a result , the intensity of these storms after landfall and until dissipation is based on an inland decay model developed in 1995 to predict the deterioration of inland hurricanes .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first tropical cyclone and hurricane of the 1861 season is believed to have formed on July 6 , immediately east of the Leeward Islands . A 1938 publication documented the storm 's effects on Guadeloupe and St. Kitts , and given a lack of prior reports on the cyclone , modern @-@ day reassessments concluded that it was relatively weak when it affected those islands . After crossing the northern Leeward Islands , the tropical storm broadly curved toward the northwest , likely intensifying into the equivalence of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on July 9 . The majority of the storm 's track in the western Atlantic was unknown until it was reconstructed based on reports from , and the effects on , three ships in its vicinity .
On July 10 — when the storm was approaching or at its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) — the Bowditch encountered severe hurricane conditions which destroyed both of her masts and washed her entire crew overboard . Her captain was able to climb back aboard , where he survived for over a week with no food or water until he was rescued by a schooner . The Echo and Creole both sustained significant damage , and the crew and captain of the latter ship had to be rescued after she began taking on water . The extent of the damage to the three ships served as the basis for evaluating the storm 's intensity in Partagás 's paper . The hurricane ultimately passed between Bermuda and the United States before dissipating after July 12 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A month after the dissipation of the first hurricane , another tropical storm formed north of Hispaniola on August 13 . Ludlum ( 1963 ) described the " Key West Hurricane " between August 14 and 16 , and it was determined that the system had , in fact , surpassed the threshold for hurricane status based on wind observations from two ships . The storm skirted the north coast of Cuba as it moved west @-@ northwest and passed through the Florida Straits . On or around August 15 , Havana , Cuba experienced heavy rainfall . Although the cyclone did not directly make landfall , it delivered hurricane @-@ force winds to southern Florida . It turned more toward the northwest as it entered the Gulf of Mexico , where it began to gradually weaken . It is listed as having dissipated on August 17 in the northern Gulf .
The hurricane damaged or wrecked numerous vessels . Six ships were wrecked or grounded in the Bahamas , and the crews of at least two , the John Stanley and the Linea , had to be rescued . The steamship Santiago de Cuba left port on August 4 , and began to encounter squally conditions later that afternoon . Heavy seas and a strong gale inflicted some damage on the vessel . Several ships along the eastern coast of Cuba were wrecked during the storm , leading to great uncertainty and concern regarding the fate of the Santiago . At least three vessels were lost or grounded along the Florida Keys .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The first storm to be uncovered in modern @-@ day reanalysis existed in late August , and ties the July hurricane for the strongest system of the season in terms of maximum sustained winds . Its track is known between August 25 and August 30 , during which time it progressed generally northeasterly from a point northeast of the island of Bermuda to the central northern Atlantic . On August 30 , the Harvest Queen recorded a barometer of 28 @.@ 30 inHg ( 958 hPa ) on August 30 ; this report was a strong indication that the storm had attained hurricane intensity , although the system was likely undergoing its transition into an extratropical cyclone at the time .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The subsequent hurricane was also previously unrecognized until contemporary research , although the majority of its track remains unknown . The only indication that a tropical cyclone existed was the ship David G. Wilson , which was dismasted by a severe storm on September 17 . As no other information is available on the hurricane , it is listed in the Atlantic hurricane database as a single point in the central Atlantic ( at 28 @.@ 5 ° N , 50 ° W ) .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
The first storm to directly strike the mainland United States was first detected on September 27 , off the east coast of the Florida peninsula . The storm is estimated to have been a minimal hurricane based on observations from the ship Virginia Ann . Several other vessels encountered the storm along its track , including the steamship Marion , which experienced hours of violent winds , torrential rainfall , and frequent thunder and lightning . The hurricane curved north , then northeast , striking North Carolina that same day before speeding northeastward as it hugged the United States East Coast . Its track is only known through 1200 UTC on September 28 . Ludlum ( 1963 ) refers to the hurricane as the " Equinoctial Storm " , and describes its area of impact as the " entire coast " .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Carnifex Ferry in present @-@ day West Virginia , Rutherford B. Hayes of the 23rd Ohio Infantry was camped south of the battle site , where he wrote about a " very cold rain @-@ storm " in a September 27 letter to his wife Lucy . Conditions at the time were characterized by leaking tents and temperatures getting " colder and colder " . Hayes wrote , " We were out yesterday P.M. very near to the enemy 's works ; were caught in the first of this storm and thoroughly soaked . I hardly expect to be dry again until the storm is over . " Strong winds buffeted the Burlington , New Jersey , area from early evening to midnight on September 27 , uprooting trees and causing some damage to property . Further north , Boston , Massachusetts , experienced intense winds and light rainfall for about five hours starting at midnight , with no initial reports of significant destruction .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
Two tropical systems are known to have existed during the month of October . The first was originally documented by Partagás ( 1995 ) , who detected it based on a faulty report of a violent gale from a ship , the Mariquita . The report was said to have been from October 16 , but given her arrival date in New York City four days later and her location at the time of her encounter with the storm , she probably encountered the cyclone much earlier in the month . The violent south @-@ southwesterly gale lasted 15 hours when the vessel was probably located at 20 @.@ 5 ° N , 47 ° W. The storm was initially assigned a single set of coordinates for October 6 , and no attempt was made to reconstruct its track due to a lack of certain data on it . However , it was noted that a ship further north on October 9 experienced a heavy gale . Based on the likely correlation between the two ship reports , the storm 's track was extended four days to late on October 9 in the Atlantic hurricane database .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
A 1960 publication mentioned a tropical storm near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina sometime in October 1861 without specifying a date . Newspaper reports indicate that ships mainly north of the Cape Hatteras area encountered strong northerly gales for several days starting on October 7 , and winds in New York City persisted from October 7 to October 10 with a northerly component . Partagás ( 1995 ) noted , " These findings do not seem to support a tropical system but the author made the decision of retaining the storm [ ... ] due to the lack of solid evidence against its existence . " However , little is known about the system , and its inclusion in the hurricane database is limited to a single point at 35 @.@ 3 ° N , 75 @.@ 3 ° W.
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
The final storm of the season followed a generally north @-@ northeasterly course from the Gulf of Mexico northward along the U.S. East Coast between November 1 and November 3 , dissipating over New England . The storm crossed southern Florida , and based on observations from Hatteras Inlet , North Carolina , and observations from the ship Honduras , it is believed to have attained hurricane intensity . The hurricane made landfall in eastern North Carolina and proceeded up the coast before crossing eastern Long Island and coming ashore in southern New England . Its demise on November 3 marked the end of the 1861 Atlantic hurricane season ; the next tropical storm would not form in the Atlantic until June 1862 . Two storm systems affected the region in the week following October 28 , both of which influenced a Civil War expedition which was " the largest fleet of war ships and transports ever assembled " .
The first storm , which is not recognized as a tropical cyclone , disrupted the initial assembly of the fleet on October 28 . However , the fleet set sail the next day on its mission to attack Confederate forces ( its destination was " supposedly a military secret " ) . On November 2 , the expedition encountered the second storm — the tropical hurricane — which wreaked havoc on the organization of the fleet and sunk two of its vessels . There was knowledge at the time of the series of storm systems , but few details on the condition and fate of the fleet , sparking great concern . Some of the other ships were forced to return home for repairs , but the majority rode out the storm successfully . The expedition proceeded onward and seized Port Royal Sound at the Battle of Port Royal . As described by Ludlum ( 1963 ) , the hurricane is known as the Expedition Hurricane due to its influence on the fleet .
However , the hurricane also had a significant impact on land . Earlier in the year , Union forces had captured the fort guarding Hatteras Inlet at the Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries . In the early morning hours of November 2 , high seas began to overwash Hatteras Island , " completely covering all dry land except the position of the fort itself " . After four hours , water began to subside . Extremely high tides associated with the cyclone continued up the coast as far north as Portland , Maine . Storm tides at various points , including New York City , Newport , Rhode Island , and Boston , reached levels unseen for at least 10 years and up to 46 years . In New York , the storm persisted for 20 hours starting early on November 2 ; rising waters inundated wharves along the East and Hudson Rivers . Floodwaters flowed up to five blocks inland , and a popular bar located in a hotel became isolated by the flooding . In response , a man transported customers to and from the bar on his private boat at a cost of two cents per ride . Strong winds in Brooklyn brought down trees and telegraph wires .
Infrastructure throughout the Tri @-@ State area suffered . Parts of the New Jersey Railroad line were undermined , and the Shore Line Railway at Bridgeport was inundated . Flooding was also prominent in the New Jersey Meadowlands and along the Newark Turnpike and Plank Road , which was left temporarily impassable . Further east , the hurricane triggered coastal flooding along the shores of Long Island , while northeasterly winds blew several ships ashore along the northern coast of Long Island . The eastern side of the hurricane blasted the southeastern New England coast between November 2 and November 3 , damaging over 250 vessels at Provincetown , Massachusetts , and running aground 20 others . Water from the Massachusetts Bay surged into the village of Wareham . In downtown Boston , the storm began late on November 2 and lasted until late the next morning , although the highest tides did not occur until after conditions had already cleared . Twenty @-@ two occupants of the ship Maritania drowned when the vessel sank after striking a rock during the worst of the storm . At the time , she was located 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the Boston Light .
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= Hebron Church ( Intermont , West Virginia ) =
Hebron Church ( also historically known as Great Capon Church , Hebron Lutheran Church , and Hebron Evangelical Lutheran Church ) is a mid @-@ 19th century Lutheran church in Intermont , Hampshire County , in the U.S. state of West Virginia . Hebron Church was founded in 1786 as Great Capon Church by German settlers in the Cacapon River Valley , making it the first Lutheran church west of the Shenandoah Valley . The congregation worshiped in a log church , which initially served both Lutheran and Reformed denominations . Its congregation was originally German @-@ speaking ; the church 's documents and religious services were in German until 1821 , when records and sermons transitioned to English .
The church 's congregation built the present Greek Revival @-@ style 1 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ story church building in 1849 , when it was renamed Hebron on the Cacapon . The original log church was moved across the road and subsequently used as a sexton 's house , Sunday school classroom , and public schoolhouse ( attended by future West Virginia governor Herman G. Kump ) .
To celebrate the congregation 's 175th anniversary in 1961 , Hebron Church constructed a brick community and religious education building designed to be architecturally compatible with the 1849 brick church . As of October 2015 , the church continues to be used by the West Virginia @-@ Western Maryland Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . Hebron Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 16 , 2014 for its architectural distinction as a local example of vernacular Greek Revival church architecture in the Potomac Highlands .
= = Geography and setting = =
Hebron Church and its cemetery are located east of Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) in the unincorporated community of Intermont , about 3 @.@ 20 miles ( 5 @.@ 15 km ) southwest of Yellow Spring , and 5 @.@ 63 miles ( 9 @.@ 06 km ) northeast of the town of Wardensville . Capon Lake and the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge are 0 @.@ 64 miles ( 1 @.@ 03 km ) northeast of the church . The church and its cemetery are on a 3 @.@ 879 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 570 ha ) lot .
Hebron Church is on the plain of a predominantly rural agricultural and forested area of southeastern Hampshire County , in the Cacapon River Valley . Baker Mountain , a forested , narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises west of the church , and the western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Great North Mountain rise east of the valley . The Cacapon River , just southeast of the church , is hidden from the church and cemetery by mature foliage . George Washington National Forest , encompassing the forested area east of the Cacapon River , is east of the church .
The National Register of Historic Places listing for Hebron Church includes the brick church and cemetery . They are accessible from WV 259 by a semicircular asphalt driveway , separated from the church and cemetery by a wrought iron fence and lined with large , old @-@ growth maple trees along the property 's northwestern perimeter . A paved brick walkway leads from the gate to the northwestern façade and two main entrances of the church . The church is surrounded on its northeastern , southeastern , and southwestern sides by a cemetery which is still in use . The cemetery contains over 600 gravestones , several yuccas , a hemlock tree , and a boxwood . A modern brick community building , within the historic boundary south of the church and cemetery , is used for church activities .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The land on which Hebron Church and its cemetery are located was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant from Charles II of England to seven of his supporters in 1649 which was renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 . Under Fairfax 's ownership , the Cacapon River Valley was predominantly inhabited by English @-@ speaking settlers as early as the late 1730s ; most came from Pennsylvania and New Jersey . As settlement progressed during the second half of the 18th century , the fertile land of Hampshire County ( including the Cacapon River Valley ) also attracted German settlers from Pennsylvania and elsewhere in Virginia before and after the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) .
= = = Establishment = = =
As the population of German settlers in the region began to increase , the desire for Lutheran religious services and education also grew . Ministers , including Henry Muhlenberg disciple Christian Streit , began to establish congregations in the largest communities of western Virginia . Muhlenberg was a German pastor , requested by colonists in Pennsylvania , who served as a missionary there from 1742 until his death in 1787 ; he is considered the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in the United States . Johannes Schwarback and Muhlenberg 's son , Peter , reportedly visited the Cacapon River Valley between 1763 and 1776 ( before Hebron Church 's founding ) . Streit , charged with ministering to a Lutheran congregation in Winchester , settled there on July 19 , 1785 .
Hebron Church , originally known as the Great Capon Church , was established by early German settlers in 1786 as a united German congregation of the Reformed and Lutheran denominations . The congregation was also known as the German Churches , since it served both denominations . In its earliest days , the church was served by pastors connected with congregations in the Shenandoah Valley . Streit incorporated the church into his circuit shortly after its founding , regularly traveling to the Cacapon River Valley for baptisms and weddings , but his ministry did not extend west of Cooper Mountain . According to the oldest extant church record , six people were confirmed in the Lutheran Synod and nine confirmed in the German Reformed Church in November 1786 . On September 23 , 1787 , seven more people were confirmed in the Lutheran Synod ; the church 's enrollment then began to increase .
Early religious services were held in the log church on land deeded to Reformed trustee Jacob Huber and Lutheran trustee John Nicholas Schweitzer , both of whom were church elders in 1786 . The deed conveying the land to the trustees specified that it was to be used for a German church and burial yard . The united congregation became Hebron Church , the first Lutheran church west of the Shenandoah Valley .
While the Reformed and Lutheran congregations used the log church , they were ministered by two pastors . Abraham Gottlieb Deschler ministered to the Lutherans and Jacob Rebas ( or Repass ) ministered to the Reformed congregation until the latter dissolved around 1813 . Although the church served both denominations , it was later served by one minister ( Reformed or Lutheran ) . Originally a German @-@ speaking congregation , its documents and religious services were in German until 1821 ( an early transition to English for a German denomination in the United States ) . By that time , under the pastorship of Abraham Reck ( 1812 – 21 ) , the congregation was known as Capon Church .
= = = Construction = = =
The congregation of Great Capon Church built the present one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story Lutheran church building in 1849 , when it was briefly renamed Hebron on the Cacapon after Hebron ( the city associated with Judah , Abraham , and Isaac ) . The church was later known simply as Hebron Church .
The brick church was constructed east of the original log structure , which was west of the present community building . The 1849 church was originally topped by a wooden shake roof , and its windows had double @-@ hung wooden sashes . Its pews were built by Alfred Brill , Jacob Himmelwright and Frederick Secrist with lumber milled by Brill . The church was constructed under the ministry of H. J. Richardson ( 1848 – 53 ) .
The log church was moved from its original location in the south corner of the cemetery to a hill across the road from the brick church . It was used as a sexton 's house for the church , and was a Sunday school classroom for about 30 years . In addition to religious instruction , the log building was a public schoolhouse . Future West Virginia governor Herman G. Kump and his brother , judge Garnett Kerr Kump , received part of their primary education in the schoolhouse . By 1885 , a Mr. Miller was teaching business principles at the school . The log building succumbed to the elements , and no longer exists .
= = = Later history = = =
Peter Miller ministered to the congregation at Hebron Church four times , for a total of 25 years , between 1858 and 1918 . Licensed in 1858 and ordained in 1860 , Miller engaged in missionary work for rural congregants in the Capon and North River Parish of Hampshire and Hardy counties for 60 years . He established many of the area 's Lutheran churches and , according to the North Carolina Synod of the Lutheran Church in America , was " an outstanding figure in this large , mountainous , thinly populated territory , who for sixty years almost continuously was recognized as everybody 's pastor . " By 1867 , the church membership was 106 , its largest congregation to date .
On October 13 , 1879 , a post office was established near Hebron Church to serve the adjacent community ( then known as Mutton Run ) . In December 1884 , the church roof caught fire from an adjacent flue , burning a hole through the sanctuary 's ceiling which was soon repaired . On August 11 – 15 , 1886 , Hebron Church celebrated its centennial . During the celebration , Miller read a complete history of the German churches in the region . The centennial was reportedly the first of any Lutheran congregation in the southern United States .
The wrought @-@ iron fence along the church driveway was installed in April 1895 , replacing a picket fence . In 1905 , the church 's wood roof was replaced with a metal one , the present stained @-@ glass windows were installed , its interior and woodwork were painted and new lamps were installed for better illumination . The stained @-@ glass windows were supplied by Madison Alling of Newark , New Jersey in memory of his father , who summered at nearby Capon Springs Resort . Alling also provided four hanging lamps and calcimine for the interior walls and paint for the interior woodwork . Anton Reymann of Wheeling , West Virginia funded the metal roof and the sanctuary 's painting and decoration .
On June 11 , 1915 , the post office changed its name to Intermont ( after the Intermountain Construction Company ) , operating until its closure on January 29 , 1972 . The unincorporated community around Hebron Church continues to be known as Intermont , after the former post office . By 1921 , the Winchester and Western Railroad had been constructed to the east of Hebron Church by the Intermountain Construction Company to connect Wardensville with Winchester and develop the area 's timber , mining , and fruit industries .
In 1932 , the church 's piano was donated by George E. Brill of Baltimore . Hebron Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1936 , during the pastorate of Lawrence P. Williamson ( 1930 – 37 ) . On October 29 , 1961 , in celebration of the church 's 175th anniversary , the congregation dedicated a new brick community and religious @-@ education building designed to be architecturally compatible with the 1849 brick church . The new building , which hosted community gatherings , events and Sunday school , was built just south of the brick church at the edge of the cemetery ( where the old log church was originally located ) . Walter A. Sigman ( 1960 – 65 ) was pastor when the community building was dedicated .
= = = Preservation = = =
In 2008 , a survey of historic properties in the county was undertaken by the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Following this survey , he Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission began an initiative to place these identified structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places . Preparation of the necessary documentation for Hebron Church , French 's Mill , Yellow Spring Mill , and the Nathaniel and Isaac Kuykendall House began in April 2013 , when Governor Earl Ray Tomblin awarded $ 10 @,@ 500 to the Hampshire County Commission . The cost of the commission 's documentation of the history and significance of the four properties was $ 15 @,@ 000 , of which the county paid $ 4 @,@ 500 .
All four properties were accepted for the NRHP on December 16 , 2014 , with Hebron Church a unique local example of Greek Revival church architecture in the Potomac Highlands . Because the church 's original architectural design , workmanship , and building materials are extant , architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi assessed the church as providing " insight into the construction techniques of a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century ecclesiastical building . " Hebron Church is one of six extant , rural pre @-@ Civil War church buildings in Hampshire County ; the other five are Bloomery Presbyterian Church ( 1825 ) , Mount Bethel Church ( 1837 ) , Old Pine Church ( 1838 ) , Capon Chapel ( c . 1852 ) , and North River Mills United Methodist Church ( 1860 ) .
As of October 2015 , the church 's congregation is part of the Potomac Conference in the West Virginia @-@ Western Maryland Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . Ministered by David A. Twedt , Hebron Church has 22 baptized members , 19 confirmed members and an average attendance of six .
= = = Pastors = = =
Since the church 's founding in 1786 , the following pastors have ministered to the congregation at Hebron Church :
† Reformed pastors ; the remaining pastors were Lutheran .
= = Architecture = =
According to Sandra Scaffidi , Hebron Church 's architecture exemplifies a " local interpretation " of the Greek Revival architectural style , which was popular at the time of its construction . With its simple wooden doors , returning eaves and symmetrical front gable design , Hebron Church is representative of a vernacular interpretation of Greek Revival architecture . Only one other church building in eastern Hampshire County , Timber Ridge Christian Church in High View , was built of brick . The overall plan of Hebron Church exemplifies traditional Lutheranism , with the sanctuary 's one @-@ room floor plan enabling the congregation to be near its minister and easily participate in worship . Scaffidi wrote , " The Greek Revival front @-@ gable form of the Hebron Church reflects the early settlers ' desire to worship in a modest , uncluttered fashion . "
= = = Exterior = = =
The 1849 church is a small , one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story , front @-@ gable building . The main façade ( northwestern elevation ) has two main entrances , enclosed by white @-@ painted wood , recessed panel doors , and capped by white @-@ painted stone lintels with two stone corner blocks . The church 's exterior is brickwork , laid in Flemish bond on the main façade and a five @-@ course American bond on the northeastern , southeastern and southwestern elevations . Two blue @-@ gray stained glass windows ( installed in 1905 ) are symmetrically placed above the main entrances , each capped by stone lintels with two stone corner blocks . The main façade is crowned by a white painted entablature molding with two cornice returns , exemplifying Greek Revival architectural design . In the top of the gable , a square date stone engraved " 1849 " is embedded in the brickwork above a gooseneck light fixture . Although the church is now topped by a metal standing @-@ seam roof , it was originally sheathed by wooden shakes .
On the church 's northeastern elevation there are three large , symmetrical stained @-@ glass windows , each with a fixed upper sash and a lower hopper sash . Like the main façade 's doorways and windows , the sills , lintels and lintel corner blocks of the stained @-@ glass windows are white @-@ painted stone . Below the windows is an exposed coursed @-@ stone foundation with five tie @-@ rod masonry anchor plates . A small brick chimney is present on this elevation . The church 's southwestern elevation also has a coursed @-@ stone foundation , with five tie @-@ rod anchor plates , banked into the ground below three symmetrical stained @-@ glass windows with fixed upper sashes and lower hopper sashes and encased with white @-@ painted stone sills , lintels and lintel corner blocks . On this elevation are a small brick chimney in the roof slope and metal snowbirds along the roof line . Downspouts are located at the southern corners of the northeastern and southwestern elevations . The church 's southeastern ( rear ) elevation has an exposed coursed @-@ stone foundation 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high , due to its location on sloping ground . At the center of this elevation is a protruding , gabled brick extension for the interior altar , with symmetrical stained @-@ glass windows on both sides . The gabled protrusion is capped by aluminum flashing . An 1895 wrought @-@ iron fence encloses the property 's northwestern perimeter , and a paved brick walkway provides pedestrian access from the driveway to the two main entrances .
= = = Interior = = =
The church interior has an open floor plan , with a sanctuary measuring 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) wide and 43 feet ( 13 m ) long . The floor plan is an open nave , with two aisles partitioning three sections of rectangular wooden pews . Although the pews had been painted white , they have been restored to their original wood finish . The sanctuary 's interior walls are plaster , and the floors are sheathed in wide wooden planks . The nave is topped by a ceiling fabricated on tongue and groove wooden planks painted white . Three large stained @-@ glass windows , framed by wooden molding and recessed approximately 6 inches ( 15 cm ) , are symmetrically located on the northeastern and southwestern walls . The lower portion of each window contains a memorial dedication , which opens into its lower hopper sash . On the northwestern side of the interior are the two main entry doors , which access an unadorned narthex . Two tapered @-@ square pilasters support an upper gallery loft , possibly used by slaves during religious services . The gallery is fronted by a solid balustrade , accented with dentil molding and recessed wooden panels .
At the southeastern end of the sanctuary , the altar is atop a decagonal platform about 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the floor and accessible by a pair of four @-@ step staircases . On the elevated platform is also a table holding a Bible . A recessed rectangular apse , flanked by a pair of fluted , engaged columns , is behind the altar . A painting of Jesus hangs in the center of the apse , with an American flag to its immediate north . An organ and a piano are north of the altar , with a baptismal font south of it . The altar platform and aisles are carpeted red . The sanctuary 's northern and southern elevations exposed brick chimneys connected to gas heating units , which were installed around 1970 . A brass chandelier with clear glass hurricane globes is suspended in the center of the sanctuary ; on the northern and southern elevations , two brass electric lanterns are adjacent to the stained @-@ glass windows .
The upper gallery on the northwestern side of the church is accessed by a twelve @-@ step wooden spiral staircase , and has an unfinished wooden floor . Four wooden pews have white @-@ painted sides and unfinished seats and rails . The gallery 's ceiling height is about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at its tallest and about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at its shortest , due to the sloping wooden floor . Two stained @-@ glass windows , which cannot be opened , are along the northwest wall . A small closet , accessible through a wooden door with two parallel vertical panels and original latch hardware , is at the base of the staircase . The church 's original plasterwork and a 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) vertically @-@ cut wooden board , suggesting half @-@ timbering , are visible in the closet .
= = = Community building = = =
The church 's community building , a non @-@ contributing structure within the historic boundary , is southwest of the church . The building is a venue for Sunday school classes and community gatherings . The front gable building , completed in 1961 , is sheathed in brickwork . Similar to the church , the building is built into a gently @-@ sloping bank with its one @-@ story elevation at grade facing west toward WV 259 . Its two @-@ story eastern elevation is at the foot of the hillside .
The building 's western façade has a central entryway with double doors , topped by a six @-@ light transom and flanked by engaged pilasters . Its gable , sheathed in aluminum siding , incorporates a gabled pediment and the building 's perimeter is surrounded by a wide , flat frieze . The building 's southern elevation has wooden windows with 12 @-@ over @-@ 12 double @-@ hung sashes on brick window sills . Its basement level has one entrance , flanked by wooden double @-@ hung sash windows and four casement windows . The northeastern elevation has three stained @-@ glass windows on the main level , with three wooden eight @-@ over @-@ eight double @-@ hung sash windows ; a single wooden six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash window is in the gable . The building is roofed with asphalt shingles , and a brick chimney is along the slope of the northern elevation 's roof line . Its northeastern elevation has five wooden 16 @-@ over @-@ 16 double @-@ hung sash windows on the main level and four on the lower level , in addition to two wooden four @-@ over @-@ four sash windows .
= = = Cemetery = = =
Hebron Church is surrounded on three sides by a cemetery , consisting of about 700 granite , marble , slate and wooden gravestones laid in semi @-@ regular rows running northeast to southeast . The cemetery also abuts the northeastern elevation of the community building . Its interments date from about 1806 to the present ; early gravestones have deteriorated beyond recognition , and may be older than 1806 . Slaves and other people of color are interred in a small area of the cemetery 's southeastern section , with simpler markers than the cemetery 's other gravestones . Although its gravestones are generally rectangular granite stones and large obelisks , the cemetery 's earliest gravestones were simple wooden boards . Several gravestones are ornately carved , including one modeled on a tree stump . The cemetery is active , with the most recent burials at the property 's northern end . Dr. William Blum , Sr. , an electrochemist at the National Bureau of Standards who invented a chrome plating technique used in banknote printing , is interred at the cemetery .
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= Toledo War =
The Toledo War ( 1835 – 36 ) , also known as the Michigan – Ohio War , was an almost bloodless boundary dispute between the U.S. state of Ohio and the adjoining territory of Michigan .
Originating from conflicting state and federal legislation passed between 1787 and 1805 , the dispute resulted from poor understanding of geographical features of the Great Lakes at the time . Varying interpretations of the law caused the governments of Ohio and Michigan to both claim sovereignty over a 468 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 210 km2 ) region along the border , now known as the Toledo Strip . When Michigan petitioned for statehood in 1835 , it sought to include the disputed territory within its boundaries ; Ohio 's congressional delegation was in turn able to stall Michigan 's admission to the Union .
Beginning in 1835 , both sides passed legislation attempting to force the other side 's capitulation . Ohio 's governor Robert Lucas and Michigan 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old " Boy Governor " Stevens T. Mason were both unwilling to cede jurisdiction of the Strip , so they raised militias and helped institute criminal penalties for citizens submitting to the other 's authority . The militias were mobilized and sent to positions on opposite sides of the Maumee River near Toledo , but besides mutual taunting there was little interaction between the two forces . The single military confrontation of the " war " ended with a report of shots being fired into the air , incurring no casualties .
During the summer of 1836 , Congress proposed a compromise whereby Michigan gave up its claim to the strip in exchange for its statehood and approximately three @-@ quarters of the Upper Peninsula . The compromise was considered a poor outcome for Michigan ; nearly all of the Upper Peninsula was still Indian territory at the time . Voters in a state convention in September soundly rejected the proposal .
In December 1836 , the Michigan government , facing a dire financial crisis and pressure from Congress and President Andrew Jackson , called another convention ( called the " Frostbitten Convention " ) which accepted the compromise that resolved the Toledo War . The later discovery of copper and iron deposits and the plentiful timber in the Upper Peninsula more than offset Michigan 's economic loss in surrendering Toledo .
= = Origins = =
In 1787 , the Congress of the Confederation enacted the Northwest Ordinance , which created the Northwest Territory in what is now the upper Midwestern United States . The Ordinance specified that the territory was eventually to be divided into " not less than three nor more than five " future states . It was determined that the north @-@ south boundary for three of these states was to be " an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan " ( now known to be approximately 41 @.@ 62 ° N , near Marquette Park , Gary , Indiana ) .
At the time , the actual location of this extreme was unknown . The most highly regarded map of the time , the " Mitchell Map " , placed it at a latitude near the mouth of the Detroit River ( approximately 42 @.@ 05 ° N ) . This meant that the entire shoreline of Lake Erie west of Pennsylvania would have belonged to the state that was to become Ohio . When Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1802 , which authorized Ohio to begin the process of becoming a U.S. state , the language defining Ohio 's northern boundary differed slightly from that used in the Northwest Ordinance : the border was to be " an east and west line drawn through the southerly extreme of Lake Michigan , running east ... until it shall intersect Lake Erie or the territorial line [ with Canada ] , and thence with the same through Lake Erie to the Pennsylvania line aforesaid " .
Because the territorial boundary line between the U.S. and Canada ran through the middle of Lake Erie and then up the Detroit River , combined with the prevailing belief regarding the location of the southern tip of Lake Michigan , the framers of the 1802 Ohio Constitution believed it was the intent of Congress that Ohio 's northern boundary should certainly be north of the mouth of the Maumee River , and possibly even of the Detroit River . Ohio would thus be granted access to most or all of the Lake Erie shoreline west of Pennsylvania , and any other new states carved out of the Northwest Territory would have access to the Great Lakes via Lakes Michigan , Huron , and Superior .
During the Ohio Constitutional Convention in 1802 , the delegates allegedly received reports from a fur trapper that Lake Michigan extended significantly farther south than had previously been believed ( or mapped ) . Thus , it was possible that an east – west line extending east from Lake Michigan 's southern tip might intersect Lake Erie somewhere east of Maumee Bay , or worse , might not intersect the lake at all ; the farther south that Lake Michigan actually extended , the more land Ohio would lose , perhaps even the entire Lake Erie shoreline west of Pennsylvania .
Addressing this contingency , the Ohio delegates included a provision in the draft Ohio constitution that if the trapper 's report about Lake Michigan 's position was correct , the state boundary line would be angled slightly northeast so as to intersect Lake Erie at the " most northerly cape of the Miami [ Maumee ] Bay . " This provision would guarantee that most of the Maumee River watershed and all of the southern shore of Lake Erie west of Pennsylvania would fall in Ohio . The draft constitution with this proviso was accepted by the United States Congress , but before Ohio 's admission to the Union in February 1803 , the proposed constitution was referred to a Congressional committee . The committee 's report stated that the clause defining the northern boundary depended on " a fact not yet ascertained " ( the latitude of the southern extreme of Lake Michigan ) , and the members " thought it unnecessary to take it [ the provision ] , at the time , into consideration . "
When Congress created the Michigan Territory in 1805 , it used the Northwest Ordinance 's language to define the territory 's southern boundary , which therefore differed from that in Ohio 's state constitution . This difference , and its potential ramifications , apparently went unnoticed at the time , but it established the legal basis for the conflict that would erupt 30 years later .
= = Creation of the Toledo Strip = =
The location of the border was contested throughout the early 19th century . Residents of the Port of Miami — which would later become Toledo — urged the Ohio government to resolve the border issue . The Ohio legislature , in turn , passed repeated resolutions and requests asking Congress to take up the matter . In 1812 , Congress approved a request for an official survey of the line . Delayed because of the War of 1812 , it was only after Indiana 's admission to the Union in 1816 that work on the survey commenced . U.S. Surveyor General Edward Tiffin , who was in charge of the survey , was a former Ohio governor . As a result , Tiffin employed surveyor William Harris to survey not the Ordinance Line , but the line as described in the Ohio Constitution of 1802 . When completed , the " Harris Line " placed the mouth of the Maumee River completely in Ohio . When the results of the survey were made public , Michigan territorial governor Lewis Cass was unhappy , since it was not based on the Congressionally approved Ordinance Line . In a letter to Tiffin , Cass stated that the Ohio @-@ biased survey " is only adding strength to the strong , and making the weak still weaker . "
In response , Michigan commissioned a second survey that was carried out by John A. Fulton . The Fulton survey was based upon the original 1787 Ordinance Line , and after measuring the line eastward from Lake Michigan to Lake Erie , it found the Ohio boundary to lie south of the mouth of the Maumee River . The region between the Harris and Fulton survey lines formed what is now known as the " Toledo Strip . " This ribbon of land between northern Ohio and southern Michigan spanned a region five to eight miles ( 8 to 13 km ) wide , over which both jurisdictions claimed sovereignty . While Ohio refused to cede its claim , Michigan quietly occupied it for the next several years , setting up local governments , building roads , and collecting taxes throughout the area .
= = = Economic significance = = =
The land known as the Toledo Strip was and still is a commercially important area . Prior to the rise of the railroad industry , rivers and canals were the major " highways of commerce " in the American Midwest . A small but important part of the Strip — the area around present day Toledo and Maumee Bay — fell within the Great Black Swamp , and this area was nearly impossible to navigate by road , especially after spring and summer rains . Draining into Lake Erie , the Maumee River was not necessarily well @-@ suited for large ships , but it did provide an easy connection to Indiana 's Fort Wayne . At the time , there were plans to connect the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes through a series of canals . One such canal system approved by the Ohio legislature in 1825 was the Miami and Erie Canal that included a connection to the Ohio River and an outflow into Lake Erie via the Maumee River .
During the conflict over the Toledo Strip , the Erie Canal was built , linking New York City and the Eastern seaboard to the Great Lakes at Buffalo . The canal , finished in 1825 , immediately became a major route for trade and migration . Corn and other farm products ( from the Midwest ) were able to be shipped to eastern markets for much less expense than the older route along the Mississippi River . In addition , the migration of settlers to the Midwest increased sharply after the canal was finished , making existing port cities such as Buffalo boomtowns .
The success of the Erie Canal inspired many other canal projects . Because the western end of Lake Erie offered the shortest overland route to the frontiers of Indiana and Illinois , Maumee Harbor was seen as a site of immediate importance and great value . Detroit was twenty miles ( 32 km ) up the Detroit River from Lake Erie , and faced the difficult barrier of the Great Black Swamp to the south . Because of this , Detroit was less suited to new transportation projects such as canals , and later railroads , than was Toledo . From this perspective on the rapidly developing Midwest of the 1820s and 1830s , both states had much to gain by controlling the land in the Toledo Strip .
In addition , the Strip west of the Toledo area is a prime location for agriculture , because of its well @-@ drained , fertile loam soil . The area had for many years been characterized by high per @-@ acre productivities of corn and wheat . Michigan and Ohio both wanted what seemed strategically and economically destined to become an important port and a prosperous region .
= = Prelude to conflict = =
In 1820 – 21 , the federal land surveys had reached the disputed area from two directions , progressing southward from a baseline in Michigan and northward from one in Ohio . For unknown reasons , Surveyor General Tiffin ordered the two surveys to close on the Northwest Ordinance ( Fulton ) line , rather than Harris ' line , perhaps lending implicit support to Michigan 's claims over Ohio 's . Thus , townships that were established north of the line assumed they were part of Michigan Territory . By the early 1820s , the growing territory reached the minimum population threshold of 60 @,@ 000 to qualify for statehood . However , when Michigan sought to hold a state constitutional convention in 1833 , Congress rejected the request because of the still disputed Toledo Strip .
Ohio asserted that the boundary was firmly established in its constitution and thus Michigan 's citizens were simply intruders ; the state government refused to negotiate the issue with the Michigan Territory . The Ohio Congressional delegation was active in blocking Michigan from attaining statehood , lobbying other states to vote against Michigan . In January 1835 , frustrated by the political stalemate , Michigan 's acting territorial Governor Stevens T. Mason called for a constitutional convention to be held in May of that year despite Congress ' refusal to approve an enabling act authorizing such a state constitution .
In February 1835 , Ohio passed legislation that set up county governments in the Strip . The county in which Toledo sat would , later in 1835 , be named after incumbent Governor Robert Lucas , a move that further exacerbated the growing tensions with Michigan . Also , during this period , Ohio attempted to use its power in Congress to revive a previously rejected boundary bill that would formally set the state border to be the Harris Line .
Michigan , led by the young and hot @-@ headed Mason , responded with the passage of the Pains and Penalties Act just six days after Lucas County was formed ; the act made it a criminal offense for Ohioans to carry out governmental actions in the Strip , under penalty of a fine up to $ 1 @,@ 000 , up to five years imprisonment at hard labor , or both . Acting as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the territory , Mason appointed Brigadier @-@ General Joseph W. Brown of the Third U.S. Brigade to head the state militia , with the instructions to be ready to act against Ohio trespassers . Lucas obtained legislative approval for a militia of his own , and he soon sent forces to the Strip area . The Toledo War had begun .
Former United States President John Quincy Adams , who at the time represented Massachusetts in Congress , backed Michigan 's claim . In 1833 , when Congress rejected Michigan 's request for a convention , Adams summed up his opinion on the dispute : " Never in the course of my life have I known a controversy of which all the right was so clearly on one side and all the power so overwhelmingly on the other . "
= = War = =
Acting as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Ohio 's militia , Governor Lucas — along with General John Bell and about 600 other fully armed militiamen — arrived in Perrysburg , Ohio , ten miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Toledo , on March 31 , 1835 . Shortly thereafter , Governor Mason and General Brown arrived to occupy the city of Toledo proper with around 1 @,@ 000 armed men , intending to prevent Ohio advances into the Toledo area as well as stopping further border marking from taking place .
= = = Presidential intervention = = =
In a desperate attempt to prevent armed battle and to avert the resulting political crisis , U.S. President Andrew Jackson consulted his Attorney General , Benjamin Butler , for his legal opinion on the border dispute . At the time , Ohio was a growing political power in the Union , with nineteen U.S. representatives and two senators . In contrast , Michigan , still being a territory , had only a single non @-@ voting delegate . Ohio was a crucial swing state in presidential elections , and it would have been devastating to the fledgling Democratic Party to lose Ohio 's electoral votes . Therefore , Jackson calculated that his party 's best interest would be served by keeping the Toledo Strip a part of Ohio .
The response that Jackson received from Butler was unexpected : the Attorney General held that until Congress dictated otherwise , the land rightfully belonged to Michigan . This presented a political dilemma for Jackson that spurred him to take action that would greatly influence the outcome of the " war " .
On April 3 , 1835 , Jackson sent two representatives from Washington , D.C. , Richard Rush of Pennsylvania and Benjamin Chew Howard of Maryland , to Toledo to arbitrate the conflict and present a compromise to both governments . The proposal , presented on April 7 , recommended that the re @-@ survey to mark the Harris Line commence without further interruption by Michigan , and that the residents of the affected region be allowed to choose their own state or territorial governments until the Congress could definitively settle the matter .
Lucas reluctantly agreed to the proposal , and began to disband his militia , believing the debate to be settled . Three days later , elections in the region were held under Ohio law . However , Mason refused the deal and he continued to prepare for possible armed conflict .
During the elections , Ohio officials were harassed by Michigan authorities and the area residents were threatened with arrest if they submitted to Ohio 's authority . On April 8 , 1835 , the Monroe County , Michigan sheriff arrived at the home of Major Benjamin F. Stickney , an Ohio partisan . In the first contact between Michigan partisans and the Stickney family , the sheriff arrested two Ohioans under the Pains and Penalties Act on the basis that the men had voted in the Ohio elections .
= = = Battle of Phillips Corners = = =
Following the election , Lucas believed that the commissioners ' actions had alleviated the situation and he once again sent out surveyors to mark the Harris Line . The project went without serious incident until April 26 , 1835 , when the surveying group was attacked by fifty to sixty members of General Brown 's militia in what is now called the " Battle of Phillips Corners " . The battle 's name is sometimes used as a synonym for the entire Toledo War .
Surveyors wrote to Lucas afterwards that while observing " the blessings of the Sabbath , " Michigan militia forces advised them to retreat . In the ensuing chase , " nine of our men , who did not leave the ground in time after being fired upon by the enemy , from thirty to fifty shots , were taken prisoners and carried away into [ Tecumseh ] . " While the details of the attack are disputed — Michigan claimed it fired no shots and had only discharged a few musket rounds in the air as the Ohio group retreated — the battle further infuriated both Ohioans and Michiganders and brought the two sides to the brink of all @-@ out war .
= = = Bloodshed in the summer of 1835 = = =
In response to allegations that Michigan 's militia fired upon Ohioans , Lucas called a special session of Ohio 's legislature on June 8 , 1835 to pass several more controversial acts , including the establishment of Toledo as the county seat of Lucas County , the establishment of a Court of Common Pleas in the city , a law to prevent the forcible abduction of Ohio citizens from the area , and a budget of $ 300 @,@ 000 to implement the legislation . Michigan 's territorial legislature responded with a budget appropriation of $ 315 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 to fund its militia .
In May and June 1835 , Michigan drafted a State Constitution , with provisions for a bicameral legislature , a supreme court , and other components of a functional state government . However , Congress was still not willing to allow Michigan 's entry into the Union , and President Jackson vowed to reject Michigan 's statehood until the border issue and " war " were resolved .
Lucas ordered his adjutant general , Samuel C. Andrews , to conduct a count of the militia , and was told that 10 @,@ 000 volunteers were ready to fight . That news became exaggerated as it traveled north , and soon thereafter the Michigan territorial press dared the Ohio " million " to enter the Strip as they " welcomed them to hospitable graves . "
In June 1835 , Lucas dispatched a delegation consisting of U.S. Attorney Noah Haynes Swayne , former Congressman William Allen , and David T. Disney to Washington D.C. to confer with President Andrew Jackson . The delegation presented Ohio 's case and urged the President to act swiftly to address the situation .
Throughout the summer of 1835 , both governments continued their practice of one @-@ upmanship , and constant skirmishes and arrests occurred . Citizens of Monroe County joined together in a posse to make arrests in Toledo . Partisans from Ohio , angered by the harassment , targeted the offenders with criminal prosecutions . Lawsuits were not only rampant , they served as a basis for retaliatory lawsuits from the opposite side . Partisans from both sides organized spying parties to keep track of the sheriffs of Wood County , Ohio and Monroe County , Michigan who were entrusted with the security of the border .
On July 15 , 1835 , tensions and emotions finally overflowed and blood was spilled . Monroe County , Michigan , Deputy Sheriff Joseph Wood went into Toledo to arrest Major Benjamin Stickney , but when Stickney and his three sons resisted , the whole family was subdued and taken into custody . During the scuffle , Two Stickney , son of the major , stabbed Wood with a pen knife and fled south into Ohio . Wood 's injuries were not life @-@ threatening . When Lucas refused Mason 's demand to extradite Two Stickney back to Michigan for trial , Mason wrote to President Jackson for help , suggesting that the matter be referred to the United States Supreme Court . At the time of the conflict , however , it was not established that the Supreme Court could resolve state boundary disputes , and Jackson declined the offer . Looking for peace , Lucas began making his own efforts to end the conflict , again through federal intervention via Ohio 's congressional delegation .
In August 1835 , at the strong urging of Ohio 's Congressmen , President Jackson removed Mason as Michigan 's Territorial Governor and appointed John S. ( " Little Jack " ) Horner in his stead . Before his replacement arrived , Mason ordered 1 @,@ 000 Michigan militiamen to enter Toledo and prevent the symbolically important first session of the Ohio Court of Common Pleas . While the idea was popular with Michigan residents , the effort failed : the judges held a midnight court before quickly retreating south of the Maumee River , where Ohio forces were positioned .
= = = Frostbitten Convention and the end of the Toledo War = = =
Mason 's successor Horner proved to be extremely unpopular as governor and his tenure was very short . Residents disliked him so much they burned him in effigy and pelted him with vegetables upon his entry into the territorial capital . In the October 1835 elections , voters approved the draft constitution and elected the popular Mason as state governor . The same election saw Isaac E. Crary chosen as Michigan 's first U.S. Representative to Congress . Because of the dispute , however , Congress refused to accept his credentials and seated him instead as a non @-@ voting delegate . The two U.S. Senators chosen by the state legislature in November , Lucius Lyon and John Norvell , were treated with even less respect , being allowed to sit only as spectators in the Senate gallery .
On June 15 , 1836 , Jackson signed a bill that allowed Michigan to become a state , but only after it ceded the Toledo Strip . In exchange for this concession , Michigan would be granted the western three @-@ quarters of what is now known as the Upper Peninsula ( the easternmost portion had already been included in the state boundaries ) . Because of the perceived worthlessness of the Upper Peninsula 's remote wilderness , a September 1836 special convention in Ann Arbor , Michigan , rejected the offer .
As the year wore on , Michigan found itself deep in a financial crisis and was nearly bankrupt , because of the high militia expenses . The government was spurred to action by the realization that a $ 400 @,@ 000 surplus ( $ 231 million in 2015 ) in the United States Treasury was about to be distributed to the 25 states , but not to territorial governments . Michigan would have been ineligible to receive a share of the money .
The " war " unofficially ended on December 14 , 1836 , at a second convention in Ann Arbor . Delegates passed a resolution to accept the terms set forth by the Congress . However , the calling of the convention was itself not without controversy . It had only come about because of an upswelling of private summonses , petitions , and public meetings . Since the legislature did not approve a call to convention , some said the convention was illegal . Whigs boycotted the convention . As a consequence , the resolution was rejected and ridiculed by many Michigan residents . Congress questioned the legality of the convention , but accepted the results of the convention regardless of its concerns . Because of these factors , as well as because of the notable cold spell at the time , the event later became known as the Frostbitten Convention .
On January 26 , 1837 , Michigan was finally admitted to the Union as the 26th state , without the Toledo Strip .
= = Subsequent history = =
The Toledo strip became a permanent part of Ohio , while the Upper Peninsula was considered a worthless wilderness by almost all familiar with the area . The vast mineral riches of the land were unknown until the discovery of copper in the Keweenaw Peninsula and iron in the Western Upper Peninsula ; this discovery led to a mining boom that lasted long into the 20th century . The economic gain of these resources more than offset any loss Michigan sustained from surrendering Toledo .
Differences of opinion about the exact boundary location continued until a definitive re @-@ survey was performed in 1915 . Re @-@ survey protocol would ordinarily require the surveyors to follow the Harris line exactly , but in this case , the surveyors deviated from the line in places . This prevented the situation of certain residents near the border being subject to changes in state residence , or land owners having parcels on both sides of the border . The 1915 survey was delineated by 71 granite markers , 12 inches ( 30 cm ) wide by 18 inches ( 45 cm ) high . Upon completion , the two states ' governors , Woodbridge Nathan Ferris of Michigan and Frank B. Willis of Ohio , shook hands at the border .
Traces of the original Ordinance Line can still be seen in northwestern Ohio and northern Indiana . The northernmost boundaries of Ottawa and Wood counties follow it , as well as many township boundaries in Fulton and Williams counties . Many old north @-@ south roads are offset as they cross the line , forcing traffic to jog east while traveling north . The line is identified on USGS topographical maps as the " South [ Boundary ] Michigan Survey " , and on Lucas County and Fulton County , Ohio road maps as " Old State Line Road . "
While the border on land was firmly set in the early 20th century , the two states were still in disagreement on the path of the border to the east , in Lake Erie . In 1973 , the two states finally obtained a hearing before the United States Supreme Court on their competing claims to the Lake Erie waters . In Michigan v. Ohio , the court upheld a special master 's report and ruled that the boundary between the two states in Lake Erie was angled to the northeast , as described in Ohio 's state constitution , and not a straight east – west line . One consequence of the court decision was that tiny Turtle Island just outside Maumee Bay and originally treated as being wholly in Michigan , was split between the two states .
This decision was the last border adjustment , putting an end to years of debate over the official boundary line . In modern times , although a general rivalry between Michiganders and Ohioans persists , overt conflict between the states is restricted primarily to the Michigan – Ohio State rivalry in American football and to a lesser degree between the rivalry between the Detroit Tigers and Cleveland Indians in American League baseball ; the Toledo War is cited as the origins of the animosity represented in today 's rivalry .
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= Commissioner 's Trophy ( MLB ) =
The Commissioner 's Trophy is presented each year by the Commissioner of Baseball to the Major League Baseball team that wins the World Series . Recent trophy designs contain flags representing each team in North America 's top two leagues , the National League and the American League . The two participating teams in that year 's World Series were previously represented by two press pins set on the base of the trophy . It is the only championship trophy of the four major sports in North America that is not named after a particular person ( contrasting with the National Hockey League 's Stanley Cup , the National Football League 's Vince Lombardi Trophy , and the National Basketball Association 's Larry O 'Brien Trophy ) .
= = History = =
Although it did not receive its current name until 1985 , the trophy was first awarded in 1967 , when the St. Louis Cardinals defeated the Boston Red Sox . Before that year , the champion of the World Series did not receive an official trophy . A new Commissioner 's Trophy is created each year , much like the Lombardi Trophy and the O 'Brien Trophy ; in contrast , the Stanley Cup is passed from champion to champion . Before 1997 , the trophy was presented to the winners in their locker room ; starting with that season , the presentation happened on the field if the champion clinched the title in their home stadium . Since its inception , the only year that the Commissioner 's Trophy has not been awarded was 1994 , when the players ' strike ended the season on August 11 , resulting in the cancellation of the entire post @-@ season . The New York Yankees have won the most Commissioner 's Trophies ( seven World Series wins since 1967 ) . The St. Louis Cardinals hold the record for the most trophies won in the National League ( four wins ) .
= = Design = =
The current trophy was redesigned in 1999 for the 2000 World Series and made by Tiffany & Co . The original trophy was designed by Lawrence Voegele , of Owatonna , Minnesota . The trophy is 24 inches ( 61 cm ) tall , excluding the base , and has a diameter of 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . It weighs approximately 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) and is made of sterling silver . The trophy features 30 gold @-@ plated flags , one for each of the Major League teams , which rise above a silver baseball covered with latitude and longitude lines that symbolize the world . The baseball also contains 24 @-@ karat vermeil baseball stitches . The base contains an inscription of the signature of the commissioner , as well as the words " Presented by the Commissioner of Baseball " . The new design was presented for the first time at the conclusion of the 2000 World Series , won by the Yankees .
= = = Trophy designs = = =
= = By franchise = =
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= Blood Money ( video game ) =
Blood Money is a side @-@ scrolling shooter video game developed by DMA Design . It was published by Psygnosis in 1989 for the Amiga , Atari ST and DOS , and in 1990 for the Commodore 64 . The game is set in four different locations on a planet , where players are tasked with attacking the enemies and defeating the bosses .
The game began development immediately after Menace , and borrowed similar gameplay elements . The development team used advanced hardware to develop Blood Money , utilising improved graphical and technological processes . The game was inspired by the presentation of Mr. Heli , and the animations of Blood Money would later inspire the development of Lemmings . The game was released to positive reviews ; praise was given to the game 's graphics and gameplay . The game was also commercially successful , selling over 40 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Gameplay = =
Blood Money is a horizontal side @-@ scrolling shooter that uses 2D computer graphics . Players move through four stages on the planet , taking control of a different vehicle in each level : a helicopter in the metal world , a submarine in a water world , a spacesuit in an ice world , and a fighter jet in a fire world . Each vehicle features unique weaponry , which players use to attack all advancing enemies . Players can upgrade their vehicle with power @-@ ups , which grant them additional weapons and upgrades , such as support missiles and neutron bombs . The vehicles ' energy acts as players ' health , and is depleted when the vehicle makes contact with enemies and walls . When all energy is lost , players lose a life ; three lives are provided at the beginning of the game , and additional lives can be collected as players progress through the levels . When all three lives are lost , the game ends and players are sent to the title screen . The first two levels may be selected from the beginning of the game ; after one level is complete , players can select any remaining world without restrictions . At the end of each level , players must defeat a boss .
= = Development = =
Following the successful release of Menace in 1988 , David Jones began developing Blood Money on 4 January 1989 , on the 25MHz 386 @-@ DX computer that publisher Psygnosis granted him , alongside a Personal Development System . Jones saw Blood Money as a " further development " of the concept used in Menace . Jones was heavily inspired by the " cuteness " of Mr. Heli ( 1987 ) during the development of Blood Money . The game 's cover art was designed by British artist Peter Andrew Jones for the novel Protector ( 1973 ) by Larry Niven , and was adapted for the game 's cover .
With Blood Money , Jones was determined to utilise the full colour range of the Amiga , opting to use the blitter as opposed to the hardware scrolling ; the blitter allowed graphics to be drawn quickly . Tony Smith , who had worked on Menace , produced the graphics for Blood Money , while Jones began work on a new scrolling system . While developing his own game , Talisman , Mike Dailly created a compact method to move enemies on @-@ screen , which Jones incorporated into Blood Money . The game 's animations fascinated Jones ' friend Gary Timmons , who then began experimenting with Deluxe Paint ; his work on the program led to his employment at DMA Design , and inspired some of the animations used in DMA 's next game , Walker ( 1993 ) . The game 's introduction required a star field , which Jones took from a quick demonstration that Dailly had been working on .
The game was ported to the PC by Tim Ansell of Creative Assembly , and to Atari ST by Jones ' friend Wayne Smithson , while Dailly began porting the game to the Commodore 64 following the Personal Computer World Show in September 1989 . Dailly used the code from the Talisman demo , and wrote a new sprite system . He also re @-@ worked the multi @-@ directional scrolling , and wrote his own tape loading routines , wanting one that allowed players to play a simple game while Blood Money loaded . Smith designed the graphics for the port , and became confused by the limitations of the hardware : he had to draw double pixels in Deluxe Paint , and was limited to sixteen colours . Dailly finished developing the Commodore 64 version of Blood Money on 12 March 1990 .
= = Reception = =
Blood Money received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release , particularly for its gameplay , graphical design , and sound . Gary Barrett of ST / Amiga Format wrote that the game is the best shoot ' em up game on the Amiga . Zzap ! 64 listed Blood Money as the best Amiga game of the 1980s , and ST Format named it the second @-@ best shoot ' em up game of 1990 . The game sold 40 @,@ 000 copies , which is double the sales of Menace .
Stuart Wynne of Zzap ! 64 found the game " superb to play " , while Robin Hogg of the same publication wrote that it " measures up " to the game 's " brilliant " graphics . The One found the game to be among the " most challenging and technically accomplished " shoot ' em ups , while ACE called it " compelling " . Conversely , Mike Pattenden of CU Amiga criticised the difficulty , noting its lack of rewards .
Critics praised the game 's graphical qualities . Paul Glancey of Computer and Video Games lauded the game 's opening sequence , and called the sprites among " the best designed and most fluidly animated " in an Amiga game . The Games Machine found the graphics " utterly impressive " , and Barrett of ST / Amiga Format wrote that the game is " in a class of its own " , praising the sprite animations . Zzap ! 64 's Hogg commended the animation and backgrounds . Conversely , CU Amiga 's Pattenden felt that the graphics lack depth .
The game 's use of sound received positive reactions . Phil King of Zzap ! 64 was impressed by the soundtrack , particularly praising the introductory music . The Games Machine echoed similar remarks , writing that the game features " excellent " sound , and Glancey of Computer and Video Games wrote that the sound chip was " put ... to bloomin ' good use " . Barrett of ST / Amiga Format preferred the sound effects over the music , though felt that they were inferior to those in Menace . Pattenden of CU Amiga felt that the sound is " a poor tune and some average effects " , while ACE called it " a little weedy " .
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= Great Britain at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland competed as Great Britain at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The United Kingdom was represented by the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) , and the team of selected athletes was officially known as Team GB . Britain is one of only five NOCs to have competed in every modern Summer Olympic Games since 1896 . The delegation of 547 people included 311 competitors – 168 men , 143 women – and 236 officials . The team was made up of athletes from the whole United Kingdom including Northern Ireland ( whose people may elect to hold Irish citizenship and are able to be selected to represent either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympics ) . Additionally some British overseas territories compete separately from Britain in Olympic competition .
Great Britain 's medal performance at the 2008 Summer Olympics was its best in a century ; only its performance at the 1908 Summer Olympics , which Britain hosted in London , resulted in more gold medals being awarded . The total medal count , 47 , is also the third highest Great Britain has ever achieved , with only the 1908 and the 2012 Games resulting in more medals .
Great Britain finished 4th overall in the medal tables , a target previously set by UK Sport , the public body responsible for distributing funding to elite sport , for the 2012 Games . UK Sport considered whether to target 3rd place in the 2012 Games , which was hosted by the United Kingdom in London .
Because London was the host city of the 2012 Summer Olympics , a segment of their culture was performed during the closing ceremony .
= = Medallists = =
The following British competitors won medals at the Games , all dates are August 2008 . In the ' by discipline ' sections below , medallists ' names are in bold .
= = = Multiple medallists = = =
The following Team GB competitors won multiple medals at the 2008 Olympic Games .
= = Targets = =
In June 2008 , UK Sport , which distributes National Lottery funding to elite sport , published its expectations for the Games . It identified 41 potential medals to target and expected to win 35 of them , including 10 to 12 gold medals and to finish 8th in the overall medal table . Team GB exceeded the gold medal expectations on 19 August when Paul Goodison earned Britain 's 13th gold medal in the men 's Laser class . The minimum medal target , of 35 medals , was passed on 20 August when they claimed their 36th medal — a bronze in the women 's RS : X , won by Bryony Shaw . The total medal target was equalled when canoeist Tim Brabants took gold in the men 's 1000 m K @-@ 1 claiming Britain 's 41st physical medal ( three further medals were guaranteed in boxing at the time ) . They later exceeded the total number of targeted medals when Heather Fell secured the silver in women 's modern pentathlon .
It should be noted that the medals claimed were not all ones that had been targeted , with Team GB falling short of targets in some disciplines whilst exceeding them in others . Nine out of seventeen disciplines met their targets . The British cyclists , for example doubled their medal target on 19 August when Victoria Pendleton won Britain 's 12th cycling medal , a gold in the women 's sprint . A further two medals were already guaranteed at this stage in the men 's individual sprint , where gold and silver were soon won by Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny respectively . In all Team GB won seven of the ten gold medals up for grabs at the velodrome . The swimmers also managed to double the targeted number of medals in their sport when David Davies won the team 's sixth swimming medal — a silver medal in the men 's 10 km open water marathon on 21 August . Despite the men 's and women 's archery teams having come second and third respectively at the 2007 world championships , British archers were unable to win either of their targeted medals . This led to criticism of the tactics used by head coach Peter Suk from members of the team .
= = Archery = =
At the 2007 World Outdoor Target Championships , Great Britain 's men 's team placed second and its women 's team placed third . This qualified the nation to send full teams of three men and three women to the Olympics .
Men
Women
= = Athletics = =
The initial squad was selected for the British team on 14 July ; however , the final team was not confirmed until the outcome of a courtcase involving Dwain Chambers . Under the rules of the BOA , Chambers had been banned from future Games after testing positive for the steroid THG in 2003 . His appeal to overturn that ban , on the grounds that it was an unfair restraint of trade , failed and he was omitted from the squad . The team included former Olympic medal winners Marlon Devonish and Kelly Sotherton , as well as former Olympic individual finalists Joanne Pavey , Paula Radcliffe , Helen Clitheroe and Tasha Danvers . Women 's marathon world record holder Paula Radcliffe faced a battle to be fit for the Games due to a stress fracture in her left thigh . She eventually proved fit enough to start the race but struggled to finish in 23rd position .
A total of four medals were won , one gold , two silver and one bronze . UK Athletics performance director Dave Collins stood down after the Games . This was due in part to the team 's failure to meet the UK Sport target of winning five medals ,
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Track & road events
* Qualified for the team , but did not compete in any of the rounds
Field events
Combined events – Decathlon
Women
Track & road events
* Qualified for the team , but did not compete in any of the rounds
Field events
Combined events – Heptathlon
* The athlete who finished in second place , Lyudmila Blonska of the Ukraine , tested positive for a banned substance . Both the A and the B tests were positive , therefore Blonska was stripped of her silver medal , and both British heptathletes moved up a position .
= = Badminton = =
Six British badminton players went to the Games , competing in four out of the five badminton events . They did not win any medals , thus failing to reach the one medal target set by UK Sport . The mixed doubles pairing of Gail Emms and Nathan Robertson , who won silver in the 2004 tournament , progressed furthest amongst the British athletes , reaching the quarterfinals .
= = Boxing = =
A total of eight boxers qualified . David Price and Tony Jeffries both won bronze medals in the super heavyweight and light heavyweight divisions respectively . Middleweight James DeGale won a gold medal in the middleweight class . It was the first time that Great Britain has won more than one medal in boxing in a single games since 1972 , and the best result for Great Britain in boxing since 1956 .
= = Canoeing = =
Seven competitors joined Team GB for the canoeing events , with four in the flatwater and three in the slalom . Anna Hemmings and Jessica Walker , in the K @-@ 2 kayaking pairs , were added later after complications with the Spanish team . Three medals were won , two by Tim Brabants , who had previously won a bronze at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney . This exceeded the target of two set by UK Sport .
= = = Slalom = = =
= = = Sprint = = =
Qualification Legend : QS |
= Qualify to semi @-@ final ; QF =
Qualify directly to final
= = Cycling = =
Team GB 's cycling squad for Beijing totalled twenty five entrants in the four disciplines . Included were two reigning Olympic track cycling champions , Chris Hoy and Bradley Wiggins , plus a further two medal winners from 2004 , as well as several reigning track world champions . Great Britain won fourteen cycling medals ( eight gold , four silver and two bronze ) in total to top the cycling medal table . The Cycling team won the BBC Sports team of the year award and was nominated for Laureus World team of the year .
On the track Mark Cavendish was the only member of the squad of fourteen not to win at least one medal . Chris Hoy became Scotland 's most successful Olympic competitor ever , and the first Briton to win three gold medals at a single Olympic Games since Henry Taylor in 1908 . His success resulted in the velodrome for the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow being named in his honour . Rebecca Romero became the first British woman to win a medal in two different Olympic sports by following her silver medal in the quadruple sculls rowing in 2004 with gold in the women 's individual pursuit .
In the debut appearance of BMX events at the Olympics , world champion Shanaze Reade finished out of the medals after crashing out of the women 's final . Reade had been unbeaten all year and was the favourite to win the women 's title .
On the road Nicole Cooke 's win in the women 's road race provided the first Olympic gold for an athlete from Wales since Richard Meade in 1972 .
= = = Road = = =
Men
Women
= = = Track = = =
Sprint
Pursuit
Keirin
Omnium
= = = Mountain biking = = =
= = = BMX = = =
= = Diving = =
A total of ten divers were part of Team GB in the individual and synchronised diving events , including 14 @-@ year @-@ old Tom Daley , the 2008 European 10 m champion and one of the youngest athletes to ever compete for Great Britain at an Olympics .
Men
Women
= = Equestrian = =
A total of twelve entrants competed for Team GB in the three equestrian disciplines that took place in Hong Kong . Zara Phillips , the reigning world eventing champion and granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II , had been included in the squad until her horse , Toytown , sustained an injury , which meant she missed her second successive Olympics .
= = = Dressage = = =
( Total scores are the average of qualifying round 2 and freestyle final for the individual competition , and average of individual round 1 scores for the team competition . )
= = = Eventing = = =
# – Indicates that points do not count in team total
= = = Show jumping = = =
* On 21 August , four horses from Brazil , Germany , Ireland and Norway tested positive for a banned substance . The riders were subsequently disqualified from the individual competition and if the B samples test positive then Brazil , Germany and Norway will be disqualified from the team competition and Great Britain will move into 5th place .
= = Fencing = =
Great Britain qualified three fencers for the fencing competition . Two of these came from the re @-@ allocation of places by the Fédération Internationale d 'Escrime ( FIE ) , the governing body for Olympic fencing , after the withdrawal of other fencers .
Men
Women
= = Field hockey = =
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
The Great Britain men 's team qualified for the men 's Olympic field hockey tournament after a must @-@ win game against India in the final of the Olympic qualifying event . Great Britain was drawn in Group B of the Olympic tournament based on world rankings on 18 April 2008 . Having finished 3rd in the pool the team went on to finish 5th overall , beating South Korea in the 5th vs. 6th place playoff . Matt Daly was the top scorer for the team with three goals .
Team roster
The following is the British roster in the men 's field hockey tournament of the 2008 Summer Olympics .
Head Coach : Jason Lee
Reserve :
Niall Stott
James Fair ( GK )
Group play
Advanced to semifinals
Classification match for 5th / 6th place
= = = Women 's tournament = = =
The Great Britain Women 's team qualified for the women 's Olympic field hockey tournament during the 2007 Women 's EuroHockey Nations Championship . Great Britain was drawn in Group B of the Olympic tournament based on world rankings on 5 May 2008 . Having finished 3rd in the pool and proceeded to the 5th and 6th place classification match where they lost to Australia . Crista Cullen was the team 's top scorer in the tournament with 3 goals .
Team roster
The following is the British roster in the women 's field hockey tournament of the 2008 Summer Olympics .
Head Coach : Danny Kerry
Reserve :
Katy Roberts ( GK )
Laura Barlett
Group play
Advanced to semifinals
Classification match for 5th / 6th place
= = Gymnastics = =
Team GB entered nine gymnasts into the artistic and trampoline events . Louis Smith , in winning the bronze medal in the men 's pommel horse , became the first ever British gymnast to win an individual apparatus medal in gymnastics , and the first Briton to win any individual gymnastics medal since Walter Tysall won men 's all @-@ around medal in 1908 . Laura Jones was originally chosen for the artistic gymnastics but , due to a slipped disc in her back , she was replaced by the reserve Imogen Cairns .
= = = Artistic = = =
Men
Women
Team
Individual finals
The result of the uneven bars final , in which Britain 's Beth Tweddle placed 4th , was called into question after documents were found that seemed to say that Chinese gymnasts He Kexin and Yang Yilin were only 14 , and therefore under the age required to compete , at the time of the games . An investigation into their ages was launched by the IOC to determine whether it was necessary to disqualify them , thus Tweddle 's standing could have been changed to 2nd , giving her a silver medal . After a five and a half week investigation the Chinese athletes were cleared and the original results allowed to stand .
= = = Trampoline = = =
Claire Wright was the only British competitor on the trampoline .
= = Judo = =
Team GB was represented by seven athletes in the Judo events . No British Judoka made it past the quarterfinal stages of competition or through to the medal match of the repechage , meaning the team failed to meet the two medal target set by UK Sport .
Men
Women
= = Modern pentathlon = =
Team GB sent the maximum allowance of four competitors for the modern pentathlon events in Beijing . For the first time since 1996 , the team had entrants in the men 's competition .
= = Rowing = =
There were 43 rowers in Team GB , the most since qualifying quotas were introduced after the 1992 Summer Olympics . Crews were fielded in 12 out of a possible 14 events making Team GB the fourth biggest team . Medals were won in 6 events , which meant that GB topped the rowing medal table . The medals won included gold in the coxless fours , for the third successive games , and Zac Purchase and Mark Hunter winning Great Britain 's first ever lightweight rowing Olympic medal in the men 's lightweight double sculls .
Men
Women
Qualification Legend : FA = Final A ( medal ) ; FB = Final B ( non @-@ medal ) ; FC = Final C ( non @-@ medal ) ; FD = Final D ( non @-@ medal ) ; FE = Final E ( non @-@ medal ) ; FF = Final F ( non @-@ medal ) ; SA / B = Semifinals A / B ; SC / D = Semifinals C / D ; SE / F = Semifinals E / F ; QF = Quarterfinals ; R = Repechage
* Substitutes in final because of illness : Louisa Reeve for Howard and Alice Freeman for Knowles
= = Sailing = =
Great Britain entered crews in all 11 sailing events at the Games . The team finished top of the sailing medal table , with six medals won , thus exceeding the target of four set by UK Sport . Ben Ainslie won a gold medal for the third successive Games to become the most decorated British Olympic sailor of all time .
Men
Women
Open
M |
= Medal race ; EL =
Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; CAN |
= Race cancelled ; OCS =
On the course side of the starting line ;
= = Shooting = =
Team GB had a total of five competitors for the shooting disciplines at the 2008 Olympics , with four entered in the shotgun events and one in the rifle events .
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
Thirty @-@ seven athletes represented Team GB in the swimming events . Selection followed the 2008 British Olympic Swimming Trials in Sheffield in April , with open water event swimmers selected after performance in the 2008 World Open Water Swimming Championships , in Seville , Spain . In winning six medals ( two gold , two silver and two bronze ) the team bettered the target of three medals set by UK Sport . The most successful swimmer was Rebecca Adlington who won two gold medals . Her 400 m freestyle success was Britain 's first Olympic swimming title since 1988 , and the first swimming gold by a British woman since 1960 . Her second gold , in the 800 m freestyle , meant she also equalled the best performance by a British woman , from any sport , at the summer Olympics and was the best swimming performance by a Briton at the Olympics for 100 years .
Men
Qualifiers for the latter rounds ( Q ) of all events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
Women
Qualifiers for the latter rounds ( Q ) of all events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
= = Synchronised swimming = =
Team GB was represented by two athletes in synchronised swimming , competing in the duet event .
= = Taekwondo = =
Team GB entered three athletes into the taekwondo competition in Beijing . Sarah Stevenson won Team GB 's first ever medal in Olympic taekwondo – a bronze in the women 's + 67 kg .
* After a successful appeal by the British , judges reversed the result of the match , granting Sarah Stevenson two points for a final round kick to her opponent 's head which the judges had previously missed . The reversal of the decision , after video footage was considered , is thought to be a first for the sport . Another British hopeful , Aaron Cook , was also unhappy with the judges after losing out on bronze in the men 's -80 kg .
= = Tennis = =
The Murray brothers were the sole tennis players on Team GB . Andy Murray qualified due to his world ranking and Jamie Murray was nominated for the doubles by the International Tennis Federation , the governing body of world tennis .
= = Triathlon = =
A total of five competitors were selected by Team GB for the triathlon events in Beijing , with three in the men 's event and two in the women 's . Four qualified through the Olympic Qualification rankings of the International Triathlon Union , the body responsible for organizing official world championship series races , while Helen Tucker qualified by winning the 2008 World Championships .
= = Weightlifting = =
The only British weightlifter to qualify for the games was Michaela Breeze who competed in her second Olympic Games . She battled through a back injury to finish 15th out of 20 competitors in her event .
= = Sports not contested in Beijing = =
British representatives participated in the qualifying tournaments of a number of other Olympic sports in the lead up to the 2008 games , only for events outside of the athletes ' control to prevent their further participation in the games .
= = = Baseball = = =
The GB baseball team finished 2nd in the 2007 European Baseball Championship behind the Netherlands , guaranteeing them a place at the Olympic qualifying tournament in Taiwan . However , a lack of funding forced the team to withdraw , with their place being taken by Germany .
= = = Football = = =
The award of the 2012 Summer Olympics to London has brought the question of British participation in the football tournaments to the fore , given that there is traditionally no single British national football team . The British Olympic Association initially refused to rule out the possibility of entry for 2008 , but were unable to come to an agreement with the Scottish Football Association . The 2007 European Under @-@ 21 Championship , which served as the European qualifying tournament for the men 's competition , saw the England U @-@ 21 team reach the semifinals , which would have meant a place at the Olympics . Because at the Olympics the team is representative of the entire UK , England were thus prevented from taking this place , with instead a play @-@ off taking place between Portugal and Italy . A similar situation occurred with the England Women 's team who , by virtue of being one of the top three European sides at the 2007 World Cup , would have been granted a place at the Olympics . Instead , there was a play @-@ off between Denmark and Sweden .
= = Media coverage = =
The main rights to Olympic coverage in the United Kingdom are held by the BBC , under the Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events . An extensive range of broadcasting options was used to provide over 2 @,@ 500 hours of coverage .
For the first time , Olympic coverage was broadcast in high @-@ definition on BBC HD . Digital television viewers had access to up to six streamed channels covering the games on BBC Red Button , whilst the BBC 's website permitted British broadband users to view live streams from a variety of events . Live broadcasts ran overnight and throughout the day on BBC One and BBC Two , starting at 0200 daily ; a highlights programme , Games Today , was broadcast on BBC One following the close of each day 's events .
The opening and closing ceremonies were anchored by Sue Barker and Huw Edwards , whilst general coverage was anchored ( at various times of the day ) by Adrian Chiles , Clare Balding , Gabby Logan , Jake Humphrey , Sue Barker , Hazel Irvine and John Inverdale . Former Olympic contenders — including gold medallists Michael Johnson , Shirley Robertson , Adrian Moorhouse , Steve Redgrave , Jonathan Edwards and Chris Boardman — provided analysis .
Eurosport also broadcast coverage of the Games viewable in the United Kingdom . In accordance with the ITC Code , it can show live events , provided that such events can also be broadcast by the BBC ( although the BBC can choose not to do so ) .
Radio coverage was provided by BBC Radio 5 Live , and BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra on digital radio .
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= Angelina Jolie =
Angelina Jolie Pitt ( / dʒoʊˈliː / joh @-@ LEE ; née Voight ; June 4 , 1975 ) is an American actress , filmmaker , and humanitarian . She has received an Academy Award , two Screen Actors Guild Awards , and three Golden Globe Awards , and has been cited as Hollywood 's highest @-@ paid actress . Jolie made her screen debut as a child alongside her father , Jon Voight , in Lookin ' to Get Out ( 1982 ) . Her film career began in earnest a decade later with the low @-@ budget production Cyborg 2 ( 1993 ) , followed by her first leading role in a major film , Hackers ( 1995 ) . She starred in the critically acclaimed biographical cable films George Wallace ( 1997 ) and Gia ( 1998 ) , and won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in the drama Girl , Interrupted ( 1999 ) .
Jolie 's starring role as the video game heroine Lara Croft in Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) established her as a leading Hollywood actress . She continued her successful action @-@ star career with Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 2005 ) , Wanted ( 2008 ) , and Salt ( 2010 ) , and received critical acclaim for her performances in the dramas A Mighty Heart ( 2007 ) and Changeling ( 2008 ) , which earned her a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress . Beginning in the 2010s , she expanded her career into directing , screenwriting , and producing , starting with the wartime dramas In the Land of Blood and Honey ( 2011 ) and Unbroken ( 2014 ) . Her biggest commercial success came with the fantasy picture Maleficent ( 2014 ) .
Jolie is also known her humanitarian work , for which she has received a Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award and an honorary damehood of the Order of St Michael and St George ( DCMG ) , among other honors . She promotes various causes , including conservation , education , and women 's rights , and is most noted for her advocacy on behalf of refugees as a Special Envoy for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) . Jolie has been cited as one of the most influential and powerful people in the American entertainment industry . Divorced from actors Jonny Lee Miller and Billy Bob Thornton , she has been married to actor Brad Pitt since 2014 . They have six children together , three of whom were adopted internationally .
= = Early life and family = =
Born in Los Angeles , California , Jolie is the daughter of actors Jon Voight and Marcheline Bertrand . She is the sister of actor James Haven and niece of singer @-@ songwriter Chip Taylor . Her godparents are actors Jacqueline Bisset and Maximilian Schell . On her father 's side , Jolie is of German and Slovak descent , and on her mother 's side , she is of primarily French @-@ Canadian , Dutch , and German ancestry . Like her mother , Jolie has stated that she is part Iroquois , although her only known indigenous ancestors were 17th @-@ century Hurons .
After her parents ' separation in 1976 , Jolie and her brother lived with their mother , who had abandoned her acting ambitions to focus on raising her children . As a child , she often watched films with her mother and it was this , rather than her father 's successful career , that inspired her interest in acting , though at age five she had a bit part in Voight 's Lookin ' to Get Out ( 1982 ) . When Jolie was six years old , Bertrand and her live @-@ in partner , filmmaker Bill Day , moved the family to Palisades , New York ; they returned to Los Angeles five years later . Jolie then decided she wanted to act and enrolled at the Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute , where she trained for two years and appeared in several stage productions .
Jolie first attended Beverly Hills High School , where she felt isolated among the children of some of the area 's affluent families , because her mother survived on a more modest income . She was teased by other students , who targeted her for being extremely thin and for wearing glasses and braces . Her early attempts at modeling , at her mother 's insistence , proved unsuccessful . She then transferred to Moreno High School , an alternative school , where she became a " punk outsider , " wearing all @-@ black clothing , going out moshing , and experimenting with knife play with her live @-@ in boyfriend . She dropped out of her acting classes and aspired to become a funeral director , taking at @-@ home courses to study embalming . At age 16 , after the relationship had ended , Jolie graduated from high school and rented her own apartment , before returning to theater studies , though in 2004 she referred to this period with the observation , " I am still at heart — and always will be — just a punk kid with tattoos . "
As a teenager , Jolie found it difficult to emotionally connect with other people , and as a result she self @-@ harmed , later commenting , " For some reason , the ritual of having cut myself and feeling the pain , maybe feeling alive , feeling some kind of release , it was somehow therapeutic to me . " She also struggled with insomnia and an eating disorder , and began experimenting with drugs ; by age 20 , she had used " just about every drug possible , " particularly heroin . Jolie suffered episodes of depression and twice planned to commit suicide — at age 19 and again at 22 , when she attempted to hire a hitman to kill her . When she was 24 , she experienced a nervous breakdown and was admitted for 72 hours to UCLA Medical Center 's psychiatric ward . Two years later , after adopting her first child , Jolie found stability in her life , later stating , " I knew once I committed to Maddox , I would never be self @-@ destructive again . "
Jolie has had a lifelong dysfunctional relationship with her father , which began when Voight left the family when his daughter was less than a year old . She has said that from then on their time together was sporadic and usually carried out in front of the press . They reconciled when they appeared together in Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) , but their relationship again deteriorated . Jolie petitioned the court to legally remove her surname " Voight " in favor of her middle name , which she had long used as a stage name ; the name change was granted on September 12 , 2002 . Voight then went public with their estrangement during an appearance on Access Hollywood , in which he claimed Jolie had " serious mental problems . " At that point , her mother and brother also broke off contact with Voight . They did not speak for six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , but began rebuilding their relationship in the wake of Bertrand 's death from ovarian cancer on January 27 , 2007 , before going public with their reconciliation three years later .
= = Career = =
= = = 1991 – 97 : Early work = = =
Jolie committed to acting professionally at the age of 16 , but initially found it difficult to pass auditions , often being told that her demeanor was " too dark . " She appeared in five of her brother 's student films , made while he attended the USC School of Cinema @-@ Television , as well as in several music videos , namely Lenny Kravitz 's " Stand by My Woman " ( 1991 ) , Antonello Venditti 's " Alta Marea " ( 1991 ) , The Lemonheads 's " It 's About Time " ( 1993 ) , and Meat Loaf 's " Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through " ( 1993 ) . She began to learn from her father , as she noticed his method of observing people to become like them . Their relationship during this time was less strained , with Jolie realizing that they were both " drama queens . "
Jolie began her professional film career in 1993 , when she played her first leading role in the straight @-@ to @-@ video science @-@ fiction sequel Cyborg 2 , as a near @-@ human robot designed for corporate espionage and assassination . She was so disappointed with the film that she did not audition again for a year . Following a supporting role in the independent film Without Evidence ( 1995 ) , she starred in her first Hollywood picture , Hackers ( 1995 ) . The New York Times critic Janet Maslin wrote , " Kate stands out . That 's because she scowls even more sourly than [ her co @-@ stars ] and is that rare female hacker who sits intently at her keyboard in a see @-@ through top . " Hackers failed to make a profit at the box office , but developed a cult following after its video release .
After starring in the modern @-@ day Romeo and Juliet adaptation Love Is All There Is ( 1996 ) , Jolie appeared in the road movie Mojave Moon ( 1996 ) , of which The Hollywood Reporter said , " Jolie , an actress whom the camera truly adores , reveals a comic flair and the kind of blatant sexuality that makes it entirely credible that Danny Aiello 's character would drop everything just for the chance of being with her . " In Foxfire ( 1996 ) she played a drifter who unites four teenage girls against a teacher who has sexually harassed them . Jack Mathews of the Los Angeles Times wrote of her performance , " It took a lot of hogwash to develop this character , but Jolie , Jon Voight 's knockout daughter , has the presence to overcome the stereotype . Though the story is narrated by Maddy , Legs is the subject and the catalyst . "
In 1997 , Jolie starred with David Duchovny in the thriller Playing God , set in the Los Angeles underworld . The film was not well received by critics ; Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert noted that Jolie " finds a certain warmth in a kind of role that is usually hard and aggressive ; she seems too nice to be [ a mobster 's ] girlfriend , and maybe she is . " Her next work , as a frontierswoman in the CBS miniseries True Women ( 1997 ) , was even less successful ; writing for The Philadelphia Inquirer , Robert Strauss dismissed her as " horrid , a fourth @-@ rate Scarlett O 'Hara " who relies on " gnashed teeth and overly pouted lips . " Jolie also starred in the music video for the Rolling Stones 's " Anybody Seen My Baby ? " as a stripper who leaves mid @-@ performance to wander New York City .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Breakthrough = = =
Jolie 's career prospects began to improve after she won a Golden Globe Award for her performance in TNT 's George Wallace ( 1997 ) , about the life of the segregationist Alabama Governor and presidential candidate George Wallace , played by Gary Sinise . Jolie portrayed Wallace 's second wife , Cornelia , a performance Lee Winfrey of The Philadelphia Inquirer considered a highlight of the film . George Wallace was very well received by critics and won , among other awards , the Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film . Jolie also received a nomination for an Emmy Award for her performance .
Jolie 's first breakthrough came when she portrayed supermodel Gia Carangi in HBO 's Gia ( 1998 ) . The film chronicles the destruction of Carangi 's life and career as a result of her addiction to heroin , and her decline and death from AIDS in the mid @-@ 1980s . Vanessa Vance of Reel.com retrospectively noted , " Jolie gained wide recognition for her role as the titular Gia , and it 's easy to see why . Jolie is fierce in her portrayal — filling the part with nerve , charm , and desperation — and her role in this film is quite possibly the most beautiful train wreck ever filmed . " For the second consecutive year , Jolie won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Emmy Award . She also won her first Screen Actors Guild Award .
In accordance with Lee Strasberg 's method acting , Jolie preferred to stay in character in between scenes during many of her early films , and as a result had gained a reputation for being difficult to deal with . While shooting Gia , she told her husband , Jonny Lee Miller , that she would not be able to phone him : " I 'd tell him : ' I 'm alone ; I 'm dying ; I 'm gay ; I 'm not going to see you for weeks . ' " After Gia wrapped , she briefly gave up acting , because she felt that she had " nothing else to give . " She separated from Miller and moved to New York , where she took night classes at New York University to study directing and screenwriting . Encouraged by her Golden Globe Award win for George Wallace and the positive critical reception of Gia , Jolie resumed her career .
Following the previously filmed gangster film Hell 's Kitchen ( 1998 ) , Jolie returned to the screen in Playing by Heart ( 1998 ) , part of an ensemble cast that included Sean Connery , Gillian Anderson , and Ryan Phillippe . The film received predominantly positive reviews , and Jolie was praised in particular ; San Francisco Chronicle critic Peter Stack wrote , " Jolie , working through an overwritten part , is a sensation as the desperate club crawler learning truths about what she 's willing to gamble . " She won the Breakthrough Performance Award from the National Board of Review .
In 1999 , Jolie starred in the comedy @-@ drama Pushing Tin , alongside John Cusack , Billy Bob Thornton , and Cate Blanchett . The film met with mixed reception from critics , and Jolie 's character — Thornton 's seductive wife — was particularly criticized ; writing for The Washington Post , Desson Howe dismissed her as " a completely ludicrous writer 's creation of a free @-@ spirited woman who weeps over hibiscus plants that die , wears lots of turquoise rings and gets real lonely when Russell spends entire nights away from home . " Jolie then co @-@ starred with Denzel Washington in The Bone Collector ( 1999 ) , playing a police officer who reluctantly helps Washington 's paraplegic detective track down a serial killer . The film grossed $ 151 @.@ 5 million worldwide , but was critically unsuccessful . Terry Lawson of the Detroit Free Press concluded , " Jolie , while always delicious to look at , is simply and woefully miscast . "
Jolie next took the supporting role of a sociopathic mental patient in Girl , Interrupted ( 1999 ) , an adaptation of Susanna Kaysen 's memoir of the same name . While Winona Ryder played the main character in what was hoped to be a comeback for her , the film instead marked Jolie 's final breakthrough in Hollywood . She won her third Golden Globe Award , her second Screen Actors Guild Award , and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress . For Variety , Emanuel Levy noted , " Jolie is excellent as the flamboyant , irresponsible girl who turns out to be far more instrumental than the doctors in Susanna 's rehabilitation . "
In 2000 , Jolie appeared in her first summer blockbuster , Gone in 60 Seconds , which became her highest @-@ grossing film to that point , earning $ 237 @.@ 2 million internationally . She had a minor role as the mechanic ex @-@ girlfriend of a car thief played by Nicolas Cage ; The Washington Post writer Stephen Hunter criticized that " all she does in this movie is stand around , cooling down , modeling those fleshy , pulsating muscle @-@ tubes that nest so provocatively around her teeth . " Jolie later explained that the film had been a welcome relief after her emotionally demanding role in Girl , Interrupted .
= = = 2001 – 04 : Mainstream recognition = = =
Although highly regarded for her acting abilities , Jolie had rarely found films that appealed to a wide audience , but Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) made her an international superstar . An adaptation of the popular Tomb Raider videogames , the film required her to learn an English accent and undergo extensive martial arts training to play the archaeologist @-@ adventurer Lara Croft . Although the film generated mostly negative reviews , Jolie was generally praised for her physical performance ; Newsday 's John Anderson commented , " Jolie makes the title character a virtual icon of female competence and coolth . " The film was an international hit , earning $ 274 @.@ 7 million worldwide , and launched her global reputation as a female action star .
Jolie next starred opposite Antonio Banderas as his mail @-@ order bride in Original Sin ( 2001 ) , the first of a string of films that were poorly received by critics and audiences alike . The New York Times critic Elvis Mitchell questioned Jolie 's decision to follow her Oscar @-@ winning performance with " soft @-@ core nonsense . " The romantic comedy Life or Something Like It ( 2002 ) , though equally unsuccessful , marked an unusual choice for Jolie . Salon 's Allen Barra considered her ambitious newscaster character a rare attempt at playing a conventional women 's role , noting that her performance " doesn 't get off the ground until a scene where she goes punk and leads a group of striking bus workers in singing ' Satisfaction . ' " Despite her lack of box office success , Jolie remained in demand as an actress ; in 2002 , she established herself among Hollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses , earning $ 10 – $ 15 million per film for the next five years .
Jolie reprised her role as Lara Croft in Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life ( 2003 ) , which was not as lucrative as the original , earning $ 156 @.@ 5 million at the international box office . She also starred in the music video for Korn 's " Did My Time " , which was used to promote the sequel . Her next film was Beyond Borders ( 2003 ) , in which she portrayed a socialite who joins an aid worker played by Clive Owen . Though unsuccessful with audiences , the film stands as the first of several passion projects Jolie has made to bring attention to humanitarian causes . Beyond Borders was a critical failure ; Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times acknowledged Jolie 's ability to " bring electricity and believability to roles , " but wrote that " the limbo of a hybrid character , a badly written cardboard person in a fly @-@ infested , blood @-@ and @-@ guts world , completely defeats her . "
The year 2004 saw the release of four films featuring Jolie . She first starred in the thriller Taking Lives as an FBI profiler summoned to help Montreal law enforcement hunt down a serial killer . The film received mixed reviews ; The Hollywood Reporter critic Kirk Honeycutt concluded , " Jolie plays a role that definitely feels like something she has already done , but she does add an unmistakable dash of excitement and glamour . " Jolie made a brief appearance as a fighter pilot in Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow , a science fiction adventure shot entirely with actors in front of a bluescreen , and voiced her first family film , the DreamWorks animation Shark Tale . Her supporting role as Queen Olympias in Oliver Stone 's Alexander , about the life of Alexander the Great , was met with mixed reception , particularly concerning her Slavic accent . Commercially , the film failed in North America , which Stone attributed to disapproval of the depiction of Alexander 's bisexuality , but it succeeded internationally , for a total revenue of $ 167 @.@ 3 million .
= = = 2005 – 10 : Commercial success = = =
In 2005 , Jolie returned to major box office success with the action @-@ comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith , in which she starred opposite Brad Pitt as a bored married couple who find out that they are both secret assassins . The film received mixed reviews , but was generally lauded for the chemistry between the two leads ; Star Tribune critic Colin Covert noted , " While the story feels haphazard , the movie gets by on gregarious charm , galloping energy and the stars ' thermonuclear screen chemistry . " With box office takings of $ 478 @.@ 2 million worldwide , Mr. & Mrs. Smith was the seventh @-@ highest grossing picture of the year and remained Jolie 's highest @-@ grossing live @-@ action film for the next decade .
Following a supporting role as the neglected wife of a CIA officer in Robert De Niro 's The Good Shepherd ( 2006 ) , Jolie starred as Mariane Pearl in the documentary @-@ style drama A Mighty Heart ( 2007 ) . Based on Pearl 's memoir of the same name , the film chronicles the kidnapping and murder of her husband , The Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl , in Pakistan . Although the biracial Pearl had personally chosen Jolie for the role , the casting drew racial criticism and accusations of blackface . The resulting performance was widely praised ; Ray Bennett of The Hollywood Reporter described it as " well @-@ measured and moving , " played " with respect and a firm grasp on a difficult accent . " She received nominations for a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award . Jolie also played a shape @-@ shifting seductress , Grendel 's mother , in the epic Beowulf ( 2007 ) , created through motion capture . The film was critically and commercially well received , taking in revenues of $ 196 @.@ 4 million worldwide .
By 2008 , Jolie was considered the highest @-@ paid actress in Hollywood , earning $ 15 – $ 20 million per film . While other actresses had been forced to take salary cuts in recent years , Jolie 's perceived box office appeal allowed her to command as much as $ 20 million plus a percentage . She starred alongside James McAvoy and Morgan Freeman in the action film Wanted ( 2008 ) , which proved an international success , earning $ 341 @.@ 4 million worldwide . The film received predominantly favorable reviews ; writing for The New York Times , Manohla Dargis noted that Jolie was " perfectly cast as a super @-@ scary , seemingly amoral assassin , " adding that " she cuts the kind of disciplinarian figure who can bring boys of all ages to their knees or at least into their theater seats . "
Jolie next took the lead role in Clint Eastwood 's drama Changeling ( 2008 ) . Based in part on the Wineville Chicken Coop Murders , the film centers on Christine Collins , who is reunited with her kidnapped son in 1928 Los Angeles , only to realize the boy is an imposter . Chicago Tribune critic Michael Phillips noted , " Jolie really shines in the calm before the storm , the scenes when one patronizing male authority figure after another belittles her at their peril . " She received nominations for a Golden Globe Award , a Screen Actors Guild Award , a BAFTA Award , and an Academy Award for Best Actress . Jolie also voiced the DreamWorks animation Kung Fu Panda ( 2008 ) , the first work in a major family franchise , later reprising her voice role in the sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 ( 2011 ) and Kung Fu Panda 3 ( 2016 ) .
After her mother 's death in 2007 , Jolie began appearing in fewer films , later explaining that her motivation to be an actress had stemmed from her mother 's acting ambitions . Her first film in two years was the thriller Salt ( 2010 ) , in which she starred as a CIA agent who goes on the run after she is accused of being a KGB sleeper agent . Originally written as a male character with Tom Cruise attached to star , agent Salt underwent a gender change after a Columbia Pictures executive suggested Jolie for the role . With revenues of $ 293 @.@ 5 million , Salt became an international success . The film received generally positive reviews , with Jolie 's performance in particular earning praise ; Empire critic William Thomas remarked , " When it comes to selling incredible , crazy , death @-@ defying antics , Jolie has few peers in the action business . "
Jolie starred opposite Johnny Depp in the thriller The Tourist ( 2010 ) . The film was a critical failure , though Roger Ebert defended Jolie 's performance , stating that she " does her darndest " and " plays her femme fatale with flat @-@ out , drop @-@ dead sexuality . " Despite the poor critical reception and a slow start at the North American box office , the film went on to gross a respectable $ 278 @.@ 3 million worldwide , cementing Jolie 's appeal to international audiences . She received a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance , which gave rise to speculation that it had been given merely to ensure her high @-@ profile presence at the awards ceremony .
= = = 2011 – present : Professional expansion = = =
After directing the documentary A Place in Time ( 2007 ) , which was distributed through the National Education Association , Jolie made her feature directorial debut with In the Land of Blood and Honey ( 2011 ) , a love story between a Serb soldier and a Bosniak prisoner , set during the 1992 – 95 Bosnian War . She conceived the film to rekindle attention for the survivors , after twice visiting Bosnia and Herzegovina in her role as a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador . To ensure authenticity , she cast only actors from the former Yugoslavia — including stars Goran Kostić and Zana Marjanović — and incorporated their wartime experiences into her screenplay . Upon release , the film received mixed reviews ; Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Jolie deserves significant credit for creating such a powerfully oppressive atmosphere and staging the ghastly events so credibly , even if it is these very strengths that will make people not want to watch what 's onscreen . " The film was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film , and Jolie was named an honorary citizen of Sarajevo for raising awareness of the war .
After a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year absence from the screen , Jolie starred in Maleficent ( 2014 ) , a live @-@ action re @-@ imagining of Disney 's 1959 animation Sleeping Beauty . Critical reception was mixed , but Jolie 's performance in the titular role was singled out for praise ; The Hollywood Reporter critic Sherri Linden found her to be the " heart and soul " of the film , adding that she " doesn 't chew the estimable scenery in Maleficent — she infuses it , wielding a magnetic and effortless power . " In its opening weekend , Maleficent earned nearly $ 70 million at the North American box office and over $ 100 million in other markets , marking Jolie 's appeal to audiences of all demographics in both action and fantasy films , genres usually dominated by male actors . The film went on to gross $ 757 @.@ 8 million worldwide , becoming the fourth @-@ highest grossing film of the year and Jolie 's highest @-@ grossing film ever .
Jolie next completed her second directorial venture , Unbroken ( 2014 ) , about World War II hero Louis Zamperini ( 1917 – 2014 ) , a former Olympic track star who survived a plane crash over sea and spent two years in a Japanese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp . Based on Laura Hillenbrand 's biography of the same name , the film was scripted by the Coen brothers and starred Jack O 'Connell . After a positive early reception , Unbroken was considered a likely Best Picture and Best Director contender , but it ultimately received mixed reviews and little award recognition , though it was named one of the best films of the year by the National Board of Review and the American Film Institute . In a typical review , Variety 's Justin Chang noted the film 's " impeccable craftsmanship and sober restraint " , but deemed it " an extraordinary story told in dutiful , unexceptional terms . " Financially , Unbroken far outperformed industry expectations in its opening weekend , eventually earning over $ 163 million worldwide .
Jolie 's next directorial effort was the marital drama By the Sea ( 2015 ) , in which she starred opposite her husband , Brad Pitt , marking their first collaboration since 2005 's Mr. & Mrs. Smith . Based on her screenplay , the film was a deeply personal project for Jolie , who drew inspiration from her own mother 's life . Critics , however , dismissed it as a " vanity project , " as part of an overall poor reception . Writing for The Washington Post , Stephanie Merry noted its dearth of genuine emotion , stating , " By the Sea is dazzlingly gorgeous , as are its stars . But peeling back layer upon layer of exquisite ennui reveals nothing but emptiness , sprinkled with stilted sentiments . " Despite starring two of Hollywood 's leading actors , the film received only a limited release .
First They Killed My Father , Jolie 's adaptation of Loung Ung 's memoir of the same name , is scheduled to debut on Netflix in late 2016 . In addition to directing the film , she co @-@ wrote its screenplay with her friend Ung , a human rights activist who survived Cambodia 's Khmer Rouge regime . Jolie is next contracted to reprise the role of Maleficent in Disney 's sequel .
= = Humanitarian work = =
= = = UNHCR ambassadorship = = =
Jolie first witnessed the effects of a humanitarian crisis while filming Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) in war @-@ torn Cambodia , an experience she later credited with having brought her a greater understanding of the world . Upon her return home , she contacted the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) for information on international trouble spots . To learn more about the conditions in these areas , she began visiting refugee camps around the world . In February 2001 , she went on her first field visit , an 18 @-@ day mission to Sierra Leone and Tanzania ; she later expressed her shock at what she had witnessed .
In the following months , Jolie returned to Cambodia for two weeks and met with Afghan refugees in Pakistan , where she donated $ 1 million in response to an international UNHCR emergency appeal , the largest donation UNHCR had ever received from a private individual . She covered all costs related to her missions and shared the same rudimentary working and living conditions as UNHCR field staff on all of her visits . Jolie was named a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador at UNHCR headquarters in Geneva on August 27 , 2001 .
Over the next decade , she went on more than 40 field missions , meeting with refugees and internally displaced persons in over 30 countries . In 2002 , when asked what she hoped to accomplish , she stated , " Awareness of the plight of these people . I think they should be commended for what they have survived , not looked down upon . " To that end , her 2001 @-@ 02 field visits were chronicled in her book Notes from My Travels , which was published in October 2003 in conjunction with the release of her humanitarian drama Beyond Borders .
Jolie aimed to visit what she termed " forgotten emergencies , " crises that media attention had shifted away from . She became noted for travelling to war zones , such as Sudan 's Darfur region during the Darfur conflict , the Syrian @-@ Iraqi border during the Second Gulf War , where she met privately with U.S. troops and other multi @-@ national forces , and the Afghan capital Kabul during the war in Afghanistan , where three aid workers were murdered in the midst of her first visit . To aid her travels , she began taking flying lessons in 2004 with the aim of ferrying aid workers and food supplies around the world ; she now holds a private pilot license with instrument rating and owns a Cirrus SR22 and Cessna 208 Caravan single @-@ engine aircraft .
On April 17 , 2012 , after more than a decade of service as a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador , Jolie was promoted to the rank of Special Envoy to High Commissioner António Guterres , the first to take on such a position within the organization . In her expanded role , she was given authority to represent Guterres and UNHCR at the diplomatic level , with a focus on major refugee crises . In the months following her promotion , she made her first visit as Special Envoy — her third over all — to Ecuador , where she met with Colombian refugees , and she accompanied Guterres on a week @-@ long tour of Jordan , Lebanon , Turkey , and Iraq , to assess the situation of refugees from neighboring Syria . Since then , Jolie has gone on a dozen field missions around the world to meet with refugees and undertake advocacy on their behalf .
= = = Conservation and community development = = =
In an effort to connect her Cambodian @-@ born son with his heritage , Jolie purchased a house in his country of birth in 2003 . The traditional home sat on 39 hectares in the northwestern province Battambang , adjacent to Samlout national park in the Cardamom mountains , which had become infiltrated with poachers who threatened endangered species . She purchased the park 's 60 @,@ 000 hectares and turned the area into a wildlife reserve named for her son , the Maddox Jolie Project . In recognition of her conservation efforts , King Norodom Sihamoni awarded her Cambodian citizenship on July 31 , 2005 .
In November 2006 , Jolie expanded the scope of the project — renamed the Maddox Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation ( MJP ) — to create Asia 's first Millennium Village , in accordance with UN development goals . She was inspired by a meeting with the founder of Millennium Promise , noted economist Jeffrey Sachs , at the World Economic Forum in Davos , where she was an invited speaker in 2005 and 2006 . Together they filmed a 2005 MTV special , The Diary of Angelina Jolie & Dr. Jeffrey Sachs in Africa , which followed them on a trip to a Millennium Village in western Kenya . By mid @-@ 2007 , some 6 @,@ 000 villagers and 72 employees — some of them former poachers employed as rangers — lived and worked at MJP , in ten villages previously isolated from one another . The compound includes schools , roads , and a soy milk factory , all funded by Jolie . Her home functions as the MJP field headquarters .
After filming Beyond Borders ( 2003 ) in Namibia , Jolie became patron of the Harnas Wildlife Foundation , a wildlife orphanage and medical center in the Kalahari desert . She first visited the Harnas farm during production of the film , which features vultures rescued by the foundation . In December 2010 , Jolie and her partner , Brad Pitt , established the Shiloh Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation to support conservation work by the Naankuse Wildlife Sanctuary , a nature reserve also located in the Kalahari . In name of their Namibian @-@ born daughter , they have funded large @-@ animal conservation projects as well as a free health clinic , housing , and a school for the San Bushmen community at Naankuse . Jolie and Pitt support other causes through the Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation , established in September 2006 .
= = = Child immigration and education = = =
Jolie has pushed for legislation to aid child immigrants and other vulnerable children in both the U.S. and developing nations , including the " Unaccompanied Alien Child Protection Act of 2005 . " She began lobbying humanitarian interests in the U.S. capital from 2003 onwards , explaining , " As much as I would love to never have to visit Washington , that 's the way to move the ball . " Since October 2008 , she has co @-@ chaired Kids in Need of Defense ( KIND ) , a network of leading U.S. law firms that provide free legal aid to unaccompanied minors in immigration proceedings across the U.S. Founded in a collaboration between Jolie and the Microsoft Corporation , by 2013 , KIND had become the principal provider of pro bono lawyers for immigrant children . Jolie had previously , from 2005 to 2007 , funded the launch of a similar initiative , the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants ' National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children .
Jolie has also advocated for children 's education . Since its founding at the Clinton Global Initiative 's annual meeting in September 2007 , she has co @-@ chaired the Education Partnership for Children of Conflict , which provides policy and funding to education programs for children in conflict @-@ affected regions . In its first year , the partnership supported education projects for Iraqi refugee children , youth affected by the Darfur conflict , and girls in rural Afghanistan , among other affected groups . The partnership has worked closely with the Council on Foreign Relations ' Center for Universal Education — founded by the partnership 's co @-@ chair , noted economist Gene Sperling — to establish education policies , which resulted in recommendations made to UN agencies , G8 development agencies , and the World Bank . Since April 2013 , all proceeds from Jolie 's high @-@ end jewelry collection , Style of Jolie , have benefited the partnership 's work .
Jolie has funded a school and boarding facility for girls at Kakuma refugee camp in northwestern Kenya , which opened in 2005 , and two primary schools for girls in the returnee settlements Tangi and Qalai Gudar in eastern Afghanistan , which opened in March 2010 and November 2012 respectively . In addition to the facilities at the Millennium Village she established in Cambodia , Jolie had built at least ten other schools in the country by 2005 . In February 2006 , she opened the Maddox Chivan Children 's Center , a medical and educational facility for children affected by HIV , in the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh . In Sebeta , Ethiopia , the birthplace of her eldest daughter , she funds a sister facility , the Zahara Children 's Center , which is expected to open in 2015 and will treat and educate children suffering from HIV or tuberculosis . Both centers are run by the Global Health Committee .
= = = Human rights and women 's rights = = =
After Jolie joined the Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR ) in June 2007 , she hosted a symposium on international law and justice at CFR headquarters and funded several CFR special reports , including " Intervention to Stop Genocide and Mass Atrocities . " In January 2011 , she established the Jolie Legal Fellowship , a network of lawyers and attorneys who are sponsored to advocate the development of human rights in their countries . Its member attorneys , called Jolie Legal Fellows , have facilitated child protection efforts in Haiti in the wake of the 2010 earthquake and promoted the development of an inclusive democratic process in Libya following the 2011 revolution .
Jolie has fronted a campaign against sexual violence in military conflict zones by the UK government , which made the issue a priority of its 2013 G8 presidency . In May 2012 , she launched the Preventing Sexual Violence Initiative ( PSVI ) with Foreign Secretary William Hague , who was inspired to campaign on the issue by her Bosnian war drama In the Land of Blood and Honey ( 2011 ) . PSVI was established to complement wider UK government work by raising awareness and promoting international co @-@ operation . Jolie spoke on the subject at the G8 foreign ministers meeting , where the attending nations adopted a historic declaration , and before the UN security council , which responded by adopting its broadest resolution on the issue to date . In June 2014 , she co @-@ chaired the four @-@ day Global Summit to End Sexual Violence in Conflict , the largest @-@ ever meeting on the subject , which resulted in a protocol endorsed by 151 nations .
Through her work on the PSVI , Jolie met foreign policy experts Chloe Dalton and Arminka Helic , who served as special advisers to Hague . Their collaboration resulted in the 2015 founding of Jolie Pitt Dalton Helic , a partnership dedicated to women 's rights and international justice , among other causes . In May 2016 , Jolie was appointed a visiting professor at the London School of Economics to contribute to a postgraduate degree program at the university 's Centre on Women , Peace and Security , which she had launched with Hague the previous year .
= = = Recognition and honors = = =
Jolie has received wide recognition for her humanitarian work . In August 2002 , she received the inaugural Humanitarian Award from the Church World Service 's Immigration and Refugee Program , and in October 2003 , she was the first recipient of the Citizen of the World Award by the United Nations Correspondents Association . She was awarded the Global Humanitarian Award by the UNA @-@ USA in October 2005 , and she received the Freedom Award from the International Rescue Committee in November 2007 . In October 2011 , UN High Commissioner for Refugees António Guterres presented Jolie with a gold pin reserved for the most long @-@ serving staff , in recognition of her decade as a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador .
In November 2013 , Jolie received the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award , an honorary Academy Award , from the Board of Governors of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . In June 2014 , she was appointed an Honorary Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( DCMG ) for her services to the UK 's foreign policy and campaigning to end sexual violence in war zones . Queen Elizabeth II presented Jolie with the insignia of her honorary damehood during a private ceremony the following October .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and marriages = = =
Jolie had a serious boyfriend for two years from the age of 14 . Her mother allowed them to live together in her home , of which Jolie later said , " I was either going to be reckless on the streets with my boyfriend or he was going to be with me in my bedroom with my mom in the next room . She made the choice , and because of it , I continued to go to school every morning and explored my first relationship in a safe way . " She has compared the relationship to a marriage in its emotional intensity , and said that the breakup compelled her to dedicate herself to her acting career at the age of 16 .
During filming of Hackers ( 1995 ) , Jolie had a romance with British actor Jonny Lee Miller , her first lover since the relationship in her early teens . They were not in touch for many months after production ended , but eventually reconnected and married soon after on March 28 , 1996 . She attended her wedding in black rubber pants and a white T @-@ shirt , upon which she had written the groom 's name in her blood . Jolie and Miller separated in September 1997 and divorced on February 3 , 1999 . They remained on good terms , and Jolie later explained , " It comes down to timing . I think he 's the greatest husband a girl could ask for . I 'll always love him , we were simply too young . "
Jolie began a relationship with model @-@ actress Jenny Shimizu on the set of Foxfire ( 1996 ) . She later said , " I would probably have married Jenny if I hadn 't married my husband . I fell in love with her the first second I saw her . " According to Shimizu , their relationship lasted many years and continued even while Jolie was romantically involved with other people , though it had ended by 2005 . In 2003 , when asked if she was bisexual , Jolie responded , " Of course . If I fell in love with a woman tomorrow , would I feel that it 's okay to want to kiss and touch her ? If I fell in love with her ? Absolutely ! Yes ! "
After a two @-@ month courtship , Jolie married actor Billy Bob Thornton on May 5 , 2000 , in Las Vegas . They met on the set of Pushing Tin ( 1999 ) , but did not pursue a relationship at that time as Thornton was engaged to actress Laura Dern , while Jolie was reportedly dating actor Timothy Hutton , her co @-@ star in Playing God ( 1997 ) . As a result of their frequent public declarations of passion and gestures of love — most famously wearing one another 's blood in vials around their necks — their marriage became a favorite topic of the entertainment media . Jolie and Thornton announced the adoption of a child from Cambodia in March 2002 , but abruptly separated three months later . Their divorce was finalized on May 27 , 2003 . When asked about the sudden dissolution of their marriage , Jolie stated , " It took me by surprise , too , because overnight , we totally changed . I think one day we had just nothing in common . And it 's scary but ... I think it can happen when you get involved and you don 't know yourself yet . "
In early 2005 , Jolie was involved in a well @-@ publicized Hollywood scandal when she was accused of being the reason for the divorce of actors Brad Pitt and Jennifer Aniston . She and Pitt were alleged to have started an affair during filming of Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 2005 ) . Jolie stated on several occasions that this was not true , but also said that they " fell in love " on the set ; she explained in 2005 , " To be intimate with a married man , when my own father cheated on my mother , is not something I could forgive . I could not look at myself in the morning if I did that . I wouldn 't be attracted to a man who would cheat on his wife . " Jolie and Pitt did not publicly comment on the nature of their relationship until January 2006 , when Jolie confirmed that she was pregnant with Pitt 's child . They announced their engagement in April 2012 , after seven years together , and married on August 23 , 2014 , at their estate Château Miraval in Correns , France . Jolie took on Pitt 's name following their marriage . As a couple , they are dubbed " Brangelina " by the entertainment media , and are the subject of worldwide media coverage .
= = = Children = = =
On March 10 , 2002 , Jolie adopted her first child , seven @-@ month @-@ old Maddox Chivan , from an orphanage in Battambang , Cambodia . He was born as Rath Vibol on August 5 , 2001 , in a local village . After twice visiting Cambodia , while filming Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) and on a UNHCR field mission , Jolie returned in November 2001 with her husband , Billy Bob Thornton , where they met Maddox and subsequently applied to adopt him . The adoption process was halted the following month when the U.S. government banned adoptions from Cambodia amid allegations of child trafficking . Although Jolie 's adoption facilitator was later convicted of visa fraud and money laundering , her adoption of Maddox was deemed lawful . Once the process was finalized , she took custody of him in Namibia , where she was filming Beyond Borders ( 2003 ) . Jolie and Thornton announced the adoption together , but she adopted Maddox alone , and raised him as a single parent following their separation three months later .
Jolie adopted a daughter , six @-@ month @-@ old Zahara Marley , from an orphanage in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , on July 6 , 2005 . Zahara was born as Yemsrach on January 8 , 2005 , in Awasa . Jolie initially believed Zahara to be an AIDS orphan , based on official testimony from her grandmother , but her birth mother later came forward in the media . She explained that she had abandoned her family when Zahara became sick , and said she thought Zahara was " very fortunate " to have been adopted by Jolie . Jolie was accompanied by her partner , Brad Pitt , when she traveled to Ethiopia to take custody of Zahara . She later indicated that they had together made the decision to adopt from Ethiopia , having first visited the country earlier that year . After Pitt announced his intention to adopt her children , she filed a petition to legally change their surname from Jolie to Jolie @-@ Pitt , which was granted on January 19 , 2006 . Pitt adopted Maddox and Zahara soon after .
In an attempt to avoid the unprecedented media frenzy surrounding their relationship , Jolie and Pitt traveled to Namibia for the birth of their first biological child . On May 27 , 2006 , she gave birth to a daughter , Shiloh Nouvel , in Swakopmund . They sold the first pictures of Shiloh through the distributor Getty Images with the aim of benefiting charity , rather than allowing paparazzi to make these valuable photographs . People and Hello ! purchased the North American and British rights to the images for $ 4 @.@ 1 and $ 3 @.@ 5 million respectively , a record in celebrity photojournalism at that time , with all proceeds donated to UNICEF .
On March 15 , 2007 , Jolie adopted a son , three @-@ year @-@ old Pax Thien , from an orphanage in Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam . He was born as Pham Quang Sang on November 29 , 2003 , in HCMC , where he was abandoned by his biological mother soon after birth . After visiting the orphanage with Pitt in November 2006 , Jolie applied for adoption as a single parent , because Vietnam 's adoption regulations do not allow unmarried couples to co @-@ adopt . After their return to the U.S. , she petitioned the court to change her son 's surname from Jolie to Jolie @-@ Pitt , which was approved on May 31 . Pitt subsequently adopted Pax on February 21 , 2008 .
At the Cannes Film Festival in May 2008 , Jolie confirmed that she was expecting twins . For the two weeks she spent in a seaside hospital in Nice , France , reporters and photographers camped outside on the promenade . She gave birth to a son , Knox Léon , and a daughter , Vivienne Marcheline , on July 12 , 2008 . The first pictures of Knox and Vivienne were jointly sold to People and Hello ! for a reported $ 14 million — the most expensive celebrity photographs ever taken . All proceeds were donated to the Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation .
= = = Cancer prevention treatment = = =
On February 16 , 2013 , at age 37 , Jolie underwent a preventive double mastectomy after learning she had an 87 % risk of developing breast cancer due to a defective BRCA1 gene . Her maternal family history warranted genetic testing for BRCA mutations : her mother , actress Marcheline Bertrand , had breast cancer and died from ovarian cancer , while her grandmother died from ovarian cancer . Her aunt , who had the same BRCA1 defect , died from breast cancer three months after Jolie 's operation . Following the mastectomy , which lowered her chances of developing breast cancer to under 5 percent , Jolie had reconstructive surgery involving implants and allografts . Two years later , in March 2015 , after annual test results indicated possible signs of early ovarian cancer , she underwent a preventive oophorectomy , as she had a 50 % risk of developing ovarian cancer due to the same genetic anomaly . Despite hormone replacement therapy , the surgery brought on premature menopause .
After completing each operation , Jolie discussed her mastectomy and oophorectomy in op @-@ eds published by The New York Times , with the aim of helping other women make informed health choices . She detailed her diagnosis , surgeries , and personal experiences , and described her decision to undergo preventive surgery as a proactive measure for the sake of her six children . Jolie further wrote , " On a personal note , I do not feel any less of a woman . I feel empowered that I made a strong choice that in no way diminishes my femininity . "
Jolie 's announcement of her mastectomy attracted widespread publicity and discussion on BRCA mutations and genetic testing . Her decision was met with praise from various public figures , while health campaigners welcomed her raising awareness of the options available to at @-@ risk women . Dubbed " The Angelina Effect " by a Time cover story , Jolie 's influence led to a " global and long @-@ lasting " increase in BRCA gene testing : the number of referrals tripled in Australia and doubled in the UK , parts of Canada , and India , as well as significantly increased in other European countries and the U.S. Researchers in Canada and the UK found that despite the large increase , the percentage of mutation carriers remained the same , meaning Jolie 's message had reached those most at risk . In her first op @-@ ed , Jolie had advocated wider accessibility of BRCA gene testing and acknowledged the high costs , which were greatly reduced after the U.S. Supreme Court , in a June 2013 ruling , invalidated BRCA gene patents held by Myriad Genetics .
= = In the media = =
= = = Public profile = = =
As the daughter of actor Jon Voight , Jolie appeared in the media from an early age . After embarking on her own career , she earned a reputation as a " wild child , " which contributed to her early success in the late 1990s and early 2000s . Celebrity profiles routinely covered her fascination with blood and knives , experiences with drugs , and her sex life , particularly her bisexuality and interest in sadomasochism . In 2000 , when asked about her outspokenness , she stated , " I say things that other people might go through . That 's what artists should do — throw things out there and not be perfect and not have answers for anything and see if people understand . " Another contributing factor of her controversial image were tabloid rumors of incest that started when Jolie , upon winning her Oscar , kissed her brother on the lips and said , " I 'm so in love with my brother right now . " She dismissed the rumors , saying , " It was disappointing that something so beautiful and pure could be turned into a circus , " and explained that , as children of divorce , she and James relied on one another for emotional support .
Jolie 's reputation began to change positively after she , at age 26 , became a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees , later commenting , " In my early 20s I was fighting with myself . Now I take that punk in me to Washington , and I fight for something important . " Owing to her extensive activism , her Q Score — the industry 's measure of celebrities ' likability — nearly doubled to 25 between 2000 and 2006 . Her recognizability grew accordingly ; by 2006 , she was familiar to 81 % of Americans , compared to 31 % in 2000 . She became noted for her ability to positively influence her public image through the media , without employing a publicist or an agent . Her Q Score remained above average even when , in 2005 , she was accused of ending Brad Pitt 's marriage to Jennifer Aniston , at which point her public persona became an unlikely combination of alleged homewrecker , mother , sex symbol , and humanitarian . A decade later , Jolie was found to be the most admired woman in the world in global surveys conducted by YouGov in 2015 and 2016 .
Jolie 's general influence and wealth are extensively documented . In a 2006 global industry survey by ACNielsen in 42 international markets , Jolie , together with Pitt , was found to be the favorite celebrity endorser for brands and products worldwide . She was the face of St. John and Shiseido from 2006 to 2008 , and in 2011 had an endorsement deal with Louis Vuitton reportedly worth $ 10 million — a record for a single advertising campaign . Jolie was among the Time 100 , a list of the most influential people in the world as published by Time , in 2006 and 2008 . She was named the world 's most powerful celebrity in Forbes 's Celebrity 100 issue in 2009 , and , though ranked lower overall , was listed as the most powerful actress from 2006 to 2008 and 2011 to 2013 . Forbes additionally cited her as Hollywood 's highest @-@ paid actress in 2009 , 2011 , and 2013 , with estimated annual earnings of $ 27 million , $ 30 million , and $ 33 million respectively .
= = = Appearance = = =
Jolie 's public image is strongly tied to her perceived beauty and sex appeal . Many media outlets , including Vogue , People , and Vanity Fair , have cited her as the world 's most beautiful woman , while others such as Esquire , FHM , and Empire have named her the sexiest woman alive ; both titles have often been based on public polls in which Jolie places far ahead of other celebrity women . Her most recognizable physical features are her many tattoos , eyes , and in particular her full lips , which The New York Times considered as defining a feature as Kirk Douglas 's chin or Bette Davis 's eyes . Among her estimated 20 tattoos are the Latin proverb " quod me nutrit me destruit " ( what nourishes me destroys me ) , the Tennessee Williams quote " A prayer for the wild at heart , kept in cages " , four Buddhist Sanskrit prayers of protection , a twelve @-@ inch tiger , and geographical coordinates indicating the birthplaces of her husband and children . Over time , she has covered or lasered several of her tattoos , including " Billy Bob " , the name of her second husband .
Professionally , Jolie 's status as a sex symbol has been considered both an asset and a hindrance . Some of her most commercially successful films , including Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) and Beowulf ( 2007 ) , overtly relied at least in part on her sex appeal , with Empire stating that her " pneumatic figure , " " feline eyes , " and " bee @-@ stung lips " have greatly contributed to her appeal to cinema audiences . Conversely , Salon writer Allen Barra agreed with critics who suggested that Jolie 's " dark and intense sexuality " has limited her in the types of roles she can be cast in , rendering her unconvincing in many conventional women 's roles , while Clint Eastwood , who directed her Oscar @-@ nominated performance in Changeling ( 2008 ) , opined that having " the most beautiful face on the planet " sometimes harmed her dramatic credibility with audiences .
Beyond her career , Jolie 's appearance has been credited with influencing popular culture at large . In 2002 , AfterEllen founder Sarah Warn observed that many women of all sexual orientations had publicly expressed their attraction to Jolie , which she considered a new development in American culture , adding that " there are many beautiful women in Hollywood , and few generate the same kind of overwhelming interest across genders and sexual orientations that she does . " Jolie 's physical attributes became highly sought @-@ after among western women seeking cosmetic surgery ; by 2007 , she was considered " the gold standard of beauty , " with her full lips remaining the most imitated celebrity feature well into the 2010s . After a 2011 repeat survey by Allure found that Jolie most represented the American physical ideal , compared to model Christie Brinkley in 1991 , writer Elizabeth Angell credited society with having " branched out beyond the Barbie @-@ doll ideal and embraced something quite different . " In 2013 , Jeffrey Kluger of Time agreed that Jolie has for many years symbolized the feminine ideal , and opined that her frank discussion of her double mastectomy redefined beauty .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Filmography = =
|
= Apollo 11 =
Apollo 11 was the first spaceflight that landed humans on the Moon . Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on July 20 , 1969 , at 20 : 18 UTC . Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02 : 56 : 15 UTC ; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later . They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft , and collected 47 @.@ 5 pounds ( 21 @.@ 5 kg ) of lunar material for return to Earth . The third crew member , Michael Collins , piloted the Command Module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon 's surface . Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit .
Launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island , Florida , on July 16 , Apollo 11 was the fifth manned mission of NASA 's Apollo program . The Apollo spacecraft had three parts : a Command Module ( CM ) with a cabin for the three astronauts , and the only part that landed back on Earth ; a Service Module ( SM ) , which supported the Command Module with propulsion , electrical power , oxygen , and water ; and a Lunar Module ( LM ) that had two stages – a lower stage for landing on the Moon , and an upper stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit . After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn V 's upper stage , the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit . Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the Lunar Module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility . They stayed a total of about 21 @.@ 5 hours on the lunar surface . The astronauts used Eagle 's upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the Command Module . They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of lunar orbit on a trajectory back to Earth . They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 .
Broadcast on live TV to a world @-@ wide audience , Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as " one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind . " Apollo 11 effectively ended the Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by the U.S. President John F. Kennedy in a speech before the U.S. Congress : " before this decade is out , of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth . "
= = Framework = =
= = = Crew = = =
Apollo 11 was the second all @-@ veteran multi @-@ person crew ( the first being Apollo 10 ) in human spaceflight history . A previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov .
Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot ( CMP ) on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell , his backup for that flight . After Collins was medically cleared , he took what would have been Lovell 's spot on Apollo 11 ; as a veteran of Apollo 8 , Lovell was transferred to Apollo 11 's backup crew and promoted to backup commander .
= = = Backup crew = = =
In early 1969 , Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969 and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date . At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch ( at which point Anders would be unavailable if needed ) and would later join Lovell 's crew and ultimately be assigned as the original Apollo 13 CMP .
= = = Support crew = = =
Charlie Duke , Capsule Communicator ( CAPCOM )
Ronald Evans ( CAPCOM )
Owen K. Garriott ( CAPCOM )
Don L. Lind ( CAPCOM )
Ken Mattingly ( CAPCOM )
Bruce McCandless II ( CAPCOM )
Harrison Schmitt ( CAPCOM )
Bill Pogue
Jack Swigert
= = = Flight directors = = =
Cliff Charlesworth ( Green Team ) , launch and EVA
Gene Kranz ( White Team ) , lunar landing
Glynn Lunney ( Black Team ) , lunar ascent
= = = Call signs = = =
After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy , assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to Manned Spacecraft Center director George M. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft . During early mission planning , the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release , but the crew later decided to change them .
The Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad , the giant cannon shell " spacecraft " fired by a giant cannon ( also from Florida ) in Jules Verne 's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon . The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the national bird of the United States , the bald eagle , which is featured prominently on the mission insignia .
= = = Insignia = = =
The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins , who wanted a symbol for " peaceful lunar landing by the United States " . He chose an eagle as the symbol , put an olive branch in its beak , and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance . NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too " warlike " and after some discussion , the olive branch was moved to the claws . The crew decided the Roman numeral XI would not be understood in some nations and went with " Apollo 11 " ; they decided not to put their names on the patch , so it would " be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing " . All colors are natural , with blue and gold borders around the patch .
When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971 , the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side . The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979 , ten years after the Apollo 11 mission .
= = = Mementos = = =
Neil Armstrong 's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers ' 1903 airplane 's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing , along with a diamond @-@ studded astronaut pin originally given to Deke Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew . This pin had been intended to be flown on Apollo 1 and given to Slayton after the mission but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals , the widows gave the pin to Slayton and Armstrong took it on Apollo 11 .
= = Mission highlights = =
= = = Launch and flight to lunar orbit = = =
In addition to many people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site , millions watched the event on television , with NASA Chief of Public Information Jack King providing commentary . President Richard M. Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House .
A Saturn V launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A , part of the Launch Complex 39 site at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16 , 1969 at 13 : 32 : 00 UTC ( 9 : 32 : 00 a.m. EDT local time ) . It entered Earth orbit , at an altitude of 100 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 185 @.@ 9 km ) by 98 @.@ 9 nautical miles ( 183 @.@ 2 km ) , twelve minutes later . After one and a half orbits , the S @-@ IVB third @-@ stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans @-@ lunar injection ( TLI ) burn at 16 : 22 : 13 UTC . About 30 minutes later the command / service module pair separated from this last remaining Saturn V stage and docked with the Lunar Module still nestled in the Lunar Module Adaptor . After the Lunar Module was extracted , the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon , while the third stage booster flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into orbit around the Sun .
On July 19 at 17 : 21 : 50 UTC , Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit . In the thirty orbits that followed , the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility ( Mare Tranquillitatis ) about 12 miles ( 19 km ) southwest of the crater Sabine D ( 0.67408N , 23.47297E ) . The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extravehicular activity ( EVA ) challenges .
= = = Lunar descent = = =
On July 20 , 1969 , the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command Module Columbia . Collins , alone aboard Columbia , inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged .
As the descent began , Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface four seconds early and reported that they were " long " ; they would land miles west of their target point .
Five minutes into the descent burn , and 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) above the surface of the Moon , the LM navigation and guidance computer distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected " 1202 " and " 1201 " program alarms . Inside Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas , computer engineer Jack Garman told guidance officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent , and this was relayed to the crew . The program alarms indicated " executive overflows " , meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them .
Due to an error in the checklist manual , the rendezvous radar switch was placed in the wrong position . This caused it to send erroneous signals to the computer . The result was that the computer was being asked to perform all of its normal functions for landing while receiving an extra load of spurious data which used up 15 % of its time . The computer ( or rather the software in it ) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it should be performing . It then sent out an alarm , which meant to the astronaut , I 'm overloaded with more tasks than I should be doing at this time and I 'm going to keep only the more important tasks ; i.e. , the ones needed for landing ... Actually , the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions . A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software . The software 's action , in this case , was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re @-@ establish the more important ones ... If the computer hadn 't recognized this problem and taken recovery action , I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was .
= = = Landing = = =
When Armstrong again looked outside , he saw that the computer 's landing target was in a boulder @-@ strewn area just north and east of a 300 @-@ meter ( 980 ft ) diameter crater ( later determined to be West crater , named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse ) . Armstrong took semi @-@ automatic control and , with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data , landed at 20 : 17 : 40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left .
Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions , and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning . This was later found to be the result of greater propellant ' slosh ' than expected , uncovering a fuel sensor . On subsequent missions , extra anti @-@ slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this .
Throughout the descent , Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong , who was busy piloting the LM . A few moments before the landing , a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67 @-@ inch ( 170 cm ) probes hanging from Eagle 's footpads had touched the surface , and he said : " Contact light ! " Three seconds later , Eagle landed and Armstrong said " Shutdown . " Aldrin immediately said " Okay , engine stop . ACA – out of detent . " Armstrong acknowledged " Out of detent . Auto " and Aldrin continued " Mode control – both auto . Descent engine command override off . Engine arm – off . 413 is in . "
Charles Duke , CAPCOM during the landing phase , acknowledged their landing by saying " We copy you down , Eagle . "
Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin 's completion of the post landing checklist with " Engine arm is off " , before responding to Duke with the words , " Houston , Tranquility Base here . The Eagle has landed . " Armstrong 's unrehearsed change of call sign from " Eagle " to " Tranquility Base " emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful . Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control : " Roger , Twan — Tranquility , we copy you on the ground . You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue . We 're breathing again . Thanks a lot . "
Two and a half hours after landing , before preparations began for the EVA , Aldrin radioed to Earth :
" This is the LM pilot . I 'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in , whoever and wherever they may be , to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way . "
He then took communion privately . At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O 'Hair ( who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis ) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space . As such , Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon . Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church , and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church , the Rev. Dean Woodruff . Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of Guideposts magazine and in his book Return to Earth . Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20 .
The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five @-@ hour sleep period as they had been awake since early morning . However , they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early , thinking that they would be unable to sleep .
= = = Lunar surface operations = = =
The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package ( EASEP ) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle 's twin triangular windows , which gave them a 60 ° field of view . Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled . Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System ( PLSS ) . According to veteran Moon @-@ walker John Young , a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack , so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress .
Several books indicate early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin rather than Neil Armstrong as the first man on the Moon .
At 02 : 39 UTC on Monday July 21 , 1969 , Armstrong opened the hatch , and at 02 : 51 UTC began his descent to the lunar surface . The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet . Climbing down the nine @-@ rung ladder , Armstrong pulled a D @-@ ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly ( MESA ) folded against Eagle 's side and activate the TV camera , and at 02 : 56 : 15 UTC he set his left foot on the surface . The first landing used slow @-@ scan television incompatible with commercial TV , so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor , significantly reducing the quality of the picture . The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia . Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia . Despite some technical and weather difficulties , ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth . Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available , recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were accidentally destroyed during routine magnetic tape re @-@ use at NASA .
While still on the ladder , Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM Descent Stage bearing two drawings of Earth ( of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres ) , an inscription , and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon . The inscription read :
Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon , July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind .
After describing the surface dust as " very fine @-@ grained " and " almost like a powder , " six and a half hours after landing , Armstrong stepped off Eagle 's footpad and declared , " That 's one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind . "
Armstrong intended to say " That 's one small step for a man " , but the word " a " is not audible in the transmission , and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast . When later asked about his quote , Armstrong said he believed he said " for a man " , and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the " a " in square brackets . One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words " for a " together ; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth , partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory . More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the " a " may have been spoken but obscured by static .
About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon 's surface , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick . He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh . This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM .
Twelve minutes after the contingency sample was collected , Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface , and described the view with the simple phrase , " Magnificent desolation . "
In addition to fulfilling President Kennedy 's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s , Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system ; therefore , Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post @-@ landing condition . He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep , then mounted it on a tripod 68 feet ( 21 m ) from the LM . The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA .
Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity , one @-@ sixth of Earth 's , was " even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It 's absolutely no trouble to walk around . " Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around , including two @-@ footed kangaroo hops . The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards , but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance . Loping became the preferred method of movement . The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead . The fine soil was quite slippery . Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle 's shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit , though the helmet was warmer in sunlight , so he felt cooler in shadow .
The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. flag on the lunar surface , in clear view of the TV camera . Some time later , President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone @-@ radio transmission which Nixon called " the most historic phone call ever made from the White House . " Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call , but Frank Borman , who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11 , convinced Nixon to keep his words brief , to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy 's legacy . Armstrong thanked the President , and gave a brief reflection on the significance of the moment :
Nixon : Hello , Neil and Buzz . I 'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House . And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made . I just can 't tell you how proud we all are of what you 've done . For every American , this has to be the proudest day of our lives . And for people all over the world , I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is . Because of what you have done , the heavens have become a part of man 's world . And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility , it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth . For one priceless moment in the whole history of man , all the people on this Earth are truly one : one in their pride in what you have done , and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth .
Armstrong : Thank you , Mr. President . It 's a great honor and privilege for us to be here , representing not only the United States , but men of peace of all nations , and with interest and curiosity , and men with a vision for the future . It 's an honor for us to be able to participate here today .
The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow , slowing work somewhat . As they worked , the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits , the integrated thermal meteoroid garment .
They deployed the EASEP , which included a passive seismograph and a Lunar Ranging Retroreflector ( LRRR ) . Then Armstrong walked 196 feet ( 60 m ) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes . He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes – the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11 . The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles . Many of the surface activities took longer than expected , so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes .
Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts : armalcolite , tranquillityite , and pyroxferroite . Armalcolite was named after Armstrong , Aldrin , and Collins .
During this period , Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down . He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out . However , as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk , Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15 @-@ minute extension . In a 2010 interview , Armstrong , who had walked a maximum of 196 feet ( 60 m ) from the LM , explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk 's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts ' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon .
= = = Lunar ascent and return = = =
Aldrin entered Eagle first . With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21 @.@ 55 kilograms ( 47 @.@ 5 lb ) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor . Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve , and Aldrin tossed the bag down ; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder 's third rung and climbed into the LM . After transferring to LM life support , the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks , lunar overshoes , one Hasselblad camera , and other equipment . They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep .
President Nixon 's speech writer William Safire had prepared In Event of Moon Disaster for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon . The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon 's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman , in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster . According to the plan , Mission Control would " close down communications " with the LM , and a clergyman would " commend their souls to the deepest of the deep " in a public ritual likened to burial at sea . The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke 's First World War poem , " The Soldier " . The plan included presidential telephone calls to the astronauts ' wives .
While moving within the cabin , Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon . There was concern this would prevent firing the engine , stranding them on the Moon . Fortunately , a felt @-@ tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch . Had this not worked , the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine .
After about seven hours of rest , the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight . Two and a half hours later , at 17 : 54 UTC , they lifted off in Eagle 's ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit .
After more than 21 ½ total hours on the lunar surface , they had left behind scientific instruments that included a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure moonquakes . They also left an Apollo 1 mission patch , and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk . The disk carries the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower , Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world . The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress , a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation , and the names of NASA 's past and present top management . ( In his 1989 book , Men from Earth , Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin . ) Also , according to Deke Slayton 's book Moonshot , Armstrong carried with him a special diamond @-@ studded astronaut pin from Slayton .
Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag , planted some 25 feet ( 8 m ) from the descent stage , whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine . Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple : " The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers , and Neil was studying the attitude indicator , but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over . " Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least 100 feet ( 30 m ) from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust .
After rendezvous with Columbia , Eagle 's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21 , 1969 , at 23 : 41 UTC . Just before the Apollo 12 flight , it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon . Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle 's orbit had decayed , resulting in it impacting in an " uncertain location " on the lunar surface . The location is uncertain because the Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned , and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non @-@ uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time . NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon .
On July 23 , the last night before splashdown , the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented :
... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery , every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly . All this is possible only through the blood , sweat , and tears of a number of a people ... All you see is the three of us , but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others , and to all of those , I would like to say , " Thank you very much . "
Aldrin added :
This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon ; more , still , than the efforts of a government and industry team ; more , even , than the efforts of one nation . We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ... Personally , in reflecting on the events of the past several days , a verse from Psalms comes to mind . " When I consider the heavens , the work of Thy fingers , the Moon and the stars , which Thou hast ordained ; What is man that Thou art mindful of him ? "
Armstrong concluded :
The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort ; next with the American people , who have , through their will , indicated their desire ; next with four administrations and their Congresses , for implementing that will ; and then , with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft , the Saturn , the Columbia , the Eagle , and the little EMU , the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface . We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft ; who did the construction , design , the tests , and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft . To those people tonight , we give a special thank you , and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight , God bless you . Good night from Apollo 11 .
On the return to Earth , a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed , potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return . A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director , Charles Force , had his ten @-@ year @-@ old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease . Greg later was thanked by Armstrong .
= = = Splashdown and quarantine = = =
On July 24 , the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module Columbia just before dawn local time ( 16 : 51 UTC ) at 13 ° 19 ′ N 169 ° 9 ′ W , in the Pacific Ocean 2 @,@ 660 km ( 1 @,@ 440 nmi ) east of Wake Island , 380 km ( 210 nmi ) south of Johnston Atoll , and 24 km ( 13 nmi ) from the recovery ship , USS Hornet .
At 16 : 44 UTC the drogue parachutes had been deployed and seven minutes later the Command Module struck the water forcefully . During splashdown , the Command Module landed upside down but was righted within 10 minutes by flotation bags triggered by the astronauts . " Everything 's okay . Our checklist is complete . Awaiting swimmers " , was Armstrong 's last official transmission from the Columbia . A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to the Command Module to prevent it from drifting . Additional divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and position rafts for astronaut extraction . Though the chance of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote , it was considered a possibility and NASA took great precautions at the recovery site . Divers provided the astronauts with Biological Isolation Garments ( BIGs ) which were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board the Hornet . Additionally , astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and the Command Module wiped with Betadine to remove any lunar dust that might be present . The raft containing decontamination materials was then intentionally sunk .
A second Sea King helicopter hoisted the astronauts aboard one by one , where a NASA flight surgeon gave each a brief physical check during the 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 930 m ) trip back to the Hornet .
After touchdown on the Hornet , the astronauts exited the helicopter , leaving the flight surgeon and three crewmen . The helicopter was then lowered into hangar bay # 2 where the astronauts walked the 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) to the Mobile Quarantine Facility ( MQF ) where they would begin their 21 days of quarantine . This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions , Apollo 12 and Apollo 14 , before the Moon was proven to be barren of life and the quarantine process dropped .
President Richard Nixon was aboard Hornet to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth . He told the astronauts , " As a result of what you 've done , the world has never been closer together before . " After Nixon departed , the Hornet was brought alongside the five @-@ ton Command Module where it was placed aboard by the ship 's crane , placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF . The Hornet sailed for Pearl Harbor where the Command Module and MQF were airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center .
In accordance with the recently passed Extra @-@ Terrestrial Exposure Law , the astronauts were placed in quarantine for fear that the Moon might contain undiscovered pathogens and that the astronauts might have been exposed to them during their Moon walks . However , after almost three weeks in confinement ( first in their trailer and later in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center ) , the astronauts were given a clean bill of health . On August 10 , 1969 , the astronauts exited quarantine .
= = = Celebration = = =
On August 13 , they rode in parades in their honor in New York , Chicago , and Los Angeles . On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate the flight , attended by members of Congress , 44 governors , the Chief Justice of the United States , and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel . President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom . This celebration was the beginning of a 45 @-@ day " Giant Leap " tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom . Many nations honored the first manned Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins .
On September 16 , 1969 , the three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on Capitol Hill . They presented two US flags , one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate , that had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them .
= = Moon race = =
The Soviet Union was secretly attempting to compete with the US in landing a man on the Moon but had been hampered by repeated failures in development of a launcher comparable to the Saturn V. Meanwhile , they tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of unmanned probes . On July 13 , three days before Apollo 11 's launch , they launched Luna 15 , which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11 . During descent , a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the surface . The Jodrell Bank Observatory radio telescope in England was later discovered to have recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent , and this was published in July 2009 on the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11 .
= = Spacecraft location = =
The Command Module is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum , Washington , D.C. It is in the central Milestones of Flight exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance , sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the Wright Flyer , the Spirit of St. Louis , the Bell X @-@ 1 , the North American X @-@ 15 , Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7 , and Gemini 4 . Armstrong 's and Aldrin 's space suits are displayed in the museum 's Apollo to the Moon exhibit . The quarantine trailer , the flotation collar , and the righting spheres are displayed at the Smithsonian 's Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia .
In 2009 , the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon , for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules , scientific instruments , and foot trails made by the astronauts .
In March 2012 Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F @-@ 1 engines that launched Apollo 11 into space . The engines were found below the Atlantic Ocean 's surface through the use of advanced sonar scanning . His team brought at least one of the five engines to the surface . In July 2013 , it was confirmed through serial numbers ( 2044 ) that F @-@ 1 engine parts brought up from the depths of the Atlantic Ocean were from the Apollo 11 launch .
= = 40th anniversary events = =
On July 15 , 2009 , Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch .
From July 16 – 24 , 2009 , NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred . In addition , it is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments .
On July 20 , 2009 , the crew of Armstrong , Aldrin , and Collins met with U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House . " We expect that there is , as we speak , another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong , Collins and Aldrin " , Obama said . " We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey . "
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up a Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon .
A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing :
It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ... that would be inconceivable in the risk @-@ averse world of today ... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close [ to ] the excitement that was generated by those astronauts – Armstrong , Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them .
On August 7 , 2009 , an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal , the highest civilian award in the United States . The bill was sponsored by Florida Sen. Bill Nelson and Florida Rep. Alan Grayson .
In July 2010 , air @-@ to @-@ ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re @-@ synchronised and released for the first time .
= = Gallery = =
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= HMS Hogue ( 1900 ) =
HMS Hogue was a Cressy @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy around 1900 . Upon completion she was assigned to the Channel Fleet and the China Station . In 1906 she became a training ship for the North America and West Indies Station before being placed in reserve in 1908 . Recommissioned at the start of World War I , she played a minor role in the Battle of Heligoland Bight a few weeks after the beginning of the war . Hogue was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 9 , together with two of her sister ships , on 22 September 1914 . Unlike her sisters , only 48 of her crew were killed in the attack .
= = Design and description = =
Hogue was designed to displace 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 472 feet ( 143 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 69 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 2 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 21 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 660 kW ) using steam provided by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were designed to give a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , although Hogue reached 22 @.@ 06 knots ( 40 @.@ 86 km / h ; 25 @.@ 39 mph ) with 21 @,@ 432 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 982 kW ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of coal and her complement ranged from 725 to 760 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk X guns in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 380 @-@ pound ( 170 kg ) shells to a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) . Her secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships . Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells . A dozen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , eight on casemates on the upper deck and four in the superstructure . The ship also carried three 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1 – 3 inches ( 25 – 76 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
Hogue , named after the 1692 Battle of La Hogue , was laid down on 14 July 1898 by Vickers , Sons & Maxim at their Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness shipyard and launched on 13 August 1900 . She arrived at Plymouth to begin fitting out in September 1901 , and commenced her sea trials in early December . Hogue was completed on 19 November 1902 and assigned to the Channel Fleet until 1904 . On 11 March she collided with the merchant ship SS Meurthe off Europa Point . Later that year she was transferred to the China Station after a refit .
Two years later Hogue became the boys ' training ship for the 4th Cruiser Squadron on the North America and West Indies Station . She was reduced to reserve at Devonport in 1908 and then assigned to the reserve Third Fleet at the Nore the next year . On 26 November 1909 a coal bunker explosion killed two crewmen . The ship received a lengthy refit at Chatham Dockyard in 1912 – 13 and was assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron shortly after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 .
The squadron was tasked with patrolling the Broad Fourteens of the North Sea in support of a force of destroyers and submarines based at Harwich which protected the eastern end of the English Channel from German warships attempting to attack the supply route between England and France . During the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August , the ship was part of Cruiser Force ' C ' , in reserve off the Dutch coast , and saw no action . Hogue did , however , tow the heavily damaged light cruiser Arethusa , flagship of the commander of the Harwich Force , Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt , back to port after the battle was over .
= = = Fate = = =
On the morning of 22 September , Hogue and her sisters , Aboukir and Cressy , were on patrol without any escorting destroyers as they had been forced to seek shelter from bad weather . The three sisters were in line abreast , about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) apart , at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were not expecting submarine attack , but they had lookouts posted and had one gun manned on each side to attack any submarines sighted . The weather had moderated earlier that morning and Tyrwhitt was en route to reinforce the cruisers with eight destroyers .
U @-@ 9 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Otto Weddigen , had been ordered to attack British transports at Ostend , but had been forced to dive and take shelter from the storm . On surfacing , she spotted the British ships and moved to attack . She fired one torpedo at 06 : 20 at Aboukir that struck her on the starboard side ; the ship 's captain thought he had struck a mine and ordered the other two ships to close to transfer his wounded men . Aboukir quickly began listing and capsized around 06 : 55 . As Hogue approached her sinking sister , Captain Wilmot Nicholson realized that it had been a submarine attack and signalled Cressy to look for a periscope although his ship continued to close on Aboukir as her crew threw overboard anything that would float to aid the survivors in the water . Having stopped and lowered all her boats , Hogue was struck by two torpedoes around 06 : 55 . The sudden weight loss of the two torpedoes caused U @-@ 9 to broach the surface and Hogue 's gunners opened fire without effect before the submarine could submerge again . The cruiser capsized about ten minutes after being torpedoed as all of her watertight doors had been open and sank at 07 : 15 .
Cressy attempted to ram the submarine , but did not hit anything and resumed her rescue efforts until she too was torpedoed at 07 : 20 . She too took on a heavy list and then capsized before sinking at 07 : 55 . Several Dutch ships began rescuing survivors at 08 : 30 and were joined by British fishing trawlers before Tyrwhitt and his ships arrived at 10 : 45 . The combined total from all three ships was 837 men rescued and 62 officers and 1 @,@ 397 enlisted men lost . Of these , Hogue lost a total of 48 men .
In 1954 the British government sold the salvage rights to all three ships to a German company and they were subsequently sold again to a Dutch salvage company which began salvaging the wrecks ' metal in 2011 .
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= HMS Zubian =
HMS Zubian was a First World War Royal Navy Tribal @-@ class destroyer constructed from the forward end of HMS Zulu and the rear and mid sections of HMS Nubian . These two destroyers had been badly damaged in late 1916 , and rather than scrapping both hulls at the height of World War I , the Admiralty ordered that they be rebuilt as the composite Zubian and put back into service . She was commissioned into the fleet in June 1917 . The name Zubian is a portmanteau of the names of the original ships .
Zubian saw extensive service in the final two years of the war as part of the Dover Patrol . She sank the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 50 in February 1918 , while she was on patrol in the English Channel . In late April , she participated in the First Ostend Raid as an escort for the bombardment force . After the war , Zubian was sold for scrap and broken up by December 1919 .
= = Design = =
Zubian was 85 @.@ 4 metres ( 280 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 2 m ( 27 ft ) and a draught of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 040 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 020 long tons ; 1 @,@ 150 short tons ) . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of three Parsons steam turbines , which were powered by six oil @-@ fired Thornycroft boilers . These provided 14 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 10 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . She was armed with two QF 4 @-@ inch Mk V guns and two 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes . One gun was mounted on the forecastle and the other on the stern , with the two torpedo tubes amidships . Her crew numbered 68 officers and enlisted .
= = Service history = =
In late 1916 , two British destroyers of the 6th Flotilla in the Dover Patrol — Nubian and Zulu — were badly damaged by German attacks in the English Channel . Nubian 's bow had been destroyed by a torpedo from a German torpedo boat on 26 October , while Zulu had her stern blown off by a mine in the Channel on 8 November , and was towed to Calais . Both wrecks were then towed to Chatham Dockyard , where a complete destroyer was constructed by joining the foreparts of Zulu with the stern of Nubian , and despite a 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) difference in beam , the unique operation was successful . The ship was renamed Zubian by Admiral Reginald Bacon , the commander of the Dover Patrol . The hybrid destroyer was commissioned on 7 June 1917 . The choice of name caused confusion among the German Imperial Admiralty Staff , who knew of no such ship under construction .
Zubian joined the 6th Flotilla and served there until the end of the war . During this period , Zubian and the rest of the Flotilla rotated through nighttime patrols of the Dover Strait in groups of four , supported by flotilla leaders ; these patrols were intended to catch German torpedo boats that were conducting night bombardments of Allied positions in the Channel . On 4 February 1918 , she encountered the mine @-@ laying U @-@ boat UC @-@ 50 in the Dover Strait ; the U @-@ boat was surfaced about 400 yards ( 370 m ) off Zubian 's port bow with her radio antennae up . Zubian attempted to ram the submarine but the Germans managed to submerge . The destroyer then dropped depth charges over the submerged U @-@ boat and a significant amount of oil and wreckage was observed thereafter . Zubian marked the location with a buoy and an hour later , the patrol vessel HMS P12 dropped additional depth charges there . Trawlers later located an object that divers confirmed was UC @-@ 50 .
Zubian also participated in the First Ostend Raid two months later on the night of 23 – 24 April . The attack was intended to close the German @-@ held ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge , which were being used as bases for the U @-@ boats . Zubian was assigned to the bombardment force , and along with the destroyers Mentor and Lightfoot , provided the close escort for a group of six monitors . The bombardment unit was covered by the Harwich Force in the Channel . The bombardment force was tasked with suppressing the German coastal defences , while a pair of old cruisers attempted to steam into the harbour entrances , where they would be sunk as blockships . The effort failed when both cruisers ran aground far outside of the harbour .
Worn out by heavy wartime use , Zubian was sold in the immediate post @-@ war draw down and broken up for scrap by December 1919 .
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= Thirsty ( song ) =
" Thirsty " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse . It was co @-@ written by Carey in collaboration with Hit @-@ Boy , Denesia Andrews and MaryAnn Tatum . Carey and Hit @-@ Boy also produced it , with co @-@ production from Rey Reel . The alternate version of " Thirsty " , featuring one rap verse from American rapper Rich Homie Quan , received its radio premiere on Power 105 @.@ 1 on May 13 , 2014 , a day before the album version featuring just Carey was made available to stream . It has been described as a " club @-@ friendly " R & B song influenced by hip hop , which makes use of a minimal synth beat .
The song was met with a mixed reaction from music critics ; some were complimentary of her decision to work with Hit @-@ Boy and Rich Homie Quan , while others felt that Carey was trying too hard to appeal to a mass audience by doing so . Electro pop band Purple Crush also claimed that Carey used the hook from their 2013 song of the same name . Following the release of the album , " Thirsty " debuted on the South Korean International Gaon Single Chart at number 78 due to strong digital download sales . The song was included on Carey 's 2014 tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show .
= = Background = =
During an interview with Power 105 @.@ 1 radio in a segment called The Breakfast Club , the host asked Carey if she had made a " bounce , gentleman 's club " song due to the recent popularity of artists choosing to record " strip @-@ club " songs , such as " Drunk in Love " by Beyoncé and " Pour It Up " by Rihanna . She confirmed that she had recorded a song for Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse called " Thirsty " , which embodies the same feel . Carey revealed that she had collaborated with Hit @-@ Boy on the track .
" Thirsty " was co @-@ written by Carey in collaboration with Hit @-@ Boy , Denesia " Blu June " Andrews , and MaryAnn Tatum . Production of the song was carried out by Carey and Hit @-@ Boy . It was co @-@ produced with Rey Reel . Jeremy Cimino , Nico Essig , Rob Katz , Rob Suchecki , Matt Weber assisted in the song 's recording , at Rapture Studios , Metrocity Studios , Studio at the Dunes , Beach House Studios , Henson Recording Studios , Studio at the Palms and Jungle City Studios , with mixing from Hazebanga and assistant mixing from Kevin Matela , Dave Rowland and Kenta Yonesaka at Germano Studios . The vocals were arranged by Carey , who also added background vocals along with Kaylana Tatum and Maryann Tatum . Tatum carried out additional background vocal production .
An alternate version of " Thirsty " , featuring one rap verse from American rapper Rich Homie Quan , was released first and received its official radio premiere on Power 105 @.@ 1 on May 13 , 2014 , while the solo album version featuring only Carey was made available to stream a day later . The single artwork for " Thirsty " was released on May 13 , 2014 . In the colourful picture , Carey is making a " sultry " pose in a strapless bikini top with matching lower half wrapped around her , with her midriff on show . Brett Maloc for E ! thought that Carey looked " skinnier than ever " . Despite Carey and Def Jam both confirming " Thirsty " as the fourth single to be released from the album , no release date was set . " You Don 't Know What to Do " featuring Wale was released to urban contemporary radio on June 30 , 2014 and rhythmic contemporary radio on July 1 , 2014 , as the fourth single instead .
= = Composition = =
" Thirsty " is a " club @-@ friendly " R & B song with an influence of hip hop music , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 26 seconds . " Thirsty " is about how Carey 's lover has a thirst for fame which causes her to drown in her own misery . Billy Johnson , Jr. for Yahoo ! Music described the track as " [ dissing ] those desperate for attention . " The singer is " taking center stage as she takes aim at a starfucker " as she performs her " nonchalant " verses over a " skittering " minimal synth beat . The songs begins with the sound of a drink being poured into a glass , after which the instrumental begins to play and Carey sings line " You used to be Mr. All About Me , now you 're just thirsty for celebrity " in her upper register , then continues to ask her suitor " Why you try so damn hard ? " During the chorus , Carey repeatedly sings the hook " Uh , you 're Thirs @-@ tay / Uh , you 're Thirs @-@ tay " .
Rich Homie Quan performs background chants on " Thirsty " , although he is not credited on the album track list . He does , however , appear as a featured artist on an alternate version of the song , and performs one rap verse . For his part , he adds a " comedic element " by performing the line " Somebody get this girl a class of water / I say she six nickels , not a dime past a quarter . " The minimalist synth line of " Thirsty " has garnered comparisons to that of " Niggas in Paris " , a song performed by Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z , which was also produced by Hit @-@ Boy in 2011 . Critics have noted that although it is Hit @-@ Boy 's signature style to include a " steering background " beat in his production , that " Thirsty " is too " busy " compared to " Niggas in Paris " and that it comes off as " less appealing " and " watered @-@ down " in comparison . Gerrick D. Kennedy for the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Thirsty " lacks the " heft " of a song that Hit @-@ Boy produced called " Flawless " for Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled album in 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
While some critics thought Mariah was trying too hard with " Thirsty , " the song has garnered mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Christina Lee for Idolator was complimentary of the song , describing it as a single which her record label most probably wanted to release from the album in the first place . She went on to say that it is " tailor @-@ made " for radio airplay " right now . " Writing for the same publication , Mike Wass wrote that he thought the solo version was better than the alternate version featuring Rich Homie Quan 's rap verse , writing " It 's an improvement on the original . Not that there 's anything wrong with the slick Hit @-@ Boy production — I just don 't like being distracted from Mimi ’ s mesmerizing vocals , not even for a verse . "
Writing for Yahoo ! Music , Bill Johnson , Jr. praised Carey for collaborating with Rich Homie Quan and for " working with rappers who are on the cusp of going mainstream . " He explained that it is her " consistency and emphasis " on exposing up and coming rappers who are yet to release their own album that allows her to appeal to younger audiences , noting that they both benefit from the exposure . MTV writer Nadeska Alexis commented that it was " unexpected " to hear a song whereby Carey , Hit @-@ Boy , and Rich Homie Quan featured on the same song , but continued to write that it " sounds like a blend of classic Mariah @-@ pop . "
Slant Magazine 's Alexa Camp described the track as a " corrective of sorts " to her 2012 urban single release " Triumphant ( Get ' Em ) " , a collaboration with Rick Ross and Meek Mill , noting that " Thirsty " is not " littered " with guest features . She continued to write that although it does not possess the memorability of some of her past releases , such as " Fantasy " or " Emotions " , it serves as " a reminder of the pop gold Mimi can mine when she 's on top of her game . " Gerrick D. Kennedy for the Los Angeles Times was less impressed with " Thirsty " , writing that although the song is not a " dud , " he believes that Carey deserves better considering that it was her " who set the blueprint for mashing ethereal pop @-@ R & B melodies with speaker @-@ rattling hip @-@ hop beats . " He continued to criticize Carey for being too " desperate " , writing :
Inspired by street lingo — " thirsty " for the unaware , is someone who is eager , verging on desperate — it seems laughable that Carey opted to pen such a gimmicky tune . She 's delivered some of the best pop songs of the last two dozen years , and she certainly knows her way around a club groove ( Need proof ? Spin " It 's Like That , " which is almost a decade old ) . So why do an uninspired jam about a scrub if you 're not going to deliver a sassy , melisma @-@ soaked banger like those that came so effortlessly in the past ( see " Obsessed , " " Shake It Off , " " Heartbreaker " ) ? Why not remind the many contemporaries you 've inspired , who are owning radio with more interesting spins off your blueprint , what makes you Mariah Carey ?
= = Controversy = =
A couple of days after " Thirsty " premiered , Los Angeles based pop duo Purple Crush posted a picture on their Instagram account which showed a picture of themselves on the left and a picture of Carey on the right , claiming that the song bares similarities to a single they released of the same name in 2013 . Mike Wass from Idolator noted that the only similarity appears to be the name of the song and two words used in the hook . Purple Crush have previously sued Lady Gaga and her manager Rob Fusari for allegedly using their work without the duo 's permission for Gaga 's debut studio album , The Fame ( 2008 ) .
= = Charts and commercial performance = =
Upon the release of the album , " Thirsty " debuted at number 78 on the South Korean International Digital Singles chart , and number 50 on the Download chart , with sales of 3 @,@ 679 units . It also charted at number 42 on the U.S. Top Twitter Tracks .
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= Homer the Great =
" Homer the Great " is the twelfth television episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 8 , 1995 . In the episode , Homer discovers that Lenny and Carl are members of the ancient secret society known as the Stonecutters . Gaining membership through Grampa , Homer takes great pleasure in the society 's many privileges and events . During a celebratory dinner , he unwittingly destroys the Stonecutters ' " Sacred Parchment " . Homer is stripped of his membership until it is discovered that he is " The Chosen One " who will lead the Stonecutters to glory .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jim Reardon . Patrick Stewart guest stars as " Number One " , the leader of the Springfield chapter of the Stonecutters . It features cultural references to Freemasonry and films such as Raiders of the Lost Ark and The Last Emperor . Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics and has been called " one of the better episodes of the series " by Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide . The song " We Do " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Music And Lyrics " .
= = Plot = =
Homer notices that his colleagues Lenny and Carl are enjoying inexplicable privileges such as free soft drinks , massage chairs , and great parking spots at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . He discovers they are part of an ancient secret society known as the Stonecutters . To join , one must either be the son of a Stonecutter or save the life of a Stonecutter . Homer complains about not being let in and reveals to Marge his past experience being excluded from clubs : when he was young , a group of children formed the " No Homers Club " and did not allow him to join , while letting in another boy named Homer Glumplet , claiming that the name allowed for one Homer . While extolling the Stonecutters at the dinner table , he discovers that his father is a member and is admitted .
After the painful and humiliating initiations required to join the Stonecutters , which is made up of many of the male characters on the show , Homer takes great pleasure in the society 's secret privileges , such as an underground byway bypassing Springfield 's traffic jams , drinking bouts and free rollerblades ( in order to get from the parking lot to his workplace faster ) . During a celebratory rib dinner with his fellow Stonecutters commemorating the society 's 1500th anniversary , he unwittingly uses the society ’ s Hallowed Sacred Parchment as a napkin , tissue and cotton swab , destroying it . He is stripped of his Stonecutter robes and is sentenced to walk home naked dragging the " Stone of Shame . " Before he leaves , however , it is discovered that Homer has a birthmark in the shape of the Stonecutter emblem , identifying him as the Chosen One who , it was foretold , would lead the Stonecutters to greatness . The " Stone of Shame " is instantly removed and replaced with the ( much larger and heavier ) " Stone of Triumph . "
Homer is crowned the new leader of the Stonecutters . Initially enjoying himself , Homer soon feels isolated by his power when the other members treat him differently due to his new position , and asks Lisa for advice . She suggests that he ask the Stonecutters to do volunteer work to help the community , which Homer agrees to , and has the Stonecutters use their resources to help with daycare and community upkeep . This angers the Stonecutters , who misinterpret Homer 's good intentions as going mad with power . They convene their World Council and consider killing Homer before he supposedly kills anyone for disobeying his commands . Instead , Moe suggests they form a new society , the Ancient Mystic Society of No Homers ( once again including a now adult Homer Glumplet ) .
Homer becomes despondent about losing his secret club and replaces every member with monkeys which he gets drunk and makes act out Civil War battles . Marge consoles him by telling him he is a member of a " very exclusive club " , the Simpson family , which she and Homer wear special rings to show loyalty . The family subjects him to some hazing and paddling .
= = Production = =
Although " Homer the Great " was written by John Swartzwelder , the story was suggested by executive producer David Mirkin . Mirkin did not have enough time to write the episode and asked Swartzwelder to do it . Mirkin came up with the idea while driving home from a rewrite early in the morning and listened to a religious radio station where they were talking about Freemasonry . Mirkin decided it would make a great episode , where everyone in Springfield was a member of a Masonic society and Homer was left on the outside and felt neglected .
The song " We Do " was not included in the original script and was suggested by Matt Groening . It was written by the writer 's room , who threw in as many things that annoyed them as they possibly could . It was described as " one of the series ’ best musical numbers " by Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide , and was later included in the clip show " All Singing , All Dancing " .
The episode guest stars Patrick Stewart as Number One . Stewart said , " I think my appearance in The Simpsons and an appearance that I did on Sesame Street — in praise of the letter B — were perhaps the two most distinguished bits of work that I 've done in the US . " Mirkin has said that Patrick Stewart is " one of the best guest performances " because " he was so committed to [ the ] character . "
= = Cultural references = =
The term " Stonecutters " and the organization 's symbol are references to Freemasonry . The Stonecutters are in possession of the Ark of the Covenant and when they burn Homer 's underwear in it , souls escape , which is a reference to Raiders of the Lost Ark . When crowned " The Chosen One " , Homer , dressed in finery , enters through some curtains , a reference to the 1987 film The Last Emperor . The army of small monkeys may be a reference to the end of the film Aguirre , the Wrath of God .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homer the Great " finished 38th in the ratings for the week of January 2 to January 8 , 1995 . The episode was the highest rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " a brilliant crack at freemasonry , with all the secret signs , one @-@ upmanship , rituals and unusual membership rules . Add to this Patrick Stewart 's amazing voice and you have one of the better episodes of the series . " Patrick Enwright of MSNBC listed " Homer the Great " as his third favorite episode , calling it " as a whole [ it ] is ( almost ) unsurpassable . " Dave Petruska of the Tucson Citizen listed " Homer the Great " as his favorite episode " because it is such a wonderful satire on fraternal organizations and because of Patrick Stewart 's hilarious guest @-@ starring role as " Number One . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Stewart 's performance as the ninth best guest appearance in the show 's history . TV Squad 's Adam Finley said the episode " does a great job of satirizing Freemasons . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD : " I think it peters out a bit as it progresses ; the best moments show the influence of the Stonecutters , and the show drags a little toward the end . Nonetheless , it still offers a solid piece of work . " In 2010 , Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the fifth best in the show 's history .
John Swartzwelder and Alf Clausen were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Music And Lyrics " for the song " We Do " . It was later included in the album Songs in the Key of Springfield .
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= Operation Sandwedge =
Operation Sandwedge was a proposed clandestine intelligence @-@ gathering operation against the political enemies of the Richard Nixon presidential administration . The proposals were put together by H. R. Haldeman , John Ehrlichman and Jack Caulfield in 1971 . Caulfield , a former police officer , created a plan to target the Democratic Party and the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement , inspired by what he believed to be the Democratic Party 's employment of a private investigation firm .
The operation was planned to help Nixon 's 1972 re @-@ election campaign . Operation Sandwedge included proposed surveillance of Nixon 's enemies to gather information on their financial status and sexual activities , to be carried out through illegal black bag operations .
Control of Sandwedge was passed to G. Gordon Liddy , who abandoned it in favor of a strategy of his own devising , Operation Gemstone , which detailed a plan to break into Democratic Party offices in the Watergate complex . Liddy 's plan eventually led to the downfall of Nixon 's presidency , which Caulfield believed would have been avoided had Sandwedge been acted upon .
= = Background = =
In 1968 , Richard Nixon , the United States Republican Party nominee , won the presidential election , narrowly defeating Democrat Hubert Humphrey by seven @-@ tenths of a percent of the popular vote . Nixon appointed H. R. Haldeman as his Chief of Staff ; this position granted Haldeman a relatively large degree of control over the activities of the presidential administration . Haldeman had first worked for Nixon in 1956 , during Nixon 's successful bid for the vice @-@ presidency under Dwight D. Eisenhower .
By 1971 , Nixon 's staff were receiving a cursory intelligence report from Haldeman 's assistant , Gordon C. Strachan ; Strachan 's reports essentially collated information about political rallies and campaign groups that had been already been gathered by the police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Prior to this , Nixon 's initial election bid had already involved the planting of rumours and false information about his opponents as a dedicated strategy ; these tactics had been dubbed " political hardball " by Nixon 's opposition researcher Pat Buchanan . In August of 1971 , Strachan had convinced Jeb Stuart Magruder , a member of the Committee for the Re @-@ Election of the President ( CRP ) — the campaign group for Nixon 's re @-@ election bid — to infiltrate the office of Edmund Muskie . Muskie was a Democratic senator who had been Humphrey 's 1968 vice @-@ presidential candidate , and was a front @-@ runner for his party 's presidential bid for the 1972 campaign .
= = Inception = =
In late 1971 , John Dean , the White House Counsel , pushed to expand the existing intelligence program ahead of the 1972 re @-@ election campaign . Dean delegated the task to Jack Caulfield , a member of his staff who was a former New York police officer . According to Dean , Caulfield himself was interested in work outside of politics ; he intended to create a private security company , and felt that if the Nixon cabinet were an early client , it would lead to lucrative future clients within the private sector . Fred Emery , a journalist for The Times and BBC , refutes this , claiming in his book Watergate : The Corruption & Fall of Richard Nixon that the idea of a private sector security firm was simply a front for a committed campaign of surveillance working Nixon and the Republican Party , with political donations to the re @-@ election campaign able to be diverted through the company as though they were unrelated transactions .
John Ehrlichman , a long @-@ time friend of Haldeman , who had also served as White House Counsel , had been part of the operation 's inception ; at this time he was Nixon 's domestic affairs assistant . Ehrlichman was the one who had initially hired Caulfield in 1969 ; Ehrlichman intended for Caulfield to conduct private investigation while undercover as a private sector employee , it was Caulfield who insisted on working from the White House . Caulfield 's work to this end had already resulted in two wiretaps on phone lines — one on Nixon 's brother Donald , and another on journalist Joseph Kraft .
Caulfield prepared a twelve @-@ page draft proposal detailing an intelligence @-@ gathering strategy , aimed at the opposition Democratic Party ; he had worked on this draft for several months and presented it to Nixon 's staff in September of 1971 . The proposal , dubbed " Operation Sandwedge " , called for a budget of $ 500 @,@ 000 , primarily to cover private investigative work and security for the Republican National Convention , however Caulfield intimated privately that it would also include electronic surveillance .
= = Planned activities = =
The investigations and surveillance would , in part , assess how the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement could damage Nixon 's campaign . Nixon 's staff also anticipated that the Democratic campaign would employ the services of Intertel , a private investigation firm led by former Department of Justice officials who had served under Robert F. Kennedy , a Democrat and former Attorney General . Caulfield noted that this firm had the potential to employ " formidable and sophisticated " intelligence @-@ gathering techniques , and Sandwedge was his attempt to create a Republican counterpart to it . The plan would involve black bag operations , targeting political enemies of the campaign . Electronic surveillance was also an element of the proposal , with plans to scrutinize the private lives of the targets , including their tax records and sexual habits . The Sandwedge proposal also included a list of people willing to work with Caulfield on the project ; these included several investigators and officials of Inland Revenue , and a former sheriff of Cook County , Illinois .
Herb Kalmbach , Nixon 's own attorney , transferred $ 50 @,@ 000 to Caulfield at the request of John N. Mitchell . Mitchell had served as Attorney General under Nixon 's first term , and directed the 1972 re @-@ election campaign . Caulfield was also given responsibility for the salary of Tony Ulasewicz , an operative he planned to use for Sandwedge activities . However , Strachan , Dean and other staff members were frustrated at the pace of Caulfield 's development of the project . Strachan directly questioned whether Caulfield was adequately capable for the role in a memo dated from October 1971 , while Haldeman , wishing for a project on a larger scale , pressed Mitchell for an budget of $ 800 @,@ 000 for surveillance and " miscellaneous " activities .
During this time , Caulfield recruited James W. McCord , Jr . , a retired CIA officer , to protect the offices of the Republican National Convention and the CRP from electronic bugging . McCord would later be directly employed by CRP from January 1972 . Caulfield also sent Ulasewicz to the campaign offices of Paul McCloskey in New Hampshire . McCloskey was a Republican senator for California , who was running for the party 's presidential nomination against Nixon on a platform opposing the Vietnam War . He was not regarded as a credible threat to Nixon 's campaign , but had made statements calling for Nixon to be impeached . In December 1971 , Ulasewicz masqueraded as a journalist to interview McCloskey 's staff , with Caulfield dubbing the effort a " Sandwedge @-@ engineered penetration " .
= = Cancellation = =
That October , a meeting concerning Sandwedge was arranged between Haldeman , Mitchell , Magruder and Strachan . As a result of this meeting , control of the operation was passed along to G. Gordon Liddy , because Mitchell wished to have a lawyer in charge of the campaign 's intelligence @-@ gathering . Another factor in Caulfield 's removal from the helm was the belief of several White House officials , including Dean , was that Caulfield 's Irish @-@ American , non @-@ college educated background was at odds with " an Administration of WASP professional men " .
Liddy built upon the proposals to devise " Operation Gemstone " , a more expansive plan of espionage . Gemstone was an umbrella term for several individual operations , each of which expanded upon elements of the Sandwedge draft or existing CRP activities — Operation Diamond covered breaking up protest demonstrations , Ruby involved undercover infiltration and honeypot traps , Crystal concernd electronic surveillance and wiretaps , and Sapphire proposed the sabotage of rival political campaigns . Liddy 's initial draft of Operation Gemstone was deemed " too extreme " by campaign officials , but a scaled @-@ down version was later approved in 1972 . Despite Liddy 's restructuring of the project , a request for additional funding for the original Sandwedge proposal was made by Dean in January 1972 , although Mitchell 's rejection of this request signalled the project 's end .
Liddy 's revised Gemstone plan included a range of illegal activities , including a proposal to break into Democratic Party offices in the Watergate complex . The Watergate burglaries were initially assumed to have been part of Operation Sandwedge , and the investigation into both the burglaries and the project led to Caulfield 's resignation from his Nixon @-@ appointed position as assistant director of criminal enforcement in the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives .
= = Aftermath = =
In the wake of the Watergate scandal , 69 people were tried for various crimes , with 48 of these pleading guilty . Among those found guilty for covering up the affair were Haldeman , Ehrlichmann , Mitchell , Dean and Magruder , while Liddy was found guilty for his role in the break @-@ ins . All 48 men served time in prison as a result of their convictions .
Caulfield has suggested that Sandwedge 's cancellation by the administration was an error in judgement , possibly " the most monumental of the Nixon Presidency " . He believed that , if had Sandwedge been adopted as the campaign 's strategy , " there would have been no Liddy , no Hunt , no McCord " , and the subsequent Watergate scandal would not have occurred . Speaking of the initial proposal , Dean defended its merits , stating that " Caulfield , not the plan itself , had killed Sandwedge " .
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= William de St @-@ Calais =
William de St @-@ Calais ( also Calais or Carileph or Carilef ; died 1096 ) was a medieval Norman monk , abbot of the abbey of Saint @-@ Vincent in Le Mans in Maine , who was nominated by King William I of England as Bishop of Durham in 1080 . During his term as bishop , St @-@ Calais replaced the canons of his cathedral chapter with monks , and began the construction of Durham Cathedral . In addition to his ecclesiastical duties , he served as a commissioner for the Domesday Book . He was also a councilor and advisor to both King William I and his son , King William II , known as William Rufus . Following William Rufus ' accession to the throne in 1087 , St @-@ Calais is considered by scholars to have been the new king 's chief advisor .
However , when the king 's uncle , Odo of Bayeux , raised a rebellion against the king in 1088 , St @-@ Calais was implicated in the revolt . William Rufus laid siege to St @-@ Calais in the bishop 's stronghold of Durham , and later put him on trial for treason . A contemporary record of this trial , the De Iniusta Vexacione Willelmi Episcopi Primi , is the earliest surviving detailed contemporary report of an English state @-@ trial . Imprisoned briefly , St @-@ Calais was allowed to go into exile after his castle at Durham was surrendered to the king . He went to Normandy , where he became a leading advisor to Robert Curthose , Duke of Normandy , the elder brother of William Rufus . By 1091 , St @-@ Calais had returned to England and regained royal favour .
In England , St @-@ Calais once more became a leading advisor to the king . In 1093 he negotiated with Anselm , Abbot of Bec , concerning Anselm 's becoming Archbishop of Canterbury ; in 1095 it was St @-@ Calais who prosecuted the royal case against Anselm after he had become archbishop . During his bishopric , St @-@ Calais stocked the cathedral library with books , especially canon law texts . He was also active in defending the north of England against Scots raids . Before his death , he had made his peace with Anselm , who blessed and consoled St @-@ Calais on his deathbed .
= = Early life = =
St @-@ Calais was a Norman , and a native of Bayeux ; he may have been a member of one of its clerical dynasties . His mother 's name , Ascelina or Anselma , is given in Durham 's records ; his father , whose name is unknown , became a monk at the monastery of Saint @-@ Calais in Maine , and may previously have been a knight . Although St @-@ Calais is generally referred to as Saint Calais or St @-@ Calais , the main source of information about his life , the monastic chronicle of Symeon of Durham , does not call him such .
St @-@ Calais studied under Odo , Bishop of Bayeux , the half @-@ brother of the future William I of England , who was then Duke of Normandy . Other bishops educated at Bayeux around this time included Archbishop Thomas of York and Samson , Bishop of Worcester . Symeon of Durham considered St @-@ Calais to be well @-@ educated in classical literature and the scriptures ; at some point St @-@ Calais also acquired a knowledge of canon law . He became a Benedictine monk at Saint @-@ Calais in Maine , where his father had become a monk , and soon became the prior of that house . He became abbot of St Vincent @-@ des @-@ Prés near Le Mans in Maine , sometime around 1078 . As abbot , his only appearance in historical records is his upholding of the monasteries ' right to some property , and his acceptance of a gift of property in the town .
William the Conqueror nominated him to the see of Durham on 9 November 1080 , and he was duly consecrated on either 27 December 1080 or 3 January 1081 . His elevation may have been a reward for diplomatic services he rendered to the king in France , or to help secure the see from further disorder following the death of the previous bishop , William Walcher , during a feud . However , it was most likely in recognition of his administrative ability . Symeon of Durham stated that St @-@ Calais was chosen as a bishop for this reason , describing him as " very well versed in sacred and secular learning , very conscientious in matters of divine and worldly business , and so remarkable for good conduct that he had no equal amongst his contemporaries " .
= = Early ecclesiastical affairs = =
The chronicler Symeon of Durham asserted that when St @-@ Calais was consecrated bishop by Archbishop Thomas of York , he managed to avoid professing obedience to the archbishop , which , if true , would have freed St @-@ Calais from interference in his diocese . After his appointment , St @-@ Calais decided to replace his cathedral chapter of secular clergy with monks , and consulted the king and Lanfranc , the Archbishop of Canterbury , before going to Rome to receive permission from Pope Gregory VII . These consultations , and the conditions within his diocese , may have kept St @-@ Calais from visiting Durham until some time after his elevation . In 1083 he expelled the married clergy from the cathedral , and moved a small community of monks from Bede 's old monastery at Jarrow to Durham , to form the new chapter . This community had been founded at Jarrow by Reinfrid , a Norman ex @-@ knight and monk of Evesham Abbey , and Eadwine , an English monk from Winchcombe Abbey . After the community had settled in Durham , St @-@ Calais named Eadwine as prior , and arranged for lands to be set aside to support the monks . The expelled clergy were offered the option of joining the new monastic house , but only one actually joined .
St @-@ Calais enjoyed good relations with his cathedral chapter , and they supported him when construction began on a new cathedral in 1093 . He also gave a set of constitutions to the cathedral chapter , modeled on Lanfranc 's rule for Canterbury . Symeon of Durham said that the bishop acted towards the monks of his chapter as a " loving father " , and that the monks fully returned the sentiment . St @-@ Calais is said to have researched exhaustively the pre @-@ Norman Conquest customs of the cathedral , before re @-@ establishing monks in the cathedral . He imposed the Monastic Constitutions of Lanfranc on the community , instead of the older Regularis Concordia .
= = Work for William the Conqueror = =
During William the Conqueror 's reign , St @-@ Calais was a frequent witness on charters . While it is often difficult to determine who was considered most important on a charter 's witness list , placement near the top of the list is usually understood to mean that the signatory was considered important . Almost always during the Conqueror 's reign , St @-@ Calais is listed right below the royal family and the archbishops .
The king sent St @-@ Calais on diplomatic missions to the French royal court and to Rome . After the king 's imprisonment of Odo of Bayeux , Pope Gregory VII complained to him . The pope was also concerned about the king 's refusal to allow the delivery of papal letters to the English bishops unless royal permission was secured . To placate the pope , the king dispatched St @-@ Calais to Rome , possibly with Lanfranc , to explain to the pope the reasons for imprisoning Odo . St @-@ Calais also served as a commissioner in the south @-@ western part of England for the Domesday Book , which aimed to survey the whole of England and record who owned the lands . Some historians , including David Bates , have argued that St @-@ Calais was the driving force behind the organization of the entire Domesday survey , although other candidates have been put forward , including Samson , Bishop of Worcester , before he became bishop . Pierre Chaplais , who argues for St @-@ Calais being the main organizer of the survey , argues the bishop 's exile in 1088 interrupted work on the Little Domesday Book , a subproject of the survey which was left uncompleted .
= = Rebellion = =
Soon after the accession of William Rufus , St @-@ Calais became one of the king 's most trusted lieutenants , along with the recently released Odo of Bayeux . Later chroniclers often referred to the position that St @-@ Calais held as justiciar , although the formal office did not yet exist . Around Easter 1088 , Odo of Bayeux and many of the nobles revolted against the king and tried to place the king 's elder brother Robert Curthose , Duke of Normandy , on the throne . After the king had set off with St @-@ Calais and some troops to counter Odo in Kent , St @-@ Calais suddenly deserted , shutting himself in Durham Castle . Why St @-@ Calais joined the rebellion , or at least did nothing to aid the king , is unclear . He and Odo had never been close , and despite the fact that St @-@ Calais was educated at Bayeux , there is no evidence that Odo helped St @-@ Calais ' career . Some historians , including W. M. Aird , have suggested that St @-@ Calais felt the division of the Conqueror 's realm between two sons was unwise . It has been suggested that St Calais joined the rebellion to reunite the Normans and English under one ruler .
St @-@ Calais was the only bishop who did not actively aid the king ; the rebelling magnates included Roger de Montgomery Earl of Shrewsbury , Robert de Mowbray Earl of Northumbria , and Odo 's brother Robert Count of Mortain . The rebellion had failed by the end of the summer , but St @-@ Calais continued to hold out in Durham , at first claiming he had never actually rebelled . When the king 's army arrived , St @-@ Calais agreed to come out , but only after receiving a safe conduct that would allow him to attend a trial while his men continued to hold the castle . St @-@ Calais 's actions suggest that he did rebel , whatever his claims to the contrary and affirmations of his innocence in northern chronicles .
= = Trial = =
St @-@ Calais was brought before the king and royal court for trial on 2 November 1088 , at Salisbury , before which the king seized his lands . At the trial , St @-@ Calais held that as a bishop he could not be tried in a secular court , and refused to answer the accusations . Lanfranc presented the king 's case , declaring that the confiscated lands had been held as fiefs , and thus St @-@ Calais could be tried as a vassal , not as a bishop . St @-@ Calais objected , and continued to refuse to answer the allegations . After numerous conferences and discussions , the court held that St @-@ Calais could be tried as a vassal in a feudal court . St @-@ Calais then asked for an appeal to Rome , which was rejected by the king and the judges . Those judging the case held that because St @-@ Calais never answered the formal accusation , and because he appealed to Rome , his fief , or lands , was forfeit . Although St @-@ Calais claimed to be defending the rights of clergy to be tried in clerical courts and to appeal to Rome , his fellow bishops believed otherwise . Lending support to their belief is the fact that St @-@ Calais never pursued his appeal to Rome , and that later , in 1095 , he took the side of the king against Anselm of Canterbury when Anselm tried to assert a right to appeal to Rome .
During the course of the trial , Lanfranc is said to have stated that the court was " trying you not in your capacity as bishop , but in regard to your fief ; and in this way we judged the bishop of Bayeux in regard to his fief before the present king 's father , and that king did not summon him to that plea as bishop but as brother and earl . " Unlike the later case of Thomas Becket , St @-@ Calais received little sympathy from his fellow bishops . Most of the bishops and barons that judged the case seem to have felt that the appeal to Rome was made to avoid having to answer an accusation that St @-@ Calais knew was true . The final judgement was only reached after the king lost his temper and exclaimed : " Believe me , bishop , you 're not going back to Durham , and your men aren 't going to stay at Durham , and you 're not going to go free , until you release the castle . " The extant De Iniusta Vexacione Willelmi Episcopi Primi , or Of the Unjust Persecution of the Bishop William I , details the trial of St @-@ Calais before the king . This work is the earliest surviving detailed contemporary report of an English state @-@ trial ; some have doubted its authenticity , however , claiming St @-@ Calais would not have been as knowledgeable in canon law as the work portrays him . The historian Mark Philpott , however , argues that St @-@ Calais was knowledgeable in canon law , since he owned a copy of the canon law , the False Decretals , which still survives .
= = Return to favour = =
After the court adjourned , St @-@ Calais was held as a prisoner at Wilton Abbey until his followers in Durham relinquished the castle . Once the castle was back under the king 's control , St @-@ Calais was released , and left for Normandy , and no more was heard of his appeal to Rome . Pope Urban II did write to the king in 1089 requesting that St @-@ Calais be restored to his see , but nothing came of it . In Normandy , St @-@ Calais quickly became one of Duke Robert 's principal advisors and his chief administrator . On 14 November 1091 he regained the favour of William Rufus , and was restored to his see . Duke Robert had persuaded the king to allow Bishop William 's return , perhaps in recognition of a service St @-@ Calais performed for the king by brokering the end of a siege in Normandy that the king 's forces were about to lose . The end of the siege prevented the loss of the castle .
St @-@ Calais returned to Durham on 11 September 1091 , with a large sum of money and gifts for his church . Thereafter he remained in the king 's favour . In fact , in 1093 his lands were restored without the need to perform feudal services . For the rest of his life , St @-@ Calais remained a frequent advisor to the king . It was St @-@ Calais , along with Robert , Count of Meulan who negotiated with Anselm , the abbot of Bec , in 1093 over the conditions under which Anselm would allow himself to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury .
St @-@ Calais managed the king 's case against Anselm at Rockingham in 1095 , when Anselm wished to go to receive his pallium from Pope Urban II . At that time St @-@ Calais opposed Anselm 's attempt to appeal to Rome over the issue , and steadfastly maintained the king 's position against Anselm , even advocating that the archbishop be deprived of his lands and sent into exile . Later , when the king was negotiating with Walter of Albano , the papal legate sent by Urban to convey the pallium to Anselm and to secure the king 's recognition of Urban as pope , St @-@ Calais was the king 's chief negotiator . The clerical reformers , Eadmer among them , who supported Anselm in these quarrels , later tried to claim that St @-@ Calais had supported the king out of a desire to succeed Anselm as archbishop if Anselm was deposed , but it is unlikely that St @-@ Calais seriously believed that Anselm would be deposed . St @-@ Calais secured grants from the king in return for his services . His efforts on behalf of the king earned him hostile accounts in Eadmer 's later writings .
= = Diocesan affairs = =
Durham 's location in the north left it insecure , as Malcolm Canmore , King of Scots , raided and invaded the north of England on a number of occasions . Malcolm claimed Northumbria , in which Durham was located , as part of his kingdom . St @-@ Calais managed to befriend Malcolm , and secured his support for the patron saint of Durham , Saint Cuthbert . Malcolm and his wife helped lay the foundation stone of the new cathedral dedicated to Cuthbert . Respect for the saint did not mean that Malcolm refrained entirely from raiding the north ; he was killed in 1093 while once more raiding Northumbria . Both the English king and St @-@ Calais did all in their power to support Malcolm 's sons , who had been educated in England , in their attempts to secure the Scottish throne .
Later , in 1095 , an English noble , Robert de Mowbray , who was Earl of Northumbria , challenged the bishop 's authority in the north . When Mowbray rebelled again in 1095 , St @-@ Calais helped the king put down the rebellion , and Mowbray was captured . The death of Malcolm and the capture of Mowbray did much to make the north more secure .
In St @-@ Calais ' time as bishop , a long @-@ running dispute began between the monks of the cathedral chapter and successive bishops . This arose because St @-@ Calais did not make a formal division of the diocesan revenues between the bishop 's household and the monks of the chapter . Nor had he allowed free elections of the prior . He may have promised these things to the monks before his death , but nothing was in writing . Thus , when a non @-@ monk was selected to replace St @-@ Calais , the monks began a long struggle to secure what they felt had been promised to them , including the forging of charters ascribed to St @-@ Calais that supported their case . These forged charters date from the second half of the 12th century .
St @-@ Calais also ordered the destruction of the old cathedral that had been built by Aldhun , to make way for the construction of a new , larger cathedral , the current Romanesque @-@ style Durham Cathedral . The construction of the new cathedral began on 29 July 1093 , when St @-@ Calais led his cathedral chapter in dedicating the site . The first stones were laid shortly afterwards , on 11 August 1093 . However , St @-@ Calais ' exile after his trial as well as his employment in the royal service meant that he was often absent from his bishopric , and this probably is the cause of the medieval chronicler Symeon of Durham 's comparatively neutral treatment of St @-@ Calais in his works . There is no evidence of St @-@ Calais performing any of the normal episcopal functions , including consecrating priests or churches .
Probably dating from St @-@ Calais ' time is the confraternity relationship between the monks of Durham and the monks of the monastery of Saint Calais in Maine . The cult of Saint Calais appears to have been confined to the region around the monastery which the saint had founded . St @-@ Calais appears to have been a devotee of the cult , and the most likely date for the creation of the confraternity link between the two houses is during St @-@ Calais ' time as bishop .
= = Death and legacy = =
Shortly before Christmas 1095 , one of St @-@ Calais ' knights , Boso , fell ill and dreamed he was transported to the afterlife , where he found a large house with gates made of iron . Suddenly , St @-@ Calais emerged from the gates , asking the knight the whereabouts of one of his servants . Boso 's guide in the dream then informed Boso that this was a warning that St @-@ Calais would soon die . Boso recovered and warned St @-@ Calais of the dream .
St @-@ Calais died on 2 January 1096 after falling gravely ill on the previous Christmas Day . Before his death he was consoled by Anselm and was blessed by his former opponent . He was buried on 16 January 1096 in the chapter house at Durham . The king had summoned St @-@ Calais shortly before Christmas to answer an unknown charge , and it is possible that the stress of this threat caused his death . In 1796 St @-@ Calais ' grave was supposedly found during the demolition of the chapter house at Durham Cathedral . Found in the grave were a pair of sandals , which still survive , and fragments of a gold embroidered robe .
While in office as bishop , St @-@ Calais gave a copy of the False Decretals to his cathedral library . The manuscript was an edition that had been collected or prepared by Lanfranc for the use of the chapter of Canterbury . St @-@ Calais may have used this copy in his trial . His plea for an appeal to Rome was grounded in the False Decretals , whether or not it was based on this particular manuscript . The manuscript itself is now in the Peterhouse Library . St @-@ Calais also gave a copy of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum to his cathedral chapter ; this copy still survives . Other works that St @-@ Calais gave to the cathedral library were copies of Augustine of Hippo 's De Civitae Dei and Confessions ; Gregory the Great 's Pastoral Care , Moralia , and Homilies ; and Ambrose 's De Poenitentia .
St @-@ Calais was known to his contemporaries as an intelligent and able man . He had an excellent memory . Frank Barlow , a historian , describes him as a " good scholar and a monk of blameless life " . Besides his copy of the Decretals , he left at his death over fifty books to the monks of Durham , and the list of those volumes still exists . His best @-@ known legacy is the construction of Durham Cathedral , although the nave was not finished until 1130 . The construction technique of combining a pointed arch with another rib allowed a six @-@ pointed vault , which enabled the building to attain a greater height than earlier churches . This permitted larger celestory windows , and let more light into the building . The technique of the six @-@ pointed vault spread to Saint @-@ Etienne in Caen from which it influenced the development of early Gothic architecture near Paris . The system of rib vaulting in the choir was the earliest use of that technique in Europe . The historian Frank Barlow called the cathedral " one of the architectural jewels of western Christendom " .
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= Deep Throat ( The X @-@ Files ) =
Deep Throat is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . He serves as an informant , leaking information to FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder to aid Mulder 's investigation of paranormal cases , dubbed X @-@ Files . Introduced in the series ' second episode , also named " Deep Throat " , the character was killed off during the first season finale " The Erlenmeyer Flask " ; however , he later made several appearances in flashbacks and visions .
The character of Deep Throat was portrayed by Jerry Hardin in all his appearances . After the character was killed , Steven Williams was introduced in the second season episode " The Host " to portray his successor , X. The creation of Deep Throat was inspired by the historical Deep Throat , Mark Felt , who leaked information on the Watergate scandal , and by Donald Sutherland 's character X in the film JFK .
= = Conceptual history = =
Series creator Chris Carter has stated that the character of Deep Throat was " of course " inspired by the historical Deep Throat . The real Deep Throat was an informant leaking information on the FBI 's investigation of the Watergate scandal to journalists Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward . After the conclusion of The X @-@ Files , this Deep Throat was later revealed to be FBI Associate Director Mark Felt . Also cited as an influence on the fictional Deep Throat was X , the character portrayed by Donald Sutherland in the 1991 Oliver Stone film JFK . In the film , Sutherland 's X reveals information about the possibility that the assassination of John F. Kennedy was orchestrated by elements within the American government . Carter felt he needed to create a character who would bridge the gap between FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and the shadowy conspirators who were working against them ; he conceived of a character " who works in some level of government that we have no idea exists " .
Carter was drawn to actor Jerry Hardin after seeing him in 1993 's The Firm . Hardin believed his initial appearance would be a one @-@ time role , although he soon found himself regularly commuting to the series ' Vancouver filming location on short notice . Producer Howard Gordon has spoken of the elusiveness of the character 's allegiances , stating that during production , it was often left ambiguous whether he was " ally or foe " . After filming the character 's death in the first season finale , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " , Hardin was toasted with champagne , and told by Carter that " no one ever really dies on X @-@ Files " . As such , Hardin made several more appearances as Deep Throat after this — seen in visions in the third season 's " The Blessing Way " and the seventh season 's " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " , in flashbacks in the fourth season 's " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , and as one of the guises assumed by a shapeshifting alien in the third season 's finale , " Talitha Cumi " .
= = Character arc = =
During the first season of The X @-@ Files , Deep Throat provided Mulder and Scully with information they would have been otherwise unable to obtain . As a member of the then @-@ unseen Syndicate , he was in a position to know a great deal of information . Deep Throat felt that the truth the Syndicate kept secret from the public needed to be known , and believed Mulder to be the one person capable of exposing this knowledge . However , during the disappearance of Max Fenig , Deep Throat provided Mulder with false information in order to divert him , later explaining that he believed the public was just not ready to know some truths .
During the Vietnam War , Deep Throat worked for the Central Intelligence Agency . When a UFO was shot down over Hanoi by US Marines , the surviving extraterrestrial was brought to Deep Throat , who executed it . He later claimed that his assisting Mulder was his way of atoning for his actions . He also stated that he was " a participant in some of the most insidious lies and witness to deeds that no crazed man could imagine " .
In the first season finale of The X @-@ Files , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " , Mulder was taken hostage by a group of Men in Black operatives , following his investigation into an alien @-@ human hybrid program . Fearing for Mulder 's life , Deep Throat helped Scully gain access to a high containment facility , where she managed to secretly remove a cryogenically @-@ preserved alien fetus for use as collateral in saving Mulder . In the subsequent meeting between the operatives and Deep Throat , he was gunned down by an assassin , the Crew Cut Man . Deep Throat was buried at the Arlington National Cemetery . The character later appeared in dreams and visions experienced by Mulder during his recuperation on a Navajo reservation , and again years later while being experimented on by The Smoking Man .
= = Reception = =
The character of Deep Throat has been well received by critics and fans . Entertainment Weekly described Hardin 's performance as " world @-@ weary and heavyhearted " , and listed his appearance in the character 's eponymous début episode as the 37th greatest television moment of the 1990s . However , they felt at times that his presence in episodes such as " Ghost in the Machine " seemed " gratuitous " . Reviewing the character 's début episode , the San Jose Mercury News called Deep Throat " the most interesting new character on television " . Chris Carter has stated that Hardin 's performance gave the series an element of " believability " that it needed ; and felt that the episode " E.B.E. " was a great opportunity to expand the character 's role . Writing for the A.V. Club , Zack Handlen called Deep Throat 's death " a shocking moment , even when you know it 's coming " , praising the " desperation " evident in Hardin 's performance , although lamenting the " curse of continuity " that led to the character being quickly replaced with Steven Williams ' X. Ben Rawson @-@ Jones , writing for Digital Spy , felt that Deep Throat 's tenure on The X @-@ Files was " arguably the show 's peak " , and praised Hardin 's acting in the role . Brian Lowry , in his book The Truth Is Out There , has noted that the character " helped establish a tone and undercurrent of gravity on The X @-@ Files that was to provide the spine of the series " .
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= Decline and fall of Pedro II of Brazil =
The decline and fall of Pedro II of Brazil occurred over the course of the 1880s , with the underlying factors accumulating and coming increasingly into focus after 1881 . This period paradoxically coincided with a time of unparalleled economic and social stability and progress for Brazil , during which the nation had achieved a prominent place as an emerging power within the international arena .
The roots of the collapse of the monarchy can be traced as far back as 1850 , upon the death of Pedro II 's youngest male child . From that point onward , the Emperor ceased to believe in the monarchy as a viable form of government for Brazil 's future , as his remaining heir was a daughter . Although constitutionally permitted , a female ruler was considered unacceptable by both Pedro II and the ruling circles . This issue was deferred for decades , during which the country became more powerful and prosperous . So long as the Emperor enjoyed good health , the matter of succession could be ignored .
From 1881 Pedro II 's health began failing . He gradually withdrew from public affairs as time passed . Weary of being tied to a throne which he doubted would survive his death , he persevered out of duty and because there seemed no immediate alternative . Nor did his daughter and heir , Isabel , exhibit a desire to assume the crown . Both , however , were overwhelmingly beloved by the Brazilian people , who still supported the monarchy . The indifference towards the Imperial system by the Emperor and his daughter allowed a discontented republican minority to grow more audacious and to eventually launch the coup that overthrew the Empire .
Pedro II of Brazil may be considered a rare instance of a head of state who , despite being overwhelmingly beloved by his people , despite international admiration and acclamation , despite having been instrumental in driving forward major liberal social and economic reforms , despite overseeing a period of outstanding prosperity and influence during a reign covering nearly six decades , and despite being considered a highly successful ruler to the end , ultimately was subjected to overthrow and exile . The republican revolution which replaced the Empire led to decades of disruption and dictatorship .
= = Decline = =
During the 1880s , Brazil continued to prosper and social diversity increased markedly , including the first organized push for women 's rights . The country had greatly changed in the five decades since Pedro II 's accession to the throne . The liberalism adopted by successive Government cabinets favored private initiatives and resulted in decades of economic prosperity . It " had an economy that was rapidly developing in 1880s " . Brazil 's international trade reached a total value of Rs 79 @.@ 000 : 000 $ 000 ( see Brazilian currency ) between 1834 and 1839 . This continued to increase every year until it reached Rs 472 @.@ 000 : 000 $ 000 between 1886 and 1887 ( an annual growth rate of 3 @.@ 88 % since 1839 ) . Brazilian economic growth , especially after 1850 , compared well with that of the United States and European nations . The national revenue , which amounted to Rs 11 @.@ 795 : 000 $ 000 in 1831 , rose to Rs 160 @.@ 840 : 000 $ 000 in 1889 . By 1858 , it was the eighth largest in the world . To give an idea of the economic potential of the country during the Empire , if " it had been able to sustain the level of productivity achieved in 1780 and managed to increase exports at a pace equal to that verified in the second half of 19th century , its per capita income in 1950 would be comparable to the average per capita income of the Western European nations " .
Development on an immense scale occurred during this period , which anticipated similar initiatives in European countries . In 1850 , there were 50 factories valued at more than Rs 7 @.@ 000 : 000 $ 000 . At the end of the Imperial period in 1889 , Brazil had 636 factories ( representing an annual rate of increase of 6 @.@ 74 % from 1850 ) valued at approximately Rs 401 @.@ 630 : 600 $ 000 ( annual growth rate of 10 @.@ 94 % since 1850 ) . The " countryside echoed with the clang of iron track being laid as railroads were constructed at the most furious pace of the nineteenth century ; indeed , building in the 1880 's [ sic ] was the second greatest in absolute terms in Brazil 's entire history . Only eight countries in the entire world laid more track in the decade than Brazil . " The first railroad line , with only 15 kilometers , was opened on 30 April 1854 at a time when many European countries had no rail service . By 1868 , there were 718 kilometers of railroad lines , and by the end of the Empire in 1889 , this had grown to 9 @,@ 200 kilometers ( with another 9 @,@ 000 kilometers under construction ) , making it the country with " the largest rail network in Latin America " .
" Factories also sprang throughout the Empire in the 1880s at an unprecedent rate , and its cities were beginning to receive the benefits of gas , electrical , sanitation , telegraph and tram companies . Brazil was entering the modern world . " It was the fifth country in the world to install modern sewers in cities , the third to have sewage treatment , and one of the pioneers in installing telephone lines . Beyond these , it was the first South American nation to adopt public electric illumination ( in 1883 ) and the second in the Americas ( behind the United States ) to establish a telegraph line connecting it directly to Europe ( in 1874 ) . The first telegraph line appeared in 1852 in Rio de Janeiro . By 1889 , there were 18 @,@ 925 kilometers of telegraph lines connecting the country 's capital to distant Brazilian provinces such as Pará , and even linking to other South American countries such as Argentina and Uruguay .
The Brazilian Empire was admired internationally for its democratic system and for its respect for freedom of speech . In politics there were " solid and competitive parties , an active parliament , a free press , open debate " . The Argentine President Bartolomé Mitre called the country a " crowned democracy " and Venezuelan President Rojas Paúl after learning of the Emperor 's fall said , " It has ended the only republic that existed in [ South ] America : the Empire of Brazil . " The Brazil of the last year of Pedro II 's reign was a " prosperous and [ internationally ] respected " nation which held unchallenged leadership in Latin America . Its navy was the fifth or sixth most powerful in the world in 1889 with the most powerful battleships in the western hemisphere . The Emperor was beloved by the Brazilian people and was regarded with " respect , almost veneration " in North America and Europe due to his democratic , liberal and progressive ideals and actions . The remarks made by a former U.S. consul at Rio de Janeiro , who met Pedro II in late 1882 , tells much of the general view that foreigners had of Brazil and its Emperor by the end of the 1880s :
Dom Pedro II , Emperor of Brazil … has an intellectual head , eyes a grayish blue … beard full and gray , hair well trimmed , also gray , complexion florid , and expression sober . He is erect , and has a manly bearing … During this long period [ of his rule ] there have been some provincial rebellions and some local turmoil , but the Emperor has always shown a tact , energy , and humanity that helped much to restore order , quite , and good feeling . Thus , while he has held the scepter his country has continued to prosper . Its vast area has been held intact , and it has become an important Empire . As I have looked at his gray head , when he has been driving in his carriage through the streets of Rio , I have said to myself , ' There certainly is an august and venerable character.'
The British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone said that Pedro II was " a model to the Sovereigns of the world " and held him as being a " great and good Sovereign " . Brazilian writer Machado de Assis would later remember him as " a humble , honest , well @-@ learned and patriotic man , who knew how to make of a throne a chair [ for his simplicity ] , without diminishing its greatness and respect . " When he became Emperor in 1831 , Brazil was on the verge of fragmentation . Fifty @-@ eight years later , the country had been at peace for more than four decades , slavery had been extinguished , the representative system was consolidated , and the leadership of the military was in civilian hands ( something not seen in the Spanish @-@ American countries ) . Indeed , for " the longevity of his government and the transformations which occurred during its course , no other Head of State has marked more deeply the history of the nation . " Even though Brazil was richer and more powerful than ever , though it enjoyed an excellent international reputation , and though Pedro II himself was still extremely popular among his subjects , the Brazilian monarchy itself was dying .
= = = A tired emperor = = =
Beginning in late 1880 , letters from Pedro II to the Countess of Barral reveal a man grown world @-@ weary with age and having an increasingly alienated and pessimistic outlook . In them he frequently expresses " his loneliness and his desire to escape into her company . " The Emperor entertained a fantasy of leaving everything behind and realizing his cherished ambition of taking up a life in Europe , as he expressed it : " and I , were I to enjoy my total independence , where would I be ? Guess . " This strong desire to retire to a less circumscribed life abroad was a constant presence throughout the 1880s . Despite the dichotomy between reverie and reality , he remained respectful of his duty and was meticulous in performing the tasks demanded of the Imperial office , albeit often without enthusiasm .
Pedro II was also undergoing physical decline , which only served to exacerbate his mental state . In younger days , he was admired for his ability to work long hours and rapidly bounce back from setbacks . But " lack of exercise and very poor eating habits also took their toll . " By the 1880s he had to rely on pince @-@ nez spectacles for reading due to deterioration of his eyesight , and on dentures for eating , as sugar had caused his teeth to decay . A tendency to doze off unexpectedly began to be exhibited , including falling asleep " in the middle of important meetings and during public engagements . " The cause was what is known today as type 2 diabetes ( non @-@ insulin @-@ dependent ) , with which the Emperor was diagnosed sometime around 1882 . Throughout the following years , the monarch was afflicted with several sudden illnesses , ranging from stomach pains to fevers . In 1884 he received a laceration on his left leg which became infected and , complicated by his diabetes , took longer than expected to completely heal . He also began suffering from " urinary problems due to the damage done by diabetes to his kidneys . "
Tired of the emperorship and beset by frequent ailments , Pedro II increasingly withdrew from government business , often behaving more like a bystander . He was observed walking around dressed in tailcoat and carrying an umbrella in the streets , sometimes surrounded by cheerful children ; sampling fruits in the local market ; and tasting the students ' food in the kitchens on visits to schools . He tried to live as an ordinary person , successfully " mixing with the people in the streets " . He abolished several rituals related to the monarchy , such as hand @-@ kissing in 1872 and the guarda dos archeiros ( Archers 's Guard ) in 1877 , " the palace guard clad in multicolored uniforms and armed with halberds . " The City Palace , where the government met , was practically abandoned as also was the Imperial residence at the Palace of São Cristóvão , now devoid of courtiers . An Austrian diplomat , summarized well the situation in late 1882 :
I found the palace of São Cristóvão the same as ever . It is the bewitched castle of the fairy tales . A sentinel at the door and beside him not a living soul . I wandered alone through the corridors which surrounded the patio . I met nobody but I heard the tinkle of glasses in a neighboring room where the Emperor was dining alone with the Empress without their suite composed of a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting and a chamberlain .
Pomp , ritual and luxury were discarded . These caused Pedro II to be viewed as " a great citizen " in the popular imagination , but at the same time his image as a monarch , as a living symbol and authority figure diminished . As a German journalist remarked in 1883 : " It is a rare thing , in the Emperor 's situation : he has no personal fortune and his civil list , already by itself insufficient , is almost all expended on charity , in a way that he cannot afford any pomp in the court , nor do anything to give any gleam to his residences [ … ] It undoubtedly does great honor to the man , but contributes little to the necessary prestige of the Emperor . " But the society in which the Emperor lived put great store in ceremonials and customs , and the Emperor had discarded much of the symbolism and aura with which the Imperial system was imbued .
= = = The monarchy 's fate : heirless = = =
After their experience of the perils and obstacles of government , the political figures who had arisen during the 1830s became wary of taking on a greater role in ruling the nation . They looked to the Emperor as providing a fundamental and useful source of authority essential both for governing and for national survival . Pedro II 's natural ability and proficiency as a ruler encouraged greater deference as time passed . The political establishment " perceived him as the key to the successful working of the [ political ] system , someone whose reputation and authority protected him from all discussion . " These elder statesmen began to die off or retire from government until , by the 1880s , they had almost entirely been replaced by a younger generation of politicians who had no experience of the Regency and early years of Pedro II 's reign , when external and internal dangers threatened the nation 's existence . They had only known a stable administration and prosperity . In sharp contrast those of the previous era , the young politicians saw no reason to uphold and defend the Imperial office as a unifying force beneficial to the nation . Pedro II 's role in achieving an era of national unity , stability and good government now went unremembered and unconsidered by the ruling elites . By his very success , " Pedro II had made himself redundant as emperor " .
The lack of an heir who could feasibly provide a new direction for the nation also diminished the long @-@ term prospects for continuation of the Brazilian monarchy . The Emperor loved his daughter Isabel , and respected her strong character . However , he considered the idea of a female successor as antithetical to the role required of Brazil 's ruler . " Destiny had spoken in the loss of his two male heirs and the lack , after their death , of any more sons . " That view was also shared by the political establishment , who continued to harbor reservations when it came to any thought of accepting a female ruler . Isabel 's children were also discounted as heirs . Pedro II had not raised them as possible successors to the throne , but rather in hopes that they would become worthy citizens . The consensus was that a suitable successor " had to be a man " , that is , a male of the Braganza line .
The Emperor 's great @-@ grandmother , Maria I of Portugal , had been a queen regnant . However , she had been married to her uncle , Pedro III of Portugal who was a Braganza . This meant that her offspring would continue to belong to the House of Braganza . Emperor Pedro II was the last of the direct male line in Brazil descended from Dom Afonso I , first king of Portugal and founder , in 1139 , of the dynasty which headed the Brazilian Empire . There were two other male Braganzas , albeit living abroad : Pedro II 's half @-@ brother Rodrigo Delfim Pereira and his cousin Miguel , Duke of Braganza . Both were barred from the line of succession , however . The former because he was an illegitimate son , and the latter because he was a foreigner and not a descendant of the first Brazilian Emperor , Pedro I.
None of these issues bothered Isabel , who did not imagine herself taking on the position of monarch . Her public roles gave no indication of preparations for assuming a greater part in government . She seemed content in supporting her father 's position and made no effort to assemble her own faction of supporters within the political establishment . Her views and beliefs held no attraction for disaffected politicians , so no independent movement formed to adopt her as champion . She " was content with the life of an aristocratic lady , devoting herself to family , religion , charitable works , theater , opera , painting and music . " Her husband , the Count of Eu , was equally disliked . He was shy , humble and eschewed displays of pomp and luxury . Since his marriage to Isabel in 1864 , his behavior was described as " exemplary " . But the count 's private virtues did not become a part of his public image . To those outside his immediate circle , he came to be characterized as a greedy foreign interloper . Baseless rumors of questionable business dealings also circulated , such as one which portrayed him as a Rio de Janeiro slum @-@ lord . The prospect of the Count becoming consort detracted from the prospect of Isabel becoming Empress . The couple offered " to Brazilians no alternative center of loyalty or competing vision of the monarchy " .
A weary emperor who no longer cared for the throne , an heir who had no desire to assume the crown , discontent among ruling circles who were dismissive of the Imperial role in national affairs : all seemed to presage the monarchy 's impending doom . Nevertheless , Pedro II was unconcerned that times and conditions were changing . After more than five decades on the throne , he had become complacent in a belief that the devotion and support of his subjects was immutable . Because of these factors , and the lack of an energetic response on the part of Pedro II , it has been argued that prime responsibility for the monarchy 's overthrow rested with the Emperor himself .
= = = Republicanism = = =
Republicanism — either support for a presidential or parliamentary republic — as an enduring political movement appeared in Brazil during December 1870 in Rio de Janeiro with the publishing of a manifesto signed by 57 people and with the creation of the Republican Club . It represented an " insignificant minority of scholars . " There was no repudiation of or desire for eliminating slavery in the manifesto . In 1873 , the Republican Party of São Paulo was created , and it affirmed that slavery would have to be resolved by the monarchist ( Conservative and Liberal ) parties . The reason for this was because many of the republicans from São Paulo were themselves slave @-@ owning farmers . The objective of most republicans was to wait until the death of Pedro II and by a plebiscite or other peaceful means , prevent Princess Isabel from ascending the throne . Republicanism did not envisage any " social readjustment " ( such as improving the quality of life for former @-@ slaves ) , and they " were not revolutionaries in the deep meaning of the word . " The republican movement " had a slow and irregular evolution , concentrated in the provinces south of Bahia " — more precisely in the provinces of São Paulo , Rio de Janeiro , Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul .
It was " an extremely small group " with a " precarious organization in the provinces " and no cohesion or connection among themselves . The only republican faction to achieve political clout was the Republican Party of São Paulo , which managed to elect two deputies to the Chamber of Deputies in 1884 , though none were elected to the Empire 's last legislature in 1889 . In the 1880s " it attracted sympathy in lesser numbers than [ slavery ] abolitionism , and at a slower pace . " Its numbers only increased after 1888 , adding new adherents consisting of farmers who had been slave owners and who perceived themselves victims of an unjust abolition of slavery that had not included any type of indemnity to them . Even so , in 1889 the " avowed republicans were probably a small minority " as the " republican ideals , in reality , had never managed to seduce the people . Its dissemination was restricted to the intellectual and military fields . "
As " the republicans themselves recognized , the party did not have size , organization and popular support enough to overthrow the monarchy . " Republicanism " did not manage , at any moment of its development , to spur the national soul . It never had the stature to provoke a strong enthusiasm or enlist all forces that were divorcing from the throne . " Even with radical propaganda and little interference from the authorities , the Republican Party in existence from the beginning of the 1870s was a small one . It praised republics such as the United States , France and Argentina , while conveniently ignoring progressive monarchies such as the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries . In 1889 , its members were " spokesmen in public squares and writers of periodicals . They were far from having the power to develop a propaganda that could shake the foundations of the throne . " In the " political process of the second empire [ reign of Pedro II ] , the republican party had such a dull and secondary role that it might even have been forgotten ; it was unable to influence rationales advocating the regime 's dissolution . " It was the crisis between the military and the Government , " of very diverse origin and evolution " from the republicanism , which was to prove the main factor in the fall of the monarchy .
Pedro II showed no interest in the republican manifesto of 1870 . The Marquis of São Vicente , then President of the Council of Ministers , suggested to the Emperor that republicans be forbidden to enter into public service , a practice then common in monarchies . Pedro II answered , " Mr. São Vicente , allow the nation to govern itself and decide whatever [ monarchy or republic ] they want . " The President reprimanded the monarch , " Your Majesty does not have a right to think in that way . The Monarchy is a constitutional doctrine which Your Majesty swore to maintain ; it is not incarnate in the person of Your Majesty . " But the Emperor did not care and simply answered : " Well , if the Brazilians do not want me as their Emperor , I shall become a teacher instead ! "
The Emperor not only always refused to forbid republicans from becoming public servants , but also hired the republican military officer Benjamin Constant as a professor of mathematics to his grandsons . He allowed open republican activities , including newspapers , assemblies , meetings and political parties , and exempted republican deputies elected to the Chamber of Deputies from swearing allegiance to the crown . The freedom of the Press , " one of the foundations of the regime , kept allowing fierce criticisms and vile caricatures opposing the regime and its public personalities . " Pedro II was intransigent in his defense of the unrestricted freedom of speech which had existed in Brazil since independence in 1822 . He was accused of being excessively tolerant towards the republicans , but " he did not pay attention to several warnings stating that his behavior undermined the political foundation of the monarchy . " In 1889 , Pedro II said to José Antonio Saraiva that he would not mind if Brazil became a republic . The " Emperor 's indifference towards the fate of the regime was also one of the main factors in the fall of the Monarchy . "
= = = Military deterioration = = =
A serious problem began to become evident during the 1880s . This was a weakening of discipline within Brazil 's military . The older generation of officers were loyal to the monarchy , believed the military should be under civilian control , and had a great aversion to the militaristic caudillism against which they had earlier fought . But these elders were no longer in control and many had since died , including the Duke of Caxias , the Count of Porto Alegre , the Marquis of Erval , and others . It was accepted that military officers could participate in politics while staying on active duty . However , most did so as members of the Conservative Party and Liberal Party . This meant that their political careers were apt to come into conflict with their duty as officers to act in subordination to the civilian government , which could be in the hands of their political opponents . Earlier involvement in politics by members of the military had not threatened the stability of Brazil 's institutions , due to pervasive loyalty to the monarchy and constitution . The conflict of interest in mixing military and political spheres became more obvious and threatening as support for the constitutional establishment eroded among some elements within the military , although neither the Emperor or government seem to have grasped the extent and implications of the increasing involvement of members of the military as political dissidents . Until this point Brazilians , both civilians and military , shared a sense of pride in the nation 's political stability and for having avoided the caudillos , coups , military dictatorships and rebellions that characterized neighboring countries . Their perception of the superiority of the Brazilian political system was attributed to an established tradition of civilian control over the military . And the ministers who held the War and Navy portfolios in the cabinet were , with rare exceptions , civilians .
1882 saw the first signs of insubordination among the army corps when a group of officers assassinated a journalist in broad daylight . He had published an article which they considered an offence to their honor . However , the participants were not subjected to punishment for this act . Records from 1884 show that , out of a peacetime army of 13 @,@ 500 men , more than 7 @,@ 526 had been jailed for insubordination . The military were badly paid , inadequately equipped , ill @-@ instructed , and thinly spread across the vast Empire , often in small " garrisons of 20 , 10 , 5 and even 2 men . " Most of the non @-@ officer corps consisted of men recruited from the poor sertão ( hinterland ) in the northeast , and later from former slaves . These were volunteers seeking some means of subsistence , as there was no conscription . They were completely unprepared for the military life , had little education or concept of civic responsibility and government . A poor Brazilian from the northeast viewed his military commanders in the same light as he viewed the henchmen of the political bosses at home . An ex @-@ slave would saw his harsh superior officer as differing little from his former owner and taskmasters . They had no means of understanding that they were being used to effect a coup , that their orders put them in rebellion against the Emperor , or that their actions would lead to a dictatorship . The average recruit blindly followed orders and hoped to avoid punishment by his superiors for any mistake .
In 1886 a colonel renowned for lack of discipline published newspaper articles criticizing the Minister of War , an act of insubordination forbidden by law . Instead of being punished , the colonel was supported by his commander , Field Marshal ( nowadays Divisional General ) Deodoro da Fonseca . The minister , as well as the conservative cabinet headed by João Maurício Wanderley , decided not to penalize the colonel in an attempt to quiet dissention . However , the cabinet went further and removed any constraint on military officers broadcasting their views . In consequence of this policy , subordinates were thenceforth able to publicly criticize their superiors , thus undermining both military and political authority , including that of the cabinet itself .
At the beginning of 1888 a drunken officer was arrested by the police for causing disturbance in the street . Several officers , including Deodoro , were outraged by the arrest and insisted that the chief of police be dismissed . Wanderley , who was still heading the cabinet , refused to bow to this demand . But Princess Isabel , acting regent on behalf of her father who was in Europe , instead opted to dismiss the entire cabinet and support the so @-@ called " undisciplined military faction " . Her motive was to use this incident as a pretext to replace Wanderley , who was openly against the abolition of slavery , an issue before the Parliament at the time . Although she gained a new cabinet composed of politicians who supported the end of slavery , Isabel 's decision held unintended and dire consequences for the monarchy . Instead of placating an unruly military faction , it only opened the way for more audacious demands and more widespread insubordination , while exposing the weakness of the civilian power . Several officers began to openly conspire against the government , expecting that in a republic they would no longer be exposed to the " harassment " which they believed they were suffering under the monarchy . One of them , Floriano Peixoto , advocated adoption of a " military dictatorship " .
Another important influence which appeared during the 1880s was the dissemination of Positivism among the army 's lower and medium officer ranks , as well as among some civilians . Brazilian Positivists believed that a republic was superior to monarchy . However , they also saw representative democracy and freedom of speech as threats . They also opposed religions , especially Catholicism ( though excepting Positivism itself ) . They advocated the establishment of a dictatorship , with a dictator @-@ for @-@ life who would name his own successor , along with a strong centralized government and " the incorporation of the proletariat into society through the end of bourgeois privileges . " Positivism shared many features with later Bolshevism , Marxism and Leninism . However , and remarkably , the Positivists wanted Pedro II to assume the first dictatorship , and hoped to use him to smooth the transition from monarchy towards their new republic .
One of the most influential Positivists in Brazil was Lieutenant @-@ colonel Benjamim Constant , a professor in the Military Academy . Although admired to the point of veneration by the young cadets , he was completely unknown to the public . Constant and other Positivist instructors inculcated students with his ideology . Gradually consigned to the background of the Academy 's curriculum were military exercises and military studies of Antoine @-@ Henri Jomini and Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz , replaced by a focus on political discussions and readings from Auguste Comte and Pierre Lafitte . The cadets soon became insubordinate political agitators . Even so , Positivists still expected to make a peaceful transition to their fantasy of a republican dictatorship and Constant , who had also taught the Emperor 's grandsons , met with Pedro II and tried to convince him join their cause . Unsurprisingly , given Pedro II 's character , this proposal was steadfastly refused , and Constant began to believe that there was no remaining alternative to a coup d 'état .
As a result , a coalition between the undisciplined Army faction headed by Deodoro and the Positivist faction headed by Constant would be formed and directly lead to 15 November 1889 republican coup . According to one of the seditious leaders , only around 20 % of the Brazilian army participated in or actively supported the monarchy 's fall .
= = = Third trip to Europe and end of slavery in Brazil = = =
The Emperor 's health had considerably worsened by 1887 and fever attacks had become common . His personal doctors suggested a trip to Europe for medical treatment . When embarking , he was greeted by a crowd which cried out , " Long live His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil ! " He left on 30 June 1887 along with his wife and his grandson Pedro Augusto . Once more his daughter Isabel became regent in his place . He remained for a short time in Portugal and traveled on to Paris , where he stayed in the Grand Hotel as usual . There he received Louis Pasteur , Ambroise Thomas , Pierre Émile Levasseur , François Coppée , Alexandre Dumas , fils , Arsène Houssaye , Guerra Junqueiro , and two of Victor Hugo 's grandsons , among others . In a conversation with Houssaye the Emperor again lamented what he considered a " crown of thorns " he had to bear . Pedro II also saw his old friend Michel Eugène Chevreul , who was by then 102 years old .
The monarch was examined by the French doctors Charles @-@ Édouard Brown @-@ Séquard , Jean @-@ Martin Charcot and Michel Peter who recommended a visit to the spas at Baden @-@ Baden . He remained there for two months and met with old acquaintances , including Wilhelm I of Germany and Leopold II of Belgium . He also visited the tomb of his daughter Leopoldina in Coburg . He returned to Paris on 8 October 1887 and met his sisters Januária and Francisca . From there he traveled to Italy where he was invited by the King of Italy to a dinner along with Victoria of the United Kingdom and Natalija Obrenović , Queen of Serbia . In Florence he unveiled the painting Independence or Death by the Brazilian painter Pedro Américo in the presence of the British Queen , the Serbian queen and Charles I , King of Württemberg . In Milan he met with Cesare Cantù . There his health worsened on 3 May 1888 , and he passed two weeks between life and death , even being anointed . The doctor Charcot came from Paris to assist and administered caffeine by intervenous injection , resulting in an improvement in the Emperor 's health . On 22 May he received news that slavery had been abolished in Brazil by a law sanctioned by his daughter . Lying in bed with a weak voice and tears in his eyes , he said , " Great people ! Great people ! "
Pedro II returned to Brazil and disembarked in Rio de Janeiro on 22 August 1888 . The " whole country welcomed him with an enthusiasm never seen before . From the capital , from the provinces , from everywhere , arrived proofs of affection and veneration . The emotion from those who saw him disembark , frail , thin , with bent body , weak legs , was one most profound . " The cadets from the Military Academy climbed Sugarloaf Mountain and placed a gigantic banner on which was written " Hail . " Such popular enthusiasm directed toward the Emperor was not matched even by the celebrations of his majority in 1840 , in the Christie Affair of 1864 , upon his departure to Rio Grande do Sul in 1865 , or even after the victory in the Paraguayan War in 1870 . " To judge from the general manifestations of affection that the Emperor and the Empress had received on the occasion of their arrival from Europe , in this winter of 1888 , no political institution seemed to be so strong as the monarchy in Brazil . " Even former slaves displayed loyalty towards the monarchy and vehemently opposed the republicans , whom they called " the Paulistas . " The " monarchy seemed to be at the height of its popularity . " Pedro II had reached the pinnacle of his prestige among Brazilians .
= = Fall = =
= = = The last year = = =
1889 seemed to have begun well for both the monarchy and for Brazil . During a three @-@ month tour of the northeast and north , the enthusiastic reception given the Count of Eu " demonstrated that monarchism remained powerful there " . In late July , the Emperor traveled to Minas Gerais , demonstrating both that he was still actively engaged and the depth of support for the monarch in the province . Along with the successful appearances made by Eu and Isabel in São Paulo , Paraná , Santa Catarina , and Rio Grande do Sul provinces from November 1884 to March 1885 , there was every indication of broad backing for the monarchy among the Brazilian population .
The nation enjoyed great international prestige during the final years of the Empire . Predictions of economic and labor disruption caused by the abolition of slavery failed to materialize and the 1888 coffee harvest was successful , both of which boosted Princess Isabel 's popularity . José do Patrocínio , a " leading abolitionist journalist , an inveterate republican notable for his disrespect for the Imperial Family , not only renounced his former views " but also " took a leading role in organizing a ' Black Guard ' . " This was an association of former slaves dedicated to the monarchy 's defense , and which also harassed republican meetings .
The cabinet responsible for enacting the law abolishing slavery suffered a vote of no confidence on 3 May 1889 and was forced to resign . Pedro II called José Antônio Saraiva to form a new cabinet . Saraiva , a highly pragmatic politician , cared neither for monarchy nor republic , so long as he held power . He frankly warned the Emperor that Isabel had little chance of reigning as empress and that the government itself should take an active role in facilitating a peaceful transition to a republic . The Emperor accepted this proposal , without bothering to inform his daughter and heiress . Pedro II 's behavior in this meeting revealed how little commitment he had to the monarchy . He gave little consideration to his daughter 's opinion , or that of the Brazilian people who overwhelmingly supported the imperial system . The reason , unknown to but a very few , was that Pedro II was very sympathetic towards the idea of a republican system . Through action and inaction , consciously and unconsciously , he had been sabotaging both the monarchy and the prospects of his daughter 's future reign for nearly a decade . A quite astonished historian Heitor Lyra remarked : " Was he not the head of the Brazilian monarchy , it would be said that he had been allied with the Republic 's advertisers ! " Saraiva , however , changed his mind and declined the office . Pedro II instead appointed Afonso Celso de Assis Figuereido , viscount of Ouro Preto , in his place .
Unlike Saraiva , Ouro Preto was a staunch monarchist who was determined to save the regime at any cost . His program of reforms was highly ambitious and aimed at resolving festering issues about which politicians had long been complaining . An item notably missing from his agenda was any move to address the military indiscipline and the urgent necessity of restoration of government authority over the corps . This would prove to be a fatal mistake . Among the reforms proposed were the expanding of voting rights by abolishing the income requisite , the end of lifelong senate tenures and , most important of all , increased decentralization which would turn the country into a full federation by allowing the election of town mayors and provincial presidents ( governors ) .
The end of slavery had resulted in an explicit shift of support to republicanism by rich and powerful coffee farmers who held great political , economic and social power in the country . The Republican faction also attracted others disaffected by the liberation of slaves , which they regarded as confiscation of their personal property . " Traditionalist to the core , long the backbone of the monarchism , they viewed the regent 's action as the grossest betrayal of their long loyalty . What attracted the planters to the republicanism beside its opposition to monarchy was the movement 's promise of indemnification for the lost slaves [ … ] Republicanism for this group was less a creed than a weapon . "
To avert a republican backlash , Ouro Preto exploited the ready credit available to Brazil as a result of its prosperity . He made available massive loans at favorable interest rates to plantation owners and lavishly granted titles and lesser honors to curry favor with influential political figures who had become disaffected . He also indirectly began to address the problem of the recalcitrant military by revitalizing the moribund National Guard , by then an entity which existed mostly only on paper . As the Count of Nioac , a noted politician , remarked : " I call your attention especially to the reorganization of the National Guard , in order to possess this force with which in past times the government suppressed military revolts . If we had had the National Guard reorganized , the Deodoros and other ignorant military men would have been quiet . " Pedro II also asked Salvador Mendonça , who was leaving to the U.S. to represent Brazil at the First International Conference of American States , to carefully study the U.S. Supreme Court with the goal of creating a similar tribunal in Brazil and transferring his constitutional prerogatives to it . This would have made the monarch a mere figurehead . It is not known if he intended to constrain his daughter 's powers as empress and make her thus more palatable to the politicians , or whether he had something else in mind .
The reforms proposed by the government alarmed republican and seditious factions in the military corps . The republicans saw that Ouro Preto 's plans would undercut support for their own aims , and were emboldened to further action . The reorganization of the National Guard was begun by the cabinet in August 1889 , and the creation of a rival militia caused the dissidents among the officer corps to consider desperate steps . For both groups , republicans and military , it had become a case of " now or never " . Although there was no desire in Brazil among the majority of the population to change the form of government , republicans began pressuring the rebellious faction to overthrow the monarchy .
On 9 November 1889 , a large number of officers gathered in the Military Club and decided to stage a coup d 'état aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy . Two days later in the house of Rui Barbosa a plan to execute the coup was drawn up by officers who included Benjamin Constant and Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca , plus two civilians : Quintino Bocaiúva and Aristides Lobo . It was the only significant meeting in which civilian republicans participated , as Deodoro wished to exclude them from what he considered to be a strictly military matter . Deodoro still hesitated : " I wanted to follow the Emperor 's coffin , who is old and whom I deeply respect . " But he eventually yielded to pressure : " He [ Benjamin Constant ] wants it thus , let us make the Republic . Benjamin and I will take care of the military action ; Mr. Quintino and his friends will organize everything else . "
= = = Republican coup = = =
At 11 p.m. on 14 November , Deodoro took command of 600 men , the majority of whom either had no idea of what was occurring or believed that they were organizing a defence against the National Guard or the Black Guard . A few republicans yelled " Hail to the Republic " but Deodoro ordered them to be silent .
Upon learning of the revolt , the Viscount of Ouro Preto and the other Cabinet ministers went to Army Headquarters , located at the Field of Santana in the heart of the capital . The supposedly loyal troops there outnumbered and were better equipped than the rebel force . The adjutant @-@ general ( Commander ) of the Army , Field Marshal Floriano Peixoto guaranteed his men 's loyalty to Ouro Preto , but he was secretly in alliance with the rebels . Floriano and the Minister of the War Rufino Enéias , Viscount of Maracajú ( a cousin of Deodoro ) ignored repeated orders from Ouro Preto to attack the rebels who were approaching the headquarters . He tried to convince them , recalling the acts of bravery by the Brazilian military in the Paraguayan War . But Floriano replied to him that , " in front of us there were enemies , and here we are all Brazilians " , which finally brought him to a realization of how far the mutiny had spread among the officer corps .
The ostensibly loyal troops opened the headquarters gates to Deodoro , who cried out : " Long live His Majesty the Emperor ! " He met with Ouro Preto , and undertook to personally present the Emperor with a list of the names of those to be included in a new cabinet . To the disillusionment of civilian and military republicans , Deodoro did not proclaim a republic , and it seemed that he would only topple the cabinet . He was unsure whether he wanted to act against Pedro II , and the rebels themselves did not believe the coup would succeed . The few people who witnessed what occurred did not realize that it was a rebellion , and according to the republican Aristides Lobo , the populace was " stunned " . " Rarely has a revolution been so minor . "
On the morning of 15 November , Pedro II was in Petrópolis when he received the first telegram from Ouro Preto informing him of the rebellion . However , he did not assign much import to the news . At 11 a.m. as he left a mass in honor of the 45th anniversary of his sister Maria II 's death , the monarch received a second telegram and decided to return to Rio de Janeiro . His wife expressed concern , but he told her , " On what ma 'am ? When I arrive there it will be over ! " He travelled by train , reading periodicals and scientific magazines . Not imagining the gravity of the situation , he arrived at the city palace at 3 p.m. André Rebouças suggested that he go to the countryside to organize resistance . The Marquis of Tamandaré asked for his permission to lead the Armada ( navy ) and suppress the rebellion . He dismissed all the ideas put forward and said , " This is nothing . I know my countrymen . " The Emperor asked the Conservative senator Manuel Francisco Correia what he thought of the situation . Correia answered that he believed that it was the end of the monarchy . Pedro II showed no emotion , as if unconcerned about the possibility .
Ouro Preto arrived at the palace at 4 p.m and suggested that Pedro II nominate senator Gaspar da Silveira Martins , who would arrive in the city two days later , as the new President . Deodoro avoided meeting personally with Pedro II , but once he heard that the Emperor had chosen a personal enemy of his for the office , he finally decided on the inauguration of the Republic . The recently elected Chamber of Deputies was only to be called into session on 20 November , and the Senate was in recess . For this reason , Princess Isabel insisted that her father convoke the Council of State to deal with the situation . But she was given the reply , " Later on . " The princess , on her own initiative , called the council members . The Council assembled at 11 p.m , and after two hours recommended that the Emperor appoint Antônio Saraiva instead of Silveira Martins . After accepting the office , this politician sent an emissary to negotiate with Deodoro . But Deodoro responded that it was too late to change his mind . Upon hearing the reply , Pedro II commented , " If it is so , it will be my retirement . I have worked too hard and I am tired . I will go rest then . "
= = = Departure to exile = = =
On Saturday 16 November , the Imperial Family were confined in the palace , surrounded by a cavalry regiment . Pedro II continued reading scientific magazines and appeared calm throughout the day . At 3 p.m , Major Frederico Solón Sampaio Ribeiro informed the Imperial Family that the Republic had been proclaimed and that they must leave the country for exile within 24 hours . The " republicans had no courage to meet the Emperor , whom they secretly admired , face to face " and therefore sent low @-@ ranking officers to communicate with him . Solón , when complimenting the Emperor , called him first " Your Excellency " , then " Your Highness " and lastly " Your Majesty " . Although clearly deposed , the Emperor was still much respected by those around him , as illustrated by the parley between him and Solón . The notice of banishment caused the women to weep , while the men struggled to remain calm — with the exception of Pedro II , who remained impassive . The monarch resolved to travel the afternoon of the following day and sent a written message to the Provisional Government stating that he agreed to leave the country .
The republican Government feared that demonstrations in favor of the Emperor might erupt on Monday 17 November . The Lieutenant Colonel João Nepomuceno de Medeiros Mallet was sent at dawn to inform the Imperial Family that it must leave immediately . A commotion arose among those present until Pedro II himself appeared in the room . Mallet respectfully told him that the Government had asked them to depart at once . The Emperor refused to leave immediately , claiming that he was not a slave trying to escape in the middle of the night . Mallet tried to persuade him , alleging that republican students would launch violent demonstrations against him . The Emperor seemed skeptical : " Who gives credence to students ? " At that moment , shots were heard outside . Mallet left the palace to find out what had happened . Fifteen Imperial sailors had attempted to land in support of the Emperor but were overpowered and imprisoned by republican troops . Mallet returned to the building and deceived Pedro II by saying that militant republicans had tried to attack him and his family . Astonished , the Emperor agreed to leave .
When Pedro II left the palace , the soldiers who were standing guard outside instinctively presented arms , and he responded by raising his hat . A few close friends voluntarily accompanied the Imperial Family into exile , including André Rebouças and Franklin Dória , baron of Loreto . Very few were on hand to witness the departure . They were taken to the steamship Parnaíba and after that to the ship Alagoas , in which they sailed the next day to Europe . Before the final departure , Pedro II sent a short message to his faithful friend the Marquis of Tamandaré , who had remained at his side until embarkation : " What is done , is done . It remains to all of you to establish order and to consolidate your institutions . " After learning that the Emperor had left , Benjamin Constant spoke : " It is fulfilled , the most painful of our duties . " Major Carlos Nunes de Aguiar later recalled saying to Rui Barbosa , who had been at his side witnessing the departure from afar : " You were right to weep when the Emperor left . " Historian Lilia Moritz Schwarcz said that it was " the end of the monarchy , but not of myth , called d . Pedro . "
The government headed by Deodoro " was little more than a military dictatorship . The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states . Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power . " The republican regime which followed the overthrow of the monarchy revealed itself to be highly unstable . In " a little more than a century of existence , the Brazilian Republic faced twelve states of emergency , seventeen Institutional Acts , the National Congress dissolved six times , nineteen military revolutions , two presidential resignations , three presidents prevented from assuming office , four presidents deposed , seven different Constitutions , four dictatorships , and nine authoritarian governments . "
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= Cotton @-@ top tamarin =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin ( Saguinus oedipus ) is a small New World monkey weighing less than 0 @.@ 5 kg ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) . One of the smallest primates , the cotton @-@ top tamarin is easily recognized by the long , white sagittal crest extending from its forehead to its shoulders . The species is found in tropical forest edges and secondary forests in northwestern Colombia , where it is arboreal and diurnal . Its diet includes insects and plant exudates , and it is an important seed disperser in the tropical ecosystem .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin displays a wide variety of social behaviors . In particular , groups form a clear dominance hierarchy where only dominant pairs breed . The female normally gives birth to twins and uses pheromones to prevent other females in the group from breeding . These tamarins have been extensively studied for their high level of cooperative care , as well as altruistic and spiteful behaviors . Communication between cotton @-@ top tamarins is sophisticated and shows evidence of grammatical structure , a language feature that must be acquired .
Up to 40 @,@ 000 cotton @-@ top tamarins are thought to have been caught and exported for use in biomedical research before 1976 , when CITES gave them the highest level of protection and all international trade was banned . Now , the species is at risk due to large @-@ scale habitat destruction , as the lowland forest in northwestern Colombia where the cotton @-@ top tamarin is found has been reduced to 5 % of its previous area . It is currently classified as critically endangered and is one of the rarest primates in the world , with only 6 @,@ 000 individuals left in the wild .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Saguinus oedipushas the common names " cotton @-@ top tamarin " and " cotton @-@ headed tamarin " in English . Its name comes from the white hair that spans its head and flows down past the neck . In Spanish , S. oedipus is commonly called bichichi , tití pielroja , " tití blanco , tití cabeza blanca , or tití leoncito . In German @-@ speaking areas , the cotton @-@ top tamarin is commonly known as Lisztaffe ( literally " Liszt monkey " ) most likely due to the resemblance of its hairstyle with that of Hungarian composer and piano virtuoso Franz Liszt .
The species was first described by Linnaeus in 1758 as Simia oedipus . Linnaeus chose the species name oedipus , which means swollen foot , but as the species does not have particularly large feet , it is unknown why he chose this name . ( Linnaeus often selected names from mythology without any particular rationale , and he may have used the name of Oedipus , the mythical Greek king of Thebes , more or less arbitrarily . ) In 1977 , Philip Hershkovitz performed a taxonomic analysis of the species based on fur coloration patterns , cranial and mandibular morphology , and ear size . He classified Geoffroy 's tamarin S. geoffroyi as a subspecies of S. oedipus . Subsequent analyses by Hernández @-@ Camacho and Cooper ( 1976 ) , Mittermeier and Coimbra @-@ Filho ( 1981 ) , and later Grooves ( 2001 ) consider the S. oedipus and S. geoffroyi types to be separate species .
Some researchers , such as Thorington ( 1976 ) , posit that S. oedipus is more closely related to the white @-@ footed tamarin ( S. leucopus ) than to S. geoffroyi . This view is supported by Hanihara and Natoria 's analysis of toothcomb dental morphology ( 1987 ) and by Skinner ( 1991 ) , who found similarities between S. oedipus and S. leucopus in 16 of 17 morphological traits considered .
This species of white @-@ headed tamarin is thought to have diverged from the other Amazonian forms such as S. leucopus . This is supported by morphological considerations of the transition from juvenile to adulthood , during which the fur coloration patterns change significantly and are similar between the two species . Hershkovitz proposed that the separation of the two species happened in the Pleistocene at the height of the Atrato River , where it intersected the Cauca @-@ Magdalena . At that time , the area was covered by a sea , which created a geographic barrier that caused the species to diverge through the process of allopatric speciation . Today , the two species are principally separated by the Atrato River .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is part of the most diminutive family of monkeys , Callitrichidae , the marmosets and tamarins ; it weighs 432 g ( 15 @.@ 2 oz ) on average . Its head – body length is 20 @.@ 8 – 25 @.@ 9 cm ( 8 @.@ 2 – 10 @.@ 2 in ) , while its tail — which is not prehensile — is slightly longer at around 33 – 41 cm ( 13 – 16 in ) . The species is not sexually dimorphic , the male and female are of a similar size and weight . Members of the Callitrichinae subfamily ( including this species ) have sharp nails ( tegulae ) on all digits except the big toes , which have the flat nails ( ungulae ) common to other primates . Tegulae resemble a squirrel 's claws and help with movement through trees .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin has a long sagittal crest , consisting of white hairs , from forehead to nape flowing over the shoulders . The skin of the face is black with gray or white bands located above the eyes . These bands continue along the edge of the face down to the jaw . Tamarins are generally divided into three groups by their facial characteristics : hairy @-@ faced , mottled @-@ faced , and bare @-@ faced . The cotton @-@ top tamarin has fine white hairs covering its face , but they are so fine as to appear naked , thus is considered a bare @-@ faced tamarin . Its lower canine teeth are longer than its incisors , creating the appearance of tusks . Like other callitrichids , the cotton @-@ top tamarin has two molar teeth on each side of its jaw , not three like other New World monkeys .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin has fur covering all of the body except the palms of the hands and feet , the eyelids , the borders of the nostrils , the nipples , the anus , and the penis . The back is brown , and the underparts , arms and legs are whitish @-@ yellow . The rump and inner thighs and upper tail are reddish @-@ orange . The fur is distributed with varying densities throughout the body : the genital region ( scrotum and pubic zone ) , axilla , and the base of the tail have lower densities , while the forward region is much higher . Many individuals have stripes or whorls of fur of striking coloration on their throats . The cotton @-@ top also has whiskers on its forehead and around its mouth .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is restricted to a small area of northwest Colombia , between the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers to the south and east , the Atlantic coast to the north , and the Atrato River to the west . They mostly live Brazil , 2 / 3 of there habitat has been destroyed . Historically , the entirety of this area was suitable for the cotton @-@ top tamarin , but due to habitat loss through deforestation , it survives in fragmented parks and reserves . One of the most important areas for the cotton @-@ top is the Paramillo National Park , which consists of 460 @,@ 000 hectares ( 1 @,@ 800 sq mi ) of primary and secondary forest .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is found in both primary and secondary forests , from humid tropical forests in the south of its range to tropical dry forests in the north . It is seldom found at altitudes above 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) , but has been encountered up to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . It prefers the lower levels of the tropical forests , but may also be found foraging on the ground and anywhere between the understory and the canopy . It can adapt to forest fragments and can survive in relatively disturbed habitats . In the dry forests are pronounced seasons . Between December and April , it is dry , while heavy rainfall occurs between August and November which can flood the forest floor . Across its range , annual rainfall varies between 500 and 1 @,@ 300 mm ( 20 and 51 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin has a diet of mainly fruit ( 40 % ) and animal material ( 40 % ) . This includes insects , plant exudates such as gum and sap , nectar , and occasionally reptiles and amphibians . Due to its small body size and high food passage rate , its diet must be high @-@ quality and high @-@ energy . Insectivory is common in the cotton @-@ top and the species hunts for insects using a variety of methods : stealth , pouncing , chasing , exploring holes , and turning over leaves .
Tamarins act as seed dispersers in tropical ecosystems . While larger primates eat larger seeds , tamarins eat the smaller ones . The expelled seeds have a higher germination rate than others and ingesting larger seeds may help to dislodge and expel intestinal parasites .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is diurnal and sleeps with its social group in trees with foliage cover . The group leaves the sleeping tree together an hour after dawn and spends the day foraging , resting , travelling , and grooming . The species is thought to rise late and increases the speed of its foraging and travelling before dusk to avoid crepuscular and nocturnal predators . Its main predators include raptors , mustelids , felids , and snakes . The cotton @-@ top tamarin is extremely vigilant , always looking for potential predators . When the group is resting , one individual moves apart and acts as a lookout to alert the group if it sees a threat .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin can live as long as 24 years in captivity , while its lifespan in the wild averages 13 years .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social systems = = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is a highly social primate that typically lives in groups of two to nine individuals , but may reach up to 13 members . These small familial groups tend to fluctuate in size and in composition of individuals and a clear dominance hierarchy is always present within a party . At the head of the group is the breeding pair . The male and female in this pair are typically in a monogamous reproductive relationship , and together serve as the group 's dominant leaders .
Dominant pairs are the only breeding pair within their groups , and the female generally has authority over the breeding male . While nonbreeding group members can be the leading pair 's offspring , immigrant adults may also live with and cooperate in these groups . This social grouping in cotton @-@ top tamarins is hypothesized to arise from predation pressure . Cotton @-@ top tamarins exhibit prosocial behavior that benefits other members of the group , and are well known for engaging in cooperative breeding whereby the group 's subordinate adults help in rearing the offspring of the dominant pair . The dominant female is more likely to give birth to nonidentical twins than a singleton , so it would be too energetically expensive for just one pair to raise the young .
To prevent younger , subordinate females within the group from breeding , the dominant female uses pheromones . This suppresses sexual behavior and delays puberty . Unrelated males that join the group can release the females from this reproductive suppression ; this may result in more than one female of the group becoming pregnant , but only one of the pregnancies will be successful .
= = = = Cooperation = = = =
In cooperative breeding , the effort put into caring for the dominant breeders ' offspring is shared by the group members . Parents , siblings , and immigrant adults share young rearing duties for the breeding pair 's young . These duties include carrying , protecting , feeding , comforting , and even engaging in play behavior with the group 's young . Cotton @-@ top tamarins display high levels of parental investment during infant care . Males , particularly those that are paternal , show a greater involvement in caregiving than do females . Despite this , both male and female infants prefer contact and proximity to their mothers over their fathers . Males may invest additional support in rearing offspring as a form of courtship to win favor of the group 's dominant female . However , evidence indicates that time spent carrying infants does not correlate with a male 's overall copulation frequency .
Since only one female in a group breeds , heavy investment in infant care ensures that all offspring survive until independence . Accordingly , cotton @-@ top tamarins bear excessive costs to care for the group 's young . Male carriers , especially paternal carriers , incur large energetic costs for the sake of the group 's young . This burden may cause some male cotton @-@ tops to lose up to 10 @-@ 11 % of their total body weight . The large weight loss may occur from reduced food intake as infant @-@ carrying inhibits foraging ability for a carrier . The trend of male @-@ carrier weight loss and decreased food intake is in contrast to the dominant female 's periovulatory period , when she gains weight after increasing her own food intake and relinquishing much of her infant @-@ carrying duties .
= = = = Altruism = = = =
While caregiving by males appears to be altruistic , particularly in cotton @-@ top sires , the costs of infant care may in fact be tolerated for selfish reasons . Namely , the costs to male weight and foraging ability may in turn promote consecutive pregnancies in dominant females , thereby providing more offspring bearing the sire 's genes . Additionally , the cooperative breeding structure of cotton @-@ tops can change with group size and parental experience . First @-@ time sires spend a greater amount of time carrying the infant than experienced ones , and in smaller groups , sires do a greater proportion of carrying and feeding the infant than in larger groups , where helpers take on more of the work . Total care for infants remains constant with varying group size , and infant outcome is not significantly different in groups that have differing levels of experience in raising offspring .
The cooperative breeding hypothesis predicts that cotton @-@ top tamarins engage with this young @-@ rearing paradigm , and in turn naturally embrace patterns of prosocial behavior . These monkeys engage in such behavior by acting altruistically within their groups in caring for infants , vocalizing alarm calls , and in sharing food . Though some studies indicate that cotton @-@ top tamarins have the psychological capacity to participate in reciprocally mediated altruism , it is unclear whether the cotton @-@ top tamarin acts solely using judgements on reinforcement history .
Other studies involving cotton @-@ top tamarins have hinted that positive reciprocity and reciprocal altruism are irrelevant in the prosociality of these primates . Some researchers believe these primates tend to cooperate for selfish reasons and in situations where they incur some benefit for themselves . That is , cooperation in cotton @-@ top tamarins can be better described by mutualism than by true altruism .
Tamarins in captivity have shown the ability to distinguish other individuals based on cooperative tendencies and past behavior . Cotton @-@ tops ultimately use this information to guide future cooperation . Brief periods of defection tend to cause swift , irreparable breakups between these primates and their cooperators . To avoid this , cotton @-@ top tamarins may make economically driven decisions based on the projected incentives of a potential cooperator .
= = = = Spite and aggression = = = =
Despite an expansive array of altruistic behaviors , cotton @-@ top tamarins engage in great bouts of spite through negative reciprocity and punishment . They have been observed to immediately start denying cooperation with monkeys that deny them benefits . Further , in captivity , these primates are not observed to increase altruistic behavior with fellow primates that are committed fully to cooperation . Based on this , researchers believe that repeated interactions in a cooperative society like that of the cotton @-@ top tamarin can heighten the chances that an individual will designate behavioral punishments to others in its group . This reaction has also been observed in other species . However , these reciprocal punishments , or relative lack of altruistic actions , may alternatively happen as a result of response facilitation that increases the chances of a cotton @-@ top punishing another primate after watching that individual perform a similar action .
Another way to look at punishment in cotton @-@ top tamarins is by observing their aggressive behavioral responses within and between groups , as well as between species . The cotton @-@ top tamarin , like many marmosets , other tamarins , and specifically those in the genus Saguinus , stages aggressive displays almost exclusively towards fellow monkeys that belong to the same gender . These intrasexual displays of aggression are more frequent in females , and are vital when a breeding female is forcing both subadult and adult females to emigrate out of a familial group .
Though aggression can occur within groups , the response towards intruders of another species is much more drastic and can involve a sexual dimorphism in displays . Females typically employ scent @-@ marking intruder response tactics , whereas males are more prone to vocalizing threats , physical aggression , and piloerection . Scent @-@ marking in cotton @-@ top tamarins is done in two ways : either using anogenital scent @-@ marking , or suprapubic scent @-@ marking . The ability to use both of these separate glandular fields for threat signals may indicate females have developed diverging evolutionary threats through differential use of these markings . These variable signals may be used to sign a territorial encounter , or serve as a reproductive signal . The intensity of female threats are generally comparable when directed at intruders of either genders . In contrast , male cotton @-@ tops are considerably more threatening towards fellow males than towards females .
= = = Communication = = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin vocalizes with bird @-@ like whistles , soft chirping sounds , high @-@ pitched trilling , and staccato calls . Researchers describe its repertoire of 38 distinct sounds as unusually sophisticated , conforming to grammatical rules . Jayne Cleveland and Charles Snowdon performed an in @-@ depth feature analysis to classify the cotton @-@ top 's repertoire of vocalizations in 1982 . They concluded that it uses a simple grammar consisting of eight phonetic variations of short , frequency @-@ modulated " chirps " — each representing varying messages — and five longer constant frequency " whistles " . They hypothesize that some of these calls demonstrate that the cotton @-@ top tamarin uses phonetic syntax , while other calls may be exemplars of lexical syntax usage . Each type of call is given a letter signifier ; for example , C @-@ calls are associated with finding food and D @-@ calls are associated with eating . Further , these calls can be modified to better deliver information relevant to auditory localization in call @-@ recipients . Using this range of vocalizations , the adults may be able to communicate with one another about intention , thought processes , and emotion , including curiosity , fear , dismay , playfulness , warnings , joy , and calls to young .
= = = = Language acquisition = = = =
Over the first 20 weeks after a cotton @-@ top tamarin is born , it is not fully capable of producing the range of vocalizations that an adult monkey can . Despite this limitation on speech producibility , researchers believe that language acquisition occurs early on with speech comprehension abilities arising first . Infants can at times produce adult @-@ like chirps , but this is rarely done in the correct context and remains inconsistent across the first 20 weeks of life . Regardless , infant cotton @-@ tops are able to respond in behaviorally appropriate ways to varying contexts when presented with adult chirps . This indicates that verbal perception is a quickly acquired skill for offspring , followed closely by auditory comprehension , and later by proper vocal producibility .
Castro and Snowdon ( 2000 ) observed that aside from inconsistent adult @-@ like chirping , cotton @-@ top infants most often produce a prototype chirp that differs in vocalization structure from anything seen in the full adult range of vocalizations . Infants are thought to imitate adult speakers , which use differing calls in various contexts , but by using solely the infant prototypical chirp . For instance , adult cotton @-@ tops are known to significantly reduce the amount of general alarm calling in the presence of infants . This is likely adapted so that adults in close proximity to the group 's young do not attract attention of predators to infant @-@ dense areas . Additionally , infants reduce their prototype chirping in the presence of predators . Whether infants are shadowing the calling behavior of adults or they are comprehending danger remains unclear . However , researchers argue that young cotton @-@ top tamarins are able to represent semantic information regardless of immature speech production .
To confirm the notion that language acquisition occurs as a progression of comprehension before production , Castro and Snowdon ( 2000 ) showed that infants respond behaviorally to vocalizing adults in a fashion that indicates they can comprehend auditory inputs . When an adult produces a C @-@ call chirp , used to indicate food preference and when navigating to a food source , an infant approaches the adult caller to be fed , but do not use the prototype calling as a proxy for C @-@ calls . This finding argues for the idea that infants are able to understand vocalizations first , and later acquire the ability to communicate with adult vocalizations .
= = = = General calling = = = =
Among the typical cotton @-@ top tamarin communicative vocalizations , the combination long call ( CLC ) and the alarm call ( AC ) are the most heavily represented in the literature . CLCs encompass a range of contact calls that are produced by isolated individuals using chirps and whistles . This type of call is also used for seemingly altruistic alarm calls , thus adding to its range of cooperative behaviors . It is issued in the presence of kin when a threatening llamas predator is seen . Predators of the cotton @-@ top tamarin include snakes , ocelots , tayras , and most notably , hawks . Early observations by Patricia Neyman even showed that cotton @-@ tops produce diverse sets of alarm calls that can discriminate the presence of birds of prey versus ground @-@ based predators .
CLCs involve the production of complex sequence multisyllabic vocalizations . Researchers have argued that long calls exhibit individual differences , thus can carry information sufficient for recipients to determine caller identity . Using habituation @-@ discrimination paradigms in language experiments , this theory has been confirmed multiple times in literature . However , the individual syllables within a complete CLC vocalization in isolation of each other do not transfer sufficient information to communicate messages between monkeys . Scientists thus consider the whole , intact string of vocalizations to be the unit of perception for CLCs in the cotton @-@ top tamarin . These examinations may confirm that cotton @-@ tops incorporate a lexical syntax in areas of their communication .
Since tamarins can discriminate between predatory threats using varying vocalizations , recipients of an AC are thought to extract various complex signals from this form of communication . Primarily , cotton @-@ tops are able to glean the identity of the cooperating tamarin through differences in individuals ' alarm calls . Further , adults are able to discriminate the gender of callers from their ACs and determine the range of calls within a related tamarin 's alarm calling repertoire . Alarm call @-@ based identification is postulated to play a number of functional roles in the cotton @-@ top tamarin . Firstly , an AC recipient is able to identify a cooperating tamarin , and by recognizing which in their group it is , be able to judge the reliability of the AC from past experience . This may arise from a selective pressure for being able to statistically determine the amount of risk present , and how endangered an individual and its group are .
Additionally , being able to localize auditory signals may help determine predator location , especially in the presence of a second AC from a different tamarin in the group . This can help confirm predator presence , type ( e.g. flying versus ground @-@ based ) , and support the recipient in triangulating a predator 's location . In the context of the cotton @-@ top 's cooperative breeding groups , this is postulated as being adaptive for determining the variable risk to one 's group members . For example , a call recipient is able to determine which of its kin are and are not at risk ( e.g. young offspring , mates , subordinates , relatives , carriers , etc . ) and plan subsequent actions accordingly .
= = = = Food calls = = = =
The cotton @-@ top tamarin makes selective , specialized vocalizations in the presence of food . These include the C @-@ call , produced when a cotton @-@ top approaches and sorts through food , and the D @-@ call , which is associated with food retrieval and is exhibited while eating .
C @-@ call chirping is believed to be an honest signal for communicating food preference , and a cotton @-@ top tamarin more often and more rapidly vocalizes with these chirps when approaching a highly favored food source . Functionally , this behavior may inform other tamarins of the actions the caller will take in a feeding context and whether a preferable food source is available . Despite this research indicating that food calls may be informative to fellow group mates , other observations of cotton @-@ tops show that quantity and distribution of food and audience do not significantly alter a caller 's food @-@ centered vocalizations .
The cotton @-@ top tamarin is seen to produce food calls both in the presence and absence of group members . Additionally , response to food calls are directed back to an original caller independent of visual confirmation of a food source . While this may appear to be a result from a very primitive form of communication , Roush and Snowdon ( 2005 ) maintain that the food @-@ calling behavior confers some mentally representable information about food to recipient tamarins .
= = Conservation status = =
The wild population is estimated at 6 @,@ 000 individuals , with 2 @,@ 000 adults . This species is critically endangered , and was listed in the " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates between 2008 and 2012 . " The publication lists highly endangered primate species and is released every two years by the International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group . The cotton @-@ top tamarin was not selected for the 2012 – 2014 publication .
Habitat destruction through forest clearing is the main cause of this collapse , and the cotton @-@ top has lost more than three @-@ quarters of its original habitat to deforestation , while the lowland forest in which it lives has been reduced to 5 % of its historical range . This land is then used for large @-@ scale agricultural production ( i.e. cattle ) and farming , logging , oil palm plantations , and hydroelectric projects that fragment the cotton @-@ top tamarin 's natural range .
The illegal pet trade and scientific research have also been cited as factors by the IUCN . While biomedical studies have recently limited their use of this species , illegal capture for the pet trade still plays a major role in endangering the cotton @-@ top . Before 1976 , when CITES listed the species under Appendix I banning all international trade , the cotton @-@ top tamarin was exported for use in biomedical research .
In captivity , the cotton @-@ top is highly prone to colitis , which is linked to an increased risk of a certain type of colon cancer . Up to 40 @,@ 000 individuals were caught and exported for research into those diseases , as well as Epstein @-@ Barr virus , for the benefit of humans . The species is now protected by international law . Although enough individuals are in captivity to sustain the species , it is still critically endangered in the wild .
The Proyecto Tití ( " Project Tamarin " ) was started in 1985 to provide information and support in conservation of the cotton @-@ top tamarin and its habitat in northern Colombia . Proyecto Tití 's programs combine field research , education , and community programs to spread awareness about this endangered species and encourage the public to participate in its protection . It now has partner status with the Wildlife Conservation Network .
In January 2015 , two captive cotton @-@ top tamarins at the Alexandria Zoological Park in Alexandria , Louisiana , died when a caretaker left them outside overnight in temperatures as low as 30 ° F. One other individual survived .
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= Take a Bow ( Rihanna song ) =
" Take a Bow " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded ( 2008 ) , the re @-@ release of her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The song was written and produced by Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Eriksen , and Shaffer Smith under their stage names StarGate and Ne @-@ Yo . " Take a Bow " was released as the first single from the re @-@ release and the fifth single overall from the two releases . It is an R & B song that contains elements of dance @-@ pop . Critical reception of " Take a Bow " was mixed , with some critics praising the song 's lyrics and powerful balladry impact , while others criticized the lack of originality with regard to StarGate 's production .
In the US , the song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became Rihanna 's third song to do so . " Take a Bow " also peaked at number one on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and US Pop Songs chart , and has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The song reached number one in Canada , Denmark , Ireland , Slovakia and the United Kingdom , and attained top five positions in Australia , New Zealand and Norway . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and presents Rihanna as the female protagonist who leaves her boyfriend because of his infidelity . " Take a Bow " has been performed on " AOL Music Sessions " and was included in the set lists of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) , Last Girl on Earth ( 2010 – 11 ) , Loud Tour ( 2011 ) and Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Take a Bow " was written and produced by StarGate and Ne @-@ Yo . The song premiered on February 14 , 2008 , on the KIIS @-@ FM radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest . " Take a Bow " was released as the fifth overall single from Good Girl Gone Bad , but the first from the re @-@ release of the album , entitled Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded . " Take a Bow " was made available to purchase in media outlets , via Def Jam Recordings ' website , on the same day as its radio premiere in the United States later being made available to download via iTunes on May 6 , 2008 . The song is written in the key of E major and is set in simple time with a metronome of 82 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . Musically , the song draws influence from the musical genre of R & B and also incorporates elements of dance @-@ pop , whilst lyrically , " Take a Bow " tells of how the female protagonist expresses disinterest in rekindling her relationship with an dishonorable and unfaithful ex @-@ boyfriend .
= = Critical reception = =
" Take a Bow " received mixed reviews from music critics . Upon the song 's release as an official single , Nick Levine of Digital Spy commented its choice for the promotion of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , writing that the singer could have chosen " Breakin ' Dishes " which served as a promotional single for Good Girl Gone Bad and charted at number four on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart in February 2008 — but had opted for " Take a Bow " due to it being new and more likely to find a receptive audience . Levine continued in his review to write that although the ballad succeeds in its mission of telling of a failed relationship , he noted that the song was not at the same level as the singer 's previous single , " Don 't Stop the Music " ( 2007 ) . Levine cited that his reason for this was that " ' Take a Bow ' does what it sets out to do very well , but it 's an underwhelming follow @-@ up to the dancefloor rush of ' Don 't Stop The Music ' " . Levine also commented on the song with regard to the other new songs included on the re @-@ release , " Disturbia " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " ( a collaboration with Maroon 5 ) , as part of his review of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , writing that " Take a Bow " is inferior to the former , but superior to the latter .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song leaped 52 positions from number 53 to number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on May 14 , 2008 , with digital download sales of 267 @,@ 000 copies , which prompted the song to debut at number one on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . With " Take a Bow " jumping fifty @-@ two positions to number one , this marked the second largest leap to number one in the history of the chart as of May 2008 , second only to Maroon 5 's " Makes Me Wonder " , which leaped from number 64 to number one in May 2007 . Additionally , at the time of release , Rihanna held two of the top three opening week download tallies , with " Take a Bow " selling 267 @,@ 000 copies , the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad " Umbrella " selling 277 @,@ 000 copies in May 2007 , which held the record for having the largest opening digital sales tally , until Mariah Carey 's " Touch My Body " opened with sales of 286 @,@ 000 copies in April 2008 . The song became Rihanna 's third number one single on the Hot 100 , after " SOS " and " Umbrella " . " Take a Bow " stayed on the Hot 100 chart for 27 weeks , and also peaked at number one on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , Mainstream Top 40 and Radio Songs charts , respectively . However , the song was less successful on the US Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Contemporary charts , peaking at numbers 14 and 21 , respectively . The song has been certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold 3 million copies in the United States as of June 2015 . It also ranked at number 3 on Billboard 's Songs of Summer 2008 . In Canada , the song leaped 69 positions from number 70 to number one on May 24 , 2008 , becoming the largest jump to number one in the history of the chart at the time .
In Australia , " Take a Bow " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 30 on May 15 , 2008 , and jumped to number 13 the following week . The song peaked at number three in its eighth week on the chart , after having spent four weeks fluctuating in the top ten . In total the song spent 11 weeks in the top ten and 22 weeks on the chart . " Take a Bow " has since been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number four on May 5 , 2008 , and peaked at number two for five non @-@ consecutive weeks . In total , the song spent 10 weeks inside the top five and 15 weeks in total on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , " Take a Bow " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart on May 24 , 2008 , behind The Ting Tings " That 's Not My Name " . The following week , the two songs switched positions , with " Take a Bow " ascending to number one and " That 's Not My Name " descending to number two ; " Take a Bow " spent a total of two weeks atop the chart . On November 12 , 2010 , the song was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . As of January 2016 , it has sold over 499 @,@ 900 copies in the UK .
In Denmark , the song debuted at number 13 on the Danish Singles Chart on June 6 , 2008 , and peaked at number one in its third week . After fluctuating in the top ten for three weeks , the song ascended to number two in its seventh and eighth weeks , and went on to stay in the top ten for a further five weeks . " Take a Bow " spent 12 weeks in the top ten and 20 weeks on the chart in total . In Norway , the song debuted at number eight on the Norwegian Singles Chart and peaked at number five the following week . " Take a Bow " stayed in the top ten for four weeks and spent six weeks on the chart in total . In Austria , the song debuted at number 16 on the Austrian Singles Chart on June 6 , 2008 , and peaked at number six in its fourth week on the chart for six non @-@ consecutive weeks . " Take a Bow " spent 10 weeks inside the top ten and a 25 weeks on the chart in total . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number 29 on the Swiss Singles Chart on May 18 , 2008 , and peaked at number seven for one week . " Take a Bow " spent a total of 29 weeks on the chart . Elsewhere in Europe , however , the song did not experience the same degree of success . " Take a Bow " peaked at numbers 10 , 12 and 12 in The Netherlands , France and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , who had previously directed Rihanna videos for " Hate That I Love You " and " Shut Up and Drive " . The video was shot in Venice , Los Angeles on April 3 , 2008 . The video begins with Rihanna standing in front of a black backdrop for the opening of the song . As the first verse starts , the scene is intercut with another of Rihanna looking out the window at her boyfriend and standing behind the front door as he approaches and asks to come in . As Rihanna walks way from the door singing the lyrics " Don 't tell me you 're sorry cos you 're not " , the viewer realizes that her boyfriend has perhaps done something wrong and been unfaithful . During the first chorus and second verse , Rihanna is shown in a different outfit , this time sitting in a silver Porsche in a garage . As Rihanna pulls out of the garage and onto the street , her ex @-@ boyfriend walks alongside the car as she drives and begs her to forgive him ; she pulls away . For the bridge , Rihanna is shown sitting on a bed as well as in front of the black backdrops as she reads a text message from her ex @-@ boyfriend , who asks to meet her . During the last chorus , Rihanna appears in a different outfit and walks into a lounge , where she puts some clothes on a table and then sits on a sofa . As her ex @-@ boyfriend walks in , the singer gets up and walks over to the clothes , where she withdraws some matches and strikes one , dropping it on what is made aware to be some of her ex @-@ boyfriend 's clothes . As the song comes to and end , Rihanna walks out of the room whilst he tries to put out the fire .
Erika Brooks Adickman of Idolator commented that Rihanna had once again changed her hair style and was wearing a red jacket which looked similar to the one Michael Jackson 's video " Beat It " . Adickman continued to compare the content of the video to Beyoncé 's " Irreplaceable " , writing that it was her first video to contain a plot , but , in actuality , the videos of " Unfaithful " ( 2006 ) and " Hate That I Love You " ( 2007 ) both contain a plot .
= = Live performances = =
To promote Rihanna 's fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed " Take a Bow " at the launch of the Nokia X6 smartphone at Brixton Academy in London . Other songs on the set list were " Russian Roulette " and " Wait Your Turn " from Rated R , and " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Disturbia " , and with Jay @-@ Z , " Umbrella " from Good Girl Gone Bad . During the promotion of Rated R , Rihanna also recorded video performances of her songs for " AOL Music Sessions " ; these videos were made available to watch on AOL 's website on February 23 , 2010 . The set included " Take A Bow " , as well as " Russian Roulette , " Hard " , " Rude Boy " and a stripped down version of " Disturbia " . " Take a Bow " has been included on four of Rihanna 's arena tours : the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , Last Girl on Earth , Loud Tour and Diamonds World Tour . The song was featured in the encore section of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , along with " Umbrella " . For the Last Girl on Earth and Loud Tours , the song was featured as the last to be performed before the encore section . A minimal version of the song was also included on her Diamonds World Tour during the fourth act .
= = Formats and track listings = =
" Take a Bow " was released on CD and 12 " vinyl commercially and as " Take a Bow : Remixes " promotionally and digitally .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded .
Robyn " Rihanna " Fenty – Vocals
Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Shaffer Smith – Songwriting
Stargate , Ne @-@ Yo – Production
Mikkel S. Eriksen – Vocal production
Phil Tan – Mixing
Josh Houghkirk – Assistant Mixer
Stargate – Instrumentation
= = Charts = =
= = Sales and certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
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= Maryland Route 170 =
Maryland Route 170 ( MD 170 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 12 @.@ 98 miles ( 20 @.@ 89 km ) from MD 175 in Odenton north to MD 2 in Brooklyn Park . MD 170 connects the western Anne Arundel County communities of Odenton and Severn and the North County communities of Linthicum , Pumphrey , and Brooklyn Park with Baltimore / Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport ( BWI Airport ) . The highway connects BWI Airport with Interstate 695 ( I @-@ 695 ) and MD 100 and forms part of the Airport Loop , a circumferential highway that connects the airport and I @-@ 195 with many airport @-@ related services .
MD 170 originally served as the main highway between Baltimore and Fort George G. Meade . This highway , which included part of modern MD 174 west of Severn , was mostly constructed shortly after Camp Meade was established during World War I in the late 1910s . The Odenton – Severn portion of MD 170 was originally built as MD 554 in the 1930s , but became part of MD 170 in the mid @-@ 1940s . MD 170 went through another round of upgrades in the early 1940s due to its strategic importance during World War II . The highway originally passed through the area now occupied by BWI Airport . MD 170 was relocated north of MD 176 in the late 1940s during the construction of the airport and south of MD 176 in the late 1950s . The highway has been expanded to four lanes around its interchanges with I @-@ 195 , I @-@ 695 , MD 32 , and MD 100 and along the perimeter of BWI Airport since the 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MD 170 begins at an intersection with MD 175 ( Annapolis Road ) in Odenton . The highway continues south as county @-@ maintained Piney Orchard Parkway , which leads to the Odenton station on MARC 's Penn Line and the Piney Orchard community . MD 170 heads north on Telegraph Road , which begins as a four @-@ lane divided highway but reduces to a two @-@ lane road and passes through an industrial area . The state highway expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway again shortly before its diamond interchange with MD 32 ( Patuxent Freeway ) . MD 170 continues north as a two @-@ lane road with a center turn lane that crosses Severn Run . The center turn lane ends as the highway approaches the center of Severn . There , the highway intersects MD 174 , which heads west as Reese Road and east as Donaldson Avenue . MD 170 expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway as it approaches its single @-@ point urban interchange with MD 100 ( Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway ) . The highway becomes an undivided four @-@ lane road between MD 100 and its intersection with MD 176 ( Dorsey Road ) at Harmans . The long ramp from westbound MD 176 to northbound MD 100 is unsigned MD 170A .
MD 170 continues north as Aviation Boulevard and joins the Airport Loop . The highway parallels the Amtrak Northeast Corridor , which carries MARC 's Penn Line , and the hiker @-@ biker BWI Trail . MD 170 meets the eastern end of Stoney Run Road , which heads east and immediately loops back west and crosses over the state highway and the railroad on its way to the BWI Car Rental Facility . The highway intersects unsigned MD 995 ( Amtrak Way ) , which leads to the BWI Rail Station , as it gradually curves to the east . MD 170 crosses Kitten Branch immediately before its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 195 ( Metropolitan Boulevard ) . The highway passes under the BWI Trail and expands to a divided highway before its intersection with Terminal Road and an at @-@ grade intersection with the Baltimore Light Rail . Access to the rail line 's BWI Business District station is via Elkridge Landing Road at the next intersection . MD 170 leaves the Airport Loop at its intersection with MD 162 ( Aviation Boulevard ) , where the highway turns north onto Camp Meade Road .
MD 170 intersects the Baltimore Light Rail again and begins to parallel it as a two @-@ lane road with a center turn lane . The light rail veers away to the east shortly before the highway 's intersection with MD 762 ( Andover Road ) , where the center turn lane ends . MD 170 enters Linthicum and intersects the light rail line a third time and begins to parallel it again shortly before the Linthicum station in the center of the community . The highway intersects MD 169 ( Maple Road ) and expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway shortly before its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) . There is no access from MD 170 to eastbound I @-@ 695 or from westbound I @-@ 695 to MD 170 . The highway reduces to a two @-@ lane road again and passes the North Linthicum station just south of MD 648 ( Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard ) in the center of Pumphrey . MD 170 continues northeast as Belle Grove Road , which veers away from the light rail line . The highway parallels the Patapsco River and passes under I @-@ 895 Spur ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) before entering Brooklyn Park . There , MD 170 reaches its northern terminus at a five @-@ way intersection with MD 2 , Jack Street , and Hanover Street at the Baltimore city limits . MD 2 heads south as Governor Ritchie Highway toward Glen Burnie and north into the city as Potee Street .
MD 170 is a part of the National Highway System from its southern terminus in Odenton to I @-@ 695 in Linthicum . Within that stretch , there are two sections that serve as intermodal passenger transport links : from its southern terminus to MD 32 in Odenton , and from MD 176 to MD 162 along the perimeter of BWI Airport . The portions from MD 32 in Odenton to MD 176 in Severn and from MD 162 to I @-@ 695 within Linthicum are National Highway System principal arterials .
= = History = =
When the Maryland State Roads Commission applied numbers to state highways , they assigned MD 170 to its current corridor from Severn to Brooklyn Park and to what is now MD 174 from Severn to Fort Meade . The portion of the modern highway from Odenton to Severn was originally MD 554 . Much of what was to become MD 170 was constructed along the Old Annapolis Road between Pumphrey and Severn . A portion of this road ran through the hamlet of Wellham Crossroads in the middle of what is now BWI Airport . The highway was paved in macadam from the Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard in Pumphrey to Hammonds Ferry Road in Linthicum by 1910 . A second section of improved highway was planned by 1910 from Linthicum south to Wellham Crossroads . A section of highway from the current MD 170 – MD 174 intersection in Severn west to the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak Northeast Corridor ) was built as a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) concrete road by 1915 .
Construction on the highway from Severn to Linthicum became a high priority with the United States ' entrance into World War I ; the remainder of the Severn – Linthicum highway and the highway from the railroad at Severn southwest to newly established Camp Meade , now collectively called the Camp Meade Road , were paved in 14 @-@ to @-@ 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 9 m ) concrete between 1916 and 1919 . Belle Grove Road from Pumphrey to Brooklyn Park was also paved in concrete in this period of time . A poorly constructed portion of the Camp Meade Road between Wellham Crossroads and Dorsey Road was repaved with asphalt in 1919 . MD 170 was relocated at the railroad crossing when the highway 's overpass of the Pennsylvania Railroad was completed in 1931 . The old road , which is now Severn Station Road west of the tracks and Old Camp Meade Road to the east , became MD 483 .
Telegraph Road from Severn to Odenton was built as a concrete road in three sections . The highway was constructed from the right @-@ angle turn in the Camp Meade Road in Severn south to Evergreen Road in 1932 and 1933 . Another section of MD 554 was completed from Odenton Road ( then MD 180 and later MD 677 ) in Odenton to a point north of Old Mill Road in 1936 . The gap in MD 554 was filled in or shortly after 1940 . MD 170 was widened to 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) from Brooklyn Park to Pumphrey in 1940 . With the outbreak of World War II , MD 170 was designated a road of strategic importance to connect Baltimore with Fort Meade ; the highway was reconstructed as a 24 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) asphalt @-@ surfaced concrete road in 1942 . By 1946 , MD 170 and MD 554 had swapped numbers , with the former now the road from Severn to Odenton .
MD 170 was relocated as a 24 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) road from MD 176 north to what is now the MD 170 – MD 162 junction in 1947 and 1948 to make way for the construction of Friendship International Airport . The highway 's interchange with the Friendship International Airport Access Road , which was designated MD 46 and later became I @-@ 195 , was started in 1950 , the same year the airport opened , and completed in 1954 . South of the airport , MD 170 ran concurrently with MD 176 from the current MD 176 – MD 652 intersection west to current MD 170A , which the highway used to connect with the modern alignment of MD 170 . The stub of MD 170 north from MD 176 to Friendship Cemetery on the airport reservation became MD 652 . MD 170 assumed its present alignment west of MD 170A when the highway was relocated from MD 176 south to the site of the MD 100 interchange as the first carriageway of an ultimate divided highway between 1958 and 1960 . The old alignment became much of current MD 652 and the portion of MD 652 north of MD 176 was transferred to county maintenance .
When the expressway spur between MD 168 and U.S. Route 301 ( now MD 648 ) was built between 1951 and 1954 , the expressway , which became part of the Baltimore Beltway , included an at @-@ grade intersection with MD 170 between Linthicum and Pumphrey . This junction was replaced with the present interchange in 1967 ; MD 170 was expanded to a divided highway on either side of the interchange in 1968 . MD 170 's grade separation with Stoney Run Road on the west side of the airport was built in 1982 . The state highway was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from north of I @-@ 195 to MD 162 when the adjacent east – west portion of MD 162 was built in 1988 . MD 170 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway through its interchange with MD 100 when the single @-@ point urban interchange was built in 1995 . MD 170 had been expanded to four lanes through its interchange with MD 32 and from MD 176 through the I @-@ 195 interchange , and had its southern terminus rolled back from MD 677 to MD 175 , by 1999 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 170A is the designation for the 0 @.@ 29 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 47 km ) one @-@ way ramp from westbound MD 176 to northbound MD 170 southwest of BWI Airport . The ramp is included in the clockwise direction of the Airport Loop and has a spur near its southern end . MD 170A , which has the official designation of MD 170 Spur , was assigned by 1999 .
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= L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... =
" L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " ( English : " The Story of a Fairy Is ... " ) is a 2001 song recorded by French singer @-@ songwriter Mylène Farmer . It was one of the singles from the soundtrack album for the film Rugrats in Paris : The Movie ( known in France as Les Razmokets à Paris ) . Written by Farmer , with music composed by her long @-@ time songwriting collaborator Laurent Boutonnat , the song was released on 27 February 2001 . The song deals with Melusine the fairy 's life , with lyrics which seem to be innocent and childish but in fact use many double entendres and puns which refer to sexual practices . Although it had no promotion from the singer , no music video and no regular broadcast on radio , the song managed to reach the top ten in France and in Belgium .
= = Background and writing = =
Rugrats in Paris : The Movie was the second in a trilogy of films based on the children 's animated television series Rugrats , which features the adventures of a group of toddlers . After filming , the producers wanted to record a soundtrack for the movie with mainly French songs , as well as a few in English . Several singers were contacted , including TLC member Tionne Watkins , the 1990s boys band 2Be3 , Sinéad O 'Connor , Cyndi Lauper and Mylène Farmer . Persistent but unconfirmed rumours claimed that Madonna , as the founder of the Maverick company producing the soundtrack , had expressly asked Farmer to participate in the album . Farmer accepted , but preferred to produce a new song instead of licensing the rights to one of her old compositions . The recording label Maverick signed a contract for an unreleased song , with lyrics written by Farmer and music composed by her songwriting partner Laurent Boutonnat . This was the first time that the singer had recorded a song especially for a movie . An English version was canceled in favour of a French version , and eventually the song only played for about 15 seconds in the movie . The first title chosen , " Attrapez @-@ moi " , was also quickly abandoned as it was too similar to the Pokémon 's cry of " Attrapez @-@ les tous " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " is a synthpop song . It tells the story of a mischievous and malicious fairy , Mélusine , here embodied by Farmer . Lyrically , the song uses words referring to magic , baffling several of Farmer 's fans as the lyrics seem to be closer to the themes found in songs by young singers such as Alizée . The lyrics also contain several double entendres and puns which refer to sexual practices . The song 's title itself is ambiguous and can be deemed sexually suggestive as it contains a pun in French alluding to spanking : in French , the title " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " could be phonetically understand as meaning " L 'Histoire d 'une fessée ... " ( translation : " The Story of a Spanking " ) .
= = Release = =
In Europe the soundtrack release was postponed until 7 February 2001 because Farmer had bought the song 's royalties and finally decided to release it as a single , 14 days later . It was only released as a digipack CD single , in which the song 's lyrics are written inside , and there was no promotional format . For the second time in the singer 's career – after the song " XXL " — the single cover does not show her , but a drawing of a fairy from the film by Tom Madrid . The song began circulating online a month before the soundtrack 's release and was well received by many fans who felt that it could be a hit . The song did not receive much radio airplay , with only Europe 2 playing it regularly . " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " was also released on the soundtrack of the film in a longer version than the CD single version , and was later included on Mylène Farmer 's greatest hits album Les Mots . It was also released as the third track on the European CD maxi " Les Mots " , released in the Switzerland on 4 September 2002 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was generally well received by critics , who particularly noted the puns . According to author Erwan Chuberre , the lyrics are " as funny as disillusioned " and Farmer uses puns that " highlight her immoderate pleasure for impolite pleasures " , with a music he deemed " effective " . Author Thierry Desaules said that the song appears to be a childish fairly tale , but is actually structured in a perverse enough way to address the adult public , as the allusions to the spanking can be seen as references to sadomasochism . Journalist Benoît Cachin wrote that her puns are " of the funniest " and that the singer included in the lyrics " some very personal thoughts " , including sadness ; he added that Farmer appears to be " fun , dynamic and delightfully mischievous " on this song .
= = Chart performances = =
On 3 March 2001 , the single debuted at a peak of number nine on the French SNEP Singles Chart , providing Farmer her 22nd top ten hit . In the following weeks , the song fell steadily and remained in the top 50 for nine weeks and a total of 15 weeks on the chart . This chart performance was surprising given that the song was aired little on radio , the film met a mixed commercial success in France and there was no music video , no promotion on television , and only one format . According to Instant @-@ Mag the beauty of the single 's cover undoubtedly helped increase sales . In Belgium , the single started at number 23 on 15 March 2001 , climbed to number 11 , then peaked at number 10 . Thereafter , it dropped and fell off the Ultratop 50 after 13 weeks . On the 2001 Belgian singles year @-@ end chart , " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " ranked at number 89 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " L 'Histoire d 'une fée , c 'est ... " :
CD single – Digipack
= = Official versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
These are the credits and the personnel as they appear on the back of the single :
Mylène Farmer – lyrics
Laurent Boutonnat – music , producer
John Eng – artistic director
Gena Kornyshev – stylist
Tom Madrid – drawings
Requiem Publishing – editions
Polydor – recording company
Henry Neu – design
Bertrand Chatenet – mixing
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends =
MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends is a live album by Mexican recording artists Los Tigres del Norte . It was recorded before a live audience at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles , California , on February 8 , 2011 and released by Fonovisa Records on May 24 , 2011 . The album includes featured performances by Andrés Calamaro , Calle 13 , Zack de la Rocha , Juanes , Paulina Rubio and Diego Torres .
The album became a commercial success peaking at the top of the Mexican Albums Chart , entering the top five on the Billboard Top Latin Albums in the United States , and also being the twenty @-@ third number 1 album by the band in the Regional Mexican Albums chart . It was certified Diamond + Gold by the Mexican Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . To promote the album , Los Tigres del Norte released " Golpes en el Corazón " , first included in their album El Ejemplo ( 1995 ) , and re @-@ recorded for the live album with fellow Mexican singer Paulina Rubio . " La Jaula de Oro " ( featuring Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Juanes ) and " América " ( featuring René Pérez of the band Calle 13 ) , were released as second and third singles , respectively .
Hailed as the first MTV Unplugged recording for the Regional Mexican genre and as a significant release for the Mexican music scene , the album earned a Latin Grammy Award for Best Norteño Album at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards , and a Grammy Award for Best Banda or Norteño Album .
= = Background = =
In December 2010 , Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine reported that Los Tigres del Norte was set to record a MTV Unplugged album for MTV Tr3s . The album was to be taped in the first quarter of 2011 , and would feature special guests including Juanes , Calle 13 , Andrés Calamaro and Zack de la Rocha . By February 2011 , it was announced that Paulina Rubio and Diego Torres would join the band for the album recording session . For the band this presented a unique opportunity to re @-@ invent their music and share the stage with talented performers . " When MTV invited us to record the show , we were a little tense , this was something different for us because Unplugged albums on MTV are usually recorded by artists from different genres from us , " the band said about the recording . Jesús Lara of MTV Tr3s called the production " historic " , since the band has been culturally a part of the life of the Hispanic community in Mexico and the US .
= = Recording , repertoire and release = =
Los Tigres del Norte recorded their performance on February 8 , 2011 , at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles , California . Invitations to the event were issued to fans through MTV 's website starting January 27 , 2011 . The audience waited four hours before the show started . In preparation to the show , the band sent a list of their songs to the featured performers and asked them to choose the song that better fit their own repertoire . The band performed twenty songs during the show , releasing only twelve on the standard edition of the album , and thirteen on the deluxe version .
The first song was " Jefe de Jefes " , followed by " Camelia La Texana " , " Señor Locutor " , " Contrabando y Traición " and " Cuestión Olvidada " . When the band started to play " Mi Curiosidad " and " Una Camioneta Gris " , Jorge Hernandez , the band lead member , asked the audience to clap their hands . Paulina Rubio was the first guest to appear and perform " Golpes en el Corazón " , with an orchestral arrangement . Diego Torres joined afterwards to share lead vocals on " Mi Buena Suerte " . " La Puerta Negra " , " Prisión de Amor " and " Lágrimas del Corazón " followed .
The band and Andrés Calamaro recorded two tracks : " La Mesa del Rincón " and " Quiero Volar Contigo " , the former to the rhythm of tango ( with three violins and a cello ) , and for the latter , Calamaro played marimba and changed the original rhythm of the song to cha @-@ cha @-@ cha . This performance had to be re @-@ taped since there was a technical failure . Zack de la Rocha performed " Somos Más Americanos " , while Juanes played guitar on " La Jaula de Oro " , a song he had to " rehearse many times " . De la Rocha recorded his part twice , incorporating more Spanish lyrics on the second take . Juanes and De la Rocha were the only featured performers selected for their work for immigration rights in the United States , a social cause important to the band . The final song recorded was " América " ; the band shared the stage with Calle 13 who , by request of their lead member René Pérez , changed the instrumentation , quickened the tempo and added trumpets and violins . The costumes the band wore on the show were donated to the Hard Rock Cafe in Los Angeles after the show .
= = Singles = =
The new recorded version of the song " Golpes en el Corazón " , featuring Paulina Rubio , was selected as the first single from the album and was released on April 19 , 2011 . The original version of the track can be found on the Tigres ' studio album El Ejemplo ( 1995 ) . Upon release it peaked at number 2 in the Billboard Top Latin Songs . The version featuring Rubio was named " one of the most pleasant songs " included on MTV Unplugged by About.com. The Los Angeles Times referred to it as a " sea of lush Latin pop " , with Rubio sounding like Julieta Venegas in a " parallel universe " . This version became very successful in Mexico , peaking atop the Monitor Latino general charts and the Mexican Airplay Chart from Billboard International . The track also reached number 39 on the Billboard Top Latin Songs , number 31 on the Regional / Mexican Airplay , and was the first song by the band to appear on the Latin Pop Airplay chart , reaching number 29 . At the 12th Latin Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Record of the Year , losing to Calle 13 's " Latinoamérica " . Rubio joined the band at the Latin Grammy ceremony to perform the song .
" La Jaula de Oro " was selected as the second single from the album . The track , recognized as one of the band 's signature songs , features Colombian singer Juanes performing and playing guitar and was named " one of the best tracks and guest performances in the whole album " by About.com. With this release the record label sought to reach a younger audience for Los Tigres del Norte . " América " was the third single released which reached number five on the Monitor Latino general chart .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
An advance copy of the performance was sent to the media a few days before the first showing on MTV Tr3s . Spanish news agency EFE announced that the band was celebrating " Latino pride more vigorously than ever . " Another positive review came from the Los Angeles Times , which awarded the album three out of four stars . At the review , the newspaper named the album " one of the most anticipated Latin albums of the year " , highlighting that it is the first MTV Unplugged album of the Regional @-@ Mexican genre . They also praised the band for their performance on the first track , " Jefe de Jefes " . About the guest performances by Andrés Calamaro , Juanes and Diego Torres , stated that they were " intriguing " . Carlos Quintana of About.com hailed the show as an important music event for the Latin music , emphasizing that this recording would allow Regional @-@ Mexican music to gain new audiences around the world . Allmusic reviewer Mariano Prunes named bassist Hernán Hernández , the " musical heart of the band " , especially when joining Zack de la Rocha , playing the riff of Rage Against the Machine 's " Killing in the Name " . He also praised " América " for the participation of Calle 13 with their " razor @-@ sharp rap " intervention . Prunes also stated that MTV Unplugged would get Los Tigres a deserved recognition outside their own community . The participation by De La Rocha was also subject of a negative review by Oscar Barajas of The Young Folks . Barajas noted that De La Rocha sounded " out of place " on " Somos Mas Americanos " , trying to turn the track into a rendition of his own song " Bulls on Parade " . Barajas also was critical of the song selection , but eventually lauded the album for being " lean and mean " , with a musical urgency almost comparable to the Ramones .
MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends earned the Latin Grammy Award for Best Norteño Album at the 2011 ceremony . The album also was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Banda or Norteño Album at the 54th Grammy Awards , and the awards for Best Popular Album and Best Norteño Album at the Mexican Premios Oye ! .
= = Track listing = =
This track listing adapted from the liner notes .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted and peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , behind Maná 's Drama y Luz and Prince Royce 's self @-@ titled debut album . MTV Unplugged became the band 's twenty @-@ third number 1 album in the Regional Mexican Albums chart . In the Mexican Albums Chart the album debuted at number 92 , before jumping to number 2 , behind Lady Gaga 's Born This Way . The following week the album surpassed Gaga 's set and peaked at number 1 in Mexico and also reached the top of the charts in Colombia . The album spent seventeen consecutive weeks at the top of the Mexican chart , received a Diamond + Gold certification by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas and ended the year as the best @-@ selling album of 2011 in Mexico . The album was certified gold in Colombia by the Asociación Colombiana de Productores de Fonogramas .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Los Tigres del Norte – main performers , producers , vocals
Gustavo Borner – producer , recording engineer , mixing , mastering
Ezequiel Alara – musical director , piano
Miguel Ramirez – percussion
Karl Perazzo – percussion
Enzo Villparedes – trumpet
Arturo Solar – trumpet
Roberto Incelli – sax
Humbero Ruiz – trombone
Edwin Blas – trombone
Peter Kent – violin
Sharon Jackson – violin
Jessica VanVelzen – viola
Giovanna Clayton – cello
Ricky Perry – graphic design
Source :
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= En passant =
En passant ( from French : in passing ) is a move in chess . It is a special pawn capture , that can only occur immediately after a pawn moves two ranks forward from its starting position and an enemy pawn could have captured it had the pawn moved only one square forward . Note that the capturing pawn must be on its fifth rank prior to executing this maneuver . The opponent captures the just @-@ moved pawn " as it passes " through the first square . The resulting position is the same as if the pawn had moved only one square forward and the enemy pawn had captured it normally .
The en passant capture must be made at the very next turn or the right to do so is lost . It is the only occasion in chess in which a piece is captured but is not replaced on its square by the capturing piece . Like any other move , if an en passant capture is the only legal move available , it must be made . En passant capture is a common theme in chess compositions .
The en passant capture rule was added in the 15th century when the rule that gave pawns an initial double @-@ step move was introduced . It prevents a pawn from using the two @-@ square advance to pass an adjacent enemy pawn without the risk of being captured .
A pawn on its fifth rank may capture an enemy pawn on an adjacent file that has moved two squares in a single move , as if the pawn had moved only one square . The conditions are :
the capturing pawn must be on its fifth rank ;
the captured pawn must be on an adjacent file and must have just moved two squares in a single move ( i.e. a double @-@ step move ) ;
the capture can only be made on the move immediately after the opposing pawn makes the double @-@ step move ; otherwise the right to capture it en passant is lost .
En passant is a unique privilege of pawns : pieces cannot capture en passant . It is the only occasion in chess in which the capturing piece does not replace the captured piece on its square .
= = Examples = =
= = = In the opening = = =
There are some examples of en passant in chess openings . In this line from Petrov 's Defence , White can capture the pawn on d5 en passant on his sixth move .
1 @.@ e4 e5
2 . Nf3 Nf6
3 @.@ d4 exd4
4 @.@ e5 Ne4
5 . Qxd4 d5 ( diagram )
6 @.@ exd6e.p.
Another example occurs in the French Defense after 1.e4 e6 2.e5 , a move once advocated by Wilhelm Steinitz . If Black responds with 2 ... d5 , White can capture the pawn en passant with 3.exd6. Likewise , White can answer 2 ... f5 with 3.exf6e.p.
An example is from this game by Steinitz and Bernhard Fleissig .
1 @.@ e4 e6
2 @.@ e5 d5
3 @.@ exd6e.p.
= = = Unusual examples = = =
Black has just moved his pawn from f7 to f5 in this game between Gunnar Gundersen and Albert H. Faul . White could capture the f @-@ pawn en passant with his e @-@ pawn , but instead played :
13 @.@ h5 + Kh6
14 . Nxe6 +
Note that the bishop on c1 effects the check , via a discovered check . 14 ... Kh7 results in 15.Qxg7 # .
14 ... g5
15 @.@ hxg6e.p. #
The en passant capture and discovered checks place Black in checkmate ( from White 's rook on h1 , even without help from White 's bishop ; an en passant capture is the only way a double check can be delivered without one of the checking pieces moving , as in this position ) .
The largest known number of en passant captures in one game is three , shared by three games ; in none of them were all three captures by the same player . The earliest known example is a 1980 game between Alexandru Sorin Segal and Karl Heinz Podzielny .
= = = In chess compositions = = =
En passant captures have often been used as a theme in chess compositions , as they " produce striking effects in the opening and closing of lines " . In the 1938 composition by Kenneth S. Howard , the key move 1 @.@ d4 introduces the threat of 2.d5 + cxd5 3.Bxd5 # . Black may capture the d4 @-@ pawn en passant in either of two ways :
The capture 1 ... exd3e.p. shifts the e4 @-@ pawn from the e- to the d @-@ file , preventing an en passant capture after White plays 2 @.@ f4 . To stop the threatened mate ( 3.f5 # ) , Black may advance 2 ... f5 , but this allows White to play 3 @.@ exf6e.p. # with checkmate due to the decisive opening of the e @-@ file .
If Black plays 1 ... cxd3e.p. , White exploits the newly opened a2 – g8 diagonal with 2 . Qa2 + d5 3 @.@ cxd6e.p. #
An example showing the effect en passant captures have on pins is this 1902 composition by Sommerfeldt :
The key move 1 @.@ d4 ! threatens 2 . Qf2 # . The black e @-@ pawn is now simultaneously pinned and unpinned , as 1 ... exd3e.p. + is illegal , but 1 ... e3 + is not . This however removes the black king 's access to e3 , allowing 2 @.@ d5 # .
= = Historical context = =
Allowing the en passant capture , together with the introduction of the two @-@ square first move for pawns , was one of the last major rule changes in European chess , and occurred between 1200 and 1600 . Other relatively recent rule changes were castling , the unlimited range for queens and bishops ( Spanish master Ruy López de Segura gives the rule in his 1561 book Libro de la invencion liberal y arte del juego del axedrez . , ) and a change to the rules on pawn promotion . In most places the en passant rule was adopted at the same time as allowing the pawn to move two squares on its first move , but it was not universally accepted until the Italian rules were changed in 1880 .
The motivation for en passant was to prevent the newly added two @-@ square first move for pawns from allowing a pawn to evade capture by an enemy pawn . Asian chess variants , because of their separation from European chess prior to that period , do not feature any of these moves .
= = Notation = =
In either algebraic or descriptive chess notation , en passant captures are sometimes denoted by " e.p. " or similar , but such notation is not required . In algebraic notation , the capturing move is written as if the captured pawn advanced only one square , for example , bxa3 ( or bxa3e.p. ) in this example .
= = Threefold repetition and stalemate = =
The possibility of an en passant capture is relevant to claims of a draw by threefold repetition . Two positions whose pieces are all on the same squares , with the same player to move , are for this purpose considered different if there was an opportunity to make an en passant capture in the first position , and of course that opportunity no longer exists the second time the same configuration of pieces occurs .
In his book on chess organization and rules , International Arbiter Kenneth Harkness wrote that it is frequently asked if an en passant capture must be made if it is the only legal move . This point was debated in the 19th century , with some arguing that the right to make an en passant capture is a " privilege " that one cannot be compelled to exercise . In his 1860 book Chess Praxis , Howard Staunton wrote that the en passant capture is mandatory in that instance . The rules of chess were amended to make this clear . Today , it is settled that the player must make that move ( or resign ) . The same is true if an en passant capture is the only move to get out of check .
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= My Love : Essential Collection =
My Love : Essential Collection is a greatest hits album by Canadian recording artist Celine Dion . It was released by Columbia Records on October 24 , 2008 as the follow up to her previous English @-@ language compilation , All the Way ... A Decade of Song ( 1999 ) . Before releasing My Love : Essential Collection , Dion had already sold over 200 million albums worldwide . In the album 's liner notes , she dedicated this collection of songs , recorded between 1990 and 2008 , to her fans who supported her throughout the years . My Love : Essential Collection was released as a single disc , consisting of Dion 's most successful singles , including : " My Heart Will Go On " , " Because You Loved Me " and " The Power of Love " . The two @-@ disc edition , entitled My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection has been further expanded to include rare songs that have not previously appeared on her albums . Both editions include one new track , " There Comes a Time " . The album wasn 't released in Japan because Sony Music Entertainment decided to issue different compilation there , Complete Best .
My Love : Essential Collection received a positive response . It topped the albums charts in the Netherlands , Belgium and Ireland , as well as the compilation album chart in France . My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number two in Canada , number five in the United Kingdom and number eight in the United States , and was certified double @-@ Platinum in Canada and Ireland , Platinum in Belgium and Gold in Mexico , Finland , New Zealand and Hungary . The first single from the album , " My Love " , was a semi @-@ autobiographic song written for Dion by Linda Perry , originally available on Taking Chances ( 2007 ) . In France , " I 'm Alive " ( Remix ) was released as a promotional single instead . In July 2011 , My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection was re @-@ issued with the same track listings as part of Sony 's The Essential line .
= = Background = =
Dion took the stage for her final performance of A New Day ... on December 15 , 2007 . The Las Vegas show that had been viewed by nearly three million spectators at 717 performances since its premier in March 2003 had come to an end . On February 14 , 2008 , she embarked on her first worldwide concert tour in over nine years . Dion performed her biggest hits along with songs from her new album , Taking Chances . The Taking Chances World Tour played to sold @-@ out stadiums and arenas throughout 2008 . By its completion , at the end of February 2009 , it had crossed five continents , twenty @-@ three countries , and ninety @-@ three cities , en route to playing for an audience of over three million people . On August 27 , 2008 , Dion 's official website announced that a new greatest hits album would be released in October 2008 . On September 5 , 2008 , it was revealed that the album will be available in two formats : a one @-@ disc edition called My Love : Essential Collection as well as a two @-@ disc edition called My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection , with the track listing posted on September 11 , 2008 . " My Love " , originally from Taking Chances , was confirmed as the first single in an official press release on September 22 , 2008 . My Love : Essential Collection features a live version of the song , which premiered on September 17 , 2008 and the live music video was released seven days later . The lyrics to the only new track on the album , " There Comes a Time " were posted on October 7 , 2008 on Dion 's official website and an excerpt of the song was posted on October 23 , 2008 .
The artwork for My Love : Essential Collection features a close @-@ up shot of Dion , wearing a white blouse with a black camera hanging from her neck . The cover 's background is blurred white and purple imagery , with the singer 's name and the album title written in white letters . The photography was done by Denise Truscello , and shot in a studio in Los Angeles in 2007 . Dion was very grateful working with Truscello , and described their professional experience positively : " Out of all the people I 've worked with , she 's the absolute best . I 've worked with her for six years , and she 's always kind to everybody . Super , super kind . "
= = Content = =
My Love : Essential Collection features seventeen songs on the US version and eighteen songs on the European version of the album . The US version includes the Billboard Hot 100 number one singles : " The Power of Love " , " Because You Loved Me " , " My Heart Will Go On " and " I 'm Your Angel , " and the European version contains the UK number one single , " Think Twice . "
The two @-@ disc edition , entitled My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection was released simultaneously . It is a twenty @-@ seven song set on the US version and thirty @-@ six song set on the European version . My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection released in the United States contains three rare songs not released on a Dion record : " ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman " ( from Tapestry Revisited : A Tribute to Carole King ) , " Dance with My Father " ( from So Amazing : An All @-@ Star Tribute to Luther Vandross ) , and " I Knew I Loved You " ( from We All Love Ennio Morricone ) . The European version also includes singles successful in Europe .
In July 2011 , the album was re @-@ issued as part of The Essential series , featuring either the US or European track listing ( depending on the country of release ) . A limited edition , titled The Essential 3 @.@ 0 , was released exclusively in the United States on August 29 , 2011 . It was expanded with a bonus third CD with seven tracks , including alternate versions of " Think Twice " and " Only One Road . "
= = Promotion = =
The performance of " My Love " was aired for the very first time on television on August 31 , 2008 , during the 43rd annual MDA Labor Day Telethon . On October 28 , 2008 , an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show was dedicated to Dion , as well as several inspirational journeys of parents and their young children , who suffered from many diseases . Dion was featured throughout the special titled , Miracle Children with Celine Dion due to the personal struggles and difficulties she was facing at the time with childbirth . Towards the end of the special , she performed a live rendition of " My Love . " The following day , Dion was forced to reschedule her concert of October 30 in Minneapolis , as well many others in November 2008 , citing illness as the cause for the postponements . On December 1 , 2008 , she performed " My Love " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On December 13 , 2008 , her official website posted a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip of Dion in the recording sessions for the song , " There Comes a Time . " The Taking Chances World Tour ended on February 26 and on March 1 , 2009 , Dion gave her last public performance on Star Académie in Canada , singing a medley of her popular French and English @-@ language songs alongside the contestants . Following the performance , Dion began her temporary retirement from the music industry , in order to focus time on her family and conceiving another child . Aside from the several televised appearances , " My Love " was performed throughout Dion 's Taking Chances World Tour , beginning with her concert in Seoul on March 18 , 2008 . " My Love " was included later on the Taking Chances World Tour : The Concert , released on DVD and CD in April 2010 .
= = Singles = =
My Love : Essential Collection was released while Dion was on her Taking Chances World Tour . During her concert in Stockholm , Sweden on June 7 , 2008 , Dion recorded a live version of " My Love , " which was confirmed to be the first single from the compilation . The song premiered on the radio on September 22 , 2008 and a digital single was released the next day , accompanied by a live music video . Chuck Taylor , senior editor of Billboard , said that " My Love " was an inspired choice from the album and complimented Linda Perry 's composition and Dion 's delivery of the song , calling it highly emotive ballad about ache and uncertainty . After " My Love " debuted on the US Adult Contemporary chart , Dion became the artist with the most adult contemporary hits in the 2000s , with " My Love " being her sixteenth entry of the decade . The song peaked at number fifteen . The next single , " I 'm Alive " was remixed by Laurent Wolf and released in October 2008 to radio to promote the album in France , instead of " My Love . " In January 2009 , new remixes of " I 'm Alive " by Maurice Joshua were sent to the US clubs . They reached number thirty @-@ five on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " I 'm Alive " was originally released as a single from A New Day Has Come in 2002 and peaked at number seven in France and number six on the US Adult Contemporary chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor of AllMusic , called My Love : Essential Collection an overcompensation for how All the Way ... A Decade of Song ( 1999 ) , concentrated on newer recordings at the expense of hits . According to him , My Love : Essential Collection " fits the bill well " for those listeners who are looking for an overview of Celine Dion 's two decades as an international superstar , as it has all her big adult contemporary hits . Erlewine also noted that although Dion has had more hits in the ten years since All the Way ... A Decade of Song , apart from her cover of Roy Orbison 's " I Drove All Night , " almost none of her new @-@ millennium hits are as memorable as her singles from the ' 90s .
= = Commercial reception = =
My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 , becoming Dion 's eleventh top ten album on the chart , with first week sales of 57 @,@ 000 copies . On the Canadian Albums Chart , My Love : Essential Collection debuted at number two , with sales of 17 @,@ 700 copies , and the following week , the album dropped to number three , selling another 11 @,@ 000 copies . By its third week on the chart , My Love : Essential Collection sank another three spots to number six , and by January 2009 , was certified double @-@ Platinum by CRIA , denoting shipments of 160 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number five , selling 42 @,@ 411 copies and was certified three @-@ times Platinum for sales of over 900 @,@ 000 units . In Ireland , it peaked at number one and was certified double @-@ Platinum in 2008 . My Love : Essential Collection proved to be very popular in these two countries , as it re @-@ entered the charts in 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 . It debuted at number one in France and the Netherlands , occupying the top for two weeks in both countries . My Love : Essential Collection also topped the chart in Belgium Flanders and peaked inside the top ten in many European countries , reaching number six on the European Top 100 Albums . The album also peaked inside top ten in New Zealand and Mexico , and was also certified Platinum in Belgium , Gold in Mexico , Finland , New Zealand and Hungary . Worldwide , it became the forty @-@ second best selling album of 2008 , according to the IFPI .
= = Track listing = =
= = = My Love : Essential Collection = = =
North American version
European version
French version
= = = My Love : Ultimate Essential Collection = = =
North American version
European version
French version
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from AllMusic .
= = Release history = =
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= Samuel King Allison =
Samuel King Allison ( November 13 , 1900 – September 15 , 1965 ) was an American physicist , most notable for his role in the Manhattan Project , for which he was awarded the Medal for Merit . He was director of the Metallurgical Laboratory from 1943 until 1944 , and later worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory — where he " rode herd " on the final stages of the project as part of the " Cowpuncher Committee " , and read the countdown for the detonation of the Trinity nuclear test . After the war he was involved in the " scientists ' movement " , lobbying for civilian control of nuclear weapons .
= = Early life = =
Samuel King Allison was born in Chicago , Illinois , on November 13 , 1900 , the son of Samuel Buell Allison , an elementary school principal . He was educated at John Fiske Grammar School and Hyde Park High School . He entered the University of Chicago in 1917 , and participated in varsity swimming and water basketball , while majoring in mathematics and chemistry . He graduated in 1921 , and then embarked on his PhD in chemistry under the supervision of William Draper Harkins , writing his thesis on " Atomic Stability III , the Effects of Electrical Discharge and High Temperatures " , a topic closely related to experimental physics .
Allison was a research fellow at Harvard University from 1923 until 1925 and then at the Carnegie Institution from 1925 until 1926 . From 1926 until 1930 he taught physics at University of California , Berkeley as an instructor , and then as an associate professor . While there he met and married Helen Campbell . They had two children , a son , Samuel , and a daughter , Catherine .
= = X @-@ Rays = =
In 1930 Allison returned to the University of Chicago , where he became a professor in 1942 , and the Frank P. Hixon Distinguished Service Professor of Physics in 1959 . He studied the Compton effect and the dynamical theory of x @-@ ray diffraction . At the time x @-@ rays were an important means of investigating atomic structures , but the concept that light had both wave and particle properties , as demonstrated by Arthur Compton , was not universally accepted . William Duane from Harvard spearheaded an effort to prove that Compton 's interpretation of the Compton effect was wrong , and Allison became part of this effort . Duane carried out a series of meticulous experiments to disprove Compton , but instead found overwhelming evidence that Compton was correct . To his credit , Duane conceded that this was the case .
One outcome of this was that he co @-@ authored a textbook with Compton , X @-@ rays in Theory and Experiment ( 1935 ) , which became widely used . He developed a high resolution x @-@ ray spectrometer with a graduate student , John Harry Williams . In 1935 , Allison won a Guggenheim Fellowship to study at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in England , where he studied under John Cockcroft . He published a paper in the Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society on his " Experiments on the Efficiencies of Production and the Half @-@ Lives of Radio @-@ Carbon and Radio @-@ Nitrogen " . He was so impressed by the Cavendish Laboratory 's Cockcroft – Walton accelerator that after returning to Chicago he built one .
= = Manhattan Project = =
During World War II , Allison became involved in defence @-@ related work . He was a consultant to the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) from October 1940 to January 1941 . In January 1941 the NDRC let him a contract to study the possibility of using beryllium as a neutron moderator . The team he assembled in Chicago would grow into the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory .
In September 1941 , Allison joined the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee , which coordinated the early investigations into the feasibility of an atomic bomb . He began building a reactor in the squash courts under the disused stands of Stagg Field . He became head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's chemistry section in January 1942 , and in March , his small experimental reactor using beryllium came closer to criticality than the graphite @-@ moderated design of Enrico Fermi 's group at Columbia University . During 1942 , Compton brought all the research groups working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design at Columbia University , Princeton University and the University of California together at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . Allison was placed in charge of the experimental work .
By October 1942 , the Metallurgical Laboratory had to consider how it would proceed with designing large production reactors when they had yet to get an experimental reactor to work . Fermi favored taking small steps , while Allison and Eugene Wigner argued that larger steps were necessary if atomic bombs were to be developed in time to affect the course of the war . The Director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , told them that time was more important than money , and if two approaches looked promising , they should build both . In the end , this was what was done . Allison was one of 49 scientists who watched the project take a leap forward when Chicago Pile @-@ 1 went critical at Stagg Field on December 2 , 1942 . As Compton 's reactor project began to spread outside Chicago in 1943 , Allison became director of the Metallurgical Laboratory in June 1943 .
By late 1944 , the locus of the Manhattan Project had shifted to the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , and Allison went there in November 1944 as the chairman of the Technical and Scheduling Committee . He was able to inform Groves in March 1945 that an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon would be ready for testing in July . Allison formed part of the " Cowpuncher Committee " that " rode herd " on the implosion project , ensuring that it stayed on track and on schedule . Fittingly , he was the one who read the countdown over the loudspeakers at the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 . Groves presented Allison with the Medal for Merit for his work on the Manhattan Project in a ceremony at the University of Chicago on January 12 , 1946 .
= = Later life = =
After the war , Allison was director of the Enrico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies from 1946 until 1957 , and again from 1963 until 1965 . He was the chairman of the Physics Section of the National Research Council from 1960 to 1963 , and chairman of its Committee on Nuclear Science from 1962 to 1965 . He was active in the " scientist 's movement " for the control of atomic weapons . The scientists successfully lobbied for nuclear weapons to be under civilian rather than military control , which was eventually written into the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 . He was a strong opponent of secrecy in science , and , in an influential speech announcing the creation of the Enrico Fermi Institute said :
We are determined to return to free research as before the war . If secrecy is imposed on scientific research in physics , we will find all first @-@ rate scientists working on subjects as innocuous as the colors of butterfly wings .
Allison rebuilt his accelerator , which he called the " kevatron " , because it could accelerate particles to energies of 400 KeV . The name was a reference to the massive bevatron being built at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory , which was planned to accelerate particles to billions of electron volts . Allison still believed that there were useful results still to be found with low energies . He became a pioneer of what became known as " heavy ion physics " , accelerating protons and deuterons , and using lithium and beryllium as targets . The data on these reactions of light elements would subsequently prove useful in the study of stellar nucleosynthesis .
Later , Allison acquired a 2 MeV Van de Graaff generator , and he recalled an old paper on producing lithium ions from minerals like Eucryptite . This allowed him to produce a 1 @.@ 2 MeV lithium ion beam . He created hitherto unknown isotopes of boron and other light elements , and measured their neutron capture cross sections . A side effect of this work was a method to analyze surface materials where chemical analysis was unavailable . His colleague Anthony L. Turkevich subsequently used this to analyze the makeup of the Moon on the later Surveyor program missions . Allison continued to take on Ph.D. candidates , some of whom , such as James Cronin went on to distinguished careers .
Allison died of complications following an aortic aneurism on September 15 , 1965 while attending the Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research Conference in Culham , England . His papers are kept at the American Institute of Physics .
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= SMS Wiesbaden =
SMS Wiesbaden was a light cruiser of the Wiesbaden class built for the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Frankfurt ; the ships were very similar to the previous Karlsruhe @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1913 , launched in January 1915 , and completed by August 1915 . Armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , Wiesbaden had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full load .
Wiesbaden saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible . Immobilized between the two battle fleets , Wiesbaden became the center of a hard @-@ fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers . Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship 's crew . Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983 .
= = Design = =
Wiesbaden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Gefion " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915 , after being rushed through trials . The ship was 145 @.@ 30 meters ( 476 ft 8 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 90 m ( 45 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 76 m ( 18 ft 11 in ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Wiesbaden carried 1 @,@ 280 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Wiesbaden had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The guns could engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 024 rounds of ammunition , for 128 shells per gun . The ship 's antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) L / 44 guns , though these were replaced with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes . Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Commanded by Captain Fritz Reiss , Wiesbaden was assigned to the II Scouting Group of light cruisers under Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker , which took part in the Battle of Jutland on 30 May and 1 June 1916 . Wiesbaden 's sister ship Frankfurt served as Boedicker 's flagship . The unit was assigned to screen for the battlecruisers of Vizeadmiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group . At the start of the battle , Wiesbaden was cruising to starboard , which placed her on the disengaged side when Elbing , Pillau , and Frankfurt first engaged the British cruiser screen .
At around 18 : 30 , Wiesbaden and the rest of the II Scouting Group encountered the cruiser HMS Chester ; they opened fire and scored several hits on the ship . As both sides ' cruisers disengaged , Rear Admiral Horace Hood 's three battlecruisers intervened . His flagship HMS Invincible scored a hit on Wiesbaden that exploded in her engine room and disabled the ship . Konteradmiral Paul Behncke , the commander of the leading element of the German battle line , ordered his dreadnoughts to cover the stricken Wiesbaden . Simultaneously , the light cruisers of the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons attempted to make a torpedo attack on the German line ; while steaming into range , they battered Wiesbaden with their main guns . The destroyer HMS Onslow steamed to within 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) of Wiesbaden and fired a single torpedo at the crippled cruiser . It hit directly below the conning tower , but the ship remained afloat . In the ensuing melee , the armored cruiser HMS Defence blew up and HMS Warrior was fatally damaged . Wiesbaden launched her torpedoes while she remained immobilized , but with no success .
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the III Flotilla of torpedo boats attempted to rescue Wiesbaden 's crew , but heavy fire from the British battle line drove them off . Another attempt to reach the ship was made , but the torpedo boat crews lost sight of the cruiser and were unable to locate her . The ship finally sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; he was picked up by a Norwegian steamer the following day . Among the 589 killed was the well @-@ known writer of poetry and fiction dealing with the life of fishermen and sailors , Johann Kinau , known under his pseudonym of Gorch Fock , who has since then been honored by having two training windjammers of the Kriegsmarine and the German Navy , respectively , named after him . The wreck of Wiesbaden was found in 1983 by divers of the German Navy , who removed both of the ship 's screws . The ship lies on the sea floor upside down , and was the last German cruiser sunk at Jutland to be located .
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= SM U @-@ 15 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 15 or U @-@ XV was a U @-@ 10 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during World War I. U @-@ 15 was constructed in Germany and shipped by rail to Pola where she was assembled and launched in April 1915 . She was commissioned in October 1915 . U @-@ 15 was the most successful boat of the U @-@ 10 class , sinking six ships totaling more than 8 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The boat survived the war and was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 15 was constructed at AG Weser in Bremen for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and then shipped by rail in sections to Pola , where the sections were riveted together . Though there is no specific mention of how long it took for U @-@ 15 's sections to be assembled , a sister boat , the German Type UB I submarine UB @-@ 3 , shipped to Pola from Germany in mid @-@ April 1915 , was assembled in about two weeks . U @-@ 15 was launched in April .
U @-@ 15 was a small , coastal submarine that displaced 125 @.@ 5 long tons ( 127 @.@ 5 t ) surfaced and 140 @.@ 25 long tons ( 142 @.@ 50 t ) submerged . She featured a single shaft , a single 59 bhp ( 44 kW ) Daimler diesel engine for surface running , and a single 119 shp ( 89 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . U @-@ 15 was capable of up to 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) while surfaced and 5 @.@ 5 knots ( 10 @.@ 2 km / h ; 6 @.@ 3 mph ) while submerged at a diving depth of up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She was designed for a crew of 17 officers and men .
U @-@ 15 was equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . In October 1916 , U @-@ 15 's armament was supplemented with a 37 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun . This gun was replaced by a 47 mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun in November 1917 .
= = Operational history = =
SM U @-@ 15 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 6 October under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Schlosser . On 28 November , Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Fähndrich was assigned to the first of two stints in command of the boat . On 18 December , Fähndrich and U @-@ 15 attacked and sank two Albanian sailing vessels near Lezhë . The Erzen , of 25 GRT , and the Figlio Preligiona , of 80 GRT , were both sunk at position 41 ° 47 ′ N 19 ° 31 ′ E. After being relieved by Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Rzemenowsky von Trautenegg from late March to early May 1916 , Fähndrich resumed command on 10 May . One week later , on 17 May , U @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank the 2 @,@ 237 GRT Italian steamer Stura in the Adriatic some 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ) east of Brindisi .
The following month , Fähndrich and the crew of U @-@ 15 scored their second double kill when they sank the Italian auxiliary cruiser Cittá di Messina ( 3 @,@ 495 GRT ) and the French destroyer Fourche ( 745 GRT ) . While about 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) east of Otranto on 23 June , U @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank Cittá di Messina . The escorting destroyer Fourche began a depth charge attack on U @-@ 15 and assumed success when an oil slick appeared on the surface . After the captain of Fourche turned his attentions to the rescue Cittá di Messina 's survivors , U @-@ 15 launched a single torpedo that struck Fourche amidships and sank her .
On 25 October , U @-@ 15 , back under the command of von Trautenegg , sank the 2 @,@ 207 GRT Italian steamer Polcevera , a sister ship to Stura ( sunk by U @-@ 15 in May ) . Polcevera was the last ship sunk by U @-@ 15 .
From October 1916 to the end of the fighting in November 1918 , U @-@ 15 's activities are unknown . U @-@ 15 was at Pola at the end of the war when Austria @-@ Hungary handed her over to Italy . U @-@ 15 was scrapped at Pola by 1920 .
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= RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) =
Transport Flight ( Japan ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport unit that operated in the aftermath of the Korean War . It was formed in March 1955 at Iwakuni , Japan , and equipped with three Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and a CAC Wirraway . The flight 's main duty was flying a regular courier service between Japan and South Korea in support of Commonwealth military units based on the peninsula . Transport Flight ( Japan ) ceased operations in June 1956 and disbanded in September that year .
= = History = =
Transport Flight ( Japan ) traced its lineage to a transport contingent that the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) maintained in Japan prior to the Korean War . When the war broke out in June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron was based at Iwakuni as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . Equipped primarily with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , the squadron also operated a communications flight of two Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and two Austers . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at Iwakuni in October 1950 to administer all RAAF units during the war . This included No. 77 Squadron , the newly formed No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 30 Communications Flight , formerly the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight . It was designated No. 30 Communications Unit in November . By then it had a complement of eight Dakotas and two Austers . No. 30 Communications Unit was redesignated No. 30 Transport Unit in November 1951 . By the end of 1952 , its strength was eight Dakotas and one CAC Wirraway , and fifty @-@ nine personnel .
In March 1953 , No. 30 Transport Unit re @-@ formed as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron , which had disbanded the previous day at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales . Elements of No. 36 Squadron began returning to Australia in January 1955 , and by the end of the month its strength was four Dakotas and one Wirraway , and fifty @-@ eight personnel . No. 36 Squadron ceased flying on 13 March , after which its remaining strength left Iwakuni for Australia . RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) was formed at Iwakuni the next day under the control of No. 91 Wing . The unit was equipped with three Dakotas and one Wirraway , which had been left behind when the last members of No. 36 Squadron departed for Australia . Transport Flight ( Japan ) ' s personnel , consisting of eight officers and sixty @-@ six other ranks by the end of month , were drawn mainly from No. 36 Squadron , including its commanding officer , Squadron Leader G.L. Waller , as well as from No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron .
The flight 's regular duty consisted of a courier service to Pusan and Kimpo in South Korea five days a week — Wednesdays and Sundays were excluded — to support Commonwealth forces on the peninsula . It became known in the process as " Japan – Korea Airlines " . Generally carrying freight on the outbound journey , the aircraft often ferried casualties back to Iwakuni , and two nurses formerly of No. 391 Squadron were attached to the flight to assist with this task . The unit was also responsible for transporting VIPs . No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing were disbanded at Iwakuni on 30 April 1955 . Transport Flight ( Japan ) flew its last courier missions on 28 June 1956 , and shortly after handed over its base facilities to the United States Navy . The flight 's last Dakota — the last RAAF aircraft to be based in Japan — took off for Australia from Iwakuni on 8 July . It left behind some ground staff and Flight Lieutenant Raleigh , a small yellow dog that had accompanied No. 81 ( Fighter ) Wing — parent formation of No. 77 Squadron at the time — to Japan as its mascot in 1945 and had remained with the RAAF contingent at Iwakuni ever since . Raleigh , a keen flyer but considered too old to return to Australia , was to be given over to the care of a US service family when the last RAAF personnel departed Iwakuni . Transport Flight ( Japan ) was disbanded on 28 September 1956 . It was reported to have carried 4 @,@ 400 passengers and 610 @,@ 000 pounds ( 280 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo between its first flight in March 1955 and its last in July 1956 , including 690 Commonwealth troops in April 1956 alone , and to have only missed one scheduled service , owing to a typhoon .
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= John Hancock =
John Hancock ( January 23 , 1737 [ O.S. January 12 , 1736 ] – October 8 , 1793 ) was an American merchant , smuggler , statesman , and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution . He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . He is remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence , so much so that the term " John Hancock " has become , in the United States , a synonym for a signature .
Before the American Revolution , Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies , having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle , himself a prominent smuggler . Hancock began his political career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams , an influential local politician , though the two men later became estranged . As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s , Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause . He became very popular in Massachusetts , especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling . Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped , as Professor Peter Andreas , author of Smuggler Nation : How Illicit Trade Made America explains , " It is perhaps appropriate that the first signer of the Declaration of Independence was Boston 's most well known merchant @-@ smuggler , John Hancock . "
Hancock was one of Boston 's leaders during the crisis that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 . He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , and as president of Congress , was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence . Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth , serving in that role for most of his remaining years . He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788 .
= = Early life = =
According to the Gregorian calendar , John Hancock was born on January 23 , 1737 ; according to the Julian calendar then in use , the date was January 12 , 1736 . He was born in Braintree , Massachusetts , in a part of town that eventually became the separate city of Quincy . He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter ( widow of Samuel Thaxter Junior ) , who was from nearby Hingham . As a child , Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams , whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735 . The Hancocks lived a comfortable life , and owned one slave to help with household work .
After Hancock 's father died in 1744 , John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt , Thomas Hancock and Lydia ( Henchman ) Hancock . Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock , which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum , whale oil , and fish . Thomas Hancock 's highly successful business made him one of Boston 's richest and best @-@ known residents . He and Lydia , along with several servants and slaves , lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill . The couple , who did not have any children of their own , became the dominant influence on John 's life .
After graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750 , Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelor 's degree in 1754 . Upon graduation , he began to work for his uncle , just as the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) had begun . Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war . John Hancock learned much about his uncle 's business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm . Hancock worked hard , but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes .
From 1760 to 1761 , Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers . Upon returning to Boston , Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncle 's health failed , becoming a full partner in January 1763 . He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762 , which connected him with many of Boston 's most influential citizens . When Thomas Hancock died in August 1764 , John inherited the business , Hancock Manor , two or three household slaves , and thousands of acres of land , becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colonies . The household slaves continued to work for John and his aunt , but were eventually freed through the terms of Thomas Hancock 's will ; there is no evidence that John Hancock ever bought or sold slaves .
= = Growing imperial tensions = =
After its victory in the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , the British Empire was deep in debt . Looking for new sources of revenue , the British Parliament sought , for the first time , to directly tax the colonies , beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764 . The earlier Molasses Act of 1733 , a tax on shipments from the West Indies , had produced hardly any revenue because it was widely bypassed by smuggling , which was seen as a victimless crime .
Not only was there little social stigma attached to smuggling in the colonies , but in port cities , where trade was the primary generator of wealth , smuggling enjoyed considerable community support , and it was even possible to obtain insurance against being caught . Colonial merchants developed an impressive repertoire of evasive maneuvers to conceal the origin , nationality , routes and content of their illicit cargoes . This included the frequent use of fraudulent paperwork to make the cargo appear legal and authorised . And much to the frustration of the British authorities , when seizures did happen local merchants were often able to use sympathetic provincial courts to reclaim confiscated goods and have their cases dismissed . For instance , Edward Randolph , the appointed head of customs in New England brought 36 seizures to trial from 1680 to the end of 1682 – and all but two of these were acquitted . Alternatively merchants sometimes took matters into their own hands and stole illicit goods back while impounded .
The Sugar Act provoked outrage in Boston , where it was widely viewed as a violation of colonial rights . Men such as James Otis and Samuel Adams argued that because the colonists were not represented in Parliament , they could not be taxed by that body ; only the colonial assemblies , where the colonists were represented , could levy taxes upon the colonies . Hancock was not yet a political activist ; however , he criticized the tax for economic , rather than constitutional , reasons .
Hancock emerged as a leading political figure in Boston just as tensions with Great Britain were increasing . In March 1765 , he was elected as one of Boston 's five selectmen , an office previously held by his uncle for many years . Soon after , Parliament passed the 1765 Stamp Act , a tax on legal documents , such as wills , that had been levied in Britain for many years but which was wildly unpopular in the colonies , producing riots and organized resistance . Hancock initially took a moderate position : as a loyal British subject , he thought that the colonists should submit to the act , even though he believed that Parliament was misguided . Within a few months , Hancock had changed his mind , although he continued to disapprove of violence and the intimidation of royal officials by mobs . Hancock joined the resistance to the Stamp Act by participating in a boycott of British goods , which made him popular in Boston . After Bostonians learned of the impending repeal of the Stamp Act , Hancock was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in May of 1766 .
Hancock 's political success benefited from the support of Samuel Adams , the clerk of the House of Representatives and a leader of Boston 's " popular party " , also known as " Whigs " and later as " Patriots " . The two men made an unlikely pair . Fifteen years older than Hancock , Adams had a somber , Puritan outlook that stood in marked contrast to Hancock 's taste for luxury and extravagance . Apocryphal stories later portrayed Adams as masterminding Hancock 's political rise so that the merchant 's wealth could be used to further the Whig agenda . Historian James Truslow Adams portrayed Hancock as shallow and vain , easily manipulated by Adams . Historian William M. Fowler , who wrote biographies of both men , argued that this characterization was an exaggeration , and that the relationship between the two was symbiotic , with Adams as the mentor and Hancock the protégé .
= = Townshend Acts crisis = =
After the repeal of the Stamp Act , Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue , passing the 1767 Townshend Acts , which established new duties on various imports and strengthened the customs agency by creating the American Customs Board . The British government believed that a more efficient customs system was necessary because many colonial American merchants had been smuggling . Smugglers violated the Navigation Acts by trading with ports outside of the British Empire and avoiding import taxes . Parliament hoped that the new system would reduce smuggling and generate revenue for the government .
Colonial merchants , even those not involved in smuggling , found the new regulations oppressive . Other colonists protested that new duties were another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent . Hancock joined other Bostonians in calling for a boycott of British imports until the Townshend duties were repealed . In their enforcement of the customs regulations , the Customs Board targeted Hancock , Boston 's wealthiest Whig . They may have suspected that he was a smuggler , or they may have wanted to harass him because of his politics , especially after Hancock snubbed Governor Francis Bernard by refusing to attend public functions when the customs officials were present .
On April 9 , 1768 , two customs employees ( called tidesmen ) boarded Hancock 's brig Lydia in Boston Harbor . Hancock was summoned , and finding that the agents lacked a writ of assistance ( a general search warrant ) , he did not allow them to go below deck . When one of them later managed to get into the hold , Hancock 's men forced the tidesman back on deck . Customs officials wanted to file charges , but the case was dropped when Massachusetts Attorney General Jonathan Sewall ruled that Hancock had broken no laws . Later , some of Hancock 's most ardent admirers would call this incident the first act of physical resistance to British authority in the colonies and credit Hancock with initiating the American Revolution .
= = = Liberty affair = = =
The next incident proved to be a major event in the coming of the American Revolution . On the evening of May 9 , 1768 , Hancock 's sloop Liberty arrived in Boston Harbor , carrying a shipment of Madeira wine . When custom officers inspected the ship the next morning , they found that it contained 25 pipes of wine , just one fourth of the ship 's carrying capacity . Hancock paid the duties on the 25 pipes of wine , but officials suspected that he had arranged to have more wine unloaded during the night to avoid paying the duties for the entire cargo . Hancock had earlier been heard refuting the authority of the customs officials , although two tidesmen who had stayed on the ship overnight gave a sworn statement that nothing had been unloaded .
One month later , while the British warship HMS Romney was in port , one of the tidesmen changed his story , saying that he had been forcibly held on the Liberty on the orders of John Hancock while it had been illegally unloaded . When released , the tidesmen were subjected to " such threats and denunciation of vengeance , death and destruction in case they divulged the affair . " The following day the Liberty was again boarded and seized when officials found 20 barrels of tar and 200 barrels of oil on board for which no bond had been posted and no permit to load obtained .
On June 10 , customs officials seized the Liberty . Bostonians were already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing colonists , and not just deserters from the Royal Navy , an arguably illegal activity . A riot broke out when officials began to tow the Liberty out to the Romney . The confrontation escalated when sailors and marines coming ashore to seize the Liberty were mistaken for a press gang . After the riot , customs officials relocated to the Romney , and then to Castle William ( an island fort in the harbor ) , claiming that they were unsafe in town . Whigs insisted that the customs officials were exaggerating the danger so that London would send troops to Boston .
British officials filed two lawsuits stemming from the Liberty incident : an in rem suit against the ship , and an in personam suit against Hancock , who had previously been heard dismissing the authority of British Customs officials . The first suit , filed on June 22 , 1768 , resulted in the confiscation of the Liberty in August . Customs officials then used the ship for anti @-@ smuggling operations until it was burned by angry colonists in Rhode Island the following year .
The second trial began in October 1768 , when charges were filed against Hancock and five others for allegedly unloading 100 pipes of wine from the Liberty without paying the duties . If convicted , the defendants would have had to pay a penalty of triple the value of the wine , which came to £ 9 @,@ 000 . With John Adams serving as his lawyer , Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice admiralty court , which had no jury and did not always allow the defense to cross @-@ examine the witnesses . After dragging out for nearly five months , the proceedings against Hancock were dropped without explanation .
Although the charges against Hancock were dropped , many writers later described him as a smuggler . The accuracy of this characterization has been questioned . " Hancock 's guilt or innocence and the exact charges against him " , wrote historian John W. Tyler in 1986 , " are still fiercely debated . " Historian Oliver Dickerson argued that Hancock was the victim of an essentially criminal racketeering scheme perpetrated by Governor Bernard and the customs officials . Dickerson believed that there is no reliable evidence that Hancock was guilty in the Liberty case , and that the purpose of the trials was to punish Hancock for political reasons and to plunder his property . Opposed to Dickerson 's interpretation were Kinvin Wroth and Hiller Zobel , the editors of John Adams 's legal papers , who argued that " Hancock 's innocence is open to question " , and that the British officials acted legally , if unwisely . Lawyer and historian Bernard Knollenberg concluded that the customs officials had the right to seize Hancock 's ship , but towing it out to the Romney had been illegal . Legal historian John Phillip Reid argued that the testimony of both sides was so politically partial that it is not possible to objectively reconstruct the incident .
Aside from the Liberty affair , the degree to which Hancock was engaged in smuggling , which may have been widespread in the colonies , has been questioned . Given the clandestine nature of smuggling , records are scarce . If Hancock was a smuggler , no documentation of this has been found . John W. Tyler identified 23 smugglers in his study of more than 400 merchants in revolutionary Boston , but found no written evidence that Hancock was one of them . Biographer William Fowler concluded that while Hancock was probably engaged in some smuggling , most of his business was legitimate , and his later reputation as the " king of the colonial smugglers " is a myth without foundation .
= = Massacre to Tea Party = =
The Liberty affair reinforced a previously made British decision to suppress unrest in Boston with a show of military might . The decision had been prompted by Samuel Adams 's 1768 Circular Letter , which was sent to other British American colonies in hopes of coordinating resistance to the Townshend Acts . Lord Hillsborough , secretary of state for the colonies , sent four regiments of the British Army to Boston to support embattled royal officials , and instructed Governor Bernard to order the Massachusetts legislature to revoke the Circular Letter . Hancock and the Massachusetts House voted against rescinding the letter , and instead drew up a petition demanding Governor Bernard 's recall . When Bernard returned to England in 1769 , Bostonians celebrated .
The British troops remained , however , and tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of March 1770 . Hancock was not involved in the incident , but afterwards he led a committee to demand the removal of the troops . Meeting with Bernard 's successor , Governor Thomas Hutchinson , and the British officer in command , Colonel William Dalrymple , Hancock claimed that there were 10 @,@ 000 armed colonists ready to march into Boston if the troops did not leave . Hutchinson knew that Hancock was bluffing , but the soldiers were in a precarious position when garrisoned within the town , and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William . Hancock was celebrated as a hero for his role in getting the troops withdrawn . His reelection to the Massachusetts House in May was nearly unanimous .
After Parliament partially repealed the Townshend duties in 1770 , Boston 's boycott of British goods ended . Politics became quieter in Massachusetts , although tensions remained . Hancock tried to improve his relationship with Governor Hutchinson , who in turn sought to woo Hancock away from Adams 's influence . In April 1772 , Hutchinson approved Hancock 's election as colonel of the Boston Cadets , a militia unit whose primary function was to provide a ceremonial escort for the governor and the General Court . In May , Hutchinson even approved Hancock 's election to the Council , the upper chamber of the General Court , whose members were elected by the House but subject to veto by the governor . Hancock 's previous elections to the Council had been vetoed , but now Hutchinson allowed the election to stand . Hancock declined the office , however , not wanting to appear to have been co @-@ opted by the governor . Nevertheless , Hancock used the improved relationship to resolve an ongoing dispute . To avoid hostile crowds in Boston , Hutchinson had been convening the legislature outside of town ; now he agreed to allow the General Court to sit in Boston once again , to the relief of the legislators .
Hutchinson had dared to hope that he could win over Hancock and discredit Adams . To some , it seemed that Adams and Hancock were indeed at odds : when Adams formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence in November 1772 to advocate colonial rights , Hancock declined to join , creating the impression that there was a split in the Whig ranks . But whatever their differences , Hancock and Adams came together again in 1773 with the renewal of major political turmoil . They cooperated in the revelation of private letters of Thomas Hutchinson , in which the governor seemed to recommend " an abridgement of what are called English liberties " to bring order to the colony . The Massachusetts House , blaming Hutchinson for the military occupation of Boston , called for his removal as governor .
Even more trouble followed Parliament 's passage of the 1773 Tea Act . On November 5 , Hancock was elected as moderator at a Boston town meeting that resolved that anyone who supported the Tea Act was an " Enemy to America " . Hancock and others tried to force the resignation of the agents who had been appointed to receive the tea shipments . Unsuccessful in this , they attempted to prevent the tea from being unloaded after three tea ships had arrived in Boston Harbor . Hancock was at the fateful meeting on December 16 , where he reportedly told the crowd , " Let every man do what is right in his own eyes . " Hancock did not take part in the Boston Tea Party that night , but he approved of the action , although he was careful not to publicly praise the destruction of private property .
Over the next few months , Hancock was disabled by gout , which would trouble him with increasing frequency in the coming years . By March 5 , 1774 , he had recovered enough to deliver the fourth annual Massacre Day oration , a commemoration of the Boston Massacre . Hancock 's speech denounced the presence of British troops in Boston , who he said had been sent there " to enforce obedience to acts of Parliament , which neither God nor man ever empowered them to make " . The speech , probably written by Hancock in collaboration with Adams , Joseph Warren , and others , was published and widely reprinted , enhancing Hancock 's stature as a leading Patriot .
= = Revolution begins = =
Parliament responded to the Tea Party with the Boston Port Act , one of the so @-@ called Coercive Acts intended to strengthen British control of the colonies . Hutchinson was replaced as governor by General Thomas Gage , who arrived in May 1774 . On June 17 , the Massachusetts House elected five delegates to send to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia , which was being organized to coordinate colonial response to the Coercive Acts . Hancock did not serve in the first Congress , possibly for health reasons , or possibly to remain in charge while the other Patriot leaders were away .
Gage soon dismissed Hancock from his post as colonel of the Boston Cadets . In October 1774 , Gage canceled the scheduled meeting of the General Court . In response , the House resolved itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress , a body independent of British control . Hancock was elected as president of the Provincial Congress and was a key member of the Committee of Safety . The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies , consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment 's notice .
On December 1 , 1774 , the Provincial Congress elected Hancock as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to replace James Bowdoin , who had been unable to attend the first Congress because of illness . Before Hancock reported to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , the Provincial Congress unanimously reelected him as their president in February 1775 . Hancock 's multiple roles gave him enormous influence in Massachusetts , and as early as January 1774 British officials had considered arresting him . After attending the Provincial Congress in Concord in April 1775 , Hancock and Samuel Adams decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia . They stayed instead at Hancock 's childhood home in Lexington .
Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth on April 14 , 1775 , advising him " to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion " . On the night of April 18 , Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that would spark the American Revolutionary War . The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord . According to many historical accounts , Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams ; if so , the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders . Gage apparently decided that he had nothing to gain by arresting Hancock and Adams , since other leaders would simply take their place , and the British would be portrayed as the aggressors .
Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Hancock and Adams , Patriots initially believed otherwise . From Boston , Joseph Warren dispatched messenger Paul Revere to warn Hancock and Adams that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them . Revere reached Lexington around midnight and gave the warning . Hancock , still considering himself a militia colonel , wanted to take the field with the Patriot militia at Lexington , but Adams and others convinced him to avoid battle , arguing that he was more valuable as a political leader than as a soldier . As Hancock and Adams made their escape , the first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord . Soon after the battle , Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would " lay down their arms , and return to the duties of peaceable subjects " — with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams . Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots .
= = President of Congress = =
With the war underway , Hancock made his way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia with the other Massachusetts delegates . On May 24 , 1775 , he was unanimously elected President of the Continental Congress , succeeding Peyton Randolph after Henry Middleton declined the nomination . Hancock was a good choice for president for several reasons . He was experienced , having often presided over legislative bodies and town meetings in Massachusetts . His wealth and social standing inspired the confidence of moderate delegates , while his association with Boston radicals made him acceptable to other radicals . His position was somewhat ambiguous , because the role of the president was not fully defined , and it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a leave of absence . Like other presidents of Congress , Hancock 's authority was mostly limited to that of a presiding officer . He also had to handle a great deal of official correspondence , and he found it necessary to hire clerks at his own expense to help with the paperwork .
In Congress on June 15 , 1775 , Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated George Washington as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army then gathered around Boston . Years later , Adams wrote that Hancock had shown great disappointment at not getting the command for himself . This brief comment from 1801 is the only source for the oft @-@ cited claim that Hancock sought to become commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In the early 20th century , historian James Truslow Adams wrote that the incident initiated a lifelong estrangement between Hancock and Washington , but some subsequent historians have expressed doubt that the incident , or the estrangement , ever occurred . According to historian Donald Proctor , " There is no contemporary evidence that Hancock harbored ambitions to be named commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Quite the contrary . " Hancock and Washington maintained a good relationship after the alleged incident , and in 1778 Hancock named his only son John George Washington Hancock . Hancock admired and supported General Washington , even though Washington politely declined Hancock 's request for a military appointment .
When Congress recessed on August 1 , 1775 , Hancock took the opportunity to wed his fiancée , Dorothy " Dolly " Quincy . The couple was married on August 28 in Fairfield , Connecticut . John and Dorothy would have two children , neither of whom survived to adulthood . Their daughter Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776 and died ten months later . Their son John was born in 1778 and died in 1787 after suffering a head injury while ice skating .
While president of Congress , Hancock became involved in a long @-@ running controversy with Harvard . As treasurer of the college since 1773 , he had been entrusted with the school 's financial records and about £ 15 @,@ 000 in cash and securities . In the rush of events at the onset of the Revolutionary War , Hancock had been unable to return the money and accounts to Harvard before leaving for Congress . In 1777 , a Harvard committee headed by James Bowdoin , Hancock 's chief political and social rival in Boston , sent a messenger to Philadelphia to retrieve the money and records . Hancock was offended , but he turned over more than £ 16 @,@ 000 , though not all of the records , to the college . When Harvard replaced Hancock as treasurer , his ego was bruised , and for years he declined to settle the account or pay the interest on the money he had held , despite pressure put on him by Bowdoin and other political opponents . The issue dragged on until after Hancock 's death , when his estate finally paid the college more than £ 1 @,@ 000 to resolve the matter .
Hancock served in Congress through some of the darkest days of the Revolutionary War . The British drove Washington from New York and New Jersey in 1776 , which prompted Congress to flee to Baltimore , Maryland . Hancock and Congress returned to Philadelphia in March 1777 , but were compelled to flee six months later when the British occupied Philadelphia . Hancock wrote innumerable letters to colonial officials , raising money , supplies , and troops for Washington 's army . He chaired the Marine Committee , and took pride in helping to create a small fleet of American frigates , including the USS Hancock , which was named in his honor .
= = = Signing the Declaration = = =
Hancock was president of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed . He is primarily remembered by Americans for his large , flamboyant signature on the Declaration , so much so that " John Hancock " became , in the United States , an informal synonym for signature . According to legend , Hancock signed his name largely and clearly so that King George could read it without his spectacles , but the story is apocryphal and originated years later .
Contrary to popular mythology , there was no ceremonial signing of the Declaration on July 4 , 1776 . After Congress approved the wording of the text on July 4 , the fair copy was sent to be printed . As president , Hancock may have signed the document that was sent to the printer John Dunlap , but this is uncertain because that document is lost , perhaps destroyed in the printing process . Dunlap produced the first published version of the Declaration , the widely distributed Dunlap broadside . Hancock , as President of Congress , was the only delegate whose name appeared on the broadside , although the name of Charles Thomson , secretary of the Continental Congress , but not a delegate , was also on it as " Attested by " implying that Hancock had signed the fair copy . This meant that until a second broadside was issued six months later with all of the signers listed , Hancock was the only delegate whose name was publicly attached to the treasonous document . Hancock sent a copy of the Dunlap broadside to George Washington , instructing him to have it read to the troops " in the way you shall think most proper " .
Hancock 's name was printed , not signed , on the Dunlap broadside ; his iconic signature appears on a different document — a sheet of parchment that was carefully handwritten sometime after July 19 and signed on August 2 by Hancock and those delegates present . Known as the engrossed copy , this is the famous document on display at the National Archives in Washington , D.C.
= = Return to Massachusetts = =
In October 1777 , after more than two years in Congress , President Hancock requested a leave of absence . He asked George Washington to arrange a military escort for his return to Boston . Although Washington was short on manpower , he nevertheless sent fifteen horsemen to accompany Hancock on his journey home . By this time Hancock had become estranged from Samuel Adams , who disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock 's vanity and extravagance , which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader . When Congress voted to thank Hancock for his service , Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against the resolution , as did a few delegates from other states .
Back in Boston , Hancock was reelected to the House of Representatives . As in previous years , his philanthropy made him popular . Although his finances had suffered greatly because of the war , he gave to the poor , helped support widows and orphans , and loaned money to friends . According to biographer William Fowler , " John Hancock was a generous man and the people loved him for it . He was their idol . " In December 1777 , he was reelected as a delegate to the Continental Congress and as moderator of the Boston town meeting .
Hancock rejoined the Continental Congress in Pennsylvania in June 1778 , but his brief time there was unhappy . In his absence , Congress had elected Henry Laurens as its new president , which was a disappointment to Hancock , who had hoped to reclaim his chair . Hancock got along poorly with Samuel Adams , and missed his wife and newborn son . On July 9 , 1778 , Hancock and the other Massachusetts delegates joined the representatives from seven other states in signing the Articles of Confederation ; the remaining states were not yet prepared to sign , and the Articles would not be ratified until 1781 .
Hancock returned to Boston in July 1778 , motivated by the opportunity to finally lead men in combat . Back in 1776 , he had been appointed as the senior major general of the Massachusetts militia . Now that the French fleet had come to the aid of the Americans , General Washington instructed General John Sullivan of the Continental Army to lead an attack on the British garrison at Newport , Rhode Island , in August 1778 . Hancock nominally commanded 6 @,@ 000 militiamen in the campaign , although he let the professional soldiers do the planning and issue the orders . It was a fiasco : French Admiral d 'Estaing abandoned the operation , after which Hancock 's militia mostly deserted Sullivan 's Continentals . Hancock suffered some criticism for the debacle but emerged from his brief military career with his popularity intact . He was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780 .
After much delay , the new Massachusetts Constitution finally went into effect in October 1780 . To no one 's surprise , Hancock was elected Governor of Massachusetts in a landslide , garnering over 90 % of the vote . In the absence of formal party politics , the contest was one of personality , popularity , and patriotism . Hancock was immensely popular and unquestionably patriotic given his personal sacrifices and his leadership of the Second Continental Congress . James Bowdoin , his principal opponent , was cast by Hancock 's supporters as unpatriotic , citing among other things his refusal ( which was due to poor health ) to serve in the First Continental Congress . Bowdoin 's supporters , who were principally well @-@ off commercial interests from Massachusetts coastal communities , cast Hancock as a foppish demagogue who pandered to the populace .
Hancock governed Massachusetts through the end of the Revolutionary War and into an economically troubled postwar period , repeatedly winning reelection by wide margins . Hancock took a hands @-@ off approach to governing , avoiding controversial issues as much as possible . According to William Fowler , Hancock " never really led " and " never used his strength to deal with the critical issues confronting the commonwealth . " Hancock governed until his surprise resignation on January 29 , 1785 . Hancock cited his failing health as the reason , but he may have become aware of growing unrest in the countryside and wanted to get out of office before the trouble came . Hancock 's critics sometimes believed that he used claims of illness to avoid difficult political situations . Historian James Truslow Adams wrote that Hancock 's " two chief resources were his money and his gout , the first always used to gain popularity , and the second to prevent his losing it " . The turmoil that Hancock avoided ultimately blossomed as Shays 's Rebellion , which Hancock 's successor James Bowdoin had to deal with . After the uprising , Hancock was reelected in 1787 , and he promptly pardoned all the rebels . Hancock was reelected to annual terms as governor for the remainder of his life .
= = Final years = =
When he had resigned as governor in 1785 , Hancock was again elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress , known as the Confederation Congress after the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781 . Congress had declined in importance after the Revolutionary War , and was frequently ignored by the states . Congress elected Hancock to serve as its president , but he never attended because of his poor health and because he was not interested . He sent Congress a letter of resignation in 1786 .
In an effort to remedy the perceived defects of the Articles of Confederation , delegates were first sent to the Annapolis Convention in 1786 and then to the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 , where they drafted the United States Constitution , which was then sent to the states for ratification or rejection . Hancock , who was not present at the Philadelphia Convention , had misgivings about the new Constitution 's lack of a bill of rights and its shift of power to a central government . In January 1788 , Hancock was elected president of the Massachusetts ratifying convention , although he was ill and not present when the convention began . Hancock mostly remained silent during the contentious debates , but as the convention was drawing to close , he gave a speech in favor of ratification . For the first time in years , Samuel Adams supported Hancock 's position . Even with the support of Hancock and Adams , the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168 . Hancock 's support was probably a deciding factor in the ratification .
Hancock was put forth as a candidate in the 1789 U. S. presidential election . As was the custom in an era where political ambition was viewed with suspicion , Hancock did not campaign or even publicly express interest in the office ; he instead made his wishes known indirectly . Like everyone else , Hancock knew that George Washington was going to be elected as the first president , but Hancock may have been interested in being vice president , despite his poor health . Hancock received only four electoral votes in the election , however , none of them from his home state ; the Massachusetts electors all voted for another Massachusetts native , John Adams , who received the second @-@ highest number of electoral votes and thus became vice president . Although Hancock was disappointed with his performance in the election , he continued to be popular in Massachusetts .
His health failing , Hancock spent his final few years as essentially a figurehead governor . With his wife at his side , he died in bed on October 8 , 1793 , at 56 years of age . By order of acting governor Samuel Adams , the day of Hancock 's burial was a state holiday ; the lavish funeral was perhaps the grandest given to an American up to that time .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his grand funeral , Hancock faded from popular memory after his death . According to historian Alfred Young , " Boston celebrated only one hero in the half @-@ century after the Revolution : George Washington . " As early as 1809 , John Adams lamented that Hancock and Samuel Adams were " almost buried in oblivion " . In Boston , little effort was made to preserve Hancock 's historical legacy . His house on Beacon Hill was torn down in 1863 after both the city of Boston and the Massachusetts legislature decided against maintaining it . According to Young , the conservative " new elite " of Massachusetts " was not comfortable with a rich man who pledged his fortune to the cause of revolution " . In 1876 , with the centennial of American independence renewing popular interest in the Revolution , plaques honoring Hancock were put up in Boston . In 1896 , a memorial column was finally erected over Hancock 's essentially unmarked grave in the Granary Burying Ground .
No full @-@ length biography of Hancock appeared until the 20th century . A challenge facing Hancock biographers is that , compared to prominent Founding Fathers like Jefferson and John Adams , Hancock left relatively few personal writings for historians to use in interpreting his life . As a result , most depictions of Hancock have relied on the voluminous writings of his political opponents , who were often scathingly critical of him . According to historian Charles Akers , " The chief victim of Massachusetts historiography has been John Hancock , the most gifted and popular politician in the Bay State 's long history . He suffered the misfortune of being known to later generations almost entirely through the judgments of his detractors , Tory and Whig . "
Hancock 's most influential 20th @-@ century detractor was historian James Truslow Adams , who wrote negative portraits of Hancock in Harper 's Magazine and the Dictionary of American Biography in the 1930s . Adams argued that Hancock was a " fair presiding officer " but had " no great ability " , and was prominent only because of his inherited wealth . Decades later , historian Donald Proctor argued that Adams had uncritically repeated the negative views of Hancock 's political opponents without doing any serious research . Adams " presented a series of disparaging incidents and anecdotes , sometimes partially documented , sometimes not documented at all , which in sum leave one with a distinctly unfavorable impression of Hancock " . According to Proctor , Adams evidently projected his own disapproval of 1920s businessmen onto Hancock , and ended up misrepresenting several key events in Hancock 's career . Writing in the 1970s , Proctor and Akers called for scholars to evaluate Hancock based on his merits , rather than on the views of his critics . Since that time , historians have usually presented a more favorable portrait of Hancock , while acknowledging that he was not an important writer , political theorist , or military leader .
Many places and things in the United States have been named in honor of John Hancock . The U.S. Navy has named vessels USS Hancock and USS John Hancock ; a World War II Liberty ship was also named in his honor . Ten states have a Hancock County named for him ; other places named after him include Hancock , Massachusetts ; Hancock , Michigan ; Hancock , New Hampshire ; Hancock , New York ; and Mount Hancock in New Hampshire . John Hancock University is named for him , as was the John Hancock Financial company , founded in Boston in 1862 ; it had no connection to Hancock 's own business ventures . The financial company passed on the name to the John Hancock Tower in Boston , the John Hancock Center in Chicago , as well as the John Hancock Student Village at Boston University .
= = In popular culture = =
In the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty , Hancock , one of the major characters , is portrayed by Rafe Spall .
He is portrayed in the HBO miniseries John Adams by actor Justin Theroux .
In the 1969 musical 1776 ( which was made into a film three years later ) , David Ford played John Hancock as a decent and fair man , sympathetic to the rebel cause but willing to give all sides respect .
In the 2008 American superhero comedy film Hancock , starring Will Smith , a reference is made to the American slang term for a signature ' John Hancock ' . The slang also becomes the reason for Will Smith 's character to receive the name Hancock , as after suffering amnesia he is asked for his ' John Hancock ' ( or signature ) by a nurse . He ends up thinking that John Hancock is his name .
In the 2015 video game Fallout 4 , A " Ghoul " named John Mcdonough finds a red Frock Coat in the Old State House and adopts John Hancock 's name . Inspired by his ideas of freedom , he starts a militia and takes the town of Goodneighbor ( A town modeled after Scollay Square ) from Vic , a local Mob boss . Later on , after completing a quest for him , Hancock ( The name of the NPC ) can be recruited by the player as a follower .
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= Sleeping Dogs ( video game ) =
Sleeping Dogs is a 2012 open world action @-@ adventure video game by United Front Games and Square Enix London for PlayStation 3 , Windows , and Xbox 360 platforms . Set in contemporary Hong Kong , the single @-@ player story follows Wei Shen , an undercover Hong Kong @-@ American police officer on assignment to infiltrate the Sun On Yee Triad organization . Gameplay focuses on Shen 's fighting , shooting and parkour abilities , and on gadgets that can be used for combat and exploration . Players must complete missions to unlock content and continue the story , but they may instead wander the game 's open world and engage in both legal and criminal activities . The latter may incite a police response , the intensity of which is controlled by a " heat " system . Actions such as fighting , driving and racing grant Shen statistical rewards and earn the player achievements .
Sleeping Dogs ' difficult and prolonged development began in 2008 . The game was announced in 2009 as part of the True Crime series but was canceled by Activision Blizzard in 2011 , as a result of the project 's delays and budget issues . Six months later , Square Enix bought the publishing rights and renamed the game Sleeping Dogs , without the True Crime license , but considered a spiritual successor . During development , United Front staff visited Hong Kong to conduct field research for the visual environments and sound .
Upon its release in 2012 , the game received positive reviews for its combat , voice acting , experience system and depiction of the city ; but its graphics , camera , and animations were criticized . Within one year , the game had sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies . New outfits , missions and add @-@ ons , as well as three expansion packs , were released as downloadable content in the six months following the game 's debut . A remastered version , subtitled Definitive Edition , was released in October 2014 for Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One . It features improved gameplay , setting and audiovisual quality based on community feedback . A spin @-@ off , Triad Wars , was canceled mid @-@ development in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Sleeping Dogs is an action @-@ adventure video game that takes place from a third @-@ person perspective . The player controls Wei Shen , a Chinese @-@ American police officer who goes undercover and infiltrates the Sun On Yee Triad organization . The first missions of the game are a linear tutorial for controlling the character . After these missions , the player is allowed to explore the game 's world and take part in side missions and other activities . Shen navigates the world by running , jumping , climbing over obstacles , swimming , and driving cars , boats and motorcycles . The heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) interface features a mini @-@ map that indicates targets , key locations ( safe houses and contact points ) and Shen 's current position . The mini @-@ map incorporates two meters : one shows Shen 's health and the other his face . When the face meter fills , upgrades are unlocked such as health regeneration , improved combat abilities and reduced equipment costs . The HUD also displays the weapon carried and its ammunition count .
The game features role @-@ playing mechanics based on three types of experience points ( XP ) : Triad , Face and Police XPs . Triad XP is obtained through melee combat and violent actions such as " environmental kills " . Face XP , obtained in civilian side missions , fills Shen 's face meter and unlocks cosmetic items such as clothes and vehicles . When it is full , Shen gains health regeneration , increased attack damage and other benefits . Police XP is gained by minimizing civilian casualties and property damage in missions and by completing police side missions . Gaining XP unlocks abilities such as hot @-@ wiring cars and disarming opponents . The clothes , accessories and vehicles purchased by Shen affect non @-@ player characters ' reactions toward him . Players may also collect jade statues used to unlock melee combat skills .
Sleeping Dogs ' melee combat has been compared to that of Batman : Arkham Asylum : it consists of attack , grapple and counter @-@ moves and can be performed with or without weapons . These three basic commands are chained together with the character 's movement to execute attacks . The player 's face meter fills up faster when enemies are defeated with different moves in rapid succession or with environmental attacks . Environmental attacks are performed by dragging enemies to certain objects , which Shen uses to eliminate opponents . Melee weapons such as knives and tyre irons are available , but they break with extended use . Players can perform " action hijacks " while driving vehicles . These cause Shen to leap from his vehicle to steal another in motion . In combat , Shen loses health as he takes damage . This can be mitigated by taking cover where available . If the health bar is depleted , the character will respawn at a hospital .
If players direct Shen to commit crimes , police response is indicated by a " heat " meter on the HUD . The meter displays the current wanted level ; if it reaches 5 , the police will aggressively pursue Shen . The meter recedes when Shen is hidden from the cops ' line of sight . Police officers continue to search for Shen even if he leaves the wanted vicinity , and they will resume the chase if he is sighted . If Shen is arrested or killed by officers during missions , players can restart from the last checkpoint .
Some areas in the world remain inaccessible until milestones in the story are achieved . Although players must complete missions to unlock content and continue the story , they may also wander the game 's open world and participate in activities such as visiting a karaoke bar , carjacking , street racing and joining a fight club . There are several potential girlfriends for Shen : successfully dating them awards collectibles and bonus content . The completion of side missions rewards the player with new missions , vehicles , and outfits , among other things .
The game has no multiplayer component , but online leaderboards are available for players to compare scores . Many activities that are not central to the story grant Stat Awards in three tiers : bronze , silver and gold . These unlock achievements and trophies .
As the game progresses , the players acquire various safe houses to save progress in , but at certain times is required to go there to progress further . Like other houses , the player can survey unlocked areas ( i.e. if they unlock the hack boxes given ) , change outfits , and a parking spot is accessible in which they can use unlocked vehicles .
The Face Meter also plays a vital role . By reaching a higher level , the player can freely buy vehicles or clothing .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Sleeping Dogs is set in a fictionalized contemporary Hong Kong , which is split into four districts named after regions of the city . The game reveals the story of Wei Shen ( Will Yun Lee ) , a former San Francisco police officer who was transferred to the Hong Kong Police Force and assigned the task to infiltrate and destroy a Triad organization known as the Sun On Yee ( based on the Sun Yee On ) . The main storyline features two sub @-@ plots : Shen 's balance between completing his police mission whilst committing crimes to prove himself to the Triads , and missions assigned by a Triad lieutenant , including assassination of Triad members loyal to other lieutenants .
Shen 's mission is coordinated by Police Superintendent Thomas Pendrew ( Tom Wilkinson ) , and progress made by Shen is reported to his handler , Raymond Mak ( Byron Mann ) . Shen infiltrates the Sun On Yee via his childhood friend Jackie Ma ( Edison Chen ) , a low @-@ level Triad member ; and his loyalty is tested by the Triad boss " Red Pole " Winston Chu ( Parry Shen ) . Other characters in the game include the head of the Sun On Yee , David Wai @-@ Lin " Uncle " Po ( James Hong ) ; Shen 's love interest Amanda Cartwright ( Emma Stone ) ; Winston 's right @-@ hand man , Conroy Wu ( Robin Shou ) ; singer Vivienne Lu ( Lucy Liu ) ; and Shen 's girlfriend Not Ping ( Celina Jade ) .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The game begins in Victoria Harbour , where Wei Shen is arrested after a drug deal goes wrong . In jail , Shen meets an old friend , Jackie Ma , who offers to introduce Shen to the members of a Triad gang once they are released . It is later revealed that Shen 's arrest was part of a police operation , headed by Superintendent Thomas Pendrew and Raymond Mak , to infiltrate the Water Street branch of a criminal organization , the ' Sun On Yee ' Triad gang . Shen joins the gang and is sent on various assignments by the leader , Winston Chu , against a rival branch known as the Jade Gang led by Sam " Dogeyes " Lin .
Retaliatory attacks on each other 's properties culminate in the killing of Winston and his fiancée at their wedding by 18K gang members . The group leader of the Sun On Yee Triads , David Wai @-@ Lin " Uncle " Po , is also critically wounded in the attack but is saved by Shen . As a reward , Shen is promoted to leader of the Water Street branch and hunts down Winston 's killer who reveals that Dogeyes was the instigator of the attack . Shen then captures Dogeyes who is killed by Winston 's mother . Po later dies in the hospital .
As a branch leader , Shen becomes embroiled in a power struggle over the leadership of Sun On Yee , siding with " Broken Nose " Jiang ( Elizabeth Sung ) against another branch leader , Henry " Big Smile " Lee ( Tzi Ma ) . Shen also refuses Pendrew 's order to get off the case out of fear of Lee taking over the leadership . Pendrew then leaks Shen 's identity to Lee , who attempts to use this information to disgrace Jiang prior to the upcoming election . After Jackie is killed at the hands of Lee 's gang , Shen escapes his captors and kills Lee . With the deaths of many senior ranking gang members , Shen is commended on his work but is informed by Mak that Pendrew has since been reassigned and is out of his reach . Shen later receives evidence from Jiang that Pendrew was responsible for the death of Uncle Po . Pendrew is imprisoned for his crime while Shen returns to the police force .
= = Development = =
Towards the end of 2007 , Activision approached the newly founded United Front Games , which consisted of only ten members , to develop an open @-@ world game . United Front accepted and Activision provided sufficient funding for 180 employees . Early designs for the game , named Black Lotus at the time , incorporated dark tones with elements of humour similar to an " HBO crime drama " . The project advanced to full production in early 2008 .
A year into development , Activision proposed that Black Lotus be made part of an existing franchise and highlighted similarities to the True Crime series ; both games were set in open worlds with plots centred on an undercover cop in a criminal organization . Sales of previous True Crime games had been disappointing , but Activision felt the innovations in Black Lotus could revitalize the franchise and make the game successful in its own right . Activision attached the game to the series and revealed it to the public as True Crime : Hong Kong in November 2009 . They delayed the game until 2010 to allow further refinement . During this period Hollywood action editor Tony Ciccone was hired to consult on the game 's visual identity and animations .
Despite progress in game development , at the release of the financial report for the last quarter of 2010 on February 9 , 2011 , Activision announced the cancelation of True Crime : Hong Kong . The publisher said that due to " quality issues " further investment would not make the game competitive in the genre even with their most optimistic projections . Although United Front Games shared this sentiment , executive producer Stephen Van Der Mescht expressed in an interview that " True Crime : Hong Kong was playable from start to finish and virtually complete in terms of content " prior to Activision 's cancelation of the project . Van Der Mescht said the game " stood apart " from the competition .
On June 22 , 2011 , Activision CEO Eric Hirshberg explained that the budget and development delays were contributing factors in its cancelation . According to Hirshberg , the increase in budget and subsequent delays meant that the game would have to be " pretty incredible success " for Activision to have an acceptable return on investment . Due to competition posed by other titles , particularly Grand Theft Auto and Red Dead Redemption , Activision 's view was that True Crime : Hong Kong was not at the level of quality that it could compete .
United Front Games cut 120 staff with the company 's solvency in doubt until August when Square Enix acquired the publishing rights to the game . Square Enix did not buy the True Crime intellectual property , and renamed the game Sleeping Dogs . Square Enix London Studios general manager Lee Singleton said he recognized the game 's playability and potential . United Front Games ' President Stefan Wessels stated he was excited to work with Square Enix London . Sixty people were added to the development team and the game was released in late 2012 .
= = = Design = = =
During development of the game the combat system was one of the key focuses . Mike Skupa , the Design Director , said that the combat was refined using feedback from Square Enix , with references drawn from Tony Jaa 's The Protector . The system was designed to emphasize multi @-@ directional combat , strike @-@ based gameplay and environmental interaction . It started as " one big violent sandbox " and progressed to a playable demo . Skupa was pleased with how well the game kept the qualities of the original demo .
The game 's designers performed extensive research in Hong Kong to create an accurate portrayal of the city . Art designers spent seven days in Hong Kong , where they studied the city 's environment , and took more than 20 @,@ 000 photos as references for the physical environment in the game . They travelled on foot to various locales , such as clubs and malls , and interviewed ex @-@ Triad members and retired members of the Hong Kong Police Force Anti @-@ Triad unit , which inspired narratives and character design . The sound designers spent ten days in the city overseeing the dialogue sessions on weekdays and capturing ambient noises around the city at weekends .
During the early stages of development , in @-@ game dialogue was recorded in Los Angeles by local Asian actors , but much of the audio was then re @-@ recorded in Hong Kong through Drum Music , a specialist recording company . Audio design was complicated ; scripting was handled in Vancouver and the recording was in Hong Kong . There were reservations among the developers about the language for the background dialogue ; the sound design team eventually prevailed in using Hong Kong Cantonese over English .
In @-@ game radio music was handled by Joe Best and sourced from various music labels . Tracks were licensed from Tsunami Music , Warp , Ninja Tune , and Roadrunner Records which also lent their names to the in @-@ game radio stations . Through Tsunami Music , voice actors were auditioned and recruited to provide presenters for each of the radio stations in the game . DJs from companies such as Kerrang ! also provided voices for the in @-@ game radio presenters .
= = Marketing and release = =
United Front Games relied on viral marketing , such as Internet advertisements and TV trailers , prior to Sleeping Dogs 's release . The production team promoted the game with regular communication on social networking websites . They also promoted it at video game conventions such as Game Developers Conference , PAX East , MCM London Comic Con , E3 , Comic Con , and Gamescom .
Square Enix revealed North American pre @-@ order bonuses for Best Buy , GameStop and Amazon customers in April 2012 ; each retailer offered its own exclusive in @-@ game content pack . A United Kingdom limited edition release contained two such packs , and an Australian special edition , sold through EB Games and JB Hi @-@ Fi , included all three packs at no added cost .
Further marketing of Sleeping Dogs was via cross @-@ promotion on different platforms ; players who bought the game through Steam received an eight item pack for Team Fortress 2 , which was later made available for separate purchase , and a Hong Kong @-@ themed Team Fortress 2 level , Kong King . Owners of Just Cause 2 on Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , or PC received automatic access to a Sleeping Dogs character outfit in the style of Just Cause 2 protagonist Rico Rodriguez . The outfit increases the player 's action hijack statistics and increases the range from which the player can perform stunt takeovers of enemy vehicles .
The game was released on August 14 , 2012 in North America , August 16 in Australia , and August 17 in Europe . September 27 Japanese release was titled Sleeping Dogs : Hong Kong Secret Police ( スリーピングドッグス 香港秘密警察 ) and was censored to pass the classification by the Japanese ratings board CERO . Differences include penalties for attacking civilians , lack of a street race flagger and a less explicit sex scene .
An enhanced version , subtitled Definitive Edition , was released on October 10 , 2014 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . It includes all the 24 previously released downloadable contents ( DLCs ) and features improved graphical resolution and gameplay , setting and audiovisual quality changes based on community feedback .
= = Downloadable content = =
Square Enix announced six months of downloadable content to follow the game 's release . Packs included new content such as outfit items , vehicles , experience point boosts , new tasks including money hidden around the city for players to find , vehicle races , weapons , missions and fight movesets . Square Enix released a total of five content packs along with various pre @-@ order bonuses , such as the Dragon Master Pack which was released in November 2012 . The last downloadable content for Sleeping Dogs was the " Wheels of Fury " supercar expansion , released in February 2013 .
The first story @-@ driven game expansion , Nightmare in North Point , was released in October 2012 . Its theme is based on Chinese horror and folklore , and features Chinese vampires known as the jiangshi . In the expansion 's plot , Shen 's girlfriend is abducted by the ghost of Smiley Cat , a former gangster killed by Uncle Po , who has risen up from the underworld as a ghost to take his vengeance on the Sun On Yee . Shen fights Smiley Cat 's army of jiangshi , Yaoguai and possessed gangsters , as well as the ghosts of Dogeyes , Johnny Ratface and Ponytail , who reveals that Wei can defeat Smiley Cat by burning the last remnant of his original body . After incinerating his little finger , Cat returns to the underworld and Shen 's girlfriend is freed .
The second story @-@ based expansion , Zodiac Tournament , was released in December 2012 . The expansion adds a new island to the game , with new fight arenas , enemies , bosses and outfits . In the expansion 's story , Shen is invited to an exclusive fighting tournament held away from Hong Kong . Inspector Teng asks Shen to investigate an illegal fighting tournament . After defeating several fighters in lethal matches , Shen wins and chases the Tournament Master , who offers to share his earnings in return for his life . Shen declines his offer and snaps the master 's neck , killing him .
The third and final story @-@ based expansion , Year of the Snake , was released in March 2013 . It adds six missions set after the game 's story . The additional missions feature Shen investigating terror attacks around Hong Kong stemming from a cultist group who believe that they will achieve spiritual salvation through the cleansing of Hong Kong residents . Shen must the sabotage the cult 's activities , ultimately ending in the arrest of the cult master . The DLC also adds the ability for Shen to tase and arrest civilians and criminals around Hong Kong , as well as additional collectibles , side missions , ownable police vehicles , and new clothing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sleeping Dogs received " generally favorable " reviews upon release , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . It was nominated for " Action Game of the Year " and " Outstanding Achievement in Story " at the 2013 D.I.C.E. Interactive Achievement Awards .
Eurogamer writer Dan Whitehead called the combat system " robust and intuitive " . IGN 's Colin Moriarty compared the combat to that of Batman : Arkham City and compared it favorably with Grand Theft Auto IV despite its simplicity and repetitiveness . Hollander Cooper from GamesRadar praised the combat , especially the unique melee attacks . Andy Kelly of Computer and Video Games welcomed the slower @-@ paced missions . Carolyn Petit from GameSpot and Ben Wilson from PlayStation Official Magazine found the combat enjoyable and highlighted the environmental attacks as " empowering and effective " . Cooper , Allistair Pinsof from Destructoid , and Edge found the missions generic and linear , a sentiment reserved by Dan Ryckert of Game Informer for the shooting missions . Petit disagreed , saying that the missions were varied and enjoyable . Whitehead and Ryckert complained that there is too little to spend mission earnings on .
The leveling system was described by Ryckert as " stand [ ing ] out from the open @-@ world pack " . Moriarty praised the system for its use of the Face system and the ability to replay missions if unsatisfied . Petit agreed and enjoyed the " pleasant sense of growth " given to Shen by the experience system during the campaign . Pinsof called the system " one of the greatest innovations Sleeping Dogs brings to the genre " . Jon Blyth of Official Xbox Magazine liked the " pleasingly absurd " missions needed to gain Face .
Moriarty lauded the game 's depiction of Hong Kong as " alive and well @-@ populated " and also liked the AI , the setting , and the voice acting , in particular the use of Cantonese and English . Edge gave similar praise : " Offering a view of Asia through the filter of its action film industry , this is a depiction of Hong Kong that could have come straight from the reel . " Pinsof acclaimed the city 's scale and AI .
Shen and the other characters were mostly well received . Cooper applauded the conflicted nature of Shen 's personality as a result of being in an overwhelming situation , arguing that this detail solidified him as a developed and likeable protagonist . Cooper found the Triad members unsatisfactory by comparison , comparing them unfavorably with Grand Theft Auto characters . Edge called Shen an engaging protagonist and also complimented the other characters , whose voice actors brought life to the characters . Blyth described the cast , aside from Shen , as " brilliantly recognizable stereotypes that have been given enough extra edge for you to care about them " , and felt the attitude shifts of some characters were distracting and unrealistic . Wilson said that the characters were " fleshed out brilliantly " . Pinsof claimed that the game 's premise " grants a perfect excuse for Shen to do terrible things while remaining a sympathetic , level @-@ headed lead . " Kelly thought Shen 's two @-@ faced nature was the main entertainment factor of the missions . Whitehead found the player 's ability to switch allegiances as needed to wear away at " the already fragile grasp the narrative has on Shen 's conflicted loyalties . "
Moriarty criticized the game 's draw distance and texture loading and Whitehead noted some framerate and environmental glitches . Petit said that , in spite of generally convincing non @-@ player character design , " character models look like plastic dolls when viewed up close , and some gestures characters make are rigid and unnatural . " Edge stated that character animations in a variety of contexts look " robotic " , and Kelly said that " everything in the distance looks like it 's been smeared in Vaseline . " Pinsof described the graphics as " gorgeous " and conducive to an immersive experience in Hong Kong . Moriarty noted that the game 's camera was particularly problematic when driving and less so during combat . Cooper and Edge also criticized the camera .
= = = Sales = = =
In the UK , Sleeping Dogs was the best @-@ selling game in the week of its release , and had the fifth @-@ highest first @-@ week sales of any game released in 2012 . It retained the top spot during its second week , despite sales dropping by 15 % . It returned to the top spot after four weeks on sale . Sleeping Dogs sales rose by 8 % , despite five weeks in the chart , defeating new release Tekken Tag Tournament 2 . Sleeping Dogs was the 20th best selling title of 2012 in the UK , and the best selling original game . According to NPD Group , Sleeping Dogs was the sixth @-@ best selling game in the US in August 2012 , at 172 @,@ 000 copies . PC sales for Sleeping Dogs were not counted , as it is only available by download in the US .
According to Square Enix , Sleeping Dogs sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies by the end of September 2012 . Square Enix president Yoichi Wada defended the game 's sales and said that the firm might have had unreasonably high expectations for the game . He saw Sleeping Dogs as a strong new intellectual property and said that titles such as Sleeping Dogs tend to sell better over long periods of time in the West , unlike in Japan where most lifetime sales are achieved in the first months . On March 26 , 2013 , Square Enix announced that the game was expected to sell about 1 @.@ 75 million copies in 2013 . On September 10 , 2013 , the company announced that Sleeping Dogs , alongside Tomb Raider and Hitman : Absolution , had been successful in their game development , but did not meet sales expectations , and were considered by the publisher " failures " .
= = Spin @-@ off = =
Triad Wars is a canceled spin @-@ off to Sleeping Dogs which was scheduled to be released in 2015 . The game was initially planned to be released as a PC online game with more massively multiplayer online ( MMO ) elements . However , it was canceled by the United Front Games with the statement " We ’ ve loved seeing how you ’ ve played Triad Wars but we know it wasn ’ t right for many of you " .
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= Lusia Harris =
Lusia " Lucy " Harris @-@ Stewart ( born Lusia Harris ; February 10 , 1955 ) is a former American basketball player . Harris is considered to be one of the pioneers of women 's basketball . She played for Delta State University and won three consecutive Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women ( AIAW ) National Championships , the predecessors to the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) championships , from 1975 to 1977 . In international level , she represented the United States ' national team and won the silver medal in the 1976 Olympic Games , the first ever women 's basketball tournament in the Olympic Games . She played professional basketball with the Houston Angels of the Women 's Professional Basketball League ( WBL ) and was the first and only woman ever officially drafted by the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , a men 's professional basketball league . For her achievements , Harris has been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and Women 's Basketball Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Harris was born in Minter City , Mississippi to Ethel and Willie Harris , a vegetable farmer . She is the tenth of eleven children and the fourth of five daughters . All of her brothers and one of her older sisters , Janie , also played basketball . Harris and her siblings attended Amanda Elzy High School in Greenwood , Mississippi .
Harris played basketball under coach Conway Stewart in high school . She won the most valuable player award three consecutive years , served as team captain and made the state All @-@ Star team . She scored a school record 46 points in one game and led her school to the state tournament in Jackson , Mississippi .
After her high school graduation , she planned to attend Alcorn State University , which did not have a women 's basketball team . However , she was asked by Melvin Hemphill , the recruiter for coach Margaret Wade , who was restarting a collegiate women 's team , if she would attend Delta State University in Cleveland , Mississippi . This was before Title IX , so there were no sports scholarships for women . She attended school on a combination of academic scholarships and work study funds .
= = College career = =
In her first year in Delta State , Harris helped the Lady Statesmen to a 16 – 2 record . However , they finished third in the regional tournament and failed to qualify to the national tournament . The following year , the Lady Statesmen qualified to the national tournament at Harrisonburg , Virginia . They went all the way to the final where they met the Mighty Macs of Immaculata University who had won the last three consecutive AIAW championships . In the final , Harris scored 32 points and recorded 16 rebounds to lead Delta State past Immaculata 90 – 81 . The 1975 championship game was televised nationally ( albeit delayed ) . This is the first year that women 's basketball games were nationally televised by a major network . That season , Delta State went undefeated in with a 28 – 0 record , the only undefeated college season that year ( men or women ) . Harris scored a total of 138 points and 63 rebounds in four games at the national tournament and was named as the tournament 's most valuable player .
In the 1975 – 76 season , Delta State and Immaculata met again in the national tournament final . Harris again led Delta State with 30 points and 18 rebounds in a 69 – 64 victory . That season , she led the nation in scoring with 1 @,@ 060 points and a 31 @.@ 2 points per game average , including a 58 @-@ point game against Tennessee Tech . In her senior season , Delta State played a game in the Madison Square Garden , in which Harris scored 47 points . This was one of the first women 's basketball game ever played there . Delta State then went to the national tournament final for the third year in a row . In the final , Harris scored 23 points and recorded 16 rebounds as Delta State defeated Louisiana State University 68 – 55 for their third consecutive title .
Harris was named as the national tournament 's most valuable player and to the All @-@ American first team during Delta State 's three winning seasons . Her college career record was 109 – 6 , and included victories over later NCAA Division I powerhouses such as Immaculata University , University of Tennessee , Baylor University , University of Mississippi , Louisiana State University and Louisiana Tech University . Harris finished her college career with 2 @,@ 981 points and 1 @,@ 662 rebounds , averaging 25 @.@ 9 points and 14 @.@ 5 rebounds per game . She also graduated with fifteen of eighteen Delta State 's team , single game , and career records . In 1977 , she won the inaugural Honda Sports Award for basketball , as well as the Broderick Cup , an award for outstanding female athletes in college .
= = National team career = =
In 1975 , Harris was selected to represent the United States ' national team in the FIBA World Championship for Women in Colombia and the Pan American Games in Mexico City , Mexico . She teamed up with high school star Nancy Lieberman and fellow college stars Ann Meyers and Pat Head . In the FIBA World Championship , the United States compiled a 4 – 3 record and finished in eighth place . In the Pan American Games , the United States team went unbeaten in seven games to win the gold medal , their first win since 1963 . They averaged 86 @.@ 7 points per game with an average winning margin of 34 @.@ 4 .
The following year , Harris was selected to represent the United States in the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , Canada , the first ever women 's basketball tournament in the Olympic Games . She used the number seven on her Olympics jersey . She teamed up with most of her teammates in the 1975 Pan American Games , including Lieberman , Meyers and Head . In the opening game against Japan , Harris scored the first ever points in women 's Olympic basketball tournament . The United States team won three games and lost two games against Japan and the Soviet Union . The Soviet Union team went undefeated and won the gold medal , while the United States team won the silver medal . Harris played in all five games , averaging 15 @.@ 2 points and 7 @.@ 0 rebounds per game .
= = Professional career = =
In the seventh round of the 1977 NBA Draft , the New Orleans Jazz selected Harris with the 137th pick overall . She became the second woman ever drafted by an NBA team , after Denise Long , who was selected by the San Francisco Warriors in the 1969 Draft . However , the league voided the Warriors ' selection , thus Harris became the first and only woman ever officially drafted . Harris did not express an interest to play in the NBA and declined to try out for the Jazz . It was later revealed that she was pregnant at the time , which made her unable to attend the Jazz 's training camp . She was selected ahead of 33 other male players , including the Jazz 's eighth round selection , Dave Speicher from the University of Toledo .
Harris never played in the NBA or any other men 's basketball league but played professional basketball briefly in the 1979 – 80 season with the Houston Angels of the Women 's Professional Basketball League ( WBL ) . She was initially picked as the number one free agent by the Angels in 1978 , the league 's inaugural season .
= = Personal life = =
Harris graduated from Delta State University with a bachelor 's degree in health , physical education and recreation in 1977 . After graduation , she worked for Delta State as an admissions counselor and assistant basketball coach . She earned a master 's degree in education from Delta State in 1984 . After leaving the assistant coaching post in Delta State , she served as the head coach at Texas Southern University in Houston for two years . She then returned to her native Mississippi where she worked as a high school teacher and coach at her alma mater Amanda Elzy High School in Greenwood , at the Greenville Public School District , and at Ruleville Central High School . Harris married George E. Stewart on February 4 , 1977 . They have four children , two sons and twin daughters .
= = Legacy = =
For her achievements and contributions to the Delta State University , Harris was inducted to the Delta State 's Hall of Fame in 1983 . In 1992 , Harris and former player Nera White became the first two women ever inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . She also became the first African @-@ American woman inductee . In 1998 , Harris , along with her college coach , Margaret Wade , and her teammates in the national team , Nancy Lieberman , Ann Meyers and Pat Head , were named among the 26 inaugural inductees to the Women 's Basketball Hall of Fame . She has also been named to the International Women 's Sports Hall of Fame .
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= Battlefield Germany =
Battlefield Germany is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services for the Commodore 64 released in April 1987 . It was also ported to the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum later that year . It is the eighth instalment to the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during a fictional scenario in which the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact engage in a conventional war throughout Europe , mostly centring in West and East Germany .
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and focuses on the player building and training units that are used to attack the opposing side . The game was released for 8 @-@ bit consoles as well as 16 @-@ bit consoles . Battlefield Germany received mixed reviews upon release . Reviewers mainly criticised the tempo of the gameplay and lack of innovation from the original . Some critics , however , praised the graphics and viewed the hard difficulty favourably .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and revolves around a fictional conflict between the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact . The player has the choice of choosing to control either NATO or Warsaw Pact forces at the beginning of the game . The player will begin the game on either side of Europe depending on which side was chosen ; if NATO was picked , the player will start at western European countries ( France , West Germany , Denmark ) whereas if the player sides with the Warsaw Pact , the game will begin in eastern Europe . The map is hexagon @-@ shaped and allows the player to move their units in six directions . Each side has a variety of units ; infantry move at a slower pace than mechanised infantry however armoured units are able to withstand more damage than regular units . The game displays two maps on screen ; the larger , central map displays the current situation whereas a smaller map to the corner of the screen displays a mini @-@ map of Europe , which runs north from Denmark to southern France .
There are seven types of units in the game . Each unit has a set of statistics which is displayed in the interface once selected . The statistics range from combat strength , fatigue , efficiency , supply and movement points . During the game , both sides have the option to request air support that can be used to attack enemy units . If the other side uses their air support , the player will be given a warning of an oncoming air strike and will have the option to retreat . The game has two endings depending on the side chosen . If playing as NATO , the main objective is to stall Soviet forces long enough until American reinforcements arrive . However , if playing as the Warsaw Pact , the objective is to destroy all NATO forces .
= = Setting = =
The events leading up the stand @-@ off between NATO and the Warsaw Pact are detailed in a pre @-@ game text ; Iran declares war on Iraq and subsequently invades the latter nation , whilst Egypt succumbs to a civil war and establishes Islamic law over the country , culminating in an Egyptian invasion of Israel . The events in the Middle East prompt the superpowers of the United States and the British Empire to intervene , leading up to a conventional war in Europe against the Eastern bloc . The game is set in 1989 .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismark and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in what Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the graphics as " wonderful " and the gameplay as " tough " , adding that the game should be aimed at advanced players . Philippa Irving of Crash criticised the graphics as repetitively " dull " , despite admitting that they were " clear enough " visually . Gary Rook of Sinclair User heralded the graphics as " superb " , adding that the game was one of the " best looking " wargames he had ever seen at that time . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games criticised the presentation , stating that the screen was too small and the lack of visual understanding made the game " completely unplayable " . Mark Reed of Computer Gamer praised the graphics as being superior compared to Theatre Europe , heralding it as " much more detailed " . However , Reed criticised the originality of the game and the lack of manual for the ZX Spectrum version .
A reviewer of ZX Computing praised the game 's difficulty , suggesting that it was " recommended " for advanced gamers in the wargame genre . Irving criticised the game 's value for money and playability , stating that £ 12 @.@ 95 was " a lot " of money to spend on a game that the player would most likely dislike . However , Rook heralded the gameplay as " smooth " and " challenging " , contrary to other critics .
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= Tytila of East Anglia =
Tytila ( died around 616 ) was a semi @-@ historical pagan king of East Anglia , a small Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . Early sources , including Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , identify him as an early member of the Wuffingas dynasty who succeeded his father Wuffa . A later chronicle dates his reign from 578 , but he is not known to have definitely ruled as king and nothing of his life is known . He is listed in a number of genealogical lists .
A number of later mediaeval sources recorded that in about 616 , Tytila was succeeded by his son Rædwald .
= = The Wuffingas dynasty = =
The peoples known to us as the Angles , Saxons , Jutes and Frisians , began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century . By 600 , a number of kingdoms had begun to form in southern and eastern Britain , and by the beginning of the seventh century , southern England was almost entirely under their control . Tytila was a member of the Wuffingas family , the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of the East Angles that was named after his father Wuffa . The Wuffingas may have been descendants of an earlier Scandinavian dynasty . Both he and his father are semi @-@ historical figures .
The Victorian ethnologist John Beddoe noted the similarity between the name Tytila and that of Totila , an Ostrogoth king .
Tytila is included in a number of different tallies . In the Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which was completed in Northumbria by Bede in 731 , Tytila is named as the father of Rædwald and the son of Wuffa : ' Erat autem praefatus rex Reduald natu nobilis , quamlibet actu ignobilis , filius Tytili , cuius pater fuit Uuffa ... ' . The 9th century Welsh monk Nennius , in his Historia Brittonum , also lists Tytila , naming him as the father of Eni of East Anglia : ' ... Uffa , who begat Tytillus , who begat Eni , ... ' whilst relating the origin of the kings of East Anglia . Tytila is included in an East Anglian royal tally that lists the ancestors of Ælfwald and that names many , but not all , of the early East Anglian kings . The tally , which forms part of the Anglian collection , comes from the 12th century Textus Roffensis .
= = Reign = =
Nothing is known of Tytila 's life or his rule , as no written records have survived from this period in East Anglian history . The mediaeval chronicler Roger of Wendover dated Tytila 's reign from 578 , but his source of information is unknown and the accession date may have been a guess on the part of the chronicler . Tytila 's son and successor , Rædwald , the greatest of the Wuffingas monarchs , is the first East Anglian king who is more than a semi @-@ historical figure , although much information about him , including the year of his death , is conjectural . The finds from the excavations of the two separate cemeteries at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk and at other sites in East Anglia point to close connections at this time between south @-@ eastern Britain , the Frankish Rhinelands , the Eastern Mediterranean and of growing royal prestige and authority , reflected by the magnificent grave @-@ goods discovered in the main burial @-@ ship at Sutton Hoo .
The date that Tytlila died is unknown , but he is thought to have been succeeded by his son Rædwald in about 616 .
The descendants of Tytila 's ancestor Wehha
See Wuffingas for a more complete family tree .
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= Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? =
" Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " is the twenty @-@ fourth and final episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on August 27 , 1992 . It was originally supposed to be the series première for the next season , but Fox decided to air it earlier , to promote the series première of Martin . Consequently , it became the unofficial finale of season three .
In the episode , Homer is awarded a US $ 2 @,@ 000 compensation after the radiation from the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant causes him to become infertile . Meanwhile , Homer 's half @-@ brother , Herb , now living on the streets , comes to the Simpsons ' house with a plan on how to regain his wealth . He reluctantly turns to Homer for help , and asks for the $ 2 @,@ 000 so that he can develop a new product that will translate baby babbling into speech . The product becomes hugely successful and Herb regains his fortune .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Rich Moore . Danny DeVito guest starred in it as Herb , while Joe Frazier guest starred as himself . " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " was the second time Herb appeared on the show ; he had previously appeared in the season two episode " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " , in which Homer causes him to become bankrupt . The producers decided to create this episode in part because many fans were unhappy about the sad ending to " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " . " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " received positive reviews from critics and DeVito was praised for his guest performance .
= = Plot = =
A routine physical exam at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant reveals that safety inspector Homer Simpson has become sterile after being exposed to radiation . Fearing a lawsuit , plant owner Mr. Burns awards Homer with the " First Annual Montgomery Burns Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Field of Excellence " and a US $ 2 @,@ 000 prize in exchange for a legal waiver freeing the nuclear plant of all liability . Joe Frazier is the host of the award ceremony , which features extraordinary extravagance in order to trick Homer into believing that it is a real ceremony .
The Simpsons cannot decide on what to do with the money ( suggesting an encyclopedia subscription , a new washing machine and dryer and a machine gun ) , especially Homer , who wishes to buy the Spinemelter 2000 ; an expensive vibrating chair . Herb , Homer 's half @-@ brother , now living on the streets , was the owner of a successful car manufacturer before he was ruined by Homer . After observing a mother unable to discern what her baby wants , Herb comes up with an idea to help regain his wealth : to create a machine that will translate baby babbling into actual English . Upon seeing a newspaper about Homer 's award ceremony , he decides to visit Homer . After getting cleaned up by the Flanders family , he requests the money to finance his project , though not before a slight loss of inhibition through punching Homer in the face , as Herb is still mad at him . He builds the translator and presents it at a trade show , which proves to be a huge success .
Along with returning the $ 2 @,@ 000 to Homer , Herb buys several gifts for the Simpson family , including a new washer and dryer for Marge , a subscription to the Greater Books of Western Civilization for Lisa , and a lifetime membership to the NRA for Bart ( since he is too young to have the machine gun he mentioned earlier ) . Herb then tells Homer that his gift to him is forgiveness for ruining him in the first place , and he and Homer re @-@ establish a brotherly relationship . Finally , Homer is rewarded for his generosity and faith when Herb has a truck pull in with the " damn chair " , the Spinemelter , which Homer is ecstatic to receive . The episode ends with the family relaxing in the living room while Homer happily relaxes on the vibrating chair . The final shot is of Homer 's sperm , clearly jiggling , suggesting Homer 's sterility may eventually be cured with the massage chair .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Rich Moore . The reason for the late broadcast on August 27 , 1992 ( the season usually ends in May ) was because the Fox network decided to add an additional episode to the season and show it during the summer to become " the biggest network " on television . As a result , the writers , animators , and producers had to work longer hours than normal to be able to finish the extra episode , which became " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " The idea for the scenes involving the Spinemelter 2000 originated when one of the writers bought a vibrating chair to relax after working 20 hours a day on the episode .
The decision to make another episode with Herb was reached due to many viewers being unhappy about the sad ending to the previous episode " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " ( season two , 1991 ) , in which Homer causes Herb to become bankrupt . It was decided that an episode would be created in which he regains his fortune . Originally the producers were going to end the original Herb episode with Herb saying " I have an idea ! " at the end of it , but they decided to flesh this out into a full story , which resulted in " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " In addition , the producers decided that they enjoyed Danny DeVito 's guest starring as Herb in " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " , so they brought him back . Cast member Hank Azaria noted that DeVito was less enthusiastic in his second performance as Herb : " Some people come in and you can tell they kind of regretted doing it . The second time , Danny DeVito was like ' Yeah , yeah , yeah , let 's get it over with . ' He did a great job , but he didn 't enjoy the process . "
In part because the writers had so many ideas for what Herb would invent , the original script of " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " ended up being too long at fifty @-@ three pages . During the same time as the voices were being recorded , the writers cut some of the material . One of the cut scenes featured Herb running after a train in order to ask which Springfield it was going to ; the writers , however , decided to include a similar scene in a later episode , " Burns , Baby Burns " ( season eight , 1996 ) . There was originally a joke in the script that predicted the breakup of the Soviet Union ; however , as the Soviet Union already broke up between the writing of the script and the air time , the joke was scrapped .
Boxer Joe Frazier guest starred in the episode as himself . Show runner Al Jean has stated that Frazier was hard to record , especially him saying the word " excellence " in the title of Mr. Burns ' award . George Meyer , who directed Frazier , commented that he got the pronunciation right after almost 20 takes . The original script for " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " included a scene in which town drunk Barney Gumble knocked out Frazier , who is a Heavyweight Boxing Champion . Frazier 's son , however , objected to this scene : " Yes , I suggested that they change that . [ Frazier ] was a world champion , and a world champion does not get knocked out . My dad has only been knocked down twice , and that was by George Foreman . " Originally , the producers wanted Foreman to appear instead of Frazier , but he was unavailable .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode and the plot , to a certain extent , is a reference to the common expression " Brother , Can You Spare a Dime ? " , a song of the Great Depression that has been recorded multiple times by artists since . The Walt Disney Company is referenced at the beginning of the episode when a homeless bum mutters to Herb : " Yeah , I used to be rich . I owned Mickey Mouse Massage Parlors , then those Disney sleazeballs shut me down . " While Homer relaxes in the Spinemelter chair at the store he sees images in his head that are a reference to the penultimate scenes of the film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . In one scene , Homer reminisces about sitting on his old couch while watching Dallas , the Hands Across America charity event , the Berlin Wall coming down , and Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C .. The last scene where Herb presents the Simpsons family with gifts for their trust in him is a reference to the film The Wizard of Oz , in which the Wizard presents Dorothy , the Lion , the Scarecrow , and the Tin Man with gifts .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " finished 31st in the ratings for the week of August 24 – 30 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 76 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week following the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide were positive of the episode , particularly praising the scenes involving Homer 's fixation for vibrating chairs and Maggie speaking to the family through the baby translator . The Guardian 's David Eklid said episodes such as " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " , " Lisa 's Pony " and " Stark Raving Dad " make season three " pretty much the best season of any television show , ever . " The episode 's reference to 2001 : A Space Odyssey was named the 27th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
Herb 's reappearance was praised by reviewers of the episode . Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed stated that Herb is " a perfect sibling for [ ... ] Homer , with the two characters having a harmonious give @-@ and @-@ take comedic style . Indeed there isn 't a great deal of substance in John Swartzwelder 's script , but it is a great deal of fun with plenty of laughs to more than make up for this flaw . There is also a humorous cameo by Joe Frazier that puts a nice accent on the show . " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict gave " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " a near @-@ perfect score of 99 / 100 , praising it for " the jokes about what the money could be spent on ( including one of the best bits ever in a Simpsons episode — Homer sitting on a high @-@ tech vibrating chair ) and a good impetus to reintroduce Herb . "
Several critics have praised DeVito 's appearance . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said he enjoyed seeing what happened to Herb , " and DeVito 's performance helps make the show more successful ; they really need to bring him back one of these days . " Tom Adair of The Scotsman considers " Brother , Can You Spare Two Dimes ? " to be a classic episode of the show , in part because of DeVito 's performance . Gibron also liked the choice of DeVito as the voice of Herb as he is " almost the antithesis of everything Dan Castellaneta does with Homer vocally . " Ditum ranked DeVito 's performance as the tenth best guest appearance in the show 's history .
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= Norwegian Forest cat =
The Norwegian Forest cat ( Norwegian : Norsk skogkatt or Norsk skaukatt ) is a breed of domestic cat originating in Northern Europe . This natural breed is adapted to a very cold climate , with top coat of glossy , long , water @-@ shedding hairs , and a woolly undercoat for insulation . Although this is uncertain , the breed 's ancestors may have been a landrace of short @-@ haired cats brought to Norway by the Vikings around 1000 AD , who may also have brought with them long @-@ haired cats , like those ancestral to the modern Siberian and Turkish Angora breeds . During World War II , the breed became nearly extinct until efforts by the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed by creating an official breeding program . It was registered as a breed with the European Fédération Internationale Féline in the 1970s , when a local cat fancier , Carl @-@ Fredrik Nordane , took notice of the breed and made efforts to register it . Currently , the Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway , Sweden , Iceland and France .
It is a big , strong cat , similar to the American Maine Coon breed , with long legs , a bushy tail and a sturdy body . The breed is very good at climbing , since they have strong claws . The lifespan is usually 14 to 16 years , though kidney and heart diseases have been reported in the breed . Specifically in this breed , complex rearrangements of glycogen branching enzyme ( GBE1 ) can cause a perinatal hypoglycaemic collapse and a late @-@ juvenile @-@ onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV .
= = History = =
The Norwegian Forest cat is adapted to survive Norway 's cold weather . Its ancestors may include black and white shorthair cats brought to Norway from Great Britain some time after 1000 AD by the Vikings , and longhaired cats brought to Norway by Crusaders . These cats could have reproduced with farm and feral stock and may have eventually evolved into the modern @-@ day Norwegian Forest breed . The Siberian and the Turkish Angora , longhaired cats from Russia and Turkey , respectively , are also possible ancestors of the breed . Norse legends refer to the skogkatt as a " mountain @-@ dwelling fairy cat with an ability to climb sheer rock faces that other cats could not manage . " Since the Norwegian Forest cat is a very adept climber , author Claire Bessant believes that the skogkatt folktale could be about the ancestor of the modern Norwegian Forest breed . The name Norse skogkatt is used by some breeder and fancier organisations for the modern breed .
Most likely the ancestors of the Norwegian Forest cat served as ships ' cats ( mousers ) on Viking ships . The original landrace lived in the Norwegian forests for many centuries , but were later prized for their hunting skills and were used on Norwegian farms , until they were discovered in the early twentieth century by cat enthusiasts .
In 1938 the first organisation devoted to the breed , the Norwegian Forest Cat Club , was formed in Oslo , Norway . The club 's movement to preserve the breed was interrupted by World War II . Owing to cross @-@ breeding with free @-@ ranging domestic cats during the war , the Norwegian Forest cat became endangered and nearly extinct until the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed make a comeback by developing an official breeding program . Since the cat did not leave Norway until the 1970s , it was not registered as a breed in the Fédération Internationale Féline ( FIFe ) , the pan @-@ European federation of cat registries , until Carl @-@ Fredrik Nordane , a Norwegian cat fancier , took notice of the breed , and made efforts to register it . The breed was registered in Europe by the 1970s , and in the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1994 . In 1978 , it was recognized in Sweden , and in 1989 , they were accepted as a breed in the United Kingdom by the Norwegian Cat Club of Britain .
The Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway and Sweden . Since 2003 , it has been the fifth most popular cat breed in France , where there are about 400 to 500 births per year .
= = Breed description = =
The Norwegian Forest Cat is strongly built and larger than an average cat . The breed has a long , sturdy body , long legs and a bushy tail . The coat consists of a long , glossy , thick and water @-@ repellent top layer and a woolly undercoat and is thickest at the legs , chest and head . The profile of the breed is generally straight .
The head is long with an overall shape similar to an equilateral triangle , a strong chin , and a muzzle of medium length ; a square or round @-@ shaped head is considered to be a defect . The eyes are almond shaped and oblique , and may be of any colour . The ears are large , wide at the base , and high set , have a tufted top , are placed in the extension of the triangle formed by the head , and end with a tuft of hair like the ears of the lynx . All coat colors are accepted except chocolate and lilac and the dilutions fawn and cinnamon . Since the cats have very strong claws , they are very good climbers , and can even climb rocks .
Norwegian Forest cats have a quiet voice but can develop a loud voice if kept in a house with a dog . They are friendly , intelligent , and generally good with people . The Norwegian Forest cat has a lot of energy and can be very demanding of attention . Those cats that live primarily outdoors become swift and effective hunters , but the breed can also adapt to indoor life . If bought from a registered breeder in the USA , they tend to cost from $ 550 to $ 800 . The cats usually live to be 14 to 16 years old . As they are heavy @-@ boned and tall , they require more food than most other domestic breeds . Males are considerably heavier and larger @-@ boned than females .
= = = Health issues = = =
There have been kidney and heart diseases reported in the breed . In an experiment directed by John C. Fyfea , Rebeccah L. Kurzhals , and others , it was concluded that a complex rearrangement in the breed 's Glycogen branching enzyme ( GBE1 ) can cause both a perinatal hypoglycemic collapse and a late @-@ juvenile @-@ onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV in the breed . This disorder , while rare , can prove fatal to cats that have it . There are DNA tests available for GSD IV , and it is highly recommended ( some cat associations obligate their Norwegian Forest cat breeder members ) to carry out the DNA test before using such animals for breeding . PawPeds provide a pedigree database which comes together with health programmes , through publishing each single cat 's test result , to provide useful information for breeders to make a well @-@ informed breeding decision . The breed has also been known to suffer from hip dysplasia , which is a rare , partially hereditary disease of the hip joint .
= = = Breed societies and clubs = = =
Norsk Skogkatt Society , UK
Norwegian Forest Cat Club , UK
Viking Cat Club , UK
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= Bobby Singer =
Robert Steven " Bobby " Singer is a fictional character in The CW Television Network 's drama / horror television series Supernatural portrayed by Jim Beaver . Chosen due to his working relationship with executive producer Robert Singer , Beaver made his initial appearance in the first season finale " Devil 's Trap " . The actor believed the role would merely be a " one @-@ shot deal " , but has since become a recurring guest on the series , having appeared in more episodes than anyone besides the two leads . As of season 11 , he is currently the only recurring character to appear in all seasons . Despite also starring in the series Harper 's Island , Beaver was able to maintain his quota for Supernatural 's fourth season , with the role expanding even further for the fifth season 's apocalyptic storyline . The character , a " rough but warmhearted " working @-@ class man who hunts supernatural creatures , has evolved over time into a father @-@ figure for series protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester . Critics have responded highly favorably to the character .
= = Plot = =
Salvager and proprietor of Singer Salvage Yard , Bobby Singer was first introduced to the supernatural world when his wife Karen became possessed by a demon . As detailed in the third @-@ season episode " Dream a Little Dream of Me " , he was uncertain of how to save her , and instead ended up being forced to kill her . Her death prompted him to dedicate his life to hunting supernatural creatures . The later episode " Death 's Door " expanded on this by revealing that Bobby 's last conversation with his wife was an argument about his reluctance to have children , also revealing that his father was an abusive man who Bobby shot when he was a child ( His mother subsequently telling him that God would punish him for this ) , Bobby reflecting that his father 's example left him afraid of becoming one himself in case he became a parent as bad as his father .
Bobby makes his debut in the first season finale " Devil 's Trap " , and is revealed to be an old friend of the Winchester family . Sam and Dean Winchester seek his help when their father John is kidnapped by demons . From his extensive collection of supernatural @-@ related literature and resources , Bobby shows the brothers how to create a devil 's trap — mystical symbols capable of rendering a demon powerless — and later assists in the exorcism of the demonic Meg Masters . After John 's death in the second @-@ season premiere , Bobby allows the brothers to stay at his home to rest up and rebuild the recently @-@ crippled Impala . He continues to assist them when they require additional expertise in their hunts , rescuing a demonically @-@ possessed Sam and dealing with a Trickster . In the second @-@ season finale , Bobby helps Dean to locate a missing Sam , but they both watch in horror as he is fatally stabbed in the back . Bobby begs Dean to bury Sam , and is distraught when he learns that Dean has sold his soul to a demon for Sam 's resurrection . When the hunters learn of the demon Azazel 's plan to open a Devil 's Gate — a gateway to Hell — they rush to stop him . The gateway is temporarily opened , releasing hundreds of other demons into the world , before Bobby and Ellen Harvelle close it again .
Bobby assists the Winchesters throughout the third season in their war against the recently @-@ escaped demons , starting with helping them defeat the Seven Deadly Sins in the premiere , as well as repairing the Colt so that they can make new bullets for it with the help of the demon Ruby in the episode " Sin City " . The Winchesters save Bobby 's life when he is put into a coma by a teenager using dreamroot to enter the minds of others , but this results in Bela Talbot — a thief who takes supernatural artifacts that the brothers called for help finding the dreamroot — stealing the Colt while they are unconscious . Bobby helps them track down Lilith — a powerful demon who holds the contract to Dean 's deal — the night before his contract runs out . However , they are unable to stop her , and Dean is sent to Hell .
When Dean mysteriously returns to life four months later in the fourth season premiere " Lazarus Rising " , Bobby at first believes him to be a demon or some other type of supernatural creature . After first attempting to kill Dean and then putting him through numerous tests , Bobby helps him to reunite with his brother . While Sam later sneaks away to secretly hone his new @-@ found demonic abilities , Bobby and Dean perform a ritual to summon whatever creature resurrected him . The being , revealed to be the angel Castiel , incapacitates Bobby before informing Dean that he was saved from Hell because Heaven has work for him to do . The subsequent episode , " Are You There , God ? It 's Me , Dean Winchester " , reveals that Dean must stop Lilith from breaking the 66 mystical seals keeping Lucifer imprisoned .
In " The Rapture " , Dean discovers that Sam 's abilities have been amplified due to a recent addiction to demon blood ; he has Bobby lock Sam inside his ghost- and demon @-@ proof panic room — located in Bobby 's basement — to recover from his dependence on demon blood . Sam escapes in the subsequent episode , and , faced with the choice of either shooting him or letting him go , Bobby chooses the latter . In the fourth season finale , " Lucifer Rising " , Dean is furious that Sam has chosen to side with Ruby — she has been feeding Sam her blood to make him strong enough to kill Lilith — over him . Despite Dean 's declaration that if Sam should leave , he should never come back , Sam chooses to go with Ruby . When Bobby learns of the ultimatum , he compares Dean 's actions to those of John Winchester — years prior , John made a similar statement to Sam , which prompted him to abandon hunting and alienated him from his family . Although Bobby 's words eventually convince Dean to try to reach out to Sam , he is prevented by the angels ; they want to start the Apocalypse to bring paradise to the world when Lucifer is defeated , and the death of Lilith is the final seal holding the fallen angel in place . Not knowing this , Sam kill her , thus unleashing Lucifer . Bobby meets up with the brothers in the fifth season premiere " Sympathy for the Devil " , to help them research ways to defeat Lucifer . When Sam confesses that he broke the final seal , an angry Bobby tells him to " lose [ his ] number " when the Apocalypse is over . After Dean comes across a lead on the sword 's location , Bobby attacks him and is revealed to be demonically possessed . However , Bobby temporarily retakes control , and stabs himself with Ruby 's demon @-@ killing knife . Although the demon dies , Bobby survives , although he is left paraplegic by his injury . At the end of the episode , he tells Sam that his earlier comments were made by the demon , and that he could never cut Sam out of his life .
With Castiel 's now @-@ weakened powers leaving him unable to heal injuries , being in a wheelchair begins to take its toll on Bobby . When the brothers come across a poker @-@ playing witch in " The Curious Case of Dean Winchester " , he sees it as a chance to regain his mobility and wagers 25 years of his lifespan . Although he loses and begins to age rapidly , Sam and Dean manage to restore his lost years . In " Dead Men Don 't Wear Plaid " , Bobby 's wife — and many other people buried in the local cemetery — suddenly rises from her grave and appears to be completely normal . Sam and Dean try to convince him to kill her because she is a zombie , but he refuses and orders them to leave . Over time , the other zombies begin to turn evil , and Bobby is forced to kill his wife again to prevent her from changing , too . After all the zombies are dealt with , Bobby reveals that Death orchestrated the situation ; because he is one of the reasons why Sam has not yet agreed to be Lucifer 's vessel , the Horseman attempted to break Bobby 's spirit . Although Dean tries to comfort him by pointing out that he got to see his wife again , Bobby notes that it only made her death a thousand times worse .
The brothers eventually learn that the rings of the Four Horsemen can be used to re imprison Lucifer , and they manage to collect three by the episode " Two Minutes To Midnight " . Still in need of Death 's ring , Bobby sells his soul to Crowley — a powerful demon who also wants to stop Lucifer — in exchange for the knowledge of the final Horseman 's location . Crowley promises to return his soul When the Apocalypse has been prevented , keeping it in the meantime to guarantee his safety from the Winchesters . When the deal has been made , the demon reveals that he added in a secret clause to restore Bobby 's mobility . An ecstatic Bobby then joins Sam and Castiel on a mission to stop nation @-@ wide distribution of the Croatoan virus . In the fifth season finale , Sam decides to consent to Lucifer , hoping that he can maintain control long enough to throw himself into Lucifer 's prison . However , the fallen angel instantly overwhelms his new vessel , and teleports away with the rings . Bobby and Castiel lose faith in their goal , but Dean convinces them to keep fighting . They learn the location of the destined battleground from the prophet Chuck , and arrive just as Lucifer and Michael prepare to fight . An angry Lucifer kills Bobby and Castiel when they interfere , and then sets his sight onto Dean . Sam is able to reassert control over his body , and uses the rings to imprison himself and Michael . With the Apocalypse over , God resurrects Castiel , who in turn brings Bobby back to life .
The sixth season episode " Weekend At Bobby 's " is centered on Bobby ; Sam and Dean are largely relegated to a side @-@ plot while the episode focuses on Bobby 's constant working to cover other hunters while also trying to reclaim his soul from Crowley . After a year 's research into Crowley 's human life — allowing them to track down his mortal remains , whose destruction would ' kill ' Crowley in the same manner as exorcising a ghost — Bobby eventually regains his soul by threatening to burn Crowley 's human remains . Although the restored but soulless Sam attempts to kill Bobby in " Appointment in Samarra " as part of a ritual to prevent his soul returning to him — Sam being concerned about reports that the psychological damage his soul will have sustained while being tortured by Lucifer will destroy him — Bobby easily forgives Sam after his soul is restored , recognizing that Sam was not responsible though he is awkward around him at first due to his actions . Bobby then collaborates with the Winchesters in tracking down Eve , the mother of all monsters , when she is released from Purgatory by a ritual performed by dragons , even after their first attempt results in Bobby being possessed by a brain @-@ controlling slug Eve has created and the death of his old friend and mentor Rufus in " And Then There Were None " .
During a temporary change in the timeline caused by angel Balthazar saving the Titanic , Bobby is married to a still @-@ living Ellen in " My Heart Will Go On " , but this timeline is undone with only Sam , Dean and the angels remembering it .
After a time @-@ travel mission results in the brothers and Bobby acquiring the phoenix ash needed to kill Eve , they eliminate her in " Mommy Dearest " . They also realize that Castiel has been deceiving them and in " The Man Who Would Be King " deduce that he has collaborating with Crowley to open Purgatory in an attempt to acquire the power of the souls within it to use in the civil war in Heaven . Despite their best efforts , Dean , Sam and Bobby fail to stop Castiel , who uses the Purgatory souls to elevate himself to a god @-@ like level in the sixth season finale .
Although he initially helps the Winchesters in Season 7 in their struggle against the Leviathans — God 's original creations , trapped for millennia in Purgatory until they were unintentionally released by Castiel — despite the destruction of his house , even determining their new foes ' vulnerability to the chemical Borax , Bobby is eventually shot in the head by Dick Roman in " How to Win Friends and Influence Monsters " . He spends the next episode , " Death 's Door " , in a coma , trying to reawaken to reveal the Leviathan 's plot . Despite efforts to save him , Bobby flatlines from his injuries ; his last word being " idjits " ( sic , idiots ) to Sam and Dean after passing on a sequence of numbers . The episode ends with a reaper asking Bobby if he is going to become a ghost or move on to the afterlife . It 's indicated that he stayed as a ghost to help the boys as there have been times since his death when the information they need inexplicably makes itself known to them , but they were initially unable to confirm or deny Bobby 's possible presence . During " Party On , Garth , " Sam reveals that he tried to use a talking board to contact him if he is still around , but received no response . However , Garth registers high readings on an EMF detector around Bobby 's old flask , and when Dean needed a sword to slay a demon , it inexplicably slid across the ground to him , leading him to believe that Bobby had helped him . At the end of the episode , Bobby 's spirit can be seen in the brother 's motel room , and he is annoyed when Dean comes in , looks right at him , and does not see him , instead grabbing his flask .
In " Of Grave Importance " , the audience is fully aware of Bobby 's ghostly existence and the episode revolves around his own parallel investigation with the Winchesters of a haunted house . When Annie Hawkins , a hunter friend of the three , calls for assistance before being killed by the house 's ghost , Bobby follows the Winchesters via the flask and discovers Annie dead with a myriad of other ghosts unable to move on from their place of death . Determined to get out information , Bobby learns to manipulate physical objects and points Dean and Sam in the right direction , and they are able to destroy the ghost haunting the house before the ghost could destroy Bobby . At the end of the episode , having accepted Bobby 's return , Bobby is now fully visible to the Winchesters and explains to them how he chose to remain behind ; a choice Dean finds hard to accept .
Following their reunion , Bobby explains Dick Roman 's endgame for humanity ; cure humanity of all its diseases before herding them as livestock for the Leviathans to feed on . In the midst of his explanation , the brothers receive an email from a dead Frank Devereaux , who informs them that his hard drive , in Roman 's possession at his headquarters , is currently being cybernetically attacked and will lead to their new aliases and safe houses being compromised . While Bobby attempts to convince the Winchesters to send in his flask , the brothers are concerned his hatred for Roman will compromise the operation and leave him out . The hacker responsible of cracking Devereaux 's hard drive , Charlene Bradbury , witnesses a Leviathan eating and cloning her boss and is quickly able to be recruited to help the brothers against the Leviathans . While the operation is successful — wiping the hard drive , hacking Roman 's email account and intercepting an important package — Charlene is unable to escape the building in time . Bobby , having snuck his flask into her bag , cracks the doors and begins to attack the Leviathans , breaking Charlene 's arm in the process , leading to a concerned discussion between the brothers as to Bobby 's self @-@ control . Bobby later returns after having to recharge for a while and describes himself as " stronger than ever . " Bobby becomes increasingly frustrated in " There Will Be Blood " , which only feeds his fast @-@ growing rage and turns him more into a vengeful spirit , culminating in his possession of a maid , whom he uses to go seek vengeance on Dick . In the seventh season finale , " Survival of the Fittest , " Sam tries to stop him , but Bobby is no longer completely in control of himself and nearly strangles Sam to death . Realizing what he is doing , he regains control and leaves the maid 's body . Now knowing the danger of him losing control again , Bobby requests that Sam and Dean burn his flask . They reluctantly do so , causing his ghost to disappear .
Bobby next appears in eighth season episode " Taxi Driver , " in which Sam and Dean learn from rogue Reaper Ajay that instead of going to Heaven when his flask was burned , Bobby was taken to Hell on Crowley 's orders . Needing to rescue an innocent soul and release it into Heaven to complete the second trial to close the Gates of Hell , Sam travels into Hell and finds Bobby who initially believes he is a demon as he is being tormented by demons pretending to be Sam and Dean all the time , but Sam convinces him with personal information only he and Dean know . The two escape into Purgatory , but find the Reaper that Ajay is missing ( having been questioned and killed by Crowley ) . With the help of Dean 's vampiric friend Benny , Sam returns to Earth with Bobby 's soul , but when Bobby goes to ascend to Heaven , he is trapped by Crowley , who wants to take him back to Hell to punish him for the " damage " he has done to demons in his hunting career . However , the angel Naomi intervenes , drives Crowley off , and allows Bobby to ascend to his rightful place in Heaven , thus completing the second trial .
When Sam is in a coma and dying in the ninth season premiere " I Think I 'm Gonna Like It Here " , his subconscious desire to give up and die manifests in the form of Bobby . " Bobby " takes Sam away from the Impala and talks to him about moving on being a good thing and something he should do before taking him to a house in the woods where he says what Sam needs is . The part of Sam 's mind that wants to live promptly manifests as Dean and kills " Bobby " to try to convince Sam one last time to live , but Sam decides to go with " Bobby 's " advice .
During the tenth season episode " Inside Man " , Bobby is relaxing in Heaven when Sam and Castiel contact him through a séance to help break Metatron out of Heaven 's prison . Though he feels himself to be rusty , Bobby agrees and escapes his Heaven , releasing all the other Bobby Singer 's to create a distraction . Bobby gets Castiel into Heaven and helps him free Metatron before returning to his own Heaven . He leaves a note with Castiel for Sam , telling him not to stop searching for a cure for the Mark of Cain but to stop lying to Dean about it . He also states that helping again was the most fun he had in Heaven and he will accept any punishment for his actions . After returning to his Heaven , Bobby looks at a picture of him , Sam and Dean at his old salvage yard as Hannah and a few other angels come after him for punishment .
In season eleven 's Safe House , Sam and Dean investigate a house where Bobby and Rufus had worked a case in around 2008 or 2009 while the Winchesters were hunting Lilith to stop the Apocalypse . During the case , the two men faced off with a monster that was causing people to drop into mysterious comas and die while acting like a ghost . Bobby eventually recognized the monster as a Soul Eater , a monster that steals people 's souls and takes them to its nest in a pocket dimension . Bobby had faced and trapped a Soul Eater before and he and Rufus are able to trap the one in the house they are investigating . However , Bobby briefly falls victim to the monster and is transported to its nest while his body is possessed by the monster to attack Rufus who is able to complete the trap . In the present , the trap is accidentally broken during renovations of the house and the Winchesters face the Soul Eater themselves . The Winchesters are able to kill the Soul Eater , but Dean 's soul is also taken to the nest , a place outside of time and space . Moments before the souls are released from the nest by the Soul Eater 's death , Dean and Bobby briefly see each other and are left wondering if the experience was real in their respective time periods . After killing the Soul Eater Bobby and Rufus had faced , the Winchesters return to the house Bobby had previously trapped a Soul Eater in and slay that monster as well to finish Bobby 's old case for him .
= = Characterization = =
Actor Jim Beaver described Bobby as a " rough but warmhearted " working @-@ class man with the outlook that " sometimes there are things that need to be done and they 're not fun to do , but they gotta be done anyway " . When the " usually level @-@ headed " hunter must use a wheelchair in the fifth season , he becomes " frustrated and angry " ; instead of being able to join the battles , he is " stuck at home manning the telephones " . This feeling of uselessness eventually leads to thoughts of suicide , though he deems himself too much of a coward to go through with it . On the situation , Beaver commented , " Bobby lives in a world where all kinds of strange things are possible . Somewhere along the line , he has a hope that one of these strange , miraculous things might happen to him . I think he is also a realist . He understands that even when you have friends that come back from the dead , not everything that you want to happen is going to happen . "
Though Bobby is " fairly content , at least on the surface , to be alone in the world " , he slowly comes to be a surrogate father for Sam and Dean . On this relationship , Beaver feels that " Bobby 's concerned about them both , with Dean 's sense of self , but there 's a sort of undercurrent of worry about Sam . Sam seems to have more of the heart of darkness about him than Dean does ... I just sense that there 's this ongoing watchful eye that Bobby 's got on Sam . " Although he loves each of them " like a son " , Bobby is willing to allow the brothers to put themselves in harm 's way if it is absolutely necessary . For example , when Dean wants to detoxify Sam from his addiction to demon blood in " When the Levee Breaks " , Bobby instead points out that Sam giving in to his demonic abilities could help him to prevent Lucifer 's return , even though the amount of blood required to kill Lilith would " change [ him ] forever " . Beaver noted , " Bobby is old enough that he 's fairly clear @-@ headed about what the priorities ought to be . Bobby 's position is , more or less , ' if you have a family member with a drinking problem and you want to stage an intervention , you might not want to do it in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina . ' "
= = Development = =
Beaver had previously worked with executive producer Robert Singer on the television series Reasonable Doubts , and Singer gave him the part without viewing his audition tape . The character is named after Singer , though how this came to be is uncertain . Singer himself claimed Kripke secretly slipped the name into the script for " Devil 's Trap " ; contradicting this was Beaver , who claimed that the surname was not in the script but was rather jokingly added onto a salvage @-@ yard sign — " Singer Auto Parts " — by the set designers . The actor thought his initial appearance would be a " one @-@ shot deal " , and was surprised when he was asked to return . Beaver feels that his longevity on the show is due to his chemistry with Ackles and Padalecki .
The first episode to delve into Bobby 's backstory was the third season 's " Dream a Little Dream of Me " . Because the writers always knew his history would be " grounded in family " , the episode 's teaser initially depicted the supernatural deaths of his children . However , the writers could not determine where to go from there . Following writer Cathryn Humphris ' earlier pitch of Bobby being an expert exorcist because of a previous failed exorcism , the focus changed to Bobby 's torment about killing his demonically @-@ possessed wife .
During production of the fourth season , Beaver joined the limited series Harper 's Island . Although he initially feared that it would prevent future appearances of Bobby , he was able to maintain his Supernatural " quota " with seven episodes . The character 's role increased for the fifth season , which made sense for the actor due to the apocalyptic storyline . The season also introduced a new story arc for Bobby : his use of a wheelchair . Series creator Eric Kripke explained that it " [ made ] the Apocalypse matter " ; the writers wanted " real stakes and real loss and real obstacles thrown in our heroes ' way " to differentiate it from prior seasons . Though he found it to be a challenge , Beaver enjoyed the experience because he could perform tricks on set that his wheelchair @-@ using college roommate had taught him . However , the actor did " [ take it ] very seriously " , and commented , " I can get out of the chair at the end of the day and go home and I recognize that , so many people can 't and I have to be considerate to them and respect that . "
= = Reception = =
The character 's portrayal has received wide acclaim from critics . John Kubicek of BuddyTV ranked Beaver fourteenth on his list of the best supporting actors in a drama series from the 2009 @-@ 2010 TV season , believing that the actor " did his best acting work ever " as Bobby . Likewise , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune suggested , " May his trucker cap get its own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . "
Tina Charles of TV Guide feels that Bobby " totally rocks " , and " wouldn 't mind him in every [ episode ] . OK , every other one " . She pointed out Beaver 's chemistry with Ackles , and wrote , " I have always loved any scene we get that involves [ Bobby and Dean ] — they 're unexpectedly emotional . When Bobby finally realized he wasn 't talking to a Dean shapeshifter or revenant [ in ' Lazarus Rising ' ] , that this was the real deal , it was just awesome . " Charles was surprised by Bobby 's paralysis storyline , but became " really interested " in finding out how it would affect him . However , she posited , " The guy 's a spitfire ... and it probably won 't change him much . " IGN 's Diana Steenbergen also praised Beaver , calling Bobby " a valuable member of the team " that " broadens [ the Winchesters ' ] tight @-@ knit unit , reminding them that there is more to family than just blood ties " . She found the actor to be " fantastic as the broken Bobby " in the fifth season , " despondent over his situation and feeling useless " . Steenbergen noted , " Bobby has been through a lot this season , and Jim Beaver has done an outstanding job portraying his journey . Not solely a surrogate father figure and keeper of random supernatural knowledge , this season Bobby has run the gamut of sacrifice , loss , anger , and determination to keep fighting . " After watching Bobby confess his suicidal thoughts to Dean in " The Curious Case of Dean Winchester " , she felt that " Beaver conveys all of Bobby 's vulnerability and also the shame that comes from being reprimanded by Dean for wanting to give up " .
Despite universal praise of Bobby by critics , Beaver commented on his blog that a minority of fans dislike the character . Don Williams of BuddyTV , however , defended him — he believes Bobby to be the show 's " most important recurring guest star " — and noted that " people will complain about anything " . In his response to the criticism — an article entitled " Why We Love Bobby Singer " — Williams wrote , " I think it 's a shame when people like Jim Beaver or Eric Kripke have to step forward to address this vocal minority , especially when the minority is just a handful of people gathering at a certain TV website that 's known for being snarky and negative about everything . The complaints of these supposed fans aren 't even worth addressing , in my opinion . "
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= Japanese cruiser Nisshin =
Nisshin ( 日進 ) , also transliterated as Nissin , was a Kasuga @-@ class armored cruiser of the Imperial Japanese Navy , built in the first decade of the 20th century by Gio . Ansaldo & C. , Sestri Ponente , Italy , where the type was known as the Giuseppe Garibaldi class . The ship was originally ordered by the Argentine Navy during the Argentine – Chilean naval arms race , but the lessening of tensions with Chile and financial pressures caused the Argentinians to sell her before delivery . At this time tensions between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire were rising , and the ship was offered to both sides before she was purchased by the Japanese .
During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , Nisshin participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea and was damaged in the subsequent Battle of Tsushima . In addition she frequently bombarded the defenses of Port Arthur . The ship played a limited role in World War I and was used to escort Allied convoys and search for German commerce raiders in the Indian Ocean and Australasia . In 1918 , Nisshin was deployed to the Mediterranean and then escorted the surrendered German submarines allocated to Japan from Britain to Japan after the war . She became a training ship in 1927 and was sunk as a target ship in 1936 . Her wreck was later refloated and used as a target again in 1942 .
= = Background = =
Nisshin was the last of the 10 Giuseppe Garibaldi @-@ class armored cruisers to be built . The first ship had been completed in 1895 and the class had enjoyed considerable export success , with the base design being gradually improved over the years . The last two ships of the class were ordered on 23 December 1901 by the Argentine Navy in response to the order by Chile for two second @-@ class battleships . The possibility of war between Argentina and Chile , however , abated before the vessel was completed , and a combination of financial problems and British pressure forced Argentina to dispose of Mariano Moreno and her sister ship Bernardino Rivadavia . The Argentine government attempted to sell the ships to Russia , but negotiations failed over the price demanded by the Argentinians . The Japanese government quickly stepped in and purchased them due to increasing tensions with Russia despite the high price of ¥ 14 @,@ 937 @,@ 390 ( £ 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 ) for the two sisters . Already planning to attack Russia , the government delayed their surprise attack on Port Arthur that began the Russo @-@ Japanese War until the ships had left Singapore and could not be delayed or interned by any foreign power .
= = Design and description = =
Nisshin had an overall length of 111 @.@ 73 meters ( 366 ft 7 in ) , a beam of 18 @.@ 71 meters ( 61 ft 5 in ) , a molded depth of 12 @.@ 1 meters ( 39 ft 8 in ) and a deep draft ( ship ) of 7 @.@ 35 meters ( 24 ft 1 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 600 long tons ) at normal load . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam from 8 coal @-@ fired Scotch marine boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , Nisshin barely exceeded this , reaching a speed of 20 @.@ 15 knots ( 37 @.@ 32 km / h ; 23 @.@ 19 mph ) during her sea trials on 6 November 1903 despite 14 @,@ 896 ihp ( 11 @,@ 108 kW ) produced by her engines . She had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her complement consisted of 560 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of four 8 @-@ inch / 45 Type 41 guns , in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . Ten of the quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch / 40 Type 41 guns that comprised her secondary armament were arranged in casemates amidships on the main deck ; the remaining four guns were mounted on the upper deck . Nisshin also had ten QF 3 @-@ inch / 40 Type 41 guns and six QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns to defend herself against torpedo boats . She was fitted with four submerged 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each side .
The ship 's waterline armor belt had a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and tapered to 70 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) towards the ends of the ship . Between the main gun barbettes it covered the entire side of the ship up to the level of the upper deck . The ends of the central armored citadel were enclosed by transverse bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The forward barbette , the conning tower , and gun turrets were also protected by 150 @-@ millimeter armor while the aft barbette only had 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . Her deck armor ranged from 20 to 40 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the six @-@ inch guns on the upper deck were protected by gun shields .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship 's keel was laid down on 29 March 1902 with the temporary name of San Roca and she was launched on 9 February 1902 and renamed Mariano Moreno by the Argentinians . The vessel was sold to Japan on 30 December 1903 and renamed Nisshin on 1 January 1904 . Nisshin and her newly renamed sister Kasuga were formally turned over to Japan and commissioned on 7 January . The sisters departed Genoa on 9 January under the command of British captains and manned by British seamen and Italian stokers . When they arrived at Port Said , Egypt , five days later , they encountered the Russian protected cruiser Aurora and reached Suez on the 16th , accompanied by the British armored cruiser King Alfred . The Japanese ships reached Singapore on 2 February where they were slightly delayed by a coolie strike .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
Nisshin and Kasuga reached Yokosuka on 16 February just as Japan initiated hostilities with its surprise attack on Port Arthur , and began working up with Japanese crews . The sisters were assigned to reinforce the battleships of the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet under the overall command of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on 11 April . In an effort to block the Russian ships in Port Arthur , Togo ordered a minefield laid at the mouth of the harbor on 12 April and Kasuga and Nisshin were tasked to show themselves " as a demonstration of our power " . Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Russian Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships and Kasuga and Nisshin , he turned back for Port Arthur and his flagship ran into the minefield just laid by the Japanese . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . In addition to this loss , the battleship Pobeda was damaged by a mine . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , making use of the long @-@ range capabilities of Nisshin and Kasuga 's guns to blindly bombard Port Arthur on 15 April from Pigeon Bay , on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula , at a range of 9 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . The engagements were not entirely one @-@ sided as the battleship Peresvet scored a hit on Nisshin that same day . In early May , the sisters fired at ranges up to 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) although this proved to be ineffective .
On 15 May , the battleships Yashima and Hatsuse were sunk by Russian mines . With a third of Japan 's battleships lost , Tōgō decided to use Nisshin and Kasuga in the line of battle together with his four remaining battleships . The first test of this decision would have occurred on 23 June when the Pacific Squadron sortied in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok , but the new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese battleline ( including Nisshin and Kasuga ) shortly before sunset , as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle . On 27 July , the sisters forced a Russian force of one battleship and several cruisers and gunboats to return to port because of long @-@ range gun fire after they sortied to provide fire support to the Russian Army .
They participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August , but only played a minor role as they were generally in the rear of the Japanese battleline . For the brief amount of time when Tōgō reversed course , Nisshin was at the head of the battleline and was hit three times during the battle , losing 14 crewmen killed and 25 wounded . After the battle the sisters returned to Pigeon Bay where they engaged the Russian fortifications .
At the subsequent Battle of Tsushima on 26 May 1905 , Nisshin was flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral Misu Sotarō , and was sixth and last in the line of battle , following Kasuga . At about 14 : 10 , Nisshin opened fire on the Oslyabya , the lead ship in the second column of the Russian fleet at a range of 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . At 14 : 40 Nisshin received her first hit as a Russian 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) shell cut her forward right 8 @-@ inch gun in half . Between 14 : 57 and 15 : 05 , the Japanese fleet reversed course to block the Russian northward movement , which put Nisshin as the first ship in the battle line . At 15 : 00 , a 12 @-@ inch shell punched through the armor belt of Nisshin one foot below the waterline and flooded a coal bunker . Another 12 @-@ inch shell hit the belt about three feet above the waterline but did not penetrate . At 15 : 06 , the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug attempted to close for a torpedo attack but was driven off by fire from Nisshin , Kasuga and the armored cruiser Iwate at 3 @,@ 300 yards ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . At 15 : 30 , the Japanese line again reversed course , placing Nisshin at the rear again . Another 12 @-@ inch hit struck the ship but without any significant damage . At 16 : 05 , a 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) hit on the forward turret sent splinters into the conning tower , wounding Misu . Nisshin was hit again at 17 : 20 by another 12 @-@ inch shell , which cut the left 8 @-@ inch gun of her aft turret in half . As daylight was dying , Nisshin was hit yet again at 19 : 00 by another 12 @-@ inch shell that severed the barrel of her forward left 8 @-@ inch gun , leaving only a single gun operable . The surviving Russian ships were located near the Liancourt Rocks by the Japanese the following morning and Tōgō reached them about 10 : 00 . Heavily outnumbering the Russians , he opted for a long @-@ range engagement to minimize any losses and Kasuga opened fire at the obsolete Imperator Nikolai I at a range of 9 @,@ 100 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) and the Russians surrendered shortly afterwards .
Nisshin fired 181 eight @-@ inch shells during the battle . In return she received the second largest number of hits after Tōgō 's flagship , the battleship Mikasa , which was struck over 40 times . Nisshin was hit by 13 shells , including 6 twelve @-@ inch , 1 nine @-@ inch , 2 six @-@ inch and 4 unidentified . During the battle , the newly commissioned Ensign Isoroku Yamamoto , later Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Combined Fleet in World War II , was badly wounded and lost two fingers on his left hand .
Shortly after the battle , Nisshin was assigned to the 3rd Fleet for the invasion and occupation of Sakhalin in July – August . On 2 September 1911 , the ship escorted the ex @-@ Russian hospital ship Anegawa to Vladivostok to be returned to the Russians . In November 1912 , a boiler exploded aboard the ship , killing 20 crewmen . At the start of 1914 , she was overhauled with her boilers replaced by 12 Kampon Type 1 water @-@ tube boilers .
= = = World War I and subsequent history = = =
As part of the search for the German East Asia Squadron and other commerce raiders the British Admiralty requested in mid @-@ September 1914 that the Japanese forces in the South Pacific be reinforced to deal with the threats posed by the Germans and the cruiser was ordered south . Nisshin struck an uncharted rock off Sandakan on 12 October and was forced to put into Singapore for repairs . After their completion the ship was assigned to the Second South Seas Squadron based at Truk . In February 1915 , the ship visited the occupied colonies of German Samoa and German New Guinea . Niishin served as the flagship of Destroyer Squadron ( Suiraisentai ) 1 from 13 December 1915 to 13 May 1916 , 12 September to 1 December 1916 and then of Suiraisentai 2 from 28 March to 13 April 1917 . After the incursion of the German commerce raider SMS Wolf into the Indian Ocean in March 1917 , the Admiralty requested that the Japanese government reinforce its ships already present , there and in Australian waters . Nisshin was sent south in response and escorted Allied shipping between Colombo , Ceylon and Freemantle , Australia in April – May .
In 1918 , the ship was sent to the Mediterranean to reinforce the Second Special Mission Squadron as it escorted Allied troop convoys across the Mediterranean . In November , she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Kōzō Satō , the squadron commander , as the bulk of the squadron sailed to Constantinople , arriving on 6 December . The ship then sailed to Portland to escort the surrendered German submarines allocated to Japan back home . She arrived on 5 January 1919 and the squadron departed for Malta at the end of March . After refitting some of the submarines there , the squadron arrived at Yokosuka on 18 June .
In 1924 two of her 3 in / 40 guns were removed , as were all of her QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns , and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft gun was added . Nisshin became a training vessel and depot ship in 1927 at Yokosuka Naval District until stricken from the naval register on 1 April 1935 . Renamed Hai @-@ Kan No. 6 , she was sunk as a target ship during live @-@ fire exercises at the Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground off Kure in the Inland Sea in 1936 . Her wreck was later raised , and , on 18 January 1942 , it was towed by the battleship Mutsu as a target for the battleship Yamato with her new 18 @.@ 1 inch guns off Kurahashi , Hiroshima . The hulk was sunk for a second , and final , time during this exercise .
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= Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( English : The Big @-@ Hearted Will Take Away the Bride ) , also known by the initialism DDLJ , is an Indian romance film written and directed by Aditya Chopra and produced by Yash Chopra . Released on 20 October 1995 , the film stars Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol . The plot revolves around Raj and Simran , two young non @-@ resident Indians , who fall in love during a vacation through Europe with their friends . Raj tries to win over Simran 's family so the couple can marry , but Simran 's father has long since promised her hand to his friend 's son . The film was shot in India , London and Switzerland , from September 1994 to August 1995 .
Earning ₹ 1 @.@ 06 billion ( valued at about US $ 32 @,@ 766 @,@ 000 in 1995 ) in India and ₹ 160 million ( valued at about US $ 4 @,@ 946 @,@ 000 in 1995 ) overseas , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge became the highest grossing Bollywood film of the year , and one of the most successful Indian films of all time . It won 10 Filmfare Awards , the most for a single film at that time , and won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment . Its soundtrack album became one of the most popular of the 1990s .
Many critics praised the film , which connected with different segments of society by simultaneously promoting strong family values and the following of one 's own heart . Its success led other film makers to target the non @-@ resident Indian audience , which was deemed more lucrative for them . It spawned many imitations of its story and style , and homages to specific scenes . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was one of only three Hindi films in the reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , and was placed twelfth on the British Film Institute 's list of top Indian films of all time . It is the longest @-@ running film in the history of Indian cinema . As of 2016 , over 20 years after its first release , it is still being shown at the Maratha Mandir theatre in Mumbai .
= = Plot = =
Raj Malhotra ( Shah Rukh Khan ) and Simran Singh ( Kajol ) are non @-@ resident Indians living in London . Simran was raised by her strict and conservative father , Baldev Singh ( Amrish Puri ) , while Raj 's father ( Anupam Kher ) was very liberal . Simran always dreams of meeting her ideal man . Her mother Lajjo ( Farida Jalal ) warns her against this , saying dreams are good but one should not blindly believe they come true . One day , Baldev receives a letter from his friend Ajit ( Satish Shah ) , who lives in Punjab . Ajit wants to keep a promise he and Baldev made to each other 20 years ago — to have Simran marry his son Kuljeet ( Parmeet Sethi ) . Simran is disappointed — she does not want to marry someone whom she has never met .
One evening , Raj enters Baldev 's shop after closing time to buy beer . Baldev refuses and Raj grabs a case of beer , throws the money on the counter and runs away . Baldev , infuriated , calls Raj a disgrace to India . Meanwhile , Raj 's father has agreed to his request to go on a train trip across Europe with his friends , and Simran 's friends have invited her to go on the same trip . Simran asks her father to let her see the world before her marriage , and he reluctantly agrees .
On the trip , Raj and Simran meet . Raj constantly flirts with Simran , much to her irritation . The two miss their train to Zurich and are separated from their friends . They start to travel with one another and become friends . Raj falls in love with Simran on the journey ; when they part ways in London , Simran realises she is in love with him too . Simran tells her mother about the boy she met ; Baldev overhears the conversation and becomes furious with Simran . He says the family will move to India the next day . Meanwhile , Raj tells his father about Simran and that she will soon be getting married . When Raj says he believes Simran loves him too , his father encourages him to go after her .
In India , Baldev is reunited with his relatives and his friend Ajit . Simran and her younger sister Chutki take an instant dislike to Simran 's fiancé Kuljeet because of his arrogance . Simran cannot forget Raj and is miserable about having to marry Kuljeet . Her mother tells her to forget Raj because she knows Baldev will never accept their relationship . The next morning , Simran is reunited with Raj when he arrives outside of the house where she is staying . She begs him to run away with her . Raj refuses and says he will only marry Simran with her father 's consent . Raj befriends Kuljeet and is quickly accepted by both families . Later , Raj 's father arrives in India and also becomes friends with Simran 's and Kuljeets 's families . Eventually Lajjo and Chutki discover that Raj is the boy Simran fell in love with in Europe . Lajjo also tells Raj and Simran to run away , but he still refuses . Baldev recognises Raj from the beer incident , but eventually accepts him . However , after he discovers a photograph of Raj and Simran together in Europe , he insults and slaps Raj and tells him to leave .
As Raj and his father are waiting at the railway station , Kuljeet , who is angry on hearing of Raj 's love for Simran , arrives with his friends and attack them . Eventually Baldev and Ajit arrive and stop the fight . Raj boards the departing train with his father . Simran then arrives with her mother and sister ; she tries to join Raj on the train but Baldev stops her . Simran begs him to let her go , saying she cannot live without Raj . Baldev realises nobody can love his daughter more than Raj does . He lets her go , and she runs and catches the train as it departs .
= = Cast = =
Credits adapted from British Film Institute .
= = Production = =
= = = Origin and scripting process = = =
Aditya Chopra assisted his father , director and producer Yash Chopra , during the making of Chandni ( 1989 ) , Lamhe ( 1991 ) and Darr ( 1993 ) . During this time , Aditya wrote several of his own scripts , including one he assumed would be his first film , but eventually became his second , Mohabbatein ( 2000 ) . For three years , he worked on the story that would become Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge before approaching his father to direct it . Yash did not want to , and tried to persuade Aditya to do it himself . As they were discussing ideas for the script , Aditya conceived the notion that Raj would seek permission for marriage from Simran 's stern father , rather than eloping with her . He then became excited about the possibility of directing the film himself . After his mother , the playback singer Pamela Chopra , agreed that the idea was sound , he decided to make this his directorial debut . Aditya wanted to make a wholesome film that people could watch repeatedly . He wanted to diverge from the typical plot line of the time , in which lovers run away when their parents object , and show that if their love was strong enough , the parents would eventually understand .
In May 1994 , Aditya read the first draft of the script to several members of the Yash Raj Films production team assigned to work with him , including a cinematographer , an art director and a dialogue writer . They were not impressed , but Aditya held fast to his ideas . He was given total editorial control by his father , the producer , and made the film according to his own tastes and sensibilities . Aditya struggled with both the dialogue writer Javed Siddiqui and the song lyricist Anand Bakshi to develop words that were " young @-@ sounding " . There were personal clashes over writing credits on the final script . Pamela 's friend Honey Irani believed she deserved a writing credit that she did not receive , and Siddiqui believed Aditya did not deserve partial credit for the dialogue . After Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge , neither of them ever worked with Yash Raj Films again . After approving the script , Yash was consulted about the songs , but mostly left the creative process to his son , and has firmly denied that he was a ghost director on the project . He did not shoot a single frame , and did not even view some portions of the film until it was nearly completed .
= = = Casting = = =
Aditya originally wanted the film to be about a relationship between an Indian and an American . He wanted Tom Cruise for the role of Raj but was dissuaded by Yash , who did not want to use a foreign star . They decided their characters would be non @-@ resident Indians ( NRIs ) . Aditya approached Shah Rukh Khan to play the role of Raj . Shah Rukh was initially not interested because of the romantic nature of the role , having had success playing villainous roles . Aditya then asked Saif Ali Khan to play the lead role because he was having problems persuading Shah Rukh to do it . Saif declined for unknown reasons , causing Aditya to continue pursuing Shah Rukh . Aditya and Shah Rukh had four meetings over several weeks ; he finally persuaded Shah Rukh by telling him he could never be a superstar unless he became " every woman 's dream man , and every mother 's dream son " . Since then , Shah Rukh has expressed his gratitude to Aditya for helping to make him a star with this film . Shah Rukh said that fellow actor Salman Khan also encouraged him to do the role , saying that he thought the film would be very successful . Shah Rukh has also noted the similarities in the film 's script to his own relationship with Gauri Khan before their marriage .
Kajol was the first choice to play Simran , to which she quickly agreed ; she was a good friend of Aditya . She and Shah Rukh had previously worked together in the successful films Baazigar ( 1993 ) and Karan Arjun ( 1995 ) . Kajol said her character was very difficult for her to relate to , whereas Shah Rukh said Raj 's personality was very similar to his own . Aditya chose the name Raj for the character , and the mandolin that he played , based on his admiration for the actor Raj Kapoor . After a successful screen test , Parmeet Sethi was chosen over Armaan Kohli for the role of Kuljeet Singh . In addition to his assistant director Sameer Sharma , Aditya asked for two additional assistants , his brother Uday Chopra and his friend Karan Johar . Johar also played a small role in the film as Raj 's friend . Sharmishta Roy was the film 's art director and Manish Malhotra was its costume designer . While Malhotra had many new ideas , Aditya wanted to keep the clothing style simple ; he did not want it to distract from the story . Despite this , Malhotra was responsible for the idea of Simran wearing a green dress in the song " Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna " , an unusual colour for a Punjabi bride .
= = = Filming = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was filmed in several 5 , 10 and 20 @-@ day schedules between September 1994 and August 1995 . The first sequence filmed was for the song " Ho Gaya Hai Tujhko " with Kajol and Shah Rukh in Switzerland . The European journey scenes and songs were mainly filmed in Saanen , Montbovon and Gstaad , Switzerland . Other scenes were shot in England , at locations including Trafalgar Square , King 's Cross railway station and Angel tube station . Film 's cinematographer Manmohan Singh , a regular collaborator with Chopra , shot the song " Tujhe Dekha To " , including the iconic mustard fields scenes with Shah Rukh and Kajol in the mustard fields in Gurgaon on the outskirts of the National Capital Region Delhi .
Saroj Khan was the choreographer throughout most of the production , but after several disputes between her and Aditya , she was replaced by Farah Khan near the end of the shoot . After the film 's eventual success , Saroj apologised to Aditya for underestimating him , but she never worked with him again . Farah choreographed the song " Ruk Ja O Dil Deewane " , during which Aditya did not tell Kajol that Shah Rukh was going to drop her , as he wanted to capture her genuine reaction . The film 's title was suggested by actress Kirron Kher ; it came from the song " Le Jayenge Le Jayenge " , in the film Chor Machaye Shor ( 1974 ) . The Raj character sings parts of this song during the story , and it recurs at the end . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge is believed to be the only Bollywood film with a " Title suggested by " credit . The film has since become universally known by the acronym DDLJ .
Towards the end of the principal photography , Shah Rukh had to split his time between this film and Trimurti ( 1995 ) , spending half of his day on each film . In early August 1995 , when filming on Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was not yet finished , a release date in October around the time of the Diwali festival was decided upon . Composers Jatin and Lalit Pandit were given only 10 days to complete the background score , and the first copies were printed on 30 September . After filming was complete , Aditya decided to make a Hollywood @-@ style documentary of the film @-@ making process , which had not been done before in India . Karan Johar and Uday were put in charge because they had already been recording some of the process . On 18 October , two days before the film 's release , the 30 @-@ minute special Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge , The Making was broadcast on television by Doordarshan .
= = Themes = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge repeats the usual conservative agenda of family , courtship and marriage , but it proposes that Indian family values are portable assets that can be upheld regardless of country of residence . To prove this , Raj , an NRI who was brought up in London , is portrayed as the story 's " good guy " , whereas Kuljeet , raised in India , is portrayed as the villain . This is a reversal of the roles in typical Indian films , which usually portray Indians as being morally superior to Westerners . Here , NRIs are validated as potential model Indians citizens .
The story aims to capture the struggle between traditional family values and the modern value of individualism . Although Raj and Simran want to be together regardless of her father 's plans for her , Raj tries to win over his girlfriend 's father rather than simply eloping with her . In this and other Indian stories , family values are ultimately considered more important than the romantic plot . Moral values and rules of conduct take precedence over individual desires . The film implies that " Indianness " can be defined by the importance of family life ; whether at home or abroad , it is the Indian family system that is recognised as the social institution that most defines Indian identity .
In Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge , the purity / sanctity of women is being related that of the nation . In the scene after Raj and Simran spend the night together , and Simran is concerned that something happened , Raj tells her : " You think I am beyond values , but I am a Hindustani , and I know what a Hindustani girl 's izzat ( honour ) is worth . Trust me , nothing happened last night . " This speaks to the Indian diaspora and their need to try and sustain their value system , and the man 's responsibility to protect the Indian woman 's sexual purity . In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Films , Ranjani Mazumdar says the film has a running theme of unfulfilled desires , which is exemplified by Raj 's father telling him to enjoy life because his own was a struggle , and Simran 's mother telling her to run away with Raj because she was unable to live her own dreams .
Scott Jordan Harris , writing for Roger Ebert 's website , says the film 's popularity lies in its ability to effectively convey two opposing themes appealing to different portions of society . He said , " It argues that we should follow our hearts and chase happiness wherever it leads , regardless of the obstacles in our paths , while simultaneously suggesting we should respect the ways of our elders , particularly our parents , and do nothing that challenges their will " . Rachel Dwyer said the film was important for presenting marriage as an understanding between parents and children . While fighting the old tradition of the arranged marriage , it still encouraged the importance of seeking parental consent , even for a love marriage . According to Patricia Uberoi , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge reiterates the theme of Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) in a self @-@ conscious manner while also linking it explicitly to the fact that the protagonists tend to remind themselves and each other of what it means to be an Indian .
= = Music = =
The Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge soundtrack features seven songs composed by Jatin Lalit , a duo consisting of the brothers Jatin and Lalit Pandit . Anand Bakshi wrote the lyrics and Lata Mangeshkar , Asha Bhosle , Kumar Sanu , Abhijeet Bhattacharya and Udit Narayan performed the vocals . Jatin Lalit was considered for the job when singer Asha Bhosle contacted Yash Chopra after meeting the duo . It was their first collaboration with Yash Raj Films . They secured the job after singing " Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna " for Yash . In return , they ensured she sang one song , " Zara Sa Jhoom Loon Main " . Pamela Chopra helped them select tunes and instruments to give some of the songs a Punjabi flavour . Bhasker Gupta , writing for AllMusic , said the soundtrack was the best of Jatin Lalit 's career , and that it " marked the beginning of the fifth wave in Indian cinema ... " .
The soundtrack became the best @-@ selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year , with 9 – 12 million units sold according to HMV , although it is estimated the same number or more copies were pirated . More than 1 million of those sales occurred prior to the film 's release . In 2005 , the album was judged the top Hindi soundtrack of all time by voters on the BBC Asian Network website . Anand Bakshi won his third Filmfare Best Lyricist award after 14 years , having two nominations for this film . The wedding song " Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna " from the film became an all @-@ time hit ; it is played at weddings across the South Asian diaspora . The following is the track listing .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge opened on 20 October 1995 to sold @-@ out shows worldwide . Every show in every theatre in Mumbai — save one — was completely full for the first week . The film was popular among both resident Indians and NRIs . At San Francisco 's 720 @-@ seat Naz theatre , 1 @,@ 000 people arrived for the first showing , and the theatre staff were forced to run another show late that night . In the UK , the film ran for over a year , and as of 2015 , the Maratha Mandir cinema hall in Mumbai has been showing it for more than 19 years .
The film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 06 billion ( valued at about US $ 32 @,@ 766 @,@ 000 in 1995 ) in India and ₹ 160 million ( valued at about US $ 4 @,@ 946 @,@ 000 in 1995 ) overseas ; it became the biggest Bollywood grosser of the year , and the second highest @-@ grossing film of the 1990s behind Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! . It was the second Bollywood film to gross over ₹ 1 billion worldwide , and one of the biggest Bollywood earners of all time . Adjusted for inflation , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge is believed to be among the five highest @-@ grossing Hindi films ; its adjusted gross is approximately ₹ 2 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 44 million ) . As of 2009 , the film had generated over ₹ 60 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) in revenues for the Maratha Mandir since its release . In later years , that theatre ran one matinee show per day at reduced ticket prices , which averaged about 50 % occupancy .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge received many favourable reviews . An initial review by weekly magazine Screen said of Aditya Chopra , " A young master arrives " . Tom Vick , reviewing the film for Allmovie , said , " An immensely likeable movie , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge performs the rarely achieved feat of stretching a predictable plot over three hours and making every minute enjoyable . " When the film toured the U.S. in 2004 as part of the Cinema India showcase , " The Changing Face of Indian Cinema " , Charles Taylor reviewed the film for Salon and said , " It 's a flawed , contradictory movie — aggressive and tender , stiff and graceful , clichéd and fresh , sophisticated and naive , traditional and modern . It 's also , I think , a classic . "
Writing for NDTV , Anupama Chopra said , " Perhaps the innocence of Raj and Simran 's romance in which they can spend the night together without sex because Raj , the bratish NRI understands the importance of an Indian woman 's honor . Perhaps it 's the way in which the film artfully reaffirms the patriarchal status quo and works for all constituencies — the NRI and the local viewer . Or perhaps it 's the magic of Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol who created a template for modern love , which was hip and cool but resolutely Indian . " She also called the film a milestone that shaped Hindi cinema through the 1990s , and one of her personal favourites . In 2004 , Meor Shariman of The Malay Mail called the film a " must watch " for Bollywood fans , and also for those seeking an introduction to Bollywood .
Raja Sen gave a reflective review for Rediff.com in 2005 , calling the film one of the best Hindi films made in the previous 20 years . He said " Shah Rukh Khan gives a fabulous performance , redefining the Lover for the 1990s with great panache " , and called Kajol a " real @-@ as @-@ life actress bringing warmth and credulity " to her role . Sen called the film well balanced and said only the fight scene and some mother @-@ daughter dialogue can wear after multiple viewings . Omer M. Mozaffar , writing for Roger Ebert 's website in 2012 , likened the film to a Disney Princess story , saying , " the young princess feeling trapped by the traditional patriarchy , seeking freedom through discovering the world , but finally finding it through silent , but inappropriate love . The Little Mermaid . Beauty ( of the Beast ) . Jasmine ( friends with Aladdin ) . Pocahontas . Aurora ( Sleeping Beauty ) . And here , Simran . " Scott Jordan Harris , also writing for Roger Ebert in 2014 , called it " one of the world 's favorite films " , and said it plays as a masterful soap opera , with one of the best screen couples ever seen .
= = = Accolades = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was ranked among The Times of India 's list of the " 10 Bollywood movies you must see before you die " . It was one of three Hindi films in the film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , the others being Mother India ( 1957 ) and Deewaar ( 1975 ) . It was placed twelfth on the British Film Institute 's list of top Indian films of all time . It is one of the films on Box Office India 's list of " Biggest Blockbusters Ever in Hindi Cinema " . The film won a National Film Award and 10 Filmfare Awards , setting the record at the time for the most Filmfare trophies .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historic box office run = = =
In 2001 , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge overtook Sholay ( 1975 ) , which had run for over five years at the Minerva theatre , as the longest @-@ running film in Indian cinema history . It has been showing at the Maratha Mandir theatre ( which was famous for having shown Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) for three years ) since its original release in 1995 . There are often people in the audience who have seen the film 50 or more times , but still clap , cheer , mouth the dialogues and sing along with the songs , raising comparisons with The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , the longest running film in America .
When a theatre strike in early 2011 threatened the film 's uninterrupted run , the producer Yash Chopra contacted theatre owners to try and ensure the film would continue . He hoped the film would continue to run for at least 1 @,@ 000 weeks , which it achieved in December 2014 . To commemorate the event , cast members including Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol , Anupam Kher , Farida Jalal , Mandira Bedi and Pooja Ruparel appeared on the television show Comedy Nights with Kapil . Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and director Aditya Chopra also attended a live chat with fans and a black tie event at the theatre on 12 December . The same day , they launched a coffee table book written by Aditya Chopra about the making of the film . Also in December , Yash Raj Films announced the availability of a collection of commemorative , licensed merchandise from various suppliers to mark the event . The Maratha Mandir 's management ended the film 's run after 1 @,@ 009 weeks on 19 February 2015 because of low attendance ( the last show was viewed by 210 people ) . However , after an outpouring of support from fans , and talks with the production company , they decided to reinstate the film .
= = = Influence = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge spawned many imitators of its story and style , especially throughout the 1990s . According to the Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema , it and a handful of other films and young directors started a trend for " designer " films . The authors said that these were " a carefully packaged and branded product in which every little visual and physical detail ... is of utmost importance " . In Bollywood 's Top 20 : Superstars of Indian Cinema , Namrata Joshi said Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge " reinvented Bollywood romances so decisively that we can neatly divide them into two eras — before DDLJ and after DDLJ " .
Yash Raj Films was previously known for using locations outside India for item numbers in its films . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge started the trend for films designed to appeal to the Indian diaspora , which have foreign locations as integral parts of the story . The characters are themselves diaspora and tend to be able to move with ease between India and the West . Some later films that followed this trend include Pardes ( 1997 ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , Kal Ho Naa Ho ( 2003 ) , Salaam Namaste ( 2005 ) , Neal ' n ' Nikki ( 2005 ) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ( 2006 ) . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge became the first Hindi film blockbuster to feature NRIs as main characters . It helped to establish the diaspora market as a vital source of revenue for the industry ; that market was seen as a safer financial investment than the desi market .
Several later films have paid homage to Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . The Karan Johar @-@ produced Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania ( 2014 ) was directly inspired by it . The films Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , Bodyguard ( 2011 ) , Chalo Dilli ( 2011 ) , Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) and Chennai Express ( 2013 ) include scenes similar to the climactic train sequence , wherein a woman is running to catch a moving train and is helped aboard by a man with his outstretched arm . The British film Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) contained a similar train scene , and its final dance sequence was partially shot at the same railway station as the Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge finale .
= = = Impact = = =
Audiences appreciated the screen chemistry between Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol , who later worked together in several successful films including Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , and Dilwale ( 2015 ) , and are often referred to as Indian cinema 's most loved on @-@ screen couple . Shah Rukh Khan credits this film with making him a star , and says it " changed the entire scene for romantic movies of the 90s " . During an interview in 2002 , he said " Whatever I 'll stand for as an actor , in the whole of my career , whenever it ends , it will start with and end at Dilwale " . The actress Farida Jalal said the film gave her career a boost , saying she got many offers and " could quote any price " . It also helped the young careers of Pooja Ruparel , who received advertising offers , and of Sharmistha Roy .
The British Film Institute ( BFI ) commissioned a book about Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . It was the first Hindi film chosen for a series of studies on international films , called " BFI Modern Classics " . The author was Anupama Chopra and the book was released in 2002 . It was reissued in paperback by Harper @-@ Collins as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge : The Making of a Blockbuster in 2004 . After an unexpectedly long delay , the film was released on DVD by Yash Raj Films in 2002 . The release included The Making and 300 Weeks Celebration documentaries , Success Story ( highlights from the film 's premiere ) , clips from the 41st Filmfare Awards ceremony and other interviews .
In 2006 , members of the film crew were honoured at a dinner event to celebrate the film 's 500th week since release . It was hosted by the Consulate General of Switzerland in Mumbai and by Switzerland Tourism . In 2010 , Yash Raj Films signed an agreement with Indian and Swiss tour companies to provide a tour package called " YRF Enchanted Journey " , to allow visitors to Switzerland to view filming locations used for famous Yash Raj films including Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . In 2014 , Yash Raj Films released Aditya Chopra Relives ... Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( As Told to Nasreen Munni Kabir ) , an attractive but expensive book about the making of the film . In response to Indian prime minister Narendra Modi quoting the line " May the force be with you " from the American film franchise Star Wars during a visit to the U.S. , President Barack Obama decided to quote a line from a Hindi film during his visit to India in January 2015 . He chose a line from this film , " Senorita , bade bade deshon mein ... " ( Miss , in large countries ... ) , and added " you know what I mean " .
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= United States v. Cotterman =
United States v. Cotterman , ( 9th Cir. en banc 2013 ) , is a United States court case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that property , such as a laptop and other electronic storage devices , presented for inspection when entering the United States at the border may not be subject to forensic examination without a reason for suspicion , a holding that weakened the border search exception of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution .
= = Background = =
On April 6 , 2007 at approximately 10 AM , Howard and Maureen Cotterman drove from Mexico to the Lukeville Port of Entry ( POE ) . Upon arrival , the inspector checked the U.S. Customs and Border Protection electronic database and found a computer @-@ generated alert , based upon Howard Cotterman 's prior conviction for child sex crimes in 1992 . The alert advised the inspector to be on the lookout for child pornography and due to the warning , the Cottermans were sent to a secondary inspection area .
During the vehicle search , two CBP officers discovered two laptops and three digital cameras . The officers were unable to find any contraband , but did discover a number of password protected files . During this time , the ICE case was assigned to Agent Riley , who then drove with her supervisor Agent Brisbane from Sells , Arizona to Lukeville . During the drive , the two agents decided that they would detain the laptops for forensic examination .
After arriving at Lukeville POE at 3 or 3 : 30 PM , the two agents interviewed Howard and Maureen Cotterman separately . Howard Cotterman offered to help the agents with the computer , but the offer was declined . At 6 PM , the two agents left with both laptops and one digital camera . The devices were taken to Tucson and delivered to John Owens , an ICE Computer Forensic Examiner at 11 PM that night . The camera was returned to the Cottermans as there was no evidence of contraband found . However , on April 8 , Agent Owens ' forensic examination turned up approximately 75 images of child pornography on Howard Cotterman 's computer . Agent Owens called the Cottermans that night , asking Howard Cotterman for assistance opening the password protected files . Howard Cotterman agreed to come in the next day , but only his wife showed up to pick up the other laptop .
It was later discovered that Howard Cotterman boarded a flight to Mexico on April 9 , 2007 , with a final destination of Sydney , Australia . On April 11 , 2007 , Agent Owen was able to break the computer security and discovered 378 more images of child pornography . Cotterman was indicted on June 27 , 2007 for several charges related to child pornography and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution . He was arrested by Australian law officials and delivered to the U.S. Marshals Service on March 31 , 2008 .
Cotterman filed a motion to suppress all evidence seized by Customs officials and argued that the search of his laptop 170 miles from the port of entry over a period of four days was a non @-@ routine border search requiring reasonable suspicion . " The motion was granted by the District Court in Cotterman 's favor . The government appealed , and stated that the border search doctrine justified the initial search and the transport of the computer to Tucson to adequately conduct the search . The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the lower court 's ruling , in favor of the Government .
= = Opinion en banc = =
Reversing the reasoning of the panel , the Ninth Circuit held that forensic examination of a computer seized at the border requires reasonable suspicion . The court also held that there was reasonable suspicion in this case because there was an alert informing the seizing officer of the possibility of child pornography .
= = Opinion of the Ninth Circuit panel = =
In the majority opinion , Judge Tallman agreed with the Government that border search doctrine allowed property to be transported to a secondary site for examination . However , he also stated that the Government cannot seize property and hold it for " weeks , months , years on a whim " - effectively allowing the courts to continue to determine whether searches and seizures are reasonable on a case @-@ to @-@ case basis .
= = = Arguments = = =
When appealing the District Court 's decision , the government did not argue that there was reasonable suspicion . Instead , the government argued that the border search doctrine supported both the initial search and the transportation of the laptop to Tucson for examination .
= = = Judgment = = =
The majority found that time and distance did not matter in this instance . In the opinion , Judge Tallman stated the need to control entry at the border . If the government was unable to remove property away from the border , they would have to fully staff and equip each border crossing or be content with blindly shutting its eyes , with both positions being unreasonable . Since the defendant 's property was never cleared for entry , it was functionally still at the border at the time of the forensic search . In the opinion , Judge Tallman stated :
Time and space are only relevant to this initial inquiry to the extent that they inform us whether an individual would reasonably expect to be stopped and searched at a geographic point beyond the international border .
The majority also found that reasonable suspicion was not needed since they considered the inspection as a routine search . There was no body search nor was property destroyed . Finally , the Court ruled that they did not consider the two @-@ day delay particularly offensive .
= = = Dissent = = =
Judge Fletcher dissented with the majority . She argued that the " sticking point " was not whether the government could transport property from the border to another location for inspection , but whether the government could seize property for inspection for an unknown amount of time with no reason to suspect the property contained contraband .
I would hold that officers must have some level of particularized suspicion in order to conduct a seizure and search like the one at issue here , because ( 1 ) seizing one ’ s personal property deprives the individual of his valid possessory interest in his property , and ( 2 ) authorizing a generalized computer forensic search ( untethered to any particularized suspicion ) permits the Government to engage in the type of generalized fishing expeditions that the Fourth Amendment is designed to prevent .
= = Supreme Court Appeal = =
A petition for Writ of Certiorari was filed with the United States Supreme Court on August 5 , 2013 , after several time extensions .
Did the Ninth Circuit violate the Constitution , create circuit splits , contravene this Court ’ s decisions , and subvert the appellate process by replacing the question presented by the parties with an issue that the prosecution deliberately abandoned , and by making a factual finding ( i.e. that reasonable suspicion existed ) for the first time on appeal that disregarded the factual findings of the district court and agents at the scene , and then by holding that a citizen ’ s personal belongings may be seized at the border with no suspicion of wrongdoing ?
On January 13 , 2014 , the Court denied the petition for Certiorari . In March of 2014 , the Court denied a Petition for Rehearing filed in February of 2014 , letting the Ninth Circuit 's decision stand , along with the reasonable suspicion standard it created .
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= LW6 / 8 =
LW6 / 8 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) for people with an upper extremity issue who have paralysis , motor paresis affecting one arm , a single upper arm amputation or CP8 classified cerebral palsy . LW6 / 8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing .
Skiers in this class include 2006 New Zealand Winter Paralympian Anthony Field , Germany 's Thomas Oelsner and Australia 's Mitchell Gourley .
= = Definition = =
This classification is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . Designed for people with an upper extremity issue , a skier may be classified as LW6 / 8 if they have paralysis , motor paresis affecting one arm , or a single upper arm amputation .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as " Competitors with disabilities in one upper limb , skiing with two normal skis and one pole ... " The disability shall be such that the functional use of more than one pole is not possible . Typical disability profile of the class is single @-@ arm amputation . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee described this classification as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , one pole , disability in one arm or hand . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this class as for " those with impairment in one entire limb . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = = LW6 = = =
LW6 is used in para @-@ Nordic skiing for skiers with above the elbow amputations for paralysis affecting the whole arm . Cross Country Canada described LW6 as " Impairment in one entire upper limb . The athlete must not use a prosthesis . " in 2012 .
= = = LW8 = = =
LW8 is for skiers with below the elbow amputations or lacking functional use below the elbow . Cross Country Canada described LW8 as " Impairment in one upper limb below the elbow . The athlete must not use a prosthesis or use the affected arm to aid in poling in any way . "
= = Equipment and technique = =
LW6 / 8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . The two types of skiing differ in that in para @-@ Nordic a skier cannot use a prosthesis while use prostheses or orthoses are allowed in para @-@ Alpine . FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class . Socks and other materials are used to pad and protect the stump of the arm as the use of a prosthesis is not allowed . Sometimes , a mitten or cork is used to protect the stump . If the limb is not properly protected , it may get frostbitten .
Lateral balance is an issue for LW6 / 8 skiers resulting from the missing arm , so skiing techniques are worked on by the skier to correct this . One technique used compensates for balance issues by using knee drives or hip motions . Unlike other para @-@ Alpine disciplines , in slalom skiers are more likely to use a partial ski pole or a prosthetic to hold a ski pole .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position . Athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used .
In para @-@ Nordic skiing , which includes the cross @-@ country skiing and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for LW6 using the classic technique was 91 % and percentage for free was 96 % , and for LW8 using the classic technique was 92 % and percentage for free was 97 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 92 % for classic and 97 % for free . The percentage for LW6 the 2012 / 2013 par @-@ Nordic ski season was 91 % for classic and 96 % for free , and for LW8 was 92 % for classic and 97 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes , who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last . During the 2005 / 2006 para @-@ Alpine ski season , the giant slalom had a factor of 1 @.@ 000 . The 2011 / 2012 alpine @-@ skiing season factoring for LW6 / 8 @.@ 1 was 0 @.@ 9902 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 995 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9969 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 998 for downhill , and for LW6 / 8 @.@ 2 was 0 @.@ 9926 for slalom , 1 for giant slalom , 1 for Super @-@ G and 1 for downhill .
If a skier in this class has an arm that is not functional , the rules require the limb be strapped to their body during competition . For Nordic events , LW8 skiers are not allowed to use the stump of their arm for paddling or to help in poling . In the biathlon , the skier is required to make sure " that the rifle touches the support in between the marked zone ( 5cm in front of / behind the balance point ) . " If a skier has partial use of their other arm or hand , the rules do not allow them to use it to site or support the rifle . The skier is not permitted to move the support from its upright position .
= = Events = =
At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , 1986 World Disabled Ski Championships , 1988 World Winter Games for the Disabled , 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships and 2002 Winter Paralympics , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and giant slalom and LW6 / 8 skiers were not grouped with others classes for medal events for men . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the women 's LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed in one group . At the 2004 IPC Alpine World Championships , LW3 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 classified women all skied in the same group against each other during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 5 km race with two shooting stages , and the 12 @.@ 5 km race , which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 IPC Alpine World Championships , there were four women and nine men from this class in the standing downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Paralympic skiers in this class include 2006 New Zealand 's Anthony Field , Germany 's Thomas Oelsner , and Australia 's Mitchell Gourley .
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= 3rd Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 3rd Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces brigade raised by the British Army during the Second World War . The brigade was initially part of the 1st Airborne Division , but remained in Britain when that division was sent overseas , and became part of the 6th Airborne Division , alongside 5th Parachute Brigade and 6th Airlanding Brigade .
The brigade first went into action on 5 June 1944 during Operation Tonga , part of the Normandy landings . The objective was to destroy the Merville Gun Battery and the bridges over the River Dives . The brigade achieved all its objectives , and remained defending the left flank of the invasion zone until mid August . They then crossed the River Dives and advanced as far as the River Seine before they were withdrawn . While recovering in England , the brigade was moved to Belgium in December 1944 , to counter the German attack in the Ardennes . The brigade remained on the border between Belgium and the Netherlands carrying out patrols until March 1945 . Their next airborne mission was Operation Varsity , the assault crossing of the River Rhine in Germany . After this , the brigade advanced towards the Baltic Sea , arriving just ahead of the Red Army .
Still part of the 6th Airborne Division , the brigade was sent to the British mandate of Palestine in October 1945 after the end of the war . Carrying out an internal security role with the rest of 6th Airborne Division , it remained in Palestine until it was disbanded in 1947 .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a force of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . As a result , on 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando assumed parachute duties , and on 21 November was re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing .
On 21 June 1940 the Central Landing Establishment was formed at Ringway airfield near Manchester . Although tasked primarily with training parachute troops , it was also directed to investigate the use of gliders to transport troops into battle . At the same time , the Ministry of Aircraft Production contracted General Aircraft Ltd to design and produce a glider for this purpose . The result was the General Aircraft Hotspur , an aircraft capable of transporting eight soldiers , that was used for both assault and training purposes .
The success of the first British airborne raid , Operation Colossus , prompted the War Office to expand the airborne force through the creation of the Parachute Regiment , and to develop plans to convert several infantry battalions into parachute and glider battalions . On 31 May 1941 , a joint army and air force memorandum was approved by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff and Winston Churchill ; it recommended that the British airborne forces should consist of two parachute brigades , one based in England and the other in the Middle East , and that a glider force of 10 @,@ 000 men should be created .
= = Formation = =
The 3rd Parachute Brigade was raised on 7 November 1942 , under the command of Brigadier Sir Alexander Stanier Bart. Stanier was soon replaced by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury , who in turn was replaced in May 1943 by Brigadier James Hill , previously of the 1st Parachute Brigade . Hill remained in command through the remaining war years until July 1945 , when Lathbury once again assumed command . The last commander of the brigade was Brigadier Francis Rome , who took over on 15 November 1946 .
The brigade was initially composed of the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion , the 8th ( Midlands ) Parachute Battalion and the 9th ( Eastern and Home Counties ) Parachute Battalion . On 11 August 1943 the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion arrived in England and was assigned to the brigade , and the 7th Battalion was transferred to the 5th Parachute Brigade which was in the process of forming . At the end of the Second World War , the 1st Canadian Battalion returned to Canada , and was replaced in the brigade by the 3rd Parachute Battalion , which had previously been part of the 1st Parachute Brigade .
The brigade 's other units were the 3rd Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery from the Royal Artillery , the 3rd Parachute Squadron of the Royal Engineers and the 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance from the Royal Army Medical Corps . During operations the artillery support available to the brigade would also include a battery of howitzers from the 53rd ( Worcester Yeomanry ) Airlanding Light Regiment , although it was not part of the brigade .
On formation the brigade was assigned to the 1st Airborne Division , and as such had to supply reinforcements to make the 1st Parachute Brigade up to strength before they left to take part in Operation Torch . When the 1st Airborne Division left England for operations in the Mediterranean , the 3rd Parachute Brigade remained behind , and was assigned as the first unit of the newly raised 6th Airborne Division . The brigade would remain part of the 6th Airborne Division until 1947 , when it was disbanded .
= = Operational history = =
From June to December 1943 , the brigade prepared for operations as part of the 6th Airborne Division , training at every level from section up to division by day and night . Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy , who would be equipped with artillery and tanks . Training was therefore designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness , with emphasis given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training consisted of assault courses and route marching . Military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the troops would march back to their barracks , usually a distance of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) . An ability to cover long distances at speed was expected ; airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 24 hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) .
In April 1944 , under the command of 1st Airborne Corps , the brigade took part in Exercise Mush , in the counties of Gloucestershire , Oxfordshire and Wiltshire . This was an airborne military exercise spread over three days involving the 1st and 6th Airborne Divisions . Unknown to the 6th Airborne , it was a full @-@ scale rehearsal for the division 's involvement in the imminent Normandy invasion . In the invasion , the division 's two parachute brigades would land just after midnight on 6 June , while the 6th Airlanding Brigade arrived later in the day just before dark . The division 's objective was to secure the left flank of the invasion area by dominating the high ground in the area between the rivers Orne and Dives . For their part in the operation , the 3rd Parachute Brigade had to destroy the Merville Gun Battery , whose guns were in range of the Sword beach landings , and to demolish bridges across the River Dives to hamper the arrival of German reinforcements from the east .
= = = D @-@ Day = = =
Just after midnight on 6 June 1944 , Albermarle aircraft arrived , carrying the brigade 's pathfinders , a company from the 1st Canadian Battalion to clear the drop zone ( DZ ) of obstructions , a group from each battalion , and brigade headquarters . Some planes got lost and failed to reach the DZ or arrived late . Others were damaged before dropping all their paratroops and turned back , and one returned to base after failing to find the drop zone at all .
From around 00 : 50 the rest of the brigade arrived in Normandy after crossing the English Channel , transported in 108 C @-@ 47 Dakotas , along with 17 Horsa gliders carrying their heavy equipment . The 8th Parachute Battalion , landing on DZ @-@ K along with the brigade headquarters , was tasked with destroying the bridges over the River Dives at Bures and Troarn . The 1st Canadian Battalion , landing on DZ @-@ V , was required to destroy the bridges at Varaville and Robehomme . The 9th Battalion , also landing on DZ @-@ V , had arguably the hardest task ; neutralising the Merville Gun Battery . Due to a combination of poor navigation , heavy cloud cover , and several of the drop zones not being marked correctly , the parachute drop was widely scattered . One group of paratroops landed 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , and another landed on the wrong side of the River Orne , only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) from the invasion beaches . Less than half of each battalion gathered at their individual assembly areas .
In the south , at DZ @-@ K , only 141 men of the 8th Parachute Battalion had assembled . Divided into two groups , they headed for their objectives . One group demolished the two bridges at Bures without opposition . The other group , while on their way to Troarn , intercepted and ambushed a convoy of six armoured vehicles belonging to the 21st Panzer Division . When they reached Troarn , they discovered it was defended by the Germans . A platoon , including engineers , managed to fight their way to the bridge . They found that it had already been damaged , so the engineers planted their explosives and enlarged the gap to around 70 feet ( 21 m ) .
The 1st Canadian Battalion successfully destroyed the bridges at Varaville and Robehomme after landing on the northern DZ . They then withdrew to defend Le Mesnil , where the brigade headquarters and the field ambulance were located . Meanwhile , by 02 : 50 only 150 men of the 9th Parachute Battalion had gathered at their assembly area , with virtually no heavy weapons or supplies . Unable to wait any longer , they headed for the Merville Gun Battery . The battalion captured the battery , but without explosives , could only damage two of its four guns . The battle had been costly , and only 85 men were left to head for their secondary objective , the village of Le Plein . The village was defended in strength by the Germans , and the weakened battalion could only dig in and wait the arrival of commandos from the 1st Special Service Brigade later that day . By nightfall the brigade was deployed facing east , along the ridge of high ground from Le Plein in the north to the Bois de Bavent in the south .
= = = Orne bridgehead = = =
On 7 June the 9th Parachute Battalion , relieved by the Special Service Brigade commandos , moved southwards to the Bois de Mont near Bréville , shortening the front held by the 3rd Parachute Brigade . The 6th Airborne Division 's deployments now had the 6th Airlanding Brigade in the south , holding a line between Longueval and Herourvillette , the 5th Parachute Brigade to the rear just to the east of the River Orne bridge , the attached 1st Special Service Brigade to the north with troops in Sallenelles and Franceville @-@ Plage , and finally the 3rd Parachute Brigade holding the ridge of high ground to the east .
The Germans still held the village of Bréville , between the 3rd Parachute and 1st Special Service Brigades , which gave them a vantage point to observe the airborne division 's positions . On 8 June the Germans launched a two pronged attack from Bréville , against the commandos and against the 9th Parachute Battalion . The German force , comprising elements of the 857th Grenadier Regiment , 346th Infantry Division , were only driven back by a counterattack led by the 9th Parachute Battalion 's Regimental Sergeant Major . The next morning the 9th Parachute Battalion was the target for a heavy mortar bombardment , followed by two further infantry attacks . Later the same morning , the 3rd Parachute Brigade 's headquarters was attacked by German troops who had infiltrated the lines . The brigade defence platoon managed to hold out until a counterattack by the 9th Parachute Battalion cleared the enemy away . On 10 June , 31 men who had landed in the wrong locations joined the battalion , bringing their numbers up to 270 all ranks . The fighting was now concentrated around the Château Saint Come , which was occupied by a German infantry company supported by two self propelled guns . One of the self @-@ propelled guns was blown up by Vickers machine gun fire , but the Germans then mounted a determined infantry assault , and the battalion had to call for support from HMS Arethusa . The leading German troops were undaunted by the naval bombardment , and reached the battalion 's lines before they were stopped . One of the German prisoners was a battalion commander , who informed his captors that the 875th Grenadier Regiment had been virtually destroyed in the previous day 's fighting . That evening the 9th Parachute Battalion captured the Château Saint Come , and was involved in skirmishes throughout the night . The following day , 11 June , the 5th Battalion Black Watch was attached to the brigade to assist in their attempt to capture Bréville , but their attacks were repulsed by the Germans with heavy losses . They tried again on the 12th , and the German response was an attack by infantry supported by armour , which not only drove the Black Watch back , but almost overran the 9th Parachute Battalion 's position . The situation was only saved by a counterattack by ' A ' Company 1st Canadian Battalion under the command of Brigadier Hill .
During this time the 8th Battalion , located in the thick forest of the Bois de Bavant , were under an almost constant mortar bombardment . Not being directly attacked , the battalion concentrated on night time patrols to harass the Germans , some going as far as the German occupied villages of Troan and Bures .
On 7 June the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Le Mesnil was attacked by units from the 857th and 858th Grenadier Regiments , supported by tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . The battalion inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans , but only managed to drive them back with a bayonet charge by ' B ' Company . The next day the battalion was involved in several small battles , and on the 9 June sent a reconnaissance patrol to check if the Germans were still occupying Bavent . The patrol was driven back by a strong German force , but that night another patrol entered the village and planted explosive charges on weapons and in buildings . Attacks by German infantry and armour continued until the night of the 12 / 13 June , when Bréville was finally captured by the division 's only reserves , a mixed force from the 12th Parachute Battalion and 12th Devonshire Battalion supported by a troop of tanks from the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars . On 13 June the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division crossed the River Orne from the west , and took over responsibility for the southern sector of the Orne bridgehead . At the same time the 4th Special Service Brigade was attached to the 6th Airborne Division , which gave them the ability to rotate one brigade at a time out of the front line to allow them to rest . The 3rd Parachute Brigade , having suffered more casualties than the division 's other brigades , was the first formation relieved .
= = = Advance to the Seine = = =
With the capture of Breville the division was not attacked in force again , apart from an almost continuous artillery bombardment between 18 and 20 June . Further reinforcements arrived east of the River Orne on 20 July ; the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division moved into the line between the 6th Airborne and the Highland Division . Then on 7 August , the 6th Airborne Division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive , with its objective being the mouth of the River Seine . The three divisions east of the Orne now became I Corps , and when issuing his orders Lieutenant General John Crocker , aware that the 6th Airborne had almost no artillery , vehicles or engineer equipment , did not expect them to advance very quickly . To reach the Seine the division would have to cross three major rivers , and there were only two main lines of advance ; one road running along the coast and another further inland from Troarn to Pont Audemer .
On 17 August the Germans started to withdraw northwards . The divisional commander had already decided that the 3rd Parachute Brigade would lead the advance along the interior road . Their objective was to capture Bures , cross the River Dives and secure the area between there and Dozulé . At 03 : 00 the brigade attacked the retreating Germans . By 08 : 00 the 8th and 9th Battalions had captured Bures , and the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion moved through the Bois de Bavant . The bridges in Bures had been blown up previously , and it took the brigade 's engineers until the afternoon to build a crossing . By 21 : 00 the brigade had crossed the Dives and halted with the 8th Parachute Battalion out in front at Goustranville . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was behind them , and the 9th Parachute Battalion in reserve . The next day the brigade met heavy resistance just beyond Goustranville , on the Dives Canal and at Dozulé train station . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion had taken over the advance and were ordered to seize four bridges crossing the canal . The assault began at 22 : 00 ; at 22 : 35 the railway bridge in the north had been captured , and by midnight all four bridges were secured with 150 prisoners taken . The 9th Parachute Battalion then passed through the Canadians and crossed the next water obstacle without boats , as they found the water was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep . At 01 : 00 on 19 August they reached Dozulé . It was not until 07 : 00 on 21 August that the advance restarted , with the objective of Pont @-@ l 'Evêque on the River Touques . After a hard battle the 8th Parachute Battalion captured Annebault , and the 5th Parachute Brigade then took over as the division 's lead unit . On 24 August the 3rd Parachute Brigade and 4th Special Service Brigade captured Beuzeville , and the 5th Parachute Brigade reached Pont Audemer , which was the division 's last objective . On 27 August the division was ordered to concentrate in the area between Honfleur and Pont Audemer and prepare to return to England .
In nine days of fighting the 6th Airborne Division had advanced 45 miles ( 72 km ) , despite , as the divisional commander Major @-@ General Richard Gale put it , his infantry units being " quite inadequately equipped for a rapid pursuit " . They had captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory and taken over 1 @,@ 000 German prisoners . Since landing on 6 June , the division 's casualties were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 were killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . The 3rd Parachute Brigade had 207 killed . The division was withdrawn from France and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
In England the brigade went into a period of recruitment and training , concentrating on house @-@ to @-@ house street fighting in the bombed areas of Southampton and Birmingham . The training programme culminated in Exercise Eve , an assault on the River Thames , which was intended to simulate the River Rhine in Germany .
By December the brigade was preparing for Christmas leave , when news of the German offensive in the Ardennes broke . As part of the First Allied Airborne Army , 6th Airborne Division was available as a component of the strategic reserve for the Allied forces in northwest Europe . The other two divisions available in reserve , the American 82nd and 101st Airborne , were already at Rheims in northern France , and the 6th Airborne was sent by sea to Belgium to assist the defence . With 29 German and 33 Allied divisions involved , the Battle of the Bulge was the largest single battle on the Western Front during the war . On Christmas Day the division moved up to take position in front of the spearhead of the German advance ; by Boxing Day they had reached their allocated places in the defensive line between Dinant and Namur . The 3rd Parachute Brigade were on the left , 5th Parachute Brigade on the right , and the 6th Airlanding Brigade in reserve . Over the next days the German advance was halted and forced back , until at the end of January 1945 , the brigade crossed into the Netherlands . Here the division was made responsible for the area along the River Maas , between Venlo and Roermond . The brigade carried out patrols , on both sides of the river , against their opponents from the German 7th Parachute Division . Near the end of February the division returned to England to prepare for another airborne mission , to cross the River Rhine into Germany .
= = = Germany = = =
Whereas all other Allied airborne landings had been a surprise for the Germans , the Rhine crossing was expected , and their defences were reinforced in anticipation . The airborne operation was preceded by a two @-@ day round @-@ the @-@ clock bombing mission by the Allied air forces . Then on 23 March , 3 @,@ 500 artillery guns targeted the German positions . At dusk Operation Plunder , an assault river crossing of the Rhine by the 21st Army Group , began . For their part in Operation Varsity , the 6th Airborne Division was assigned to the American XVIII Airborne Corps alongside the United States 17th Airborne Division .
In the British sector the 3rd Parachute Brigade would be the first unit to arrive in Germany . Their initial objective was to secure the western edge of the Schneppenberg woods . Brigade headquarters was fully aware of the expected opposition to the landings , and the commander of the 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance was warned to prepare for around 600 casualties ; almost a third of the brigade 's manpower . On 24 March 1945 at 07 : 00 the 122 C @-@ 47 Dakotas transporting the brigade took off from England in three waves . The first wave carried brigade headquarters and the 8th Parachute Battalion , the second carried the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , and the 9th Parachute Battalion came last . The gliders carrying the brigade 's heavy equipment were scheduled to arrive 40 minutes after the third wave . Nine minutes ahead of schedule , the brigade started landing at their DZs . Their premature arrival stopped the Allied artillery and fighter bombers which were engaging targets in the area , especially anti @-@ aircraft gun emplacements . The descending parachutists were met with heavy fire from the German defenders , causing several casualties . One of the dead was the commanding officer of the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion . It was during the landing that one of the Canadian medics , Corporal Frederick Topham , won a Victoria Cross , becoming the division 's only recipient of the award during the war . By 11 : 00 the 8th Parachute Battalion had secured the DZ , and the other two battalions headed for the Schneppenberg woods , which were secured by 14 : 00 . The 9th Parachute Battalion dug in within the woods , and the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on the outskirts . At 15 : 00 the first troops of the Royal Scots arrived after completing their assault crossing of the Rhine . The day 's fighting had cost the brigade 80 dead and 190 wounded , however they had taken around 700 prisoners .
On 27 March the division started advancing further into Germany . The 8th Parachute Battalion was the first to reach Lembeck , which was defended by two Panzer Grenadier companies . A hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle ensued , lasting 18 hours and eventually drawing in all three battalions ; by midnight the town was secured , with around 300 prisoners taken . The brigade 's next objective was Greven and the bridge across the River Ems . At 21 : 30 the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion were about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away from the town . Leaving what vehicles they had behind , they attempted to approach the bridge unseen on foot , and by 23 : 00 had successfully secured the town and bridge . The 9th Parachute Battalion was called forward to continue the advance , but just as they approached the bridge it was blown up by the Germans . In the early hours of the morning , a footbridge across the river was discovered , and the 9th Battalion prepared to carry out an assault . ' A ' Company crossed the footbridge under fire just before dawn , and after a short fight had secured the crossing . After a few hours ' rest the advance continued with the 8th Battalion in the lead , and by nightfall they had reached their next objective , the Dortmund – Ems Canal . Resting overnight , the battalion crossed the half @-@ empty canal at 10 : 30 the next day . Over the next 36 hours the brigade advanced 70 miles ( 110 km ) to Minden .
The 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division then took over from the 6th Airborne Division as the lead formation until 30 April when the Airborne Division once more resumed the advance , crossing the River Elbe over a bridge captured by the Scottish division . The division 's objective was Wismar on the Baltic Sea ; the two parachute brigades advanced on separate routes to Gadebusch , aware that the brigade to arrive first would continue as the division 's lead formation . By this stage of the war the advance was hampered more by refugees fleeing westwards than by any organised opposition . The 3rd Parachute Brigade won the race and led the division to Wismar , arriving on 1 May only 30 minutes before the lead troops of the Soviet Red Army advancing from the east .
= = = Palestine = = =
At the end of May 1945 , the division was pulled out of Germany and returned to England . It was initially intended to send them to India to form an airborne corps with the 44th Indian Airborne Division . The division ’ s advance party , formed around the 5th Parachute Brigade , had already arrived in India . Following the Japanese surrender , all these plans changed . The post @-@ war British Army only needed one airborne division , and the 6th Airborne was chosen to remain on strength . Reinforced by the 2nd Parachute Brigade , the division was sent to the Middle East as the Imperial Strategic Reserve .
The 3rd Parachute Brigade was the first unit of the Airborne Division to arrive in Palestine , disembarking at Haifa on 3 October 1945 . The brigade then moved to Gaza to acclimatise and regain their fitness after the voyage from England . On 21 October the brigade was deployed around the Lydda district , with responsibility for Tel Aviv and Jaffa . The first incident involving the brigade came on 14 November 1945 , when the Jewish National Council called for a 12 @-@ hour strike , which resulted in rioting in Tel Aviv . By 18 : 15 the Palestine Police Force was unable to cope and sent for reinforcements from the 8th Parachute Battalion . The complete battalion was deployed and the riot was under control by 21 : 40 and a curfew imposed for the rest of the night . Early the following day the curfew was broken by large crowds gathering to loot and burn buildings , so the remainder of the brigade was deployed to the city under the codename Operation Bellicose . Night time curfews remained in place until 05 : 20 on 20 November , when all troops returned to their barracks . All was quiet in the brigade area until the night of 26 / 27 December , when police stations in Jaffa and Tel Aviv , the railway at Lydda and an armoury at Tel Aviv were attacked . The brigade again imposed a curfew around Tel Aviv . This was followed by cordon and search operations : Pintail on 29 December , Heron on 8 January , and Pigeon on 30 January .
Over the night of 2 / 3 April 1946 , there were several attacks on railway installations around the country . One at Yibna occurred at the same time as a patrol from the 9th Parachute Battalion was entering the village . The patrol 's leading two vehicles exploded mines that had been laid on a bridge , wounding three men . At daylight the tracks of around 30 men were found , and a section from the 8th Parachute Battalion eventually cornered 24 armed men . In the firefight that followed , 14 of them were wounded and the remainder surrendered , with no British casualties . On 29 June Operation Agatha started ; the brigade had been rotated to cover the south of Palestine , and were to search for arms and arrest any members of the Palmach in Givat Brenner and No 'ar Oved . On 22 July the King David Hotel in Jerusalem was bombed , which was the catalyst for Operation Shark , the searching of every house and property in Tel Aviv . For this operation the brigade had all the divisional artillery and the 3rd The King 's Own Hussars under their command . The brigade 's next tasks were Operations Bream and Eel between 28 August and 4 September , which entailed the search of Dorot and Ruhama in the Negev . For the first time army dogs trained in metal detecting were used during the operations , and they located a large arms cache in both settlements .
In January 1947 , the 6th Airborne Division was moved to northern Palestine , swapping locations with the 1st Infantry Division . The 3rd Parachute Brigade took over responsibility for Haifa , which was considered a problem area . The brigade had to guard the docks and port of Haifa , which were the main entry point for immigrants arriving in the country . In addition , the many oil pipelines and installations in the region were a potential target for sabotage . The brigade 's first operation was imposing a curfew on the Jewish quarter after the kidnapping of two Britons in retaliation for the death sentence imposed on Dov Gruner . The next major operation was in July , when an indefinite night time curfew was imposed , in response to several attacks in and around the city . The curfew lasted until the end of the month .
In October 1947 , the War Office announced its intention to reduce the division 's strength by one brigade . The 3rd Parachute Brigade , being more recently established than the other units , was selected to be disbanded . However , instead of disbanding its battalions , it was decided to amalgamate them . The 3rd Parachute Battalion joined with the 2nd Parachute Battalion and was renumbered the 2nd / 3rd Parachute Battalion , and the brigade 's other two battalions were amalgamated to become the 8th / 9th Parachute Battalion . Both of these new units would serve in the 1st Parachute Brigade . The amalgamation of the 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions was completed in December , and the 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions in early January . Finally , the brigade headquarters was disbanded at the end of January . During their service in Palestine , nine men from the brigade had been killed .
= = Order of battle = =
Commanding officers
Brigadier Sir Alexander Stanier , Bt
Brigadier Gerald Lathbury
Brigadier James Hill
Brigadier Francis Rome
Units
7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion
8th ( Midlands ) Parachute Battalion
9th ( Eastern and Home Counties ) Parachute Battalion
1st Canadian Parachute Battalion
3rd Parachute Battalion
224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance – Royal Army Medical Corps
3rd Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery – Royal Artillery
3rd Parachute Squadron – Royal Engineers
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= James Garrard =
James Garrard ( January 14 , 1749 – January 19 , 1822 ) was a farmer and Baptist minister who served as the second governor of Kentucky from 1796 to 1804 . Because of term limits imposed by the state constitution adopted in 1799 , he was the last Kentucky governor elected to two consecutive terms until the restriction was eased by a 1992 amendment , allowing Paul E. Patton 's re @-@ election in 1999 .
After serving in the Revolutionary War , Garrard moved west to the part of Virginia that is now Bourbon County , Kentucky . He held several local political offices and represented the area in the Virginia House of Delegates . He was chosen as a delegate to five of the ten statehood conventions that secured Kentucky 's separation from Virginia and helped write the state 's first constitution . Garrard was among the delegates who unsuccessfully tried to exclude guarantees of the continuance of slavery from the document . In 1795 , he sought to succeed Isaac Shelby as governor . In a three @-@ way race , Benjamin Logan received a plurality , but not a majority , of the electoral votes cast . Although the state constitution did not specify whether a plurality or a majority was required , the electors held another vote between the top two candidates – Logan and Garrard – and on this vote , Garrard received a majority . Logan protested Garrard 's election to state attorney general John Breckinridge and the state senate , but both claimed they had no constitutional power to intervene .
A Democratic @-@ Republican , Garrard opposed the Alien and Sedition Acts and favored passage of the Kentucky Resolutions . He lobbied for public education , militia and prison reforms , business subsidies , and legislation favorable to the state 's large debtor class . In 1798 , the state 's first governor 's mansion was constructed , and Garrard became its first resident . Due in part to the confusion resulting from the 1795 election , he favored calling a constitutional convention in 1799 . Because of his anti @-@ slavery views , he was not chosen as a delegate to the convention . Under the resulting constitution , the governor was popularly elected and was forbidden from succeeding himself in office , although Garrard was personally exempted from this provision and was re @-@ elected in 1799 . During his second term , he applauded Thomas Jefferson 's purchase of Louisiana from France as a means of dealing with the closure of the port at New Orleans to U.S. goods . Late in his term , his Secretary of State , Harry Toulmin , persuaded him to adopt some doctrines of Unitarianism , and he was expelled from the Baptist church , ending his ministry . He also clashed with the legislature over the appointment of a registrar for the state land office , leaving him embittered and unwilling to continue in politics after the conclusion of his term . He retired to his estate , Mount Lebanon , and engaged in agricultural and commercial pursuits until his death on January 19 , 1822 . Garrard County , Kentucky , created during his first term , was named in his honor .
= = Early life and family = =
James Garrard was born in Stafford County , Virginia , on January 14 , 1749 . He was second of three children born to Colonel William and Mary ( Naughty ) Garrard . [ a ] Garrard 's mother died sometime between 1755 and 1760 ; afterward , his father married Elizabeth Moss , and the couple had four more children . William Garrard was the county lieutenant of Stafford County , by virtue of which he held the rank of colonel and was in command of the county militia . The Garrard family was moderately wealthy , and the Stafford County courthouse was built on their land . During his childhood , James worked on his father 's farm . He was educated in the common schools of Stafford County and studied at home , acquiring a fondness for books . Early in life , he associated himself with the Hartwood Baptist Church near Fredericksburg , Virginia .
On December 20 , 1769 , Garrard married his childhood sweetheart , Elizabeth Mountjoy . Shortly thereafter , his sister Mary Anne married Mountjoy 's brother , Colonel John Mountjoy . Garrard and his wife had five sons and seven daughters . One son and two daughters died before reaching age two . Of the surviving four sons , all participated in the War of 1812 and all served in the Kentucky General Assembly . A number of his grandsons served in the Civil War , including Union Generals Kenner Garrard and Theophilus T. Garrard . Another grandson , James H. Garrard , was elected to five consecutive terms as state treasurer , serving from 1857 until his death in 1865 .
Garrard served in the Revolutionary War as a member of his father 's Stafford County militia , although it is not known how much combat he participated in . While on board a schooner on the Potomac River , he was captured by British forces . His captors offered to free him in exchange for military information , but he refused the offer and later escaped .
While serving in the militia in 1779 , Garrard was elected to represent Stafford County the Virginia House of Delegates , and he assumed his seat for the 1779 legislative session . His major contribution to the session was advocating for a bill that granted religious liberty to all residents of Virginia ; passage of the bill ended persecution by citizens who associated with the Church of England upon followers of other faiths and countered an effort by some to establish the Church of England as Virginia 's official church . After the session , he returned to his military duties . In 1781 , he was promoted to the rank of colonel .
= = Resettlement in Kentucky = =
Following the revolution , Garrard faced the dual challenges of a growing family and depleted personal wealth . Acting on favorable reports from his former neighbor , John Edwards , Garrard and Samuel Grant headed west into the recently created Kentucky County . By virtue of his military service , Garrard was entitled to claim any vacant land he surveyed and recorded at the state land office . Beginning in early 1783 , Garrard made claims for family and friends , as well as 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km2 ) for himself . Later in 1783 , he moved his family to the land he had surveyed in Fayette County , which had been created from Kentucky County since his last visit to the region . Three years later , he employed John Metcalfe , a noted stonemason and older half @-@ brother of future Kentucky Governor Thomas Metcalfe , to build his estate , Mount Lebanon , on the Stoner Fork of the Licking River . There , he engaged in agriculture , opened a grist mill and a lumber mill , and distilled whiskey . In 1784 , he enlisted in the Fayette County militia .
In 1785 , Garrard was elected to represent Fayette County in the Virginia legislature . He was placed on a legislative committee with Benjamin Logan and Christopher Greenup to draft recommendations regarding the further division of Kentucky County . The committee recommended the creation of three new counties , including Madison , Mercer , and Garrard 's county of residence , Bourbon . On his return from the legislature , Garrard was chosen county surveyor and justice of the peace for the newly formed county . At various times , he also served as magistrate and colonel of the county militia .
Although some historians have identified Garrard as a member of the Danville Political Club , a secret debating society that was active in Danville , Kentucky , from 1786 to 1790 , his name is not found in the Club 's official membership records . Garrard 's biographer , H. E. Everman , concludes that these historians may have mistaken Garrard 's membership in the Kentucky Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge for membership in the Danville Political Club . The groups had similar aims , were active at about the same time , and had several members in common . Other notable members of the Kentucky Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge included Isaac Shelby , Christopher Greenup , and Thomas Todd , all future Kentucky governors or gubernatorial candidates .
Garrard 's Mount Lebanon estate was designated as the temporary county seat of Bourbon County ; the county court first convened there on May 15 , 1786 , and continued to meet there for many years . In 1789 , the Virginia legislature established a permanent county seat named Hopewell , and Garrard was part of the committee chosen to survey the area for the city . He and John Edwards were among the new settlement 's first trustees . Upon Garrard 's recommendation , the city 's name was changed to Paris in 1790 . Soon after , he resigned as county surveyor to focus on more pressing needs of defense for the fledgling settlement . At his behest , the Bourbon County Court expanded its militia from one battalion to two at its meeting in August 1790 .
= = Religious leadership = =
As early as June 25 , 1785 , Garrard and his friend Augustine Eastin attended meetings of the Elkhorn Baptist Association . In 1787 , he helped organize the Cooper 's Run Baptist Church near his estate . He was chosen as one of the church 's elders and served the congregation there for ten years . Soon after its formation , the church joined the Elkhorn Baptist Association , and in 1789 , it issued Garrard a license to preach . Although he owned as many as 23 slaves to work on his vast agricultural and industrial works , Garrard condemned slavery from the pulpit , calling it a " horrid evil " . Whites and blacks participated equally in worship at Cooper 's Run .
Garrard and the other elders of the church started numerous congregations in the state , including one as far away as Mason County . In 1789 , Garrard and Eastin began working to reunite the more orthodox Regular Baptists in the area with the more liberal Separatist Baptists . Garrard 's former church in Virginia had been a Regular Baptist congregation , and Garrard was considered a Regular Baptist despite his clear advocacy for religious toleration and his open expression of liberal views . Although he never succeeded in uniting the two factions , he was chosen moderator of the Elkhorn Baptist Association 's annual meetings in 1790 , 1791 , and 1795 in recognition of his efforts .
From 1785 to 1799 , Garrard served as a trustee of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) . In 1794 , the Baptist and more liberal trustees united against the orthodox Presbyterian members of the board to elect the seminary 's first non @-@ Presbyterian president . That president was Harry Toulmin , a Unitarian minister from England . Toulmin 's daughter Lucinda would later marry Garrard 's son Daniel . As a result of Garrard 's relationship with Toulmin , he began to accept some tenets of Unitarianism , specifically the doctrines of Socinianism . By 1802 , Garrard and Augustine Eastin had not only adopted these beliefs , but had indoctrinated their Baptist congregations with them . The Elkhorn Baptist Association condemned these beliefs as heretical and encouraged Garrard and Eastin to abandon them . When that effort failed , the Association ceased correspondence and association with both men . This event ended Garrard 's ministry and his association with the Baptist church .
= = Political career = =
Residents of what is now Kentucky called a series of ten conventions in Danville to arrange their separation from Virginia . Garrard was a delegate to five of these conventions , held in May and August 1785 and in 1787 , 1788 , and 1792 . At the August 1785 convention , the delegates unanimously approved a formal request for constitutional separation . As a member of the Virginia legislature , Garrard then traveled to Richmond for the legislative session and voted in favor of the act specifying the conditions under which Virginia would accept Kentucky 's separation .
Before the final convention in 1792 , a committee composed of Garrard , Ambrose Dudley , and Augustine Eastin reported to the Elkhorn Baptist Association in favor of forbidding slavery in the constitution then being drafted for the new state . Slavery was a major issue in the 1792 convention that finalized the document . Delegate David Rice , a Presbyterian minister , was the leading voice against the inclusion of slavery protections in the new constitution , while George Nicholas argued most strenuously in favor of them . Garrard encouraged his fellow ministers and Baptists to vote against its inclusion . The motion to delete Article 9 of the proposed document , which protected the rights of slave owners , failed by a vote of 16 – 26 . Each of the seven Christian ministers who served as delegates to the convention ( including Garrard ) voted in favor of deleting the article . Five Baptist laymen defied Garrard 's instructions and voted to retain Article 9 ; their votes provided the necessary margin for its inclusion . Historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that the anti @-@ slavery votes of the ministers may have accounted for the adoption of a provision that forbade ministers from serving in the Kentucky General Assembly . Garrard and the other ministers apparently expressed no dissent against this provision .
Aside from his opposition to slavery , Garrard did not take a particularly active role in the convention 's proceedings . His most notable action not related to slavery occurred on April 13 , 1792 , when he reported twenty @-@ two resolutions from the committee of the whole that provided the framework for the new constitution .
= = = Gubernatorial election of 1795 = = =
Following the constitutional convention , it appeared that Garrard 's political career was drawing to a close . He resigned all of his county offices to focus on his work in the Elkhorn Baptist Convention and his agricultural pursuits . He was pleased , however , when his son William was chosen to represent the county in the state legislature in 1793 . In 1795 , William Garrard was reelected , and the other four state legislators from Bourbon County were close associates of Garrard 's , including John Edwards , who had recently been defeated for reelection to the U.S. Senate .
When Governor Isaac Shelby announced he would not seek reelection , Garrard 's friends encouraged him to become a candidate . The other announced candidates were Benjamin Logan and Thomas Todd . Logan was considered the favorite in the race due to his military heroism while helping settle the Kentucky frontier . However , his oratory was unpolished , and his parliamentary skills were weak , despite his considerable political experience . Todd , who had served as secretary of all ten Kentucky statehood conventions , had the most political experience , but his youth was considered a disadvantage by some . Garrard benefited from his political connections in Bourbon County , and many held him in high regard due to his work in the Baptist church .
Under the new constitution , each of Kentucky 's legislative districts chose an elector , and these electors voted to choose the governor . Both Logan and Garrard were chosen as electors from their respective counties . On the first ballot , Logan received the votes of 21 electors , Garrard received 17 , and Todd received 14 . A lone elector cast his vote for John Brown , a Frankfort attorney who would soon be elected to the U.S. Senate . Some speculated that Garrard 's moral character prevented him from voting for himself , but his political acumen prevented him from voting for a rival , so he voted for Brown , who had not declared his candidacy . No proof exists that this was the case , however .
The constitution did not specify whether a plurality or a majority vote was required to elect the governor , but the electors , following a common practice of other states , decided to hold a second vote between Logan and Garrard in order to achieve a majority . Most of Todd 's electors supported Garrard on the second vote , giving him a majority . In a letter dated May 17 , 1796 , Kentucky Secretary of State James Brown certified Garrard 's election , and Governor Shelby sent him a letter of congratulations on his election on May 27 .
Although he did not believe Garrard had personally done anything wrong , Logan formally protested the outcome of the election to Kentucky Attorney General John Breckinridge . Breckinridge refused to render an official decision on the matter , claiming that neither the constitution nor the laws of the state empowered him to do so . Privately , however , he expressed his opinion that Logan had been legally elected . Logan then appealed to the state senate , which was given the authority to intervene in disputed elections . In November 1796 , the Senate opined that the law giving them that authority was unconstitutional because it did not promote the " peace and welfare " of the state . State senator Green Clay was the primary proponent of this line of reasoning . By this time , Garrard had been serving as governor for five months , and Logan abandoned the quest to unseat him .
= = = First term as governor = = =
Garrard was regarded as a strong chief executive who surrounded himself with knowledgeable advisors . His friend , John Edwards , and his son , William Garrard , were both in the state senate and kept him abreast of issues there . He showed that he was willing to continue with Shelby 's direction for the state by re @-@ appointing Secretary of State James Brown , but the aging Brown retired in October 1796 , only a few months into Garrard 's term . Garrard then appointed Harry Toulmin , who had resigned the presidency of Transylvania Seminary in April due to opposition from the institution 's more conservative trustees . Although he did not retain outgoing Attorney General John Breckinridge , who had sided with Logan in the disputed gubernatorial election , Garrard still frequently consulted with him on complex legal questions .
During Governor Shelby 's term , the General Assembly had passed laws requiring that the governor , auditor , treasurer , and secretary of state live in Frankfort and allocating a sum of 100 pounds to rent living quarters for the governor . Shortly after Garrard took office , the state commissioners of public buildings reported to the legislature that it would be more financially sensible to construct a house for the governor and his large family than to rent living quarters for them for the duration of his term . On December 4 , 1796 , the General Assembly passed legislation appropriating 1 @,@ 200 pounds for the construction of such a house . The state 's first governor 's mansion was completed in 1798 . Garrard incited considerable public interest when , in 1799 , he commissioned a local craftsman to build a piano for one of his daughters ; most Kentuckians had never seen such a grand instrument , and a considerable number of them flocked to the governor 's mansion to see it when it was finished . Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark also relates that Garrard 's addition of carpeting to the mansion – a rare amenity at the time – drew many visitors and was described by one as " the envy and pride of the community " .
Among the other acts passed during the first year of Garrard 's term were laws establishing the Kentucky Court of Appeals and a system of lower district courts . For the first time , lawyers in the state were required to be licensed . Six new counties – including one named in Garrard 's honor – were created , along with several new settlements . Garrard approved enabling acts creating twenty @-@ six counties ; no other Kentucky governor oversaw the creation of as many .
Left undone , however , was extending the laws dealing with surveying and registering land claims with the registrar of the state land office . Cognizant that the old law would expire November 30 , 1797 , Garrard issued a proclamation on November 3 calling the legislature into special session . The legislators convened on November 28 , and Garrard , drawing on his experience as a surveyor , addressed them regarding the urgency of adopting a new law and forestalling more lawsuits related to land claims , which were already numerous . Although a wealthy landowner himself , Garrard advocated protecting Kentucky 's large debtor class from foreclosure on their lands . Garrard supported pro @-@ squatting legislation , including measures that forbade the collection of taxes from squatters on profits they made from working the land they occupied and that required landowners to pay squatters for any improvements they made on their land . Despite opposition from some aristocratic legislators like John Breckinridge , most of the reforms advocated by Garrard were approved in the session .
Garrard was a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party and agreed with party founder Thomas Jefferson 's condemnation of the Alien and Sedition Acts . In an address to the General Assembly on November 7 , 1798 , he denounced the Alien Act on the grounds that it deterred desirable immigration ; the Sedition Act , he claimed , denied those accused under its provisions freedom of speech and trial by jury , rights – he pointed out – that he and the other soldiers of the Revolutionary War had fought to secure . He advocated the nullification of both laws , but also encouraged the legislature to reaffirm its loyalty to the federal government and the U.S. Constitution . He was supportive of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799 .
Among the other issues addressed in the 1798 General Assembly was the adoption of penal reforms . Garrard was supportive of the reforms – which included the abolition of the death penalty for all crimes except murder – and lobbied for the education of incarcerated individuals . He also secured the passage of laws reforming and expanding the militia . Among the reforms were the imposition of penalties upon " distractors " in the militia , provisions for citizens ' hiring of substitutes to serve in the militia on their behalf , and the exemption of jailers , tutors , printers , judges , ministers , and legislative leaders from service . Garrard opposed lowering taxes , instead advocating increased spending on education and business subsidies . To that end , he signed legislation combining Transylvania Seminary and Kentucky Academy into a single institution .
= = = A new constitution = = =
The difficulties with Garrard 's election over Benjamin Logan in 1795 added to a litany of complaints about the state 's first constitution . Some believed that it was undemocratic because it required electors to choose the governor and state senators and many offices were appointive rather than elective . Others opposed life terms for judges and other state officials . Still others wanted slavery excluded from the document , or to lift the ban on ministers serving in the General Assembly . In the aftermath of the disputed 1795 election , all parties involved agreed that changes were needed . The present constitution provided no means for amendment , however . The only remedy was another constitutional convention .
Calling a constitutional convention required the approval of a majority of voters in two successive elections or a two @-@ thirds majority of both houses of the General Assembly . In February 1797 , the General Assembly voted to put the question before the electorate in the upcoming May elections . Of the 9 @,@ 814 votes cast , 5 @,@ 446 favored the call and 440 opposed it , but 3 @,@ 928 had not voted at all , and several counties recorded no votes on the issue either way . This cast doubt in the minds of many legislators regarding the true will of the people . Opponents of the convention claimed that the abstentions should be counted as votes against the call ; this position had some merit , as it was well known that many Fayette County voters had abstained as a protest against the convention . When all of the irregularities were accounted for , the General Assembly determined that the vote had fallen short of the required majority .
On February 10 , 1798 , Garrard 's son William , still serving in the state senate , introduced a bill to hold another vote on calling a constitutional convention . In May 1798 , 9 @,@ 188 of the 16 @,@ 388 votes were in favor of calling a convention . Again , almost 5 @,@ 000 of the ballots contained no vote either way . On November 21 , 1798 , the House of Representatives voted 36 – 15 in favor of a convention , and the Senate provided its requisite two @-@ thirds majority days later . No official tally of the Senate 's vote was published . The Assembly 's vote rendered moot any doubts about the popular vote .
Delegates to the July 22 , 1799 , convention were elected in May 1799 . Neither Garrard nor his son William were chosen as delegates , mostly due to their anti @-@ slavery views . Garrard had been a more active governor than his predecessor , frequently employing his veto and clashing with the county courts . As a result , the delegates moved to reign in some of the power given to the state 's chief executive . Under the 1799 constitution , the governor was popularly elected , and the threshold for overriding a gubernatorial veto was lowered from a two @-@ thirds majority of each house of the legislature to an absolute majority . Although the governor retained broad appointment powers , the state senate was given the power to approve or reject all gubernatorial nominees . New term limits were imposed on the governor , making him ineligible for reelection for seven years following the expiration of his term . The restriction on ministers serving in the legislature was retained and extended to the governor 's office . Historian Lowell Harrison held that this restriction was " a clear snub to Garrard " , but Garrard biographer H. E. Everman maintained that it was " definitely not a blow aimed at Garrard " . Garrard was personally exempted from both the succession and ministerial restrictions , clearing the way for him to seek a second term .
= = = 1799 gubernatorial election = = =
Confident that the results of the 1795 election would be reversed , Benjamin Logan was the first to declare his candidacy for the governorship in 1799 . Garrard and Thomas Todd declared their respective candidacies soon after . Former U.S. Representative Christopher Greenup also sought the office . Many of the recent settlers in Kentucky were unaware of his illustrious military record and unimpressed with his unsophisticated speaking skills . Although the candidates themselves rarely spoke negatively of each other , opponents of each candidate independently raised issues that they felt would hurt that candidate . John Breckinridge , Garrard 's long @-@ time political nemesis , tried to goad Garrard into making another impassioned plea for emancipation of slaves , which was a minority position in the state , but Garrard recognized Breckinridge 's tactics and refused to express any bold emancipationist sentiments during the campaign . The fact that the slavery protections in the new constitution were even stronger than those in the previous document ensured that the incumbent 's previous anti @-@ slavery sentiments were not a major concern to most of the electorate . The family of Henry Field , a prominent leader in Frankfort , attacked Garrard for not issuing a pardon for Field , who was convicted of murdering his wife with an ax . After examining the evidence in the case , Garrard concluded that the verdict was reached justly and without undue outside influence , but the charge was raised so late in the campaign that Garrard 's defense of his refusal to issue a pardon could not be circulated widely .
With the advantages of incumbency and a generally popular record , Garrard garnered large majorities in the state 's western counties , Jefferson County , and the Bluegrass region of central Kentucky . Surprisingly , he even found support among some voters who had favored Logan four years earlier . The final voting showed Garrard the winner with 8 @,@ 390 votes , followed by Greenup with 6 @,@ 746 , Logan with 3 @,@ 996 , and Todd with 2 @,@ 166 . Due to the term limits imposed by the new constitution , Garrard was the last Kentucky governor elected to succeed himself until a 1992 amendment to the state constitution loosened the prohibition on gubernatorial succession , and Paul E. Patton was reelected in 1999 . In 1801 , Garrard nominated Todd to fill the next vacancy on the Kentucky Court of Appeals after the election . Similarly , he appointed Greenup to a position on the Frankfort Circuit Court in 1802 .
= = = Second term as governor = = =
The first two years of Garrard 's second term were relatively uneventful , but in the 1802 General Assembly , legislators approved two bills related to the circuit court system that Garrard vetoed . The first bill expanded the number of courts and provided that untrained citizens could sit as judges in the court system . Garrard questioned the cost of the additional courts and the wisdom of allowing untrained judges on the bench ; he also objected to the bill 's circumvention of the governor 's authority to appoint judges . The second bill allowed attorneys and judges in the circuit court system to reside outside the districts they served . The General Assembly overrode Garrard 's second veto , marking the first time in Kentucky history that a gubernatorial veto was overridden and the only time during Garrard 's eight @-@ year tenure .
On October 16 , 1802 , Spanish intendent Don Juan Ventura Morales announced the revocation of the U.S. right of deposit at New Orleans , a right that had been guaranteed under Pinckney 's Treaty . The closure of the port to U.S. goods represented a major impediment to Garrard 's hopes of establishing a vibrant trade between Kentucky and the other states and territories along the Mississippi River . He urged President Thomas Jefferson to act and publicly declared that Kentucky had 26 @,@ 000 militiamen ready to take New Orleans by force if necessary . Jefferson was unaware , however , that the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso had ceded control of Louisiana to the French dictator Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800 , although a formal transfer had not yet been made . As Jefferson deliberated , Napoleon unexpectedly offered to sell Louisiana to the United States for approximately $ 15 million . Robert R. Livingston and James Monroe , Jefferson 's envoys in France , accepted the offer . The purchase delighted most Kentuckians , and Garrard hailed it as a " noble achievement " . Soon after the agreement , the Spanish government claimed that the French had not performed their part of the Treaty of Ildefonso and , as a result , the treaty was nullified and Louisiana still belonged to Spain . Jefferson ignored the Spanish protest and prepared to take Louisiana by force . He instructed Garrard to have 4 @,@ 000 militiamen ready to march to New Orleans by December 20 , 1803 . The Kentucky General Assembly quickly passed a measure guaranteeing 150 acres of land to anyone who volunteered for military service , and Garrard was soon able to inform Jefferson that his quota was met . Spain then reversed course , relinquishing its claims to Louisiana , and the territory passed into U.S. control two months later .
The last months of Garrard 's second term were marred by a dispute with the General Assembly over naming a new registrar of the state 's land office . Garrard first named Secretary of State Harry Toulmin , but the Senate rejected that nomination on December 7 , 1803 . Next , Garrard nominated former rival Christopher Greenup , but Greenup had designs on succeeding Garrard and asked Garrard to withdraw the nomination , which he did . The Senate then rejected Garrard 's next nominee , John Coburn , and accused the next , Thomas Jones , of " high criminal offense " and barred him from any further appointive office .
Following Jones ' rejection , Garrard vetoed a bill that would have allowed the legislature to select the state 's presidential and vice @-@ presidential electors ; despite the fact that the law ran contrary to the state constitution , Garrard 's veto further strained his relations with the Senate . After the Senate rejected nominee William Trigg , the state 's newspapers openly talked of an executive @-@ legislative feud and claimed the Senate had its own favorite candidate for the position and would not accept anyone else . When the Senate rejected Willis Green in January 1804 , Garrard declared that he would make no more nominations for the position . Accusations of bad faith were exchanged between the governor and the Senate , after which Garrard nominated John Adair , the popular Speaker of the House . The Senate finally confirmed this choice .
= = Later life and death = =
His dispute with the General Assembly over the naming of a land registrar left Garrard embittered , and he retired from politics at the expiration of his second term . He privately backed Christopher Greenup 's bid to succeed him in 1804 , and Bourbon County 's vote broke heavily for Greenup in the election . Although his sons William and James would continue running for public office into the 1830s , Garrard never indicated a desire to run again .
Garrard returned to Mount Lebanon , where he developed a reputation as a notable agriculturist . His son James oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the farm and frequently won prizes for his innovations at local agricultural fairs . The Mount Lebanon estate was badly damaged by one of the New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 , but Garrard insisted on repairing the damage as thoroughly as possible in order to reside there for the rest of his life . He imported fine livestock – including thoroughbred horses and cattle – to his farm and invested in several commercial enterprises , including several saltworks , which passed to his sons upon his death . He died on January 19 , 1822 , following several years of feeble health . He was buried on the grounds of his Mount Lebanon estate , and the state of Kentucky erected a monument over his grave site .
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= The Man with the Iron Fists =
The Man with the Iron Fists is a 2012 American martial arts film directed by RZA and written by RZA and Eli Roth . The film stars RZA , Russell Crowe , Cung Le , Lucy Liu , Byron Mann , Rick Yune , Dave Bautista , and Jamie Chung . Set in 19th century China , the story follows a series of lone warriors who are forced to unite to defeat a common foe and save their home of Jungle Village .
Development began in 2005 when RZA shared his idea for the film with Roth . After nearly two years of development , Roth and RZA secured financial backing in May 2010 . Filming began in December 2010 on a $ 20 million budget and concluded by March 2011 . The film was shot in Shanghai and at other locations in China . RZA and Howard Drossin composed the film 's musical score , and RZA produced its soundtrack , which featured several new songs by various artists . A series of concerts featuring music from the soundtrack were held to promote the film .
The film was released in North America on November 2 , 2012 . Critics were divided over the film 's homage to martial arts films , considering it well @-@ choreographed and representative of the genre , but offering nothing original , and the direction was criticized for a lack of refinement . The performances of Crowe and Mann were well received . The film earned over $ 20 million at the box office .
= = Plot = =
In nineteenth century China , Jungle Village is home to several warring clans . The village blacksmith creates deadly weapons for the clans , intending to use his payments to purchase the freedom of his lover Lady Silk , and leave the village . The region 's governor tasks the Lion Clan 's leader Gold Lion with protecting a large shipment of gold that must pass through the village . Gold is betrayed by his lieutenants Silver Lion and Bronze Lion , who plan to steal the gold . They use the chaos ensuing from a fight with the Hyena Clan to allow their co @-@ conspirator Poison Dagger — the governor 's aide — to assassinate Gold , after which Silver becomes the Lions ' leader . Gold 's son Zen @-@ Yi learns of his father 's murder and sets off to the village to seek revenge .
The Emperor 's undercover emissary Jack Knife arrives in the village to monitor the gold and takes up residence in the Pink Blossom , a brothel run by Madam Blossom , Lady Silk 's madame . Silver sends members of the Rodent clan to kill Zen @-@ Yi before he can reach the village , but Zen @-@ Yi kills them . The mercenary Brass Body arrives in the village and meets with Silver ; he is sent to kill Zen @-@ Yi . The blacksmith meets with Silk in the brothel and delivers the final payment needed to free her . After arriving in the village , Zen @-@ Yi and his men are confronted by Brass and find that they cannot physically harm him because his skin turns to metal on impact . Brass beats Zen @-@ Yi and destroys his blade @-@ laden armor . Zen @-@ Yi 's last surviving man sacrifices himself to pull a canopy support beam loose , burying Brass under heavy stone . The blacksmith is watching the fight ; he rescues Zen @-@ Yi and helps him recover as penance for crafting the weapon that killed Zen @-@ Yi 's father .
Meanwhile , the gold shipment arrives in the village , accompanied by two skilled warriors , the Geminis . The Lions soon confront the Geminis and their men , and in the ensuing fight , Poison Dagger assassinates the Geminis and the Lions capture the gold . Jack later arrives to investigate the incident and learns that the Geminis were poisoned with mercury @-@ tipped weapons , leading him to the blacksmith . The Lions ' theft prompts the governor to send his Jackal troops to recover the shipment or destroy the village . Zen @-@ Yi asks the blacksmith to craft him a new suit of weaponized armor . The Lions suspect that the blacksmith is helping Zen @-@ Yi and have him tortured for information . The blacksmith refuses to talk , and Brass cuts off his forearms . Jack , who had been following the blacksmith , saves him from bleeding to death . While the blacksmith recovers , he tells Jack of his past as an emancipated American slave who accidentally killed a white man who refused to let him go . He fled America by boat and went to China , where monks trained him to use his body 's energy to perform superhuman feats . Jack and the blacksmith craft his greatest weapon : a pair of iron forearms that he can animate using this energy .
Zen @-@ Yi recovers and joins Jack and the blacksmith . Meanwhile , Blossom offers to let Silver hide the gold in a secret tomb beneath the brothel in return for payment . The gold is stored in a coffin which is raised up to the rafters . That night , Blossom has her girls serve the Lions , and Silk serves Brass . At Blossom 's signal , the girls use weapons hidden in their mouths to poison many of the Lions , and they join with Blossom as the Black Widows . When Silk tries to poison Brass , his skin protects him , and he beats and almost kills her . Zen @-@ Yi , Jack , and the blacksmith arrive and join with the Black Widows to fight the remaining Lions while Blossom and Bronze fight and kill each other . While fighting Jack , Poison Dagger is crushed between large moving gears . Silver and Zen @-@ Yi fight in the tomb ; Zen @-@ Yi cuts the coffin free , and it crushes Silver . The blacksmith finds Silk , who dies in his arms . He confronts Brass , and his iron fists prove capable of inflicting damage on Brass ' seemingly invincible body . While Brass is in metal form , a powerful punch from the blacksmith shatters him to pieces . Jack runs outside in time to stop the Jackals from decimating the building with a Gatling gun .
Ultimately , Jack leaves the village to accompany the gold , and Zen @-@ Yi tells the blacksmith that he has gained a brother . With the clans destroyed and the village safe , the blacksmith vows to keep it that way and destroys the sign pointing to his weapon shop . During the credits , Zen @-@ Yi 's pregnant fiancee is kidnapped by a bird clan , prompting Zen @-@ Yi to seek the blacksmith 's aid .
= = Cast = =
RZA as Blacksmith / The Man with the Iron Fists :
An emancipated slave from America who becomes the blacksmith of Jungle Village . He channels an ancient energy to turn himself into a living weapon . His name is Thaddeus Henry Smith . RZA wrote the role specifically for himself , and trained in Hung Ga for 1 – 2 hours a day over 2 months in preparation .
Rick Yune as Zen @-@ Yi , The X @-@ Blade :
The son of the murdered Lion Clan leader who goes to Jungle Village to avenge his father 's death . RZA said that he had Yune in mind for the role before the script had been completed .
Russell Crowe as Jack Knife :
An opium @-@ addicted British soldier named after his signature weapon . The character was partly inspired by RZA 's late cousin Ol ' Dirty Bastard . Crowe based his performance on Clint Eastwood in Dirty Harry ( 1971 ) and The Outlaw Josey Wales ( 1976 ) . Crowe agreed to join the cast because of his previous working relationship with RZA . Crowe was only able to spend 10 days filming his scenes .
Lucy Liu as Madam Blossom :
The owner of the Pink Blossom brothel , whom Liu described as the queen of the village . Liu wanted to emphasize Blossom 's strength against all the male fighters and convinced RZA to give the character a fight sequence with Cung Le 's Bronze Lion .
David Bautista as Brass Body :
A mercenary capable of turning his body to metal , making him invulnerable . Bautista described the character as a " good guy " who " made a lot of bad choices in his life . He doesn ’ t really understand the difference between right and wrong . " RZA auditioned Bautista for the role after seeing him " moving as fast as lightning " during a stick @-@ fighting training video .
Jamie Chung as Lady Silk :
A prostitute in the Pink Blossom and the blacksmith 's girlfriend .
Cung Le as Bronze Lion :
A member of the Lion Clan . Le came to RZA 's attention following his 2008 mixed martial arts fight against Frank Shamrock . Bronze Lion 's fighting style incorporates elements of Tiger Kung @-@ Fu and Le 's own training in kicks and scissor kicks .
Byron Mann as Silver Lion :
The leader of the Lion Clan after he kills the previous leader . Mann was initially cast for a smaller role but after his successful audition , he was given the bigger role of Silver Lion .
The cast also includes Pam Grier as the blacksmith 's mother Jane , Osric Chau as Blacksmith 's assistant , MC Jin as Zen @-@ Yi 's ally Chan , Daniel Wu as Poison Dagger , and Andrew Lin and Grace Huang as The Geminis . Co @-@ writer Eli Roth appears in a cameo . Several veteran martial arts actors — including Chen Kuan @-@ tai as Golden Lion , Bryan Leung as Hyena Chief , Telly Liu as Iron Lion , Xue Jing Yao as Copper Lion , Zhu Zhu as Zen @-@ Yi 's fiancee Chi Chi , Terence Yin as the Governor , and Gordon Liu as The Abbot — appeared in the film . Liu 's role was written for RZA 's Shaolin teacher Shi Yan Ming , but Ming could not obtain permission to return to China for filming .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Development of the film began in 2003 when RZA produced the soundtrack for Quentin Tarantino 's film Kill Bill . RZA set himself a $ 50 @,@ 000 budget and flew to the Kill Bill set in Beijing , where he spent approximately thirty days taking notes on the way Tarantino directed the film . In 2005 , RZA met Eli Roth in Iceland , and they traveled together to LA . During the journey , RZA told Roth of his idea for a kung fu genre film , which attracted Roth 's interest , but no further progress was made . RZA completed the story for the film , but Roth convinced him that he would need a completed screenplay for the project to gain any support . In 2007 , after Roth 's Hostel : Part II was released , Roth and RZA agreed to seriously pursue the project . The pair took the project to several studios and met with their preferred producer , Edward R. Pressman . One of the studios suggested setting the film in a post @-@ apocalyptic situation , which RZA considered . They took the project to Strike Entertainment , which considered that it needed more development and assigned several writers to rewrite the script , which began to depart from RZA 's initial idea .
RZA continued to work with Strike Entertainment 's writers , but Roth , who returned from filming Inglourious Basterds , was disappointed with the rewritten screenplay and he and RZA spent a year developing and finalizing it . In total , they spent between 18 months and 2 years developing the screenplay in between other projects , and turned RZA 's 90 @-@ page story into a 130 @-@ page screenplay . Citing the specificity of the fictional universe in the Star Wars series , Roth said that the pair tried to fully define the aspects of The Man with the Iron Fists to make it interesting without fight scenes . Roth said that RZA had " imagined every tribe , every fighting style , every costume " . The original script focused on several animal @-@ themed clans fighting over territory , in particular Jungle Village , which acted as a center for shipments . As the script developed , several of the clans were removed , and the focus shifted to commerce and the transportation of government gold , which also introduced the government as a higher power over the clans . RZA and Roth approached fights in the script by introducing a new character , fighting style or weapon to avoid monotony ; if a fight did not advance the story , they removed it .
RZA then financed and directed a short martial arts film called Wu @-@ Tang vs. the Golden Phoenix featuring Hong Kong @-@ based , kung @-@ fu @-@ trained actors . When he and Roth pitched The Man with the Iron Fists to producers , RZA used the short film to prove that he could handle the martial arts action and be trusted to take on his first directing role . On May 7 , 2010 , Universal Pictures announced it had agreed to finance and distribute the film , which Roth and Strike Entertainment 's Marc Abraham and Eric Newman would produce . The producers gave RZA a $ 20 million budget .
During the development process , Tarantino agreed to lend his name to the film with a " presented by " credit . In October 2012 , RZA said that he and Tarantino had intended to cross over The Man with the Iron Fists with Tarantino 's 2012 Western Django Unchained . The crossover would have included a younger version of RZA 's blacksmith character in a slave auction , but scheduling conflicts prevented RZA 's participation . The Man with the Iron Fists spent 14 weeks in pre @-@ production including four to six weeks on location scouting . RZA insisted that six weeks of pre @-@ production would be sufficient , but Marc Abraham told him to take 14 weeks , for which RZA was later thankful after he reached week 13 and still needed more time . During filming , RZA and Roth discussed the potential for a sequel if the film was successful .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place over approximately 10 weeks on a $ 20 million budget . Filming began in China in December 2010 in locations including the city of Shanghai and Hengdian World Studios , and continued until March 2011 . Corey Yuen was the film 's action choreographer . To compensate for time lost to filming issues , some scenes were filmed in a single take . Approximately 6 weeks into filming , RZA began pushing the crew to work faster to remain on schedule . His assistant director eventually informed RZA that because of the push , some stunt workers were injured and being sent to hospital . After this , RZA abandoned some of his intended shots and replaced them with Computer Generated Images ( CGI ) . Roth also directed some shots for RZA . Crowe and Le were originally scripted to fight each other , but because of Crowe 's limited shooting schedule , he did not have the time to rehearse the fight , and instead Le was scripted to fight Liu .
The first cut of the film was four hours long and RZA suggested splitting it into two films , but Roth disagreed . It was edited to 96 minutes to meet the studio 's requirements and to excise graphic content that would cause it to receive a restrictive rating , limiting its audience . RZA abandoned the editing process for two weeks , feeling disgust at having to cut the film . In October 2012 , he said that he intended to release a " director 's cut " of the film for home viewing , and would reinsert at least 13 minutes of the cut footage . RZA described the film as an homage to the martial art films of the Hong Kong @-@ based Shaw Brothers .
The film used mostly practical special effects in preference to CGI . An effect in which Yune 's character kills six opponents whose airborne blood spray spells out " revenge " in Chinese , was specifically written to use CGI . RZA declined to subtitle the message for English audiences . The action scenes resulted in several injuries , and Bautista suffered raw and bleeding arms from RZA 's sandpaper @-@ like prop iron fists during their fight scene .
= = = Marketing = = =
RZA launched an 11 @-@ date music concert called " The Iron Fists Tour " to promote the film in association with Rock the Bells and Guerilla Union . It featured performances by members of Wu @-@ Tang Clan and other artists . The tour began on October 3 , 2012 , and visited several North American cities including New York City , Baltimore , Chicago , Los Angeles , and Las Vegas . An animated short film about the blacksmith 's journey to China and his first meeting with Brass Body , which RZA narrated , was released on October 20 , 2012 , as a prequel to the film . 16 heavily stylized posters , each by a different artist , were placed in outdoor locations in several North American cities and were designed to allow pedestrians to remove and keep them .
The marketing campaign sponsored the 2012 BET Hip Hop Awards , star Bautista 's debut mixed martial arts debut fight at Classic Entertainment and Sports : Real Pain in October 2012 , and the release of the video game Assassin 's Creed III . The film premiered in Los Angeles and New York City , and directly targeted minority demographics . RZA promoted the film at the Hispanic @-@ owned Martial Arts History Museum in Burbank , California and an original Spanish @-@ dub viral video was also released . RZA targeted African @-@ American audiences by promoting the film on rapper Snoop Dogg 's YouTube channel . An online awareness campaign included partnerships with Machinima Inc . , hip @-@ hop news site Global Grind , Ultimate Fighting Championship , IGN and Spotify .
= = Music = =
The film features music from The Black Keys , Kanye West , Wiz Khalifa , My Chemical Romance , John Frusciante and Chinese singer Sally Yeh . RZA also developed new tracks based on excerpts from Wu @-@ Tang Clan master tracks provided by Sony Music , and songs performed by William Bell , Isaac Hayes and Mable John , which Stax Records provided . Composer Howard Drossin wrote the original musical cues for the film .
RZA had not initially set out to score the film ; he inserted temporary tracks of songs he wanted to use . After watching the temporary @-@ track cut of the film , the music was found to be unsuitable , and it was suggested that RZA provide the music . RZA sought Tarantino 's help with the score after he helped Tarantino with the score for Kill Bill . Tarantino also suggested RZA entirely produce the score . RZA and Drossin developed and finalized the score . They then developed the film 's soundtrack , which was scheduled for release on October 23 , 2012 and features 15 songs from the film including original songs by Kanye West , the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Talib Kweli , Ghostface Killah , Pusha T , Raekwon , and collaborations by RZA with The Black Keys and Flatbush Zombies . The character Jack Knife , who was influenced by rapper Ol ' Dirty Bastard , has a theme tune featuring a jaw harp cue reminiscent of the artist 's song " Shimmy Shimmy Ya . " The blacksmith is represented by cues from Isaac Hayes ' music .
= = Release = =
The Man with the Iron Fists premiered on October 25 , 2012 , at Mann 's Chinese 6 theater in Hollywood . David Bautista attended in a yellow spandex suit , which he wore as a tribute to Bruce Lee , who wore a similar outfit in Game of Death ( 1972 ) . The film was released in North America on November 2 , 2012 .
= = = Box office = = =
The Man with the Iron Fists grossed $ 15 @,@ 634 @,@ 090 from North America and $ 4 @,@ 621 @,@ 223 from markets elsewhere , for a worldwide total of approximately $ 20 @,@ 255 @,@ 313 . Pre @-@ release tracking in North America for the week before release estimated that the film would attract a mostly male audience and would earn between $ 7 million and $ 10 million during its opening weekend . The Man with the Iron Fists earned $ 3 million during its opening day , and during its opening weekend the film earned $ 7 @.@ 9 million from 1 @,@ 868 theaters – an average of $ 4 @,@ 235 per theater — finishing fourth behind holdover Argo ( $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) , and fellow new releases Flight ( $ 25 million ) and Wreck @-@ It Ralph ( $ 49 @.@ 1 million ) . The largest demographic of the opening weekend audience was under 30 ( 53 % ) and male ( 64 % ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received mixed reviews from critics . It has garnered a 49 % approval rating from 84 critics — an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 out of 10 — on the review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , which said , " Messy kung @-@ fu homage The Man with the Iron Fists demonstrates a slavish affection for the genre it mimics , for better or worse . " Metacritic provides a score of 51 out of 100 from 18 critics , which indicates " mixed or average " reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was " C + " on an A + to F scale .
Variety 's Andrew Barker called the film endearing and engagingly enthusiastic , and said it is " more fun than it ought to be " . Barker considered RZA 's on @-@ screen role to be too withdrawn to carry the central character role , but praised the supporting performances , especially those of Le 's crime lord and Crowe , who Barker said " smirkingly goes for broke to an extent that viewers haven 't seen from him since , well ... ever . " Barker also praised the film 's score , but was critical of the script 's uneven tone . The New York Times 's Manohla Dargis called it an erratically enjoyable product of a deep cinephile passion for the martial arts genre . Dargis praised Crowe 's performance and Byron Mann 's " gaudy baddie with heavy @-@ metal hair and a psycho grin " , but considered RZA 's central role a mistake , saying " with his sleepy eyes and an affect so laid @-@ back ... [ he ] is too recessive a screen presence to make the character pop , much less hold your interest " . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin credited RZA 's conceptualization of the " rich , bloody , dense universe he created down to the most insignificant details " , and praised RZA 's " powerful inner calm " and Crowe 's " defiantly theatrical turn " .
The Los Angeles Times ' Betsy Sharkey called it a martial @-@ arts spectacle that " may just be one of the best bad movies ever . " Sharkey said that some uneven performances and lack of refinement were the result of RZA 's lack of directing experience , but appreciated the choreography of the " extreme action " and the film 's visual aesthetic , which she described as " a blend of French Baroque and ancient China " . Sharkey said that the plot " goes seriously off @-@ course " when expanding on the Blacksmith 's history . The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy said that the film is " sufficiently well done and amusing enough to satisfy the appetites of fans who mainline this sort of thing , " but considered that in directly acting as an homage to the genre , it lacked any stylistic inspiration or imaginative flair to reinvent it . McCarthy however praised the imaginative weapon designs , and the performances of Lucy Liu and Crowe . The Village Voice 's Nick Pinkerton said " the action scenes are often too cluttered for legibility , and , curious to say of a movie made by a musician , the film has broad swaths without tempo " , and added that it has a homemade charm that he found " curiously touching " .
USA Today 's Scott Bowles was critical of the film , awarding it 1 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 . He said that the film is " heavy on bloody kung fu action ... and light on just about everything else " , that it " doesn 't have enough tension to be taken seriously , or enough laughs to be taken lightly " , and called it " slick and hip " . Bowles wrote that the film has " beautifully choreographed moments , and the action sequences won 't disappoint any fans of slow @-@ motion fistfights and arteries that gush like fire hydrants " . Independent film critic Emanuel Levy wrote that Crowe 's " commanding performance " and his chemistry with Liu lift the film slightly above the routine . Levy said that the film is an " ultra @-@ violent movie that blends thrilling martial arts sequences , orchestrated and executed by some of the masters of this specific milieu , with a semi @-@ involving tale " that would be appreciated by a young , indiscriminating audience . Leonard Maltin of IndieWire said that " RZA 's understated performance isn 't bad , but his staging of action leaves something to be desired " , and that the film imitates earlier kung @-@ fu films , which it fails to improve upon .
= = = Home media = = =
The Man with the Iron Fists was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and digital download on February 12 , 2013 in North America . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions contain the theatrical release version of the film , an unrated cut containing approximately twelve minutes of additional footage , deleted scenes and three featurettes : " A Look Inside The Man with the Iron Fists " , " A Path to the East " , and " On the Set with RZA " .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel was announced by RZA in an interview with the title The Man with the Iron Fists : Sting of the Scorpion but revealed that he 's not directing the sequel , instead Roel Reine will direct the film as RZA , Rick Yune , Zhu Zhu , Andrew Lin and Grace Huang will reprise their roles as the Blacksmith , X @-@ Blade , Chi Chi and The Gemini Twins , joining the cast are Dustin Nguyen , Cary Tagawa , Carl Ng and Simon Yin . The sequel was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on April 14 , 2015 .
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= Delaware Route 34 =
Delaware Route 34 ( DE 34 ) , also known as Faulkland Road , is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from an intersection with unnumbered Duncan Road , just west of DE 41 , north of Prices Corner to DE 100 near Elsmere . Along the way , the route intersects DE 41 and DE 141 as it passes through suburban areas to the west of Wilmington . The road was paved in the 1930s and designated DE 34 in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
DE 34 begins at an intersection with Duncan Road north of Prices Corner and heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Faulkland Road through wooded areas and homes . The route intersects DE 41 before it crosses Red Clay Creek and the Wilmington and Western Railroad . The road continues east through suburban neighborhoods , crossing Centerville Road . Farther east , DE 34 runs through residential and commercial areas as it comes to an intersection with DE 141 . Past this junction , the route passes to the south of DuPont 's Chestnut Run Plaza research facility . DE 34 crosses an East Penn Railroad line and heads between two cemeteries before ending at DE 100 north of Elsmere , just west of the western city limit of Wilmington .
DE 34 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 10 @,@ 744 vehicles at the DE 100 intersection to a low of 3 @,@ 874 vehicles at the DE 41 intersection . None of DE 34 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 34 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1936 , the road was paved . DE 34 was designated between Duncan Road and DE 100 by 1976 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Greek ironclad Psara =
Psara ( Greek : Θ / Κ Ψαρά ) was a steel @-@ built ironclad warship named for one of the Aegean Sea islands that played a key role in the war at sea during the Greek War of Independence . The final vessel of the Hydra class , she was ordered in 1885 in response to a crisis in the Balkans and Ottoman naval expansion . The ship was launched in 1889 and delivered to Greece by 1902 . She was armed with a main battery of three 10 @.@ 8 in ( 270 mm ) guns and five 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) guns , and had a top speed of 17 kn ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .
Psara and her sisters saw extensive service with the Greek Navy . They participated in the Greco – Turkish War in 1897 until the Great Powers intervened and prevented the Greek Navy from capitalizing on their superiority over the Ottoman Navy . Psara saw action in the First Balkan War at the Naval Battle of Elli and was present at the Naval Battle of Lemnos , but was too slow to actively engage the Ottoman forces . She did not see action during World War I , and was reduced to a training ship for stokers after the end of the war . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1932 .
= = Construction = =
In 1885 , Greece ordered three new ironclads of the Hydra class . Psara was ordered from the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in Le Havre , France during the premiership of Charilaos Trikoupis . The ship , named for the island of Psara , was launched in 1890 , and by 1892 , she and her sister @-@ ships Spetsai and Hydra were delivered to the Greek fleet . The ship was 334 feet 8 inches ( 102 @.@ 01 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 51 ft 10 in ( 15 @.@ 80 m ) and a mean draft of 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 808 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 732 long tons ; 5 @,@ 300 short tons ) as built . She was powered by a pair of steam engines of unknown type ; they were rated at 6 @,@ 700 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) .
Psara 's main battery consisted of three 10 @.@ 8 in ( 270 mm ) guns . Two guns were mounted forward in barbettes on either side of the forward superstructure ; these were L / 34 guns . The third gun , a L / 28 gun , was placed in a turret aft . The secondary battery consisted of four 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) L / 36 guns in casemates were mounted below the forward main battery , and a fifth 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was placed on the centerline on the same deck as the main battery . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included four 3 @.@ 4 in ( 86 mm ) L / 22 guns , four 3 @-@ pounder guns , four 1 @-@ pounder guns , and six 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannons . The ship was also armed with three 14 in ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes . The ship was armored with a mix of Creusot and compound steel . The main belt was 12 in ( 300 mm ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armor .
= = Service history = =
Psara saw limited action in the Greco – Turkish War in 1897 , as the Royal Hellenic Navy was unable to make use of its superiority over the Ottoman Navy . The Ottoman Navy had remained in port during the conflict , but a major naval intervention of the Great Powers prevented the Greeks from capitalizing on their superiority . The conflict was centered on the island of Crete , which was the object of an international naval demonstration in 1897 – 1898 ; the Great Powers mediated a solution to the conflict that saw Crete returned to Ottoman control , but with a Greek prince . In 1897 – 1900 , Psara and her sister @-@ ships were partially rearmed ; Psara was modified at the La Seyne shipyard . Their small @-@ caliber guns were replaced with one 3 @.@ 9 in ( 99 mm ) gun forward , eight 9 @-@ pounder guns , four 3 @-@ pounders , and ten 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannon . One of the 14 @-@ inch torpedo tubes was replaced with a 15 in ( 380 mm ) weapon . In 1908 – 1910 , the old 5 @.@ 9 in guns were replaced with new , longer L / 45 models .
The Balkan League , of which Greece was a member , declared war on the Ottoman Empire in October 1912 . Two months later , the Ottoman fleet attacked the Greek navy , in an attempt to disrupt the naval blockade surrounding the Dardanelles . The Ottoman fleet , which included Turgut Reis , Barbaros Hayreddin , the outdated ironclad battleships Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , nine destroyers , and six torpedo boats , sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 . The smaller ships remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , remaining near to the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and Psara and her sisters , had been sailing from the island of Imbros to the patrol line outside the straits . When the Ottomans were sighted , the Greeks altered course to the northeast in order to block the advance of their opponents . In the ensuing Naval Battle of Elli , the Ottoman ships opened fire first , at 9 : 50 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yards ; the Greeks returned fire ten minutes later , by which time the range had decreased significantly to 8 @,@ 500 yards . At 10 : 04 , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and steamed for the safety of the straits in a disorganized withdrawal . Within an hour , the routed Ottoman ships had withdrawn into the Dardanelles .
The Naval Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean sea ; the assumption was that the Greeks would dispatch Georgios Averof to hunt down Hamidiye . Despite the threat to Greek lines of communication posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof from her position . Georgios Averof appeared approximately 12 miles from Lemnos ; when the powerful Greek ship was spotted , the Ottomans turned to retreat with Georgios Averof in pursuit . She scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships before breaking off the chase . Psara and her sisters were too slow to keep up with Georgios Averof , and played no part in the engagement . Since Georgios Averof was needed to keep the blockade , Psara and four destroyers were detached to hunt down Hamidiye . Psara was much slower than the Turkish cruiser , and had no real chance of catching her , and Hamidiye remained at large until the end of the war in May 1913 .
By 1914 , Psara had been withdrawn from active duty to serve as a training ship for engine room personnel . At the outbreak of World War I at the end of July 1914 , Greece 's pro @-@ German monarch , Constantine I , decided to remain neutral . The Entente powers landed troops in Salonika in 1915 , which was a source of tension between France and Greece . Ultimately , the French seized the Greek Navy on 19 October 1916 ; the heavy units of the Greek fleet were disarmed and placed in reserve for the remainder of the war . After the end of the war , Psara became a school for quartermasters and later a school for junior boys at Poros , until she was sold for scrap in 1932 .
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= New Jersey Route 167 =
Route 167 is a short , 0 @.@ 77 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 24 km ) long unsigned state highway in Atlantic and Burlington Counties in New Jersey . The route is one of the few discontinuous state highways in New Jersey , split by wetlands , the Garden State Parkway and the Mullica River . Although the alignment is registered by the New Jersey Department of Transportation as 2 @.@ 76 miles ( 4 @.@ 44 km ) highway , the amount of roadway is considerably shorter . The route begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 in Port Republic , where it continues along Old New York Road to an end of roadway at the Parkway embankment . Across the Mullica River , Route 167 continues at a gate for wetlands , heading northward to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 in Bass River Township .
The route originated as part of New Jersey Route 4 during construction of a new state highway in 1917 . Route 4 was built northward to the current Route 167 northern terminus in 1926 , which was designated as part of U.S. Route 9 that year . The highway was 2 @.@ 64 miles ( 4 @.@ 25 km ) long along an iron truss bridge . The route remained intact until construction of the Garden State Parkway and a new bridge over the Mullica River in 1948 . When the bridge was finished , Route 9 was realigned off the roadway and the prior alignment became Route 167 during the New Jersey state highway renumbering . The route was split twice since 1953 , first by the removal of the old Mullica River bridge in 1962 as part of a sale to the National Park Service for a refuge in Virginia , then the northern portion was dismantled except for a 0 @.@ 12 miles ( 0 @.@ 19 km ) long alignment for a wetland mitigation project . Today , the route remains in half and the road is still maintained by the state .
= = Route description = =
Route 167 's southern terminus is located at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( New York Road ) in the city of Port Republic . The route then intersects with the original alignment of New York Road , now known today as Old New York Road . Route 167 crosses over a stream , intersecting with a privately maintained roadway soon after . The route approaches the Garden State Parkway , but ends at a gate just nearby . The purpose of the gate is to block off the roadway , which previously crossed underneath .
After a 1 @.@ 99 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 20 km ) gap in the roadway , which consists of a former bridge over the Mullica River dismantled and moved to Virginia and bridges removed for wetlands mitigation in the marshes just north , and the orphaned roads in between , which are visible from the Garden State Parkway to the west , Route 167 resurfaces in Bass River Township as a short dead @-@ end street only approximately 800 ft ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long , serving only a few homes . The route intersects with Bogan Lane and comes to an end at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 . The route 's official speed limit , which is not signed , is 25 mph ( 30 km / h ) at its southern segment and 50 mph ( 70 km / h ) in its northern segment . However the Straight Line Diagrams produced by the Department of Transportation list both segments as 50 mph ( 70 km / h ) .
= = History = =
Route 167 originates as a part of New Jersey Route 4 from Absecon to Rahway , designated in the 1920s . The route remained intact for several years , receiving the co @-@ designation of U.S. Route 9 in 1926 , when the nationwide system was assigned . In 1927 , the New Jersey State Highway Department had a statewide state highway renumbering , extending Route 4 in both directions . The two routes remained intact until the construction of the Garden State Parkway 's tenth section from New Jersey Route 43 in Absecon to Dover Road in 1948 . That year , a bridge over the Mullica River for the Parkway , in which Routes 4 and 9 were realigned onto , was constructed , replacing the alignment over the old structure . During construction , Route 4 and Route 9 was realigned onto a temporary alignment to the older structure , wnile the old one remained unnumbered . The bridge was finished in 1954 , and Route 9 was realigned onto the new bridge . ( Route 4 was truncated back to Bergen County during the 1953 state highway renumbering . )
Upon the realignment of U.S. Route 9 , the State Highway Department renumbered the former alignment as Route 167 . The route , originally 55 feet ( 17 m ) wide , was shortened during the construction of the new alignments , which also involved taking homes and properties from the highway . The former portion became a gravel road upon completion in Port Republic . Route 167 now continued along the former alignment , using the iron truss bridge built in 1917 for Route 4 to the intersection with U.S. Route 9 in Bass River Township . The old iron truss bridge lasted several years after the realignment , lasting past 1960 . The truss bridge was dismantled in 1962 , and sold to the state of Virginia and the National Park Service for the National Wildlife Refuge . The route remained intact for a couple decades , with a gap in the highway . The State Highway Department registered the alignment of Route 167 in 1969 as 2 @.@ 64 miles ( 4 @.@ 25 km ) long , although there was a gap in the roadway .
The route 's northern half from the Mullica River , constructed in 1926 as part of Route 4 , was dismantled in 1984 for Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge . As of 2007 , Route 167 is unsigned , running from U.S. Route 9 in Port Republic to the bank of the Garden State Parkway at the Mullica River Bridge on its south side and from U.S. Route 9 to a gate on the north side . The straight line diagrams also mention the length of the roadway being 2 @.@ 76 miles ( 4 @.@ 44 km ) long , although only 0 @.@ 77 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 24 km ) is still roadway .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Yamashita Yoshiaki =
Yamashita Yoshitsugu ( 山下 義韶 , 16 February 1865 – 26 October 1935 , also known as Yamashita Yoshiaki ) , was the first person to have been awarded 10th degree red belt ( jūdan ) rank in Kodokan judo . He was also a pioneer of judo in the United States .
= = Early years = =
Yamashita was born in Kanazawa , then the capital of the powerful Kaga Domain . His father was of the samurai class . As a boy , Yamashita trained in the traditional ( koryū ) Japanese martial arts schools of Yōshin @-@ ryū and Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū jujutsu . In August 1884 , he joined the Kodokan judo dojo of Kano Jigoro ( 嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō , 1860 – 1938 ) , as its nineteenth member . He advanced to first degree black belt ( shodan ) rank in three months , fourth degree ( yondan ) ranking in two years , and sixth degree ( rokudan ) in fourteen years . He was a member of the Kodokan team that competed with Tokyo Metropolitan Police jujutsu teams during the mid @-@ 1880s , and during the 1890s , his jobs included teaching judo at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy and Tokyo Imperial University ( modern University of Tokyo ) .
= = The Four Guardians of Kōdōkan = =
When Kanō Jigorō began to develop judo from jiu @-@ jitsu , his efforts were met with fierce opposition from jiu @-@ jitsu practitioners . However , Kano drew a loyal following that included exceptional fighters . Hence the term " Four Guardians of Kōdōkan " came into existence , referring to Yamashita Yoshiaki along with Tsunejiro Tomita , Yokoyama Sakujiro , and Saigō Shirō .
= = Introducing judo to America = =
In February 1902 , Seattle @-@ based railroad executive Samuel Hill decided that his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son , James Nathan , should learn judo , which he had apparently seen or heard about while on a business trip to Japan . In Hill 's words , the idea was for the boy to learn " the ideals of the Samurai class , for that class of men is a noble , high @-@ minded class . They look beyond the modern commercial spirit . " Hill spoke to a Japanese American business associate , Masajiro Furuya , for advice . Furuya referred Hill to Kazuyoshi Shibata , who was a student at Yale University . Shibata told Hill about Yamashita , and on 21 July 1903 , Hill wrote a letter to Yamashita , asking him to come to Seattle at Hill 's expense . On 26 August 1903 , Yamashita replied , writing that he , his wife , and one of his students ( Saburo Kawaguchi ) would leave for Seattle on 22 September 1903 .
The ship carrying the Yamashita party docked in Seattle on 8 October 1903 . A week later , on 17 October 1903 , Yamashita and Kawaguchi gave a judo exhibition at a Seattle theater that Hill had rented for the evening . Attendance was by invitation only , and guests included Sam Hill 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Mary Hill ( wife of railroader J.J. Hill ) , Senator Russell Alger , and assorted Sportswriters . Afterwards , Hill took the Yamashita party east to Washington , D.C. , where Mrs. Hill and young James Nathan were then living . Meanwhile , the favorable publicity surrounding the event caused Japanese Americans living in Seattle to start their own judo club , known as the Seattle Dojo .
Soon after arriving in the District of Columbia , Yamashita visited the Japanese Legation , and in March 1904 , the Japanese naval attaché , Commander Takeshita Isamu , took Yamashita to the White House to meet President Theodore Roosevelt . Roosevelt practiced wrestling and boxing while in the White House , and he had received jujutsu jackets from William Sturgis Bigelow and jujutsu lessons from J. J. O 'Brien , a Philadelphia police officer who had studied jujutsu while living in Nagasaki . Roosevelt was impressed with Yamashita 's skill , and during March and April 1904 , Yamashita gave judo lessons to the President and interested family and staff in a room at the White House . Subsequently , at other locations , Yamashita and his wife Fude gave lessons to prominent American women , to include Martha Blow Wadsworth ( sister of Kindergarten pioneer Susan Blow ) , Hallie Elkins ( wife of Senator Stephen Benton Elkins ) , and Grace Davis Lee ( Hallie Elkins ' sister ) , and their children .
In January 1905 , Yamashita got a job teaching judo at the U.S. Naval Academy . There were about 25 students in his class , including a future admiral , Robert L. Ghormley . The position ended at the end of the school term , and Yamashita was not rehired for the following year . When President Roosevelt heard of this , he spoke to the Secretary of the Navy , who in turn told the Superintendent of the Naval Academy to rehire Yamashita . Consequently , Yamashita 's judo was taught at the Naval Academy throughout the first six months of 1906 .
= = Later life = =
At the end of the 1906 academic year , Yamashita left the United States for Japan . On 24 July 1906 , he participated in a conference in Kyoto that had been called for the purpose of standardizing judo forms ( kata ) that could be taught in Japanese public schools .
From the 1910s to the 1930s , Yamashita worked as a judo teacher at Tokyo Higher Normal School ( 東京高等師範学校 , Tōkyō Kōtō Shihan Gakkō ) . In this capacity , he often attended judo tournaments and exhibitions . He also taught judo to the Tokyo Municipal Police . Thus , from September 1924 to April 1926 , Yamashita was part of a committee that developed a new kata for Japanese police .
An example of Yamashita 's teaching method is the advice :
Yamashita 's last major public appearance was probably the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Kodokan , an event which took place in November 1934 . British judoka Sarah Mayer described Yamashita 's participation as follows :
His ultimate promotion to 10th dan was posthumous .
= = Video footage = =
Koshiki no kata Yoshiaki Yamashita with Jigoro Kano
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= Mladen Stojanović =
Mladen Stojanović ( Serbian Cyrillic : Младен Стојановић ; 7 April 1896 – 1 April 1942 ) was a Bosnian Serb physician who led a detachment of Partisans on and around Mount Kozara in northwestern Bosnia during World War II in Yugoslavia . He was posthumously bestowed the Order of the People 's Hero .
At fifteen , Stojanović became an activist in a group of student organizations called Young Bosnia , which strongly opposed Austria @-@ Hungary 's occupation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . In 1912 , Stojanović was inducted into Narodna Odbrana , an association founded in Serbia with the goal of organizing guerrilla resistance to Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina 's annexation by Austria @-@ Hungary . Stojanović was arrested by the Austro @-@ Hungarian authorities in July 1914 , and although he was sentenced to 16 years ' imprisonment , he was pardoned in 1917 . He graduated as a Doctor of Medicine after World War I , and in 1929 , opened a private practice in the town of Prijedor . In September 1940 , he became a member of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( KPJ ) .
Following the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers and their creation of the Independent State of Croatia , Stojanović was arrested at the behest of the Ustaše , Croatia 's fascist ruling party . He escaped prison and went to Kozara , where he joined fellow communists that had escaped from Prijedor . The KPJ chose Stojanović to lead the communist uprising in Prijedor . The uprising began on 30 July 1941 , although neither Stojanović nor any of the other communists had much control over it at this stage . The Serb villagers of the district seized control of a number of villages and threatened Prijedor , which was defended by the Germans , Ustaše , and Croatian Home Guards . In August 1941 , Stojanović was recognised as the principal leader of the Kozara insurgents , who were then organised into Partisan military units . Under Stojanović 's direction , the Kozara Partisans began attacking the fascists from the end of September 1941 . In early November 1941 , all Partisan units in Kozara were merged into the 2nd Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment , commanded by Stojanović . By the end of the year , most of Kozara — covering about 2 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 970 sq mi ) — was controlled by Stojanović 's detachment .
On 30 December 1941 , Stojanović arrived in the Grmeč district , which was in the zone of responsibility of the 1st Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment . The Italian troops operating in that area portrayed themselves as protectors of the Serb people . Stojanović 's tasks was to counter such propaganda and mobilise the Partisans of the 1st Krajina Detachment to fight against the Italians . He stayed in the area until mid @-@ February 1942 , by which time the Partisan leadership of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina considered he had completed his tasks successfully . At the end of February 1942 , Stojanović was appointed chief of staff of the Operational Headquarters for Bosanska Krajina — a unified command of all Partisan forces in the regions of Bosanska Krajina and central Bosnia . The Operational Headquarters ' main task was to counter the rising influence of the Serb nationalist Chetniks in those regions . On 5 March 1942 , Stojanović was severely wounded in a Chetnik ambush . He was taken to a field hospital in the village of Jošavka . Members of the Jošavka Partisan Company defected to the Chetniks on the night of 31 March , and took Stojanović prisoner . The next night , a group of Chetniks killed him . In April 1942 , the 2nd Krajina Detachment was named " Mladen Stojanović " in his honour , and a few months later he was posthumously awarded the Order of the People 's Hero . After the war , his service to the Partisan cause was commemorated by the construction of a memorial in Prijedor , the naming of streets , public buildings and a park after him , in song and in film .
= = Early life = =
Stojanović was the third child and the first son of Serbian Orthodox priest Simo Stojanović and his wife Jovanka . He was born in Prijedor on 7 April 1896 . Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina was then occupied by Austria @-@ Hungary ; Prijedor was located in Bosanska Krajina , the north @-@ western region of the province . Stojanović 's father was the third generation of his family to serve as a Serbian Orthodox priest . He had graduated from a theology faculty , becoming the first in the family to attain a higher level of education . Simo was active in the political struggle for ecclesiastical and educational autonomy for the Serbs in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Mladen Stojanović 's maternal grandfather was a Serbian Orthodox priest from Dubica , Teodor Vujasinović ; he had participated in Pecija 's revolt against the Ottoman Empire .
Stojanović completed his elementary education at the Serbian Elementary School in Prijedor in 1906 . In 1907 , he finished the first grade of his secondary education at the gymnasium in Sarajevo , before he entered the gymnasium in Tuzla , where he would complete the remaining seven grades . His brother Sreten Stojanović — who would become a prominent sculptor — joined him at the Tuzla gymnasium in 1908 .
= = Young Bosnia activist = =
Austria @-@ Hungary annexed Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina on 6 October 1908 , which caused the Annexation Crisis in Europe . The Kingdom of Serbia protested and mobilised its army , but then on 31 March 1909 , it formally accepted the annexation . In 1911 , Mladen Stojanović became a member of the secret association of students of the Tuzla gymnasium called Narodno Jedinstvo ( National Unity ) ; its members described it as a youth society of nationalists . It was one of a group of diverse student organisations later called Young Bosnia , which strongly opposed Austria @-@ Hungary 's rule over Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . The activists of Young Bosnia were Bosnian Serbs , Muslims , and Croats , though most were Serbs . The first organisation regarded to be part of this group was established in 1904 by Serb students of the Mostar gymnasium . 1905 saw considerable political unrest among the Serb and Croat students of the Tuzla gymnasium . Although the provincial government imposed the name " Bosnian " on the language of the province ( Serbo @-@ Croatian ) , the students demonstratively termed it as Serbian or Croatian depending on their ethnic affiliation .
Young Bosnia 's activists regarded literature as indispensable to revolution , and most of them wrote poems , short stories , or critiques . Stojanović wrote poems , and read the works of Petar Kočić , Aleksa Šantić , Vladislav Petković Dis , Sima Pandurović , Milan Rakić , and later the works of Russian authors . In his final years at the gymnasium , he read Plato , Aristotle , Rousseau , Bakunin , Nietzsche , Jaurès , Le Bon , Ibsen , and Marinetti . National Unity held meetings at which its members presented lectures and discussed current issues concerning the Serbian people of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . All members of the association were Serbs . Generally , Stojanović 's lectures were about educating people on practical issues of health and the economy . During the summer break of 1911 , Stojanović travelled across Bosanska Krajina lecturing in villages . One of the aims of Young Bosnia was to eliminate the backwardness of their country .
In early @-@ to @-@ mid 1912 , Stojanović and his schoolmate Todor Ilić joined Narodna Odbrana ( National Defence ) , an association founded in Serbia in December 1908 on the initiative of Branislav Nušić . It aimed to organise a guerrilla resistance to the Austrian annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and to spread nationalist propaganda . National Defence soon established a network of local committees throughout Serbia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Its members from the latter territory gathered intelligence on the Austrian army and passed it to the Serbian secret service .
Stojanović and Ilić travelled illegally to Serbia during the summer break of 1912 to receive military training that National Defence organised for its members . They stayed for several days in Belgrade , the capital of Serbia , where they met Gavrilo Princip , another activist of Young Bosnia who was also a member of National Defence . Stojanović and Ilić then spent a month at army barracks in Vranje in southern Serbia , undergoing military training under the command of Vojin Popović , a famous Chetnik guerrilla fighter . When they returned to school , they resumed their activities with National Unity . Its members decided that Muslims should also be drawn into the association . After Trifko Grabež was expelled from the Tuzla gymnasium for slapping a teacher during a quarrel , the association organised a school strike . Most of the students who participated were Serbs ; the strike gained little support among students of other ethnicities . The school took disciplinary measures against Ilić and Stojanović , who were regarded as the main organisers of the strike , and Ilić lost his scholarship .
In the autumn of 1913 , Stojanović commenced the final year of his secondary education . National Unity was visited that year by a group of activists of Young Bosnia who were university students in Prague , Vienna , and Switzerland . They held a series of lectures for the members of the association , explaining their views on the current political situation , and promoting the unity of South Slavic peoples in their struggle to liberate themselves from Austria @-@ Hungary . These lectures influenced Stojanović to adopt a Yugoslavist stance . At the beginning of 1914 , Ilić and Stojanović became , respectively , the president and the vice @-@ president of National Unity , which numbered 34 members , including four Muslims and four Croats . At that time , National Unity was one of the most active groups of Young Bosnia .
According to Vid Gaković , who was a member of National Unity in 1914 , Stojanović was an ambitious and talented young man . He was determined that his voice would be heard and he liked being the centre of attention . He was severe to younger members of the association , whom he sometimes sharply criticised . Nevertheless , younger students liked being around him . Gaković described him as a tall and handsome man who greatly cared about his appearance ; he wore a bow tie and a broad @-@ brimmed hat .
On the morning of 28 June 1914 , in Sarajevo , Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria — heir presumptive to the throne of Austria @-@ Hungary — and his wife Sophie . Princip was a member of a group of conspirators , which included Trifko Grabež ; the whole group was arrested by the Austrian police after the assassination . Blaming Serbia for the attack , Austria @-@ Hungary declared war a month later , initiating World War I. Shortly after the assassination , Stojanović wrote in his notebook a quote from Giuseppe Mazzini : " There is no more sacred thing in the world than the duty of a conspirator , who becomes an avenger of humanity and the apostle of permanent natural laws . " On 29 June , Stojanović took his final exams at the Tuzla gymnasium . Soon afterwards , he and Ilić wrote a draft of their manifesto to South Slavic youth , referring to Young Bosnia in a sentence :
Зар не осјећате , синови једне Југославије , да у крви лежи наш живот и да је атентат бог богова Нације , јер он доказује да живи Млада Босна , да живи елеменат којег притишће несносни баласт империјалистички , елеменат који је готов да гине .
Vojislav Vasiljević , a close friend of Princip 's , was a member of National Unity , and when the Austrian police searched his notebooks they found a list of members . Vasiljević kept this information as evidence of the payment of membership fees . All those on the list , including Stojanović , were arrested on 3 July 1914 . Soon after , Stojanović 's younger brother Sreten was arrested for anti @-@ Austrian revolutionary correspondence between himself and Ilić . Beside the conspirators behind the assassination , six groups of activists of Young Bosnia were arrested . The group containing the members of National Unity was called the Tuzla group . The criminal investigation against them began on 9 July , and lasted for more than a year . They were kept in prisons in Tuzla , Banja Luka , and Bihać . In the Banja Luka prison , they were all kept in the same room , enabling them to organise political and literary discussions . They issued a comic and satirical magazine , called " Mala paprika " ( Little Paprika ) , the copies of which they made using carbon paper . A number of copies found their way out of the prison .
In the Bihać prison , the Tuzla group created a literary magazine named " Almanah " ( Almanac ) . In its first and only issue , Mladen contributed several poems and an essay . Its editor @-@ in @-@ chief was Ilić , while Sreten Stojanović and Kosta Hakman contributed illustrations . The Stojanović brothers and Ilić learned French during their incarceration . The trial of the Tuzla group was held between 13 and 30 September 1915 in Bihać . Ilić was sentenced to death , Mladen to sixteen years ' imprisonment , and the other members of the group received sentences between ten months and fifteen years . Especially aggravating for Ilić and Mladen was their participation in the 1912 military training in Serbia . The Austrians became aware of this because their army temporarily took Loznica in western Serbia at the beginning of World War I , and there they found National Defence documents containing records of all Bosnians that attended the training .
Mladen and other members of the Tuzla group were sent to the prison in Zenica . Three months after they were sentenced they were joined by Ilić , whose death penalty had been commuted to 20 years ' imprisonment . In the Zenica prison , each convict had to spend the first three months in solitary confinement . This was very hard on Mladen , who became mentally unwell and became so emaciated that Ilić could hardly recognise him . He recovered and took a course in shoe @-@ making which was given in the prison . Afterwards , he fell seriously ill and had to undergo surgery in the prison hospital . In late 1917 , the Austrian authorities pardoned all convicts of the Tuzla group except Ilić . Mladen went to his family in Prijedor . After a medical examination , he was declared unfit for army service due to his surgery and as a result was not drafted into the Austrian army . He entered the School of Medicine , University of Zagreb , shortly before the disintegration of Austria @-@ Hungary in November 1918 .
= = Interwar period = =
The Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes — renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 — was created on 1 December 1918 , and incorporated Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Stojanović continued studying medicine in Zagreb . As a former activist of Young Bosnia , he was offered a King 's scholarship but he refused it . In Zagreb , he reunited with his former schoolmate Nikola Nikolić , who had also been a member of National Unity . After his release from the Zenica prison , Nikolić was drafted into the Austrian army and sent to the Russian front where he surrendered to the Russians and participated in the October Revolution . Nikolić 's account of the revolution influenced Stojanović to adopt a more leftist stance . During this period , Stojanović 's favourite authors were Maksim Gorky and Miroslav Krleža . His professor of anatomy , Drago Perović , arranged for him to visit an anatomical institute in Vienna . Stojanović went there several times in 1921 and 1922 and befriended members of a leftist association of Yugoslav students at the Vienna University . When they held a protest against the king and government of Yugoslavia , Stojanović took part and delivered a speech . Behind the protest stood the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) .
Stojanović graduated as a Doctor of Medicine in 1926 , and he worked for two years as a trainee physician in Zagreb and Sarajevo . He then opened a private practice in Pučišća on the Adriatic island of Brač . In 1929 , he returned to Prijedor , where he opened a practice on the first floor of the Stojanović family house , where his mother had lived alone since his father 's death in 1926 . Stojanović soon became a popular figure in Prijedor ; his patients said that simply talking with him was curative . He treated poor people for free ; he once sent a homeless man to a hospital in Zagreb and paid for his surgery . Stojanović earned well and had a good standard of living . People from other areas of Bosanska Krajina also went to him for medical treatment . In villages around Prijedor , where brawls were common , rowdies sang about him :
In 1931 , Stojanović was contracted to the Prijedor branch of the state railway company to provide healthcare for its employees . In 1936 , he was contracted to an iron ore mining company in Ljubija , a town near Prijedor , and would visit the mining company clinic twice a week . He also taught hygiene at the gymnasium in Prijedor . Together with other intellectuals from the town , he gave lectures to the miners at their club in Ljubija . His lectures were usually about medical issues , but he also described the economic and social position of workers in more advanced countries . He socialised with the miners and treated their family members for free . He was very active socially , and also participated in sports . In 1932 , he founded the tennis club of Prijedor , which continues to bear his name . Stojanović once bought new kit for all members of the Rudar Ljubija football club . His contracts with the railway company and the mining company were both terminated in 1939 . The railway employees protested in Prijedor , and Stojanović 's contract with that company was subsequently renewed .
The Ljubija miners were on strike between 2 August and 8 September 1940 . Some of the leaders of the strike were members of a secret KPJ cell in Ljubija , which was formed in January 1940 . The KPJ had been outlawed in Yugoslavia since 1921 . The KPJ organisation of Banja Luka sent its experienced member Branko Babič to help the strike leaders . According to Babič , a communist from Prijedor introduced him to Stojanović at the beginning of September 1940 . Babič stayed for several days at the doctor 's house , running the strike . Seeing Stojanović as a communist sympathiser , Babič proposed that he join the KPJ . Stojanović at first declined , saying that he still had bourgeois habits , though he had read much of the Marxist literature . After further conversations with Babič , Stojanović agreed to become a member of the party .
At the end of September 1940 , Babič and all five members of the Ljubija cell held a meeting at which they unanimously decided to admit Stojanović into the KPJ . Babič held him in high esteem and regarded him as ardently devoted to the communist cause . Some communists , however , continued to refer to Stojanović as a communist sympathiser , and some regarded him as a " salon communist " .
= = Onset of World War II = =
On 6 April 1941 , Yugoslavia was invaded from all sides by the Axis powers , led by German forces . Stojanović was assigned as a physician to an infantry battalion based in Banja Luka . For several days after the invasion this battalion moved toward Dalmatia , before it completely disintegrated without fighting the enemy , and Stojanović returned to Prijedor . The Royal Yugoslav Army capitulated on 17 April , and the Axis powers proceeded to dismember Yugoslavia . Almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia were combined into a puppet state called the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . It was an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " , which was controlled by the fascist Ustaše led by Ante Pavelić . One of its policies was to eliminate the ethnic Serb population of the NDH through mass killings , expulsions and forced assimilation , and many Serbs fled from the NDH to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia .
These repressive measures included taking prominent Serbs hostage against Serb attacks . To avoid being taken as a hostage , Stojanović paid 100 @,@ 000 dinars to the Ustaše in Prijedor . Resistance began to emerge in occupied Yugoslavia ; royalists and Serbian nationalists under the leadership of then @-@ Colonel Draža Mihailović founded the Ravna Gora Movement , whose members were called Chetniks . The KPJ , led by Josip Broz Tito , prepared to rise to arms at a favourable moment . In the view of the KPJ , the fight against the Axis and its domestic collaborators would be a common fight of all Yugoslav peoples .
Operation Barbarossa , the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union , began on 22 June 1941 . On the same day , the Ustaše began arresting communists and their known sympathisers in the towns of Bosanska Krajina , including Prijedor . The communists had predicted this , and most of them avoided capture by escaping to the villages or hiding in the towns . Stojanović was one of the few communists arrested in Prijedor . He was imprisoned with the Serb hostages on the second floor of a school in the town . They were subjected to forced labour , being led each morning through the town to repair the road to Kozarac . The column of hostages was usually headed by Stojanović carrying a shovel on his shoulder . The Croatian Home Guards guarding the prison treated him well . While detained , Stojanović lectured a group of hostages about Marxism .
On the day of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union , the Executive Committee of the Communist International — headquartered in Moscow — telegraphed the Central Committee of the KPJ to take all measures to support and alleviate the struggle of the Soviet people , and to organise partisan detachments to fight the Axis in Yugoslavia . The Executive Committee also stressed that the fight , at the current stage , should not be about socialist revolution , but about the liberation from the Axis occupiers . In response to this appeal , the leaders of the KPJ decided on 4 July in Belgrade to launch a nationwide armed uprising , which began three days later in western Serbia . The members of the KPJ @-@ led forces were called Partisans , and their supreme commander was Tito . On 13 July , in Sarajevo , the KPJ Provincial Committee for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , headed by Svetozar Vukmanović , organised the province into military regions : Bosanska Krajina , Herzegovina , Tuzla , and Sarajevo .
The Prijedor communists were keen to rescue Stojanović from his imprisonment , but their attempts to bribe the Ustaše to release him failed . They also considered storming the school in which he was kept . On 17 July , just after midnight , Stojanović asked a guard to let him go to the toilet on the first floor of the school . The guard let him go and followed closely behind him . When they were halfway down the stairs , Stojanović shouted " Fire ! " as smoke came from a room on the second floor . During the commotion of the guards and hostages extinguishing the fire , Stojanović entered the toilet and escaped through the window . He went to the village of Orlovci , several kilometres from Prijedor , where he was accompanied by Rade Bašić — a young communist who had earlier escaped from the town . Bašić escorted Stojanović toward Mount Kozara ( 978 m ( 3 @,@ 209 ft ) high ) , north of the Prijedor plain .
After Stojanović 's escape , the Ustaše arrested his wife , Mira . His son , Vojin , born in 1940 , was cared for by Mira 's former husband . Mira was released from prison after several months , and she and Vojin went to Dubrovnik . Stojanović 's brothers and sisters had lived in Belgrade since before the war .
= = Yugoslav Partisan = =
= = = Kozara area = = =
= = = = July – August 1941 = = = =
On the morning of 19 July 1941 , Stojanović and Bašić arrived at the camp of the communists and their sympathisers who escaped from Prijedor , situated at Rajlića Kosa above the village of Malo Palančište . The news of Stojanović 's escape soon spread throughout the Prijedor district . The group , mostly in the early twenties , enjoyed an increase in their credibility and esteem since a well @-@ known and respected doctor had joined their camp . People from surrounding Serb villages brought food and other supplies to Stojanović and his young comrades . Stojanović gave speeches to the villagers , telling them to be prepared for an impending uprising and urging them to bring him rifles they were hiding in their homes . The camp at Rajlića Kosa was the first Partisan camp in the Kozara area .
Kozara , located in northern Bosanska Krajina and centred around Mount Kozara , covers about 2 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 970 square miles ) . In 1941 , the area had a population of nearly 200 @,@ 000 people . The villagers were mostly Serbs , and the towns in the area — the biggest of which was Prijedor — had a mixed Bosnian Muslim , Serb , and Croat population . Several villages were inhabited by ethnic Germans or Volksdeutsche . The economy of Kozara was dominated by agriculture , but there were about 6 @,@ 000 workers employed in a coal mine and several plants . The first communist cells in the area were established shortly before the Axis invasion , mostly in the towns . Kozara had seen four uprisings against the Ottomans during the 19th century .
On the night of 25 July 1941 , at Orlovci , Stojanović and seven other leading communists of Kozara had a meeting with Đuro Pucar , the head of the KPJ Regional Committee for Bosanska Krajina . Pucar told the assembled communists that military actions against the enemy should start as soon as possible . The actions should be of a guerrilla type , for which purpose Partisan detachments should be formed . Stojanović and Osman Karabegović were appointed to lead the uprising in the Prijedor district . On 27 July , in western Bosanska Krajina , Partisans took the town of Drvar , marking the beginning of the uprising in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . At this stage , the insurgents in Kozara were still not organised into military units . In the district of Prijedor , Stojanović and Karabegović had little control over the men from the villages who took up arms . Pucar referred to the district 's insurgents as the " Prijedor Company " , the bulk of which were villagers , numbering several hundred men . Many of them had no firearms .
According to Pucar , the Prijedor Company was directed to attack Ljubija . On 30 July , contrary to Stojanović 's direct order , the insurgents attacked Veliko Palančište and rescued fifteen hostages held by the Ustaše . The insurgents then advanced toward Prijedor and developed a position facing the town , which was defended by Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and German forces . A front line stabilised after three days of fighting , leaving the Prijedor Company in control of seven villages . Railway traffic between Ljubija and Zagreb was disrupted , stopping the export of iron ore from Ljubija to Germany . The uprising in Kozara also involved the districts of Dubica and Novi . By mid @-@ August , five detachments of Partisans had been formed within the territory held by the Kozara insurgents . These detachments , including the Prijedor Detachment commanded by Stojanović , together held the front line facing Kozarac , Prijedor , Lješljani , Dobrljin , Kostajnica , and Dubica .
The leaders of the uprising in Kozara met on 15 August 1941 in the village of Knežica . At the conference , Stojanović was recognised as the principal leader in Kozara ; this recognition mostly resulted from his pre @-@ war social status and good reputation among the people . It was concluded that forming a front line was a mistake because it was not consistent with guerrilla warfare . At some point during the conference , Stojanović stressed the importance of keeping as many enemy troops as possible in the area , so that they could not be sent to the Russian front to fight the Red Army . As the five detachments in the area were tied to their specific territories , it was decided that another detachment — which could operate anywhere in Kozara — should be formed . It was decided that Stojanović would command this new Kozara Detachment , and Karabegović would be the political commissar . It was promptly formed with about forty men . Carrying a red banner , the Kozara Detachment paraded for a couple of days through villages in the Partisan @-@ held territory . The villagers gathered and Stojanović delivered speeches .
Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and a German battalion from Banja Luka — about 10 @,@ 000 soldiers — attacked the Partisan @-@ held territory in Kozara on 18 August 1941 . The enemy troops broke through the Partisan front line and penetrated into the area . They burnt houses and looted cattle and grain in the villages . Some of the villagers became demoralised , and blamed the Partisans for their losses ; some placed white flags on their houses . The Partisan units retreated deeper into forested areas in the mountains . Stojanović led the Kozara Detachment toward Lisina , the highest peak of Kozara . In the evening , he assembled his men and told them that they were in the army of the KPJ and all peoples of Yugoslavia , so they could not allow themselves to be attached to any specific village or area . He advised those who could not detach themselves from their homes to lay down their weapons and leave . Several men left the detachment , which then moved toward Lisina where they organised a camp and spent some time in military training and political indoctrination . The attack of 18 August was the first counter @-@ insurgency operation in Kozara , and the Partisans emerged from it without significant losses .
= = = = September – December 1941 = = = =
The leaders of the Kozara uprising assembled again on 10 September 1941 , at the foot of Lisina . The five detachments of the Kozara Partisans were re @-@ arranged into three companies , possessing 217 rifles altogether . At the end of September , the Kozara Partisans began attacking NDH and German troops , initially targeting weaker elements . These operations gave them military experience and they also captured weapons and ammunition from the enemy . More men joined the Partisans , and two more companies had been formed in Kozara by the end of October . The Partisans gained control over a number of villages . After a reorganization , Partisan units in Kozara were merged into the 2nd Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment in early November 1941 . Stojanović was appointed commander of this detachment . By mid @-@ November , it consisted of 670 men organised in six companies and armed with 510 rifles , 5 light machine guns , and a heavy machine gun .
Between the end of September and the end of December 1941 , the Kozara Partisans conducted around forty military operations against the enemy . Stojanović helped plan and execute the major operations , including the battles of Podgradci , Mrakovica , and Turjak . Stojanović argued that the village of Podgradci should be captured because it was situated deep within Kozara , because the enemy could easily disrupt the Partisans ' advance toward other villages of the district of Gradiška , and because there was a sawmill in Podgradci which supplied the NDH and Germans . On 23 October 1941 , Partisans under Stojanović 's command took Podgradci after five hours of fighting . The sawmill and its stored products — including a large quantity of railroad ties , with which the Germans were allegedly planning to repair railways destroyed by Soviet partisans in occupied Ukraine — were burnt down . Stojanović saw this action as a symbolic collaboration with the Red Army . A number of Ustaše and Croatian Home Guards were captured in Podgradci . The Ustaše were promptly executed , and the Home Guards were given a speech by Stojanović before the Partisans gave them food and escorted them across the Una River .
The third counter @-@ insurgency operation in Kozara was undertaken at the end of November 1941 by about 19 @,@ 000 Croatian Home Guards , Ustaše , and Germans . The Partisans emerged from the operation without significant losses , though NDH propaganda claimed that the rebels in Kozara were destroyed and that Stojanović had been killed . The Kozara Partisans never repeated the mistake of frontal resistance . When stronger enemy forces advanced toward them , they manoeuvred to position themselves behind the attackers , thus avoiding battles they could not win . The Partisans therefore did not defend villages . During the third counter @-@ insurgency operation , the Ustaše and Germans killed hundreds of Serb civilians in the villages , resulting in a loss of support for the Partisans among the population . Stojanović thought that a significant victory over the enemy would be the best way to restore the lost support .
After the third counter @-@ insurgency operation , a battalion of the Croatian Home Guard was stationed on Mrakovica , a peak in Kozara . Stojanović ordered an attack by five companies of the 2nd Krajina Detachment on the battalion , which began on 5 December 1941 at 5 : 30 am . The battle ended by 9 : 30 am with a decisive victory to the Partisans . They lost five men , while 78 Home Guards were killed and around 200 were captured . The Partisans seized 155 rifles , 12 light and 6 heavy machine guns , 4 mortars , 120 mortar rounds , and 19 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms ammunition . The last action of the 2nd Krajina Detachment under Stojanović 's command was the battle of Turjak . Four companies of the detachment attacked and captured the village on 16 December 1941 , taking 134 Home Guards prisoner . Letters written by the Home Guards to their families revealed their extremely low morale . The capture of Turjak opened up the district of Gradiška to the Kozara Partisans . The Home Guards retreated from Podgradci without significant resistance . Soon , most of the district was under Partisan control and Stojanović 's detachment controlled most of Mount Kozara and the surrounding Potkozarje region .
More men joined Stojanović 's detachment , and at the end of 1941 it had over one thousand well @-@ armed soldiers organised in three battalions of three companies each . The detachment established good relations with the Muslim population of the area , with a number of Muslims from Kozarac joining the Partisans . On 21 December at Lisina , Pucar held a meeting with the communists of Kozara . At the meeting , Stojanović presented a short history of the uprising in Kozara . Pucar stated that the 2nd Krajina was the best @-@ organised detachment in Bosanska Krajina .
On 24 December , the Home Guard 's Banja Luka headquarters offered a reward for Stojanović . A Home Guard document described him as the most intelligent and dangerous rebel leader , who planned and carried out attacks in a highly systematic manner . The headquarters was especially concerned about Stojanović 's treatment of captured Home Guards : he would give them a communist propaganda speech , offer them food and cigarettes , dress their wounds , and let them go home . According to the headquarters , this treatment rendered these particular Home Guards useless in future operations against the Partisans . According to Drago Karasijević , the courage and fighting spirit of the Kozara Partisans became famous in Bosanska Krajina , in other parts of Bosnia and in the areas of the NDH bordering on Bosnia . In the villages of Kozara , people sang about Stojanović :
= = = Grmeč area = = =
On 29 or 30 December 1941 , Stojanović arrived in the area of Grmeč in western Bosanska Krajina , which was in the zone of responsibility of the 1st Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment . This zone also included Drvar , where the uprising in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina began . The military activities of the Partisans there diminished after the capture of Drvar by Italian troops on 25 September 1941 . In the Italians ' propaganda , they presented themselves as protectors of the Serbian people against the Ustaše . Groups of Serbs collaborated with the Italians . According to Karabegović , the Partisans of the 1st Krajina Detachment became more active after Pucar held a conference with their commanders on 15 December 1941 , but this activity was still weak in northern parts of Grmeč . Stojanović went there to counter the Italian propaganda and to mobilise the Partisans against the Italians and their collaborators ; he was accompanied by Karabegović .
According to the writer Branko Ćopić , who was a Partisan in Grmeč , Stojanović was greeted by a crowd of villagers and welcomed with the traditional bread and salt ceremony when he crossed the Sana River . Prominent villagers shook hands with him , and they compared him with Miloš Obilić — a famous Serbian epic hero from the medieval Battle of Kosovo . Several women approached Stojanović to kiss his hands ; he declined this mark of respect , saying that he was not a priest but a communist .
Stojanović visited the villages in the area , inspecting individual companies and platoons of the 1st Krajina Detachment . His visits were accompanied by parades of Partisan units and by mass gatherings . Partisan songs were sung , slogans were shouted , and banners were waved . Stojanović gave speeches to the villagers and soldiers . He said that the Italian troops in the area were not protectors of the Serbs , but occupiers and enemies . He branded those who collaborated with the Italians as traitors to the Serbian people . Stojanović 's speeches were not well received by some people , who spread rumours that he was not Mladen Stojanović , but a " Turk " ( Muslim ) impersonator . According to them , Stojanović had been killed by the Ustaše in August 1941 and the communists were using an impersonator to deceive the people . Few people gave credence to these rumours .
On 22 January 1942 , at the headquarters of the 1st Krajina Detachment in the village of Majkić Japra , Stojanović presided over a conference of the detachment staff and political activists of Grmeč . He criticised the detachment headquarters because it had no division of functions and there was no personal accountability among its members . He also stated the headquarters had no communication with the companies of the detachment , did not act as a military @-@ political leadership , and there were no designated couriers available at all times at the headquarters . Stojanović was generally pleased with the Grmeč Partisans , describing them as courageous , enthusiastic , firm , and trustworthy but somewhat inexperienced . However , he said that the platoons of the detachment were dispersed in villages and had no contact with each other . In this way , according to Stojanović , the Partisans were losing their soldierly characteristics and becoming more like peasants . Stojanović criticised the views of some Partisans that political commissars should be abolished . He warned that the Partisans who wore emblems other than the red star would be punished for indiscipline .
At the conference , Stojanović installed Milorad Mijatović — a Partisan from Kozara — as the new commander of the 1st Krajina and Petar Vojnović as deputy commander , while Velimir Stojnić and Salamon " Moni " Levi remained as commissar and deputy commissar , respectively . Levi was an acquaintance of Stojanović 's from his visits to Vienna in 1921 and 1922 . During his tour of Grmeč , Stojanović met the young writer Branko Ćopić , and encouraged him to write poetry about the fight of the Partisans . Stojanović said poetry was more acceptable for the Partisans than prose . " Poetry and revolution , " he remarked , " always go hand in hand . " He stayed in the area until mid @-@ February 1942 . The Partisan leadership of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina considered that Stojanović had successfully countered the Italian propaganda and improved the condition of the 1st Krajina Detachment during his tour .
= = = North @-@ west central Bosnia = = =
Stojanović left Grmeč and went to Skender Vakuf in northwest central Bosnia to participate in the first regional conference of the KPJ in Bosanska Krajina , which was held from 21 to 23 February 1942 . In the Partisan territorial structure , the military @-@ political region of Bosanska Krajina included central Bosnia . At the Skender Vakuf conference , presided over by Pucar , Stojanović and Karabegović , the participants analysed the military and political situation in the region . The increase of Chetnik influence — which was strongest in southeastern Bosanska Krajina and northwest central Bosnia in the zones of responsibility of the 3rd and 4th Krajina Detachments — was a big problem for the KPJ . A number of Partisans of these detachments joined the Chetnik side . Only in Kozara had Chetnik influence been held at bay . At the conference , Stojanović was appointed to lead a unified command of Partisan forces in Bosanska Krajina , but on 24 February he was replaced with Kosta Nađ . The unified command was named the Operational Headquarters for Bosanska Krajina , and Stojanović became its chief of staff and deputy commander .
According to Nađ , the split between the Partisans and the Chetniks in Bosanska Krajina and central Bosnia began on 14 December 1941 in the village of Javorani . Lazar Tešanović , the schoolteacher in Javorani , influenced members of the local Partisan unit to join the Chetnik side . Tešanović then organised a Chetnik unit of about 70 to 80 men , and at the beginning of March 1942 he and his men were in the village of Lipovac . On 5 March , Stojanović , Nađ , and Danko Mitrov ( the commander of the 4th Krajina Detachment ) set out for Lipovac with the Kozara Proletarian Company , an assault unit formed in February 1942 . According to some sources , they went to Lipovac for pre @-@ arranged negotiations with Tešanović , while other sources state that they intended to disarm Tešanović and his Chetniks . When the column of the Partisans approached the school in Lipovac , they were ambushed by Chetniks , and Stojanović was severely wounded in the head . The Partisans remained pinned down by Chetnik fire until evening ; thirteen were killed and eight beside Stojanović were wounded . At nightfall , he and the other wounded were transported to the Partisan field hospital in Jošavka .
Stojanović was in the field hospital for about 10 days before he was moved to a house around 800 metres ( 870 yards ) away . At the end of March 1942 , the Operational Headquarters for Bosanska Krajina and the headquarters of the 4th Krajina Detachment were both located in Jošavka . The two headquarters and the field hospital were attacked on the night of 31 March by members of the Jošavka Partisan Company , who had joined the Chetnik side under the influence and leadership of Radoslav " Rade " Radić , the deputy commissar of the 4th Krajina Detachment . That night , the Chetniks killed 15 Partisans in Jošavka . According to Danica Perović , the physician who attended Stojanović , the Chetniks took his weapons and posted a sentry outside the house . Through a messenger , Radić told Stojanović to write a letter ordering Danko Mitrov to remove all Partisan units from the area around Jošavka . Stojanović , however , wrote a letter encouraging Mitrov to continue the Partisan fight . The next night , a group of Chetniks came to Stojanović , placed him on a blanket , and carried him out of the house . When they approached a nearby stream called Mlinska Rijeka , one of them shot Stojanović twice , killing him .
On 2 April , local villagers buried Stojanović on a steep , wooded hillside . By the end of April 1942 , most of the companies of the 4th Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment had joined the Chetnik side or disintegrated . Rade Radić became the commander of the Chetnik detachments in Bosanska Krajina . After the war , Radić was sentenced to death by the Supreme Court of Yugoslavia ; he was executed by firing squad in 1945 . Stojanović 's remains were exhumed and reburied at Prijedor in November 1961 .
= = Legacy = =
On 19 April 1942 , the headquarters of the 2nd Krajina Detachment changed its name to the 2nd Krajina National Liberation Partisan Detachment " Mladen Stojanović " . The Kozara Partisans vowed to avenge Stojanović 's death on all the " enemies of the people " . The 2nd Krajina Detachment and four companies of the 1st Krajina Detachment liberated Prijedor on 16 May 1942 . On 7 August 1942 , the Partisans ' supreme headquarters proclaimed Stojanović a People 's Hero of Yugoslavia .
A monument to Stojanović was created by his brother Sreten after the war and erected in Prijedor . Streets , firms , schools , hospitals , pharmacies , and associations were named after Stojanović throughout socialist Yugoslavia , and songs were composed celebrating him as a hero . A Partisan film about him , titled Doktor Mladen , was released in Yugoslavia in 1975 . Stojanović was played by Ljuba Tadić , who received an award for his performance at the Pula Film Festival .
Each year in April , Stojanović is commemorated in Prijedor and wreaths are laid at his monument . At the 2012 commemoration , the president of the Partisan War Veterans ' Association of Republika Srpska declared :
Mladen je bio čovjek za primjer , revolucionar od najranije mladosti pa do kraja života , najpopularnija ličnost ustanka na Kozari , Krajini i mnogo šire i jedan od najhrabrijih boraca i rukovodilaca Narodnooslobodilačke borbe . Zato je njegov je lik ostao da živi u sjećanju zajedno sa slavom herojske Kozare .
= = Poetry = =
In his youth , Stojanović wrote poems , only one of which is published — in a 1918 issue of the literary magazine Književni jug , whose editor was future Nobel Prize winner Ivo Andrić . For this poem , Stojanović was inspired by the Serbian epic hero Ailing Dojčin . A number of Stojanović 's poems are preserved in a notebook that belonged to his closest school friend Todor Ilić . According to the poet Dragan Kolundžija , Stojanović 's poems are lyrical miniatures composed in free verse , focused on man and nature , and filled with melancholy . Kolundžija finds that what inspired Stojanović to write poetry is reflected in his verse Krvav je bol ( Pain is bloody ) . According to poet Miroslav Feldman , who first met Stojanović in 1919 in Zagreb , his poems were sad and permeated with a yearning for a brighter , more joyous life .
Stojanović wrote an essay , which is published as the foreword to a 1920 book of poetry by Feldman , titled Iza Sunca ( Behind the Sun ) . In 1925 , Stojanović initiated the creation of an anthology of Yugoslav lyric poetry . On this project , he worked with Feldman and Gustav Krklec . The poets completed the anthology , but for an unknown reason it was never published . Stojanović 's poetic inclinations were manifested in his letters to his wife Mira Stojanović , especially when he writes about his patients :
I , kad se podižu i osjećaju strujanje snage i proljeća u svojim žilama ja kao da dolazim sebi , ostavlja me neki zanos i ja tražim druge bolesne oči djece , žena , majki , staraca ; nalazim ih i ponovo zaboravljam sve .
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= Harajuku Lovers Live =
Harajuku Lovers Live is the first live long @-@ form video by American recording artist Gwen Stefani . It was released on DVD on December 4 , 2006 , by Interscope Records . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller and produced by Oil Factory Productions . It is a recording of one of Stefani 's concerts during her Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 in late 2005 to promote her first album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , released in November 2004 . The performance was recorded in November 2005 , in Anaheim , California . The concert features performances of all twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two new songs from her second studio album , The Sweet Escape , as well as interviews with the musicians and dancers and a documentary of tour preparation .
Harajuku Lovers Live was released in conjunction with the promotion for The Sweet Escape , which was also released on December 5 , 2006 . The DVD received mixed reviews , with reviewers praising Stefani 's musical performances and stage presence , but criticizing the lack of material and the long costume changes . The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association .
= = Background = =
During her hiatus from the band No Doubt , Gwen Stefani recorded and released her first solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 23 , 2004 . Between September 2004 and January 2006 , Stefani released six of the album 's twelve tracks as singles : " What You Waiting For ? " , " Rich Girl " , " Hollaback Girl " , " Cool " , " Luxurious " and " Crash " . The album was a commercial success , selling seven million copies worldwide ; it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , five times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association and four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry certified Love . Angel . Music . Baby. platinum at the May 2005 Platinum Europe Awards .
Between October and December 2005 , Stefani toured North America in her Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 to promote Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , performing 37 shows in the United States and five in Canada . Her opening acts included Ciara , M.I.A. and The Black Eyed Peas . Her performances received mixed reviews from critics , with criticism about her lack of musical material , frequent costume changes and perceived inability to dance , but praise for her stage presence and elaborate costumes . Stefani finished the recording of her second album , The Sweet Escape , in late 2006 , having recorded some of the material in 2005 , suspended the project due to pregnancy , and resumed recording in summer 2006 .
= = Content and release = =
Harajuku Lovers Live was released on December 5 , 2006 , the same day as the release of Stefani 's second album , The Sweet Escape . Both Harajuku Lovers Live and The Sweet Escape were released a day early in the UK , on December 4 , 2009 . The DVD carries a Parental Advisory sticker for profanity , although a clean version of the DVD is also available . The cover image of Stefani sitting in a throne imitates the cover image of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ; both images were photographed by Nick Knight . It was directed by Sophie Muller , who has also produced music videos for Stefani 's singles " Cool " , " Luxurious " and " Crash " from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and would later produce music videos for " Wind It Up " , " 4 in the Morning " and " Early Winter " from The Sweet Escape . The DVD was produced by Oil Factory Productions .
The DVD contains a recording of one of the concerts in Stefani 's " Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 " . The concert was performed in late November 2005 in the Honda Centre in Anaheim , California , where Gwen Stefani was raised . The concert 's set list includes all twelve of the songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , plus two new tracks , " Wind It Up " and " Orange County Girl " , from The Sweet Escape . " Wind It Up " and " Orange County Girl " were two of the four songs written and recorded in summer 2005 by Stefani during her sessions with Pharrell Williams and had been previewed at the finale of New York 's Olympus Fashion Week for the 2006 collection of Stefani 's line of clothing , L.A.M.B , in September 2005 . " Wind It Up " was later released as the lead single from The Sweet Escape .
The DVD includes extra features : a " Countdown to Tour " documentary of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes preparation footage with Stefani , a series of interviews with Stefani 's five band members and eight dancers ( including the four Harajuku Girls ) called " Meet the Band and Dancers " , a photo gallery of images from the concert and a video of an alternative performance of the song " The Real Thing " , called " The Real Thing Camera Remix " . " Countdown to Tour " was described by one reviewer as " boring " , but by another as " fascinating for anyone interested in how massive stadium tours develop " , praising how Stefani " shares how she works her strengths " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales and accreditations = = =
The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of at least 7 @,@ 500 copies ; and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 10 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chart Attack reviewer Jodi Goulart gave Harajuku Lovers Live two out of five stars , criticising the DVD for being " no frills " and an " essentially word @-@ for @-@ word , dance @-@ move @-@ for @-@ dance @-@ move " copy of a performance fans saw a year earlier . Goulart comments that " concert experience doesn 't translate well " , notes the long gaps for costume changes and calls the extra features " boring " . Shawn Revelle , in the Mid @-@ Atlantic Edition of EXP magazine , gave Harajuku Lovers Live four stars , describing the DVD as " spectacular " and Stefani 's performance as " energetic " . He complimented the performances of " Rich Girl " , " Long Way to Go " and " Hollaback Girl " , calling them " steller " and the " highlights " of the DVD .
Manchester Evening News reviewer Glenn Meads gave the DVD three out of five stars and compared Stefani to Madonna . Meads described the show as " stunning " and " polished to perfection " , praising Stefani for " [ involving ] the audience on every level " and " [ bringing ] an assertiveness back to pop music " . He compliments the performances of the songs " What You Waiting For ? " , " Crash " , " Hollaback Girl " and " The Real Thing " , calling the former the " strongest " of all the songs and its performance " infectious " . However , he criticised Stefani 's wide variety of musical styles and the long gaps between songs needed for costume changes . DJ Pusspuss Benji of the San Francisco Bay Times reviewed the DVD , calling it a " wet @-@ dream to any Gwen fan " and describing Stefani as " a fashion icon , a blond threat and visionary artist " and her music as " delicious dance " and full of " pop insta @-@ classics " .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Bonus content = = =
" Meet the Band and Dancers "
Photo gallery
" Countdown to Tour " documentary
" The Real Thing " camera remix
= = Personnel = =
Gwen Stefani – vocals
Gail Ann Dorsey , Warren Fitzgerald , Gabrial McNair , Kristopher Pooley – backing vocals
Zachary Alford – drums
Gail Ann Dorsey , Warren Fitzgerald – guitar
Gabrial McNair , Kristopher Pooley – keyboard
Director – Sophie Muller
Producer – Oil Factory Productions
Programming – Kristopher Pooley
Cover image – Nick Knight
Back cover – Pete Black
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= Kiss & Cry ( song ) =
" Kiss & Cry " is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Hikaru Utada for her seventh studio and fifth Japanese album , Heart Station ( 2007 ) . It was written , composed , and arranged by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and Akira Miyake . The single premiered on May 31 , 2007 as the third single from the album in Japan . It was re @-@ released as a double A @-@ side single with " Beautiful World " , which also appeared on the parent album on August 29 in Japan , and digitally worldwide . Musically , " Kiss & Cry " is an R & B song , influenced by pop and hip @-@ hop music . Lyrically , it discusses both Utada 's upbringing and social beliefs between both Western and oriental regions .
Upon its release , the track garnered generally favorable reviews from music critics . Many critics agreed that it was one of the better singles from the album , and complimented its R & B composition . Charting as an A @-@ side single , it achieved success in Japan , peaking at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart . The single has been certified within four different categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . An accompanying music video was shot by Toshitaka Shinoda ; it features animation in the style of Nissin 's Freedom Project , including major characters such as the protagonist Takeru lip @-@ synching to the song . The song had been promoted through several Japanese commercials and television shows .
= = Background and release = =
On April 23 , 2007 , American website Jame World confirmed the release of a new single , entitled " Kiss & Cry " . The song 's original working title was " Dancing Leah " , which is a reference to Filipina American model Leah Dizon . It was written , composed , and arranged by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and Akira Miyake . For the song , Hikaru had played the keyboards and synthesizers , and provided backing vocals . It was originally recorded for her studio album Ultra Blue by Atsushi Matsui at Bunkamura Studios and EMI Music Japan Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo in 2007 , but the idea was scrapped for unknown reasons . The finished composition was then mastered by American music engineer Ted Jensen at Sterling Studios , New York City , New York . The single also included the A @-@ side track " Beautiful World " , which also appeared on Utada 's seventh studio and fifth Japanese album , Heart Station ( 2007 ) .
It premiered as a promotional single on April 20 , 2007 , and debuted on Japanese radio on May 21 . It was served as the third single from the album on May 31 . Both singles were then released as a physical single on August 29 in Japan , and digitally worldwide . The CD single contains both " Beautiful World " and " Kiss & Cry " , plus their instrumental versions . It also contains a remixed version of Utada 's 1999 cover version of the 1954 Kaye Ballard song , " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " ; its instrumental version was also included on the CD format . Utada 's 1999 cover was originally included on her single " Wait & See ( Risk ) " . The artwork to " Kiss & Cry " features Utada sitting on a ledge at the bottom of a concrete garage building , while motion @-@ blurred school children walk past her . The CD features an extra lyric booklet , printed on plain white paper . The song was used as the theme song for the Nissin Cup Noodles product , which was released in Japan .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Kiss & Cry " is an R & B song , influenced by pop and electronic music . According to the sheet music published at Music.j @-@ total.net , the song is written in the key of F minor . During the first and second verse and pre @-@ chorus , the song follows a key sequence of F minor . Through the first , second and third chorus , the song has a sequence of A # m7 – D # m7 – E – D # m7 . During the bridge section , the key sequence changes to A # m7 – C7 – F minor . It opens with a percussion section that includes a drum machine and cymbals ; it then carries on with Palm Products GmbH synthesizers and keyboards , as described by a member at Selective Hearing . In an interview with MSN Hotmail in 2008 , Utada said about the song ; " I wanted to write quite a lively song and after writing it , I still feel that this has the most energetic feeling to it and that it ’ s probably the most polished song too . " She personally enjoyed the end result of the song , as she described the arrangement and lyrical content , and cited it one of her favorite songs form the album . A reviewer from Selective Hearing said that the song " sound [ s ] like throw backs to her R & B days . " The editor analyzed the song 's music structure , and said that the " sample at the beginning sounds like it might be from a Godzilla movie . "
John Alroy and David Bertrand Wilson , American music editors writing from their own website , compared the production and composition to the work of Utada 's studio album Ultra Blue ( 2006 ) ; they labeled it " blissful formlessness " . Amanda Walujono from Audrey Magazine felt that , while the song had a " danceable beat " , " it ’ s not exactly club material . " CD Journal staff members noted elements of hip hop music , and identified instrumentation of horns , keyboards and a drum machine . She described the lyrical content as a tie between both her " Western and oriental beliefs " , and believed that people surrounded by Western culture tend to " follow their destiny " , whilst people growing up around Asian culture believe that destiny is " pre @-@ determined " . CD Journal staff members felt the lyrical delivery expressed both " joy " and " sorrow " topics . The title also references the ice skating area of the same name , where " Kiss " expresses " joy " , and " cry " expresses " sorrow " . The second chorus of the single 's lyrics references the Nissin Noodle product ( " Tonight I 'll have Nissin Cup Noodle " ) .
= = Critical response = =
" Kiss & Cry " received positive reviews from music critics . A reviewer from Selective Hearing was positive in their review , labeling it a " very catchy track " . They also selected it as one of the best track on the album . CD Journal reviewers noted the song 's " surprising introduction " , and described the song as an " impressive R & B tune with a heavy beat " . Tomoyuki Mori from Amazon was positive in his review , complimenting Utada 's songwriting and production . He also praised the " gorgeous atmospheric " composition , and labelled it " charming " . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express described the song as " fun " , and highlighted its composition as a strong factor to its overall delivery . However , Daniel Robson , who wrote for The Japan Times , felt its inclusion into Heart Station was disappointing as he quoted , " [ After opening track " Fight the Blues " ] it ’ s followed by a run of five previous singles and a short , dull interlude track , which just feels so lazy . " He felt the inclusion , alongside other singles , made him question the value of the overall album .
" Kiss & Cry " has achieved several accolades from several different publications and organisations . Amanda Walujono from Audrey Magazine ranked the song at number four on her " Top 5 Hikaru Utada Songs " , praising the composition and " danceable beat " . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favorite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Kiss & Cry " was ranked at number 24 . In October 2007 , Utada became the highest selling digital artist in Japan , based on the sales of " Kiss & Cry " , and two other album singles " Flavor of Life " and " Beautiful World " ; she sold over 10 million digital units according to Listen Japan .
= = Commercial performance = =
Charting together as an A @-@ side single , " Beautiful World " and " Kiss & Cry " debuted at number three on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart on the chart week of September 10 , 2007 ; it sold 93 @,@ 518 units in its first week of sales . The following week , it rose to its peak position of number two ; it sold 51 @,@ 637 units . It stayed in the top ten for two more weeks , until it fell to number 12 on June 1 . It stayed in the top 40 for eight weeks , and charted at number 100 during the two week New Years entries ; it sold 1 @,@ 689 for its two week accumulation of sales . In total , the A @-@ side singles stayed in the Top 200 chart for 26 weeks , one of her longest charting singles according to Oricon . By the end of 2007 , the single was ranked at number 20 on Oricon 's Annual 2007 chart ; it sold 230 @,@ 287 units by the end of the year . This became Utada 's second highest entry in that annual chart , behind " Flavor of Life " at number two , and both entries made her the highest selling female artist . As of April 2016 , the A @-@ side single has sold 245 @,@ 050 units in Japan , and is her 18th best selling single according to Oricon Database .
The single was certified platinum in September 2007 by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 250 @,@ 000 units in Japan . Although it failed to chart on any digital charts in Japan , or on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 and competent charts , the song was certified gold by the RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . " Kiss & Cry " charted at number 11 on the RIAJ Reco @-@ kyō Singles Chart , during the chart week of October 20 , 2007 . It then received a double platinum certification in November 2007 by the RIAJ for ringtone downloads from Chaku @-@ Uta stores , exceeding sales of 500 @,@ 000 units . The song received a gold certification by the RIAJ for full ringtone purchases of 100 @,@ 000 units , and tallied the overall sales of the single to 935 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
= = Music video and promotion = =
An animated music video was produced for the song , directed by Toshitaka Shinoda . It was unveiled on August 2 , 2007 , when it was uploaded to Utada 's EMI Music Japan website . The video featured animation in the style of Nissin 's Freedom OVA and commercials , including major characters such as the protagonist Takeru lip @-@ synching to the song . The project was a joint collaboration for the Freedom project and Nissin Cup Noodle as a celebration of their 35th year anniversary . The music video received negative reviews from critics . A review from Halcyin Realms criticized the production of the video , stating " The so called ' rough cut ' was a grotesquely put together , random collection of footages lifted from the Freedom series , with lip movement from the characters eerily synced to Utada ’ s vocals ... " For promotional activities , Utada performed the song live on Japanese music television series Music Station on August 31 , 2007 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the Heart Station album .
Recording and management
Recorded by Atsushi Matsui at Bunkamura Studios and EMI Music Japan Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo , 2007 .
Credits
Hikaru Utada – arrangement , keyboards , programming , production , songwriting , vocals
Goetz B. for 365 Artists – mixing
Atsushi Matsui – recording
Akira Miyake – production
Yuzuru Tomita – additional programming
Ted Jensen – engineer
Teruzane Utada – production
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Constance of Antioch =
Constance of Antioch ( 1128 – 1163 ) was the ruling Princess of Antioch from 1130 to 1163 . She was the only child of Bohemond II of Antioch by his wife , Alice of Jerusalem . Constance succeeded her father , who fell in battle , at the age of two , although his cousin , Roger II of Sicily , laid claim to Antioch . Her mother assumed the regency , but the Antiochene noblemen replaced her with her father ( Constance 's grandfather ) , Baldwin II of Jerusalem . After he died in 1131 , Alice again tried to take control of the government , but the Antiochene barons acknowledged the right of her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Fulk of Anjou , to rule as regent for Constance .
Constance was given in marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136 . During the subsequent years , Raymond ruled Antioch while Constance gave birth to four children . After Raymond was murdered after a battle in 1149 , Fulk of Anjou 's son , Baldwin III of Jerusalem , assumed the regency . He tried to persuade Constance to remarry , but she did not accept his candidates . She also refused to marry a middle @-@ aged relative of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenus . Finally , she found a love interest and was married to Raynald of Châtillon , a knight from France , in 1153 .
After her second husband fell into captivity around 1160 – 1161 , Constance wanted to rule Antioch alone , but Baldwin III of Jerusalem declared her fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Bohemond III , the lawful prince . Constance disregarded this declaration and took control of the administration of the principality with the assistance of Emperor Manuel . Constance was dethroned in favor of her son shortly before her death .
= = Early life = =
Constance who was born in 1128 was the only child of Bohemond II of Antioch and Alice of Jerusalem . Her mother , Alice , was the second daughter of Baldwin II of Jerusalem . Bohemond was killed in a battle at the Ceyhan River in February 1130 . After his death , Alice assumed the regency for Constance . According to rumors spreading in Antioch , Alice was planning to send Constance to a monastery or to marry her off to a commoner . Bohemond 's cousin , Roger II of Sicily , regarded himself as Bohemond 's lawful successor because he was the senior member of the House of Hauteville .
The Antiochene noblemen sent envoys to Baldwin II , urging him to come to the principality . Alice decided to resist and sought assistance from Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi , Atabeg of Aleppo . However , Baldwin II 's soldiers , who had meanwhile reached Antioch , captured Alice 's envoy . Before long , Alice was forced to beg for mercy from her father . He removed Alice from the regency , ordering her to leave Antioch .
= = Reign = =
= = = Childhood = = =
The Antiochene noblemen acknowledged Baldwin II as regent , swearing fealty to him and Constance . He made Joscelin I , Count of Edessa , her guardian to rule the principality until her marriage . Baldwin II died on August 21 , 1131 , and Joscelin I died a week later .
Alice again laid claim to the regency . However , most Antiochene lords remained hostile to the idea of a female ruler and sent envoys to Baldwin II 's successor , Fulk of Anjou , who was Alice 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . Alice made an alliance with Joscelin II , Count of Edessa , and Pons , Count of Tripoli , in early 1132 . Fulk had to travel to Antioch by sea , because Pons did not allow him to march through the County of Tripoli . Fulk landed at St. Symeon where the Antiochene barons acknowledged him as regent . He appointed Reynald Mazoir , Constable of Antioch , to administer the principality .
Fulk returned to Antioch when Zengi dispatched Sawar , governor of Aleppo , to invade the principality in 1132 or 1133 . After defeating the invaders , Fulk entered Antioch . Since the principality needed a firm government , the Antiochene noblemen approached Fulk to select a husband for Constance . He chose Raymond of Poitiers , the younger son of William IX , Duke of Aquitaine . He did not announce his decision in public because he wanted to prevent Alice and Roger II of Sicily from intervening .
Alice 's sister , Melisende , Fulk 's wife , persuaded Fulk to allow Alice to return to Antioch in 1135 . Alice wanted to tighten the relationship of the principality and the Byzantine Empire ; therefore , she offered Constance 's hand to Manuel , a son of the Byzantine Emperor , John II Komnenos . To prevent the Byzantine marriage , Fulk sent his envoy France to Raymond of Poitiers to urge him to come to Antioch , which he did , traveling in disguise , because Roger II of Sicily wanted to capture him in southern Italy .
= = = First marriage = = =
Raymond of Poitiers arrived at Antioch in April 1136 . Ralph of Domfront , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , made Alice believe that Raymond came to Antioch to marry her instead of her nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter . However , Constance was kidnapped from the palace , and Ralph of Domfront blessed her marriage to Raymond in the cathedral . With the marriage , Raymond became the ruler of the principality , and Alice retired to Lattakieh .
In early 1147 Roger II of Sicily extended an offer to Louis VII of France to transport the French crusaders to the Holy Land during the Second Crusade . Fearing that Roger only wanted to assert his claim to Antioch , Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine ( niece of Raymond of Poitiers ) declined . Louis and his crusaders came to the principality in March 1148 . Before long , rumors spread among the crusaders about a love affair between Raymond and Eleanor . The crusaders tried to convince her husband to launch a campaign against Aleppo , the capital of Nur ad @-@ Din , but Louis VII decided to leave Antioch to Jerusalem , forcing Eleanor to accompany him .
= = = Widowhood = = =
Raymond was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi on June 29 , 1149 . Since Raymond and Constance 's four children were still underage , there was no one to " perform the duties of a prince and raise the people from despair " , according to William of Tyre . Nur ad @-@ Din invaded the principality and seized all Antiochene territories to the east of the Orontes River . Aimery of Limoges , Latin Patriarch of Antioch , directed the defense , but most noblemen preferred a secular ruler . After learning of Raymond 's fate , Constance 's cousin , Baldwin III of Jerusalem , hurried to Antioch and assumed the regency . He also concluded a truce with Nur ad @-@ Din .
Baldwin III returned to Antioch in summer 1150 . He wanted to persuade Constance to remarry , proposing three candidates ( Yves , Count of Soissons , Walter of Saint Omer , and Ralph of Merle ) , but she declined . Urged by Baldwin III , Constance went to Tripoli in early 1152 to meet him and her two aunts , Melisende and Hodierna . The two ladies tried to persuade Constance to choose among the three candidates , but she returned to Antioch without making a promise to remarry . According to William of Tyre , Patriarch Aimery convinced Constance to resist , because he wanted to control the government of the principality . The Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos sent his widowed brother @-@ in @-@ law , the middle @-@ aged John Rogerios Dalassenos , to Antioch to marry Constance . However , because of his age , she " regarded him with displeasure " , according to the contemporaneous John Kinnamos , and refused to marry him .
Historian Steven Runciman says that Constance may have refused the candidates proposed by Baldwin III and Manuel I because she had met Raynald of Châtillon , a knight from France . Even though William of Tyre described Raynald as a " knight of common sort " , Constance decided to marry Raynald . Their betrothal was kept secret because Constance wanted to obtain Baldwin III 's permission for the marriage .
= = = Second marriage = = =
After Baldwin sanctioned the marriage , Constance and Raynald married in early 1153 . Raynald took charge of the administration of the principality . However , he was unpopular because his subjects regarded him as an upstart . His frequent attempts to raise funds brought him into conflict with Patriarch Aimery and Emperor Manuel I during the subsequent years . The emperor forced Raynald to pay homage to him in the spring of 1159 . Raynald was captured and imprisoned by Majd al @-@ Din , governor of Aleppo , during a plundering raid in November of 1160 or 1161 .
After her husband fell into captivity , Constance announced her intention to administer the principality , but most Antiochene noblemen preferred a male ruler . Baldwin III of Jerusalem hurried to Antioch and declared Constance 's fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Bohemond III , the lawful prince , charging Patriarch Aimery with the administration of the principality . Constance did not accept Baldwin 's decision and protested against it to Emperor Manuel .
Manuel dispatched his nephew , Alexios Bryennios Komnenos , and John Kamateros to Antioch to begin negotiations about his marriage to Constance 's daughter , Maria . The marriage contract was signed and the emperor 's delegates confirmed Constance 's position as the ruler of the principality . Baldwin III , who came to Antioch to meet the imperial envoys , did not protest .
Constance 's son , Bohemond , reached the age of majority in 1163 . To strengthen her position against her son , Constance sought assistance from Constantine Kalamanos , Byzantine governor of Cilicia . However , the Antiochene barons made an alliance with Thoros II of Cilician Armenia and forced her to leave Antioch . After Constance 's removal , Bohemond III took control of the principality . Before long , Constance died , probably in Lattakieh or Jebail , according to Steven Runciman .
= = Family = =
Constance 's first husband , Raymond of Poitiers , was the second son of William IX , Duke of Aquitaine and his second wife , Philippa of Toulouse . He was born in 1114 . According to William of Tyre , Constance was left with " two sons and as many daughters still underage " when her husband died in 1149 . Their elder son , Bohemond , was five at the time of Raymond 's death . He seized Antioch from his mother in 1163 . Constance and Raymond 's eldest daughter , Maria , who was born in the late 1140s , was famed for her beauty . She married the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople on Christmas Day 1161 . Her younger sister , Philippa of Antioch , was given in marriage to Humphrey II of Toron in the late 1160s .
Whether the father of Constance 's second son , Baldwin , was Raymond of Poitiers or Raynald of Châtillon cannot be determined with certainty . Baldwin died fighting at the head of a Byzantine cavalry regiment in the Battle of Myriokephalon on September 17 , 1176 . It is certain that Raynald fathered Agnes , who became the wife of Béla III of Hungary . Raynald and Constance 's second daughter , Alice , became the third wife of Azzo VI of Este in 1204 .
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= Maurice Douglass =
Maurice Gerrard " Mo " Douglass ( born February 12 , 1964 ) is a high school football head coach at Springfield High School and former American football safety who played eleven seasons in the National Football League for the Chicago Bears and the New York Giants . Douglass played college football at the University of Kentucky after transferring from Coffeyville Community College .
Douglass played nine seasons with the Bears on special teams and as a nickel back . He then played two seasons with the Giants . In his early years , he was a witness in a federal trial involving illegal activities by a pair of sports agents .
In high school , he had played for Trotwood @-@ Madison High School and graduated in 1982 . He returned to coach the team in 2001 . In 2006 , he led the team to the playoffs for the first time in 25 years . That year , he was accused of luring players from other teams and found guilty the following year , which was met with a brief suspension .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Born in Muncie , Indiana , Douglass graduated from Trotwood @-@ Madison High School in 1982 and then played defensive back for Kentucky . In 1984 , he was a junior college transfer from Coffeyville Community College and earned the starting job for Kentucky after two games . He made an interception on his first play from scrimmage against the Rutgers Scarlet Knights team on October 6 . Two weeks later he had an interception that set up a 36 @-@ yard field goal against LSU . He totalled three interceptions in his two @-@ year career at Kentucky . On November 3 , he recovered a fumble against North Texas State . That season Kentucky got off to a 5 – 0 start , but they lost to all three ranked Southeastern Conference schools that they faced and finished the season 9 – 3 .
In September 1985 , he suffered from a pinched nerve and was notable for having blown his defensive coverage on two plays in a 27 – 7 victory over Cincinnati Bearcats . The last of his interceptions occurred on November 16 , 1985 against the Florida Gators when his 43 @-@ yard return set up Kentucky 's touchdown that gave them a 13 – 12 lead . However , in the waning seconds as they clung to a 13 – 12 lead , his attempt at a second interception on an errant halfback option pass by future Bears teammate Neal Anderson slipped away and Florida was able to execute the winning field goal in their 15 – 13 victory . Douglass was selected to play for the Gray team in the 1985 Blue – Gray Football Classic .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
With the last pick of the eighth round of the 1986 NFL Draft and 221st overall selection , the Bears drafted Douglass . He was the third of four defensive backs selected by the Bears in that draft ( Vestee Jackson 2nd round , Bruce Jones 7th round and Barton Hundley 10th round ) . The 1986 Bears signed Douglass in mid @-@ July . In training camp , Douglas was switched from cornerback to safety and recovered a fumble in the first exhibition game against the Cowboys . He was described by bears scout Rod Graves as " built more like a fullback and could possibly help us inside as a strong @-@ safety type " . The Chicago Tribune listed him at 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 202 pounds ( 92 kg ) , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported him at 5 feet 10 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 79 m ) and 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) with the description that " Big , strong , tough hitter who likes to play . A little too slow to play cornerback . Makes some mistakes because of overeagerness . "
Douglass was one of the final five players cut during training camp by the Bears at the beginning of September , but they re @-@ signed him in late November when they put Jim McMahon on injured reserve . He did not play much in 1986 , but was described as a favorite of coach Mike Ditka by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Chicago Tribune writers noted that Ditka got a kick out of his big earring and fashion sense . In the 1987 – 88 NFL playoffs , although had only one previous start in his two @-@ year career , he started for the Bears in place of five @-@ year veteran Mike Richardson at left cornerback against the Redskins in their January 10 , 1988 Divisional playoff game . The following season , when Shaun Gayle suffered a season @-@ ending injury for the 1988 Bears , he took over the starting free safety assignment .
In March 1989 , he testified against sports agents Norby Walters of New York and Lloyd Bloom of California in United States District Court in Chicago in a trial about " inducing college athletes to sign professional contracts in violation of National Collegiate Athletic Association rules , and of threatening bodily harm " . He told the jury that Bloom threatened that " somebody might break my legs " if he attempted to break his contract . In April , the agents were convicted of five counts of racketeering and fraud .
In August 1989 , he was one of thirteen athletes issued a four @-@ game suspension for using steroids . Following the suspension , the Bears activated him in October .
In September 1994 , New York Jets fullback Richie Anderson dislocated an index finger punching Douglass in the head , while Douglass was wearing a football helmet , in reaction to what he believed was a late hit on teammate Adrian Murrell . Anderson was ejected from the game . In his nine seasons with the Bears , he earned a reputation as an excellent special teams player .
= = = New York Giants = = =
Prior to his time with the Giants , he worked as a male stripper . Following the 1994 NFL season , Douglass signed with the New York Giants in April . The two @-@ year contract was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 4 million . Douglass was impaired by a quadriceps injury in 1995 Giants training camp . The injury recurred during the season . He had performed well as the nickel back as a Giant . However , in October , he fractured his left fibula and was out for the rest of 1995 NFL season .
Douglass appeared to be a likely roster cut during the 1996 Giants training camp final selection of its 53 @-@ man roster of players , but he made the final roster cut . In the second game of the 1996 NFL season , he made a fourth @-@ and @-@ one goalline stop against the Cowboys . Later that season , he scored his only career touchdown when he intercepted a Scott Mitchell pass and returned it 32 yards against the Detroit Lions on October 27 . Late in the season he was affected by a hamstring injury .
Douglass re @-@ signed for the 1997 New York Giants season . Douglass was in competition with Sam Garnes and Rodney Young for the starting strong safety position for the 1997 NFL season . However , in training camp he was hampered by a deep thigh bruise . Despite the injury , he was projected as the starter . The injury caused him to miss an exhibition game . When he returned to practice he was soon also dealing with a sprained elbow . He lost the job to Garnes after missing a lot of exhibition time and allowing the latter to see plenty of action . In addition to the injury , Douglass had had a poor exhibition showing .
= = Coaching career = =
In 2001 he became the football coach at his alma mater Trotwood . He transformed the program by spending time creating player highlight reels , responding to college recruiters and taking his athletes on college tours . Subsequently , the athletes began getting college scholarship offers . In his first seven years nearly 100 of his players went on to play college football and over one @-@ third at Division I programs . He is said to have a relaxed mentoring style of coaching and is known as Coach Doug . In 2007 , the team made the playoffs for the first time since 1982 . That year , he was charged with illegally recruiting athletes to play for his team . Upon review by the Ohio High School Athletic Association , he and his staff were found guilty of the charge . In 2008 , he was placed on suspension for three weeks and his offensive coordinator resigned . The school was placed on two @-@ year probation .
In 2014 , Douglass left Trotwood and became the head coach at Springfield High School . Before taking the position at Springfield , Douglass turned down an opportunity to coach defensive backs for Vanderbilt under new head coach Derek Mason .
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= SS Minnesotan =
SS Minnesotan was a cargo ship built in 1912 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was known as USAT Minnesotan in service for the United States Army and USS Minnesotan ( ID @-@ 4545 ) in service for the United States Navy . She ended her career as the SS Maria Luisa R. under Italian ownership . She was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened .
In World War I , USAT Minnesotan carried cargo and animals to France under charter to the U.S. Army from September 1917 . When transferred to the U.S. Navy in August 1918 , USS Minnesotan continued in the same duties , but after the Armistice she was converted to a troop transport and returned over 8 @,@ 000 American troops from France . Returned to American @-@ Hawaiian in 1919 , Minnesotan resumed inter @-@ coastal cargo service , and , at least twice , carried racing yachts from the U.S. East Coast to California .
During World War II , Minnesotan was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and initially sailed between New York and Caribbean ports . In the latter half of 1943 , Minnesotan sailed between Indian Ocean ports . The following year the cargo ship sailed between New York and ports in the United Kingdom , before returning to the Caribbean . In July 1949 , American @-@ Hawaiian sold Minnesotan to Italian owners who renamed her Maria Luisa R. ; she was scrapped in 1952 at Bari .
= = Design and construction = =
In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Minnesotan , including financing costs , was $ 65 @.@ 65 per deadweight ton , which totaled just under $ 668 @,@ 000 .
Minnesotan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 124 ) was the first ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 8 June 1912 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in September . Minnesotan was 6 @,@ 617 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 428 feet 9 inches ( 130 @.@ 68 m ) in length and 53 feet 7 inches ( 16 @.@ 33 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT , and her cargo holds had a storage capacity of 490 @,@ 838 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 899 @.@ 0 m3 ) . Minnesotan had a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) , and was powered by a single quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine with oil @-@ fired boilers , that drove a single screw propeller .
= = Early career = =
When Minnesotan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Minnesotan sailed in this service on the east side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Minnesotan , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again . Minnesotan 's exact movements from this time through early 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
On 11 September 1917 , some five months after the United States declared war on Germany , the United States Army chartered Minnesotan for transporting animals to Europe in support of the American Expeditionary Force . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of Minnesotan , for other ships this typically meant that passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .
On 23 August 1918 , Minnesotan was transferred to the United States Navy at Norfolk , Virginia . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service the same day , with Lieutenant Commander E. L. Smith , USNRF , in command . Minnesotan was refitted and rearmed and made a brief roundtrip to New York . After taking on a general cargo , Minnesotan sailed 4 September to join a convoy from New York . After passing Gibraltar on 21 September , the cargo ship sailed on to Marseille and unloaded . Departing there on 21 October , she sailed for Newport News via Gibraltar , arriving back in the United States on 7 November .
Minnesotan next took on a load of 798 horses and sailed on 30 November for Bordeaux , where she arrived on 13 December . Stopping at Saint @-@ Nazaire the following day , Minnesotan departed for Norfolk on 21 December . After making port at Norfolk on 3 January 1919 , the cargo ship sailed for New York , where she was inspected and found to be suitable for use as a troop transport . She was transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force on 7 January and fitted with bunks and living facilities over the next three months .
Sailing from New York on 30 March , Minnesotan began the first of her four voyages returning American servicemen from France . On 16 April at Saint @-@ Nazaire , Minnesotan began her first homeward journey with troops , embarking several companies of the 111th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 28th Infantry Division . George W. Cooper , historian of the 2nd Battalion of the 111th Infantry , reported that even though the fighting had been over for some five months , the fear of striking floating mines necessitated that the men wear life jackets for the first three days at sea . Minnesotan landed her 1 @,@ 765 troops in New York on 28 April .
On her next journey , Minnesotan loaded some 2 @,@ 000 men of the 304th Ammunition Train and the U.S. 24th Infantry Division , for what turned out to be a rough passage with widespread seasickness . The men on board were greatly relieved when land was spotted , and the ship docked at Charleston , South Carolina , on 29 May .
Details of Minnesotan 's third journey are not available , but her final journey began by sailing from Brest on 23 July with elements of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and ended upon arrival at Philadelphia on 3 August . In total , she carried 8 @,@ 038 troops in four voyages from France . By 15 August , Minnesotan had entered dry dock at the Philadelphia Navy Yard to prepare for decommissioning , which took place six days later . She was then returned to American @-@ Hawaiian . Leslie White , later a noted American anthropologist , was a crewman aboard USS Minnesotan .
= = Interwar years = =
Minnesotan resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Minnesotan continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal . Hints at cargos she carried during this time can be gleaned from contemporary news reports from the Los Angeles Times . In March 1928 , for example , the newspaper reported that Minnesotan sailed from Los Angeles with a $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cargo that included raw silk and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of copper bullion . The 1 @,@ 000 bales of silk , picked up in Seattle , were worth $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on their own , while the load of copper was reportedly the largest water shipment of Arizona copper to that time . Canned goods , grape juice , and locally grown cotton completed the load . The Los Angeles Times also reported that Minnesotan delivered a then @-@ record 3 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) cargo from the East Coast to Los Angeles in October 1930 . Minnesotan also carried some less @-@ traditional cargo . In February 1928 , she delivered one R @-@ class and four six @-@ meter ( twenty @-@ foot ) sloops to Los Angeles . The five racing yachts , all from East Coast yacht clubs , arrived to sail in the national championships of six @-@ meter and R @-@ class sloops held 10 – 18 March . Minnesotan delivered two other six @-@ meter sloops for new owners in November 1938 .
Minnesotan did have one mishap during the interwar period . On 3 May 1936 , The New York Times reported that the day before , a receding tide had stranded Minnesotan about a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) off of Monomoy Point , Massachusetts . Any damage the freighter sustained must have been minor ; the cargo ship sailed from New York for San Francisco two weeks later .
= = = Labor difficulties = = =
Minnesotan played a part in several labor difficulties in the interwar years . In March 1935 , the crew of Minnesotan called a wildcat strike that delayed the ship 's sailing from Los Angeles by a day , but ended the strike after they were ordered back to work by their union . In October 1935 , the deckhands and firemen of Minnesotan and fellow Hawaiian @-@ American ships Nevadan and Golden Tide walked out — this time with the sanction of their union , the Sailors ' Union of the Pacific ( SUP ) — after American @-@ Hawaiian had suspended a member of the International Seamen 's Union . In that same month , Minnesotan 's deck engineer , Otto Blaczinsky , was murdered while the ship was in Los Angeles Harbor . The Industrial Association of San Francisco , an organization of anti @-@ union businessmen and employers , believed that Blaczinsky was killed because he opposed union policies , and offered a $ 1 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest and conviction of Blaczinsky 's killer . Threats of another Pacific coast strike in late 1936 caused west coast shippers to squeeze as much cargo as possible into Minnesotan and other ships ; when Minnesotan arrived at Boston in October , The Christian Science Monitor reported that the ship had arrived " literally laden to her Plimsoll line " .
In September 1941 , Minnesotan played a peripheral part in a larger protest by union sailors over war bonuses for sailing in the West Indies . The SUP struck on Minnesotan and fellow American @-@ Hawaiian ship Oklahoman on 18 September in sympathy with the Seafarers International Organization , which had called a strike on eleven ships a week before . Both of the American @-@ Hawaiian ships were idled while docked in New York . President Franklin D. Roosevelt called on the unions to end the strike three separate times during his press conference on 24 September . Roosevelt 's admonition was heeded and both unions ended their strike after the National Mediation Board agreed to address the wartime bonus dispute .
= = World War II = =
By January 1941 , Minnesotan , though still operated by American @-@ Hawaiian , was engaged in defense work for the U.S. government , sailing to ports in South Africa . After the United States entered World War II , Minnesotan was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and frequently sailed in convoys . Though complete records of her sailings are unavailable , partial records indicate some of the ports Minnesotan visited during the conflict and some of the cargo she carried . From July 1942 to April 1943 , Minnesotan sailed between New York and Caribbean ports , calling at Trinidad , Key West , Hampton Roads , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal .
In June 1943 , Minnesotan called at Bombay . She sailed in the Indian Ocean between Calcutta , Colombo , and Bandar Abbas through August . On her last recorded sailing in the Indian Ocean , Minnesotan carried steel rails between Colombo and Calcutta . Minnesotan was back in New York by early December , and sailed to Florida and back by the end of the month .
On 29 December , Minnesotan , loaded with a general cargo that included machinery and explosives , sailed as part of convoy HX 273 from New York for Liverpool . Minnesotan developed an undisclosed problem and returned to St. John 's , Newfoundland , where she arrived on 13 January 1944 . Thirteen days later , she sailed from St. John 's to join convoy HX 276 for Liverpool , where she arrived with the convoy on 7 February . After calling at Methil and Loch Ewe , Minnesotan returned to New York in mid March .
Minnesotan sailed on another roundtrip to Liverpool in May , but was back in New York by early June . Her last recorded World War II sailings were from New York to Key West , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal , where she arrived in late July 1944 . Sources do not reveal where or in what capacity Minnesotan spent the remainder of the war .
= = Later career = =
After the war 's end , American @-@ Hawaiian continued operating Minnesotan for several more years , but in mid @-@ July 1949 , the company announced the sale of Minnesotan to Italian owners in a move approved by the United States Maritime Commission several days later . The sale of Minnesotan was protested by the Congress of Industrial Organizations which urged the United States Congress to intervene and to help retain American Merchant Marine jobs . Nevertheless , Maria Luisa R. , the new name of the former Minnesotan , remained in Italian hands until she was scrapped in 1952 at Bari .
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= Washington State Route 509 =
State Route 509 ( SR 509 ) is a 35 @.@ 17 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 56 @.@ 60 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , connecting Tacoma in Pierce County to Seattle in King County . The highway travels north from Interstate 705 ( I @-@ 705 ) in Tacoma to SR 99 south of downtown Seattle . It serves cities along the Puget Sound and west of Seattle – Tacoma International Airport in south King County , including Federal Way , Des Moines , and Burien . SR 509 is part of the National Highway System and is a limited @-@ access highway near the Port of Tacoma and from Burien to its northern terminus in Seattle . Prior to the 1964 highway renumbering , the highway was part of Secondary State Highway 1V ( SSH 1V ) from Tacoma to Des Moines and SSH 1K from Des Moines to Seattle . SR 509 was re @-@ aligned onto the Burien Freeway in 1968 and the Port of Tacoma bypass in 1997 , coinciding with the opening of its interchange with I @-@ 705 and the cable @-@ stayed 21st Street Bridge . Various proposals since 1988 have recommended building a freeway extension of SR 509 within the city of SeaTac , connecting the Burien Freeway to I @-@ 5 , that remains unbuilt .
= = Route description = =
SR 509 begins as South 21st Street at a single @-@ point urban interchange with I @-@ 705 in downtown Tacoma in Pierce County , providing access to the Tacoma campus of the University of Washington and the Tacoma Link light rail line on Pacific Avenue . The highway travels east over the Thea Foss Waterway on the cable @-@ stayed 21st Street Bridge into the Port of Tacoma as a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access highway , intersecting Portland Avenue in a half @-@ diamond interchange before crossing the Puyallup River . SR 509 continues east , parallel to a City of Tacoma rail line through a partial cloverleaf interchange with Port of Tacoma Road before the divided highway ends at Taylor Way . The highway turns northwest along the Hylebos Waterway as Marine View Drive through the neighborhood of Northeast Tacoma towards Browns Point . SR 509 passes through Dash Point and its state park along the Puget Sound into King County and the city of Federal Way . The highway travels east as Dash Point Road through Federal Way past Decatur and Federal Way high schools before a junction with SR 99 west of I @-@ 5 . The concurrent SR 99 and SR 509 travel north as the Pacific Highway past Highline Community College to an intersection with SR 516 in western Kent . SR 509 turns west to form a concurrency with SR 516 , heading past Mount Rainier High School and into Des Moines , where SR 516 ends .
SR 509 continues north onto Marine View Drive through the city of Normandy Park and into SeaTac . The highway turns southeast onto Ambaum Boulevard and Des Moines Memorial Drive to a trumpet interchange , the southern terminus of a limited @-@ access freeway section of SR 509 . The four @-@ lane freeway travels west of Seattle – Tacoma International Airport through a closed half @-@ diamond interchange with South 176th Street and a partial cloverleaf interchange with South 160th Street before entering the city of Burien . SR 509 passes Highline High School before reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with Southwest 148th Street and the western terminus of SR 518 . The freeway continues north into the West Seattle neighborhood of Seattle and intersects South 128th Street in a diamond interchange and South 112th Street in a half @-@ diamond interchange . SR 509 enters the Industrial District of Seattle and heads through an interchange with Cloverdale Street and Myers Way before ending at a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 99 south of the First Avenue South Bridge over the Duwamish Waterway . The roadway continues north as the SR 99 divided highway toward downtown Seattle and the Alaskan Way Viaduct .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 509 was the limited @-@ access highway between Burien and its northern terminus in Seattle , serving 54 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was within Dash Point and Dash Point State Park , serving 2 @,@ 600 vehicles . SR 509 between SeaTac and Seattle is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . The highway from Tacoma to Federal Way and from SeaTac to Seattle are designated as part of WSDOT 's Highways of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The present route of SR 509 from Des Moines to Seattle roughly follows a wagon road constructed in the late 1890s by King County along the Puget Sound . The highway between Federal Way and Kent was codified in 1923 as part of State Road 1 and in 1937 as Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) . During the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , the highway between Tacoma and Federal Way was designated as SSH 1V and the highway between Des Moines and Seattle was designated as SSH 1K . SSH 1V traveled 19 @.@ 54 miles ( 31 @.@ 45 km ) north from PSH 1 in Tacoma through the Port of Tacoma on the 11th Street Bridge and the Blair Bridge , opened in 1913 and 1951 respectively , to Federal Way , ending at an intersection with SSH 1K . SSH 1K traveled 12 @.@ 76 miles ( 20 @.@ 54 km ) south from PSH 1 at the First Avenue South Bridge in Seattle through Burien and east through Des Moines to PSH 1 in Midway . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to become SR 509 and was codified into law in 1970 . SR 509 was realigned onto the newly constructed north – south Burien Freeway in 1968 , extending from Seattle to SeaTac . The highway was originally routed through Saltwater State Park on Marine View Drive until 1991 , when SR 509 was moved to two concurrencies with SR 99 in Federal Way and SR 516 in Des Moines .
The freeway was planned to be extended south to SR 516 in the 1970s after a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) right @-@ of @-@ way was acquired by WSDOT before the project was canceled . The King County Department of Public Works recommended extending SR 509 southeast from South 188th Street to I @-@ 5 in 1988 , with construction planned to begin in 1999 at an estimated cost of $ 252 million in 1996 , raised to $ 1 @.@ 4 billion a decade later . A freeway bypass of the Port of Tacoma was opened in 1997 and the highway was truncated to its current southern terminus , a single @-@ point urban interchange with I @-@ 705 in downtown Tacoma near the 21st Street Bridge . No major revisions to the route of SR 509 have occurred since 1997 , however , WSDOT is proposing a freeway extension to SR 509 to I @-@ 5 along with interchange improvements and new arterial streets .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars is a crossover fighting game developed by Eighting and published by Capcom . The game features characters from both Capcom 's video game franchises and various anime series produced by Tatsunoko Production . The game was originally released in Japan for arcades and the Wii video game console in December 2008 as Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes ( タツノコ VS . CAPCOM CROSS GENERATION OF HEROES ) . Following high demand from international fans , Capcom worked with Tatsunoko to resolve international licensing issues and a second version , Ultimate All @-@ Stars , was released for the Wii in North America , Japan , and Europe in January 2010 , featuring additional characters and an online mode .
In Tatsunoko vs. Capcom , players engage in combat with a team of two characters or with a single giant character and attempt to knock out their opponents . It is the seventh Capcom @-@ designed installment in their Vs. fighting game series , which includes the Marvel vs. Capcom and Capcom vs. SNK series , and the first to be fully rendered in 3D graphics . The game is set in a 2.5D environment ; characters fight in a two @-@ dimensional arena , but character models and backgrounds are rendered in three @-@ dimensional graphics . The game is designed around a simplified three @-@ button attack system , which was inspired by the simplistic control schemes commonly used by both the Vs. series and the Wii .
The game received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its approachable gameplay for newcomers and depth for veteran players . However , reviewers had mixed experiences with its online component , and found Arcade mode lacking in replay value . According to the game 's producer , Ryota Niitsuma , development difficulties and a lack of Wii fighting games were the reasons for its platform exclusivity ; however , multiple critics questioned if that was the best choice . Capcom announced in April 2010 that the game was a commercial success .
= = Gameplay = =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom is a tag team @-@ based fighting game in which players control characters with different attacks and fighting styles , and engage in combat to deplete their opponent 's life gauge . The gameplay is set in a 2.5D environment where the characters are rendered in three @-@ dimensional graphics , but their movements are restricted to a two dimensional plane ; they may only move left and right , and upward through the air . Each player may select a team of two characters and can switch between them during combat . Alternatively , players may select one of two " giant " characters , who cannot be played as part of a team . When characters switch , the incoming one performs a special attack upon entry , and the previous one can regenerate health . Characters not in play may be used to assist , and to perform powerful team moves . A match ends when a team has no characters left , or when the timer reaches zero — in which case , the team with the most remaining life wins .
The arcade release of Cross Generation of Heroes has a control scheme consisting of a joystick and four buttons . Wii versions of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom have five control options : the Classic Controller , Nintendo GameCube controller , third @-@ party arcade sticks , and two simplified control schemes — intended for inexperienced players — for the Wii Remote . Players use controller inputs to perform attacks ; the most basic attacks are executed by pressing one of three attack buttons : light , medium , or strong . Players may augment basic attacks with joystick or control pad directional inputs ; for example , a standard strong attack can become a sweep when the down input is added . Basic attacks can be strung together to perform combos .
Each character has unique " universal techniques " — special attacks that are more powerful than normal moves — that require complex control inputs . Similar inputs are used to perform even stronger versions of special moves called Hyper Combos and Team Hyper Combos ; these deal damage relative to the size of the player 's Hyper Combo gauge , which increases when the character does or receives damage . Certain universal techniques are usable by all characters ; for example , each character possesses one that launches opponents upward , rendering them vulnerable to an " air combo " . Other common universal techniques include the " Baroque Combo " , which sacrifices the regenerable portion of a character 's life gauge , but allows players to extend combos and deal more damage ; and the " Mega Crash " , which creates a temporary barrier around the character to knock back opponents , but partially drains their Hyper Combo and life gauges .
= = = Modes = = =
Cross Generation of Heroes , the 2008 Wii version of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom , has an Arcade game mode : the player fights against artificial intelligence ( AI ) -controlled opponents to reach the final boss character , Yami from Ōkami . Time attack and Survival modes are also available , and require the player to defeat every character in the game . While Survival limits health regeneration , Time attack challenges players to win in the shortest time possible . Other modes include Vs . Mode , in which two players engage in combat , and Original Games , which sees up to four players competing in character @-@ specific minigames . Using money obtained throughout the game , the player may purchase unlockable characters , alternate character costumes , minigames , character profiles , movies , illustrations , and background music . Once purchased , the latter four are viewable in a gallery . The arcade release of Cross Generation of Heroes omits the game modes , and instead features a character selection screen from which a player may compete against either AI opponents or a second player .
Ultimate All @-@ Stars has largely the same features as the Wii version of Cross Generation of Heroes , with the exception of Original Games ; instead , it features a top @-@ down shooter minigame called " Ultimate All @-@ Shooters " . Unique to Ultimate All @-@ Stars is Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection support for Vs . Mode competition over the Internet . Online multiplayer matches may be played either with registered friends or opponents , or randomly selected participants . Players can choose from randomly selected opponents to be of a rank similar to their own . Rank is decided by battle points , which fluctuate when a ranked match is won or lost . Once a match is completed , players can add a consenting opponent to a Rival Roster for future matches .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Ultimate All @-@ Stars contains 26 playable characters from Capcom video game franchises like Street Fighter , Mega Man , and Viewtiful Joe and Tatsunoko Production anime franchises such as Science Ninja Team Gatchaman , Yatterman , and Neo @-@ Human Casshern . The original arcade version of Cross Generation of Heroes features 18 characters , which was increased to 22 for its Wii release . The rosters of both Ultimate All @-@ Stars and Cross Generation of Heroes are evenly divided between Tatsunoko and Capcom characters . The game 's two largest and most powerful characters , Tatsunoko 's Gold Lightan and Capcom 's PTX @-@ 40A , cannot have partners ; by extension , they cannot perform universal techniques that require a partner . Non @-@ playable characters , derived from Capcom and Tatsunoko intellectual properties , make cameo appearances during certain attacks ; for example , Casshan is assisted by his robotic dog , Friender , while Doronjo is accompanied by her lackeys Boyacky and Tonzura .
† Wii @-@ exclusive character
‡ Exclusive to Cross Generation of Heroes
§ Exclusive to Ultimate All @-@ Stars
= = Development = =
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom was conceived when Tatsunoko Production asked Capcom to develop a game with Tatsunoko characters . In @-@ company discussions at Capcom about it started in mid @-@ 2006 ; Capcom producer Ryota Niitsuma was interested in producing a fighting game , and agreed with other Capcom employees that Tatsunoko 's characters would be better suited for a Vs. game than a Street Fighter game . The resulting project was the seventh Capcom @-@ designed entry in the Vs. series and the first in over seven years . In the 2000s decade , fighting games were less popular and plentiful than in the mid @-@ 1990s , with multiplayer competition shifting towards other genres .
The research and development team started work in parallel with Street Fighter IV . " Capcom [ hoped to ] bring back the fighting genre into the mainstream market [ ... ] with a serious fighting game for very hardcore fans , and another with a slightly lowered barrier to entry , " Niitsuma said . Eighting , Capcom 's hired developer , took on the job in early 2007 . Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's design was a departure from the complex attack systems of the Street Fighter series , and of certain Vs. titles . The game is built around a simplified three @-@ button attack system ( light , medium , and strong ) ; it was inspired by the control systems commonly used by both the Vs. series and the Wii , which allows intricate moves to be performed with basic control inputs .
On May 22 , 2008 , Capcom announced the game , titled Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes , for release in Japanese arcades . The arcade cabinets ' system board was proprietary hardware based on the Wii . Beta units were sent to test locations in Tokyo ( July 10 – 13 ) and Osaka ( July 25 – 27 ) . By September , the game was 70 % complete , and a Wii version was announced for Japanese release . Capcom gradually revealed the game 's cast until release . It was released in Japan on the Wii on December 11 , 2008 , and an arcade version followed in mid @-@ December 2008 .
When choosing candidates for the Tatsunoko and Capcom character rosters , the development team was free to nominate any character it wished . However , the team faced limitations on its Tatsunoko candidates ; Niitsuma explained , " [ We ] had to consider licensing issues . Once we had that list we had to figure out how to make a balanced fighting game . On top of that we wanted a good balance between male and female characters . " Selection emphasis was placed on main characters , rather than on villains . Certain characters were denied by Tatsunoko Production without explanation to Capcom . " We weren 't privy to a lot of their decision making process . They didn 't share a lot of reasons with us . When they said no and we asked why , they wouldn 't tell us , but would give us another suggestion , " Niitsuma said . They disallowed characters from Genesis Climber MOSPEADA or Samurai Pizza Cats , despite the high number of fan requests for the latter . The eponymous characters of Tatsunoko 's Muteking , The Dashing Warrior and Nurse Witch Komugi were among those planned for inclusion , but were eventually scrapped . The finalized Tatsunoko cast consists of characters that the team enjoyed in their youth . The development team hoped to include Capcom 's Phoenix Wright and Franziska von Karma from the Ace Attorney series , but , while the latter 's use of a whip made her easy to incorporate , the team struggled to find appropriate attacks for Phoenix . Since Phoenix doesn 't move from the waist down in his original game environment , the team considered adding tires to his desk and having the entirety move as a single character . However , this was abandoned due to potential collision issues . Though they envisioned an attack that used his catch @-@ phrase " Objection ! ( 異議あり ! , Igiari ! ) " , with the letters themselves used to attack the opponent , they found that localization would have changed the Japanese four @-@ character phrase ( in kanji ) to a ten @-@ letter word in English , unbalancing the game . Arthur from Ghosts ' n Goblins , and Ingrid from Capcom Fighting Evolution were also scrapped .
The game is the first Capcom @-@ designed Vs. installment to be rendered fully in 3D . Tatsunoko vs. Capcom and its graphical characteristics were optimized for the Wii , which prevents the game from being ported to other consoles without completely re @-@ building the game . Niitsuma explained that its Wii exclusivity was also due to a lack of Capcom fighting games for the console , and because the Wii 's casual quality matches the Vs. series trait of accessibility . The producer suggested that porting a sequel would be easier , but that Capcom would gauge the reception of the Wii game before making such plans . On November 7 , 2012 , Capcom USA 's senior vice president Christian Svensson revealed that Capcom 's rights with Tatsunoko have lapsed , meaning Capcom is no longer authorized to sell Tatsunoko vs. Capcom physically or digitally .
= = = Localization = = =
On May 6 , 2009 , Capcom listed two " mystery games " as part of their Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 ( E3 2009 ) lineup . Nintendo Power magazine revealed " Capcom Mystery Game # 1 " to be the North American localization of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes , with the new subtitle " Ultimate All @-@ Stars " . It was playable at the company 's E3 booth . European and Australian releases were announced on later dates . The game was originally unintended for release outside Japan , but was localized by Capcom due to positive fan reception . Tatsunoko Production assisted Capcom with its character licensing issues ; while Tatsunoko Production holds such rights in Japan , they are licensed to companies such as Time Warner in other countries . Niitsuma said that acquiring character licenses was difficult , as it was largely done one at a time , and characters cleared in North America had to be checked separately in Europe . Another issue was the possibility that Eighting would be occupied with other projects . Time constraints led Niitsuma to replace the character @-@ specific minigames of Cross Generation of Heroes with " Ultimate All @-@ Shooters " , an expansion of PTX @-@ 40A 's minigame . Artwork by UDON replaced the animated character @-@ specific endings .
A Capcom press release in June 2009 stated that the North American release would have more mini @-@ games , an " enhanced " story mode , and support for online play . The roster would be expanded by five characters , but would lose one unnamed Tatsunoko character . However , Capcom later revised this press release , as it was incorrect , with the statement that they were " looking into adding new features to the game , including possible additions of several new characters from both Capcom and Tatsunoko and [ ... ] exploring the option of online gameplay . "
On September 9 , 2009 , Capcom announced the Japanese release of Ultimate All @-@ Stars . Starting on that day , the company periodically revealed the game 's new characters ; however , the full cast was leaked through JavaScript code on the game 's official Japanese site . With the exception of Hakushon Daimaō , who was removed due to unspecified licensing issues , every playable character from the original Wii release was included . Hakushon Daimaō was also removed in Ultimate All @-@ Stars ' Japanese release , due to both his unpopularity with players , and the game 's status as a localization of the North American version . The new characters encompassed Frank West from Dead Rising , Zero from Mega Man X , Yatterman @-@ 2 from Yatterman , Joe the Condor from Gatchaman , and the title character from Tekkaman Blade . Shinji Ueda served as a director along with Hidetoshi Ishizawa . Ishizawa admitted that , just as Cross Generation of Heroes was not initially planned to be released internationally , neither was Ultimate All @-@ Stars planned to be released in Japan . However , fan appeals and the research and development team 's own hopes resulted in the game 's Japanese localization .
= = = Launch = = =
An official launch event for Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars was held at the Nintendo World Store in the Rockefeller Center on January 23 , 2010 , featuring autograph signings by Niitsuma , giveaways , competitions , and playable demo kiosks . Hundreds of fans were expected to attend between 11 pm and 3 pm . The game was released in North America on January 26 , in Japan on January 28 , and in Europe on January 29 . Capcom 's Community Manager Seth Killian expressed satisfaction with the North American sales of Ultimate All @-@ Stars . " [ Tatsunoko Vs Capcom ] certainly beat the initial expectations . It didn 't set any land speed records , but it was a success , " Killian stated . " And that 's really saying something considering that we 're talking about a game that was not only never coming out , but has a title that most people can 't even pronounce . " In Japan , Ultimate All @-@ Stars sold 18 @,@ 913 units as of January 2 , 2011 , and , as of December 27 , 2009 , Cross Generation of Heroes has sold 62 @,@ 805 units .
Certain versions of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars are bundled with a Mad Catz arcade stick , whose artwork was produced by Japanese artist Shinkiro . Pre @-@ orders from GameStop included eight of thirteen lenticular trading cards . As a buying incentive , Capcom 's Japanese online store offered a Secret File compilation book of concept art , illustrations and design notes ; it is the twenty @-@ seventh volume of the Secret File series , which was originally published between 1996 and 1999 as a supplement to Capcom games of the time . The store also included an audio CD with four vocal tracks from the game : the opening song from Cross Generation of Heroes , " Across the Border " , sung by Asami Abe ; Ultimate All @-@ Stars ' English re @-@ recording of this song , sung by Anna Gholston , with rap by James C. Wilson ; and the Japanese and English versions of Roll 's theme song .
= = Reception = =
Famitsu 's four reviewers each gave Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes a score of 8 / 10 . They believed that its variety of characters and its fighting system were strong points , but found its gameplay to be slightly flat , as skilled players are obligated to use Baroque Combos repeatedly . Licensing and resource issues made GameSpot 's Ricardo Torres , IGN 's John Tanaka , GamesRadar and other critics doubtful that the game would see an international release . Describing the game 's cast of licensed characters , Adam Sessler of X @-@ Play stated that " clearing the American rights to show them all in one game would be a logistical nightmare . " He also pointed out the largely unknown cast to non @-@ Japanese audiences — a notion IGN 's Mark Bozon agreed with . When Ultimate All @-@ Stars debuted at E3 2009 , it garnered numerous genre @-@ specific awards , and won the Game Critics Award for " Best Fighting Game " .
Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars received positive reviews , with an average score of 85 % on review aggregate sites Metacritic and GameRankings . Critics praised its balance between accessibility and depth ; Adam Sessler called it the perfect game for the Wii 's demographic , and remarked that it allows " grandmas , kiddies and junkies " to perform intricate combos , while including deeper gameplay mechanics for the " more refined palate " . Contrasting the game with previous Vs. titles , GameSpot reviewer Randolph Ramsay stated that its use of fewer buttons " may seem less complex [ ... ] , but this simplicity belies the depth of each character 's move set . " Eurogamer 's Matt Edwards believed that , compared to the separate buttons for punches and kicks in Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's streamlined approach was moderately easy to learn . Edwards claimed that the game is a " slightly slower and more user @-@ friendly Marvel , without losing the ability to pull @-@ off crazy 50 + hit combos . "
Reviewers lauded the variety of Tatsunoko vs. Capcom 's graphical presentation and character playstyles . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica wrote that its over @-@ the @-@ top attacks can be " huge , colorful , screen @-@ filling blasts of light and movement , " and that combos " flash across the screen , claiming you landed billions of points of damage . " Adam Sessler and 1UP.com 's Richard Li found that each character played in a vastly different way ; Li explained that there are characters who take advantage of sheer speed and long range moves , others who use momentum to apply pressure to opponents and those who rely on a single opportune moment to deal vast amounts of damage . Heidi Kemps of GamePro contrasted the game with Marvel vs. Capcom 2 , and noted that " every combatant in Tatsunoko feels carefully designed to be unique , intriguing , and most importantly , worth investing time into mastering . " Bozon , Edwards , and VideoGamer.com 's Wesley Yin @-@ Poole believed that the characters were well @-@ animated , and chained attacks together seamlessly .
Li criticized Capcom for not providing an easy alternative to unlock characters since the multiple Arcade mode playthroughs needed to unlock them could be frustrating . Nintendo World Report 's Neal Ronaghan mentioned it can get tedious , and echoing Li 's sentiment , Ryan Scott of GameSpy complained that " arcade mode needs to be left to die , " as multiplayer is the primary reason for playing fighting games . Both Scott and Ramsay thought many of the other unlockables obtainable through Arcade mode didn 't offer sufficient value . Reviewers had mixed experiences with its online component ; GameDaily 's Robert Workman reported that it ran fluidly , but Scott said that the game lagged often enough to be unplayable . Edwards thought " the netcode hasn 't shown itself to be particularly sturdy , " but the situation may improve as the number of local players increase . Both Bozon and GameTrailers said that performance depends on each player 's connection ; the latter explained that lag is more likely to occur when playing against a distant opponent .
The game 's soundtrack was lauded , with Robert Workman of GameDaily highlighting its " fantastic mix of strong techno tunes and dramatic battle themes . " Ramsay cited its " convincing battle effects " and " catchy music " ; he believed that the latter complemented the game 's dynamic nature and presentation . Bozon and Official Nintendo Magazine 's Chris Scullion expressed annoyance with the voice work of the top @-@ down shooter minigame . Bozon explained that three of the four playable characters yell every time they fire .
Critics speculated on the commercial risk of localizing Tatsunoko vs. Capcom for the Wii . Kemps considered it a risky undertaking for Capcom , as the console isn 't renowned for fighting titles , and as the game abandons the three @-@ on @-@ three matches of the Marvel titles — which popularized the Vs. series — in favor of the two @-@ on @-@ two formula used in the older , more obscure Vs. games . Kemps and Bozon pointed out that the game 's Tatsunoko characters are largely unknown to non @-@ Japanese audiences ; this caused Bozon to liken the game to a dark horse , as he considered it to be one of the Wii 's best titles . Li reported that " Many wondered why Capcom chose Nintendo 's Wii as the exclusive platform [ ... ] , a multiplatform release would reach a broader audience , critics argued . " The game 's quality led Yin @-@ Poole to question whether it would stay exclusive to the Wii ; he speculated , " Perhaps TvC is a test , then . If it sells even remotely well , maybe we 'll see a sequel on Microsoft and Sony 's consoles . Or maybe , fingers crossed , it 'll add further weight to the case for [ Marvel vs. Capcom 3 ] . "
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= Gregorian mission =
The Gregorian mission or Augustinian mission was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in AD 596 to convert Britain 's Anglo @-@ Saxons . Headed by Augustine of Canterbury , by the death of the last missionary in 635 the mission had established Christianity in southern Britain . Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted other parts of Britain as well and influenced the Hiberno @-@ Scottish missions to Continental Europe .
By the time the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410 , parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who , later in the century , appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions . In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht , King of Kent , whose wife , Bertha of Kent , was a Frankish princess and practising Christian . Augustine was the prior of Gregory 's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine 's route .
In 597 the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury . Soon the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success and that conversions were taking place . The exact date of Æthelberht 's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601 . A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation . Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles , and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons , but in a series of meetings with Augustine the long @-@ established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority .
Before Æthelberht 's death in 616 a number of other bishoprics had been established but after that date , a pagan backlash set in and the see , or bishopric , of London was abandoned . Æthelberht 's daughter , Æthelburg , married Edwin , the king of the Northumbrians , and by 627 Paulinus , the bishop who accompanied her north , had converted Edwin and a number of other Northumbrians . When Edwin died , in about 633 , his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee to Kent . Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised , by the time the last of them died in 653 , they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain .
= = Background = =
By the 4th century the Roman province of Britannia was converted to Christianity and had even produced its own heretic in Pelagius . Britain sent three bishops to the Synod of Arles in 314 , and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters . Lead baptismal basins and other artefacts bearing Christian symbols testify to a growing Christian presence at least until about 360 .
After the Roman legions withdrew from Britannia in 410 the natives of Great Britain were left to defend themselves , and non @-@ Christian Angles , Saxons , and Jutes — generally referred to collectively as Anglo @-@ Saxons — settled the southern parts of the island . Though most of Britain remained Christian , isolation from Rome bred a number of distinct practices — Celtic Christianity — including emphasis on monasteries instead of bishoprics , differences in calculation of the date of Easter , and a modified clerical tonsure . Evidence for the continued existence of Christianity in eastern Britain at this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence of eccles — from the Latin for church — in place names . There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxon newcomers .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions coincided with the disappearance of most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , including the economic and religious structures . Whether this was a result of the Angles themselves , as the early medieval writer Gildas argued , or mere coincidence is unclear . The archaeological evidence suggests much variation in the way that the tribes established themselves in Britain concurrently with the decline of urban Roman culture in Britain . The net effect was that when Augustine arrived in 597 the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms had little continuity with the preceding Roman civilisation . In the words of the historian John Blair , " Augustine of Canterbury began his mission with an almost clean slate . "
= = Gregory the Great and his motivations = =
= = = Immediate background = = =
In 595 , when Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission to the Anglo @-@ Saxons , the Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht . He had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588 , and perhaps earlier than 560 . Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I , one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks . As one of the conditions of her marriage she had brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent as her chaplain . They restored a church in Canterbury that dated to Roman times , possibly the present @-@ day St Martin 's Church . Æthelberht was at that time a pagan but he allowed his wife freedom of worship . Liudhard does not appear to have made many converts among the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and if not for the discovery of a gold coin , the Liudhard medalet , bearing the inscription Leudardus Eps ( Eps is an abbreviation of Episcopus , the Latin word for bishop ) his existence may have been doubted . One of Bertha 's biographers states that , influenced by his wife , Æthelberht requested Pope Gregory to send missionaries . The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen .
= = = Motivations = = =
Most historians take the view that Gregory initiated the mission , although exactly why remains unclear . A famous story recorded by Bede , an 8th @-@ century monk who wrote a history of the British Church , relates that Gregory saw fair @-@ haired Anglo @-@ Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people . Supposedly Gregory inquired about the identity of the slaves , and was told that they were Angles from the island of Great Britain . Gregory replied that they were not Angles , but Angels . The earliest version of this story is from an anonymous Life of Gregory written at Whitby Abbey about 705 . Bede , as well as the Whitby Life of Gregory , records that Gregory himself had attempted to go on a missionary journey to Britain before becoming pope . In 595 Gregory wrote to one of the papal estate managers in southern Gaul , asking that he buy English slave boys in order that they might be educated in monasteries . Some historians have seen this as a sign that Gregory was already planning the mission to Britain at that time , and that he intended to send the slaves as missionaries , although the letter is also open to other interpretations .
The historian N. J. Higham speculates that Gregory had originally intended to send the British slave boys as missionaries , until in 596 he received news that Liudhard had died , thus opening the way for more serious missionary activity . Higham argues that it was the lack of any bishop in Britain which allowed Gregory to send Augustine , with orders to be consecrated as a bishop if needed . Another consideration was that cooperation would be more easily obtained from the Frankish royal courts if they no longer had their own bishop and agent in place .
Higham theorises that Gregory believed that the end of the world was imminent , and that he was destined to be a major part of God 's plan for the apocalypse . His belief was rooted in the idea that the world would go through six ages , and that he was living at the end of the sixth age , a notion that may have played a part in Gregory 's decision to dispatch the mission . Gregory not only targeted the British with his missionary efforts , but he also supported other missionary endeavours , encouraging bishops and kings to work together for the conversion of non @-@ Christians within their territories . He urged the conversion of the heretical Arians in Italy and elsewhere , as well as the conversion of Jews . Also pagans in Sicily , Sardinia and Corsica were the subject of letters to officials , urging their conversion .
Some scholars suggest that Gregory 's main motivation was to increase the number of Christians ; others wonder if more political matters such as extending the primacy of the papacy to additional provinces and the recruitment of new Christians looking to Rome for leadership were also involved . Such considerations may have also played a part , as influencing the emerging power of the Kentish Kingdom under Æthelberht could have had some bearing on the choice of location . Also , the mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards . At the time of the mission Britain was the only part of the former Roman Empire which remained in pagan hands and the historian Eric John argues that Gregory desired to bring the last remaining pagan area of the old empire back under Christian control .
= = = Practical considerations = = =
The choice of Kent and Æthelberht was almost certainly dictated by a number of factors , including that Æthelberht had allowed his Christian wife to worship freely . Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht 's kingdom was well established , and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks . Another reason for the mission was the growing power of the Kentish kingdom . Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592 , Æthelberht was the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon ruler ; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium , or overlordship , south of the River Humber . Lastly , the proximity of Kent to the Franks allowed for support from a Christian area . There is some evidence , including Gregory 's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission , that some of the Franks felt they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time . The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship , if Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish Church and not merely as a spiritual adviser to the queen . Archaeological remains support the notion that there were cultural influences from Francia in England at that time .
= = = Preparations = = =
In 595 , Gregory chose Augustine , prior of Gregory 's own monastery of St Andrew in Rome , to head the mission to Kent . Gregory selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish kings . The pope wrote to a number of Frankish bishops on Augustine 's behalf , introducing the mission and asking that Augustine and his companions be made welcome . Copies of letters to some of these bishops survive in Rome . The pope wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia , as well as their grandmother Brunhilda of Austrasia , seeking aid for the mission . Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine . Besides hospitality , the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and were asked to allow some Frankish priests to accompany the mission . By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops , Gregory helped to ensure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent , as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which enjoyed the evident support of his wife 's relatives and people . The Franks at that time were attempting to extend their influence in Kent , and assisting Augustine 's mission furthered that goal . Chlothar , in particular , needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom 's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings .
= = Arrival and first efforts = =
= = = Composition and arrival = = =
The mission consisted of about forty missionaries , some of whom were monks . Soon after leaving Rome , the missionaries halted , daunted by the nature of the task before them . They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return , which Gregory refused , and instead sending Augustine back with letters to encourage the missionaries to persevere . Another reason for the pause may have been the receipt of news of the death of King Childebert II , who had been expected to help the missionaries ; Augustine may have returned to Rome to secure new instructions and letters of introduction , as well as to update Gregory on the new political situation in Gaul . Most likely , they halted in the Rhone valley . Gregory also took the opportunity to name Augustine as abbot of the mission . Augustine then returned to the rest of the missionaries , with new instructions , probably including orders to seek consecration as a bishop on the Continent if the conditions in Kent warranted it .
In 597 the mission landed in Kent , and it quickly achieved some initial success : Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury , where they used the church of St. Martin 's for services , and this church became the seat of the bishopric . Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht 's conversion , but it probably took place in 597 .
= = = Process of conversion = = =
In the early medieval period , large @-@ scale conversions required the ruler 's conversion first , and large numbers of converts are recorded within a year of the mission 's arrival in Kent . By 601 , Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha , calling the king his son and referring to his baptism . A late medieval tradition , recorded by the 15th @-@ century chronicler Thomas Elmham , gives the date of the king 's conversion as Whit Sunday , or 2 June 597 ; there is no reason to doubt this date , but there is no other evidence for it . A letter of Gregory 's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598 mentions the number of converts made , but does not mention any baptism of the king in 597 , although it is clear that by 601 he had been converted . The royal baptism probably took place at Canterbury but Bede does not mention the location .
Why Æthelberht chose to convert to Christianity is uncertain . Bede suggests that the king converted strictly for religious reasons , but most modern historians see other motives behind Æthelberht 's decision . Certainly , given Kent 's close contacts with Gaul , it is possible that Æthelberht sought baptism in order to smooth his relations with the Merovingian kingdoms , or to align himself with one of the factions then contending in Gaul . Another consideration may have been that new methods of administration often followed conversion , whether directly from the newly introduced church or indirectly from other Christian kingdoms .
Evidence from Bede suggests that , although Æthelberht encouraged conversion , he could not compel his subjects to become Christians . The historian R. A. Markus feels that this was due to a strong pagan presence in the kingdom that forced the king to rely on indirect means including royal patronage and friendship to secure conversions . For Markus this is demonstrated by the way in which Bede describes the king 's conversion efforts which , when a subject converted , were to " rejoice at their conversion " and to " hold believers in greater affection " .
= = = Instructions and missionaries from Rome = = =
After these conversions , Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success along with questions about the mission . Bede records the letter and Gregory 's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum . Augustine asked for Gregory 's advice on some issues , including how to organise the church , the punishment for church robbers , guidance on who was allowed to marry whom , and the consecration of bishops . Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul , childbirth and baptism , and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass . Other than the trip by Laurence , little is known of the activities of the missionaries in the period from their arrival until 601 . Gregory mentions the mass conversions , and there is mention of Augustine working miracles that helped win converts , but there is little evidence of specific events .
According to Bede , further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601 . They brought a pallium for Augustine , gifts of sacred vessels , vestments , relics , and books . The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status , and signified that Augustine was in union with the Roman papacy . Along with the pallium , a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain twelve suffragan bishops as soon as possible , and to send a bishop to York . Gregory 's plan was that there would be two metropolitan sees , one at York and one at London , with twelve suffragan bishops under each archbishop . Augustine was also instructed to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury , which never happened , perhaps because London was not part of Æthelberht 's domain . Also , London remained a stronghold of paganism , as events after the death of Æthelberht revealed . London at that time was part of the Kingdom of Essex , which was ruled by Æthelberht 's nephew Sæbert of Essex , who converted to Christianity in 604 . The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London , and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after Æthelberht 's death that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see , contradicting Bede 's version of events . The choice of London as Gregory 's proposed southern archbishopric was probably due to his understanding of how Britain was administered under the Romans , when London was the principal city of the province .
Along with the letter to Augustine , the returning missionaries brought a letter to Æthelberht that urged the king to act like the Roman Emperor Constantine I and force the conversion of his followers to Christianity . The king was also urged to destroy all pagan shrines . However , Gregory also wrote a letter to Mellitus , the Epistola ad Mellitum of July 601 , in which the pope took a different tack in regards to pagan shrines , suggesting that they be cleansed of idols and converted to Christian use rather than destroyed ; the pope compared the Anglo @-@ Saxons to the ancient Israelites , a recurring theme in Gregory 's writings . He also suggested that the Anglo @-@ Saxons build small huts much like those built during the Jewish festival of Sukkot , to be used during the annual autumn slaughter festivals so as to gradually change the Anglo @-@ Saxon pagan festivals into Christian ones .
The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the reason for the conflicting advice is that the letter to Æthelberht was written first , and sent off with the returning missionaries . Markus argues that the pope , after thinking further about the circumstances of the mission in Britain , then sent a follow @-@ up letter , the Epistolae ad Mellitum , to Mellitus , then en route to Canterbury , which contained new instructions . Markus sees this as a turning point in missionary history , in that forcible conversion gave way to persuasion . This traditional view that the Epistola represents a contradiction of the letter to Æthelberht has been challenged by George Demacopoulos who argues that the letter to Æthelberht was mainly meant to encourage the king in spiritual matters , while the Epistola was sent to deal with purely practical matters , and thus the two do not contradict each other . Flora Spiegel , a writer on Anglo @-@ Saxon literature , suggests that the theme of comparing the Anglo @-@ Saxons to the Israelites was part of a conversion strategy involving gradual steps , including an explicitly proto @-@ Jewish one between paganism and Christianity . Spiegel sees this as an extension of Gregory 's view of Judaism as halfway between Christianity and paganism . Thus , Gregory felt that first the Anglo @-@ Saxons must be brought up to the equivalent of Jewish practices , then after that stage was reached they could be brought completely up to Christian practices .
= = = Church building = = =
Bede relates that after the mission 's arrival in Kent and conversion of the king , they were allowed to restore and rebuild old Roman churches for their use . One such was Christ Church , Canterbury , which became Augustine 's cathedral church . Archaeological evidence for other Roman churches having been rebuilt is slight , but the church of St Pancras in Canterbury has a Roman building at its core , although it is unclear whether that older building was a church during the Roman era . Another possible site is Lullingstone , in Kent , where a religious site dating to 300 was found underneath an abandoned church .
Soon after his arrival , Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , on land donated by the king . This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy , and that by founding it Augustine introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England , but there is no evidence that the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation .
= = Efforts in the south = =
= = = Relations with the British Christians = = =
Gregory had ordered that the native British bishops were to be governed by Augustine and , consequently , Augustine arranged a meeting with some of the native clergy some time between 602 and 604 . The meeting took place at a tree later given the name " Augustine 's Oak " , probably around the present @-@ day boundary between Somerset and Gloucestershire . Augustine apparently argued that the British church should give up any of its customs not in accordance with Roman practices , including the dating of Easter . He also urged them to help with the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons .
After some discussion , the local bishops stated that they needed to consult with their own people before agreeing to Augustine 's requests , and left the meeting . Bede relates that a group of native bishops consulted an old hermit who said they should obey Augustine if , when they next met with him , Augustine rose when he greeted the natives . But if Augustine failed to stand up when they arrived for the second meeting , they should not submit . When Augustine failed to rise to greet the second delegation of British bishops at the next meeting , Bede says the native bishops refused to submit to Augustine . Bede then has Augustine proclaim a prophecy that because of lack of missionary effort towards the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the British church , the native church would suffer at the hands of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . This prophecy was seen as fulfilled when Æthelfrith of Northumbria supposedly killed 1200 native monks at the Battle of Chester . Bede uses the story of Augustine 's two meetings with two groups of British bishops as an example of how the native clergy refused to cooperate with the Gregorian mission . Later , Aldhelm , the abbot of Malmesbury , writing in the later part of the 7th century , claimed that the native clerks would not eat with the missionaries , nor would they perform Christian ceremonies with them . Laurence , Augustine 's successor , writing to the Irish bishops during his tenure of Canterbury , also stated that an Irish bishop , Dagan , would not share meals with the missionaries .
One probable reason for the British clergy 's refusal to cooperate with the Gregorian missionaries was the ongoing conflict between the natives and the Anglo @-@ Saxons , who still were encroaching upon British lands at the time of the mission . The British were unwilling to preach to the invaders of their country , and the invaders saw the natives as second @-@ class citizens , and would have been unwilling to listen to any conversion efforts . There was also a political dimension , as the missionaries could be seen as agents of the invaders ; because Augustine was protected by Æthelberht , submitting to Augustine would have been seen as submitting to Æthelberht 's authority , which the British bishops would have been unwilling to do .
Most of the information on the Gregorian mission comes from Bede 's narrative , and this reliance on one source necessarily leaves the picture of native missionary efforts skewed . First , Bede 's information is mainly from the north and the east of Britain . The western areas , where the native clergy was strongest , was an area little covered by Bede 's informants . In addition , although Bede presents the native church as one entity , in reality the native British were divided into a number of small political units , which makes Bede 's generalisations suspect . The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism , but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity . Besides the text of the Libellus contained within Bede 's work , other versions of the letter circulated , some of which included a question omitted from Bede 's version . Wood argues that the question , which dealt with the cult of a native Christian saint , is only understandable if this cult impacted Augustine 's mission , which would imply that Augustine had more relations with the local Christians than those related by Bede .
= = = Spread of bishoprics and church affairs = = =
In 604 , another bishopric was founded , this time at Rochester , where Justus was consecrated as bishop . The king of Essex was converted in the same year , allowing another see to be established at London , with Mellitus as bishop . Rædwald , the king of the East Angles , also was converted , but no see was established in his territory . Rædwald had been converted while visiting Æthelberht in Kent , but when he returned to his own court he worshiped pagan gods as well as the Christian god . Bede relates that Rædwald 's backsliding was because of his still @-@ pagan wife , but the historian S. D. Church sees political implications of overlordship behind the vacillation about conversion . When Augustine died in 604 , Laurence , another missionary , succeeded him as archbishop .
The historian N. J. Higham suggests that a synod , or ecclesiastical conference to discuss church affairs and rules , was held at London during the early years of the mission , possibly shortly after 603 . Boniface , an Anglo @-@ Saxon native who became a missionary to the continental Saxons , mentions such a synod being held at London . Boniface says that the synod legislated on marriage , which he discussed with Pope Gregory III in 742 . Higham argues that because Augustine had asked for clarifications on the subject of marriage from Gregory the Great , it is likely that he could have held a synod to deliberate on the issue . Nicholas Brooks , another historian , is not so sure that there was such a synod , but does not completely rule out the possibility . He suggests it might have been that Boniface was influenced by a recent reading of Bede 's work .
The rise of Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the north of Britain limited Æthelbertht 's ability to expand his kingdom as well as limiting the spread of Christianity . Æthelfrith took over Deira about 604 , adding it to his own realm of Bernicia . However , the Frankish kings in Gaul were increasingly involved in internal power struggles , leaving Æthelbertht free to continue to promote Christianity within his own lands . The Kentish Church sent Justus , then Bishop of Rochester , and Peter , the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul Abbey in Canterbury , to the Council of Paris in 614 , probably with Æthelbertht 's support . Æthelbertht also promulgated a code of laws , which was probably influenced by the missionaries .
= = = Pagan reactions = = =
A pagan reaction set in following Æthelbert 's death in 616 ; Mellitus was expelled from London never to return , and Justus was expelled from Rochester , although he eventually managed to return after spending some time with Mellitus in Gaul . Bede relates a story that Laurence was preparing to join Mellitus and Justus in Francia when he had a dream in which Saint Peter appeared and whipped Laurence as a rebuke for his plans to leave his mission . When Laurence woke whip marks had miraculously appeared on his body . He showed these to the new Kentish king , who promptly was converted and recalled the exiled bishops .
The historian N. J. Higham sees political factors at work in the expulsion of Mellitus , as it was Sæberht 's sons who banished Mellitus . Bede said that the sons had never been converted , and after Æthelberht 's death they attempted to force Mellitus to give them the Eucharist without ever becoming Christians , seeing the Eucharist as magical . Although Bede does not give details of any political factors surrounding the event , it is likely that by expelling Mellitus the sons were demonstrating their independence from Kent , and repudiating the overlordship that Æthelberht had exercised over the East Saxons . There is no evidence that Christians among the East Saxons were mistreated or oppressed after Mellitus ' departure .
Æthelberht was succeeded in Kent by his son Eadbald . Bede states that after Æthelberht 's death Eadbald refused to be baptised and married his stepmother , an act forbidden by the teachings of the Roman Church . Although Bede 's account makes Laurence 's miraculous flogging the trigger for Eadbald 's baptism , this completely ignores the political and diplomatic problems facing Eadbald . There are also chronological problems with Bede 's narrative , as surviving papal letters contradict Bede 's account . Historians differ on the exact date of Eadbald 's conversion . D. P. Kirby argues that papal letters imply that Eadbald was converted during the time that Justus was Archbishop of Canterbury , which was after Laurence 's death , and long after the death of Æthelberht . Henry Mayr @-@ Harting accepts the Bedan chronology as correct , and feels that Eadbald was baptised soon after his father 's death . Higham agrees with Kirby that Eadbald did not convert immediately , contending that the king supported Christianity but did not convert for at least eight years after his father 's death .
= = Spread of Christianity to Northumbria = =
The spread of Christianity in the north of Britain gained ground when Edwin of Northumbria married Æthelburg , a daughter of Æthelbert , and agreed to allow her to continue to worship as a Christian . He also agreed to allow Paulinus of York to accompany her as a bishop , and for Paulinus to preach to the court . By 627 , Paulinus had converted Edwin , and on Easter , 627 , Edwin was baptised . Many others were baptised after the king 's conversion . The exact date when Paulinus went north is unclear ; some historians argue for 625 , the traditional date , whereas others believe that it was closer to 619 . Higham argues that the marriage alliance was part of an attempt by Eadbald , brother of the bride , to capitalise on the death of Rædwald in about 624 , in an attempt to regain the overkingship his father had once enjoyed . According to Higham , Rædwald 's death also removed one of the political factors keeping Eadbald from converting , and Higham dates Eadbald 's baptism to the time that his sister was sent to Northumbria . Although Bede 's account gives all the initiative to Edwin , it is likely that Eadbald also was active in seeking such an alliance . Edwin 's position in the north also was helped by Rædwald 's death , and Edwin seems to have held some authority over other kingdoms until his death .
Paulinus was active not only in Deira , which was Edwin 's powerbase , but also in Bernicia and Lindsey . Edwin planned to set up a northern archbishopric at York , following Gregory the Great 's plan for two archdioceses in Britain . Both Edwin and Eadbald sent to Rome to request a pallium for Paulinus , which was sent in July 634 . Many of the East Angles , whose king , Eorpwald appears to have converted to Christianity , were also converted by the missionaries . Following Edwin 's death in battle , in either 633 or 634 , Paulinus returned to Kent with Edwin 's widow and daughter . Only one member of Paulinus ' group stayed behind , James the Deacon . After Justus ' departure from Northumbria , a new king , Oswald , invited missionaries from the Irish monastery of Iona , who worked to convert the kingdom .
About the time that Edwin died in 633 , a member of the East Anglian royal family , Sigeberht , returned to Britain after his conversion while in exile in Francia . He asked Honorius , one of the Gregorian missionaries who was then Archbishop of Canterbury , to send him a bishop , and Honorius sent Felix of Burgundy , who was already a consecrated bishop ; Felix succeeded in converting the East Angles .
= = Other aspects = =
The Gregorian missionaries focused their efforts in areas where Roman settlement had been concentrated . It is possible that Gregory , when he sent the missionaries , was attempting to restore a form of Roman civilisation to England , modelling the church 's organisation after that of the church in Francia at that time . Another aspect of the mission was how little of it was based on monasticism . One monastery was established at Canterbury , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , but although Augustine and some of his missionaries had been monks , they do not appear to have lived as monks at Canterbury . Instead , they lived more as secular clergy serving a cathedral church , and it appears likely that the sees established at Rochester and London were organised along similar lines . The Gaulish and Italian churches were organised around cities and the territories controlled by those cities . Pastoral services were centralised , and churches were built in the larger villages of the cities ' territorial rule . The seat of the bishopric was established in the city and all churches belonged to the diocese , staffed by the bishop 's clergy .
Most modern historians have noted how the Gregorian missionaries come across in Bede 's account as colourless and boring , compared to the Irish missionaries in Northumbria , and this is related directly to the way Bede gathered his information . The historian Henry Mayr @-@ Harting argues that in addition , most of the Gregorian missionaries were concerned with the Roman virtue of gravitas , or personal dignity not given to emotional displays , and this would have limited the colourful stories available about them .
One reason for the mission 's success was that it worked by example . Also important was Gregory 's flexibility and willingness to allow the missionaries to adjust their liturgies and behaviour . Another reason was the willingness of Æthelberht to be baptised by a non @-@ Frank . The king would have been wary of allowing the Frankish bishop Liudhard to convert him , as that might open Kent up to Frankish claims of overlordship . But being converted by an agent of the distant Roman pontiff was not only safer , it allowed the added prestige of accepting baptism from the central source of the Latin Church . As the Roman Church was considered part of the Roman Empire in Constantinople , this also would gain Æthelberht acknowledgement from the emperor . Other historians have attributed the success of the mission to the substantial resources Gregory invested in its success ; he sent over forty missionaries in the first group , with more joining them later , a quite significant number .
= = Legacy = =
The last of Gregory 's missionaries , Archbishop Honorius , died on 30 September 653 . He was succeeded as archbishop by Deusdedit , a native Englishman .
= = = Pagan practices = = =
The missionaries were forced to proceed slowly , and could not do much about eliminating pagan practices , or destroying temples or other sacred sites , unlike the missionary efforts that had taken place in Gaul under St Martin . There was little fighting or bloodshed during the mission . Paganism was still practised in Kent until the 630s , and it was not declared illegal until 640 . Although Honorius sent Felix to the East Angles , it appears that most of the impetus for conversion came from the East Anglian king .
With the Gregorian missionaries , a third strand of Christian practice was added to the British Isles , to combine with the Gaulish and the Hiberno @-@ British strands already present . Although it is often suggested that the Gregorian missionaries introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into England , there is no supporting evidence . The early archbishops at Canterbury claimed supremacy over all the bishops in the British Isles , but their claim was not acknowledged by most of the rest of the bishops . The Gregorian missionaries appear to have played no part in the conversion of the West Saxons , who were converted by a missionary sent directly by Pope Honorius I. Neither did they have much lasting influence in Northumbria , where after Edwin 's death the conversion of the Northumbrians was achieved by missionaries from Iona , not Canterbury .
= = = Papal aspects = = =
An important by @-@ product of the Gregorian mission was the close relationship it fostered between the Anglo @-@ Saxon Church and the Roman Church . Although Gregory had intended for the southern archiepiscopal see to be located at London , that never happened . A later tradition , dating from 797 , when an attempt was made to move the archbishopric from Canterbury to London by King Coenwulf of Mercia , stated that on the death of Augustine , the " wise men " of the Anglo @-@ Saxons met and decided that the see should remain at Canterbury , for that was where Augustine had preached . The idea that an archbishop needed a pallium in order to exercise his archiepiscopal authority derives from the Gregorian mission , which established the custom at Canterbury from where it was spread to the Continent by later Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries such as Willibrord and Boniface . The close ties between the Anglo @-@ Saxon church and Rome were strengthened later in the 7th century when Theodore of Tarsus was appointed to Canterbury by the papacy .
The mission was part of a movement by Gregory to turn away from the East , and look to the Western parts of the old Roman Empire . After Gregory , a number of his successors as pope continued in the same vein , and maintained papal support for the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The missionary efforts of Augustine and his companions , along with those of the Hiberno @-@ Scottish missionaries , were the model for the later Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries to Germany . The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the Gregorian mission was a turning point in papal missionary strategy , marking the beginnings of a policy of persuasion rather than coercion .
= = = Cults of the saints = = =
Another effect of the mission was the promotion of the cult of Pope Gregory the Great by the Northumbrians amongst others ; the first Life of Gregory is from Whitby Abbey in Northumbria . Gregory was not popular in Rome , and it was not until Bede 's Ecclesisastical History began to circulate that Gregory 's cult also took root there . Gregory , in Bede 's work , is the driving force behind the Gregorian mission , and Augustine and the other missionaries are portrayed as depending on him for advice and help in their endeavours . Bede also gives a leading role in the conversion of Northumbria to Gregorian missionaries , especially in his Chronica Maiora , in which no mention is made of any Irish missionaries . By putting Gregory at the centre of the mission , even though he did not take part in it , Bede helped to spread the cult of Gregory , who not only became one of the major saints in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , but continued to overshadow Augustine even in the afterlife ; an Anglo @-@ Saxon church council of 747 ordered that Augustine should always be mentioned in the liturgy right after Gregory .
A number of the missionaries were considered saints , including Augustine , who became another cult figure ; the monastery he founded in Canterbury was eventually rededicated to him . Honorius , James the Deacon , Justus , Lawrence , Mellitus , Paulinus , and Peter , were also considered saints , along with Æthelberht , of whom Bede said that he continued to protect his people even after death .
= = = Art , architecture , and music = = =
A few objects at Canterbury have traditionally been linked with the mission , including the 6th @-@ century St Augustine Gospels produced in Italy , now held at Cambridge as Corpus Christi College MS 286 . There is a record of an illuminated and imported Bible of St Gregory , now lost , at Canterbury in the 7th century . Thomas of Elmham , in the late 15th century , described a number of other books held at that time by St Augustine 's Abbey , believed to have been gifts to the abbey from Augustine . In particular , Thomas recorded a psalter as being associated with Augustine , which the antiquary John Leland saw at the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s , but it has since disappeared .
Augustine built a church at his foundation of Sts Peter and Paul Abbey at Canterbury , later renamed St Augustine 's Abbey . This church was destroyed after the Norman Conquest to make way for a new abbey church . The mission also established Augustine 's cathedral at Canterbury , which became Christ Church Priory . This church has not survived , and it is unclear if the church that was destroyed in 1067 and described by the medieval writer Eadmer as Augustine 's church , was built by Augustine . Another medieval chronicler , Florence of Worcester , claimed that the priory was destroyed in 1011 , and Eadmer himself had contradictory stories about the events of 1011 , in one place claiming that the church was destroyed by fire and in another claiming only that it was looted . A cathedral was also established in Rochester ; although the building was destroyed in 676 , the bishopric continued in existence . Other church buildings were erected by the missionaries in London , York , and possibly Lincoln , although none of them survive .
The missionaries introduced a musical form of chant into Britain , similar to that used in Rome during the mass . During the 7th and 8th centuries Canterbury was renowned for the excellence of its clergy 's chanting , and sent singing masters to instruct others , including two to Wilfrid , who became Bishop of York . Putta , the first Bishop of Rochester , had a reputation for his skill at chanting , which he was said to have learned from the Gregorian missionaries . One of them , James the Deacon , taught chanting in Northumbria after Paulinus returned to Kent ; Bede noted that James was accomplished in the singing of the chants .
= = = Legal codes and documents = = =
The historian Ann Williams has argued that the missionaries ' familiarity with the Roman law , recently codified by the Emperor Justinian in the Corpus Iuris Civilis promulgated in 534 , were an influence on the English kings promulgating their own law codes . Bede specifically calls Æthelberht 's code a " code of law after the Roman manner " . Another influence , also introduced by the missionaries , on the early English law codes was the Old Testament legal codes . Williams sees the issuing of legal codes as not just laws but also as statements of royal authority , showing that the kings were not just warlords but also lawgivers and capable of securing peace and justice in their kingdoms . It has also been suggested that the missionaries contributed to the development of the charter in England , for the earliest surviving charters show not just Celtic and Frankish influences but also Roman touches . Williams argues that it is possible that Augustine introduced the charter into Kent .
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= Russ Christopher =
Russell Ormand Christopher ( September 12 , 1917 – December 5 , 1954 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for seven seasons in the American League with the Philadelphia Athletics and Cleveland Indians . In 241 career games , Christopher pitched 999 ⅔ innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 54 – 64 , with 46 complete games , three shutouts , and a 3 @.@ 37 earned run average ( ERA ) .
A 6 ' 3 , 180 lb. player from Richmond , California , he played minor league baseball in the New York Yankees organization before being acquired by the Athletics in the rule 5 draft . Christopher joined the Athletics ' major league roster in 1942 and played six seasons for them , and made his only All @-@ Star appearance in 1945 . He was traded to the Indians before the 1948 season , and played one year of baseball with them . After the season ended , he retired due to health concerns and worked at an aircraft plant until his death in 1954 .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Christopher was born in Richmond , California . His brother , Loyd Christopher , went on to become a major league outfielder . Loyd was the one first interested in becoming a professional baseball player , but would not sign a contract unless Russ signed one as well . As a child , Christopher had a case of rheumatic fever , which damaged his heart .
He had his first taste of professional baseball in 1938 , when he signed with the Clovis Pioneers of the West Texas – New Mexico League . He pitched in 13 games for the pioneers , posting a 7 – 5 record , 106 innings pitched and a 4 @.@ 50 ERA . The following year , Christopher joined the El Paso Texans , the rookie @-@ level minor league team of the New York Yankees farm system . In 32 games with the Texans , he posted an 18 – 7 record , pitched 225 innings and had an ERA of 3 @.@ 68 . He was promoted in 1940 to the Wenatchee Chiefs of the Western International League , where he finished the year with an 8 – 8 record and a 4 @.@ 72 ERA in 20 games . At the end of the season , he was promoted to the Newark Bears of the International League along with seven other minor league players .
In his lone season with the Bears , Christopher pitched in 31 games . Among those games was a four @-@ hit shutout against the Rochester Red Wings in the International League playoffs to put the Bears up two games to none . In the championship series against the Montreal Royals , Christopher pitched seven solid innings in a victory for the Bears , but injured his back and did not play another game that season . He finished the season with a 16 – 7 record , a 2 @.@ 82 ERA and 12 complete games . At the conclusion of the season , Christopher was considered the top prospect in the rule 5 draft , and the Philadelphia Athletics selected him with the first pick of the draft .
= = Philadelphia Athletics = =
After pitching with the Athletics in spring training , manager Connie Mack placed Christopher on the major league roster , and he made his debut on April 14 , 1942 . On May 5 , Christopher made his first appearance as a starting pitcher against the Detroit Tigers . The Athletics won the game , 2 – 1 , and he got his first major league win . After another win five days later , he began a long losing streak . Many of the games he did pitch were in relief , including a game in June against the Cleveland Indians where he only allowed one hit in three innings . He got his third win of the season three months after his second on August 20 in a 2 – 1 victory over the Washington Nationals . He finished the season with a 4 – 13 record , a 3 @.@ 82 ERA , 30 total games , 58 strikeouts and 99 walks . The following season , Christopher re @-@ signed with the Athletics , and was one of the few remaining pitchers from the previous year on the team , the rest having been called to serve in World War II . He began the season in the starting rotation , winning his first start of the season against the Boston Red Sox in a 5 – 0 shutout . Over the course of the season , he converted to a sidearm pitching delivery , which led to three victories in a row for him . After a July 9 loss to the Tigers brought his record to 4 – 6 , Christopher did not pitch again until August 24 , and spent the rest of the season pitching in relief . He finished the season with a 5 – 8 record and a 3 @.@ 45 ERA .
Christopher began the 1944 Philadelphia Athletics season as a member of the starting rotation along with Don Black , Lum Harris and Bobo Newsom . However , he did split time in the first half of the year between the starting rotation and the bullpen . Among those appearances was a 16 @-@ inning match against the Chicago White Sox ; Christopher pitched the final four innings , losing 4 – 2 after Hal Trosky stole home plate . On July 14 , he pitched a 4 – 3 victory against the Senators , helping his team defeat Hall of Fame pitcher Early Wynn for the first time in three years . After starting the season with a 4 – 10 record , on July 22 Christopher went on a seven @-@ game winning streak that culminated with a 5 – 1 complete game victory over the White Sox . He finished the season with a 14 – 14 record , 84 strikeouts and an ERA of 2 @.@ 97 . After the season ended , Christopher and others went on a barnstorming tour throughout the United States , ending in Wenatchee , Washington .
The following season , Christopher was part of an optimistic 1945 Athletics team , so much so that coach Earle Mack felt that Christopher , Black , Newsom and Jesse Flores were the best quartet of starting pitchers in the league . He spent most of spring training holding out for a new contract , which was eventually agreed on in the middle of March . He missed the first couple weeks of the season due to injury , and won his season debut on April 18 , a 12 @-@ inning shutout against the Senators . He followed that up with a victory over the Boston Red Sox , allowing only one earned run in his first 21 innings of the season . In mid @-@ June , Christopher had won ten games , which not only led the league , but was more than the seven the rest of the Athletics pitching staff had combined . On July 21 , Christopher was part of a 24 @-@ inning game against the Tigers that ended in a 1 – 1 tie ; he went 13 innings in the game while Joe Berry pitched the other 11 . Although Christopher had a strong start to the season , he struggled during the second half . He lost seven straight games over a two @-@ month period before winning another on August 19 against the Tigers . He finished the year with a 13 – 13 record and a 3 @.@ 17 ERA . He was selected to the American League All @-@ Star team , however the game was canceled as a result of World War II .
The 1946 Philadelphia Athletics season began with Christopher the subject of a possible trade . The Athletics tried to obtain Johnny Lindell from the Yankees , but they wanted Christopher in return . Mack refused to give him up , and as a result the trade never materialized . He began the season in the starting rotation , and was the opening day starting pitcher in a 5 – 0 loss against the Yankees . Over the first part of the season , Christopher again split time between the rotation and the bullpen . In a 7 – 3 loss to the Indians on July 18 , Christopher could not get out of the second inning , allowing five earned runs . After this , he did not pitch for a month , and spent the rest of the season as an occasional reliever . He finished the season with five wins , seven losses and a 4 @.@ 30 ERA . After the season ended , Christopher began contemplating retirement from baseball . He had lost 10 pounds in the final months of the season and was light to begin with , and decided that he would retire if he could not gain the weight back over the winter .
Christopher gained the weight back and rejoined the Athletics for the 1947 season . While there was talk of keeping him in the rotation , he ended up becoming a full @-@ time reliever for the team . Despite this , Christopher was still able to contribute with his bat ; he drove in the winning run in a May 29 game against the Red Sox . Over the course of the season , Christopher evolved into the Athletics ' closer , finishing the games when the team 's pitchers could not go the distance . He finished the season having played 44 games , finishing 38 of them and getting 12 saves in the process . He also had 10 wins , seven losses , and a 2 @.@ 90 ERA . At the end of the season , Christopher was holding out on his contract , wanting either a starting role in the rotation or more money to remain a reliever . The two sides agreed to a deal at the end of February , and he looked to be a starting pitcher during the 1948 season .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
While Christopher was holding out for a new deal from the Athletics , he was also trying to gain weight . He went to around 40 banquets on behalf of Connie Mack during the offseason , and despite his eating habits , he remained at 170 pounds , not gaining an ounce . After apparently reaching an agreement with the Athletics , Christopher was purchased by the Cleveland Indians on April 3 , 1948 . While the deal was made between Mack and Indians owner Bill Veeck , Mack said he would not have made it unless Christopher consented to it , which he did not expect to happen . Indians manager Lou Boudreau reacted positively to the trade and felt that he was the missing piece for a pennant run . He said of the trade , " With Christopher on out staff , we 're definitely contenders . "
While Christopher was hoping to start , the Indians felt , like the Athletics , that he would be better as a relief pitcher for them . Early in the season , Christopher told Veeck that 1948 would be his final year , as his wife joined the doctors ' side , wanting him to retire and noting that he was playing on " borrowed time " already . He spent the season as the Indians ' chief relief pitcher alongside Ed Klieman , both of whom were considered two of the best relievers in the league that season . Christopher finished the season with 45 games played , a 3 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 90 ERA , and 17 saves , which led the league . In the 1948 World Series , he pitched in game five , facing Mike McCormick and Eddie Stanky . He allowed singles to both hitters and allowed two runs to score , and was relieved by Satchel Paige , ending his only playoff appearance .
After the World Series ended , Christopher mulled over retirement , and in January 1949 , he made it official . However , at the start of February , he reconsidered and signed a contract with the Indians , deciding to play for one more year . A month later , as spring training began , he decided to retire for good , ending his career in baseball .
= = Later life = =
After retiring , Christopher moved to San Diego , where he lived with his wife and three children . In December 1950 , Christopher underwent heart surgery , and afterward felt optimistic about the possibility of pitching again . After a tryout with the Indians in 1951 , he joined the San Diego Padres for a salary of $ 1 a year . He spent several weeks training with the team , but was eventually released at the end of April , ending his comeback attempt .
When his final attempt at a comeback failed , Christopher went on to work in an aircraft plant in San Diego . He died in his hometown of Richmond , California , at the age of 37 on December 5 , 1954 and is interred at Chapel of the Chimes in Oakland , California .
Russ ' youngest daughter , Lynn Mary Christopher , born August 10 , 1950 , lives 6 months in San Diego County , and 6 months in Prescott , Arizona .
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= Washington Park Race Track =
Washington Park Race Track was a popular horse racing venue in the Chicago metropolitan area from 1884 until 1977 . It had two locations during its existence . It was first situated in what is the current location of the Washington Park Subdivision of the Woodlawn community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . This is located immediately south of both the current Washington Park community area and Washington Park . The track was later relocated to Homewood , Illinois , which is also in Cook County .
The original track and its accompanying Jockey Club were social draws in the late 19th century , but modern developments and changes in the law led to the decline of both . In its prime , the track was an especially important social gathering place on opening day and the day of the American Derby , which ranked as one of horse racing 's highest purses . The Jockey club , designed by Solon Spencer Beman , hosted a social gathering led by General Philip Sheridan who was an early leader of the track and club . The track was closed and reopened according to the contemporary state and local laws on gambling and eventually waned in popularity and social importance .
Over the years , numerous famous horses and jockeys appeared at the track . In the 19th century , notable horses of the time , such as Emperor of Norfolk and Domino raced . In the 20th century , some of the most notable Thoroughbreds to race at Washington Park included Triple Crown winners Citation and Whirlaway . Other notable horses included Native Dancer and Swaps , who each won legs of the Triple Crown . Jockey Eddie Arcaro won both the 1948 and 1953 American Derby races at the track . In addition to the American Derby , several other notable graded stakes races were run at the track such as the Stars and Stripes Turf Handicap and the Washington Park Handicap . In addition , notable match races were held at the track .
= = Original track = =
In 1883 , a group of about 500 Chicagoans , led by General Philip Sheridan , banded together to create the Washington Park Jockey Club . Selecting a location at 61st and Cottage Grove , the Club opened and operated the Washington Park Race Track , valued at $ 150 @,@ 000 , the following year , claiming it to be " the Midwest ’ s preeminent track . " The track was part of the long tradition of constructing special facilities for sporting events and public assembly in the Chicago parks . At that time it was fashionable for the social elite to maintain close ties to equestrian sports . Some owned Thoroughbreds and thus were members of the Washington Park Jockey Club . The track 's clubhouse , which was completed in 1896 , was designed by Solon Spencer Beman , and C. B. McDonald built a short nine @-@ hole club members ' golf course in the infield of the track .
= = = Major races = = =
Each June , the track sponsored the American Derby , which had a purse ranked among the highest in the country . When Washington Park Race Track first organized the American Derby in 1883 , General Philip Sheridan served as its first President . By 1893 , the American Derby was the 2nd richest American race in the 19th century . Both The American Derby and Opening Day ( the first race of the season ) became important social calendar dates . Residents of elite late 19th century neighborhoods organized a number of related public activities outside the track grounds , including the annual Washington Park Race Track opening day parade .
Horse racing was not the only draw of the track . In 1900 , a race was staged at the track between a gasoline @-@ powered automobile and an electrically powered automobile . At the time , there were more electric cars in the country than gasoline powered ones . The race in Chicago was the first time a gasoline @-@ powered car beat an electric @-@ powered one in a race .
= = = Decline and closure of the original track = = =
The track ran into difficulties when Hempstead Washburne was elected Mayor of Chicago in 1892 . In 1893 , he began a gambling reform campaign , which included a goal of closing all race tracks in Chicago . His campaign eventually resulted in the 1894 closure of Washington Park Race Track , although the track reopened in 1898 . It remained open until 1905 , when the state of Illinois banned gambling and stopped all horse racing . By that time , the prestige of the club had declined , independently of Washburne 's reform movement , because more modern and spacious golf courses drew the members to other locations , and the residential dispersion of elite members from the community area made the club less important . However , the stables used by the track were not torn down and currently form a portion of the DuSable Museum of African @-@ American History .
= = New track = =
In 1926 , a second Washington Park Race Track opened up in south suburban Homewood . The new Washington Park Race Track was located west of Halsted Street just outside Homewood village bounds . The Illinois Central Railroad built a spur line directly between Chicago and the newly relocated track . The relocated track continued to be a famous and popular attraction . The inaugural meeting of organizers was July 3 , 1926 . The new track was constructed amongst a construction boom of racetracks in the United States during the 1920s , which included fifteen new large racetracks constructed during the decade . Others constructed at this time were Arlington Park nearby in Chicago and Hialeah Park in Florida .
Benjamin F. Lindheimer purchased Washington Park Race Track in 1935 and owned it until his death in 1960 . Long involved with the business , adopted daughter Marjorie Lindheimer Everett then took over management of the racetracks .
The American Derby was also reborn at the new track , and was run at Washington through 1957 , when it was moved to Arlington Park , in northwest suburban Arlington Heights . However , racing venues had previously shifted between Chicago @-@ area tracks . For example , in 1943 , Arlington Park shifted its major races to Washington Park as a result of curtailed racing due to World War II .
Another significant race run at the new track was the Grade 2 stakes Washington Park Handicap for three @-@ year @-@ olds and up . It was first held at Washington Park in 1926 , and continued to be held there until 1958 , when it was moved to Arlington Park , where it continues to be held to the present day and commemorates the Washington Park racetrack .
The new track hosted a number of special races between famous horses of the day . On August 29 , 1945 a match race between Busher and Durazna was held at the racetrack . The distance was one mile , with a purse of $ 25 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 . Busher won by almost two lengths , after the lead changed several times during the race . On August 31 , 1955 , Washington Park hosted a match race between Nashua and Swaps with a distance of a mile and a quarter . The purse was $ 100 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 . Nashua won by several lengths , having led the entire race . The race was well attended , and attracted reporters from across the country . Nashua went on to be named Horse of the Year for 1955 .
However , in spite of popular events , the track was not without scandals and allegations of misdeeds . For example , in 1970 , Marge Lindheimer Everett , manager of both Arlington and Washington Park , confessed to having bribed Illinois Governor Otto Kerner to gain premium racing dates .
Washington Park Race Track 's grandstand burned on the night of February 5 , 1977 , putting the track out of business . The property was sold and redeveloped in 1992 for commercial and residential use .
= = Horses who raced at Washington Park = =
Emperor of Norfolk won the 1888 American Derby
Domino won the 1893 Hyde Park Stakes
Whirlaway won the 1941 American Derby
Citation won the 1948 American Derby in the same year he won the Triple Crown , with Eddie Arcaro up
Coaltown won the 1949 Whirlaway Stakes , setting a new world mile mark while doing so
Native Dancer won the 1953 American Derby , with Eddie Arcaro up
Swaps won the 1956 Washington Park Handicap and the 1955 American Derby , where he set the record for that race that still stood in 2006 .
T. V. Lark won the American Derby and Washington Park Handicap in 1961
= = Other stakes races run at the racetrack = =
Sheridan Stakes began in 1884 , ran at the old and new racetracks
Washington Park Handicap began 1926 , moved to Arlington Park in 1958
Washington Park Futurity Stakes - inaugurated in 1937 , it was a race for two @-@ year @-@ olds . In 1959 , the race was moved to Chicago 's Arlington Park race track , and in 1962 was merged with the Arlington Futurity Stakes to create the Arlington @-@ Washington Futurity Stakes . It is now the Arlington @-@ Washington Breeders ' Cup Futurity .
Stars and Stripes Handicap only ran at second Washington Park in 1943 , 1944 and 1945 and again in 1958 and 1959
Arlington Handicap ran at Washington Park in 1943 , 1944 and 1945
Queen Elizabeth Handicap began in 1946 ( ran as the Misty Isle Handicap from 1946 to 1958 )
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= Elwood Haynes =
Elwood Haynes ( October 14 , 1857 – April 13 , 1925 ) was an American inventor , metallurgist , automotive pioneer , entrepreneur and industrialist . He invented the metal alloys stellite and martensitic stainless steel and designed one of the earliest automobiles made in the United States . He is recognized for having created the earliest American design that was feasible for mass production and , with the Apperson brothers , he formed the first company in the United States to produce automobiles profitably . He made many advances in the automotive industry .
Early in his career , while serving as a field superintendent at gas and oil companies during Indiana 's gas boom , Haynes invented several devices important to the advance of the natural gas industry . When working for the Indiana Natural Gas and Oil Company , he oversaw the construction of the first long @-@ distance natural gas pipeline in the United States , connecting Chicago with the Trenton Gas Field 150 miles ( 240 km ) away . He began to formulate plans for a motorized vehicle in the early 1890s ; he successfully road tested his first car , the Pioneer , on July 4 , 1894 — eight years after the first automobile was patented in Germany . He formed a partnership with Elmer and Edgar Apperson in 1896 to start Haynes @-@ Apperson for the commercial production of automobiles , and he renamed it Haynes Automobile Company in 1905 , following the loss of his partners .
Working in his laboratory to develop new corrosion @-@ resistant metals for auto parts , Haynes discovered that mixing tungsten with chromium , steel and iron resulted in the formation of strong and lightweight alloys that were impervious to corrosion and could withstand very high temperatures . In 1912 , he formed Haynes Stellite Company to produce one of the new alloys and received lucrative contracts during World War I , making Haynes a millionaire in 1916 . He sold his patent for stainless steel to the American Stainless Steel Company in exchange for enough stock to gain a seat at the company 's board of directors , a position he held for twelve years . He merged the Haynes Stellite company with Union Carbide in 1920 , and after passing through different owners , the company was renamed and is now called Haynes International . Haynes returned his focus to his automotive company , but in the economic recession of the 1920s the business went bankrupt and was liquidated .
An outspoken advocate of prohibition , he made substantial donations to the Prohibition Party and Indiana 's prohibitionist leader Frank Hanly . Haynes ran an unsuccessful campaign in Indiana for the U.S. Senate in 1916 as a prohibition candidate and remained active in the party until prohibition became law . Later , he became a philanthropist and served two terms as president of the YMCA , five years on the Indiana Board of Education , and was an active member of the Presbyterian church . After his death from complications arising from influenza , his Kokomo mansion was converted into the Elwood Haynes Museum and is open to the public where many of his original inventions and automobiles are on display .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Haynes was born on October 14 , 1857 , in Portland , Indiana , the fifth of ten children of Jacob M. Haynes and Hilinda S. Haines Haynes . His family was of English descent ; he was a ninth @-@ generation descendant of Walter Haynes who immigrated from Wiltshire , England to Sudbury , Massachusetts in 1638 . His father was Jay County 's school commissioner , a lawyer , Whig politician , and a judge of the Jay and Randolph County common pleas court . Both of Haynes ' parents were dedicated Presbyterians and outspoken prohibitionists and educated their children from a young age to avoid liquor . His mother was the founder of a local Women 's Temperance Movement Union . His paternal grandfather Henry Haynes was a gunsmith and mechanic , and tutored Haynes about metallurgy . In 1866 , the family moved from their two @-@ room house in Portland into the countryside outside of town where they purchased a larger home to better accommodate their growing number of children .
At age 12 , Haynes built his first vehicle from scrap railroad car parts and operated it on the county 's railroad tracks . The local railroad foreman did not approve and later seized the vehicle and destroyed it . As a child , Haynes had an interest in chemistry and metallurgy and when he was 15 he built a smelting furnace and began working with copper , bronze , and iron . Haynes was also interested in nature and spent considerable time in the forest cataloging and observing plants , insects , and animals . Because he spent so much time there , his family nicknamed him " Wood " , a nickname they used for most of his life . As he grew older , he became an avid reader of books , including Principles of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry by William Wells . His early experiments and studies interested him in the fundamental properties of matter , and he was intrigued by how mixing compounds could create completely different alloys .
= = = Education = = =
Haynes attended public schools through eighth grade and received a basic education . He had not determined a career path for himself and his parents often criticized him for lacking ambition ; they insisted that he seek employment . He began by working as a custodian at a local church and later for the railroad , hauling ballast to construction sites . At the church , he joined the choir where he met and began to court Bertha Lanterman . When Portland 's first public high school was opened in 1876 , Haynes returned to school at age 19 and completed two more years . Bertha and her family moved to Alabama during the spring of 1877 , and Haynes began a regular correspondence with her . During the summer of that year , a series of revival meetings were held in Indiana by Francis Murphy , a leader of a national temperance organization known as the Murphy Movement . Haynes attended the meetings , probably at his parents ' urging , and became interested in temperance . He took two of Murphy 's pledge cards and carried one for most of his life ; the other he mailed to Bertha .
Haynes ' father attended the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 where he learned of a school that would fit his son 's interests . Using the money he had saved , Haynes decided to attend the college and enrolled in the Worcester Technical Institute in Worcester , Massachusetts , in September 1878 . The school was revolutionary for its time , combining technical training with a classical liberal arts education . Although he easily passed the difficult entrance exam , he found that he was ill @-@ prepared for some of his college courses , and he struggled with mathematics . To earn an income while away from home , he worked as a custodian and night guard at the local public library . He cleaned the building overnight and used his spare time to read books and study . During his final year at the school , boarding rates were increased beyond what Haynes could afford so with no other option , he lived in the library for several months . He could not afford to return home during his stay at the institute , so during the holidays he spent time with his family and friends in New England .
During his first term , he was required to receive a grade of 60 to remain in the school . Although he only achieved a 59 @.@ 2 after completing his final exams , he was permitted to remain because of his " recent progress . " Older than the other students in his class , he often spoke out against their use of alcohol . In his final year he took courses in metallurgy , ore analysis and assaying , and participated in a research project developing razors . His graduation thesis was entitled " The effects of Tungsten on Iron and Steel " . It laid out the basic principles of what would later become his two greatest advances in metallurgy . Haynes spent many hours in the institute 's laboratory working with tungsten and other metals before graduating in 1881 ; he was fourteenth out of twenty @-@ one graduates — twenty did not pass .
Haynes took a job teaching at the Jay County public school after returning home . Soon his income allowed him to buy a home near Portland High School where he worked and was promoted to principal in 1882 . That summer he took a week @-@ long trip to visit Bertha in Chattanooga , Tennessee , where he became sick with a cold and spent most of his time in bed nursed by Bertha , learning that her family would be returning to live in Portland in 1883 . After returning from the trip , he continued saving money and in 1884 he decided to continue his education by enrolling at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland . He chose the school because , as it was only eight years old , it had one of the most modern laboratories available . He took courses in chemistry and biology and learned advanced metallurgic techniques . His mother died in May 1885 and he decided to leave the university without completing his second year , as he was not working to attain a degree but only taking courses of interest . After he had returned home again , he took a position at the newly established Eastern Indiana Normal School and Commercial College ( now Ball State University ) and served as the head of the chemistry department .
= = = Gas boom = = =
Natural gas was first found in Indiana in 1876 but it was not until 1886 that the magnitude of the discovery was known ; the Trenton Gas Field was the largest deposit of natural gas discovered in the 19th century and the first giant oil reserve found in the United States . As a professor at a university in the Trenton Field , Haynes offered his services to the drillers and worked to analyze soil samples , determine well pressure , and give estimates on the amount of energy that could be created by the gas . He delivered several lectures to large crowds about the importance of the gas discovery and the many possible applications of this new source of fuel . He began a petition to have the local citizens create a corporation to pump the fuel from the ground and pipe it to area homes and businesses . His promotion was successful and Portland Natural Gas and Oil Company was formed ; Haynes ' father was named to the new company 's board of directors .
In the fall of 1886 , the board hired Haynes as superintendent to manage the company and oversee the creation of wells and piping . The company was one of the first in the Trenton Field , and many of the others which soon followed modeled themselves on the Portland company . As a fuel and industry , natural gas was in its earliest stages . Haynes invented several devices that became important to the success of the industry . One of his first inventions was a device capable of measuring the amount of gas being pumped from wells . Haynes ' reputation as an industry leader grew out of his operations at Portland and the Kokomo Democrat referred to him as " the only infallible authority on natural gas in eastern Indiana " in an 1889 article .
Haynes married Bertha Lanterman in October 1887 after a ten @-@ year relationship . The ceremony was held at her parents ' Portland home and the couple honeymooned in Cincinnati . Their first child , Marie , was born on January 28 , 1889 , but she soon succumbed to illness and died when six months old . Their second child , a son born in 1890 , also died in infancy . The deaths saddened the family and caused them to turn more to their religion . Haynes became increasingly active in the Presbyterian church and became an elder . In December 1892 , the Haynes ' third child , Bernice , was born . A second son , March , was born 1896 . The two children were well educated and grew up to assist their father in his enterprises .
A primary pipeline was laid between Portland and a neighboring town during 1889 . Haynes oversaw construction of the ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long pipeline and the creation of the wells for pumping the gas . During his numerous buggy rides between the two towns , he first began to conceive of a novel form of motorized transportation . His thoughts on the topic were spurred by his need to regularly change horses because of their inability to endure the long distances and sandy roads he frequently traveled . He theorized that a motorized vehicle would be more economical than horse @-@ and @-@ buggy transportation , and could potentially move at a faster rate of speed .
The Indiana Natural Gas and Oil Company , headquartered in Chicago , hired Haynes as their field superintendent in 1890 after the company 's board of directors " discovered that Elwood Haynes knew more about natural gas than anyone in the state " . He and his wife moved to Greentown where he oversaw the construction of the company 's first pumping wells . The company planned to construct a natural gas line from eastern Indiana to Chicago , a distance of over 150 miles ( 240 km ) , which would be the first long @-@ distance natural gas pipeline built in the United States . Haynes supervised the design and construction phases of the project . Because of the length of the line and the temperature changes between the two points , moisture in the natural gas condensed on the pipe , and during colder times would freeze the pipes in some locations . The problem was a significant setback to the operation , which had to stop pumping during the winter months . Haynes solved the problem by creating a refrigeration device that would cause the moisture ( which was a diluted form of gasoline ) to condense , freeze , and fall into a reservoir . These devices were installed between the main lines and pumping stations and effectively removed all the moisture from the natural gas before it was pumped into the lines . This prevented water buildup in the pipes and allowed the pipes to be used year round . The concept was a significant advance in early refrigeration technology and was further developed by others in later years .
Haynes was offered a higher ranking position within Indiana Gas at the Chicago headquarters , but by then he had become aware of the business 's connection to the corrupt and disgraced monopolist Charles T. Yerkes . A deeply religious man who feared involvement in any corruption , Haynes entertained the offer only briefly ; Bertha 's advice to refuse the position persuaded him and he declined the offer and instead sought a position more removed from the company 's Chicago leadership . After the pipeline became fully operational in 1892 , Haynes moved to Kokomo where he was made a supervisor of the Indiana Gas 's local operations . The Indiana General Assembly began attempts to regulate the gas industry and accused the field operations of various companies of gross waste ; Indiana Gas became the primary target of scathing reports . Haynes helped the company compile reports and offered opinions on the validity of their claims . He was disturbed to find that many of the claims proved true , and advocated that the gas be used more conservatively . He specifically recommended that the flambeaus ( the flames fed by natural gas to show that the gas was flowing ) be extinguished , as they were found to be the largest source of waste . He calculated that the company daily wasted $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 240 @,@ 000 in 2009 chained dollars ) worth of gas by burning flambeaus , a figure that shocked the company 's leaders . Despite his support of the governmental anti @-@ waste regulations , he was steadfastly against other rules that regulated pressure and hindered productivity . He personally filed lawsuits against the regulations a month after their passage , claiming that the government had no right to regulate artificial increases in well pressure . The court case continued until 1896 , when the Indiana Supreme Court ruled that the regulations were unconstitutional . The entire set of regulations was repealed , including the anti @-@ waste measures . The gross waste continued among other companies and the field 's wells began to run dry by 1905 — modern experts estimate as much as 90 % of the one trillion cubic feet ( 30 km3 ) of natural gas in the field was lost into the atmosphere or misused .
= = Enterprises = =
= = = 1894 First Haynes car = = =
According to Haynes , he began laying out " plans for the construction of a mechanically propelled vehicle for use on highways " in 1891 . His first idea was for a steam @-@ powered vehicle , but after careful consideration he decided the use of a furnace on the device would be too dangerous . His second plan was to use electrical power , but after research he found that no practical means existed to store the electricity required for operation . He continued to develop his plans until the summer of 1893 when he attended the Chicago World 's Fair , where he first witnessed a gasoline engine . The demonstration of the newly invented engine inspired him to decide that an internal combustion engine would be the most practical method to propel his vehicle . A gasoline powered European automobile built by German inventor Karl Benz ( who patented the first automobile in 1886 ) also was on display during the fair , although it is unknown if Haynes witnessed this vehicle during his visit .
Haynes ordered a one @-@ horsepower marine upright , two @-@ cycle engine from Sintz Gas Engine Company in Grand Rapids , Michigan for $ 225 . Although the engine was intended for use on a small boat , Haynes believed it could be adapted for his purposes . The 180 lb ( 82 kg ) engine arrived in the fall of 1893 . Haynes soon had the device attached to a carriage he built in his kitchen . He found when he started the engine that its vibrations were too severe for the harness it was in , and before he could stop the engine it had done considerable damage to the carriage and the floor of his kitchen , and filled the room with smoke .
Haynes decided he needed a different facility to continue the experiment after his wife told him she would not abide his destruction of the family kitchen . He contacted Elmer Apperson , the operator of the Riverside Machine Works , and arranged to use a space in his shop for the continued development . He agreed to work on his vehicle only after @-@ hours , pay 40 cents per hour for the help of Elmer and his brother Edgar , and to not hold them responsible should his project fail . He started building a new carriage , this time with a heavier steel harness . He described the appearance of the vehicle as a " small truck " . The wheel axles were also made of steel and the entire front axle was constructed to swivel . A central column was built of steel and laid across the axles in such a way as to allow it move in all directions within a small radius to accommodate any sudden movements by the motor or vehicle .
Because the traction of rubber tires was unknown , Haynes completed a series of tests with a bicycle on paved roads . He used a wagon built to the weight of his automobile and a horse to pull a device that would cause the wheels to turn , thereby providing traction . With this , he was able to determine the ratio of weight to gear sizes needed to enable the tires to provide sufficient traction for propulsion . Once completed , his vehicle weighed about 820 pounds ( 370 kg ) .
He named his car the Pioneer and first test drove the vehicle on July 4 , 1894 . The Apperson brothers had notified the Kokomo townspeople of the test drive and a crowd gathered to witness the event . Haynes was concerned that his vehicle could injure someone in the crowd , so he had the vehicle towed by a horse and buggy to Pumpkinvine Pike , away from the crowd . The car started with Haynes driving and Elmer Apperson riding as a passenger , and traveled at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . He traveled for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and then stopped the vehicle to manually turn it around with Elmer 's help . He proceeded to drive it several more miles back into town without stopping . His trip convinced him that the vehicle was worthwhile and could become a valuable enterprise , although he was disappointed in the vehicle 's handling and decided he needed to improve the steering system and find a way to divert the motor 's exhaust smoke away from the carriage .
Haynes ' car is believed to be the second gasoline @-@ engine powered vehicle successfully road tested in the United States , according to its exhibit information at the Smithsonian Institution . It was built two years before Henry Ford 's Quadricycle , and preceded only by Charles Duryea 's Motorized Wagon less than a year earlier . Unlike Duryea 's car , which was an adapted buckboard wagon that was designed to run under its own power but still able to be pulled by horse , Haynes ' car was designed only to run on its own . Some automotive historians use this difference to determine that Haynes ' car was the first true American automobile . The Sintz company continued to be intrigued by Haynes ' use of their motor and sent representatives to photo his vehicle and published the images as an advertisement for one of their engine 's possible uses . The publicity spurred the creation of numerous other automobiles across the American midwest .
Haynes continued to drive his car as he added improvements to the vehicle , and constructed the Pioneer II in 1895 to incorporate his improved steering designs and an exhaust pipe . He built the new car with the intention of running it in the 1895 Chicago Times @-@ Herald Race , the first automobile race in the United States . Although over seventy @-@ five cars were entered in the race , most of their owners did not have them completed in time for race so only three cars and six early motorcycles showed up . While driving to the race , Haynes had a confrontation with a Chicago policeman who insisted that Haynes had no right to drive his vehicle on public roads , forcing him to requisition a horse to pull the car the rest of the way . Similar incidents happened with the other race 's entries so the city passed an ordinance a few days later to clear up any ambiguity in the laws and allow automobiles equal access to the city streets , allowing the postponed race to take place . While giving his car a ride around the town on the following day Haynes was involved in what is believed to be the first automobile accident after swerving to miss a street car and striking a sharp curb , busting a tire and damaging the axle . Without a spare tire , Haynes was unable to run in the race . The race was held on November 28 , and thousands of spectators turned out . Duryea 's car won first place and a German Benz came in second . Another contest was held in which Haynes won a prize for most intuitive design .
= = = Haynes @-@ Apperson = = =
Haynes continued to perfect his auto design , and in late 1895 he began his work to create a new hard alloy for use as a crankcase and other auto parts . His intent was to make a metal that would be resistant to rusting . He experimented with the use of aluminum and found that when used , it significantly deadened the noise produced by the engine parts . As his designs progressed , he decided to form a partnership for the manufacture of his vehicles . At the end of 1894 , Haynes joined with Elmer and Edgar Apperson to create an automobile company and began producing cars that year . Their company is recognized as being the first viable automotive company in the United States , and the second company to produce autos commercially . The Duryea Motor Wagon Company had formed a year earlier , but went out of business after producing only thirteen vehicles . Haynes became involved in a dispute with the Duryea company over the advertisements Haynes @-@ Apperson ran , claiming to have created the first automobile . The Haynes @-@ Apperson advertisement was clearly false , but after Duryea 's company went bankrupt in 1898 , there was no one to continue to dispute the claim . " America 's First Car " remained the company 's motto for the rest of its existence .
By 1896 , the company produced one new car every two to three weeks and built vehicles on order for $ 2 @,@ 000 . As the orders increased , the company formally incorporated as Haynes @-@ Apperson on May 5 , 1898 , with $ 25 @,@ 000 in capital from stock issued to Portland and Kokomo businessmen . At the end of that year the company relocated to a large factory it had built in Kokomo . Two new models were designed and the workforce expanded as production increased . Haynes @-@ Apperson ran advertisements in area newspapers and demonstrated cars at county fairs and other exhibitions . Demand for the vehicles grew rapidly from five cars produced in 1898 to thirty in 1899 , 192 in 1900 , and 240 in 1901 . The work kept the factory open 24 hours a day , and two shifts totaling more than 350 workers were needed to keep the factory running at capacity by 1902 . Sales totaled over $ 400 @,@ 000 that year .
Haynes @-@ Apperson automobiles were known for their long @-@ distance running capability . The company 's cars regularly competed and won prizes in endurance races that demonstrated the distance and terrain over which the cars could travel . Haynes had soon designed superior methods of achieving traction and his car could climb hills easier than his competitors in the early races . The last model designed under the Haynes @-@ Apperson name had three speeds and was capable of 24 mph on pneumatic tires . In 1901 , a Haynes car was entered in the first Long Island Non @-@ Stop endurance race . The Haynes car took first place in the race , adding to the company 's publicity and helping to feed a large jump in sales .
Another event to gain the company significant publicity was the sale of a car to Dr. Ashley A. Webber in New York City . Webber refused to buy any car unless the seller could prove the car 's endurance by driving it to his home . Haynes and Edgar Apperson readily agreed to the demand and drove the car from Kokomo to Webber 's New York home , the first time an automobile traveled over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . The trip took over a month ; after driving several days in the rain , the two decided to install a roof on future models .
Haynes began to have disagreements with the Apperson brothers for reasons that were never made public but were probably over money and design plans . Haynes wanted to produce luxury cars because much of the company 's early clientele was wealthy , while the Appersons wanted to produce utilitarian vehicles that could be marketed to businesses . The disagreement led the two brothers to split from Haynes and start a company of their own in 1902 . The loss of his partners necessitated that Haynes leave his position at Indiana Gas to devote more time to his growing business . Haynes was most interested in working on development , and turned over daily management to Victor Minich in 1903 . Haynes spent most of his research efforts developing metals in an attempt to discover lighter and stronger alloys for automobile parts . He also investigated other areas and published a 1906 paper on the impurities in gasoline and recommended that the sulfur content in the fuel be lowered to increase engine performance .
= = = Haynes Automobile Company = = =
In 1905 , three years after the Apperson brothers split from Haynes , Haynes @-@ Apperson was renamed the Haynes Automobile Company and Haynes launched a series of publicity campaigns . A parade of 2 @,@ 000 cars was organized in New York City during 1908 and Haynes , whom many recognized as the inventor of the American automobile , led the parade down Broadway riding in the Pioneer . He was followed by ten Haynes cars , a model from each year to display the advancement in technology . On his way to the parade , Haynes was unaware of the city 's newly established speeding laws and was arrested for driving too fast — in a car with a top speed of 15 mph ( 17 km / h ) — and taken to jail . He was soon able to see a magistrate who released him after learning that he was Elwood Haynes and had come to lead the parade . The celebration was intended to be a ten @-@ year commemoration of the invention of the automobile , although earlier self @-@ vehicles dated back nearly twenty years in Europe . Haynes donated the Pioneer to the United States Government in 1910 to be placed in the Smithsonian Institution where it is still on display in the National Museum of American History as the second oldest motorized vehicle in the United States .
Haynes ' Model L was his most popular vehicle . First designed in 1905 , the three @-@ speed car could travel at 35 mph ( 58 km / h ) and carry four passengers ; the company sold over 4 @,@ 300 . Haynes expanded the company significantly in 1908 to accommodate ever @-@ increasing sales . More stock was issued and more capital raised to build a new and larger factory . By 1909 the company was producing 650 cars annually with models priced between $ 2 @,@ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 500 . In 1910 , Haynes Auto became the first company to build a car with a roof , windshield , headlights , and a speedometer as standard on each vehicle to continue their goal of producing the best luxury vehicles .
More than 1 @,@ 000 autos were built by Haynes Automobile Company in 1910 and the company continued to experience growth , until a devastating fire swept the company factory in 1911 and killed one employee . Recovery from the blaze was slow , and it was not until 1913 that the company was able to resume its growth . To continue the promotion of his cars , Haynes organized a trip in which he crossed the country by automobile in 1914 . The trip gained considerable attention from the press and gave his company publicity and a much needed sales boost in the wake of the fire . Almost every town he visited printed newspaper stories on his invention and many hailed him as the " Father of the Automobile " .
= = = Haynes Stellite Company = = =
Haynes continued his research into ways to produce corrosion resistant metals . While working on alloys for use in spark plugs , he created a metal he named stellite . Realizing the value of his discovery , he patented his first version in 1907 . The metal was very resistant to corrosion and had immediate application in tool making and numerous other implementations . He continued to experiment with it until 1910 when he published his findings in a paper to the International Congress of Applied Chemistry and the American Institute of Metals , where he held memberships . His final version was completed in 1912 and his patent issued on June 20 .
He applied for another patent on an alloy he called stainless steel , now known as martensitic stainless steel . The Patent Office rejected his application saying that it was not a new alloy . Haynes conceded their point , but submitted a second application and supplied a sample showing the stainlessness of his alloy when created using his exact proportions of metals , and it was granted . At the urging of his wife , he created the first set of stainless steel silverware for her personal use . The first piece of stainless steel was forged by Homer Dan Farmer in Haynes laboratory . It was a large meat knife and was donated to the Haynes Museum by the family of Dan Heflin , grandson of Homer Dan Farmer . In later years he claimed to have created stainless steel because she did not enjoy polishing their silver tableware . British metallurgist Harry Brearley independently produced an identical alloy around the same time and applied for an American patent and found that one already existed . Brearley had also created other innovations for the metal , but they were of little value without the stainless steel patent . He sought out Haynes and the two decided to pool their findings in a single company to produce the alloy . Haynes sold his stainless steel patent in 1918 to the American Stainless Steel Company , a company Brearley had created with the assistance of investors in Pennsylvania . In exchange he and his estate received royalties on its production until the patent expired in 1930 . The stock he received as payment allowed him to gain a seat among the company 's board of directors and he installed his son , March , to represent him . The income from the transaction led Haynes to begin the accumulation of a large fortune .
Seeing stellite as a far more valuable metal , he decided to keep its patent for himself and founded the Haynes Stellite Company in Kokomo to produce the metal in September 1912 . Many of his initial requests for the metal were from medical tool manufacturers who saw the alloy as the best for surgical tools . Because his company could not produce enough of the metal to satisfy demand , Haynes issued licenses to several companies in the United States , Canada , and Europe to produce the alloy and pay him royalties . Haynes strictly controlled production , and did not permit the other licensees to sell stellite in its raw form , but to only sell it as specific finished products . In that way , he remained the only vendor who could sell sheets of the metal . As World War I broke out , his company received large government contracts for use of the material . Stellite was found to have excellent applications in airplanes , and because it was non @-@ corrosive and could protect its contents indefinitely , it proved to be the best metal available for ammunition casing . In 1916 alone , the company registered $ 1 @.@ 3 million in sales . The rapid growth of the business made Haynes increasingly wealthy and he became a millionaire that year . Despite his large income , he refused to provide his employees a year @-@ end bonus , causing a significant stir in the factory . When a foreman demanded to know the reason that their wages were not raised , he told him , " It doesn 't pay to give the working man too much money — it makes him too independent . " His statement was widely repeated and , although he claimed to have made it in jest , it alienated a large part of his workforce and began a period of labor problems .
After the war , Haynes Stellite moved to producing tableware , jewelry , and pocket knives . The employees of the company unionized and began to demand wage increases beyond what Haynes believed was fair . The threat of labor strikes and Haynes ' desire to avoid the problem led him to sell the company to Union Carbide on April 10 , 1920 , in exchange for 25 @,@ 000 shares of Union Carbide stock valued at $ 2 million . He later made an additional half million from dividends . Other details of the deal were never made public , and Haynes may have made as much $ 4 million on the sale . After a series of owners , the company is now called Haynes International and is again independent .
= = Later life = =
= = = Prohibition = = =
Haynes was an avid supporter of prohibition and spoke several times on behalf of prohibitionist leader Frank Hanly , lending him both personal and financial support . Hanly advocated the passage of a local option law that allowed most of Indiana to ban liquor sales in 1909 . He continued in his support of the Prohibition Party and donated it thousands of dollars and an automobile nicknamed the " Prohibition Flyer " . He became increasingly involved in the organization and in 1916 he ran for the United States Senate on the prohibition ticket , making many speeches and stumping across the state . He was overwhelmingly defeated , receiving only 15 @,@ 598 votes out of nearly one million cast . Harry Stewart New , the Republican candidate narrowly won the election by plurality , and Haynes was accused of costing Incumbent Democratic Senator John W. Kern 's re @-@ election . Despite his personal electoral failure , liquor sales were completely banned in Indiana by a 1918 law that went into effect in 1919 . With his goals achieved , Haynes switched to join the Republican Party , but was significantly less active in politics thereafter .
Although Haynes was a prohibitionist , he was a critic of the Indiana Branch of the Ku Klux Klan , which was in the height of its power during the 1910s and 1920s . In letters to friends and fellow prohibitionists , he ridiculed the organization for using violent and illegal tactics to achieve prohibition , and accused them of hypocrisy for supporting many anti @-@ prohibition Democratic politicians . Kokomo politics was dominated by the Klan during that period and it is unknown if Haynes spoke publicly against the organization .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Haynes purchased a new home on Webster Street in Kokomo in 1915 . The home , known as the Haynes Mansion , was large enough to house a personal laboratory for Haynes to work in . As he grew older and became less involved in his businesses , Haynes became increasingly philanthropic . He made regular large donations to the Presbyterian church and became a patron of the Worcester Institute he had attended , providing scholarships and donating funds for expansion .
He funded the formation of a Young Men 's Christian Association in Kokomo where he and his son became active . Haynes taught swimming classes and regularly took underprivileged young boys to movies and bought them dinners . After several years of active membership at the local level , he was elected president of the national YMCA in 1919 and served two one @-@ year terms . His primary focus during his tenure was the launching of several successful membership drives . In 1920 , he was appointed to the Indiana State Board of Education by Governor James P. Goodrich where he advocated increased state funding for vocational education .
The United States economy went into a recession in the early 1920s and automobile sales decreased . Coupled with increasing competition , Haynes Automobile Company began running into debt problems . Haynes had to use his personal savings to rescue the company in 1921 and pay off some outstanding accounts . A bond drive was launched to raise $ 1 million to help fund the company through the period , but it fell significantly short of raising enough money . Haynes was the primary purchaser of the bonds . Unlike the other large auto companies like Ford and General Motors , Haynes Auto did not have the widespread dealership agreements that were able to sustain their companies through the hard times ; his company relied on customer 's ordering directly from the factory . Haynes Auto sales quickly began to slip from a peak of nearly 6 @,@ 000 cars sold in 1922 . In 1923 sales dropped to 4 @,@ 300 , and 1 @,@ 500 in 1924 . The situation continued to be bleak for the company , and it was forced to declare bankruptcy in October 1924 . Haynes sought a merger with multiple other auto companies , including Henry Ford , but partners were not forthcoming and Haynes was forced to agree to a liquidation in 1925 . He was held personally responsible for about $ 95 @,@ 000 of the company 's debt . In addition , he lost $ 335 @,@ 700 in stock he held in the company and a substantial amount in investment bonds . In total , the loss cost Haynes an estimated quarter of his net worth .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On January 6 , 1925 , Haynes , the Apperson brothers , and other automotive pioneers were awarded gold medals by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce at a New York City auto exhibition for their contributions to the industry . On his return trip home , he contracted influenza and his health began to deteriorate rapidly . In March , he asked his son to take over his business interests while he traveled to Florida to seek rest in the warmer climate . His condition steadily worsened , causing him to cancel his planned trip to Cuba and return to Kokomo . He remained in his home , attended by his personal physician and a nurse until his death from congestive heart failure on April 13 , 1925 . Haynes ' funeral was held in Kokomo before his interment at the city 's Memorial Park cemetery .
Haynes ' fortune had shrunk considerably with the collapse of his auto company . He still held an estimated $ 2 @.@ 85 million ( $ 35 million in 2009 chained dollars ) in stocks , bonds , and other assets , but almost all of his cash savings were gone . He had already been forced to borrow money using future dividends and royalties as collateral , leaving his family with some difficulty in coming up with funds to maintain his home . Haynes ' estate was left to his wife who continued to live in the family mansion until her own death from a stroke in August 1933 . The family assets were distributed between Bernice and March who separately oversaw their portion of the family 's interests . March inherited the family mansion , but sold it in 1957 to Martin J. Caserio , General Manager of the Delco Electronics Division of the General Motors Company who lived there until he was transferred to Detroit in 1964 . General Motors purchased the house from Caserio at that time so that he could purchase a home in Detroit . GM maintained ownership for about a year ( it was vacant ) and then sold the mansion in 1965 to Bernice , who donated it to the city of Kokomo . The city converted it into the Elwood Haynes Museum and it has been open to the public since 1967 . In January 1944 the SS Elwood Haynes , a Liberty Ship built during World War II , was named in Haynes ' honor .
Haynes is remembered as a pioneer of the American automobile , and as the creator of the first automobile design viable for mass production . He is credited as being one of those primarily responsible for the rapid growth of the natural gas industry in Indiana , a boom that made northern Indiana one of the leading industrial regions of the United States . He is also remembered for his development of stainless steel and stellite , materials that are commonly used across the world today . Stellite remains an important metal , as its ability to withstand high temperatures has made it a component in American spacecraft . In July 2015 , he was inducted into the 75th class of the Automotive Hall of Fame in Detroit , Michigan .
Haynes is the grandfather of Margaret Hillis , founder and director of the Chicago Symphony Chorus , and Elwood Hillis , an eight term Congressman representing Indiana 's 5th District .
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= Gemini ( 2002 Tamil film ) =
Gemini is a 2002 Indian Tamil @-@ language action film written and directed by Saran and produced by AVM Productions . The film features Vikram in the title role of a small @-@ time criminal and aspiring don who , after falling in love , decides to refrain from crime ; Kiran Rathod plays his love interest . Murali stars as Singaperumal , a police officer who inspires and guides Gemini in his attempts to reform . The cast includes Kalabhavan Mani as the principal antagonist while Vinu Chakravarthy , Manorama and Thennavan portray significant roles . Based on gang wars in Chennai , the film delves into the lives of outlaws and the roles the police and society play in their rehabilitation and acceptance .
In early 2001 , rival gangsters " Vellai " Ravi and Chera reformed themselves with the patronage of a police officer . Saran was inspired by this incident and scripted a story based on it . The film was initially entitled Erumugam with Ajith Kumar intended to play the lead role , but the project was shelved after a week 's shoot when Ajith lost interest and left . Saran reworked the script , retitled the production Gemini and cast the new leads . The revived project was announced in August 2001 . Production began shortly afterwards in December the same year and was completed by March 2002 . The film was shot mainly at the AVM Studios in Chennai , while two song sequences were filmed in Switzerland . The film had cinematography by A. Venkatesh and editing by Suresh Urs while the soundtrack was scored by Bharathwaj .
The film 's soundtrack was well received , with the song " O Podu " becoming a sensation in Tamil Nadu . Gemini was released two days ahead of the Tamil New Year on 12 April 2002 and received mixed reviews from critics , with praise directed towards the performances of Vikram and Mani but criticism towards Saran 's script . Made at an estimated cost of ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) , the film earned ₹ 210 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 1 million ) at the box office and became the highest @-@ grossing Tamil film of the year . The film 's success , largely attributed to the popularity of " O Podu " , resurrected the Tamil film industry , which was experiencing difficulties after a series of box office failures . The film won three Filmfare Awards , three ITFA Awards and four Cinema Express Awards . Later that same year , Saran remade the film in Telugu as Gemeni .
= = Plot = =
Teja ( Kalabhavan Mani ) is a high @-@ profile gangster in North Madras , who often imitates the behaviour characteristic of different animals for sarcastic effect . Accompanied by his gang , he arrives at a magistrate 's court for a hearing . His animal antics are mocked at by " Chintai " Jeeva , another accused . Teja and his gang retaliate and kill Jeeva within the court premises . Jeeva was a member of a rival gang headed by Gemini ( Vikram ) , an aspiring goon from Chintadripet who aspires to dethrone Teja and take his place . To avenge Jeeva 's death , Gemini hunts down the murderer Pandian while Isaac , one of Gemini 's men , kills him . This incident leads to a feud between Gemini and Teja , and a fight for supremacy ensues . Pandian 's mother Annamma ( Manorama ) , a destitute woman , locates the whereabouts of her son 's murderers . She approaches Gemini , becomes the gang 's cook and awaits a chance to poison them .
Gemini meets and falls in love with Manisha Natwarlal ( Kiran Rathod ) , a Marwari woman . To pursue her , he joins an evening class at the college that she attends and she falls in love with him , unaware of his true identity . Two businessmen approach Gemini to evict traders from a market so that a shopping complex can be built in its place . As the market is in his control , Gemini refuses the offer and the businessmen hire Teja to execute the job . Feigning an altercation with Gemini , his sidekick Kai ( Thennavan ) joins Teja 's gang , acts as the inside man and foils the plan . Teja becomes enraged at being outsmarted by Gemini .
Singaperumal ( Murali ) , an astute police officer , is promoted to the position of Director General of Police ( DGP ) . Keen on eradicating crime , he arrests both Gemini and Teja and the arrests are made " off the record " owing to their political influence . Aware of the rivalry between them , Singaperumal puts them in a private cell so they can beat each other to death . While Teja tries to exact revenge for the market issue , Gemini does not fight back but persuades Teja to trick Singaperumal by pleading guilty and requesting a chance to reform . Gemini 's trick works and they are released .
Since Gemini was arrested at the college , Manisha discovers his identity and resents him . To regain her attention , Gemini reforms his ways . Though his gang initially disapprove of it , they relent . As Gemini and his gang regret their actions , Annamma reveals her true identity and forgives them . Singaperumal helps Gemini to get back into college and reunite with Manisha . Teja returns to his gang and continues his illegal activities . He pesters Gemini to help him in his business . Gemini informs Singaperumal of Teja 's activities ; Teja is caught smuggling narcotics , is prosecuted and serves a term in prison .
A few months later , Singaperumal is transferred and a corrupt officer ( Vinu Chakravarthy ) takes his place . The current DGP releases Teja and together , they urge Gemini to work for them and repay for the losses they incurred but Gemini refuses . To force him to return to his old ways , Teja persuades Isaac to conspire against Gemini . With Isaac 's help , Teja plots and kills Kai . Gemini is infuriated and confronts Teja to settle the issue . During the fight , Gemini beats up Teja and swaps their clothes , leaving Teja bound and gagged . The new DGP arrives and shoots Gemini dead ; he later realises that he had actually shot Teja who was in Gemini 's clothes . While the DGP grieves over Teja 's death , he receives news that he has been transferred to the Sewage Control Board .
= = Cast = =
Vikram as Gemini , an aspiring don who reforms later
Kiran Rathod as Manisha Natwarlal , a free @-@ spirited Marwari woman
Kalabhavan Mani as Teja , a don who mimics animals
Vinu Chakravarthy as a power @-@ obsessed and corrupt police officer
Murali as Singaperumal , a sincere and dignified police officer
Charle as Chinna Salem , a pimp operating a mobile brothel
Ramesh Khanna as Gopal M.A. , a professor at the evening college
Dhamu as Ram , the chief mechanic at Auto Hospital , the auto workshop from where the gang operates
Vaiyapuri as Oberoi , Dawood 's sidekick
Rani as Kamini , a divorcée and Gemini 's classmate who lusts for him
Thennavan as Kai , Gemini 's loyal deputy
Isaac Varghese as Isaac , Gemini 's gang member who betrays him later
Thyagu as Sammandham , a police officer
Madhan Bob as R. Anilwal I.P.S , a police officer trying to eradicate prostitution
Ilavarasu as Commissioner of Police
Omakuchi Narasimhan as Bombay Dawood ( named after Dawood Ibrahim ) , a butcher
Gemini Ganesan in a cameo as himself
Manorama as Annamma , a woman who seeks to avenge her son 's death
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In February 2001 , underworld dons " Vellai " Ravi and Chera , who terrorised the city of Madras ( now Chennai ) in the 1990s , abandoned a life of crime and took up social work . The then @-@ DCP of Flower Bazaar Shakeel Akhter presided over the oath @-@ taking ceremony and welcomed the rehabilitation programme . During the making of his film Alli Arjuna ( 2002 ) , director Saran came across a newspaper article carrying this piece of news and was fascinated . Shortly afterwards in March 2001 , Saran announced his next directorial venture would be inspired by the incident . Titled Erumugam ( meaning " upward mobility " ) , the project was scheduled to enter production after the completion of Alli Arjuna .
The director disclosed that it was " a modern day rags to riches story " where the protagonist rises from humble origins to an enviable position . The venture was to be funded by A. Purnachandra Rao of Lakshmi Productions . The film would mark the director 's third collaboration with Ajith Kumar in the lead after the success of Kaadhal Mannan ( 1998 ) and Amarkalam ( 1999 ) . Laila Mehdin and Richa Pallod , who played the heroine in Saran 's Parthen Rasithen ( 2000 ) and Alli Arjuna respectively , were to play the female lead roles . While the recording for the film 's audio reportedly began on 16 March 2001 , the filming was to start in mid @-@ June and continue until August that year , followed by post @-@ production work in September . It was planned to release the film on 14 November 2001 coinciding with Diwali . However , after finding a more engaging script in Red ( 2002 ) , Ajith lost interest ; he left the project after a week 's shoot and the production was shelved . Following this incident , Saran stated that he would never do another film with Ajith . The pair would , however , reconcile their differences later , and collaborate on Attahasam ( 2004 ) and Aasal ( 2010 ) .
Saran rewrote the script based on gang wars in Chennai and began the project again . The film , then untitled , was announced in August 2001 with Vikram to star in the lead role . The production was taken over by M. Saravanan , M. Balasubramaniam , M. S. Guhan and B. Gurunath of AVM Productions . The film was AVM 's 162nd production and their first film after a five @-@ year hiatus , their last production being Minsara Kanavu ( 1997 ) , the release of which marked fifty years since their debut Naam Iruvar ( 1947 ) . By producing Gemini , AVM became one of the four film studios that had been producing films for over fifty years . While titling the film , producer M. Saravanan chose Gemini among the many titles suggested to him , but because Gemini Studios was the name of a major production house , Saravanan wrote to S. Balasubramanian , editor of Ananda Vikatan and son of Gemini Studios founder S. S. Vasan , requesting permission to use the title . In response , Balasubramanian gave his consent .
= = = Cast and crew = = =
With Vikram cast in the title role , Saran was searching for a newcomer to play the female lead role of a Marwari woman . Kiran Rathod is a native of Rajasthan , the place where the Marwaris originate from . She is a relative of actress Raveena Tandon , whose manager brought Rathod the offer to act in Gemini . Saran was convinced after seeing a photograph of Rathod and cast her ; Gemini thus became her debut Tamil film . Malayalam actors Kalabhavan Mani and Murali were approached to play significant roles .
Gemini is widely believed to be Mani 's first Tamil film , though he had already starred in Vaanchinathan ( 2001 ) . There have been varying accounts on how he was cast : while Vikram claims to have suggested Mani for the role of Teja , Saran said in one interview that casting Mani was his idea , and contradicted this in another interview , saying that Mani was chosen on his wife 's recommendation . While searching for an unfamiliar actor for the DGP 's role , Saran saw Murali in Dumm Dumm Dumm ( 2001 ) and found him " very dignified " . He chose Murali as he wanted that dignity for the role . Though he had planned to make Murali a villain at the end of the film , Saran decided against it because he was " amazed to see awe in everyone 's eyes when Murali entered the sets and performed " .
Thennavan , Vinu Chakravarthy , Ilavarasu , Charle , Dhamu , Ramesh Khanna , Vaiyapuri , Madhan Bob , Thyagu and Manorama form the supporting cast . A cameo appearance by Gemini Ganesan was his last film appearance before his death in March 2005 . The technical departments were handled by Saran 's regular crew , which consisted of cinematographer A. Venkatesh , editor Suresh Urs , production designer Thota Tharani and costume designers Sai and Nalini Sriram . The choreography was by Super Subbarayan ( action ) and Suchitra , Brinda and Ashok Raja ( dance ) . The music was composed by Bharathwaj and the lyrics were written by Vairamuthu . Kanmani who went on to direct films like Aahaa Ethanai Azhagu ( 2003 ) and Chinnodu ( 2006 ) worked as an assistant director .
= = = Filming = = =
Gemini was formally launched on 21 November 2001 at the Hotel Connemara , Chennai in the presence of celebrities including Rajinikanth ( through video conferencing ) and Kamal Haasan . The launch function was marked by the submission of the script , songs and lyrics . Principal photography was scheduled to begin in mid @-@ December that year , but commenced slightly earlier . Vikram shot for the film simultaneously with Samurai ( 2002 ) . When Kalabhavan Mani was hesitant in accepting the film due to other commitments in Malayalam , shooting was re @-@ scheduled to film his scenes first . Saran persuaded Mani to allot dates for twelve days to complete his scenes . Since Mani was a mimicry artist , Saran asked him to exhibit his talents ; Mani aped the behaviour of a few animals and Saran chose among them , which were added to the film .
Gemini , with the exception of two songs which were filmed in Switzerland , was shot at AVM Studios . One of the songs , " Penn Oruthi " , was shot at Jungfraujoch , the highest railway station in Europe . Part of the song sequence was filmed on a sledge in Switzerland , making it the second Indian film to have done so after the Bollywood film Sangam ( 1964 ) . Though there were problems in acquiring permission , executive producer M. S. Guhan persisted . The overseas shoots were arranged by Travel Masters , a Chennai @-@ based company owned by former actor N. Ramji . Gemini was completed on schedule and M. Saravanan praised the director , saying , " ... we felt like we were working with S. P. Muthuraman himself , such was Saran 's efficiency " .
= = Inspiration = =
The characters of Gemini and Teja were modelled on " Vellai " Ravi and Chera respectively — Tamil @-@ Burma repatriates who settled in Bhaktavatsalam colony ( B.V. Colony ) in Vyasarpadi , North Madras . They were members of rival gangs headed by Benjamin and Subbhaiah respectively . Their rivalry began when Benjamin , a DYFI member , questioned the illegal activities of Subbhaiah who , apart from running a plastics and iron ore business , held kangaroo courts . When their feud developed into a Christian @-@ Hindu conflict , they recruited jobless men and formed gangs to wage wars against each other . While Subbhaih 's nephew Chera became his right @-@ hand man , " Vellai " Ravi became Benjamin 's aide . Benjamin and Ravi 's gang killed Subbaiah in 1991 . A year later , Chera 's gang retaliated by killing Benjamin with the help of another gang member , Asaithambi . Another gangster , Kabilan , joined Chera 's gang and they killed more than fourteen people to avenge Subbaiah 's murder . One of the murders took place inside the Egmore court in early 2000 when Chera 's gang killed Ravi 's aide Vijayakumar , leading to a police crackdown on the gangsters . Fearing an encounter , both " Vellai " Ravi and Chera decided to give up their lives of crime and reform . The then @-@ DCP of Flower Bazaar , Shakeel Akhter , held the " transition ceremony " in February 2001 . " Vellai " Ravi and Chera were re @-@ arrested under Goondas Act during the film 's pre @-@ production .
When asked about his fascination for " rowdy themes " , Saran said :
I come from a lower middle class background and have lived all my life in ' Singara Chennai ' . I used to go to college from my house in Aminjikkarai by bus and many of the incidents that you see in my films are inspired by those days . Chennai city and its newspapers have been my source material .
The characters of DGP Singaperumal and " Chintai " Jeeva were based on Shakeel Akhter and Vijayakumar respectively . Since the criminals were re @-@ arrested after being given a chance , the initial script had Singaperumal turning villainous during the climax . When Saran felt that the audience would not be kind to him and that it would damage the film , he added another corrupt police officer to do the job while maintaining Singaperumal as a " very strong , good police officer " .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Bharathwaj . Since making his entry into Tamil films with Saran 's directorial debut Kaadhal Mannan , he has scored the music for most films directed by Saran . The lyrics were written by poet @-@ lyricist Vairamuthu .
" O Podu " was a popular expression among college students in Tamil Nadu . When the director wanted a catchphrase for a song , Vairamuthu suggested using the term and building on it . On the director 's insistence , the term was then incorporated into and mixed with the title song , resulting in the item number " O Podu " . The song was conceived by AVM as a way of reaching out to the masses . The track , picturised on Rani and Vikram and choreographed by Ashok Raja , was sung by Anuradha Sriram . For the song , Vikram performed " savu koothu " , a type of funeral dance common in Tamil Nadu . The lyrics of " Deewana " , sung by Sadhana Sargam , had some Hindi words as it was picturised on the heroine , a typical Marwari woman from Sowcarpet for whom Hindi comes naturally . In an interview with The Hindu , Vairamuthu revealed that the track " Naattu Katta " was based on a folk song .
The songs were well received by the audience and the track " O Podu " , in particular , was a hit . Following the song 's success , Vikram was greeted everywhere with screams of " O Podu " . He was overwhelmed by the response and , having already worked as a voice artist and singer , offered to sing his version of the song to which the producers agreed . According to Vikram , the song was recorded and filmed the same morning , and was added to the soundtrack album a month after its initial release . The film had been completed by then and the additional track was featured during the closing credits . Initially , a small footage featuring Vikram and Kiran was sent to the cinemas for screening during the end credits . However , the audience were dissatisfied with the shortened version of the song and forced theatre owners to rewind the song and play it again . After receiving calls from distributors and theatre owners , the makers eventually sent the entire song .
The album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 cassettes even before the film released despite rampant piracy . It was one of the biggest hits in Bharathwaj 's career and earned him his first Filmfare Award . The music also attracted some unexpected reactions . The high @-@ energy track " O Podu " drove youngsters insane ; some resorted to violence , enraging villagers in Tamil Nadu and damaging public property in Malaysia for fun . The lyrics by Vairamuthu , which are typically in pure Tamil , contained slang and words from other languages like " Deewana " ( Hindi ) . This departure was criticised by film journalist Sreedhar Pillai , who derided the lyrics of " O Podu " as " pure gibberish " .
The music received positive reviews from critics . Sify wrote that Bharadwaj 's music was the film 's only saving grace . Writing for Rediff , Pearl stated that the music director was " impressive " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said that the song by Anuradha Sriram has given the term " O ! Podu ! " , which has been part of the " local lingo " for years , a " new , crazy dimension " . The song enjoyed anthem @-@ like popularity and according to V. Paramesh , a dealer of film music for 23 years , sold like " hot cakes " . It earned Rani — on whom the song was picturised — the moniker " O Podu Rani " . However , the song 's picturisation attracted criticism . In an article that scrutinised and decried the high level of vulgarity depicted in south Indian films , Sudha G. Tilak of Tehelka wrote that hit tracks like " O Podu " were " obvious in their debauched suggestiveness " .
In 2009 , Mid Day wrote , " O podu is still considered the cornerstone of the rambunctious koothu dance " . In 2011 , The Times of India labelled the song an " evergreen hit number " . Following the internet phenomenon of " Why This Kolaveri Di " in 2011 , " O Podu " was featured alongside " Appadi Podu " , " Nakka Mukka " and " Ringa Ringa " in a small collection of South Indian songs that are considered a " national rage " in India .
= = Release and reception = =
The film , which was supposed to be released on 14 April 2002 coinciding with the Tamil New Year , was released two days early on 12 April , apparently to capitalise on weekend collections . Gemini was released alongside Vijay 's Thamizhan , Prashanth 's Thamizh and Vijayakanth 's Raajjiyam . The film was released across Tamil Nadu with 104 prints , the most for a Vikram film at the time of release . On the day of release , the film premiered in Singapore with the hero , heroine , director and producer in attendance . AVM sold the film to distributors for a " reasonable profit " and marketed it aggressively . They organised promotional events at Music World in Chennai 's Spencer Plaza , Landmark and Sankara Hall , where Vikram publicised the film signing autographs . Since " O Podu " was such a hit among children , AVM invited young children to write reviews , and gave away prizes . In 2006 , Saran revealed in a conversation with director S. P. Jananathan that his nervousness rendered him sleepless for four days until the film was released .
= = = Critical response = = =
Gemini received mixed reviews from critics . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu wrote that the " Vikram style " action film was more of a stylised fare as realism was a casualty in many sequences . She added that while the credibility level of the storyline was low , Saran had tried to strike a balance in making a formulaic film . Pearl of Rediff.com lauded Saran 's " racy " screenplay but found the plot " hackneyed " and reminiscent of Saran 's Amarkalam . The critic declared , " Gemini is your typical masala potboiler . And it works . " In contrast , Sify was critical of the film and wrote , " Neither exciting nor absorbing Gemini is as hackneyed as they get . [ ... ] Saran should be blamed for this inept movie , which has no storyline and has scant regard for logic or sense . "
The performance of the lead also earned mixed response . Malathi Rangarajan analysed , " Be it action or sensitive enactment , Vikram lends a natural touch [ ... ] helps Gemini score . [ .. ] With his comic streak Mani makes himself a likeable villain . " Kalabhavan Mani 's mimicry and portrayal of a villain with a comic sense received acclaim from the critics and audience alike . Rediff said , " The highlight in Gemini is undoubtedly Kalabhavan Mani 's performance . [ ... ] As the paan @-@ chewing Gemini , Vikram , too , delivers a convincing performance . " However , Sify found the cast to be the film 's major drawback and scrutinised , " Vikram as Gemini is unimpressive [ ... ] Kalabhavan Mani an excellent actor hams as he plays a villain [ ... ] Top character actor Murali is also wasted in the film . "
Following the film 's success , Vikram was compared with actor Rajinikanth . D. Govardan of The Economic Times wrote , " The film 's success has catapulted its hero , Vikram as the most sought after hero after Rajinikanth in the Tamil film industry today " . Rajinikanth , who saw the film , met Vikram and praised his performance . Saran told in an interview that Rajinikanth was so impressed with the songs , he predicted the film 's success in addition to considering Rathod for a role in his film Baba ( 2002 ) . The film 's premise of an outlaw reforming his ways was appreciated . D. Ramanaidu of Suresh Productions — the co @-@ producer of the Telugu remake — said , " The story of a rowdy sheeter turning into a good man is a good theme " . In August 2014 , Gemini was featured in a list of " Top 10 Tamil Gangster Films " compiled by Saraswathi of Rediff.com.
In an article discussing the rise of the gangster @-@ based film becoming a genre in itself , Sreedhar Pillai wrote in a reference to Gemini :
The hero is an all out villain , who is daringly different but the director makes him dream of those lush Switzerland songs ( our hero then is clad in designer wear ) . The rowdies in the film have very highly educated girls from affluent family lusting after them ... Bachchan of " Deewar " or Shah Rukh of " Baazigar " took to crime because they were wronged . Nowadays the Geminis and Nandas of Tamil cinema indulge in crime for the heck of it .
= = = Box office = = =
Gemini was a box office success and became the biggest hit of the year in Tamil . Made on an estimated budget of ₹ 40 million ( equivalent to ₹ 110 million or US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) , the film grossed more than ₹ 200 million ( equivalent to ₹ 530 million or US $ 7 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) . The film 's success was largely attributed to the popularity of the song " O Podu " . D. Govardan of The Economic Times stated , " A neatly made ' masala ' ( spice ) film , with the song O Podu .. as its USP , it took off from day one and has since then not looked back " . Vikram , who was a struggling actor for almost a decade , credited Gemini as his first real blockbuster . Sreedhar Pillai said that a good story , presentation and peppy music made it a " winning formula " and declared " Gemini has been the biggest hit among Tamil films in the last two years " . However , the sceptics in the industry dismissed the film 's success as a fluke .
The film ran successfully in theatres for more than 125 days . Since most Tamil films released on the preceding Diwali and Pongal were not successful , Gemini helped the industry recover . Outlook wrote , " Gemini has single @-@ handedly revived the Tamil film industry . " The box office collections revived the fortunes of theatres that were on the verge of closure . AVM received a letter from the owner of New Cinema , a theatre in Cuddalore , who repaid his debts with the revenue the film generated . Abirami Ramanathan , owner of the multiplex Abhirami Mega Mall , said that Gemini 's success would slow down the rapid closure of theatres from 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 . Following the success of the film , Saran named his production house " Gemini Productions " , under which he produced films including Aaru ( 2005 ) , Vattaram ( 2006 ) and Muni ( 2007 ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Legacy = =
Encouraged by the film 's success and wide @-@ reaching popularity , Saran remade it in Telugu as Gemeni . It is the only film Saran made in a language other than Tamil . The remake starred Venkatesh and Namitha in the lead roles , while Kalabhavan Mani and Murali reprised their roles from the Tamil version . Most of the crew members were retained . Posani Krishna Murali translated the dialogues to Telugu . The soundtrack was composed by R. P. Patnaik , who reused most of the tunes from the original film . Released in October 2002 , the film received lukewarm response and failed to repeat the success of the original . In 2013 , a Kannada remake was reported to have been planned with Upendra in the lead , but he dismissed the reports as rumours .
In September 2002 , Gemini was screened as part of a six @-@ day workshop jointly conducted by the Department of Journalism and Communication and the Mass Communication Alumni Association of the University of Madras ; it focussed on the impact of cinema on society . A game @-@ based reality show for children , which was aired between 2003 @-@ 2004 , was titled " O Podu " . AVM was involved in the show , which was produced by Vikatan Televistas and directed by Gerald . The show was broadcast for 26 weeks on Sun TV on Sundays with Raaghav as its anchor . In September 2003 , physical trainer Santosh Kumar played " O Podu " among a range of popular music as part of a dance aerobics session in a fitness camp held for the Indian cricket team at Bangalore .
When Vikram was signed up as the brand ambassador of Coca @-@ Cola in April 2005 , the commercials featured him playing characters from different walks of life . One among them was a " rowdy role " , the essence for which was taken from the character Gemini . During the run @-@ up to the 2006 assembly election , Chennai @-@ based journalist Gnani Sankaran began a social awareness movement to prevent electoral fraud and named it " O Podu " as a short form of " Oatu Podu " meaning " cast your vote " . The movement urged the electorate to exercise the right to reject candidates under Section 49 @-@ O of The Conduct of Election Rules , 1961 , wherein a voter , who has decided not to vote for anyone , can record the fact . For this purpose , the people behind " O Podu " also urged the election commission to facilitate a separate button on the electronic voting machine .
During the 2010 Asia Cup , a Sri Lankan band performed " O Podu " at the India vs. Pakistan cricket match held in Dambulla . In July 2011 , Vikram inaugurated " Liver 4 Life " , an initiative launched by MIOT Hospitals to create awareness of the Hepatitis B virus . As the campaign was targeted at school and college students , the organisers tweaked the term " O Podu " into " B Podu " and made it the event 's tagline to capitalise on the song 's immense appeal . In a comical sequence in the film , Dhamu 's character claims to be an expert of a martial art form named " Maan Karate " ( Maan means " Deer " ) , which is actually the art of running away like a deer when in danger . The phrase became famous and was used to name the 2014 comedy film Maan Karate because whenever there is a problem in his life , the hero ( played by Sivakarthikeyan ) fails to face them and runs for cover instead .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= George Juskalian =
George Juskalian ( Armenian : Գևորգ Ժուսգալեան ; June 7 , 1914 – July 4 , 2010 ) was a decorated member of the United States Army who served for over three decades and fought in World War II , the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Following graduation from Boston University , Juskalian entered the army as a second lieutenant in June 1936 . During World War II , he served with the infantry during the North African Campaign and took part in Operation Torch . At the Battle of the Kasserine Pass , he was captured by German troops and became a prisoner of war ( POW ) for twenty @-@ seven months . During the Korean War he commanded an infantry battalion . He was then stationed in Tehran where he acted an advisor to the Imperial Iranian Army throughout 1957 and 1958 . During the Vietnam War , Juskalian once again undertook advisory duties , working with the South Vietnamese Army between 1963 and 1964 , before serving as the MACV inspector general under General William Westmoreland .
Juskalian retired as a colonel in 1967 and is one of the most decorated Armenian @-@ Americans to serve in the United States Army . His awards include two Combat Infantryman Badges , two Silver Stars , the Legion of Merit , four Bronze Stars and the Air Medal . He received the Nerses Shnorali Medal from the Catholicos of All Armenians in 1988 . The post office in his home town of Centreville , Virginia , has been named the " Colonel George Juskalian Post Office Building " in his honor .
= = Early life = =
George Juskalian was born in Fitchburg , Massachusetts on June 7 , 1914 , the youngest son of Armenian parents Kevork Juskalian ( 1861 – 1938 ) and Maritza Ferrahian ( 1876 – 1960 ) . George 's father , Kevork , was from Kharpert , Ottoman Turkey , and his mother Maritza was from Arapkir , Ottoman Turkey .
Kevork Juskalian was among the earliest graduates of the Euphrates College in Kharpert , completing his studies around 1881 . He served as a minor official of the local Turkish government in Mezire , a village near Kharpert . He was then invited to work in the Persian consulate in Mezire until he was recalled by the Turkish government to serve as supervisor of eleven villages in the region of Kharpert . Kevork Juskalian felt that there was no secure future for him in Ottoman Turkey and subsequently fled to the United States with his family , arriving at Ellis Island on November 15 , 1887 . Consequently , the Juskalian family became some of the first Armenians to come to the United States . Kevork found a job at the Iver Johnson Arms & Cycle Works in Worcester , Massachusetts . He was instrumental in the establishment of the Armenian Church of Our Savior on January 18 , 1891 .
In 1893 , Kevork returned to Kharpert and married Maritza Ferrahian , daughter of Krikor and Yeghisapet ( Yesayan ) Ferrahian . Due to the Hamidian Massacres , Kevork and Maritza returned to the United States and Kevork rejoined the Iver Johnson Arms & Cycle Works company .
Juskalian , who grew up in Fitchburg , attended the local schools and graduated from Fitchburg High School in 1932 . He continued his education at Boston University , graduating in 1936 with a bachelor 's degree in science , journalism .
= = Military service = =
While studying at Boston University , Juskalian undertook military training as part of the Reserve Officers Training Corps . On graduation , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army , and in June 1936 , was assigned as an administrative officer of a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at Brewster , Massachusetts , where he helped build a national park .
After leaving active service , Juskalian had intended to study law at the American University in Washington , D.C. , but when his father died in 1938 , he gave up this plan and returned to Fitchburg to reunite with his mother and assist his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's dry @-@ cleaning business . That year , after passing a government exam , Juskalian became a fingerprint classifier for the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , and took part in the search for John Dillinger , who was on the " Top 10 Most Wanted " list . He then volunteered for active service in 1939 .
Juskalian was called to active duty at Fort Devens , Massachusetts , and was promoted to the rank as first lieutenant in November 1940 . Juskalian was given command of a 200 @-@ man company after the reorganization of the 1st Infantry Division . In February 1942 , Juskalian was promoted to captain and was sent to Camp Blanding , Florida , before moving to Fort Benning , Georgia and then Indiantown Gap Military Reservation , Pennsylvania , for additional training and combat readiness evaluation . In August 1942 , Juskalian boarded the RMS Queen Mary , and along with the other 15 @,@ 000 soldiers of the 1st Infantry Division , was shipped to Europe .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = North African Campaign = = = =
The soldiers of the 1st Infantry Division are believed to be among the first American troops shipped out to the European theater during the war . The division landed near Glasgow , Scotland , then proceeded to a British Army base near London to continue training . Juskalian , who became the assistant plans and operations officer on the regimental staff , went to Inveraray , Scotland , to train for the North African Campaign .
Juskalian then took part in Operation Torch as part of the 1st Infantry Division 's 26th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Theodore Roosevelt Jr . The Allies , who had organized three amphibious task forces , aimed to seize key ports and airfields in Morocco and Algeria while simultaneously targeting Casablanca , Oran and Algiers . Juskalian 's unit was part of the task force that invaded through the port of Oran .
Landing in Oran on November 8 , 1942 , the 1st Infantry Division 's primary objective was to confront the German Afrika Korps commanded by Erwin Rommel , while its secondary objective was to support Bernard Law Montgomery 's advance against the Italian forces . Eventually , the 1st Infantry Division broke through the German resistance and scaled Mount Djebel . Oran fell to the Allies on November 10 and Juskalian 's unit advanced east into Tunisia , reaching the Algeria – Tunisia border by January 15 , 1943 . There , the task force met resistance from German and Italian troops .
= = = = German prisoner of war = = = =
As the fighting continued into the Makthar Valley , Juskalian was assigned to the 26th Infantry Regiment 's headquarters . When attempting to save the life of a fellow soldier following heavy fighting , he was captured by German troops at Kasserine Pass in Tunisia on January 28 . Juskalian described his capture as follows : " One of our intelligence officers had gone out to check on the situation , and word came back that he 'd been wounded and was out there somewhere . So another officer and I went out in a Jeep and found him , but he was dead . Then we came under fire , so we couldn 't drag him out of there . " After telling the driver to return to the command post , Juskalian investigated the conditions of the other U.S. soldiers . " I thought they were all right because we hadn 't heard anything from them , but they 'd been overrun by the Germans . " Having lost his glasses , Juskalian could not distinguish the soldiers that were approaching him from 50 feet ( 15 m ) away . The soldiers were Germans and took him prisoner . Juskalian said about his capture , " I was irritated with myself for being so foolhardy , I shouldn 't have been there . " Juskalian later learned , while still a prisoner of war ( POW ) , that he had been awarded the Silver Star for his rescue attempt . After his first two days of being a POW , he was promoted to major .
= = = = = Oflag IX @-@ A / Z in Rotenburg , Germany = = = = =
Juskalian spent the next twenty @-@ seven months as a POW and was held in various camps in Italy , Poland and Germany . After being interrogated in Kairouan , he was sent to Tunis and flown to Naples . The planes flew at a low altitude as Juskalian described : " They flew about 100 feet above the Mediterranean because they were afraid that , if they flew higher , the American fighter planes — not knowing POWs were inside — would see us and shoot us down . " The POWs were sent to Oflag IX @-@ A / Z British POW camp in Rotenburg an der Fulda where they remained until June 6 , 1943 , when they were transferred to Oflag 64 in Szubin , Poland .
The British POWs provided the Americans with necessary advice regarding the camp life and shared rations and clothing sent by the British Red Cross . The British , who were in the process of digging an escape tunnel , requested help from the Americans . Juskalian would later describe the operation : " I volunteered , although I have had claustrophobia ever since a boyhood friend shut me up in a wood bin for a prank . When I look back at it , I wonder how I did it . Some nights when I think about it , I break out in a cold sweat . Somehow , I was able to summon up the will to do it . The tunnel was already some 80 to 100 feet long . It extended underground beyond the barbed wire fence , but those in charge wanted to lengthen it so that the opening would come out below ground level on the steep side near the bank of the Fulda River . In that way when the tunnel was broken open , the escapees could not be seen by the guards in the towers . "
The tunnel was about 3 feet ( 1 m ) high by 3 feet ( 1 m ) wide . Lighting in the tunnel was provided by makeshift candles . The prisoners used improvised digging tools and shovels that were constructed from British biscuit cans and their handles made from the wooden slats of their beds . The tins were also used to create a pipe for fresh air to funnel through the tunnel with the assistance of a hand @-@ cranked fan at the entrance of the tunnel . A sled , made of wooden slats with a tine base to make it slide easily over the earthen tunnel floor , was used to haul the sandbags . Juskalian described the method that was used to dispose the sand : " The method used to conceal the sand was ingenious . The sand was poured into burlap bags made surreptitiously from Red Cross parcel wrappings then passed rapidly along a makeshift fire brigade line through the building and up into the attic . There it was dumped between the outer and inner walls where there was a wide space for insulation . Literally tons of sand could be disposed of there before the space would be filled . "
Before the tunnel had been completed , the American POWs were transferred to Oflag 64 in Szubin , Poland . Juskalian estimated that if the tunnel had been dug for another 100 feet , it would reach its destination at the bank of the Fulda River . Two American POWs pretended to be sick in order to remain in the Rotenburg camp and to continue working on the tunnel and ultimately escape . The two Americans , who eventually rejoined the rest of the American POWs in Oflag 64 , relayed the news that the tunnel had been discovered by the German guards who had learned of its existence after planting a spy among the POWs .
= = = = = Oflag 64 in Szubin , Poland = = = = =
Juskalian spent nineteen @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of his twenty @-@ seven months imprisonment in Oflag 64 . The POWs in the camp undertook various leisure activities including staging plays , playing music , reading , athletics , and learning languages . While there , Juskalian became an editor of a monthly newspaper that was published with the assistance of a guard who owned a local printing shop . The newspaper featured " stories from home , cartoons , pictures of pin @-@ up girls and girlfriends and articles about camp sports and activities " .
In June 1944 the American POWs held a party on the first anniversary of being in the camp . The party coincided with the Normandy landings , and the Germans suspected that the American POWs had purposely planned the party because they had prior knowledge of the Allied invasion . The commandant of Oflag 64 called higher headquarters for advice and assistance . Eventually the German Gestapo searched the Americans ' rooms for evidence of outside communication . However , Juskalian shared one of the cigars his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Hagop Chiknavorian , had given him , with the officer undertaking the search who soon became " distracted and softened " .
= = = = = Oflag XIII B in Hammelburg , Germany = = = = =
On January 21 , 1945 , the German troops and their POWs moved westward into Germany to avoid the Soviet advance from the east . Juskalian and other American POWs were transferred to Parchim , northeast of Berlin , on March 1 , 1945 . Over the course of 48 days , the POWs traveled 350 miles ( 560 km ) from Parchim to Oflag XIII @-@ B in Hammelburg in box cars which , according to Juskalian , were " packed like sardines . " During his time in Hammelburg , Juskalian met another Armenian POW , Captain Peter Mirakian of Philadelphia . Together , the two Armenian Americans discovered that one of the Soviet POWs was also an Armenian . Mirakian and Juskalian surreptitiously gave him food from their limited rations .
The camp at Hammelburg held many American prisoners including George S. Patton 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Lieutenant Colonel John K. Waters . Attempting to rescue Waters , a military task force from the 4th Armored Division was sent to liberate the camp . When the task force arrived , the German guards fled the camp , but the task force did not have enough vehicles to evacuate all POWs in the camp . Mirakian and Juskalian escaped through an opening in the compound fence and ran towards Frankfurt hoping to reach the American lines there , but a German patrol captured them , and they were immediately sent to Nuremberg . Juskalian later remarked : " We were tired and depressed but thankful to be alive . "
While Juskalian was held in Nuremberg , the Americans began their bombardment of the city . He describes the moment in his own words : " We were cheering , and our guards were getting irritated , but the bombs came down on us , too , and I was sure we were going to get it . About 30 of us were killed . I was thinking of my mother and how ironic it would be to be killed at the end of the war — and by your own aircraft . "
After surviving the bombardment , the POWs were resettled in a camp near Munich . The Germans gave them the opportunity to return to Nuremberg as wounded soldiers to obtain treatment ; the POWs agreed because it was closer to the American lines . On April 17 , American troops secured Nuremberg and subsequently freed the POWs . Juskalian described the event : " When the Germans tried to see if we were really wounded , the British erected a sign on the gate saying ' Plague ' , and that kept them out , three or four days later , the 45th U.S. Infantry Division overran Nuremberg and we were liberated . "
Juskalian was flown to Paris , France , where he presented himself at a military post and requested financial assistance . However , he did not have official identification and was refused . An officer , who knew George 's older brother Richard ( Dikran ) , who lived in Watertown , overheard him and recognized the last name Juskalian . George confirmed that Richard was his brother , and he was then given all the provisions he needed .
= = = = Post World War II = = = =
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Juskalian had an appointment with the regular army where he was ultimately promoted to lieutenant colonel . He reported to the Pentagon for duty in the Office of the Secretary of the Army Chief of Staff from 1945 – 1948 . In the Pentagon , Juskalian was assigned as an assistant secretary in the Secretariat of the War Department and was a secretary to Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Chief of Staff of the Army . His responsibilities included supporting the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combined Chiefs of Staff of the British and Americans and preparing briefs for Eisenhower . After his tour of duty at the Pentagon , he attended the Army 's Command and General Staff College 's regular ten @-@ month course at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , from 1948 to 1949 . His next assignment was with the staff and faculty of the Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia , where he remained from 1949 until the summer of 1952 . While at the school , he took airborne training and became a qualified parachutist .
Juskalian was then assigned to Alaska as commandant of the Arctic Warfare School . Still embittered by the memory of having spent most of World War II as a POW , he requested his orders be changed from Alaska to Korea where United States forces were engaged in combat operations as part of the United Nations forces committed to Korean War . His request was approved and in the summer of 1952 he was sent to the combat zone .
= = = Korean War = = =
Juskalian was assigned as a battalion commander from 1952 to 1953 . In 1953 , he commanded the 1st Battalion , 32nd Infantry Regiment , 7th Infantry Division . In the final winter of the war the Chinese attempted to overcome the United Nations ' main line of resistance and capture a series of hills . Juskalian 's battalion was assigned to carry out a counterattack on a 300 @-@ foot high hill known as " Old Baldy " during an action that later became known as the Battle of Old Baldy . When the Chinese offensive came to a halt , Juskalian reorganized the forces under his command and sent both A and B Companies , under First Lieutenant Jack L. Conn , on a second attack to retake the hill , but they regained only a quarter of it . On March 25 Juskalian ordered C Company , under First Lieutenant Robert C. Gutner , to attack from the northeast , but enemy forces halted their advance . Many members of C Company were trapped on the right flank of Old Baldy , and Juskalian requested tank support to demolish the Chinese bunkers to free 30 to 40 troops of the company . On the night of March 26 , Juskalian received orders from Regimental Commander Colonel William B. Kern to withdraw his forces .
To the east of Old Baldy heavy fighting took place around Pork Chop Hill , which was later made famous by the movie Pork Chop Hill starring actor Gregory Peck . The Chinese force grew and became numerically superior to the Americans , and Juskalian was ordered to withdraw . Due to his efforts and the successful withdrawal of troops , he was awarded a second Silver Star for gallantry . At the end of the war in June 1953 , he was transferred to the Eighth Army Headquarters in Seoul where he assisted in the prisoner of war exchange that took place at Panmunjom .
= = = Missions in Iran , New York , and France = = =
Juskalian was assigned as a logistics officer to the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group ( MAAG ) in Tehran , Iran in 1957 . He then became chief of the Training Division of the Iranian First Army and was promoted to full colonel . As principal logistics officer , Juskalian supervised the U.S. Army officers advising the Iranian Army general officers serving as technical service department chiefs . Additionally , his office was responsible for managing the annual input of U.S. military material and construction to the Iranian armed forces . During his time in Iran , Juskalian met many Armenians in Tehran , a number of whom he kept in touch with for the rest of his life .
After his mission in Iran in 1957 – 1958 , Juskalian visited Kharpert , his father 's birthplace . In an article he later wrote about the trip entitled " Harput Revisited " , which appeared in the April 1959 issue of the Armenian Review , Juskalian wrote : " I tried in vain to locate my parents ' home . Mezireh , as a community , was alive and well . Harput ( Kharpert ) , on the other hand was dead , a bleak landscape of debris where once proudly stood a college , schools , churches , shops and homes . There was not even a grave over which to weep and pray for the souls of those from whom I came . "
After completing his duties in Iran , Juskalian assumed the role of chief of operations and training at the headquarters of the First Army that commanded all U.S. Army installations in New England , New York and New Jersey . His posting in New York was cut short by the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , and Juskalian was sent to France to join the 1st Logistical Command . When the 1st Logistical Command was merged with the 4th Logistical Command at Verdun , Juskalian was transferred to this command , serving as the G @-@ 3 chief of plans , operations and training .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
After his tours of duty in New York and France , Juskalian volunteered to fight in Vietnam in late spring of 1963 . He arrived in Saigon in August 1963 and took up a posting as deputy senior advisor to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam 's IV Corps stationed in the Mekong Delta . After six months , Jukalian was assigned to the headquarters of Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) to serve as the MACV inspector general under General William Westmoreland , the MACV commander . As part of his duties , he traveled throughout South Vietnam on inspection visits to many military installations . In the transient officers quarters at Danang , he found an ashtray from George Mardikian 's Omar Khayyam restaurant in San Francisco and kept it as a souvenir for the rest of his life . For his service in the Vietnam War , Juskalian was awarded an Air Medal and a Bronze Star .
Juskalian returned to the United States in August 1964 and was posted to headquarters of Military District of Washington ( MDW ) as Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Training , his last Army assignment before retirement . During his three years at MDW , he served as chairman of the Joint Military Executive Committee that was chiefly responsible for planning and carrying out all arrangements for the participation of military services in the inauguration of President Lyndon B. Johnson in January 1965 .
= = Post @-@ retirement from the army = =
Juskalian retired from the army on April 30 , 1967 , and was awarded the Legion of Merit . After his retirement , he settled in Arlington , Virginia . Juskalian worked as the graduate admissions director at the Southeastern University in Washington D.C. for eight years and attained a master 's degree in business and public administration with honors in 1977 at the age of sixty .
He was a member of many veterans ' organizations including the American Legion , the Veterans of Foreign Wars , the Disabled American Veterans , the American Ex @-@ Prisoners of War , the Retired Officers Association , and the 1st Infantry Division Association for the Uniformed Services ( NAUS ) . He served for a term as first vice president of NAUS and was the commander of the Northern Virginia Chapter of the American Ex @-@ Prisoners of War .
In 1982 Juskalian was appointed for a three @-@ year term to the Veterans Administration Advisory Committee for Former Prisoners of War . Whenever possible , he attended annual reunions with former Oflag 64 POWs and the annual national conventions of the American ex @-@ POW organization . He was appointed to the Editorial Advisory Board of the newly established Washington Times daily newspaper in 1983 .
= = = Community service = = =
Juskalian was a prominent figure in the Armenian community . He served at the local St. Mary ’ s Armenian Apostolic Church and the Diocesan Council of the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America . He served on the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America , and subsequently for a ten @-@ year term on its Board of Trustees . He was also a member of the Armenian General Benevolent Union 's Central Committee of America and the Armenian Assembly of America .
He helped organize a memorial service for Armenian American veterans at the Arlington National Cemetery on May 21 , 1978 , where the graves of forty @-@ nine Armenian American veterans , spanning the period from the Spanish – American War to the Vietnam War , were decorated with carnations . Juskalian also volunteered in local schools . He continuously stressed the importance of public service and shared many of his experiences with students .
= = Personal life = =
On August 31 , 1951 , Juskalian married Beatrice MacDougall , the widow of Lieutenant Jack W. Kirk , one of his first company commanders . The marriage ended in divorce in 1958 . In 1970 , he married his second wife , Lucine Barsoumian , an Armenian from Aleppo , Syria . They had a son named Kevork and a daughter named Elissa . Kevork graduated from George Mason University in May 1996 with a master 's degree in international transactions and was later commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Regular Army . Gregory , a son by his previous marriage with Beatrice MacDougall , lives in Stockbridge , Massachusetts . George Juskalian was also the cousin of Medal of Honor recipient Ernest Dervishian who received the award while serving in the U.S. Army during World War II .
After his second marriage , Juskalian and his wife visited many countries including Lebanon , Egypt , Italy , France , Spain and his homeland of Armenia . In 1989 , Juskalian along with his family moved to Centreville , Virginia , where he remained the rest of his life .
Juskalian died on July 4 , 2010 ; funeral processions were held at the St. Mary 's Armenian Apostolic Church in Washington D.C. He is buried in the Prisoner of War Section of the Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Recognition = =
In 1988 Juskalian was awarded the St. Nerses Shnorhali Award and Lifetime Achievement and Pastor 's Recognition Award bestowed by Vasken I , Catholicos of All Armenians for his dedication to the Armenian community .
Juskalian was featured in the documentary series Americans At War by the U.S. Naval Institute . Each episode of the documentary series features a U.S. veteran recounting a defining moment from his or her time in the armed services .
During a ceremony marking the seventy @-@ fourth anniversary of Washington 's Armenian community , Armenia 's ambassador to the United States Doctor Tatoul Markarian , expressed his appreciation of Colonel Juskalian 's many contributions to the Armenian community , and congratulated him for his lifetime achievements .
On April 23 , 2007 , the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors recognized Juskalian for " heroism and honorable service " to the United States .
Following Juskalian 's death on July 4 , 2010 , Virginia Senator Jim Webb wrote : " It is my understanding that Colonel Juskalian was one of the most highly decorated Armenian @-@ American Veterans to serve in the United States Army . I am sure his dedication to serving the Armenian @-@ American community will be missed and his contribution will always be remembered . "
On May 21 , 2011 , President Barack Obama signed House Resolution 6392 of the 2nd Session of the 111th Congress which designated the post office on 5003 Westfields Boulevard in Centreville , Virginia , as the " Colonel George Juskalian Post Office Building " . The renaming ceremony was celebrated at the post office on the same day and was attended by friends , family , politicians , former POWs , veterans , and members of the Armenian community . Attendees included U.S. Congressman Frank Wolf , Virginia Delegate Jim LeMunyon and member of the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors Michael Frey . During the ceremony , letters of appreciation were read from former Senator John Warner and Presidential candidate Bob Dole .
= = Military awards and decorations = =
Juskalian 's military awards and decorations include :
= = = Silver Star citation = = =
The citation for Juskalian 's second Silver Star published in General Orders 41 , Headquarters 7th Infantry Division , 18 July 1953 reads :
Lieutenant Colonel George Juskalian , 032371 , Infantry , United States Army , a member of Headquarters , 1st Battalion , 32d Infantry , distinguished himself by gallantry in action near Chorwon , Korea . During the period 24 March 1953 to 26 March 1953 , Colonel Juskalian led his battalion in a counterattack against strong enemy positions . Colonel Juskalian advanced with the foremost elements of his battalion during the entire conflict . During the attack the battalion encountered a mine field blocking the only route of approach , but Col. Juskalian — with complete disregard for his personal safety — placed himself at the front of his unit and led them through the field . Often exposing himself to the enemy , [ he ] moved from position to position . Colonel Juskalian remained on the position to direct the operations and finally led the last element of his command from his position . The gallantry [ he ] displayed is in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service . Entered the Federal service from Massachusetts .
= = Published works = =
Juskalian wrote for journals concerning Armenian or military topics . Some of his writings include :
" Harput Revisited " , Armenian Review ( Spring , April 1959 ) . Recounts his visit to his father 's native village of Harput , in Turkey .
" Why Didn 't They Shoot More ? " , Army Combat Forces Journal ( September 1954 ) , V , No. 2 , p . 35 . Depicts his battles during the Korean War .
" A Journey to New Julfa " , Armenian Review ( Spring , May 1960 ) . Describes his visit to New Julfa , an Armenian populated town in Iran and concludes that the town has lost most of its importance and vitality .
" East is East and West is West " , Ararat Quarterly ( Fall 1973 ) , Vol . XIII , No. 4 , p . 19 . Recounts his visit with the Sagoyan family , an Armenian family that received him while he was in Japan .
" The Life You Save " , Ararat Quarterly ( Spring 1988 ) , Vol . XXIV , No. 2 , p . 48 .
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= Cathy Davey =
Catherine " Cathy " Davey ( born 1979 ) is an Irish singer @-@ songwriter . She has released one extended play , " Come Over " ( 2004 ) , and three albums , Something Ilk ( 2004 ) , Tales of Silversleeve ( 2007 ) and The Nameless ( 2010 ) . Her second album garnered her a Choice Music Prize nomination , Meteor Award for Best Irish Female , and spawned a number of successful singles including " Reuben " , " Moving " and " Sing for Your Supper " . The Nameless was the top selling album in Ireland upon the week of its release . It was also nominated for the Choice Music Prize .
Davey has performed at several international events , including representing Ireland at the Eurosonic Festival in Groningen , the Netherlands , and performing at the South by Southwest festival in Austin , Texas . She has also performed at other large exhibitions and festivals in Ireland , including Electric Picnic , Indie @-@ pendence and The Music Show . Davey has worked with Autamata , Elbow and The Duckworth Lewis Method as well as providing support for Graham Coxon , R.E.M. and Supergrass .
The Irish Times placed Davey third in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , saying " There 's no better female songwriter in Irish music right now " . Tales of Silversleeve was named sixth best Irish album of 2007 by John Meagher of the Irish Independent and ninth best album of the decade by Jim Carroll , Tony Clayton @-@ Lea and Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times .
= = Background = =
Davey was born in Dublin , daughter of composer Shaun Davey and sculptor Agnes Conway . At the age of ten she moved with her mother to Wiltshire , where they lived for several years . On their return to Dublin they settled in Monkstown. where Davey spent the rest of her teenage years . The first live performance Davey attended was An Emotional Fish with The Stunning on St Stephen 's Green . She initially intended to be an artist and to develop her interest in music in her leisure time but the offer of a record deal changed that . She is an animal lover .
= = Style = =
Davey has been referred to as " Ireland 's Björk " . The comparison caused the Irish Independent 's Ed Power to comment in one 2009 review : " Alas , such comparisons are probably inevitable when your favourite mode of communication is an ethereal yelp and your songs are populated with a raggle @-@ taggle of yearners , outsiders and freaks " . His colleague John Meagher opined , " you won 't see Björk heft a guitar half so diligently " . Hot Press compared the music on Something Ilk to the works of PJ Harvey and Nina Hynes . The magazine 's reviewer also compared her to Joni Mitchell after one 2007 show in Cork . Davey 's second album , Tales of Silversleeve , based its sound on the rhythm of the drums . Notable fans of Davey 's music include broadcaster Síle Ní Bhraonain . Her records have achieved platinum sales .
Davey was initially uncomfortable with being described as a singer @-@ songwriter but is now more accepting of the term . She describes her songwriting style :
I write in short quick spurts of manic creativity , which are followed by spells of borderline writer 's block where the writing comes really painfully and laboriously . I ’ m sure it 's a universal experience for anyone who writes , but it 's difficult to get out of , you can 't just wish it away — it just disappears when it 's had enough . It ’ s completely independent of whether I ’ m happy or blue , up or down . It tends to lift as soon as I stop fixating on it — I remember thinking my house was the problem , and I 'd need to go to France in order to write , and I would have been scared without Rex [ her dog ] . I got through it . You can 't chase the muse , or you 'll scare it away .
= = Career = =
Cathy Davey first came to be known as a backing vocalist alongside Carol Keogh for Ken McHugh 's project Autamata . McHugh and Davey subsequently collaborated on what Hot Press described as " a mixture of otherworldly indie and soft space age melodica " . Davey signed to EMI / Parlophone in 2003 in a deal which Hot Press later described as having " eclipsed even the high @-@ profile signing of The Thrills " . Her rise had been low @-@ profile ; she did not perform live until she had signed her record deal . Her four @-@ track debut EP , " Come Over " , released in 2004 , and in which she " swoops and yelps her way through proceedings with her distinctive voice " , was described by the magazine as " inviting comparisons with others before deciding that she 'd rather be completely unique if it 's all the same with you " .
Davey 's debut album , Something Ilk , was recorded at a studio in Wales , produced by Ben Hillier whose previous credits included Blur and Elbow , and released in 2004 . RTÉ reviewer Harry Guerin said it was " high on presence and very low on filler " and gave it three out of five stars . Hot Press remarked , " Not only is her voice elfin , immediate and distinct the songs are also hugely compelling . They are digestible without being lightweight , austere in places without seeming detached " . The Irish Independent 's Paul Byrne described it as " one of the best Irish albums of 2004 " . Davey performed a nationwide tour in September 2004 . She also supported Graham Coxon and Supergrass during tours they undertook that year . The singer later dismissed Something Ilk , saying " I think the record company [ EMI 's Regal Recordings ] thought I was an indie rock chick when they signed me and that album is very much other people 's idea of what I should sound like . [ ... ] I didn 't have the confidence to say no to some of the things [ Ben Hillier ] suggested " . Davey claimed not to " know my arse from my elbow when I signed for them " and did not like performing those songs in a live arena . Despite this , the Irish Independent described her as " very talented — far more so than [ Gemma ] Hayes " but regretted that she had " failed to find an audience for her fine debut Something Ilk " .
Davey performed a nationwide tour in late May 2007 , debuting songs from her follow @-@ up album which she initially referred to as Silversleeve . All but two of the songs were recorded in her home . The album , released under the title Tales of Silversleeve and produced by Liam Howe of Sneaker Pimps , was preceded by " Reuben " , its first single , on 21 September 2007 . Davey explained the title choice , " I had a runny nose when I was a child and let 's just say I didn 't wipe it with a tissue " . This proved to be a successful move as it led to a Choice Music Prize nomination for 2007 Irish Album of the Year . RTÉ reviewer Harry Guerin said it was " even more imaginative " than her debut and gave it four out of five stars. entertainment.ie reviewer Lauren Murphy described the record as " Without doubt , one of the best albums of the year " , noting " there 's a magic about Tales of Silversleeve that makes it an album you 're almost afraid to listen to twice , in case it 's not as good as you remember the first time " . The Irish Independent ' ' s reviewer gave the album five stars , describing it as " a record that she can be proud of " . Jim Carroll , The Irish Times rock critic , called it " The most charming pop album you 'll hear in Zero Seven " .
After a series of residencies , Davey embarked on a pre @-@ Christmas tour of Ireland in 2007 . She appeared on the seventh series of Other Voices in early 2008 . The singer represented Ireland at the Eurosonic Festival in Groningen , the Netherlands , in January 2008 . She performed at Childline Rocks in February 2008 , followed by a performance at the South by Southwest festival in Austin , Texas in that March . Davey was dropped by her record company in mid @-@ 2008 alongside most of their client list . She headlined the Main Stage at Cork X Southwest in Skibbereen in July 2008 . In August 2009 , she headlined the Eurocultured Festival in Dublin 's Smithfield Plaza and also performed at that year 's Indie @-@ pendence . Davey appeared at Electric Picnic 2008 . She featured at The Music Show in the RDS in October 2008 . The singer performed in Dublin 's Iveagh Gardens during events to celebrate Africa Day on 25 May .
Davey 's song " Moving " has been used in a prominent Vodafone commercial in her native Ireland . Another song , " Sing for Your Supper " , was described by the Irish Independent 's Ed Power as " her biggest smash to date " . The same reviewer described Davey 's song " Reuben " , a number one single , as " a skewed romantic tirade glazed in sugar @-@ candy vocals " .
Davey 's third album , The Nameless , was released on 7 May 2010 ( Ireland ) , with contributions from Conor J. O 'Brien and Neil Hannon . Lead single " Little Red " was released on 21 April 2010 and followed by an Irish tour in May . Davey performed on The Late Late Show on 23 April 2010 . She performed at Oxegen 2010 in July . On 16 July 2010 , to promote the second single from The Nameless album , Davey released a download only EP for " Army of Tears " . The EP features three tracks : the original track " Army of Tears " , a previously unreleased track " The Wandering " and a demo version of " Army of Tears " .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Davey has appeared on the Autamata track " Cloud Seekers " , taken from the album My Sanctuary . She has worked with Elbow . She dueted with Gavin Glass on the track " Rag Doll " . She sang a song called " Cannonballs " on a 2005 CD titled Faction One , released by record label Faction . She appears on the David Turpin track " Red Elk " . She lent her vocals to the 2008 charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing , on which she performed a cover of Donna Summer 's " I Feel Love " . Tony Clayton @-@ Lea recommended the song be downloaded alongside Lisa Hannigan 's cover version of " Upside Down " . She performed guest vocals on the track " The Sweet Spot " from The Duckworth Lewis Method 's eponymous album and three tracks on Bang Goes the Knighthood , Neil Hannon 's 2010 album as The Divine Comedy . She also supported R.E.M. during their Live Rehearsal shows at the Olympia Theatre , Dublin in summer 2007 . Davey hosted Songs That Scare Children at the Spiegeltent during the Dublin Fringe Festival in September 2008 . Her music is available to download from the PlayStation SingStore . She was involved in efforts to raise funds in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . Davey 's song ' Rescue ' has been used in the ABC TV series The Gates . Her song ' Holy Moly ' is played at the end of The Disappearance of Alice Creed .
= = = 2016 = = =
In summer 2016 , Davey confirmed a new album was due for release in autumn 2016 , this was preceded by the first new single ' The Pattern ' released on July 15 , 2016 .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Something Ilk ( 2004 )
Tales of Silversleeve ( 2007 )
The Nameless ( 2010 )
The Pattern ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
The Irish Times placed Davey third in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , saying " There 's no better female songwriter in Irish music right now " . Her closest female rivals on the list were Lisa Hannigan and Róisín Murphy at numbers five and seven respectively . Tales of Silversleeve was named sixth best Irish album of 2007 by John Meagher of the Irish Independent and ninth best album of the decade by Jim Carroll , Tony Clayton @-@ Lea and Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times .
Davey won Best Pop Act at the 2011 Digital Socket Awards in Dublin .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Davey 's second album Tales of Silversleeve was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2008 . Surprise was expressed within the Irish media when she was beaten by Super Extra Bonus Party .
The Nameless was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in 2011 .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Davey won Best Irish Female at the 2008 Meteor Awards . Tales of Silversleeve was also nominated for Best Irish Album at the same event but lost to Paddy Casey . Casey later admitted he would have preferred if Davey had won the award . Upon being embraced by and photographed alongside Sinéad O 'Connor at the launch , Davey remarked on how odd it was " to put your arms around someone you don 't know " .
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= SMS Cöln ( 1916 ) =
SMS Cöln was a light cruiser in the German Kaiserliche Marine , the second to bear this name , after her predecessor SMS Cöln had been lost in the Battle of Heligoland Bight . Cöln , first of her class , was launched on 5 October 1916 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg and completed over a year later in January 1918 . She and her sister Dresden were the last two light cruisers built by the Kaiserliche Marine ; eight of her sisters were scrapped before they could be completed . The ships were an incremental improvement over the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers .
Cöln was commissioned into service with the High Seas Fleet ten months before the end of World War I ; as a result , her service career was limited and she did not see action . She participated in a fleet operation to Norway to attack British convoys to Scandinavia , but they failed to locate any convoys and returned to port . Cöln was to have participated in a climactic sortie in the final days of the war , but a revolt in the fleet forced Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper to cancel the operation . The ship was interned in Scapa Flow after the end of the war and scuttled with the fleet there on 21 June 1919 , under orders from the fleet commander Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . Unlike many of the other ships scuttled there , Cöln was never raised for scrapping .
= = Construction = =
Cöln was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Ariadne " and was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1915 . She was launched on 5 October 1916 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 17 January 1918 . The ship was 155 @.@ 5 meters ( 510 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 01 m ( 19 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 7 @,@ 486 t ( 7 @,@ 368 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by eight coal @-@ fired and six oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and a range of approximately 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . Cöln also carried three 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels , though one was removed in 1918 . She was also equipped with a pair of 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She also carried 200 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After their commissioning under the command of Erich Raeder ( 17 January 1918 – October 1918 ) , Cöln and Dresden joined the High Seas Fleet . They were assigned to the II Scouting Group , alongside the cruisers Königsberg , Pillau , Graudenz , Nürnberg , and Karlsruhe . The ships were in service in time for the major fleet operation to Norway in 23 – 24 April 1918 . The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group , along with the Second Torpedo @-@ Boat Flotilla were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway , with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support . The Germans failed to locate the convoy , which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port . As a result , Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port .
In October 1918 , the two ships and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Cöln , Dresden , Pillau , and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while the rest of the Group were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander in chief of the fleet , intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Cöln was among the ships interned . On the voyage there , her captain radioed the fleet commander that one of the ship 's steam turbines had a leaking condenser . Reuter dispatched another light cruiser to remain with the ship in the event that she needed to be towed . Despite the problematic turbine , Cöln managed to steam into port , the last ship in the German line .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Cöln sank at 13 : 50 and was never raised for scrapping .
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= Lady Croissant =
Lady Croissant is a live album by Australian singer Sia , released in April 2007 through the record label Astralwerks . Called a " mini @-@ album " by Astralwerks , the collection contains one studio recording ( " Pictures " ) as well as eight live tracks recorded during an April 2006 concert at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City . Eight songs were written or co @-@ written by Sia ; also featured is a cover version of Ray Davies ' song " I Go to Sleep " , a studio recording of which later appeared on Sia 's studio album Some People Have Real Problems ( 2008 ) . The album was produced by Dan Carey , mixed by Jon Lemon and Taz Mattar at Sarm Studios in London and mastered by Emily Lazar and Sarah Register at The Lodge in New York City . Lady Croissant received mixed critical reception and spawned one single , " Pictures " , which was released exclusively via American Eagle Outfitters on 27 November 2006 .
= = Composition = =
Just over forty minutes in length , Lady Croissant contains nine " slow @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ tempo " compositions . The album includes one previously unreleased studio recording called " Pictures " , co @-@ written by Dan Carey , along with eight live tracks recorded during her 17 April 2006 performance at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City . " Destiny " and " Distractions " each appeared on Zero 7 's 2001 album Simple Things , which featured vocals by Sia . Both songs were co @-@ written by Sia and members of Zero 7 ; " Destiny " was also co @-@ written by Sophie Barker , another vocal contributor to Simple Things . " Blow It All Away " originally appeared on Sia 's 2002 studio album Healing Is Difficult , and " Don 't Bring Me Down " , " Numb " and " Breathe Me " were each released on her 2004 album Colour the Small One . " Lentil " and the cover version of Ray Davies ' song " I Go to Sleep " , made popular by both Cher and the Pretenders , would later appear on Some People Have Real Problems ( 2008 ) . The album was produced by Carey , mixed by Jon Lemon and Taz Mattar at Sarm Studios in London and mastered by Emily Lazar and Sarah Register at The Lodge in New York City .
= = Reception = =
Lady Croissant received mixed critical reception . AllMusic 's Marisa Brown called Sia 's vocal performance " rich and passionate " and made comparisons to Nelly Furtado and Morley . Brown stated the band was " tight and lush " and that the music was " very modern , warm and melodic and cleanly intricate " . In his review for BBC Music , Paul Sullivan wrote that the album successfully displayed Sia 's vocal capabilities and versatility . However , he noted the minimal audience participation and felt that this prevented the album from capturing a " live " experience . For Sullivan , highlights included " Don 't Bring Me Down " , " Destiny " and " Lentil " , which he believed were " executed with an appealing mixture of frankness and fluidity " . Mark Perlaki of Gigwise.com awarded the album four of five stars and opined that the album " portrays an artist who 's star is in the ascendant , whose voice is unrivaled in style and expression , an artist on the brink of deserved and assured greater recognition . " The Selby Times 's review called the collection " mesmerising " and a good indicator of Sia 's future work . One reviewer for WERS called the album " breathtaking " and wrote positively of Sia 's vocals and the instrumentation . Like Sullivan , the reviewer warned that listeners expecting a traditional live album with " raw cuts and heavy improvisation " might be disappointed .
Roque Strew of Pitchfork Media found Sia 's Adelaide accent to be a " liability " , specifically noting difference in pronunciation between the studio versions of " Destiny " and " Distractions " and the live performances . Strew complimented " Pictures " and " Lentil " , the latter of which shined through the " fog of elongated syllables and cut consonants " . Popmatters ' Mike Schiller felt the instrumentation was " robotic " and found Sia 's vocal manipulation and bending of vowels " infuriating " , even unintelligible at times . Schiller did , however , favor her vocal tone and found the power of her voice " occasionally transcendent " . Stuart McCaighy of This Is Fake DIY appreciated " Pictures " but also criticized Sia 's performance for lacking diversity and for " incomprehensible " vocals due to her slurring of words . McCaighy concluded that , like other live albums , Lady Croissant was redundant but would be appreciated by fans . The Australian gay publication DNA wrote a mixed review for the album in 2010 following the release of We Are Born , complimenting Sia 's vocals but accusing " Pictures " of sounding like a B @-@ side .
= = Track listing = =
" Pictures " ( Dan Carey , Sia Furler ) – 3 : 37
" Don 't Bring Me Down " ( Furler , Blair MacKichan ) – 4 : 36
" Destiny " ( Sophie Barker , Henry Binns , Furler , Sam Hardaker ) – 3 : 55
" Blow It All Away " ( Kevin Armstrong , Furler , Felix Howard , MacKichan ) – 5 : 19
" Lentil " ( Samuel Dixon , Furler ) – 4 : 11
" Numb " ( Furler , Howard , James McMillan ) – 4 : 26
" I Go to Sleep " ( Ray Davies ) – 3 : 17
" Breathe Me " ( Carey , Furler ) – 5 : 52
" Distractions " ( Binns , Furler , Hardaker ) – 5 : 03
Track listing adapted from AllMusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic and CD liner notes .
= = Release history = =
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= O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness =
" O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " , also titled " O 'er Those Gloomy Hills of Darkness " , is a Welsh Christian hymn by William Williams Pantycelyn written in 1772 . The hymn was written as a missionary hymn ; there are conflicting accounts of why the hymn was written . The hymn was later published in 374 hymnals worldwide , though it was censored and altered in the United States by slaveholders for evangelising to slaves . The hymn later fell out of favour with hymn book editors in the 1960s .
= = History = =
There are conflicting accounts of why the hymn was written . According to one account , George Bowen was converted to Christianity through hearing a Welsh girl singing hymns . He later went to stay at Llwyn @-@ Gwair Manor at the same time that the Welsh Methodist Association were there . While there , he met Williams and asked him to compose some verse about the Preseli Hills . " O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " was written as a result of these requests . Though it is possible that this story may be correct as Llwyn @-@ Gwair Manor and Williams ' bedroom at the manor did overlook Carn Igli , in the 19th century an alternative story arose . In this version , Williams was travelling to Pontrhydyfen and composing a new missionary hymn as part of a commission from Selina Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon . Upon passing the ruins of an old Cistercian abbey and seeing the mountains he would have to cross on a stormy night , the view inspired him to write " O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " for the Countess . The hymn was first written in Welsh as English was not Williams ' first language so it was later translated into English by another person . This was because Williams did not know enough English to fully express the intent of the original Welsh verses in translation .
In 1836 , " O 'er the Gloomy hills of Darkness " was reviewed in an issue of The Eclectic Review . In a remarkably snide review , the hymn , among many others , is criticised for a lack of grammatical correctness as well as a lack of rhyme in the first verse , " ... inane verbiage preferred by worthy people to the noblest compositions of sanctified genius ; and to blot it out from our hymn @-@ books would be a species of sacrilege " . This was attributed to Williams ' lack of English as a native language gave rise to " a stiffness apparent " in the hymn . The New York Times stated it had gained popularity because of Williams ' " ease and sweetness " in his hymn writing .
= = Controversy = =
The second verse of the hymn begins with the lines " Let the Indian , let the negro , Let the rude barbarian see " . Williams included this after hearing stories of promising missionary contact with Cherokee tribes and with slaves in the Province of Georgia . When the hymn became established in the United States , slave owners changed the line referencing " Indian " and " negro " to " Let the dark benighted pagan " . The abolitionist Ebenezer Davies claimed “ The altered reading , I learned , prevails universally in America , except in the original version used by the Welsh congregations . Slave @-@ holders , and the abettors of that horrid system which makes it a crime to teach a negro to read the Word of God , felt perhaps that they could not devoutly and consistently sing " Let the Indian , let the negro ... see ” .
In the 1850s , the Baptist Union of Great Britain dropped the hymn from usage . The reason published in the Baptist Magazine stated " But the verses are too rude and unfinished to be generally accepted in modern day " . In later years in the 19th century churches , including the Church of England , started to publish the hymn replacing the second verse with the American slave owner 's amended version . In the early 1900s , the second verse would often be omitted altogether from hymnals .
= = Hymnals = =
" O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " first appeared in published hymnals in 1792 . Jeffrey Richards states that " William Williams 's O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness of 1772 ( sung variously to Thomas Clark 's Calcutta , by Baptists ; to Henry Gauntlett 's Triumph , in The Scottish Hymnal ; to Edwin Moss 's Ulpha , in the 1982 Presbyterian Church Praise ) did not make it into Hymns Ancient and Modern , but it was in Bickersteth 's Christian Psalmody in 1833 and was still to be found complete in the 1933 Baptist Hymnal … This very much set the tone for missionary hymns . " After being published in 374 hymnals throughout history , in the 1960s the hymn stopped being published in all Christian hymnals . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints retained the hymn in their hymnals from 1927 until dropping it in 1985 . This was because its members in modern times felt that the hymn connected Native Americans and black people with barbarians .
The hymn 's lyrical style set the tone for future missionary hymns . " O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " inspired the founder of Methodism , Charles Wesley , to write " Sun of Unclouded Righteousness " for missionaries working with " Mahometans " .
= = Lyrics = =
The lyrics of " O 'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness " as published in Gloria in Excelsis : or hymns of praise to God and the lamb in 1772 .
1 .
O 'er those gloomy Hills of Darkness
Look my Soul , be still and gaze ,
All the Promises do travel
On a glorious Day of Grace ,
Blessed Jubil , & c .
Let thy glorious Morning dawn .
2 .
Let the Indian , let the Negro ,
Let the rude Barbarian see
That divine and glorious Conquest
Once obtain 'd on Calvary ;
Let the Gospel , & c .
Word resound from Pole to Pole .
3 .
Kingdoms wide that sit in Darkness ,
Let them have the glorious Light ,
And from Eastern Coast to Western
May the Morning chase the Night ,
And Redemption , & c .
Freely purchas 'd win the Day .
4 .
May the glorious Days approaching ,
From eternal Darkness dawn ,
And the everlasting Gospel
Spread abroad thy holy Name .
Thousand Years , & c .
Soon appear , make no Delay .
5 .
Lord , I long to see that Morning ,
When thy Gospel shall abound ,
And thy Grace get full Possession
Of the happy promis 'd Ground ;
All the Borders , & c .
Of the great Immanuel 's Land .
6 .
Fly abroad , eternal Gospel ,
Win and conquer , never cease ;
May thy eternal wide Dominions
Multiply , and still increase ;
May thy Scepter , & c .
Sway th 'enlight 'ned World around .
7 .
O let Moab yield and tremble ,
Let Philistia never boast ,
And let India proud be scatt 'red
With their numerable Host ;
And the Glory , & c .
Jesus only be to thee .
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= Ernie Toshack with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Ernie Toshack was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 and was undefeated in their 34 matches . This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned Bradman 's men the sobriquet The Invincibles .
A left @-@ arm medium @-@ pace seam bowler , Toshack was a member of the first @-@ choice team , and played in the first four Test matches before succumbing to a persistent knee injury . Toshack contained the English batsmen with leg theory in between the new ball bursts of Keith Miller and Ray Lindwall . He took 11 wickets in the Tests ; his most notable performance was the 5 / 40 he took in the second innings of the Second Test at Lord 's . However , his knee failed in the first innings of the Fourth Test when he took 1 / 112 . He was unable to bowl in the second innings and missed the Fifth Test , marking the end of his Test career .
For the entire tour , Toshack took 50 first @-@ class wickets at a bowling average of 21 @.@ 12 with four five @-@ wicket innings hauls , including a best of 7 / 81 against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane . He also took 6 / 51 in the first innings of the match against the Marylebone Cricket Club , who were almost entirely represented by English Test cricketers , playing a key part in an innings victory . With little batting ability , Toshack usually batted last in Australia 's line @-@ up and scored 78 runs at a batting average of 8 @.@ 66 , the worst first @-@ class aggregate and average among the tourists . However , in the Tests , he was dismissed only once and averaged 51 @.@ 00 with a series of tail @-@ wagging performances , including his career best of 20 not out .
= = Background = =
A left @-@ arm medium @-@ pacer , Toshack made his first @-@ class cricket debut in the 1945 – 46 upon the resumption of cricket after World War II . His performances were enough to ensure his selection for the tour of New Zealand in early @-@ 1946 , where Toshack made his Test debut in the one @-@ off match against the hosts ' national team . From then on , Toshack was a regular member of the national team and played in every Test over the next two summers , fitness permitting . Toshack played in eight of the 11 Tests during this period , taking 36 wickets . Towards the end of the Test series against India in 1947 – 48 in Australia , knee injuries began to hamper Toshack , and he was in doubt for the 1948 tour of England . He only made the trip after a 3 – 2 majority vote by a medical panel , despite being one of the first players chosen by the selectors on cricketing merit . Two Melbourne doctors ruled him unfit , but three specialists from his home state of New South Wales presented a more optimistic outlook ; this allowed him to tour . As a member of Bradman 's Invincibles , the tour was to immortalise him in cricketing history . He grew tired of signing autographs during the sea voyage to England , and entrusted a friend with the task . However , his friend was unaware of the correct spelling of his name ; as a result , there are still sheets in circulation signed Toshak . The team manager Keith Johnson gave Toshack a talking to over this incident .
= = Early tour matches = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Toshack was included , reinforcing the new ball attack of Lindwall and Miller and the off spin and leg spin of Ian Johnson and Colin McCool respectively . Australia bowled first , and Toshack took two quick wickets to reduce the hosts to 3 / 158 after a 137 @-@ run second wicket partnership . Toshack ended with 2 / 39 as Australia dismissed Worcestershire for 233 . He was not required to bat as Australia made 8 / 462 declared , and then took 1 / 40 in the second innings as the tourists started their campaign with an innings victory , setting the tone for the summer .
Toshack was then rested for the second tour match against Leicestershire , which Australia won by an innings . He then missed the next match against Yorkshire , as Australia came closest to losing a match on the tour , scraping home by four wickets on a damp wicket .
Toshack returned as the Australians travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval , and he had his first outing with the bat on English soil , coming in last and scoring eight to help wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon add 33 for the final wicket before Australia were bowled out for 632 . Toshack bowled without success in the first innings and took one wicket in the second innings , that of Arthur McIntyre , to end with match figures of 1 / 54 as Surrey were defeated by an innings . Toshack then took 2 / 32 in the first innings against Cambridge University , and did not bat as Australia declared at 4 / 414 . He then took 0 / 9 from eight overs in the second innings , as Australia completed another innings victory . He then played in the match against Essex where Australia made 721 runs on the first day to set a new world record for the most runs scored in a day of first @-@ class cricket . However , Toshack only contributed four runs batting at No. 11 . In the first innings , Toshack took the last five wickets to fall , including the top @-@ scorer Ray Smith for 25 , ending with 5 / 31 from 10 @.@ 5 overs as the hosts capitulated for 83 , unable to cope with his swing . Australia enforced the follow on and Toshack took a further 2 / 50 in the second innings as Australia won by an innings and 451 runs , the largest margin of the tour . He then faced Oxford University , scoring two runs in Australia 's 431 . Toshack then took three lower order wickets in the first innings to end with 3 / 34 from 22 overs , sending down more overs than any other Australian . He took 3 / 37 in the second innings as Australia completed another innings victory after enforcing the follow on . The Oxford batsmen had trouble with the seam movement of Toshack .
Toshack was retained for the match against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage , with Len Hutton , Denis Compton and Bill Edrich , three of England 's first four batsmen in the Tests , all playing . Toshack was the last man in and made two , accompanying Lindwall in a 20 @-@ run final wicket stand as Australia totalled 552 .
After the MCC had reached 2 / 91 , Toshack broke through the middle order . He had Compton caught behind by Don Tallon for 26 , before trapping the incoming batsman Martin Donnelly — a New Zealand Test player — leg before wicket for five , and then having Hutton caught by vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett for 52 a run later , leaving the hosts at 5 / 104 . After the hosts recovered to 6 / 148 , Toshack removed Test all rounder Ken Cranston , Test wicket @-@ keeper Billy Griffith and spinner Jack Young to leave the MCC at 9 / 166 . The MCC were eventually dismissed for 189 , conceding a first innings lead of 363 runs . Toshack had taken 6 / 51 from 27 overs , and Bradman only allowed him four overs of rest . The Australian captain opted to enforce the follow on and allowed Toshack a lighter load in the second innings , bowling 15 overs and taking 1 / 43 . He removed Edrich as the MCC fell for 205 in 60 @.@ 2 overs to lose by an innings and 158 runs . Toshack had sent down the most overs by any Australian bowler in both innings . Bradman regarded Toshack 's first innings performance as his best of the tour . Toshack again focused on the leg stump , which some English observers decried as being negative . However , former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Toshack 's line was close enough to leg stump that most balls had to be played .
In the next match against Lancashire , Toshack made four in Australia 's 204 , before claiming both openers after they had put on 48 , including Test batsman Cyril Washbrook . Toshack ended with 2 / 40 as the match ended in a draw after the first day was washed out . It was Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour . After six consecutive matches in the space of 21 days , Toshack was rested for the next two matches against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge and Hampshire ; the matches ended in a draw and an eight @-@ wicket Australian win respectively .
Toshack returned for the final county match against Sussex before the First Test . He did not take a wicket but pinned down the local batsmen as Lindwall blasted them out with match figures of 11 / 59 . Eight of Lindwall 's victims had their stumps knocked over . Toshack bowled 15 overs for 23 runs in the first innings as the hosts were skittled for 86 . He did not bat as Australia made 5 / 549 and then returned in the second innings for 17 overs that yielded only three scoring shots for a total of six runs . He finished the match with a total of 0 / 29 from 32 overs .
= = First Test = =
Toshack 's performance in the First Test at Trent Bridge was a quiet one , taking a single wicket in each innings . England won the toss and elected to bat . Toshack trapped the home captain Norman Yardley leg before wicket with a ball that straightened after pitching , ending with 1 / 28 as England were bowled out for 165 . Toshack then came to the wicket at 9 / 476 and was involved in an aggressive final wicket partnership of 33 with Johnston , scoring 19 runs — his best at Test level to date — in just 18 minutes , batting in a carefree and freewheeling manner , before falling lbw to Alec Bedser , ending Australia 's innings on 509 with a 344 @-@ run lead .
During the second innings , Bradman thought that rain might come so he utilised Toshack to bowl defensive leg theory . He did so to slow the scoring so that England would not have a lead by the time the rain came to create a sticky wicket , otherwise Australia would have been forced to chase a target on a difficult pitch with irregular bounce and pace . As the umpires were obliged to not call off play unless the light was so poor as endanger the batsman , the lack of pace of Johnson and Toshack forced proceedings to continue as they posed no injury threat to the batsmen . Early on the fourth morning , Toshack were able to make the ball deviate regularly while bowling to Hutton and Denis Compton , but Bradman opted to have Miller take the new ball in the fifth over of the day as soon as it was available , taking Toshack off . Later , Toshack was used defensively while Miller attacked from the other end . Bradman 's response to a boundary being hit from Toshack was to further stack the leg side with fielders in defensive positions , and scoring was slow as Toshack bowled accurately . Toshack took the wicket of Joe Hardstaff junior for 43 , who holed out to Hassett on the leg side , having supported Denis Compton in a partnership of 93 . The ball looped up in the air and travelled half @-@ way to the square leg boundary , but Hassett managed to keep track of its trajectory through the fog . Toshack ended with 1 / 60 from 33 overs as Australia were one bowler short after an injury to Lindwall had prevented him from bowling since the first afternoon . England were bowled out for 441 and Australia reached the target of 98 with eight wickets in hand .
Toshack was rested for the first tour match after the First Test against Northamptonshire , which Australia won by an innings . He returned against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane , Sheffield , making four as Australia batted first and scored 249 . He then recorded the best innings analysis of his first @-@ class career , taking 7 / 81 from 40 consecutive overs , bemusing the Yorkshire spectators with his Australian accent and distinctive " Ow Wizz Ee " appealing . He removed both openers , including Hutton , and then bowled Yorkshire and England captain Norman Yardley to leave the hosts at 3 / 107 . After Yorkshire reached 4 / 149 , Toshack took four more wickets as the hosts collapsed to be all out for 206 . Wicket @-@ keeper Ron Saggers stood up to the wickets and stumped Ted Lester before Toshack removed three lower @-@ order batsmen . Toshack did not bat or bowl again as the match petered into a draw . Bradman decided to bat until late on the third afternoon and secure a draw instead of pressing for a win ; Yorkshire only batted for 27 overs in their second innings and the crowd booed Bradman for not pursuing a victory . With the match safe , Bradman elected to rely mainly on his second @-@ choice bowlers to conserve his frontline bowlers ' energy for the next Test .
= = Second Test = =
Australia won the toss and batted first in the Second Test at Lord 's . They were on the back foot at 7 / 258 at stumps on the first day . On the second morning , the Australian lower order counter @-@ attacked ; Toshack joined Johnston with the score at 9 / 320 and they put on 30 runs before Johnston was stumped . Australia regained the momentum , adding 92 runs in 66 minutes of hitting in the morning . One sequence of two overs from Edrich was taken for 28 runs , with many balls unintentionally spooned over the slips or the covers . Both players swung wildly at the ball , which often went in vastly different directions to where they had aimed their shots . Both made new Test best scores ; Toshack scored 20 not out . Both Johnston and Toshack — not known for their batting ability — played without inhibitions , joyfully revelling in their luck . England were then bowled out for 215 . Toshack was wicketless , but was the most economical of the bowlers , conceding only 23 runs from his 18 overs . Toshack operated after the first new ball was taken , and as England had fallen to 4 / 46 , they played him cautiously in an attempt to rebuild the innings . Australia then declared at 7 / 460 in their second innings with Toshack not required to bat , leaving England a target of 596 .
England progressed to 1 / 52 in their run @-@ chase before a double strike by Toshack . Edrich and Washbrook fell in quick succession to leave England at 3 / 65 . Edrich edged to Johnson low down in the slips and Tallon took a difficult catch to remove Washbrook . Edrich decided to stand his ground after the catch was taken , thinking that he may have hit a bump ball into the ground before it flew to Johnson , but the umpire ruled otherwise and gave him out . Washbrook inside edged a Toshack full toss directly downwards at Tallon 's ankle . Bradman described the catch as " miraculous " because Tallon had to reach so low , so quickly , in order to complete the catch . English commentator John Arlott speculated that Edrich and Washbrook may have lost concentration after Lindwall was replaced by Toshack , lulled into a false sense of security once Australia 's leading bowler was no longer operating . England then recovered to be 3 / 106 at stumps on the fourth day .
Yardley and Tom Dollery took the score to 4 / 133 on the final morning before Toshack bowled the former for 11 . He then trapped Alec Coxon two balls later in the same over for a duck , leaving England at 6 / 133 . Coxon shuffled across his stumps and missed his first delivery , which hit him in front of the stumps and prompted a loud lbw appeal , and did the same thing to the next ball , and the umpire upheld the Australians ' second appeal . During this spell , Toshack conceded only seven runs from eight overs , but was taken off as Bradman wanted to take the new ball and utilise Lindwall and Johnston . The match ended when Doug Wright hit Toshack to Lindwall and England were bowled out for 186 , sealing a 409 @-@ run win for Australia . Toshack ended with 5 / 40 from 20 @.@ 1 overs with Miller unable to bowl due to injury . During the second innings performance , Toshack employed two short legs and a silly mid @-@ off . Arlott said that while Toshack had the best figures , Lindwall was the pivotal figure , at the latter " so patently disturbed Hutton he struck a blow at the morale of the English batting that was never overcome . "
A match against Surrey started the day after the Second Test ended , but Bradman nevertheless asked Toshack to bowl 20 overs as Surrey batted first . He took 2 / 76 including opposition captain Errol Holmes . In reply to the hosts ' 221 , Toshack made one in Australia 's total of 389 . He then removed Arthur McIntyre and Eric Bedser in the second innings and ended with 2 / 29 as Australia won by ten wickets . Toshack was then rested after playing 12 days of cricket in two weeks , missing the innings victory over Gloucestershire .
= = Third Test = =
Toshack had a moderately successful Third Test , in which England elected to bat first . England lost two early wickets , and when Toshack came on , Jack Crapp repeatedly defended a sequence of deliveries to Arthur Morris at silly point . As the hosts were in trouble , they played cautiously and Toshack 's first five overs were all maidens . Crapp then hit Toshack to Sid Barnes at short leg , but the catch was dropped . However , Crapp did not capitalise as Toshack conceded only eight runs in a sequence of eight overs .
Halfway through the day , England fell to 5 / 119 , and captain Yardley came in . He hit Toshack in the air , but Barnes was unable to complete the reflex catch at short leg . However , this error did not cost many runs . Yardley lofted Toshack into the on @-@ side and the hands of Johnson at forward square leg to fall for 22 with the score at 6 / 141 . Toshack 's defensive bowling had caused the English skipper to lose patience and his departure for 22 left the score on 141 / 6 . Toshack bowled Dick Pollard late in the innings to finish with 2 / 75 from 41 overs — including 20 maidens — as England ended with 363 . Toshack was unbeaten on zero and was only at the crease for one minute as Australia replied with 221 . In the second innings , Toshack removed Compton for a duck , caught in the slips by Miller , and ended with 1 / 26 as the rain @-@ affected match ended in a draw . He also had Washbrook dropped in the slips cordon by Johnson , one of several times that the batsman was reprieved during the innings .
After bowling 53 overs in the Third Test , Toshack was rested for the match against Middlesex . It was the only tour match before the Fourth Test , and Australia won by ten wickets .
= = Fourth Test = =
Toshack 's knee injury flared again in the Fourth Test at Headingley after England elected to bat . On the first morning , England opener Len Hutton edged Toshack through the slips and was then dropped on 25 . Hutton eventually reached 81 as the opening pair put on 168 . Toshack was wicketless as the hosts closed the first day at 2 / 268 . The following morning , he was removed from the attack after night @-@ watchman Bedser hit him for three consecutive fours . After the lunch break , Toshack bowled Jack Crapp with an inside @-@ edged half volley for five to leave England at 5 / 447 . Toshack ended with an ineffective 1 / 112 from 35 overs as England made 496 . He was the most expensive and uneconomical of the frontline bowlers and it was his most uneconomical performance in the Tests . He aggravated his knee injury and was later taken to London for cartilage surgery , ending his bowling duties for the match and his Test career .
Late on the third day , Toshack was part of a rearguard Australian action that minimised England 's first innings lead . He came to the crease at 9 / 403 to accompany Lindwall , featuring in a 55 @-@ run stand and lasting the final 50 minutes until stumps , with Johnston running for him . Australia were 9 / 457 at stumps , with Lindwall on 76 and Toshack on 12 . Lindwall farmed the strike by trying to hit boundaries and twos during the over , but Yardley did not resort to the tactic of setting a deep field to yield a single to Lindwall to get Toshack on strike . Despite Toshack and Johnston 's lack of familiarity with having and acting as a runner respectively , and the resulting disorders in running between the wickets , Lindwall was able to manipulate the strike so that he faced most of the balls . On the next morning of play , Toshack did not add to his score before Lindwall was dismissed and Australia ended at 458 in the third over of the day , leaving the tourists 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Toshack did not bowl in the second innings as England made 8 / 365 and set Australia a target of 404 for victory on the last day . Australia achieved the runs with seven wickets in hand , setting a new world record for the highest successful run @-@ chase in Tests .
After the injury at Headingley , Toshack was out of action for two weeks , missing the matches against Derbyshire , Glamorgan and Warwickshire . These fixtures ended in an innings victory , a rain @-@ affected draw and a nine @-@ wicket win respectively . He returned against Lancashire and scored two in Australia 's 321 . He then bowled seven overs in the first innings , taking 0 / 17 . He aggravated his injury and did not bowl in the second innings and did not play again for the tour . As a result , Toshack missed the last Test and eight further tour matches , three of which were not first @-@ class . Australia won the Fifth Test by an innings in Toshack 's absence to win the series 4 – 0 , and proceeded through the remaining tour matches undefeated .
= = Role = =
A left @-@ arm medium @-@ pace seamer , Toshack was a member of Bradman 's first @-@ choice team and he played in the first four Tests before being struck down by a persistent knee injury . Toshack contained the English batsmen using leg theory in between the new ball bursts of Miller and Lindwall , usually bowling second change after Miller , Lindwall and Johnston . The English press decried Toshack 's style of bowling as negative , but Jack Fingleton said that " he is generally so close to the stumps that nearly every ball has to be played " .
During the Tests , Toshack took 11 wickets at 33 @.@ 09 ; his most notable performance was his 5 / 40 in the second innings of the Second Test at Lord 's . Of the four frontline pacemen , Toshack had the second best economy rate , although with his leg stump bowling , he also had a strike rate of 94 @.@ 45 , while the other three fast bowlers all had strike rates below 70 . It was a similar tale in the first @-@ class statistics , with the second best economy among the seven frontline bowlers , but the worst strike rate . For the entire tour , Toshack took 50 wickets at 21 @.@ 12 with four five @-@ wicket innings hauls , including a best of 7 / 81 against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane . He also took 6 / 51 in the first innings of the match against the Marylebone Cricket Club , which was almost entirely represented by English Test cricketers . Toshack took two catches on tour , none of them in the Tests .
An inept batsman with an average of 5 @.@ 78 in his first @-@ class career , Toshack managed a Test average of 51 @.@ 00 on the 1948 tour after being dismissed only once , behind only Arthur Morris , Sid Barnes , Bradman and Neil Harvey . The unbeaten 20 he managed in the Lord 's Test was his best first @-@ class score , made in a freewheeling tenth @-@ wicket stand with Johnston .
During the tour , Toshack had few opportunities with the bat , invariably being placed at either No. 10 and No. 11 in the order alongside Johnston , another tailender with little batting ability.N- Neither player ever passed 30 in their career , and they were the only two players who failed to make a half @-@ century during the tour . As Australia 's other specialist bowlers were Lindwall , McCool , Johnson and Doug Ring , all of whom made centuries and more than 18 fifties each during their first @-@ class career , Toshack and Johnston were invariably rooted at the bottom of the order . As Australia often won by an innings , and declared in the first innings many times due to their batting strength , Toshack only had 12 innings in his 15 first @-@ class fixtures , never batted in the second innings , and scored 78 runs at 8 @.@ 66 . Of the 78 runs , 51 came from four Test innings in Toshack 's four Tests .
Due to the fragility of his knee , Toshack was used sparingly in the tour games , playing in only 11 of the 29 non @-@ Test matches on the tour , the least of any player . Toshack was unable to play in the last nine matches of the tour , having injured himself in the second match against Lancashire .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
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= Sexy ! No No No ... =
" Sexy ! No No No ... " is a song by British girl group Girls Aloud from their fourth studio album , Tangled Up ( 2007 ) . In 2007 , the group announced that they would release a new album , due in November of that year . In July 2007 , it was announced that " Sexy ! No No No ... " , due to be released in September , would be as the first single from Tangled Up , with a radio premiere scheduled for 20 July . The track leaked a few hours prior to the premiere . " Sexy ! No No No ... " was written by Girls Aloud and Xenomania , and is an electropunk song that incorporates a sample of Nazareth 's 1975 song " Hair of the Dog " , for which they received a writing credit . Composed of three songs welded together , the song avoids the verse @-@ chorus form present in most contemporary pop music .
" Sexy ! No No No ... " received generally favourable reviews from music critics , and peaked at number 5 on the UK Singles Chart , continuing the band 's string of hits by becoming their fifteenth consecutive single to chart within the top ten . The song also peaked at number 11 on the Irish Singles Chart . The accompanying music video was directed by Trudy Bellinger , and features the group singing and dancing through pins and wires in black PVC catsuits and red dresses . To promote the song , Girls Aloud performed " Sexy ! No No No ... " at Dance X , ITV1 special Saturday Night Divas and T4 on the Beach . The track was also included in three of the group 's concert tours , 2008 's Tangled Up Tour , 2009 's Out of Control Tour and 2013 's Ten : The Hits Tour .
= = Background and release = =
In 2007 , the group announced that they would release a new album in November of that year . The production and songwriting began with producer Brian Higgins meeting each member of the group individually , and discussing their life since the release of Chemistry ( 2005 ) . Higgins took inspiration from these discussions in his songwriting , with bandmate Nicola Roberts explaining that " it 's important he 's up to date with where we are . Our songs have to reflect us so that 's why we do it . " " Sexy ! No No No ... " was then written by Girls Aloud with production team Xenomania . Roberts , Cheryl Cole , Sarah Harding and Kimberley Walsh recorded vocals for the song in London , England , while Nadine Coyle recorded her vocals in Los Angeles , California . In July 2007 , Girls Aloud announced that they would release " Sexy ! No No No ... " , as the first single from Tangled Up , in September 2007 . The radio premiere of the song was scheduled for the morning of 20 July 2007 on BBC Radio 1 , however , it leaked in full online earlier the same day at 02 : 21 GMT . " Sexy ! No No No ... " was released for digital download on 31 August 2007 , while it was also made available on two different CD single formats on 3 September 2007 . The first disc included a live version of " Something Kinda Ooooh " ( 2006 ) , recorded at the Bournemouth International Centre . The second CD format featured Tony Lamezma 's " Yes Yes Yes " Mix of " Sexy ! No No No ... " and also a new track as a b @-@ side , entitled " Dog Without a Bone " . The b @-@ side was originally written in 2006 in an attempt to come up with a lead single for the group 's first compilation album , The Sound of Girls Aloud : The Greatest Hits , however , " Something Kinda Ooooh " was released instead . " Dog Without a Bone " was Popjustice 's song of the day on 20 August 2007 .
= = Composition = =
" Sexy ! No No No ... " is an electropunk song , which consists of three songs welded together , according to journalist Peter Robinson : one with a samba rhythm , one with a sped @-@ up sample and a breakbeat , and an intro from elsewhere . The track opens with Cole singing over a " spooky " instrumentation . Her vocals have been vocodered and she sings " Cause I 've been sitting back , no chance of falling / Hoping that nothing ever blows , no no / Boy , did you ever think that loving would be / Nothing more than walking me home , no no " . As the chorus begins , the song incorporates a sample from Scottish rock band Nazareth 's 1975 track " Hair of the Dog " , and the group starts singing , " Did you tell him ? No no no / Give him kisses ? No no no / Whisper honey ? No no no / You 're delicious ? Hell no " . John Murphy of musicOMH noted that " Sexy ! No No No .. " is not " structured like a proper pop song - there 's no verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse " . The instrumentation of " Sexy ! No No No ... " is composed of multi @-@ layered guitar riffs and " euphoric woo woo @-@ oo harmonies " , while the song 's structure follows as introduction , chorus , chorus , verse , bridge , chorus , middle eight , verse . A Newsround reviewer described the lyrical content , saying that Girls Aloud are " trying a different approach to getting the guy " , in that " instead of being ' sexy ' , they 've backed off . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Sexy ! No No No ... " received positive reviews from music critics . John Lucas of Allmusic described the " pounding electro @-@ punk number " as " one of the most daring songs they 've yet released , " while a reviewer for Newsround deemed it " yet another sample of their perfect pop : bold , sassy , slightly loopy and unbelievably catchy . " Fraser McAlpine of BBC thought that " Sexy ! No No No ... " is " kinda dumb , kinda sassy , kinda pumping and kinda ' what on EARTH is THAT ? ' , just like all the best Aloud anthems are " , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy rated it four out of five stars , noting that Xenomania sacrificed the " conventional song structure in the name of keeping those hooks coming thick and fast - and quite right too . " Levine also praised Girls Aloud for restyling themselves " as teasing minxes , claiming that they 've ' dropped their d @-@ d @-@ dirty style ' " . Lauren Murphy of Entertainment.ie said that " Sexy ! No No No ... " was a " stellar single " , describing it as an " ' 80s @-@ flavoured radio hit " , while Matt O 'Leary of Virgin Media stated that the song " slam [ s ] home the power @-@ pop message we 're used to [ from Girls Aloud ] . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Because it was available to download one week prior to the release of the CD single , " Sexy ! No No No ... " debuted at number 64 on the UK Singles Chart , based solely on digital downloads . The following week , the single reached a new peak at number five , continuing Girls Aloud 's string of hits by becoming their fifteenth consecutive single to chart within the top ten . It spent a total of ten weeks on the top 40 , and is among fifteen best @-@ selling singles by the group . On the week ending 22 September 2007 , " Sexy ! No No No ... " debuted at number 11 on the Euro Digital Chart compiled by Billboard . The track peaked at the same position on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
In an appearance on RTÉ One 's Saturday Night with Miriam on 14 July 2007 , Coyle announced that Girls Aloud were not splitting up , and that the group would film a new music video the following week . On 7 August 2007 , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes pictures of the accompanying music video were published by Daily Mail . The music video was directed by Trudy Bellinger , and premiered on 13 August 2007 . It opens with Cole then singing the introduction , as she and the group are seen wearing PVC catsuits while standing in front of a red material . The material is being used by a seamstress who is starting work on a dress . As the chorus begins , the camera zooms out to show the girls wearing giant inflatable red dresses . The seamstress starts putting large pins into her dress , poking their way around the girls , until the pins start tearing into their dresses . The pins tear the dresses off , and the girls are back in their catsuits , surrounded by the threads of their dresses . Journalist Peter Robinson deemed the video " iconic " and " stylish " .
= = Live performances = =
Girls Aloud first performed " Sexy ! No No No ... " at the T4 on the Beach special on 22 July 2007 . The group also performed it at Dance X on 18 August 2007 , at ITV1 special Saturday Night Divas on 3 November 2007 , and at the V Festival in 2008 . The same year , " Sexy ! No No No ... " served as the introduction for the Tangled Up Tour . During the first part of the performance , the girls were suspended on wires as they hovered in the air in black cloaks . As the song 's chorus began , Girls Aloud removed their cloaks to reveal stage outfits designed by Julien Macdonald . For 2009 's Out of Control Tour , " Sexy ! No No No ... " was remixed with parts of " Disturbia " by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . In 2013 , the song was performed during the second act of the Ten : The Hits Tour .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Sexy ! No No No ... " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Guitar – Nick Coler , Owen Parker
Keyboard – Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Toby Scott
Mastering – Dick Beetham for 360 Mastering
Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley
Production – Brian Higgins , Xenomania
Programming – Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Toby Scott
Songwriting – Girls Aloud , Nazareth , Xenomania
Contains a sample of " Hair of the Dog " by Nazareth ( Dan McCafferty , Darrell Sweet , Manny Charlton , Pete Agnew )
Vocals - Girls Aloud
Published by Warner / Chappell Music and Xenomania Music
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Tangled Up .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Flowing Hair dollar =
The Flowing Hair dollar was the first dollar coin issued by the United States federal government . The coin was minted in 1794 and 1795 ; its size and weight were based on the Spanish dollar , which was popular in trade throughout the Americas .
In 1791 , following a study by Alexander Hamilton , Congress passed a joint resolution calling for the establishment of a national mint . Later that year , in his third State of the Union address , President George Washington urged Congress to provide for a mint , which was officially authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792 . Despite the authorization , silver and gold coins were not struck until 1794 . The Flowing Hair dollar , designed by Robert Scot , was initially produced in 1794 , and again in 1795 . In October 1795 the design was replaced by the Draped Bust dollar .
On January 24 , 2013 , a specimen striking from the 1794 production sold for $ 10 @,@ 016 @,@ 875 , the highest price ever paid for a coin .
= = Background = =
Beginning in the 1780s , a number of prominent Americans called for the establishment of a central mint to supply the United States with official coinage ; all such proposals failed due in large part to lack of funds and opposition from individuals and groups who preferred that coins be struck by the individual states . Since there were no federal coins issued , the needs of the states were fulfilled by a variety of domestic and foreign coins and tokens , including Spanish eight @-@ real coins ( popularly known as Spanish dollars or pieces of eight ) .
In 1789 , the United States Constitution , which granted Congress the power " to coin Money , regulate the Value thereof , and of foreign Coin , and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures " , was ratified and came into force . The following year , Congress began deliberating on the state of the nation 's monetary system and coinage . On January 28 , 1791 , Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton presented a report to Congress detailing the findings of a study he had conducted on the monetary system and the potential of a United States mint . As part of his study , Hamilton had a series of assay tests of Spanish dollars performed , as that was the coin upon which the United States monetary system would be based . After viewing the results , the secretary recommended that the silver content of the United States dollar be based on the average silver content of the reales tested . Hamilton 's recommendation was that the dollar should contain 371 @.@ 25 grains of silver and have a gross weight of 416 grains , the balance being copper . On March 3 , 1791 , after reviewing Hamilton 's report , Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing a federal mint ; the resolution , however , gave no specifics or appropriations .
= = = Establishment of the Mint = = =
In his third annual address to Congress , later known as the State of the Union address , delivered on October 25 , 1791 , in Philadelphia , President George Washington urged members of Congress to put the joint resolution approved earlier that year into immediate effect :
The disorders in the existing currency , and especially the scarcity of small change , a scarcity so peculiarly distressing to the poorer classes , strongly recommend the carrying into immediate effect the resolution already entered into concerning the establishment of a mint . Measures have been taken pursuant to that resolution for procuring some of the most necessary artists , together with the requisite apparatus .
In response , the Senate appointed a committee chaired by Robert Morris to draft the necessary specifications and legislation that would officially create a federal mint and coinage . The committee presented a bill before Congress on December 21 , 1791 , which stated in part that the new dollar coin ( which was to form the basis of the United States monetary system ) should contain 371 grains of silver and a total weight of 416 grains , as Hamilton had earlier recommended . The new silver coins were to be struck in an alloy containing 1 @,@ 485 parts out of 1 @,@ 664 ( about 89 @.@ 24 percent ) fine silver , with the remainder copper , intended to equal the silver in Spanish dollars . However , an assay of the Spanish dollars was in error — they were in fact 65 / 72 silver ( about 90 @.@ 28 percent ) with the remainder copper .
One provision in Morris ' legislation called for President Washington to be depicted on the obverse side of every coin struck by the new mint . The bill passed the Senate after debate , but it was altered in the House of Representatives to instead call for the head of an allegorical figure representing Liberty to appear . Upon returning to the Senate , the upper house insisted on its version of the design provision . The House rejected the provision for the second time and passed another version of the bill , after which the Senate concurred . The law , known as the Coinage Act of 1792 , was signed into law on April 2 , 1792 , by President Washington . The Act provided for the creation of the United States Mint , and appropriated money to meet the cost of construction of an appropriate facility , and for salaries for employees and officials . The denominations sanctioned under the Act were half cents , cents , half dismes , dismes , quarter dollars , half dollars , dollars , quarter eagles , half eagles and eagles . On July 31 , 1792 , the foundation stone of the Philadelphia Mint was laid by newly appointed Mint Director David Rittenhouse . Machinery and personnel began occupying the new building by September 1792 , and production began on cents in February 1793 . In the first year of production at the Mint , only copper coins were minted , as the prospective assayer could not raise the required $ 10 @,@ 000 surety to officially assume the position ; the 1792 Coinage Act stated that both the chief coiner and assayer were to " become bound to the United States of America , with one or more sureties to the satisfaction of the Secretary of the Treasury , in the sum of ten thousand dollars " . Later that year , Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson appealed to Congress that the amount of the bonds be lowered . On March 3 , 1794 , Congress lowered the bonds to $ 5 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 for chief coiner and assayer , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Design creation = = =
Early in 1794 , engraver Robert Scot began preparing designs for the silver dollar . Scot 's initial design depicted a bust of Liberty , while his reverse featured an eagle , both required by the 1792 Coinage Act . Scot 's design closely followed his design for the cent , but with the Phrygian cap removed . Government officials later instructed Scot to include a wreath around the eagle and to move the denomination from the reverse face to the edge of the coin . After receiving approval , Scot began engraving the hubs for the new silver dollar . Extra care was taken during the engraving of this denomination , because the dollar would be the largest American coin , and would thus receive the most scrutiny from foreign nations . The lettering was executed by Frederick Geiger , who had worked as a typographer for various books and newspapers . After the dies were created , several copper test pieces were struck . Officials decided to add fifteen stars around the periphery , representing the fifteen states that had ratified the Constitution to that point , to the right @-@ facing Liberty on the obverse .
= = = Minting = = =
Now that mintage of the silver denominations could begin , the Mint began seeking depositors to bring in silver and gold bullion to be coined . After receiving several deposits , assayer Albion Cox notified Rittenhouse of his beliefs that the .892 standard approved for silver coinage was difficult to produce and that it would darken if put into circulation . Instead , Cox recommended that the purity be modified to .900 fine , but also that the weight be kept at 416 grains . This meant that the new alloy was contrary to statute and that all depositors would be overcharged for their silver bullion deposits , as there was a higher silver content in the coins than was allowed by the Coinage Act of 1792 . The Mint 's action cost suppliers of silver about one percent of their deposit ; the largest depositor , John Vaughan , reckoned his loss at $ 2 @,@ 260 . Congress approved his petition for reimbursement in 1800 , after several delays .
Before the coins could be struck , the edge lettering and devices had to be impressed on the edge of the planchets . This action was performed with a device known as the Castaing machine ; the machine stamped the edge with the words " Hundred Cents One Dollar or Unit " along with ornamentation . As production was inexact , many planchets intended for silver dollars were overweight . This was remedied by filing the face of the planchets ; for this reason , the coins vary in weight more dramatically than later issues , which were minted with more precise equipment .
The first silver dollars were struck on October 15 , 1794 . The silver used for the 1794 dollar coins came from part of a large quantity of French billon coins deposited by the Bank of Maryland ; as they were of a lower fineness than required , refining was necessary . In total , 1 @,@ 758 acceptable silver dollars were produced in 1794 . Those which were deemed unsuitable for circulation were either melted or restruck in 1795 . The 1 @,@ 758 coins that were officially delivered by Chief Coiner Henry Voight , though acceptable , struck poorly due to the press that was used during early production at the Mint , which was a man @-@ powered screw press intended for use on coins no larger than a half dollar .
All acceptable 1794 dollars were paid to Rittenhouse . In an attempt to help circulate the coins , Rittenhouse spent many of the new coins and traded them for foreign coins to market the new products of the Mint . Others were distributed to VIPs and distinguished visitors to the Mint . After the initial production , Rittenhouse ordered all dollar coin production to end until Mint personnel could build a more powerful press that would be capable of better striking the coins . The New Hampshire Gazette wrote of the new dollar coins on December 2 , 1794 @,@
Some of the new dollars now coining at the Mint of the United States have found their way to this town . A correspondent put one in into the editor 's hands yesterday . Its weight is equal to that of a Spanish dollar , but the metal appears finer ... The tout ensemble ( entire design ) has a pleasing effect to a connoisseur , but the touches of the [ en ] graver are too delicate , and there is a want of that boldness of execution which is necessary to durability and currency .
The new coinage press was completed in early 1795 , and the first group of dollars , totalling 3 @,@ 810 coins , was delivered on May 6 . The coins struck on May 8 may have borne a 1794 date . A number of 1795 dollars ( along with one 1794 issue ) are known to have been struck with a silver plug set into the center , measuring approximately 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) . It is believed that this was done to correct the weight of underweight planchets . The total mintage for the second and final year of production is estimated at 160 @,@ 295 . In total , 203 @,@ 033 silver dollars were struck in 1795 , but it is unknown exactly how many of those were of the Flowing Hair type , as the Draped Bust dollar succeeded it in October 1795 ; the Draped Bust dollar was designed by portraitist Gilbert Stuart at the behest of Rittenhouse 's successor as Mint Director , Henry DeSaussure .
= = Collecting = =
Throughout its history , the 1794 dollar has widely been considered one of the rarest and most valuable of all United States coins . In a September 1880 issue of The Coin Journal , the author noted that a good quality specimen of the 1794 dollar was valued at fifty dollars . In the early 1990s , numismatic historian Jack Collins estimated the surviving number of the coins to be between 120 and 130 . In 2013 , the finest known example , which was among the earliest coins struck and was prepared with special care , was sold at auction for $ 10 @,@ 016 @,@ 875 , the highest selling price of any coin in history . The dollar was graded Specimen @-@ 66 by the Professional Coin Grading Service , noting the special conditions under which it was struck . The coin , which had previously been owned by Colonel E.H.R. Green , was sold by Stack 's Bowers Galleries in a public auction in January 2013 . It was previously sold in 2010 for what was then a record sum of $ 7 @.@ 85 million , to the Cardinal Collection Educational Foundation . Steven Contursi , a former owner of the coin , said that it was a " national treasure " and that he was proud to have been its " custodian " from 2003 until its sale in 2010 . Martin Logies , representative of the foundation that purchased the coin , said that of all the rarities he had seen , he believed that one was the " single most important of all " .
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= Castles in Great Britain and Ireland =
Castles have played an important military , economic and social role in Great Britain and Ireland since their introduction following the Norman invasion of England in 1066 . Although a small number of castles had been built in England in the 1050s the Normans began to build motte and bailey and ringworks castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories in England and the Welsh Marches . During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone , with characteristic square keeps that played both military and political roles . Royal castles were used to control key towns and the economically important forests , while baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates . David I invited Anglo @-@ Norman lords into Scotland in the early 12th century to help him colonise and control areas of his kingdom such as Galloway ; the new lords brought castle technologies with them and wooden castles began to be established over the south of the kingdom . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland in the 1170s , under Henry II , castles were established there too .
Castles continued to grow in military sophistication and comfort during the 12th century , leading to a sharp increase in the complexity and length of sieges in England . While in Ireland and Wales castle architecture continued to follow that of England , after the death of Alexander III the trend in Scotland moved away from the construction of larger castles towards the use of smaller tower houses . The tower house style would also be adopted in the north of England and Ireland in later years . In North Wales Edward I built a sequence of militarily powerful castles after the destruction of the last Welsh polities in the 1270s . By the 14th century castles were combining defences with luxurious , sophisticated living arrangements and heavily landscaped gardens and parks .
Many royal and baronial castles were left to decline , so that by the 15th century only a few were maintained for defensive purposes . A small number of castles in England and Scotland were developed into Renaissance Era palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid their elaborate architecture . Such structures were , however , beyond the means of all but royalty and the richest of the late @-@ medieval barons . Although gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles from the late 14th century onwards it became clear during the 16th century that , provided artillery could be transported and brought to bear on a besieged castle , gunpowder weapons could also play an important attack role . The defences of coastal castles around the British Isles were improved to deal with this threat , but investment in their upkeep once again declined at the end of the 16th century . Nevertheless , in the widespread civil and religious conflicts across the British Isles during the 1640s and 1650s , castles played a key role in England . Modern defences were quickly built alongside existing medieval fortifications and , in many cases , castles successfully withstood more than one siege . In Ireland the introduction of heavy siege artillery by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 brought a rapid end to the utility of castles in the war , while in Scotland the popular tower houses proved unsuitable for defending against civil war artillery – although major castles such as Edinburgh put up strong resistance . At the end of the war many castles were slighted to prevent future use .
Military use of castles rapidly decreased over subsequent years , although some were adapted for use by garrisons in Scotland and key border locations for many years to come , including during the Second World War . Other castles were used as county jails , until parliamentary legislation in the 19th closed most of them down . For a period in the early 18th century , castles were shunned in favour of Palladian architecture , until they re @-@ emerged as an important cultural and social feature of England , Wales and Scotland and were frequently " improved " during the 18th and 19th centuries . Such renovations raised concerns over their protection so that today castles across the British Isles are safeguarded by legislation . Primarily used as tourist attractions , castles form a key part of the national heritage industry . Historians and archaeologists continue to develop our understanding of British castles , while vigorous academic debates in recent years have questioned the interpretation of physical and documentary material surrounding their original construction and use .
= = Norman Invasion = =
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxon fortifications = = =
The English word " castle " derives from the Latin word castellum and is used to refer to the private fortified residence of a lord or noble . The presence of castles in Britain and Ireland dates primarily from the Norman invasion of 1066 . Before the arrival of the Normans the Anglo @-@ Saxons had built burhs , fortified structures with their origins in 9th @-@ century Wessex . Most of these , especially in urban areas , were large enough to be best described as fortified townships rather than private dwellings and are therefore not usually classed as castles . Rural burhs were smaller and usually consisted of a wooden hall with a wall enclosing various domestic buildings along with an entrance tower called a burh @-@ geat , which was apparently used for ceremonial purposes . Although rural burhs were relatively secure their role was primarily ceremonial and they too are not normally classed as castles . There were , however , a small number of castles which were built in England during the 1050s , probably by Norman knights in the service of Edward the Confessor . These include Hereford , Clavering , Richard 's Castle and possibly Ewyas Harold Castle and Dover .
= = = Invasion = = =
William , Duke of Normandy , invaded England in 1066 and one of his first actions after landing was to build Hastings Castle to protect his supply routes . Following their victory at the battle of Hastings the Normans began three phases of castle building . The first of these was the establishment , by the new king , of a number of royal castles in key strategic locations . This royal castle programme focused on controlling the towns and cities of England and the associated lines of communication , including Cambridge , Huntingdon , Lincoln , Norwich , Nottingham , Warwick and York . Of the castles built by William the Conqueror two @-@ thirds were built in towns and cities , often those with the former Anglo @-@ Saxon mints . These urban castles could make use of the existing town 's walls and fortifications , but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them . This could cause extensive damage , and records suggest that in Lincoln 166 houses were destroyed , with 113 in Norwich and 27 in Cambridge . Some of these castles were deliberately built on top of important local buildings , such as the burhs or halls of local nobles , and might be constructed so as to imitate aspects of the previous buildings – such as the gatehouse at Rougemont Castle in Exeter , which closely resembled the previous Anglo @-@ Saxon burh tower – this was probably done to demonstrate to the local population that they now answered to their new Norman rulers .
The second and third waves of castle building were led by the major magnates , and then by the more junior knights on their new estates . The apportionment of the conquered lands by the king influenced where these castles were built . In a few key locations the king gave his followers compact groups of estates including the six rapes of Sussex and the three earldoms of Chester , Shrewsbury and Hereford ; intended to protect the line of communication with Normandy and the Welsh border respectively . In these areas a baron 's castles were clustered relatively tightly together , but in most of England the nobles ' estates , and therefore their castles , were more widely dispersed . As the Normans pushed on into South Wales they advanced up the valleys building castles as they went and often using the larger castles of the neighbouring earldoms as a base .
As a result , castle building by the Norman nobility across England and the Marches lacked a grand strategic plan , reflecting local circumstances such as military factors and the layout of existing estates and church lands . Castles were often situated along the old Roman roads that still formed the backbone for travel across the country , both to control the lines of communication and to ensure easy movement between different estates . Many castles were built close to inland river ports and those built on the coast were usually located at the mouths of rivers or in ports , Pevensey and Portchester being rare exceptions . Some groups of castles were located so as to be mutually reinforcing – for example the castles of Littledean Camp , Glasshouse Woods and Howle Hill Camp were intended to act as an integrated defence for the area around Gloucester and Gloucester Castle for Gloucester city itself , while Windsor was one of a ring of castles built around London , each approximately a day 's march apart . Some regional patterns in castle building can also be seen – relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the Marches ; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of available serfs , or unfree labour .
Not all of the castles were occupied simultaneously . Some were built during the invasions and then abandoned while other new castles were constructed elsewhere , especially along the western borders . Recent estimates suggest that between 500 and 600 castles were occupied at any one time in the post @-@ conquest period .
= = = Architecture = = =
There was a large degree of variation in the size and exact shape of the castles built in England and Wales after the invasion . One popular form of castle was the motte and bailey , in which earth would be piled up into a mound ( called a motte ) to support a wooden tower , and a wider enclosed area built alongside it ( called a bailey ) ; Stafford Castle is a typical example of a post @-@ invasion motte castle . Another widespread design was the ringwork in which earth would be built up in a circular or oval shape and topped with a wooden rampart ; Folkestone Castle is a good example of a Norman ringwork , in this case built on top of a hill although most post @-@ invasion castles were usually sited on lower ground . Around 80 % of Norman castles in this period followed the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey pattern , but ringworks were particularly popular in certain areas , such as south @-@ west England and south Wales . One theory put forward to explain this variation is that ringworks were easier to build in these shallow @-@ soil areas than the larger mottes .
The White Tower in London and the keep of Colchester Castle were the only stone castles to be built in England immediately after the conquest , both with the characteristic square Norman keep . Both these castles were built in the Romanesque style and were intended to impress as well as provide military protection . In Wales the first wave of the Norman castles were again made of wood , in a mixture of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey and ringwork designs , with the exception of the stone built Chepstow Castle . Chepstow too was heavily influenced by Romanesque design , reusing numerous materials from the nearby Venta Silurum to produce what historian Robert Liddiard has termed " a play upon images from Antiquity " .
The size of these castles varied depending on the geography of the site , the decisions of the builder and the available resources . Analysis of the size of mottes has shown some distinctive regional variation ; East Anglia , for example , saw much larger mottes being built than the Midlands or London. while motte @-@ and @-@ bailey and ringwork castles took great effort to build , they required relatively few skilled craftsmen allowing them to be raised using forced labour from the local estates ; this , in addition to the speed with which they could be built – a single season , made them particularly attractive immediately after the conquest . The larger earthworks , particularly mottes , required an exponentially greater quantity of manpower than their smaller equivalents and consequently tended to be either royal , or belong to the most powerful barons who could muster the required construction effort . Despite motte @-@ and @-@ bailey and ringworks being common designs amongst Norman castles , each fortification was slightly different – some castles were designed with two baileys attached to a single motte , and some ringworks were built with additional towers added on ; yet other castles were built as ringworks and later converted to motte @-@ and @-@ bailey structures .
= = 12th century = =
= = = Developments in castle design = = =
From the early 12th century onwards the Normans began to build new castles in stone and convert existing timber designs . This was initially a slow process , picking up speed towards the second half of the century . Traditionally this transition was believed to have been driven by the more crude nature of wooden fortifications , the limited life of timber in wooden castles and its vulnerability to fire ; recent archaeological studies have however shown that many wooden castles were as robust and as complex as their stone equivalents . Some wooden castles were not converted into stone for many years and instead expanded in wood , such as at Hen Domen .
Several early stone keeps had been built after the conquest , with somewhere between ten and fifteen in existence by 1100 , and more followed in the 12th century until around 100 had been built by 1216 . Typically these were four sided designs with the corners reinforced by pilaster buttresses . Keeps were up to four storeys high , with the entrance on the first storey to prevent the door from being easily broken down . The strength of the design typically came from the thickness of the walls : usually made of rag @-@ stone , as in the case of Dover Castle , these walls could be up to 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 metres ) thick . The larger keeps were subdivided by an internal wall while the smaller versions , such as that at Goodrich , had a single , slightly cramped chamber on each floor . Stone keeps required skilled craftsmen to build them ; unlike unfree labour or serfs , these men had to be paid and stone keeps were therefore expensive . They were also relatively slow to erect – a keep 's walls could usually only be raised by a maximum of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 metres ) a year , the keep at Scarborough was typical in taking ten years to build .
Norman stone keeps played both a military and a political role . Most of the keeps were physically extremely robust and , while they were not designed as an intended location for the final defence of a castle , they were often placed near weak points in the walls to provide supporting fire . Many keeps made compromises to purely military utility : Norwich Castle included elaborate blind arcading on the outside of the building , in a Roman style , and appears to had a ceremonial entrance route ; The interior of the keep at Hedingham could have hosted impressive ceremonies and events , but contained numerous flaws from a military perspective . Similarly there has been extensive debate over the role of Orford Castle whose expensive , three @-@ cornered design most closely echoes imperial Byzantine palaces and may have been intended by Henry II to be more symbolic than military in nature .
Another improvement from the 12th century onwards was the creation of shell keeps , involving replacing the wooden keep on the motte with a circular stone wall . Buildings could be built around the inside of the shell , producing a small inner courtyard . Restormel Castle is a classic example of this development with a perfectly circular wall and a square entrance tower while the later Launceston Castle , although more ovoid than circular , is another good example of the design and one of the most formidable castles of the period . Round castles were unusually popular throughout Cornwall and Devon . Although the circular design held military advantages , these only really mattered in the 13th century onwards ; the origins of 12th @-@ century circular design were the circular design of the mottes ; indeed , some designs were less than circular in order to accommodate irregular mottes , such as that at Windsor Castle .
= = = Economy and society = = =
English castles during the period were divided into those royal castles owned by the king , and baronial castles controlled by the Anglo @-@ Norman lords . According to chronicler William of Newburgh royal castles formed the " bones of the kingdom " . A number of royal castles were also designated as shrieval castles , forming the administrative hub for a particular county – for example Winchester Castle served as the centre of Hampshire . These castles formed a base for the royal sheriff , responsible for enforcing royal justice in the relevant shire ; the role of the sheriff became stronger and clearer as the century progressed .
A number of royal castles were linked to forests and other key resources . Royal forests in the early medieval period were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was , as historian Robert Huscroft describes it , " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " and forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds , raw materials , goods and money . Forests were typically tied to castles , both to assist with the enforcement of the law and to store the goods being extracted from the local economy : Peveril Castle was linked to the Peak Forest and the local lead mining there ; St Briavels was tied to the Forest of Dean ; and Knaresborough , Rockingham and Pickering to their eponymous forests respectively . In the south @-@ west , where the Crown oversaw the lead mining industry , castles such as Restormel played an important role running the local stannery courts .
Baronial castles were of varying size and sophistication ; some were classed as a caput , or the key stronghold of a given lord , and were usually larger and better fortified than the norm and usually held the local baronial honorial courts . The king continued to exercise the right to occupy and use any castle in the kingdom in response to external threats , in those cases he would staff the occupied castles with his own men ; the king also retained the right to authorise the construction of new castles through the issuing of licenses to crenellate . It was possible for bishops to build or control castles , such as the important Devizes Castle linked to the Bishop of Salisbury , although this practice was challenged on occasion . In the 12th century the practice of castle @-@ guards emerged in England and Wales , under which lands were assigned to local lords on condition that the recipient provided a certain number of knights or sergeants for the defence of a named castle . In some cases , such as at Dover , this arrangement became quite sophisticated with particular castle towers being named after particular families owing castle @-@ guard duty .
The links between castles and the surrounding lands and estates was particularly important during this period . Many castles , both royal and baronial , had deer parks or chases attached to them for the purposes of hunting . These usually stretched away from the village or borough associated with the castle , but occasionally a castle was placed in the centre of a park , such as at Sandal .
= = = The Anarchy = = =
Civil war broke out in England and raged between 1139 and 1153 , forming a turbulent period in which the rival factions of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda struggled for power . Open battles were relatively rare during the war , with campaigns instead centred on a sequence of raids and sieges as commanders attempted to gain control over the vital castles that controlled the territory in the rival regions . Siege technology during the Anarchy centred on basic stone @-@ throwing machines such as ballistae and mangonels , supported by siege towers and mining , combined with blockade and , occasionally , direct assault . The phase of the conflict known as " the Castle War " saw both sides attempting to defeat each other through sieges , such as Stephen 's attempts to take Wallingford , the most easterly fortress in Matilda 's push towards London , or Geoffrey de Mandeville 's attempts to seize East Anglia by taking Cambridge Castle .
Both sides responded to the challenge of the conflict by building many new castles , sometimes as sets of strategic fortifications . In the south @-@ west Matilda 's supporters built a range of castles to protect the territory , usually motte and bailey designs such as those at Winchcombe , Upper Slaughter , or Bampton . Similarly , Stephen built a new chain of fen @-@ edge castles at Burwell , Lidgate , Rampton , Caxton , and Swavesey – all about six to nine miles ( ten to fifteen km ) apart – in order to protect his lands around Cambridge . Many of these castles were termed " adulterine " ( unauthorised ) , because no formal permission was given for their construction . Contemporary chroniclers saw this as a matter of concern ; Robert of Torigny suggested that as many as 1 @,@ 115 such castles had been built during the conflict , although this was probably an exaggeration as elsewhere he suggests an alternative figure of 126 . Another feature of the war was the creation of many " counter @-@ castles " . These had been used in English conflicts for several years before the civil war and involved building a basic castle during a siege , alongside the main target of attack . Typically these would be built in either a ringwork or a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design between 200 and 300 yards ( 180 and 270 metres ) away from the target , just beyond the range of a bow . Counter @-@ castles could be used to either act as firing platforms for siege weaponry , or as bases for controlling the region in their own right . Most counter @-@ castles were destroyed after their use but in some cases the earthworks survived , such as the counter @-@ castles called Jew 's Mount and Mount Pelham built by Stephen in 1141 outside Oxford Castle .
Matilda 's son Henry II assumed the throne at the end of the war and immediately announced his intention to eliminate the adulterine castles that had sprung up during the war , but it is unclear how successful this effort was . Robert of Torigny recorded that 375 were destroyed , without giving the details behind the figure ; recent studies of selected regions have suggested that fewer castles were probably destroyed than once thought and that many may simply have been abandoned at the end of the conflict . Certainly many of the new castles were transitory in nature : Historian Oliver Creighton observes that 56 % of those castles known to have been built during Stephen 's reign have " entirely vanished " .
= = = The spread of castles in Scotland , Wales and Ireland = = =
Castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century . Prior to the 1120s there is very little evidence of castles having existed in Scotland , which had remained less politically centralised than in England with the north still ruled by the kings of Norway . David I of Scotland spent time at the court of Henry I in the south , until he became the Earl of Huntingdon , and returned to Scotland with the intention of extending royal power across the country and modernising Scotland 's military technology , including the introduction of castles . The Scottish king encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland , introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands . The quasi @-@ independent polity of Galloway , which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors , was a particular focus for this colonisation . The size of these Scottish castles , primarily wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , varied considerably from larger designs , such as the Bass of Inverurie , to smaller castles like Balmaclellan . As historian Lise Hull has suggested , the creation of castles in Scotland was " less to do with conquest " and more to do with " establishing a governing system " .
The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century , but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers . In response the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles , usually in wood . There are indications that this may have begun from 1111 onwards under Prince Cadwgan ap Bleddyn with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at Cymmer in 1116 . These timber castles , including Tomen y Rhodwydd , Tomen y Faerdre and Gaer Penrhôs , were of equivalent quality to the Norman fortifications in the area and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone . At the end of the 12th century the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone , primarily in the principality of North Wales .
Ireland remained ruled by native kings into the 12th century , largely without the use of castles . There was a history of Irish fortifications called ráths , a type of ringfort , some of which were very heavily defended but which are not usually considered to be castles in the usual sense of the word . The kings of Connacht constructed fortifications from 1124 which they called caistel or caislen , from the Latin and French for castle , and there has been considerable academic debate over how far these resembled European castles .
The Norman invasion of Ireland began between 1166 and 1171 , under first Richard de Clare and then Henry II of England , with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo @-@ Norman barons . The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages , with castles enabling them to control the newly conquered territories . The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions , many of these were motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions ; in Louth at least 23 of these were built . It remains uncertain how many ringwork castles were built in Ireland by the Anglo @-@ Normans . Other castles , such as Trim and Carrickfergus , were built in stone as the caput centres for major barons . Analysis of these stone castles suggests that building in stone was not simply a military decision ; indeed , several of the castles contain serious defensive flaws . Instead the designs , including their focus on large stone keeps , were intended both to increase the prestige of the baronial owners and to provide adequate space for the administrative apparatus of the new territories . Unlike in Wales the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period .
= = 13th – 14th centuries = =
= = = Military developments = = =
Castle design in Britain continued to change towards the end of the 12th century . After Henry II mottes ceased to be built in most of England , although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches . Square keeps remained common across much of England in contrast to the circular keeps increasingly prevailing in France ; in the Marches , however , circular keep designs became more popular . Castles began to take on a more regular , enclosed shape , ideally quadrilateral or at least polygonal in design , especially in the more prosperous south . Flanking towers , initially square and latterly curved , were introduced along the walls and gatehouses began to grow in size and complexity , with portcullises being introduced for the first time . Castles such as Dover and the Tower of London were expanded in a concentric design in what Cathcart King has labelled the early development of " scientific fortification " .
The developments spread to Anglo @-@ Norman possessions in Ireland where this English style of castles dominated throughout the 13th century , although the deteriorating Irish economy of the 14th century brought this wave of building to an end . In Scotland Alexander II and Alexander III undertook a number of castle building projects in the modern style , although Alexander III 's early death sparked conflict in Scotland and English intervention under Edward I in 1296 . In the ensuing wars of Scottish Independence castle building in Scotland altered path , turning away from building larger , more conventional castles with curtain walls . The Scots instead adopted the policy of slighting , or deliberately destroying , castles captured in Scotland from the English to prevent their re @-@ use in subsequent invasions – most of the new Scottish castles built by nobles were of the tower house design ; the few larger castles built in Scotland were typically royal castles , built by the Scottish kings .
Some of these changes were driven by developments in military technology . Before 1190 mining was used rarely and the siege engines of the time were largely incapable of damaging the thicker castle walls . The introduction of the trebuchet began to change this situation ; it was able to throw much heavier balls , with remarkable accuracy , and reconstructed devices have been shown to be able to knock holes in walls . Trebuchets were first recorded in England in 1217 , and were probably used the year before as well . Richard I used them in his sieges during the Third Crusade and appears to have started to alter his castle designs to accommodate the new technology on his return to Europe . The trebuchet seems to have encouraged the shift towards round and polygonal towers and curved walls . In addition to having fewer or no dead zones , and being easier to defend against mining , these castle designs were also much less easy to attack with trebuchets as the curved surfaces could deflect some of the force of the shot .
Castles saw an increasing use of arrowslits by the 13th century , especially in England , almost certainly linked to the introduction of crossbows . These arrowslits were combined with firing positions from the tops of the towers , initially protected by wooden hoarding until stone machicolations were introduced in England in the late 13th century . The crossbow was an important military advance on the older short bow and was the favoured weapon by the time of Richard I ; many crossbows and vast numbers of quarrels were needed to supply royal forces , in turn requiring larger scale iron production . In England , crossbows were primarily made at the Tower of London but St Briavels Castle , with the local Forest of Dean available to provide raw materials , became the national centre for quarrel manufacture . In Scotland , Edinburgh Castle became the centre for the production of bows , crossbows and siege engines for the king .
One result of this was that English castle sieges grew in complexity and scale . During the First Barons ' War from 1215 to 1217 , the prominent sieges of Dover and Windsor Castle showed the ability of more modern designs to withstand attack ; King John 's successful siege of Rochester required an elaborate and sophisticated assault , reportedly costing around 60 @,@ 000 marks , or £ 40 @,@ 000 . The siege of Bedford Castle in 1224 required Henry III to bring siege engines , engineers , crossbow bolts , equipment and labourers from across all of England . The Siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266 , during the Second Barons ' War , was larger and longer still . Extensive water defences withstood the attack of the future Edward I , despite the prince targeting the weaker parts of the castle walls , employing huge siege towers and attempting a night attack using barges brought from Chester . The costs of the siege exhausted the revenues of ten English counties . Sieges in Scotland were initially smaller in scale , with the first recorded such event being the 1230 siege of Rothesay Castle where the besieging Norwegians were able to break down the relatively weak stone walls with axes after only three days . When Edward I invaded Scotland he brought with him the siege capabilities which had evolved south of the border : Edinburgh Castle fell within three days , and Roxburgh , Jedburgh , Dunbar , Stirling , Lanark and Dumbarton castles surrendered to the king . Subsequent English sieges , such as the attacks on Bothwell and Stirling , again used considerable resources including giant siege engines and extensive teams of miners and masons .
= = = Economy and society = = =
A number of royal castles , from the 12th century onwards , formed an essential network of royal storehouses in the 13th century for a wide range of goods including food , drink , weapons , armour and raw materials . Castles such as Southampton , Winchester , Bristol and the Tower of London were used to import , store and distribute royal wines . The English royal castles also became used as gaols – the Assize of Clarendon in 1166 insisted that royal sheriffs establish their own gaols and , in the coming years , county gaols were placed in all the shrieval royal castles . Conditions in these gaols were poor and claims of poor treatment and starvation were common ; Northampton Castle appears to have seen some of the worst abuses .
The development of the baronial castles in England were affected by the economic changes during the period . During the 13th and 14th centuries the average incomes of the English barons increased but wealth became concentrated in the hands of a smaller number of individuals , with a greater discrepancy in incomes . At the same time the costs of maintaining and staffing a modern castle were increasing . The result was that although there were around 400 castles in England in 1216 , the number of castles continued to diminish over the coming years ; even the wealthier barons were inclined to let some castles slide into disuse and to focus their resources on the remaining stock . The castle @-@ guard system faded into abeyance in England , being replaced by financial rents , although it continued in the Welsh Marches well into the 13th century and saw some limited use during Edward I 's occupation of Scotland in the early 14th century .
The remaining English castles became increasingly comfortable . Their interiors were often painted and decorated with tapestries , which would be transported from castle to castle as nobles travelled around the country . There were an increasing number of garderobes built inside castles , while in the wealthier castles the floors could be tiled and the windows furnished with Sussex Weald glass , allowing the introduction of window seats for reading . Food could be transported to castles across relatively long distances ; fish was brought to Okehampton Castle from the sea some 25 miles ( 40 km ) away , for example . Venison remained the most heavily consumed food in most castles , particularly those surrounded by extensive parks or forests such as Barnard Castle , while prime cuts of venison were imported to those castles that lacked hunting grounds , such as Launceston .
By the late 13th century some castles were built within carefully " designed landscapes " , sometimes drawing a distinction between an inner core of a herber , a small enclosed garden complete with orchards and small ponds , and an outer region with larger ponds and high status buildings such as " religious buildings , rabbit warrens , mills and settlements " , potentially set within a park . A gloriette , or a suite of small rooms , might be built within the castle to allow the result to be properly appreciated , or a viewing point constructed outside . At Leeds Castle the redesigned castle of the 1280s was placed within a large water garden , while at Ravensworth at the end of the 14th century an artificial lake was enclosed by a park to produce an aesthetically and symbolically pleasing entrance to the fortification . The wider parklands and forests were increasingly managed and the proportion of the smaller fallow deer consumed by castle inhabitants in England increased as a result .
= = = Welsh principalities and Edwardian castles = = =
During the 13th century the native Welsh princes built a number of stone castles . The size of these varied considerably from smaller fortifications , such as Dinas Emrys in Snowdonia , to more substantial castles like Deganwy Castle and the largest , Castell y Bere . Native Welsh castles typically maximised the defensive benefits of high , mountainous sites , often being built in an irregular shape to fit a rocky peak . Most had deep ditches cut out of the rock to protect the main castle . The Welsh castles were usually built with a relatively short keep , used as living accommodation for princes and nobility , and with distinctive rectangular watch @-@ towers along the walls . In comparison to Norman castles the gatehouses were much weaker in design , with almost no use of portcullises or spiral staircases , and the stonework of the outer walls was also generally inferior to Norman built castles . The very last native Welsh castles , built in the 1260s , more closely resemble Norman designs ; in the case of Dinas Brân including a round keep and Norman gatehouse defences .
In 1277 Edward I launched a final invasion of the remaining native Welsh strongholds in North Wales , intending to establish his rule over the region on a permanent basis . As part of this occupation he instructed his leading nobles to construct eight new castles across the region ; Aberystwyth and Builth in mid @-@ Wales and Beaumaris , Conwy , Caernarfon , Flint , Harlech and Rhuddlan Castle in North Wales . Historian R. Allen Brown has described these as " amongst the finest achievements of medieval military architecture [ in England and Wales ] " . The castles varied in design but were typically characterised by powerful mural towers along the castle walls , with multiple , over @-@ lapping firing points and large and extremely well defended barbicans . The castles were intended to be used by the king when in the region and included extensive high @-@ status accommodation . Edward also established various new English towns , and in several cases the new castles were designed to be used alongside the fortified town walls as part of an integrated defence . Historian Richard Morris has suggested that " the impression is firmly given of an elite group of men @-@ of @-@ war , long @-@ standing comrades in arms of the king , indulging in an orgy of military architectural expression on an almost unlimited budget " .
James of Saint George , a famous architect and engineer from Savoy , was probably responsible for the bulk of the construction work across the region . The castles were extremely costly to build and required labourers , masons , carpenters , diggers , and building resources to be gathered by local sheriffs from across England , mustered at Chester and Bristol , before being sent on to North Wales in the spring , returning home each winter . The number of workers involved placed a significant drain on the country 's national labour force . The total financial cost cannot be calculated with certainty , but estimates suggest that Edward 's castle building programme cost at least £ 80 @,@ 000 – four times the total royal expenditure on castles between 1154 and 1189 .
The Edwardian castles also made strong symbolic statements about the nature of the new occupation . For example , Caernarvon was decorated with carved eagles , equipped with polygonal towers and expensive banded masonry , all designed to imitate the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople , then the idealised image of imperial power . The actual site of the castle may also have been important as it was positioned close to the former Roman fort of Segontium . The elaborate gatehouse , with an excessive five sets of doors and six portcullises , also appears to have been designed to impress visitors and to invoke an image of an Arthurian castle , then believed to have been Byzantine in character .
= = = Palace @-@ fortresses = = =
In the middle of the 13th century Henry III began to redesign his favourite castles , including Winchester and Windsor , building larger halls , grander chapels , installing glass windows and decorating the palaces with painted walls and furniture . This marked the beginning of a trend towards the development of grand castles designed for elaborate , elite living . Life in earlier keeps had been focused around a single great hall , with privacy for the owner 's family provided by using an upper floor for their own living accommodation . By the 14th century nobles were travelling less , bringing much larger households with them when they did travel and entertaining visitors with equally large retinues . Castles such as Goodrich were redesigned in the 1320s to provide greater residential privacy and comfort for the ruling family , while retaining strong defensive features and a capacity to hold over 130 residents at the castle . The design influenced subsequent conversions at Berkeley and by the time that Bolton Castle was being built , in the 1380s , it was designed to hold up to eight different noble households , each with their own facilities . Royal castles such as Beaumaris , although designed with defence in mind , were designed to hold up to eleven different households at any one time .
Kings and the most wealthy lords could afford to redesign castles to produce palace @-@ fortresses . Edward III spent £ 51 @,@ 000 on renovating Windsor Castle ; this was over one and a half times Edward 's typical annual income . In the words of Steven Brindle the result was a " great and apparently architecturally unified palace ... uniform in all sorts of ways , as to roof line , window heights , cornice line , floor and ceiling heights " , echoing older designs but without any real defensive value . The wealthy John of Gaunt redesigned the heart of Kenilworth Castle , like Windsor the work emphasised a unifying , rectangular design and the separation of ground floor service areas from the upper stories and a contrast of austere exteriors with lavish interiors , especially on the 1st floor of the inner bailey buildings . By the end of the 14th century a distinctive English perpendicular style had emerged .
In the south of England private castles were being built by newly emerging , wealthy families ; like the work at Windsor , these castles drew on the architectural themes of earlier martial designs , but were not intended to form a serious defence against attack . These new castles were heavily influenced by French designs , involving a rectangular or semi @-@ rectangular castle with corner towers , gatehouses and moat ; the walls effectively enclosing a comfortable courtyard plan not dissimilar to that of an unfortified manor . Bodiam Castle built in the 1380s possessed a moat , towers and gunports but , rather than being a genuine military fortification , the castle was primarily intended to be admired by visitors and used as a luxurious dwelling – the chivalric architecture implicitly invoking comparisons with Edward I 's great castle at Beaumaris .
In the north of England improvements in the security of the Scottish border , and the rise of major noble families such as the Percies and the Nevilles , encouraged a surge in castle building at the end of the 14th century . Palace @-@ fortresses such as Raby , Bolton and Warkworth Castle took the quadrangular castle styles of the south and combined them with exceptionally large key towers or keeps to form a distinctive northern style . Built by major noble houses these castles were typically even more opulent than those built by the nouveau riche of the south . They marked what historian Anthony Emery has described as a " second peak of castle building in England and Wales " , after the Edwardian designs at the end of the 14th century .
= = = Introduction of gunpowder = = =
Early gunpowder weapons were introduced to England from the 1320s onwards and began to appear in Scotland by the 1330s . By the 1340s the English Crown was regularly spending money on them and the new technology began to be installed in English castles by the 1360s and 1370s , and in Scottish castles by the 1380s . Cannons were made in various sizes , from smaller hand cannons to larger guns firing stone balls of up to 7 @.@ 6 inches ( 19 cm ) . Medium @-@ sized weapons weighing around 20 kg each were more useful for the defence of castles , although Richard II eventually established 600 pound ( 272 kilo ) guns at the Tower of London and the 15 @,@ 366 pound ( 6 @,@ 970 kilo ) heavy Mons Meg bombard was installed at Edinburgh Castle .
Early cannons had only a limited range , were unreliable and in addition early stone cannonballs were relatively ineffective when fired at stone castle walls . As a result , early cannon proved most useful for defence , particularly against infantry assaults or to fire at the crews of enemy trebuchets . Indeed , early cannons could be quite dangerous to their own soldiers ; James II of Scotland was killed besieging Roxburgh Castle in 1460 when one of his cannons , called " Lion " , exploded next to him . The expense of early cannons meant that they were primarily a weapon deployed by royalty rather than the nobility .
Cannons in English castles were initially deployed along the south coast where the Channel ports , essential for English trade and military operations in Europe , were increasingly threatened by French raids . Carisbrooke , Corfe , Dover , Porchester , Saltwood and Southampton Castle received cannon during the late 14th century , small circular " keyhole " gunports being built in the walls to accommodate the new weapons . Carisbrooke Castle was subject to an unsuccessful French siege in 1377 , the Crown reacting by equipping the castle with cannon and a mill for producing gunpowder in 1379 . Some further English castles along the Welsh borders and Scotland were similarly equipped , with the Tower of London and Pontefract Castle acting as supply depots for the new weapons . In Scotland the first cannon for a castle appears to have been bought for Edinburgh in 1384 , which also became an arsenal for the new devices .
= = 15th – 16th centuries = =
= = = Decline of English castles = = =
By the 15th century very few castles were well maintained by their owners . Many royal castles were receiving insufficient investment to allow them to be maintained – roofs leaked , stone work crumbled , lead or wood was stolen . The Crown was increasingly selective about which royal castles it maintained , with others left to decay . By the 15th century only Windsor , Leeds , Rockingham and Moor End were kept up as comfortable accommodation ; Nottingham and York formed the backbone for royal authority in the north , and Chester , Gloucester and Bristol forming the equivalents in the west . Even major fortifications such as the castles of North Wales and the border castles of Carlisle , Bamburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne saw funding and maintenance reduced . Many royal castles continued to have a role as the county gaol , with the gatehouse frequently being used as the principal facility .
The ranks of the baronage continued to reduce in the 15th century , producing a smaller elite of wealthier lords but reducing the comparative wealth of the majority. and many baronial castles fell into similar decline . John Leland 's 16th @-@ century accounts of English castles are replete with descriptions of castles being " sore decayed " , their defences " in ruine " or , where the walls might still be in good repair , the " logginges within " were " decayed " . English castles did not play a decisive role during the Wars of the Roses , fought between 1455 and 1485 , which were primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists .
= = = Renaissance palaces = = =
The 15th and 16th centuries saw a small number of British castles develop into still grander structures , often drawing on the Renaissance views on architecture that were increasing in popularity on the continent . Tower keeps , large solid keeps used for private accommodation , probably inspired by those in France had started to appear in the 14th century at Dudley and Warkworth . In the 15th century the fashion spread with the creation of very expensive , French @-@ influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps at Wardour , Tattershall and Raglan Castle . In central and eastern England castles began to be built in brick , with Caister , Kirby Muxloe and Tattershall forming examples of this new style . North of the border the construction of Holyrood Great Tower between 1528 and 1532 picked up on this English tradition , but incorporated additional French influences to produce a highly secure but comfortable castle , guarded by a gun park .
Royal builders in Scotland led the way in adopting further European Renaissance styles in castle design . James IV and James V used exceptional one @-@ off revenues , such as the forfeiture of key lands , to establish their power across their kingdom in various ways including constructing grander castles such as Linlithgow , almost invariably by extending and modifying existing fortifications . These Scottish castle palaces drew on Italian Renaissance designs , in particular the fashionable design of a quadrangular court with stair @-@ turrets on each corner , using harling to giving them a clean , Italian appearance . Later the castles drew on Renaissance designs in France , such as the work at Falkland and Stirling Castle . The shift in architectural focus reflected changing political alliances , as James V had formed a close alliance with France during his reign . In the words of architectural historian John Dunbar the results were the " earliest examples of coherent Renaissance design in Britain " .
These changes also included shifts in social and cultural beliefs . The period saw the disintegration of the older feudal order , the destruction of the monasteries and widespread economic changes , altering the links between castles and the surrounding estates . Within castles , the Renaissance saw the introduction of the idea of public and private spaces , placing new value on castles having private spaces for the lord or his guests away from public view . Although the elite in Britain and Ireland continued to maintain and build castles in the style of the late medieval period there was a growing understanding through the Renaissance , absent in the 14th century , that domestic castles were fundamentally different from the military fortifications being built to deal with the spread of gunpowder artillery . Castles continued to be built and reworked in what cultural historian Matthew Johnson has described as a " conscious attempt to invoke values seen as being under threat " . The results , as at Kenilworth Castle for example , could include huge castles deliberately redesigned to appear old and sporting chivalric features , but complete with private chambers , Italian loggias and modern luxury accommodation .
Although the size of noble households shrank slightly during the 16th century , the number of guests at the largest castle events continued to grow . 2 @,@ 000 came to a feast at Cawood Castle in 1466 , while the Duke of Buckingham routinely entertained up to 519 people at Thornbury Castle at the start of the 16th century . When Elizabeth I visited Kenilworth in 1575 she brought an entourage of 31 barons and 400 staff for a visit that lasted an exceptional 19 days ; Leicester , the castle 's owner , entertained the Queen and much of the neighbouring region with pageants , fireworks , bear baiting , mystery plays , hunting and lavish banquets . With this scale of living and entertainment the need to find more space in older castles became a major issue in both England and Scotland .
= = = Tower houses = = =
Tower houses were a common feature of British and Irish castle building in the late medieval period : over 3 @,@ 000 were constructed in Ireland , around 800 in Scotland and over 250 in England . A tower house would typically be a tall , square , stone @-@ built , crenelated building ; Scottish and Ulster tower houses were often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn , a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely , but not necessarily intended for serious defence . Many of the gateways in these buildings were guarded with yetts , grill @-@ like doors made out of metal bars . Smaller versions of tower houses in northern England and southern Scotland were known as Peel towers , or pele houses , and were built along both sides of the border regions . In Scotland a number were built in Scottish towns . It was originally argued that Irish tower houses were based on the Scottish design , but the pattern of development of such castles in Ireland does not support this hypothesis .
The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault , leading historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as " defensible rather than defensive " . Gunports for heavier guns were built into some Scottish tower houses by the 16th century but it was more common to use lighter gunpowder weapons , such as muskets , to defend Scottish tower houses . Unlike Scotland , Irish tower houses were only defended with relatively light handguns and frequently reused older arrowloops , rather than more modern designs , to save money .
Analysis of the construction of tower houses has focused on two key driving forces . The first is that the construction of these castles appears to have been linked to periods of instability and insecurity in the areas concerned . In Scotland James IV 's forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an immediate burst of castle building across the region and , over the longer term , an increased degree of clan warfare , while the subsequent wars with England in the 1540s added to the level of insecurity over the rest of the century . Irish tower houses were built from the end of the 14th century onward as the countryside disintegrated into the unstable control of a large number of small lordships and Henry VI promoted their construction with financial rewards in a bid to improve security . English tower houses were built along the frontier with Scotland in a dangerous and insecure period . Secondly , and paradoxically , appears to have been the periods of relative prosperity . Contemporary historian William Camden observed of the northern English and the Scots , " there is not a man amongst them of a better sort that hath not his little tower or pile " , and many tower houses seem to have been built as much as status symbols as defensive structures . Along the English @-@ Scottish borders the construction pattern follows the relative prosperity of the different side : the English lords built tower houses primarily in the early 15th century , when northern England was particularly prosperous , while their Scottish equivalents built them in late 15th and early 16th centuries , boom periods in the economy of Scotland . In Ireland the growth of tower houses during the 15th century mirrors the rise of cattle herding and the resulting wealth that this brought to many of the lesser lords in Ireland .
= = = Further development of gunpowder artillery = = =
Cannons continued to be improved during the 15th and 16th centuries . Castle loopholes were adapted to allow cannons and other firearms to be used in a defensive role , but offensively gunpowder weapons still remained relatively unreliable . England had lagged behind Europe in adapting to this new form of warfare ; Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles , built in the 1490s to defend the River Dart , and Bayard 's Cover , designed in 1510 to defend Dartmouth harbour itself , were amongst the few English castles designed in the continental style during the period , and even these lagged behind the cutting edge of European design . Scottish castles were more advanced in this regard , partially as a result of the stronger French architectural influences . Ravenscraig Castle in Scotland , for example , was an early attempt in the 1460s to deploy a combination of " letter box " gun @-@ ports and low @-@ curved stone towers for artillery weapons . These letter box gun @-@ ports , common in mainland Europe , rapidly spread across Scotland but were rarely used in England during the 15th century . Scotland also led the way in adopting the new caponier design for castle ditches , as constructed at Craignethan Castle .
Henry VIII became concerned with the threat of French invasion during 1539 and was familiar with the more modern continental designs . He responded to the threat by building a famous sequence of forts , called the Device Forts or Henrician Castles , along the south coast of England specifically designed to be equipped with , and to defend against , gunpowder artillery . These forts still lacked some of the more modern continental features , such as angled bastions . Each fort had a slightly different design , but as a group they shared common features , with the fortification formed around a number of compact lobes , often in a quatrefoil or trefoil shape , designed to give the guns a 360 degree angle of fire . The forts were usually tiered to allow the guns to fire over one another and had features such as vents to disperse the gunpowder smoke . It is probable that many of the forts were also originally protected by earth bulwarks , although these have not survived . The resulting forts have been described by historian Christopher Duffy as having " an air at once sturdy and festive , rather like a squashed wedding cake " .
These coastal defences marked a shift away from castles , which were both military fortifications and domestic buildings , towards forts , which were garrisoned but not domestic ; often the 1540s are chosen as a transition date for the study of castles as a consequence . The subsequent years also marked almost the end of indigenous English fortification design – by the 1580s English castle improvements were almost entirely dominated by imported European experts . The superiority of Scottish castle design also diminished ; the Half Moon battery built at Edinburgh Castle in 1574 , for example , was already badly dated in continental terms by the time it was built . The limited number of modern fortifications built in Ireland , such as those with the first gunports retrofitted to Carrickfergus Castle in the 1560s and at Corkbeg in Cork Harbour and built in the 1570s in fear of an invasion , were equally unexceptional by European standards .
Nonetheless , improved gunpowder artillery played a part in the reconquest of Ireland in the 1530s , where the successful English siege of Maynooth Castle in 1530 demonstrated the power of the new siege guns . There were still relatively few guns in Ireland however and , during the Nine Years ' War at the end of the century , the Irish were proved relatively unskilled in siege warfare with artillery used mainly by the English . In both Ireland and Scotland the challenge was how to transport artillery pieces to castle sieges ; the poor state of Scottish roads required expensive trains of pack horses , which only the king could afford , and in Ireland the river network had to be frequently used to transport the weapons inland . In these circumstances older castles could frequently remain viable defensive features , although the siege of Cahir Castle in 1599 and the attack on Dunyvaig Castle on Islay in 1614 proved that if artillery could be brought to bear , previously impregnable castle walls might fall relatively quickly .
= = 17th century = =
= = = Wars of the Three Kingdoms = = =
In 1603 James VI of Scotland inherited the crown of England , bringing a period of peace between the two countries . The royal court left for London and , as a result – with the exceptions of occasional visits , building work on royal castles north of the border largely ceased . Investment in English castles , especially royal castles , declined dramatically . James sold off many royal castles in England to property developers , including York and Southampton Castle . A royal inspection in 1609 highlighted that the Edwardian castles of North Wales , including Conwy , Beaumaris and Caernarfon were " [ u ] tterlie decayed " . ; a subsequent inspection of various English counties in 1635 found a similar picture : Lincoln , Kendal , York , Nottingham , Bristol , Queenborough , Southampton and Rochester were amongst those in a state of dilapidation . In 1642 one pamphlet described many English castles as " muche decayed " and as requiring " much provision " for " warlike defence " . Those maintained as private homes ; such as Arundel , Berkeley , Carlisle and Winchester were in much better condition , but not necessarily defendable in a conflict ; while some such as Bolsover were redesigned as more modern dwellings in a Palladian style . A handful of coastal forts and castles , amongst them Dover Castle , remained in good military condition with adequate defences .
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out , initially between supporters of Parliament and the Royalist supporters of Charles I. The war expanded to include Ireland and Scotland , and dragged on into three separate conflicts in England itself . The war was the first prolonged conflict in Britain to involve the use of artillery and gunpowder . English castles were used for various purposes during the conflict . York Castle formed a key part of the city defences , with a military governor ; rural castles such as Goodrich could be used a bases for raiding and for control of the surrounding countryside ; larger castles , such as Windsor , became used for holding prisoners of war or as military headquarters . During the war castles were frequently brought back into fresh use : existing defences would be renovated , while walls would be " countermured " , or backed by earth , in order to protect from cannons . Towers and keeps were filled with earth to make gun platforms , such as at Carlisle and Oxford Castle . New earth bastions could be added to existing designs , such as at Cambridge and Carew Castle and at the otherwise unfortified Basing House the surrounding Norman ringwork was brought back into commission . The costs could be considerable , with the work at Skipton Castle coming to over £ 1000 .
Sieges became a prominent part of the war with over 300 occurring during the period , many of them involving castles . Indeed , as Robert Liddiard suggests , the " military role of some castles in the seventeenth century is out of all proportion to their medieval histories " . Artillery formed an essential part of these sieges , with the " characteristic military action " according to military historian Stephen Bull , being " an attack on a fortified strongpoint " supported by artillery . The ratio of artillery pieces to defenders varied considerably in sieges , but in all cases there were more guns than in previous conflicts ; up to one artillery piece for every nine defenders was not unknown in extreme cases , such as near Pendennis Castle . The growth in the number and size of siege artillery favoured those who had the resources to purchase and deploy these weapons . Artillery had improved by the 1640s but was still not always decisive , as the lighter cannon of the period found it hard to penetrate earth and timber bulwarks and defences – demonstrated in the siege of Corfe . Mortars , able to lob fire over the taller walls , proved particularly effective against castles – in particular those more compact ones with smaller courtyards and open areas , such as at Stirling Castle .
The heavy artillery introduced in England eventually spread to the rest of the British Isles . Although up to a thousand Irish soldiers who had served in Europe returned during the war , bringing with them experience of siege warfare from the Thirty Years ' War in Europe , it was the arrival of Oliver Cromwell 's train of siege guns in 1649 that transformed the conflict , and the fate of local castles . None of the Irish castles could withstand these Parliamentary weapons and most quickly surrendered . In 1650 Cromwell invaded Scotland and again his heavily artillery proved decisive .
= = = The Restoration = = =
The English Civil War resulted in Parliament issuing orders to slight or damage many castles , particularly in prominent royal regions . This was particularly in the period of 1646 to 1651 , with a peak in 1647 . Around 150 fortifications were slighted in this period , including 38 town walls and a great many castles . Slighting was quite expensive and took some considerable effort to carry out , so damage was usually done in the most cost @-@ effective fashion with only selected walls being destroyed . In some cases the damage was almost total , such as Pontefract Castle which had been involved in three major sieges and in this case at the request of the townsfolk who wished to avoid further conflict .
By the time that Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 , the major palace @-@ fortresses in England that had survived slighting were typically in a poor state . As historian Simon Thurley has described , the shifting " functional requirements , patterns of movement , modes of transport , aesthetic taste and standards of comfort " amongst royal circles were also changing the qualities being sought in a successful castle . Palladian architecture was growing in popularity , which sat awkwardly with the typical design of a medieval castle . Furthermore , the fashionable French court etiquette at the time required a substantial number of enfiladed rooms , in order to satisfy court protocol , and it was impractical to fit these rooms into many older buildings . A shortage of funds curtailed Charles II 's attempts to remodel his remaining castles and the redesign of Windsor was the only one to be fully completed in the Restoration years .
Many castles still retained a defensive role . Castles in England , such as Chepstow and York Castle , were repaired and garrisoned by the king . As military technologies progressed the costs of upgrading older castles could be prohibitive – the estimated £ 30 @,@ 000 required for the potential conversion of York in 1682 , approximately £ 4 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms , gives a scale of the potential costs . Castles played a minimal role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , although some fortifications such as Dover Castle were attacked by mobs unhappy with the religious beliefs of their Catholic governors , and the sieges of King John 's Castle in Limerick formed part of the endgame to the war in Ireland . In the north of Britain security problems persisted in Scotland . Cromwellian forces had built a number of new modern forts and barracks , but the royal castles of Edinburgh , Dumbarton and Stirling , along with Dunstaffnage , Dunollie and Ruthven Castle , also continued in use as practical fortifications . Tower houses were being built up until the 1640s ; after the Restoration the fortified tower house fell out of fashion , but the weak state of the Scottish economy was such that while many larger properties were simply abandoned , the more modest castles continued to be used and adapted as houses , rather than rebuilt . In Ireland tower houses and castles remained in use until after the Glorious Revolution , when events led to a dramatic shift in land ownership and a boom in the building of Palladian country houses ; in many cases using timbers stripped from the older , abandoned generation of castles and tower houses .
= = 18th century = =
= = = Military and governmental use = = =
Some castles in Britain and Ireland continued to have modest military utility into the 18th century . Up until 1745 a sequence of Jacobite risings threatened the Crown in Scotland , culminating in the rebellion in 1745 . Various royal castles were maintained during the period either as part of the English border defences , like Carlisle , or forming part of the internal security measures in Scotland itself , like Stirling Castle . Stirling was able to withstand the Jacobite attack in 1745 , although Carlisle was taken ; the siege of Blair Castle , at the end of the rebellion in 1746 , was the final castle siege to occur in the British Isles . In the aftermath of the conflict Corgaff and many others castles were used as barracks for the forces sent to garrison the Highlands . Some castles , such as Portchester , were used for holding prisoners of war during the Napoleonic Wars at the end of the century and were re @-@ equipped in case of a popular uprising during this revolutionary period . In Ireland Dublin Castle was rebuilt following a fire and reaffirmed as the centre of British administrative and military power .
Many castles remained in use as county gaols , run by gaolers as effectively private businesses ; frequently this involved the gatehouse being maintained as the main prison building , as at Cambridge , Bridgnorth , Lancaster , Newcastle and St Briavels . During the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard conducted his famous survey of prisons and gaols , culminating in his 1777 work The State of the Prisons . This documented the poor quality of these castle facilities ; prisoners in Norwich Castle lived in a dungeon , with the floor frequently covered by an inch of water ; Oxford was " close and offensive " ; Worcester was so subject to gaol @-@ fever that the castle surgeon would not enter the prison ; Gloucester was " wretched in the extreme " . Howard 's work caused a shift in public opinion against the use of these older castle facilities as gaols .
= = = Social and cultural use = = =
By the middle of the century medieval ruined castles had become fashionable once again . They were considered an interesting counterpoint to the now conventional Palladian classical architecture , and a way of giving a degree of medieval allure to their new owners . Historian Oliver Creighton suggests that the ideal image of a castle by the 1750s included " broken , soft silhouettes and [ a ] decayed , rough appearance " . In some cases the countryside surrounding existing castles was remodelled to highlight the ruins , as at Henderskelfe Castle , or at " Capability " Brown 's reworking of Wardour Castle . Alternatively , ruins might be repaired and reinforced to present a more suitable appearance , as at Harewood Castle . In other cases mottes , such as that at Groby Castle , were reused as the bases for dramatic follies , or alternatively entirely new castle follies could be created ; either from scratch or by reusing original stonework , as occurred during the building of Conygar Tower for which various parts of Dunster Castle were cannibalised .
At the same time castles were becoming tourist attractions for the first time . By the 1740s Windsor Castle had become an early tourist attraction ; wealthier visitors who could afford to pay the castle keeper could enter , see curiosities such as the castle 's narwhal horn , and by the 1750s buy the first guidebooks . The first guidebook to Kenilworth Castle followed in 1777 with many later editions following in the coming decades . By the 1780s and 1790s visitors were beginning to progress as far as Chepstow , where an attractive female guide escorted tourists around the ruins as part of the popular Wye Tour . In Scotland Blair Castle became a popular attraction on account of its landscaped gardens , as did Stirling Castle with its romantic connections . Caernarfon in North Wales appealed to many visitors , especially artists . Irish castles proved less popular , partially because contemporary tourists regarded the country as being somewhat backward and the ruins therefore failed to provide the necessary romantic contrast with modern life .
The appreciation of castles developed as the century progressed . During the 1770s and 1780s the concept of the picturesque ruin was popularised by the English clergyman William Gilpin . Gilpin published several works on his journeys through Britain , expounding the concept of the " correctly picturesque " landscape . Such a landscape , Gilpin argued , usually required a building such as a castle or other ruin to add " consequence " to the natural picture . Paintings in this style usually portrayed castles as indistinct , faintly coloured objects in the distance ; in writing , the picturesque account eschewed detail in favour of bold first impressions on the sense . The ruins of Goodrich particularly appealed to Gilpin and his followers ; Conwy was , however , too well preserved and uninteresting . By contrast the artistic work of antiquarians James Bentham and James Essex at the end of the century , while stopping short of being genuine archaeology , was detailed and precise enough to provide a substantial base of architectural fine detail on medieval castle features and enabled the work of architects such as Wyatt .
= = 19th century = =
= = = Military and governmental use = = =
The military utility of the remaining castles in Britain and Ireland continued to diminish . Some castles became regimental depots , including Carlisle Castle and Chester Castle . Carrickfergus Castle was re @-@ equipped with gunports in order to provide coastal defences at the end of the Napoleonic period . Political instability was a major issue during the early 19th century and the popularity of the Chartist movement led to proposals to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest . In Ireland Dublin Castle played an increasing role in Ireland as Fenian pressures for independence grew during the century .
The operation of local prisons in locations such as castles had been criticised , since John Howard 's work in the 1770s , and pressure for reform continued to grow in the 1850s and 1860s . Reform of the legislation surrounding bankruptcy and debt in 1869 largely removed the threat of imprisonment for unpaid debts , and in the process eliminated the purpose of the debtor 's prisons in castles such as St Briavels . Efforts were made to regularise conditions in local prisons but without much success , and these failures led to prison reform in 1877 which nationalised British prisons , including prisons at castles like York . Compensation was paid to the former owners , although in cases such as York where the facilities were considered so poor as to require complete reconstruction , this payment was denied . In the short term this led to a 39 % reduction in the number of prisons in England , including some famous castle prisons such as Norwich ; over the coming years , centralisation and changes in prison design led to the closure of most remaining castle prisons .
= = = Social and cultural use = = =
Many castles saw increased visitors by tourists , helped by better transport links and the growth of the railways . The armouries at the Tower of London opened for tourists in 1828 with 40 @,@ 000 visitors in their first year ; by 1858 the numbers had grown to over 100 @,@ 000 a year . Attractions such as Warwick Castle received 6 @,@ 000 visitors during 1825 to 1826 , many of them travelling from the growing industrial towns in the nearby Midlands , while Victorian tourists recorded being charged six @-@ pence to wander around the ruins of Goodrich Castle . The spread of the railway system across Wales and the Marches strongly influenced the flow of tourists to the region 's castles . In Scotland tourist tours became increasingly popular during the 19th century , usually starting at Edinburgh complete with Edinburgh Castle , and then spending up to two weeks further north , taking advantage of the expanding rail and steamer network . Blair Castle remained popular , but additional castles joined the circuit – Cawdor Castle became popular once the railway line reached north to Fort William .
Purchasing and reading guidebooks became an increasingly important part of visiting castles ; by the 1820s visitors could buy an early guidebook at Goodrich outlining the castle 's history , the first guidebook to the Tower of London was published in 1841 and Scottish castle guidebooks became well known for providing long historical accounts of their sites , often drawing on the plots of Romantic novels for the details . Indeed , Sir Walter Scott 's historical novels Ivanhoe and Kenilworth helped to establish the popular Victorian image of a Gothic medieval castle . Scott 's novels set in Scotland also popularised several northern castles , including Tantallon which was featured in Marmion . Histories of Ireland began to stress the role of castles in the rise of Protestantism and " British values " in Ireland , although tourism remained limited .
One response to this popularity was in commissioning the construction of replica castles . These were particularly popular at beginning of the 19th century , and again later in the Victorian period . Design manuals were published offering details of how to recreate the appearance of an original Gothic castles in a new build , leading to a flurry of work , such as Eastnor in 1815 , the fake Norman castle of Penrhyn between 1827 and 1837 and the imitation Edwardian castle of Goodrich Court in 1828 . The later Victorians built the Welsh Castell Coch in the 1880s as a fantasy Gothic construction and the last such replica , Castle Drogo , was built as late as 1911 .
Another response was to improve existing castles , bringing their often chaotic historic features into line with a more integrated architectural aesthetic in a style often termed Gothic Revivalism . There were numerous attempts to restore or rebuild castles so as to produce a consistently Gothic style , informed by genuine medieval details , a movement in which the architect Anthony Salvin was particularly prominent – as illustrated by his reworking of Alnwick and much of Windsor Castle . A similar trend can be seen at Rothesay where William Burges renovated the older castle to produce a more " authentic " design , heavily influenced by the work of the French architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . North of the border this resulted in the distinctive style of Scots Baronial Style architecture , which took French and traditional medieval Scottish features and reinvented them in a baroque style . The style also proved popular in Ireland with George Jones ' Oliver Castle in the 1850s , for example , forming a good example of the fashion . As with Gothic Revivalism , Scots Baronial architects frequently " improved " existing castles : Floors Castle was transformed in 1838 by William Playfair who added grand turrets and cupolas . In a similar way the 16th @-@ century tower house of Lauriston Castle was turned into the Victorian ideal of a " rambling medieval house " . The style spread south and the famous architect Edward Blore added a Scots Baronial touch to his work at Windsor .
With this pace of change concerns had begun to grow by the middle of the century about the threat to medieval buildings in Britain , and in 1877 William Morris established the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings . One result of public pressure was the passing of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 , but the provisions of the act focused on unoccupied prehistoric structures and medieval buildings such as castles were exempted from it leaving no legal protection .
= = 20th – 21st century = =
= = = 1900 – 1945 = = =
During the first half of the century several castles were maintained , or brought back into military use . During the Irish War of Independence Dublin Castle remained the centre of the British administration , military and intelligence operations in Ireland until the transfer of power and the castle to the Irish Free State in 1922 . During the Second World War the Tower of London was used to hold and execute suspected spies , and was used to briefly detain Rudolf Hess , Adolf Hitler 's deputy , in 1941 . Edinburgh Castle was used as a prisoner of war facility , while Windsor Castle was stripped of more delicate royal treasures and used to guard the British royal family from the dangers of the Blitz . Some coastal castles were used to support naval operations : Dover Castle 's medieval fortifications used as basis for defences across the Dover Strait ; Pitreavie Castle in Scotland was used to support the Royal Navy ; and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland was used as a coastal defence base . Some castles , such as Cambridge and Pevensey , were brought into local defence plans in case of a German invasion . A handful of these castles retained a military role after the war ; Dover was used as a nuclear war command centre into the 1950s , while Pitreavie was used by NATO until the turn of the 21st century .
The strong cultural interest in British castles persisted in the 20th century . In some cases this had destructive consequences as wealthy collectors bought and removed architectural features and other historical artefacts from castles for their own collections , a practice that produced significant official concern . Some of the more significant cases included St Donat 's Castle , bought by William Randolph Hearst in 1925 and then decorated with numerous medieval buildings removed from their original sites around Britain , and the case of Hornby , where many parts of the castle were sold off and sent to buyers in the United States . Partially as a result of these events , increasing legal powers were introduced to protect castles – acts of parliament in 1900 and 1910 widened the terms of the earlier legislation on national monuments to allow the inclusion of castles . An act of Parliament in 1913 introduced preservation orders for the first time and these powers were extended in 1931 . Similarly , after the end of the Irish Civil War , the new Irish state took early action to extend and strengthen the previous British legislation to protect Irish national monuments .
Around the beginning of the century there were a number of major restoration projects on British castles . Before the outbreak of the First World War work was undertaken at Chepstow , Bodiam , Caernarfon and Tattershal ; after the end of the war various major state funded restoration projects occurred in the 1920s with Pembroke , Caerphilly and Goodrich amongst the largest of these . This work typically centred on cutting back the vegetation encroaching on castle ruins , especially ivy , and removing damaged or unstable stonework ; castles such as Beaumaris saw their moats cleaned and reflooded . Some castles such as Eilean Donan in Scotland were substantially rebuilt in the inter @-@ war years . The early UK film industry took an interest in castles as potential sets , starting with Ivanhoe filmed at Chepstow Castle in 1913 and starring US leading actor King Baggot .
= = = 1945 – 21st century = = =
After the Second World War picturesque ruins of castles became unfashionable . The conservation preference was to restore castles so as to produce what Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have described as a " meticulously cared for fabric , neat lawns and [ a ] highly regulated , visitor @-@ friendly environment " , although the reconstruction or reproduction of the original appearance of castles was discouraged . As a result , the stonework and walls of today 's castles , used as tourist attractions , are usually in much better condition than would have been the case in the medieval period . Preserving the broader landscapes of the past also rose in importance , reflected in the decision by the UNESCO World Heritage Site programme to internationally recognise several British castles including Beaumaris , Caernarfon , Conwy , Harlech , Durham and the Tower of London as deserving of special international cultural significance in the 1980s .
The single largest group of English castles are now those owned by English Heritage , created out of the former Ministry of Works in 1983 . The National Trust increasingly acquired castle properties in England in the 1950s , and is the second largest single owner , followed by the various English local authorities and finally a small number of private owners . Royal castles such as the Tower of London and Windsor are owned by the Occupied Royal Palaces Estate on behalf of the nation . Similar organisations exist in Scotland , where the National Trust for Scotland was established 1931 , and in Ireland , where An Taisce was created in 1948 to working alongside the Irish Ministry of Works to maintain castles and other sites . Some new organisations have emerged in recent years to manage castles , such as the Landmark Trust and the Irish Landmark Trust , which have restored a number of castles in Britain and Ireland over the last few decades .
Castles remain highly popular attractions : in 2009 nearly 2 @.@ 4 million people visited the Tower of London , 1 @.@ 2 million visited Edinburgh Castle , 559 @,@ 000 visited Leeds Castle and 349 @,@ 000 visited Dover Castle . Ireland , which for many years had not exploited the tourist potential of its castle heritage , began to encourage more tourists in the 1960s and 1970s and Irish castles are now a core part of the Irish tourist industry . British and Irish castles are today also closely linked to the international film industry , with tourist visits to castles now often involving not simply a visit to an historic site , but also a visit to the location of a popular film .
The management and handling of Britain 's historic castles has at times been contentious . Castles in the late 20th and early 21st century are usually considered part of the heritage industry , in which historic sites and events are commercially presented as visitor attractions . Some academics , such as David Lowenthal , have critiqued the way in which these histories are constantly culturally and socially reconstructed and condemned the " commercial debasement " of sites such as the Tower of London . The challenge of how to manage these historic properties has often required very practical decisions . At one end of the spectrum owners and architects have had to deal with the practical challenges of repairing smaller decaying castles used as private houses , such as that at Picton Castle where damp proved a considerable problem . At the other end of the scale the fire at Windsor Castle in 1992 opened up a national debate about how the burnt out castle wing should be replaced , the degree to which modern designs should be introduced and who should pay the £ 37 million costs ( £ 50 @.@ 2 million in 2009 terms ) . At Kenilworth the speculative and commercial reconstruction of the castle gardens in an Elizabethan style led to a vigorous academic debate over the interpretation of archaeological and historical evidence . Trends in conservation have altered and , in contrast to the prevailing post @-@ war approach to conservation , recent work at castles such as Wigmore , acquired by English Heritage in 1995 , have attempted to minimise the degree of intervention to the site .
= = Historiography = =
The earliest histories of British and Irish castles were recorded , albeit in a somewhat fragmented fashion , by John Leland in the 16th century and , by the 19th century , historical analysis of castles had become popular . Victorian historians such as George Clark and John Parker concluded that British castles had been built for the purposes of military defence , but believed that their history was pre @-@ Conquest – concluding that the mottes across the countryside had been built by either the Romans or Celts .
The study of castles by historians and archaeologists developed considerably during the 20th century . The early @-@ 20th @-@ century historian and archaeologist Ella Armitage published a ground @-@ breaking book in 1912 , arguing convincingly that British castles were in fact a Norman introduction , while historian Alexander Thompson also published in the same year , charting the course of the military development of English castles through the Middle Ages . The Victoria County History of England began to document the country 's castles on an unprecedented scale , providing an additional resource for historical analysis .
After the Second World War the historical analysis of British castles was dominated by Arnold Taylor , R. Allen Brown and D. J. Cathcart King . These academics made use of a growing amount of archaeological evidence , as the 1940s saw an increasing number of excavations of motte and bailey castles , and the number of castle excavations as a whole went on to double during the 1960s . With an increasing number of castle sites under threat in urban areas , a public scandal in 1972 surrounding the development of the Baynard 's Castle site in London contributed to reforms and a re @-@ prioritisation of funding for rescue archaeology . Despite this the number of castle excavations fell between 1974 and 1984 , with the archaeological work focusing on conducting excavations on a greater number of small @-@ scale , but fewer large @-@ scale sites . The study of British castles remained primarily focused on analysing their military role , however , drawing on the evolutionary model of improvements suggested by Thompson earlier in the century .
In the 1990s a wide @-@ reaching reassessment of the interpretation of British castles took place . A vigorous academic discussion over the history and meanings behind Bodiam Castle began a debate , which concluded that many features of castles previously seen as primarily military in nature were in fact constructed for reasons of status and political power . As historian Robert Liddiard has described it , the older paradigm of " Norman militarism " as the driving force behind the formation of Britain 's castles was replaced by a model of " peaceable power " . The next twenty years was characterised by an increasing number of major publications on castle studies , examining the social and political aspects of the fortifications , as well as their role in the historical landscape . Although not unchallenged , this " revisionist " perspective remains the dominant theme in the academic literature today .
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= Caesar cipher =
In cryptography , a Caesar cipher , also known as Caesar 's cipher , the shift cipher , Caesar 's code or Caesar shift , is one of the simplest and most widely known encryption techniques . It is a type of substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions down the alphabet . For example , with a left shift of 3 , D would be replaced by A , E would become B , and so on . The method is named after Julius Caesar , who used it in his private correspondence .
The encryption step performed by a Caesar cipher is often incorporated as part of more complex schemes , such as the Vigenère cipher , and still has modern application in the ROT13 system . As with all single @-@ alphabet substitution ciphers , the Caesar cipher is easily broken and in modern practice offers essentially no communication security .
= = Example = =
The transformation can be represented by aligning two alphabets ; the cipher alphabet is the plain alphabet rotated left or right by some number of positions . For instance , here is a Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places , equivalent to a right shift of 23 ( the shift parameter is used as the key ) :
Plain : ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Cipher : XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
When encrypting , a person looks up each letter of the message in the " plain " line and writes down the corresponding letter in the " cipher " line .
Plaintext : THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG
Ciphertext : QEB NRFZH YOLTK CLU GRJMP LSBO QEB IXWV ALD
Deciphering is done in reverse , with a right shift of 3 .
The encryption can also be represented using modular arithmetic by first transforming the letters into numbers , according to the scheme , A |
= 0 , B =
1 , ... , Z = 25 . Encryption of a letter <formula> by a shift n can be described mathematically as ,
<formula>
Decryption is performed similarly ,
<formula>
( There are different definitions for the modulo operation . In the above , the result is in the range 0 ... 25 . I.e. , if x + n or x @-@ n are not in the range 0 ... 25 , we have to subtract or add 26 . )
The replacement remains the same throughout the message , so the cipher is classed as a type of monoalphabetic substitution , as opposed to polyalphabetic substitution .
= = History and usage = =
The Caesar cipher is named after Julius Caesar , who , according to Suetonius , used it with a shift of three to protect messages of military significance . While Caesar 's was the first recorded use of this scheme , other substitution ciphers are known to have been used earlier .
If he had anything confidential to say , he wrote it in cipher , that is , by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet , that not a word could be made out . If anyone wishes to decipher these , and get at their meaning , he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet , namely D , for A , and so with the others .
His nephew , Augustus , also used the cipher , but with a right shift of one , and it did not wrap around to the beginning of the alphabet :
Whenever he wrote in cipher , he wrote B for A , C for B , and the rest of the letters on the same principle , using AA for Z.
There is evidence that Julius Caesar used more complicated systems as well , and one writer , Aulus Gellius , refers to a ( now lost ) treatise on his ciphers :
There is even a rather ingeniously written treatise by the grammarian Probus concerning the secret meaning of letters in the composition of Caesar 's epistles .
It is unknown how effective the Caesar cipher was at the time , but it is likely to have been reasonably secure , not least because most of Caesar 's enemies would have been illiterate and others would have assumed that the messages were written in an unknown foreign language . There is no record at that time of any techniques for the solution of simple substitution ciphers . The earliest surviving records date to the 9th century works of Al @-@ Kindi in the Arab world with the discovery of frequency analysis .
A Caesar cipher with a shift of one is used on the back of the mezuzah to encrypt the names of God . This may be a holdover from an earlier time when Jewish people were not allowed to have mezuzot . The letters of the cryptogram themselves comprise a religiously significant " divine name " which Orthodox belief holds keeps the forces of evil in check .
In the 19th century , the personal advertisements section in newspapers would sometimes be used to exchange messages encrypted using simple cipher schemes . Kahn ( 1967 ) describes instances of lovers engaging in secret communications enciphered using the Caesar cipher in The Times . Even as late as 1915 , the Caesar cipher was in use : the Russian army employed it as a replacement for more complicated ciphers which had proved to be too difficult for their troops to master ; German and Austrian cryptanalysts had little difficulty in decrypting their messages .
Caesar ciphers can be found today in children 's toys such as secret decoder rings . A Caesar shift of thirteen is also performed in the ROT13 algorithm , a simple method of obfuscating text widely found on Usenet and used to obscure text ( such as joke punchlines and story spoilers ) , but not seriously used as a method of encryption .
A construction of 2 rotating disks with a Caesar cipher can be used to encrypt or decrypt the code .
The Vigenère cipher uses a Caesar cipher with a different shift at each position in the text ; the value of the shift is defined using a repeating keyword . If the keyword is as long as the message , chosen random , never becomes known to anyone else , and is never reused , this is the one @-@ time pad cipher , proven unbreakable . The conditions are so difficult they are , in practical effect , never achieved . Keywords shorter than the message ( e.g. , " Complete Victory " used by the Confederacy during the American Civil War ) , introduce a cyclic pattern that might be detected with a statistically advanced version of frequency analysis .
In April 2006 , fugitive Mafia boss Bernardo Provenzano was captured in Sicily partly because some of his messages , clumsily written in a variation of the Caesar cipher , were broken . Provenzano 's cipher used numbers , so that " A " would be written as " 4 " , " B " as " 5 " , and so on .
In 2011 , Rajib Karim was convicted in the United Kingdom of " terrorism offences " after using the Caesar cipher to communicate with Bangladeshi Islamic activists discussing plots to blow up British Airways planes or disrupt their IT networks . Although the parties had access to far better encryption techniques ( Karim himself used PGP for data storage on computer disks ) , they chose to use their own scheme ( implemented in Microsoft Excel ) , rejecting a more sophisticated code program called Mujhaddin Secrets " because ' kaffirs ' , or non @-@ believers , know about it , so it must be less secure " .
The animated series Gravity Falls uses the Caesar cipher as one of three different ciphers ( the other two being Atbash and an A1Z26 cipher ) during the end credits of the first six episodes .
= = Breaking the cipher = =
The Caesar cipher can be easily broken even in a ciphertext @-@ only scenario . Two situations can be considered :
an attacker knows ( or guesses ) that some sort of simple substitution cipher has been used , but not specifically that it is a Caesar scheme ;
an attacker knows that a Caesar cipher is in use , but does not know the shift value .
In the first case , the cipher can be broken using the same techniques as for a general simple substitution cipher , such as frequency analysis or pattern words . While solving , it is likely that an attacker will quickly notice the regularity in the solution and deduce that a Caesar cipher is the specific algorithm employed .
In the second instance , breaking the scheme is even more straightforward . Since there are only a limited number of possible shifts ( 26 in English ) , they can each be tested in turn in a brute force attack . One way to do this is to write out a snippet of the ciphertext in a table of all possible shifts – a technique sometimes known as " completing the plain component " . The example given is for the ciphertext " EXXEGOEXSRGI " ; the plaintext is instantly recognisable by eye at a shift of four . Another way of viewing this method is that , under each letter of the ciphertext , the entire alphabet is written out in reverse starting at that letter . This attack can be accelerated using a set of strips prepared with the alphabet written down in reverse order . The strips are then aligned to form the ciphertext along one row , and the plaintext should appear in one of the other rows .
Another brute force approach is to match up the frequency distribution of the letters . By graphing the frequencies of letters in the ciphertext , and by knowing the expected distribution of those letters in the original language of the plaintext , a human can easily spot the value of the shift by looking at the displacement of particular features of the graph . This is known as frequency analysis . For example , in the English language the plaintext frequencies of the letters E , T , ( usually most frequent ) , and Q , Z ( typically least frequent ) are particularly distinctive . Computers can also do this by measuring how well the actual frequency distribution matches up with the expected distribution ; for example , the chi @-@ squared statistic can be used .
For natural language plaintext , there will , in all likelihood , be only one plausible decryption , although for extremely short plaintexts , multiple candidates are possible . For example , the ciphertext MPQY could , plausibly , decrypt to either " aden " or " know " ( assuming the plaintext is in English ) ; similarly , " ALIIP " to " dolls " or " wheel " ; and " AFCCP " to " jolly " or " cheer " ( see also unicity distance ) .
Multiple encryptions and decryptions provide no additional security . This is because two encryptions of , say , shift A and shift B , will be equivalent to an encryption with shift A + B. In mathematical terms , the encryption under various keys forms a group .
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= SM UB @-@ 8 =
SM UB @-@ 8 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She was sold to Bulgaria in 1916 and renamed Podvodnik No. 18 ( Bulgarian : Пoдвoдник № 18 ) , and was the first ever Bulgarian submarine .
UB @-@ 8 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 8 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 8 was originally one of a pair of UB I boats sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to replace an Austrian pair to be sent to the Dardanelles , and was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Pola in March 1915 for reassembly . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 8 in the German Imperial Navy in April when the Austrians opted out of the agreement .
Although briefly a part of the Pola Flotilla at commissioning , UB @-@ 8 spent the majority of her German career patrolling the Black Sea as part of the Constantinople Flotilla . The U @-@ boat sank two ships . One of them , SS Merion , was disguised by the British Admiralty as a Royal Navy battlecruiser as part of a decoy operation . In October , she helped repel a Russian bombardment of Bulgaria .
In May 1916 , the submarine was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy as Podvodnik No. 18 and commissioned in a ceremony that was attended by Crown Prince Boris and Prince Kiril . In Bulgarian service , the submarine patrolled the Bulgarian Black Sea coast and had encounters with Russian vessels on several occasions . After the war ended , the submarine was surrendered to France in February 1919 and scrapped at Bizerta in August 1921 . However , in July 2011 Viceadmiral Manushev , Commander of the Bulgarian Navy , announced that the submarine , discovered in 2010 at the sea bottom near the town of Varna , is UB @-@ 8 . Divers discovered manufacturer numbers and according to them the identity is confirmed .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 8 was last boat of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered from UB @-@ 1 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 8 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 4 December . As built , UB @-@ 8 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 8 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 8 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 8 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
While UB @-@ 8 's construction neared completion in early March 1915 , Enver Pasha and other Turkish leaders were pleading with their German and Austro @-@ Hungarian allies to send submarines to the Dardanelles to help attack the British and French fleet pounding Turkish positions . The Germans induced the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) to send two boats — its own Germaniawerft @-@ built boats U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 — with the promise of UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 as replacements .
When work on UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , they were both readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . The boats were ready for shipment to the main Austrian naval base at Pola on 15 March , despite the fact that the Austrian pair was still not ready . German engineers and technicians that accompanied the German boats to Pola worked under the supervision of Kapitänleutnant Hans Adam , head of the newly created U @-@ boat special command ( German : Sonderkommando ) . Typically , the UB I assembly process took about two to three weeks , and , accordingly , UB @-@ 8 was launched at Pola sometime in April .
= = German career = =
During her trials , UB @-@ 8 was assigned the Austrian number of U @-@ 8 and an Austrian commander . Her German crew at Pola — since it was still the intent for UB @-@ 8 to be transferred to the K.u.K. Kriegsmarine — wore either civilian clothes or Austrian uniforms . As time dragged on , the Austrian U @-@ 3 and U @-@ 4 were still not ready , and eventually Admiral Anton Haus , the head of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , reneged on his commitment because of the overt hostility from neighbor and former ally Italy .
With the change of heart from the Austrians , Germany resolved to retain UB @-@ 8 and send her to the aid of the Turks . So , the boat was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 8 on 23 April under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ernst von Voigt , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . At commissioning , the boat temporarily joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) .
Because of her limited range , UB @-@ 8 would not have been able to make the entire journey to Turkey , so on 2 May , she was towed by the Austrian cruiser SMS Novara from Pola down the Adriatic and through the Straits of Otranto . The duo continued until spotted by French forces near Kefalonia . UB @-@ 8 slipped the tow and Novara raced back into the Adriatic without incident . Two days after her departure , UB @-@ 8 was running on the surface when the stern of the boat suddenly dropped . The watch officer , on the conning tower with the helmsman and a lookout , was able to partially close the hatch before the entire submarine slipped below the waves , depositing the three men in the water . On board the submarine , water continued to pour in through the hatch and the boat was sinking by the stern . Voigt ordered the interior hatch to the control room sealed and all the ballast tanks filled with compressed air to increase buoyancy . The tactic returned UB @-@ 8 to the surface where the boat 's diesel engines were restarted . Voigt circled back for the missing crewmen but only the watch officer and helmsman were recovered ; the lookout had drowned .
On 29 May 1915 , UB @-@ 8 came upon an Allied convoy near Lemnos , and , enticed by the prospect of hitting what he identified as the Royal Navy battlecruiser HMS Tiger , Voigt allowed five fully laden transport ships to pass unmolested . When he had a clear shot , Voigt launched one of his torpedoes at the stationary ship and hit it , sending debris into the air . Unfortunately for Voigt and UB @-@ 8 , they had in fact torpedoed the British ocean liner SS Merion , which was a participant in an Admiralty plan to disguise large liners as Royal Navy capital ships . Merion , which eventually sank on 31 May , had been outfitted with wood and canvas " guns " and overloaded with cement and stones to approximate the profile of Tiger . There are no reports of any deaths during Merion 's sinking .
On 4 June , UB @-@ 8 became the first submarine in the new Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeer division in Konstantinopel ) based in Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) . Despite German intentions to use her in the Dardanelles , UB @-@ 8 was ineffective because she was hampered by her limited torpedo supply and her weak engines , which made negotiating the strong currents there nearly impossible . Because of this , UB @-@ 8 was sent to patrol in the Black Sea , where she was active by late July . Off Sevastopol on 31 July , UB @-@ 8 sank her second and final ship , the 1 @,@ 265 @-@ ton Russian ship Peter Melnikoff .
On 12 August , UB @-@ 8 fired a torpedoe at HMS Manica from 500 yards , which passed under Manica 's shallow draught , the submarine was then sighted outside net , two torpedoes fired and missed Manica , which hit the net at an acute angle and burst . An attack two days later on similar vessels was also unsuccessful .
In September , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were sent to Varna , Bulgaria , and from there , to patrol off the Russian Black Sea coast . Because Bulgaria had joined the Central Powers , battleships of the Russian Black Sea Fleet , and aircraft from the seaplane carriers Almaz and Imperator Nikolai I began attacks on Varna and the Bulgarian coast on 25 October . UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 , both based out of Varna by this time , sortied to disrupt the bombardment . UB @-@ 8 was never able to launch any attacks , but UB @-@ 7 launched a torpedo at the Russian battleship Panteleimon ( most well @-@ known under her former name of Potemkin ) , but it missed . Despite the lack of any success by either submarine , their presence did cause the Russians to break off their attacks and withdraw .
In early 1916 , UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 were still cruising in the Black Sea out of Varna . The Germans did not have good luck in the Black Sea , which was not a priority for them . The Bulgarians , who saw the value of the submarines in repelling Russian attacks , began negotiations to purchase UB @-@ 7 and UB @-@ 8 . Bulgarian sailors practiced in the pair of boats and technicians were sent to Kiel for training at the German submarine school there . The transfer of UB @-@ 8 to the Bulgarian Navy took place on 25 May 1916 , but for reasons unreported in sources , UB @-@ 7 remained under the German flag .
= = Bulgarian career = =
Upon acceptance of UB @-@ 8 by the Bulgarian Navy , she was renamed Podvodnik No. 18 ( in Cyrillic : Пoдвoдник № 18 ) . Although the commissioning ceremony for Podvodnik No. 18 was kept out of newspapers , it was attended by Crown Prince Boris and his brother Prince Kiril , who both boarded the submarine for a ceremonial first voyage to Euxinograd , the Bulgarian summer palace located just north of Varna . In Bulgarian service , the submarine was armed with a 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) deck gun that supplemented its machine gun .
Podvodnik No. 18 's first patrol under the Bulgarian flag took place on 4 and 5 July 1916 when she sailed to Cape Shabla and Mangalia . The submarine was used for reconnaissance and coastal defense , and patrolled a regular route . This route was a loop that began in Varna and went northward to Kaliakra , Mangalia , and Constanţa ; then southward to Burgas , and Sozopol ; then ended at Varna . On 6 September , she had an encounter with the Russian destroyers Bystry and Gromki , drove off Russian submarines on other occasions , and on 16 December helped turn back a Russian sortie against Balchik . After the Russian withdrawal from World War I in 1917 , Podvodnik No. 18 's activities were greatly reduced .
After the end of the war , Podvodnik No. 18 was surrendered to the French on 23 February 1919 . Towed to Bizerta , she was scrapped after August 1921 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
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= Whitechapel Road =
Whitechapel Road is a major arterial road in Whitechapel , Tower Hamlets , in the East End of London . It is named after a small chapel of ease dedicated to St Mary and connects Aldgate to the west ( as Whitechapel High Street ) with Mile End Road to the east . The road is part of the historic Roman Road from London to Colchester , now the A11 .
The road had become built up by the 19th century and is now a main shopping district in the Whitechapel area . There is an established street market along the road next to Whitechapel tube station . The Whitechapel Bell Foundry and the Royal London Hospital have been based on Whitechapel Road since the 18th century . It remains an important road and is marked with bus lanes , with limited parking .
Several ethnic minority communities have centred on Whitechapel Road . The road was a focal point of the Jewish Community from the 1850s to the 1930s , with many Jewish shops and market stalls . Towards the latter part of the 20th century , the street became an established settlement of the British Bangladeshi community , who now sell a range of authentic Asian food and clothes in the market and on shop fronts . Altab Ali Park sits on the site of the original church at the western end of Whitechapel Road , and is a memorial to an Asian worker who suffered a fatal racial attack in 1978 .
= = Geography = =
The road 's name , along with the area , is derived from the original 14th @-@ century White Chapel . It follows the section of the Roman road between Londinium ( London ) and Camulodunum ( Colchester ) , which connected to the Pye Road to Venta Icenorum ( Caistor St Edmund near Norwich ) . The section of the Roman Road that is now Whitechapel Road is a Primary A @-@ road , the A11 , and has bus lanes running along its length . Owing to the popularity of the market , parking is heavily restricted , limited to occasional parking metered spaces along the road .
Cycle Superhighway CS2 runs along Whitechapel Road . The nearest London Underground stations are Whitechapel station and Aldgate East station and the nearest National Rail station is Bethnal Green railway station . A number of local London Buses routes run along Whitechapel Road , including 25 , 205 and 254 .
= = History = =
The road has been an important thoroughfare and coaching route for centuries . Whitechapel High Street and Whitechapel Road are named as such on John Rocque 's Map of London , 1746 , both marked as " White Chapel " . On John Cary 's " Environs of London " of 1795 ( published in his New Itinerary of 1798 ) there are properties on both sides of the road . By the ninth edition in 1821 , the road is shown as extensively built up . In the mid @-@ 19th century , drovers steered livestock from local farms along the road towards Smithfield Market , causing considerable traffic congestion . By the 1870s , the road had become extensively developed with properties along the entire stretch of the road .
The Freedom Press Bookshop is on Angel Alley , No. 84b Whitechapel High Street , and was established in the 1880s by Peter Kropotkin and Charlotte Wilson as the first publishing house to deal with anarchism and radical publications . The press has been controversial , and was fire @-@ bombed in 2013 , but quickly reopened . The Whitechapel Art Gallery on Whitechapel High Street opened in 1899 . It was designed by Charles Harrison Townsend in 1895 and was the first major art gallery in East London . It has shown works of Jackson Pollock , Robert Rauschenberg and David Hockney . It continues to be the centre of the arts scene in the area .
The Whitechapel Bell Foundry , a principal supplier of church bells in Britain , is based at No. 32 – 34 Whitechapel Road . The buildings date from 1670 and are Grade II listed . Originally a coaching inn known as The Artichoke , it has been occupied by the foundry since 1738 , replacing smaller premises on the north side of the road . Davenant Foundation School moved to No. 173 Whitechapel Road in 1818 . The school expanded with a new hall and classrooms in 1896 , with further improvements in 1909 . However , a decreasing child population meant that in 1965 , the school moved to Loughton , Essex . The building remains on the north side and is Grade II listed .
Continuing eastwards , Whitechapel tube station is on the north side of the road , alongside the street market . Behind the tube station is the former site of Blackwall Buildings a set of philanthropic houses built in 1890 . Just to the east of the market are almshouses at Trinity House , that were originally built in 1695 for retired seamen .
Nearby is the former site of St. Mary 's ( Whitechapel Road ) tube station . The station opened in March 1884 but its close proximity to both Whitechapel and Aldgate East tube stations made it superfluous , leading to its closure in April 1938 . It was used as an air raid shelter in World War II , but was destroyed by bombing in 1940 . Opposite to the south is the former Royal London Hospital building , built in 1740 . The hospital suffered significant structural damage during World War II , but much of the 18th- and 19th @-@ century architecture still remains . A new building now sits adjacent to the original .
The Pavilion Theatre opened on Nos.191 – 193 Whitechapel Road , the site of a former clothes factory , in 1828 . It was the first major theatre to open in the East End of London . The original building was destroyed in a fire in 1856 , and was replaced by a larger theatre that could accommodate over 1 @,@ 000 people , becoming the centre of Yiddish theatre in Britain . It closed in 1934 .
During the 1940s , the Metropolitan Police attempted to crack down on illegal gambling held in social clubs along Whitechapel Road . The Brancroft Social Club was based at No. 69 , and in March 1944 , a police raid uncovered unlicensed horse and dog race betting which led to the arrest of the club 's owner and 21 patrons .
The Albion Brewery was first established at the eastern end of Whitechapel Road in 1808 by Richard Ivory , landlord of the Blind Beggar . In 1860 , the brewery was rebuilt , producing an average of 133 @,@ 000 barrels of beer a year . It closed in 1979 .
The Eastern District Post Office is based at the eastern end of Whitechapel Road , on the south side . This was the eastern terminus for the former London Post Office Railway ( colloquially known as the " Mail Rail " ) , built to allow fast mail transfers across London . It closed in 2003 . Beyond this is Mile End Gate – where the road becomes Mile End Road ; and was the site of the former toll gate .
= = Community = =
The road has the been the centre of several ethnic minority groups in London . In the 1840s , many Irish emigrated to avoid the potato famine and began street selling at Whitechapel Market and along Whitechapel Road .
The Jewish community settled on and around Whitechapel Road from the 1850s onwards . In the 1880s , the community expanded rapidly as Ashkenazi Jews fled to Britain and took over many of the shops and market stalls on the street . For the remainder of the century and much of the 20th , the road was the focal point of the community . The nearby Jewish Free School was , at one point , the largest educational establishment in the world , with over 4 @,@ 300 pupils . A fountain opposite the Royal London Hospital in memory of King Edward VII has the inscription " erected from subscriptions raised by Jewish inhabitants of East London " . On 4 October 1936 , British Union of Fascists leader Oswald Mosley organised an anti @-@ Jewish parade through the East End that included passing through Whitechapel Road , but was stopped by a crowd of protesters . The sentiment against Jews in Whitechapel Road caused the community to dissolve from the 1930s onwards ; the Pavilion Theatre closed and the Jewish Free School was destroyed in the Blitz during World War II . The Yiddish newspaper The Jewish Times ( Die Zeit ) was produced at No. 135 Whitechapel Road from 1913 to 1936 .
Towards the end of the 20th century , the street , along with nearby Brick Lane became the centre of the British Bangladeshi community . The East London Mosque on Whitechapel Road was opened by Shaykh Abdullah bin Subayl in 1985 and can accommodate over 3 @,@ 000 worshippers , with dedicated facilities for women . The nearby London Muslim Centre opened in 2003 . Whitechapel Market caters well for the community , with stalls stocking Asian fruit and vegetables including okra and mangoes , clothing such as tunics and pashminas , and mobile phone cards for cheap long @-@ distance calls . A racially motivated attack on local worker Altab Ali near Whitechapel Road in May 1978 was a significant event for the local Asian community , and his life is now commemorated in Altab Ali Park at the western end of the road , which was built on the former St Mary 's church grounds .
= = Events = =
The area around Whitechapel Road is notorious for the 19th @-@ century Whitechapel Murders , which are believed to be linked to Jack The Ripper . One of the first victims was Martha Tabram , who was found with multiple stab wounds on George Yard Buildings , Whitechapel Road on 7 August 1888 .
Joseph Merrick , the Elephant Man , moved to Whitechapel Road in 1884 . Visitors paid to see him in the back room of a shop owned by showman Tom Norman . The shop was directly opposite the Royal London Hospital , and Merrick was frequently visited by doctors . Merrick later moved to the hospital permanently , where he spent the last years of his life .
The Blind Beggar is at No. 337 and was the founding point of the Salvation Army following a meeting outside the pub by William Booth in 1865 . On 9 March 1966 , the venue became notorious after Ronnie Kray fatally shot George Cornell at the pub . The premises remains open for business , though it has been refurbished several times . The Kray Twins also used the Blackwall Buildings , by then dilapidated , as a form of punishment by locking a victim in a flat alone with Ronnie 's German Shepherd dog .
= = Cultural references = =
Whitechapel Road is the equal cheapest property location on the British version of the Monopoly game board . Both it and the Old Kent Road are priced at £ 60 . In reality , increasing property prices across London meant that the average house price on Whitechapel Road in 2013 was £ 295 @,@ 082 .
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= Bookends ( album ) =
Bookends is the fourth studio album by American music duo Simon & Garfunkel . Produced by Paul Simon , Roy Halee and Art Garfunkel , the album was released on April 3 , 1968 in the United States by Columbia Records . The duo had risen to fame two years prior with hit albums such as Sounds of Silence and Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme , radio singles , and touring colleges . In 1967 , Simon was approached by director Mike Nichols to write songs for his next film , The Graduate . Released several weeks prior to Bookends , the soundtrack album propelled the band further into stardom .
Bookends , in contrast to the soundtrack album , follows a unified concept , exploring a life journey from childhood to old age . Side one of the album marks successive stages in life , the theme serving as literal bookends to the life cycle . Side two largely consists of unused material for The Graduate soundtrack . Simon 's lyrics largely revolve around youth , disillusionment , relationships , old age , and mortality . Much of the material was crafted alongside producer John Simon , who joined the recording process when Paul Simon suffered from writer 's block . As a result , the album was recorded gradually over the period of a year , with production speeding up around the later months of 1967 .
Initial sales for Bookends were substantial in the US , and the album produced the number one hit single , " Mrs. Robinson " . The album was mainly a hit in the duo 's native country as well as the United Kingdom , where in both countries it peaked at number one . Bookends was considered a breakthrough for the group , placing them on the same level as artists such as The Beatles , Bob Dylan and The Rolling Stones at the forefront of the cultural movement in the 1960s . The album has continued to receive critical acclaim in recent years as one of the duo 's finest efforts .
= = Background = =
Simon & Garfunkel first burst onto the national scene when their hit single " The Sound of Silence " made waves on radio in 1965 , during a period in which the duo had broken up due to the failure of their debut release , Wednesday Morning , 3 AM ( 1964 ) . Following another release , Sounds of Silence ( 1965 ) , the duo recorded and released Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme ( 1966 ) , which brought new critical and commercial success to the duo . Simon , then 27 , felt he had finally " made it " into an upper echelon of rock and roll , while most importantly retaining artistic integrity ( " making him spiritually closer to Bob Dylan than to , say , Bobby Darin " , wrote biographer Marc Eliot ) . The duo chose William Morris as their booking agency after a recommendation from Wally Amos , a mutual friend through their producer , Tom Wilson .
During the sessions for Parsley , the duo cut " A Hazy Shade of Winter " and decided to release it as a single then , where it peaked at number 13 on the national charts . Similarly , they recorded " At the Zoo " for single release in early 1967 ( it charted lower , at number 16 ) . Simon began work for Bookends around this time , noting to a writer at High Fidelity that " I 'm not interested in singles anymore " . He had hit a dry spell in his writing , which led to no Simon & Garfunkel album on the horizon for 1967 . Artists at the time were expected to release two , perhaps three albums each year and the lack of productivity from the duo worried executives at Columbia Records . Amid concerns for Simon 's idleness , Columbia Records chairman Clive Davis arranged for up @-@ and @-@ coming record producer John Simon to kick @-@ start the recording . Simon was distrustful of " suits " at the label ; on one occasion , he and Garfunkel brought a tape recorder into a meeting with Davis , who was giving a " fatherly talk " on speeding up production , in order to laugh at it later .
Meanwhile , director Mike Nichols , then filming The Graduate , had become fascinated with the duo 's past two efforts , listening to them nonstop before and after filming . After two weeks of this obsession , he met with Clive Davis to ask for permission to license Simon & Garfunkel music for his film . Davis viewed it as a perfect fit and envisioned a best @-@ selling soundtrack album . Simon was not as immediately receptive , viewing movies akin to " selling out " , creating a damper on his artistic integrity . However , after meeting Nichols and becoming impressed by his wit and the script , he agreed to write at least one or two new songs for the film . Leonard Hirshan , a powerful agent at William Morris , negotiated a deal that paid Simon $ 25 @,@ 000 to submit three songs to Nichols and producer Lawrence Turman . Several weeks later , Simon re @-@ emerged with two new tracks , " Punky 's Dilemma " and " Overs " , neither of which Nichols was particularly taken with . The duo offered another new song , which later became " Mrs. Robinson " , that was not as developed . Nichols loved it .
= = Recording and production = =
Bookends was recorded in fits and starts from 1966 to 1968 . John Simon 's first session with the group was for " Fakin ' It " in June 1967 . The duo were signed under an older contract that specified the label pay for sessions ( " As a folk duo , how much could recording costs be ? " said John Simon ) . Simon & Garfunkel took advantage of this indulgence , hiring viola and brass players , as well as percussionists . When the viola players arrived , the duo were so intrigued with the sound of the musicians tuning their instruments before recording that they spent nearly all night ( at Columbia 's expense ) trying to find the random sound .
The record 's brevity reflects its concise and perfectionistic production . The team spent over 50 studio hours recording " Punky 's Dilemma " , for example , and re @-@ recorded vocal parts , sometimes note by note , until they were satisfied . Simon payed close attention to his vocal takes , and he strived to get each line perfect . He took a bigger role in all aspects of production , and harmonies for which the band was famous gradually disappeared in favor of songs sung solo by each member . Although the album had been planned long in advance , work did not begin in earnest until the late months of 1967 .
John Simon 's work with the duo produced several tracks that ended up on Bookends , such as " Punky 's Dilemma " , " Save the Life of My Child " , and " Overs " . In October 1967 , Morgan Ames , writer for High Fidelity magazine , attended a recording session with the duo , Simon , Halee and an assistant engineer at Columbia 's recording studio on 52nd Street in New York City . Her observations were reported in the November edition of the magazine :
The team 's working relationship is built upon listening to each other , asking advice , taking it , building each other 's morale . Though it 's obvious they enjoy working with John Simon , the last word seems to come from one partner to the other [ … ] Ideas are tried , accepted , rejected . Time passes . Too much time . Too little headway [ … ] " Punky 's Dilemma " is put aside for the moment and Simon begins work on the title song for the new album , Bookends .
Work on Bookends slowed by the beginning of the new year , with John Simon 's departure from Columbia . The duo and Halee completed production themselves , recording " America " on February 1 , the final version of " Mrs. Robinson " on February 2 , and " Old Friends " and the closing " Bookends Theme " on March 8 . Simon felt the album " had the most use of the studio " of all of the duo 's albums .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The " Bookends Theme " that opens and closes side one is played on the acoustic guitar , with no additional instruments . An audio sample of the band 's first hit , " The Sound of Silence " , softly plays during a cacophony of sounds near the end of the second track , " Save the Life of My Child " . John Simon , who was credited with production assistance on the song , created the bassline by playing a Moog synthesizer with help from Bob Moog himself . James Bennighof , author of The Words and Music of Paul Simon , finds that " textural elements are variously supported by a churning groove , percussive , and distorted electronic sounds " that complement the song 's subject matter , suicide suburban youth . " Overs " explores a more jazz @-@ oriented style , with a larger selection or chords and looser form than the group 's previous styles .
" Voices of Old People " is a sound collage , and was recorded on tape by Garfunkel at the United Home for Aged Hebrews and the California Home for the Aged at Reseda . The collection of audio recordings of the elderly find them musing on treasured photographs , illness and living conditions . In " Old Friends " , the title generally conveys the introduction or ending of sections through repetition , and the song builds upon a " rather loose formal structure " that at first includes an acoustic guitar and soft mood . An additional element is introduced midway through the track : an orchestral arrangement conducted by Jimmie Haskell , dominated by strings and xylophone notes . Horns and other instruments are added when the duo cease singing , creating a turbulence that builds to a single high , sustained note on the strings . The song then segues into the final song of side one , the reprise of the " Bookends Theme " .
Side two consists of miscellaneous unrelated songs unused for The Graduate , with many possessing a more rock @-@ based sound than the unified folk songs that precede it . Simon felt the album 's second side were composed of throwaway tracks : " They didn 't mean a lot . They weren 't well recorded . " In " Fakin ' It " , melodies are occasionally deleted to suit lyrics , but the song generally follows a similar chord structure and melodic outline over a " funky rock beat " that sonically references the Beatles ' " Tomorrow Never Knows " . " Punky 's Dilemma " is breezy and minimal musically , with a soft jazz @-@ style percussion and seemingly improvised guitar lines dominated by seventh chords . " Mrs. Robinson " opens with an " instantly recognizable " pop rock guitar hook that carries throughout the track . The first verse consists only of syllables — " dee @-@ dee @-@ dee " and " doo @-@ doo @-@ doo " — that form stable harmonic foundation . The inclusion of the meaningless syllables arises from the unfinished nature of the song when pitched to director Mike Nichols , who particularly liked the verse . " A Hazy Shade of Winter " follows a more rock @-@ tinged sound , with a fairly straightforward verse @-@ refrain structure . " At the Zoo " uses a rock groove that settles into the key of G major .
= = = Lyrics = = =
According to disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale , the album perhaps shares thematic qualities with another concept album , the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , released ten months prior . He equates " At the Zoo " and " Old Friends " to " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! " and " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " , respectively . Fornatale notes , however , that while Sgt. Pepper was notable for sonically colorful , psychedelic shapes , Bookends is starkly contrasted by moody , " black @-@ and @-@ white and gray " sounds . While concept albums were fairly common among rock groups at this time — such as The Rolling Stones ' Their Satanic Majesties Request , The Byrds ' Sweetheart of the Rodeo and Iron Butterfly 's In @-@ a @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida — Bookends enjoyed massive success with the format not unlike the Beatles nearly one year before . Garfunkel confirmed the influence of Sgt. Pepper 's in a 2015 interview , commenting , " We were terribly impressed , and that shone a light on the path that led to Bookends . " Simon often smoked hashish when writing , and he was convinced he must be high to write . He felt the drug had a negative effect and caused him to " retreat more into myself . " He often found himself alone while on tour , and his thoughts grew dark during these times . He attributed " the pain that comes out in some of the songs is due to the exaggeration of being high . "
Bookends contains many of Paul Simon 's major themes , including " youth , alienation , life , love , disillusionment , relationships , old age , and mortality " . Simon 's work on Bookends is loosely autobiographical , designed to function as both a personal and artistic statement . Simon , " feeling especially auteurist in the Dylan style of the day " , had planned out the album 's concept before he began writing , telling Garfunkel " I 'm going to start writing a whole side of an album — a cycle of songs . I want the early ones to be about youth and the last song to be about old age , and I want the feel of each song to fit . " Bookends , originally released primarily on the vinyl LP , opens and closes side one of the disc with the " Bookends Theme " , a brief acoustic piece ( once compared to English rock band the Moody Blues ) that evokes " a time of innocence " . " Save the Life of My Child " is a dramatic story involving drugs , violence and a mother and child relationship . According to James Bennighof , the song " deals with individual crises in crowded urban settings , along with references to larger societal forces and at least a hint of some transcendent perspective " . The song crossfades into " America " , which follows two young lovers — " an apparently impromptu romantic traveling alliance " — as they board a Greyhound bus " to look for America " . It is a protest song that " creates a cinematic vista that tells of the singer 's search for a literal and physical America that seems to have disappeared , along with the country 's beauty and ideals " . " Overs " includes themes regarding the disintegration of love and marriage . " Old Friends " paints a portrait of two old men reminiscing on the years of their youth . The two men " sit on a park bench like bookends " , and ponder how strange it feels to be nearing their lifetime . The song is joined with the " Bookends Theme " , this time with vocal accompaniment from the duo . The piece closes the entire suite with the " resigned admonition " to " Preserve your memories / They 're all that 's left you " .
" Fakin ' It " opens side two and finds the protagonist mulling over his insecurities and shortcomings . It has been suggested that " Fakin ' It " may be an allegory for Simon 's relationship with Art Garfunkel . " Punky 's Dilemma " employs breakfast @-@ food images to lampoon Hollywood and the film industry . It improbably takes an " abrupt left turn " in its third verse , when the singer begins to fantasize himself an admired soldier . " Mrs. Robinson " collects wide @-@ ranging images to address social milieu , with a constant reassurance that Jesus loves the eponymous character , God will bless her , and heaven will welcome her . The song includes a famous reference to athlete Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees , one of Simon 's favorite baseball teams . It also features an explicit homage to the Beatles , with Simon uttering the meaningless phrase " coo @-@ coo @-@ ca @-@ choo " that John Lennon sings in " I Am the Walrus " . " A Hazy Shade of Winter " is an older track that dates back to Simon 's days in England in 1965 . The song follows a hopeless poet , with " manuscripts of unpublished rhyme " , unsure of his achievements in life . In sharp contrast , the whimsical , Orwellian " At the Zoo " both concludes the album and what Simon described as the " cycle of life " . The song indicates that the personalities of certain zoo animals may represent particular walks of people . The song was originally intended as a possible children 's book . According to rock journalist Bud Scoppa , " the record is a meditation on the passage of life and the psychological impact of life 's irreversible , ever @-@ accumulating losses " . The song cycle also describes the life and death of the romantic ideal of the American Dream .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
Prior to release , the band helped put together and performed at the Monterey Pop Festival , which signaled the beginning of the Summer of Love on the West Coast . " Fakin ' It " was issued as a single that summer and found only modest success on AM radio ; the duo were much more focused on the rising FM format , which played album cuts . In January 1968 , the duo appeared on a Kraft Music Hall special , Three for Tonight , performing ten songs largely culled from their third album . Richard Avedon , regarded then as one of the best photographers , was commissioned to shoot the album cover . When viewed up close , one can see Avedon 's reflection in Simon 's irises .
Bookends was released by Columbia Records on April 3 , 1968 . In a historical context , this was just 24 hours before the assassination of Civil Rights Movement activist Martin Luther King , Jr . , which spurred nationwide outrage and riots . Fornatale opines that the album served as " comfort food " during rather tumultuous times within the nation . The album debuted on the Billboard Pop Album Chart in the issue dated April 27 , 1968 , climbing to number one and staying at that position for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it remained on the chart for a total of 66 weeks . Bookends received such heavy orders weeks in advance of its release that Columbia was able to apply for award certification before copies left the warehouse , a fact it touted in magazine ads . The record became the duo 's best @-@ selling album to date : it fed off the buzz created by the release of The Graduate soundtrack album ten weeks earlier , creating an initial combined sales figure of over five million units . In the United Kingdom , Bookends was a number one hit . Likewise , the album charted highly in both Australia and France , where it peaked in both countries at number three .
The duo held a complicated relationship with Davis ; Simon was particularly outraged when he suggested raising the list price of Bookends by one dollar to $ 5 @.@ 79 , above the then standard retail price . Davis explained that by including the large poster with each copy , an extra dollar would be necessary to cover the cost . Simon instead scoffed and viewed it as charging a premium on " what was sure to be that year 's best @-@ selling Columbia album " . According to biographer Marc Eliot , Davis was " offended by what he perceived as their lack of gratitude for what he believed was his role in turning them into superstars " . Rather than implement Davis ' price increase plan , Simon & Garfunkel signed a contract extension with Columbia that guaranteed them a higher royalty rate .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews of Bookends upon its release in 1968 were largely positive . Allen Evans of the British publication New Musical Express ( NME ) gave the record four out of five stars and called it " inspiring , descriptive music , " while noting the album is " Imaginative and at times confusing to know what the composer is getting at , if anything . " Rival newspaper Melody Maker did not use a ratings system , but called Bookends a " thoughtful , clever and well @-@ produced album . " Reviewer Chris Welch criticized the songs as " not particularly tuneful , " but performed with " Beatles fervour and Beatles conviction , " praising the lyricism , opining that " The words capture part of America today , a lot of its sickness and tragedy . " In the US , Rolling Stone reviewer Arthur Schmidt wrote that " The music is , for me , questionable , but I 've always found their music questionable . It is nice enough , and I admit to liking it , but it exudes a sense of process , and it is slick , and nothing too much happens . "
Later reviews were more positive . " In just over 29 minutes , Bookends is stunning in its vision of a bewildered America in search of itself " , said AllMusic writer Thom Jurek , who gave it five stars out of five . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen M. Deusner called Bookends the moment in which the duo " were settling into themselves , losing their folk revival pretensions and emphasizing quirky production techniques to match their soaring vocals " . The A.V. Club called it the group 's " most musically and conceptually daring album " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Mrs. Robinson " became the first rock and roll song to win Record of the Year at the 11th Annual Grammy Awards in 1969 ; it also nabbed the honor of Best Contemporary Pop Performance by a Duo or Group .
( * ) designates unordered lists .
= = Legacy = =
The album , alongside The Graduate soundtrack , propelled Simon & Garfunkel to become the biggest rock duo in the world . Simon was approached by numerous film producers who desired for him to write music for their films or license a track ; he turned down Franco Zeffirelli , who was preparing to film Brother Sun , Sister Moon , and John Schlesinger , who likewise was readying to shoot Midnight Cowboy . In addition to Hollywood proposals , producers from the Broadway show Jimmy Shine ( starring Simon 's friend Dustin Hoffman , also the lead in Midnight Cowboy ) asked for two original songs and Simon declined . He eventually paired with Leonard Bernstein , with whom he collaborated for a short time on a sacred mass ( he eventually withdrew from the project , " finding it perhaps too far afield from his comfort zone " . )
Disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale writes that Bookends represents " a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ career convergence of musical , personal , and societal forces that placed Simon & Garfunkel squarely at the center of the cultural zeitgeist of the sixties " . Rolling Stone credited the record with striking a chord among lonely , adrift young adults near the end of the decade , writing that a lyric in " A Hazy Shade of Winter " — " Time , time , time , see what ’ s become of me ... " — " defined the moment for a generation on the edge of adulthood " . Many viewed Bookends as the band 's most accomplished work at the time , a breakthrough in production and songwriting . " Bookends was our first serious piece of work , I 'd say " , said Simon in a 1984 interview with Playboy .
In 2010 , a line from the song " America " — " All gone to look for America " — began appearing spray @-@ painted on vacant buildings and abandoned factories in the town of Saginaw , Michigan , which is mentioned in the song . A loose group of artists , who eventually became known as " Paint Saginaw " , began duplicating the phrase after the city 's population had dwindled vastly , noting that the song now encapsulated a sense of nostalgia for a bygone era among the city 's residents .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Paul Simon , except where noted .
Tracks 1 , 3 , 5 @-@ 7 & 10 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel & Roy Halee Tracks 2 , 4 , 8 & 9 Produced by John Simon Track 11 Produced by Bob Johnston Track 12 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel & Bob Johnston
Track 13 Produced by John Simon Track 14 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel , Roy Halee
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Bookends adapted from AllMusic .
= = Chart positions = =
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= Morden tube station =
Morden is a London Underground station in Morden in the London Borough of Merton . The station is the southern terminus for the Northern line and is the most southerly station on the Underground network . The next station north is South Wimbledon . The station is located on London Road ( A24 ) , and is in Travelcard Zone 4 . Nearby are Morden Hall Park , the Baitul Futuh Mosque and Morden Park .
The station was one of the first modernist designs produced for the London Underground by Charles Holden . Its opening in 1926 contributed to the rapid development of new suburbs in what was then a rural part of Surrey with the population of the parish increasing nine @-@ fold in the decade 1921 – 1931 .
= = History = =
In the period following the end of First World War , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) began reviving a series of prewar plans for line extensions and improvements that had been postponed during the hostilities . Finance for the works was made possible by the government 's Trade Facilities Act , 1921 , which , as a means of alleviating unemployment , provided for the Treasury to underwrite the value of loans raised by companies for public works .
One of the projects that had been postponed was the Wimbledon and Sutton Railway ( W & SR ) , a plan for a new surface line from Wimbledon to Sutton over which the UERL 's District Railway had control . The UERL wished to maximise its use of the government 's time @-@ limited financial backing , and , in November 1922 , presented bills to parliament to construct the W & SR in conjunction with an extension of the UERL 's City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) south from Clapham Common through Balham , Tooting and Merton .
The C & SLR would connect to the W & SR route south of Morden station and run trains to Sutton and the District Railway would run trains between Wimbledon and Sutton . Under these proposals , the station on the C & SLR extension would have been named " North Morden " and the station on the W & SR route would have been called " South Morden " ( now Morden South ) . The proposals also included a depot at Morden for use by both District Railway and C & SLR trains .
The Southern Railway objected to this encroachment into its area of operation and the anticipated loss of its passenger traffic to the C & SLR 's more direct route to central London . The UERL and SR reached an agreement in July 1923 that enabled the C & SLR to extend as far as Morden in exchange for the UERL giving up its rights over the W & SR route .
Once the station was opened , the UERL established Morden , the southernmost on the system , as the hub for numerous bus routes heading further into suburban south London and northern Surrey . These routes had a significant impact on the Southern Railway 's main line operations in the area , with the SR estimating in 1928 that it had lost approximately four million passengers per year . The UERL though was able to demonstrate that its passenger numbers on its buses to Sutton station were actually more than double those for Morden . Across the road from the station , the UERL opened its own petrol station and garage where commuters with cars could leave their vehicles during the day . The opening of the C & SLR and the Wimbledon to Sutton line led to rapid construction of suburban housing throughout the area . The population of the parish of Morden , previously the most rural of the areas through which the lines passed , increased from 1 @,@ 355 in 1921 to 12 @,@ 618 in 1931 and 35 @,@ 417 in 1951 .
= = Station building = =
Construction of the C & SLR extension was rapidly carried out and Morden station was opened on 13 September 1926 . Morden in 1926 was a rural area and the station was built on open farmland , giving its architect , Charles Holden , more space than had been available for the majority of the stations on the new extension which were located in already built @-@ up areas . The stations on the Morden extension were Holden 's first major project for the Underground . He was selected by Frank Pick , general manager of the UERL , to design the stations after he was dissatisfied with designs produced by the UERL 's own architect , Stanley Heaps .
In a letter to his friend Harry Peach , a fellow member of the Design and Industries Association ( DIA ) , Pick explained his choice of Holden : " I may say that we are going to build our stations upon the Morden extension railway to the most modern pattern . We are going to discard entirely all ornament . We are going to build in reinforced concrete . The station will be simply a hole in the wall , everything being sacrificed to the doorway and some notice above to tell you to what the doorway leads . We are going to represent the DIA gone mad , and in order that I may go mad in good company I have got Holden to see that we do it properly . "
Built with a range of shops to both sides , the modernist design of the entrance vestibule takes the form of a double @-@ height box clad in white Portland stone with a three @-@ part glazed screen on the front façade divided by columns of which the capitals are three @-@ dimensional versions of the Underground roundel . The central panel of the screen contains a large version of the roundel . The ticket hall beyond is octagonal with a central roof light of the same shape . The ticket hall originally had a pair of wooden ticket booths ( passimeters ) from which tickets were issued and collected , but these were removed when modern ticketing systems made them redundant .
The main structure of the station and the shops to each side was designed with the intention of taking upward development on its roof , though this did not come until around 1960 when three storeys of office building were added .
Unlike the other stations built for the extension , the station 's platforms are not in tunnels , but in a wide cutting with the tunnel portals a short distance to the north . Three tracks run through the station to the depot , and the station has three platforms , two of which are island platforms with tracks on each side . The platforms are accessed by steps down from the ticket hall and are numbered 1 to 5 from east to west ; the island platforms have different numbers for each face ( 2 / 3 and 4 / 5 ) . To indicate departures , the platforms are usually referred to as 2 , 3 and 5 . The tunnel portals are one end of the longest tunnel on the London Underground running 27 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 17 @.@ 3 mi ) to East Finchley via the Bank branch .
Refurbishment and improvement works completed in 2007 included new and reconstructed cross bridges between platforms and the installation of lifts for mobility impaired passengers . Cosmetic improvements carried out at the same time included the reinstatement of pole @-@ mounted roundels on the sides of the entrance vestibule . Other work in the 2000s at the station includes the construction of a substantial air rights building spanning across the cutting .
The station is locally listed by Merton Council as being of architectural interest , though not statutorily listed like the others on the Morden extension .
= = Services and connections = =
The station sits at the southern end of the Northern line in London fare zone 4 . It is the southernmost station on the whole London Underground network . The next station to the north is South Wimbledon . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally operate every 2 – 5 minutes between 05 : 15 and midnight .
London Bus routes 80 , 93 , 118 , 154 , 157 , 163 , 164 , 201 , 293 , 413 , 470 and K5 , and night route N155 serve the station .
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= Prince Rupert of the Rhine =
Rupert , Count Palatine of the Rhine , Duke of Bavaria , Duke of Cumberland , Earl of Holderness ( German : Ruprecht Pfalzgraf bei Rhein , Herzog von Bayern ) , commonly called Prince Rupert of the Rhine , KG , PC , FRS ( 17 December 1619 – 29 November 1682 ) , was a noted German soldier , admiral , scientist , sportsman , colonial governor and amateur artist during the 17th century . Rupert was a younger son of the German prince Frederick V , Elector Palatine and his wife Elizabeth , the eldest daughter of James I of England . Thus Rupert was the nephew of King Charles I of England , who made him Duke of Cumberland and Earl of Holderness , and the first cousin of King Charles II of England . His sister Electress Sophia was the mother of George I of Great Britain .
Prince Rupert had a varied career . He was a soldier from a young age , fighting against Spain in the Netherlands during the Eighty Years ' War ( 1568 – 1648 ) , and against the Holy Roman Emperor in Germany during the Thirty Years ' War ( 1618 – 48 ) . Aged 23 , he was appointed commander of the Royalist cavalry during the English Civil War , becoming the archetypal Cavalier of the war and ultimately the senior Royalist general . He surrendered after the fall of Bristol and was banished from England . He served under Louis XIV of France against Spain , and then as a Royalist privateer in the Caribbean . Following the Restoration , Rupert returned to England , becoming a senior British naval commander during the Second and Third Anglo @-@ Dutch wars , engaging in scientific invention , art , and serving as the first governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company . Rupert died in England in 1682 , aged 62 .
Rupert is considered to have been a quick @-@ thinking and energetic cavalry general , but ultimately undermined by his youthful impatience in dealing with his peers during the Civil War . In the Interregnum , Rupert continued the conflict against Parliament by sea from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean , showing considerable persistence in the face of adversity . As the head of the Royal Navy in his later years , he showed greater maturity and made impressive and long @-@ lasting contributions to the Royal Navy 's doctrine and development . As a colonial governor , Rupert shaped the political geography of modern Canada — Rupert 's Land was named in his honour . He also played a role in the early African slave trade . Rupert 's varied and numerous scientific and administrative interests combined with his considerable artistic skills made him one of the more colourful individuals of the Restoration period .
= = Early life and exile = =
Rupert was born in Prague in 1619 , at the start of the Thirty Years ' War , to Frederick V , Elector Palatine , and Elizabeth Stuart , and was declared a prince by the principality of Lusatia . He was given his name in honour of King Rupert of Germany , a famous Wittelsbach ancestor . Rupert 's father was a leading member of the Holy Roman Empire and the head of the Protestant Union , with a martial family tradition stretching back several centuries . Rupert 's family was at the heart of a network of Protestant rulers across the north of Europe , as Frederick had close ties through his mother to the ruling House of Orange @-@ Nassau in the United Provinces , and Elizabeth was the daughter of James I of England and Anne of Denmark . The family lived an extremely wealthy lifestyle in Heidelberg , enjoying the palace gardens — the Hortus Palatinus , designed by Inigo Jones and Salomon de Caus — and a lavish castle with one of the best libraries in Europe .
Frederick had allied himself with rebellious Protestant Bohemian nobility in 1619 , expecting support from the Protestant Union in his revolt against the Catholic Ferdinand II , the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor . This support was not forthcoming , resulting in a crushing defeat at the hands of his Catholic enemies at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 . Rupert 's parents were mockingly termed the " Winter King and Queen " as a consequence of their reigns in Bohemia having lasted only a single season . Rupert was almost left behind in the court 's rush to escape Ferdinand 's advance on Prague , until Kryštof z Donína ( Christopher Dhona ) , a court member , tossed the prince into a carriage at the last moment .
Rupert accompanied his parents to The Hague , where he spent his early years at the Hof te Wassenaer , the Wassenaer Court . Rupert 's mother paid her children little attention even by the standards of the day , apparently preferring her pet monkeys and dogs . Instead , Frederick employed Monsieur and Madame de Plessen to act as governors to his children , with instructions to inculcate a positive attitude towards the Czechs / Bohemians and the English , and to bring them up as strict Calvinists . The result was a strict school routine including logic , mathematics , writing , drawing , singing and playing instruments . As a child , Rupert was at times badly behaved , " fiery , mischievous , and passionate " and earned himself the nickname Robert le Diable , or " Rupert The Devil " . Nonetheless , Rupert proved to be an able student . By the age of three he could speak some English , Czech and French , and mastered German while still young , but had little interest in Latin and Greek . He excelled in art , being taught by Gerard van Honthorst , and found the maths and sciences easy . By the time he was 18 he stood about 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall .
Rupert 's family continued their attempts to regain the Palatinate during their time in The Hague . Money was short , with the family relying upon a relatively small pension from The Hague , the proceeds from family investments in Dutch raids on Spanish shipping , and revenue from pawned family jewellery . Frederick set about convincing an alliance of nations — including England , France and Sweden — to support his attempts to regain the Palatinate and Bohemia . By the early 1630s Frederick had built a close relationship with the Swedish King Gustavus , the dominant Protestant leader in Germany . In 1632 , however , the two men disagreed over Gustavus ' insistence that Frederick provide equal rights to his Lutheran and Calvinist subjects after regaining his lands ; Frederick refused and started to return to The Hague . He died of a fever along the way and was buried in an unmarked grave . Rupert had lost his father at the age of 13 , and Gustavus ' death at the battle of Lützen in the same month deprived the family of a critical Protestant ally . With Frederick gone , King Charles proposed that the family move to England ; Rupert 's mother declined , but asked that Charles extend his protection to her remaining children instead .
= = Teenage years = =
Rupert spent the beginning of his teenage years in England between the courts of The Hague and his uncle King Charles I , before being captured and imprisoned in Linz during the middle stages of the Thirty Years ' War . Rupert had become a soldier early ; at the age of 14 he attended the Dutch pas d 'armes with the Protestant Frederick Henry , Prince of Orange . Later that year he fought alongside him and the Duke of Brunswick at the Anglo @-@ German siege of Rheinberg , and by 1635 he was acting as a military lifeguard to Prince Frederick . Rupert went on to fight against imperial Spain in the successful campaign around Breda in 1637 during the Eighty Years ' War in the Netherlands . By the end of this period , Rupert had acquired a reputation for fearlessness in battle , high spirits and considerable industry .
In between these campaigns Rupert had visited his uncle 's court in England . The Palatinate cause was a popular Protestant issue in England , and in 1637 a general public subscription helped fund an expedition under Charles Louis to try and regain the electorate as part of a joint French campaign . Rupert was placed in command of a Palatinate cavalry regiment , and his later friend Lord Craven , an admirer of Rupert 's mother , assisted in raising funds and accompanied the army on the campaign . The campaign ended badly at the Battle of Vlotho ( 17 October 1638 ) during the invasion of Westphalia ; Rupert escaped death , but was captured by the forces of the Imperial General Melchior von Hatzfeldt towards the end of the battle .
After a failed attempt to bribe his way free of his guards , Rupert was imprisoned in Linz . Lord Craven , also taken in the battle , attempted to persuade his captors to allow him to remain with Rupert , but was refused . Rupert 's imprisonment was surrounded by religious overtones . His mother was deeply concerned that he might be converted from Calvinism to Catholicism ; his captors , encouraged by Emperor Ferdinand III , deployed Jesuit priests in an attempt to convert him . The Emperor went further , proffering the option of freedom , a position as an Imperial general and a small principality if Rupert would convert . Rupert refused .
Rupert 's imprisonment became more relaxed on the advice of the Archduke Leopold , Ferdinand 's younger brother , who met and grew to like Rupert . Rupert practised etching , played tennis , practised shooting , read military textbooks and was taken on accompanied hunting trips . He also entered into a romantic affair with Susan Kuffstein , the daughter of Count von Kuffstein , his gaoler . He received a present of a rare white poodle that Rupert called Boye , and which remained with him into the English Civil War . Despite attempts by a Franco @-@ Swedish army to seize Linz and free Rupert , his release was ultimately negotiated through Leopold and the Empress Maria Anna ; in exchange for a commitment never again to take up arms against the Emperor , Rupert would be released . Rupert formally kissed the Emperor 's hand at the end of 1641 , turned down a final offer of an Imperial command and left Germany for England .
= = Career during the First English Civil War = =
Rupert is probably best remembered today for his role as a Royalist commander during the English Civil War . He had considerable success during the initial years of the war , his drive , determination and experience of European techniques bringing him early victories . As the war progressed , Rupert 's youth and lack of maturity in managing his relationships with other Royalist commanders ultimately resulted in his removal from his post and ultimate retirement from the war . Throughout the conflict , however , Rupert also enjoyed a powerful symbolic position : he was an iconic Royalist Cavalier and as such was frequently the subject of both Parliamentarian and Royalist propaganda , an image which has endured over the years .
= = = Early phases , 1642 – 43 = = =
Rupert arrived in England following his period of imprisonment and final release from captivity in Germany . In August 1642 , Rupert , along with his brother Prince Maurice and a number of professional soldiers , ran the gauntlet across the sea from the United Provinces , and after one initial failure , evaded the pro @-@ Parliamentary navy and landed in Newcastle . Riding across country , he found the King with a tiny army at Leicester Abbey , and was promptly appointed General of Horse , a coveted appointment at the time in European warfare . Rupert set about recruiting and training : with great effort he had put together a partially trained mounted force of 3 @,@ 000 cavalry by the end of September . Rupert 's reputation continued to rise and , leading a sudden , courageous charge , he routed a Parliamentarian force at Powick Bridge , the first military engagement of the war . Although a small engagement , this had a propaganda value far exceeding the importance of the battle itself , and Rupert became an heroic figure for many young men in the Royalist camp .
Rupert joined the King in the advance on London , playing a key role in the resulting Battle of Edgehill in October . Once again , Rupert was at his best with swift battlefield movements ; the night before , he had undertaken a forced march and seized the summit of Edgehill , giving the Royalists a superior position . When he quarrelled with his fellow infantry commander , Lindsey , however , some of the weaknesses of Rupert 's character began to display themselves . Rupert vigorously interjected — probably correctly , but certainly tactlessly — that Lindsey should deploy his men in the modern Swedish fashion that Rupert was used to in Europe , which would have maximised their available firepower . The result was an argument in front of the troops and Lindsey 's resignation and replacement by Sir Jacob Astley . In the subsequent battle Rupert 's men made a dramatic cavalry charge , but despite his best efforts a subsequent scattering and loss of discipline turned a potential victory into a stalemate .
After Edgehill , Rupert asked Charles for a swift cavalry attack on London before the Earl of Essex 's army could return . The King 's senior counsellors , however , urged him to advance slowly on the capital with the whole army . By the time they arrived , the city had organised defences against them . Some argue that , in delaying , the Royalists had perhaps lost their best chance of winning the war , although others have argued that Rupert 's proposed attack would have had trouble penetrating a hostile London . Instead , early in 1643 , Rupert began to clear the South @-@ West , taking Cirencester in February before moving further against Bristol , a key port . Rupert took Bristol in July with his brother Maurice using Cornish forces and was appointed Governor of the city . By mid @-@ 1643 Rupert had become so well known that he was an issue in any potential peace accommodation — Parliament was seeking to see him punished as part of any negotiated solution , and the presence of Rupert at the court , close to the King during the negotiations , was perceived as a bellicose statement in itself .
= = = Later stages , 1644 – 46 = = =
During the second half of the war , political opposition within the Royalist senior leadership against Rupert continued to grow . Rupert 's personality during the war had made him both friends and enemies . He enjoyed a " frank and generous disposition " , showed a " quickness of ... intellect " , was prepared to face grave dangers , and could be thorough and patient when necessary . However , he lacked the social gifts of a courtier , and his humour could turn into a " sardonic wit and a contemptuous manner " : with a hasty temper , he was too quick to say who he respected , and who he disliked . The result was that , while Rupert could inspire great loyalty in some , especially his men , he also made many enemies at the Royal court . When he took Bristol , he also slighted the Marquess of Hertford , the lethargic but politically significant Royalist leader of the South @-@ West . Most critically , Rupert fell out with George Digby , a favourite of both the King and the Queen . Digby was a classic courtier and Rupert fell to arguing with him repeatedly in meetings . The result was that towards the end of the war Rupert 's position at court was increasingly undermined by his enemies .
Rupert continued to impress militarily . By 1644 , now the Duke of Cumberland and Earl of Holderness , he led the relief of Newark and York and its castle . Having marched north , taking Bolton and Liverpool along the way in two bloody assaults , Rupert then intervened in Yorkshire in two highly effective manoeuvres , in the first outwitting the enemy forces at Newark with speed ; in the second , striking across country and approaching York from the north . Rupert then commanded much of the royalist army at its defeat at Marston Moor , with much of the blame falling on the poor working relationship between Rupert and the Marquess of Newcastle , and orders from the King that wrongly conveyed a desperate need for a speedy success in the north .
In November 1644 Rupert was appointed General of the entire Royalist army , which increased already marked tensions between him and a number of the King 's councillors . By May 1645 , and now desperately short of supplies , Rupert captured Leicester , but suffered a severe reversal at the Battle of Naseby a month later . Although Rupert had counselled the King against accepting battle at Naseby , the opinions of Digby had won the day in council : nonetheless , Rupert 's defeat damaged him , rather than Digby , politically . After Naseby , Rupert regarded the Royalist cause as lost , and urged Charles to conclude a peace with Parliament . Charles , still supported by an optimistic Digby , believed he could win the war . By late summer Rupert had become trapped in Bristol by Parliamentary forces ; faced with an impossible military situation on the ground , Rupert surrendered Bristol in September 1645 , and Charles dismissed him from his service and command .
Rupert responded by making his way across Parliamentary held territory to the King at Newark with Prince Maurice and around a hundred men , fighting their way through smaller enemy units and evading larger ones . King Charles attempted to order Rupert to desist , fearing an armed coup , but Rupert arrived at the royal court anyway . After a difficult meeting , Rupert convinced the King to hold a court @-@ martial over his conduct at Bristol , which exonerated him and Maurice . After a final argument over the fate of his friend Richard Willis , the governor of Newark , who had let Rupert into the royal court to begin with , Rupert resigned and left the service of King Charles , along with most of his best cavalry officers . Earlier interpretations of this event focused on Rupert 's concern for his honour in the face of his initial dismissal by the King ; later works have highlighted the practical importance of the courts martial to Rupert 's future employability as a mercenary in Europe , given that Rupert knew that the war by this point was effectively lost . Rupert and Maurice spent the winter of 1645 in Woodstock , examining options for employment under the Venetian Republic , before returning to Oxford and the King in 1646 . Rupert and the King were reconciled , the Prince remaining to defend Oxford when the King left for the north . After the ensuing siege and surrender of Oxford in 1646 , Parliament banished both Rupert and his brother from England .
= = = Reputation = = =
Rupert 's contemporaries believed him to have been involved in some of the bloodier events of the war , although later histories have largely exonerated him . Rupert had grown up surrounded by the relatively savage customs of the Thirty Years ' War in Europe . Shortly after his arrival in England he caused consternation by following similar practices ; one of his early acts was to demand two thousand pounds from the people of Leicester for the King as the price of not sacking Leicester . Although in keeping with European practices , this was not yet considered appropriate behaviour in England and Rupert was reprimanded by the King .
Rupert 's reputation never truly recovered , and in subsequent sieges and attacks he was frequently accused of acting without restraint . Birmingham , a key arms producing town , was taken in April 1643 , and Rupert faced allegations — probably untrue — of wilfully burning the town to the ground ( see the battle of Camp Hill ) . Shortly afterwards Rupert attempted to take the town of Lichfield , whose garrison had executed Royalist prisoners , angrily promising to kill all the soldiers inside . Only the urgent call for assistance from the King prevented him from doing so , forcing him to agree more lenient terms in exchange for a prompt surrender . Towards the end of the war , practices were changing for the worse across all sides ; a rebellious Leicester was retaken by the Prince in May 1645 , and no attempt was made to limit the subsequent killing and plunder .
Rupert was accordingly a prominent figure in Parliamentary propaganda . He faced numerous accusations of witchcraft , either personally or by proxy through his pet dog , Boye . Boye , a large white hunting poodle , accompanied Rupert everywhere from 1642 up until the dog 's death at Marston Moor and was widely suspected of being a witch 's familiar . There were numerous accounts of Boye 's abilities ; some suggested that he was the Devil in disguise , come to help Rupert . Pro @-@ Royalist publications ultimately produced parodies of these , including one which listed Rupert 's dog as being a " Lapland Lady " transformed into a white dog ; Boye was able , apparently , to find hidden treasure , possessed invulnerability to attack , could catch bullets fired at Rupert in his mouth , and could prophesy as well as the 16th century soothsayer , Mother Shipton . Similar stories from the period relate to Rupert 's pet monkey . Like his dog , the monkey was featured in newsprint of the day and was also reputed to have shape shifting powers , being able to disguise itself behind enemy lines .
= = Career during the Second English War and Interregnum = =
After the end of the First English Civil War Rupert was employed by the young King Louis XIV of France to fight the Spanish during the final years of the Thirty Years ' War . Rupert 's military employment was complicated by his promises to the Holy Roman Emperor that had led to his release from captivity in 1642 , and his ongoing commitment to the English Royalist faction in exile . He also became a Knight of the Garter in 1642 . Throughout the period Rupert was inconvenienced by his lack of secure income , and his ongoing feuds with other leading members of the Royalist circle .
= = = Service in the French army = = =
Rupert first travelled to the Royal court in exile at St Germain but found it still dominated by the Queen and her favourite , Rupert 's enemy Digby . Instead , Rupert moved on , accepting a well paid commission from Anne of Austria to serve Louis XIV as a mareschal de camp , subject to Rupert being free to leave French service to fight for King Charles , should he be called upon to do so . In 1647 Rupert fought under Marshal de Gassion against the Spanish . After a three @-@ week siege , Rupert took the powerful fortress of La Bassée through quiet negotiations with the enemy commander — an impressive accomplishment , and one that won him favour in French court circles . Gassion and Rupert were ambushed shortly afterwards by a Spanish party ; during the resulting fight , Rupert was shot in the head and seriously injured . Afterwards , Gassion noted : " Monsieur , I am most annoyed that you are wounded . " " And me also , " Rupert is recorded as replying . Gassion was himself killed shortly afterwards , and Rupert returned to St Germain to recuperate .
= = = Service in the Royalist navy = = =
In 1648 , the relatively brief Second English Civil War broke out , and Rupert informed the French King that he would be returning to King Charles ' service . The Parliamentary navy mutinied in favour of the King and sailed for Holland , providing the Royalists with a major fleet for the first time since the start of the civil conflict ; Rupert joined the fleet under the command of the Duke of York , who assumed the rank of Lord High Admiral . Rupert argued that the fleet should be used to rescue the King , then being held prisoner on the Isle of Wight , while others advised sailing in support of the fighting in the north . The fleet itself rapidly lost discipline , with many vessels ' crews focussing on seizing local ships and cargoes . This underlined a major problem for the Royalists — the cost of maintaining the new fleet was well beyond their means . Discipline continued to deteriorate , and Rupert had to intervene personally several times , including defusing one group of mutinous sailors by suddenly dangling the ringleader over the side of his vessel and threatening to drop him into the sea . Most of the fleet finally switched sides once more , returning to England in late 1648 .
Then , following a degree of reconciliation with Charles , Rupert obtained command of the Royalist fleet himself . The intention was to restore Royalist finances by using the remaining vessels of the fleet to conduct a campaign of organised piracy against English shipping across the region . One of the obstacles that this plan faced was the growing strength of the Parliamentary fleet and the presence of Robert Blake , one of the finest admirals of the period , as Rupert 's opponent during the campaign .
Rupert 's naval campaign formed two phases . The first involved the Royalist fleet sailing from Kinsale in Ireland to Lisbon in Portugal . He took three large ships , HMS Constant Reformation , the Convertine and the Swallow , accompanied by four smaller vessels . Rupert sailed to Lisbon taking several prizes on route , where he received a warm welcome from King John IV , the ruler of recently independent Portugal , who was a supporter of Charles II . Blake arrived shortly afterwards with a Parliamentary fleet , and an armed stand @-@ off ensued . Tensions rose , skirmishes began to break out and King John became increasingly keen for his Royalist guests to leave . In October 1650 , Rupert 's fleet , now comprising six vessels , broke out and headed into the Mediterranean . Still pursued by Blake , the Royalist fleet manoeuvred up the Spanish coast , steadily losing vessels to their pursuers .
The second phase of the campaign then began . Rupert crossed back into the Atlantic and , during 1651 , cut west to the Azores , capturing vessels as he went . He intended to continue on to the West Indies , where there would be many rich targets . Instead he encountered a late summer storm , leading to the sinking of the Constant Reformation with the loss of 333 lives — almost including Rupert 's brother , Prince Maurice , who only just escaped — and a great deal of captured treasure . Turning back to regroup , repair and re @-@ equip in early 1652 , Rupert 's reduced force moored at Cape Blanc , an island near what is now Mauritania . Rupert took the opportunity to explore and acquired a Moorish servant boy , who remained in his service for many years . Rupert also explored 150 miles up the Gambia River , taking two Spanish vessels as prizes and contracting malaria in the process .
Rupert then finally made a successful crossing into the Caribbean , landing first at Saint Lucia , before continuing up the chain of the Antilles to the Virgin Islands . There the fleet was hit by a terrible hurricane , which scattered the ships and sank the Defiance , this time with Prince Maurice on board . It was a while before Maurice 's death became certain , which came as a terrible blow to Rupert . He was forced to return to Europe , arriving in France in March 1653 with a fleet of five ships . It became clear , as the profits and losses of the piracy campaign were calculated , that the venture had not been as profitable as hoped . This complicated tensions in the Royalist court , and Charles II and Rupert eventually split the spoils , after which Rupert , tired and a little bitter , returned to France to recuperate from the long campaign .
In 1654 , Rupert appears to have been involved in a plot to assassinate Oliver Cromwell , an event that would then have been followed by a coup , the landing of a small army in Sussex , and the restoration of Charles II . Charles himself is understood to have rejected the assassination proposal , but three conspirators — who implicated Rupert in the plan — were arrested and confessed in London . Rupert 's presence at the royal court continued to be problematic ; as in 1643 , he was regarded by Edward Hyde ( later Earl of Clarendon ) and others as a bellicose figure and an obstacle to peace negotiations ; in 1655 Rupert left for Germany .
= = = Service in Germany = = =
After his quarrel with the Royalist court in exile , Rupert travelled to Heidelberg to visit his brother Charles Louis , now partially restored as Elector Palatine , where the two had an ambivalent reunion . Charles Louis and Rupert had not been friendly as children and had almost ended up on opposite sides during the Civil War . To make matters worse , Charles Louis had been deprived of half the old Palatinate under the Peace of Westphalia , leaving him badly short of money , although he still remained responsible under the Imperial laws of apanage for providing for his younger brother and had offered the sum of £ 375 per annum , which Rupert had accepted . Rupert travelled on to Vienna , where he attempted to claim the £ 15 @,@ 000 compensation allocated to him under the Peace of Westphalia from the Emperor . Emperor Ferdinand III warmly welcomed him , but was unable to pay such a sum immediately — instead , he would have to pay in installments , to the disadvantage of Rupert .
Over the next twelve months , Rupert was asked by the Duke of Modena in northern Italy to raise an army against the Papal States — having done so , and with the army stationed in the Palatinate , the enterprise collapsed , with the Duke requesting that Rupert invade Spanish held Milan instead . Rupert moved on , having placed his brother Charles Louis in some diplomatic difficulties with Spain . Rupert travelled onwards , continuing to attempt to convince Ferdinand to back Charles II 's efforts to regain his throne .
In 1656 relations between Rupert and Charles Louis deteriorated badly . Rupert had fallen in love with Louise von Degenfeld , one of his sister @-@ in @-@ law 's maids of honour . One of Rupert 's notes proffering his affections accidentally fell into the possession of Charles Louis ' wife Charlotte , who believed it was written to her . Charlotte was keen to engage in an affair with Rupert and became unhappy when she was declined and the mistake explained . Unfortunately , von Degenfeld was uninterested in Rupert , but was engaged in an affair with Charles Louis — this was discovered in due course , leading to the annulment of the marriage . Rupert , for his part , was unhappy that Charles Louis could not endow him with a suitable estate , and the two parted on bad terms in 1657 , Rupert refusing to ever return to the Palatinate again and taking up employment under Ferdinand III in Hungary .
During this period Rupert became closely involved in the development of the printmaking process of mezzotint , a method of " negative " , or intaglio ) , printing which eventually superseded the older woodcut method of printmaking . Rupert appears to have told a range of associates that he had conceived of the mezzotint process having watched a soldier scrape the rust from the barrel of his musket during a military campaign ; John Evelyn credited Rupert as the inventor of the technique in 1662 , and Rupert 's story was further popularised by Horace Walpole during the 18th century . Considerable academic debate surrounds the issue , but the modern consensus is that mezzotint was instead invented in 1642 by Ludwig von Siegen , a German Lieutenant @-@ Colonel who was also an amateur artist . Siegen may or may not have met Rupert : Siegen had worked as chamberlain , and probably part @-@ tutor , to Rupert 's young cousin William VI , Landgrave of Hesse @-@ Kassel , with whom Rupert discussed the technique in letters from 1654 . Rupert did , however , became a noted artist in mezzotint in his own right . He produced a few stylish prints in the technique , mostly interpretations of existing paintings , and introduced the form to England after the Restoration , though it was Wallerant Vaillant , Rupert 's artistic assistant or tutor , who first popularised the process and exploited it commercially . Rupert 's most famous and largest art work , The Great Executioner , produced in 1658 , is still regarded by critics such as Arthur Hind and Antony Griffiths as full of " brilliance and energy " , " superb " and " one of the greatest mezzotints " ever produced ; other important works by Rupert include the Head of Titian and The Standard Bearer .
= = Career following the Restoration = =
Following the Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II in 1660 , Rupert returned to England , where Charles had already largely completed the process of balancing the different factions across the country in a new administration . Since most of the better government posts were already taken , Rupert 's employment was limited , although Charles rewarded him with the second highest pension he had granted , £ 4 @,@ 000 a year . Rupert 's close family ties to King Charles were critical to his warm reception ; following the deaths of the Duke of Gloucester and Princess Mary , Rupert was the King 's closest adult relation in England after his brother , the Duke of York , and so a key member of the new regime . Rupert , as the Duke of Cumberland , resumed his seat in the House of Lords . For the first time in his life , Rupert 's financial position was relatively secure , and he had matured . Near @-@ contemporaries described how " his temper was less explosive than formerly and his judgement sounder " . Rupert continued to serve as an admiral in the Royal Navy throughout the period , ultimately rising to the rank of " General at Sea and Land " .
= = = Restoration statesman = = =
Rupert was appointed to the King 's Privy Council in 1662 , taking roles on the Foreign Affairs Committee , the Admiralty Committee and the Tangier Committee . Accounts vary of Rupert 's role in all these committees of government . Samuel Pepys , no friend of Rupert 's , sat on the Tangier Committee with him and later declared that all Rupert did was to laugh and swear occasionally : other records , such as those of the Foreign Affairs Committee , show him taking a full and active role in proceedings .
In 1668 , the King appointed Rupert to be the Constable of Windsor Castle . Rupert was already one of the Knights of the Garter , who had their headquarters at the castle , and was a close companion of the King , who would wish to be suitably entertained at the castle . Rupert immediately began to reorder the castle 's defences , sorting out the garrison 's accommodation , repairing the Devil 's Tower , reconstructing the real tennis court and improving the castle 's hunting estate . Rupert acquired his own apartments in the castle , which were recorded as being " very singular " with some decorated with an " extraordinary " number of " pikes , muskets , pistols , bandoliers , holsters , drums , back , breast , and head pieces " , and his inner chambers " hung with tapisserie , curious and effeminate pictures " . King Charles II and Rupert spent much time together over the years hunting and playing tennis together at Windsor , and Rupert was also a close companion of James , the Duke of York . Rupert was considered by Pepys to be the fourth best tennis player in England .
Rupert became romantically engaged to Frances Bard ( 1646 – 1708 ) , the daughter of the English explorer and Civil War veteran Henry Bard . Frances claimed to have secretly married Rupert in 1664 , although this was denied by him and no firm proof exists to support the claim . Rupert acknowledged the son he had with Frances , Dudley Bard ( 1666 – 86 ) , often called " Dudley Rupert " , who was schooled at Eton College . In 1673 , Rupert was urged by Charles Louis to return home , marry and establish an heir to the Palatinate , as it appeared likely that Charles Louis 's own son would not survive infancy . Rupert refused , and remained in England .
= = = Career in the Restoration navy = = =
For much of the 17th century , England was embroiled in conflict with commercial rival Holland through the Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars . Rupert became closely involved in these as a senior Admiral to King Charles II , rising to command the Royal Navy by the end of his career . Although several famous admirals of the day had previously been army commanders , including Blake and Monk , they had commanded relatively small land forces and Rupert was still relatively unusual for the period in having both practical experience of commanding large land armies and having extensive naval experience from his campaigns in the 1650s .
At the start of the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1665 – 67 ) , Rupert was appointed as one of the three squadron commanders of the English fleet , under the overall command of the Duke of York , taking HMS Royal James as his flagship . As the commander of the White Squadron , Rupert fought at the Battle of Lowestoft in 1665 , breaking through the enemy defences at a critical moment ; Rupert 's leg was injured in the battle , an injury that caused him ongoing pain . Recalled to accompany the King during the plague that was sweeping London , Rupert continued to argue in favour of the fleet seeking a set @-@ piece engagement with the Dutch that would force the Dutch back to the negotiating table . The following year , Rupert was made joint commander of the fleet with Monk and given the opportunity to put this plan into practice . In June 1666 , they fought the Dutch at the Four Days Battle , one of the longest naval battles in history ; the battle saw the new aggressive tactics of Rupert and Monk applied , resulting in " a sight unique till then in sailing @-@ ship warfare , the English beating upwind and breaking the enemy 's line from leeward . " However , the Four Days Battle was considered a victory for the Dutch , but the St. James 's Day Battle the following month allowed Rupert and Monk to use the same tactics to inflict heavy damage on the Dutch and the battle resulted in a significant English victory . The Dutch however would see a favourable end to the war with the decisive Raid on the Medway .
Rupert also played a prominent role in the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1672 – 74 ) . This time Louis XIV of France was a key English ally against Holland , and it was decided that the French would form a squadron in a combined fleet . The English fleet had been much expanded , and Rupert had three ships , HMS Royal Charles , HMS Royal James and HMS Royal Oak , equipped with a high @-@ specification , annealed and lathe @-@ produced gun of his own design , the Rupertinoe . Unfortunately the cost of the weapon — three times that of a normal gun — prevented its wider deployment in the fleet . The French role in the conflict proved a problem when Charles turned to the appointment of an admiral . Rupert 's objection to the French alliance was well known , and accordingly the King appointed the Duke of York to the role instead . Rupert was instead instructed to take over the Duke 's work at the Admiralty , which he did with gusto . The Allied naval plans were stalled after the Duke 's inconclusive battle with the Dutch at Solebay .
The English plan for 1673 centred on first achieving naval dominance , followed by landing an army in Zeeland . The King appointed the Duke as supreme commander , with Rupert as his deputy , combining the rank of General and Vice Admiral of England . During the winter of 1672 , however , Charles — still ( legitimately ) childless — decided that the risk to the Duke , his heir , was too great and made Rupert supreme Allied commander in his place . Rupert began the 1673 campaign against the Dutch knowing the logistical support for his fleet remained uncertain , with many ships undermanned . The result was the Battle of Schooneveld in June and the Battle of Texel in August , a controversial sequence of engagements in which , at a minimum , poor communications between the French and English commanders assisted the marginal Dutch victory . Many English commentators were harsher , blaming the French for failing to fully engage in the battles and Rupert — having cautioned against the alliance in the first place — was popularly hailed as a hero . Rupert finally retired from active seagoing command later that year .
Rupert had a characteristic style as an admiral ; he relied upon " energetic personal leadership backed by close contact with his officers " ; having decided how to proceed in a naval campaign , however , it could be difficult for his staff to change his mind . Recent work on Rupert 's role as a commander has also highlighted the progress the prince made in formulating the way that orders were given to the British fleet . Fleet communications were limited during the period , and the traditional orders from admirals before a battle were accordingly quite rigid , limiting a captain 's independence in the battle . Rupert played a key part in the conferences held by the Duke of York in 1665 to review tactics and operational methods from the first Dutch war , and put these into practice before the St James Day battle . These instructions and supplementary instructions to ships ' captains , which attempted to balance an adherence to standing orders with the need to exploit emerging opportunities in a battle , proved heavily influential over the next hundred years and shaped the idea that an aggressive fighting spirit should be at the core of British naval doctrine .
After 1673 Rupert remained a senior member of the Royal Navy and Charles ' administration . Rupert allied himself with Lord Shaftesbury on matters of foreign policy , but remained loyal to King Charles II on other issues , and was passionate about protecting the Royal Prerogative . As a consequence he opposed Parliament 's plan in 1677 to appoint him to Lord High Admiral — on the basis that only the King should be allowed to propose such appointments — but noted that he was willing to become Admiral if the King wished him to do so . The King 's solution was to establish a small , empowered Admiralty Commission , of which Rupert became the first commissioner . As a result , from 1673 to 1679 Rupert was able to focus on ensuring a closer regulation of manning , gunning and the selection of officers . He was also involved in setting priorities between the different theatres of operations that the English Navy were now involved in around the world . Rupert was also appointed to the supreme position of " General at Sea and Land " , effectively assuming the wartime powers of the Lord High Admiral .
= = Later life = =
After the end of his seagoing naval career Rupert continued to be actively involved in both government and science , although he was increasingly removed from current politics . To the younger members of the court the prince appeared increasingly distant — almost from a different era . Count Grammont described Rupert as " brave and courageous even to rashness , but cross @-@ grained and incorrigibly obstinate ... he was polite , even to excess , unseasonably ; but haughty , and even brutal , when he ought to have been gentle and courteous ... his manners were ungracious : he had a dry hard @-@ favoured visage , and a stern look , even when he wished to please ; but , when he was out of humour , he was the true picture of reproof " . Rupert 's health during this period was also less robust ; his head wound from his employment in France required a painful trepanning treatment , his leg wound continued to hurt and he still suffered from the malaria he had caught while in the Gambia .
= = = Colonial administration = = =
Rupert had demonstrated an interest in colonial issues for many years . On arriving in England in 1660 , he had encouraged the government to continue Rupert 's own exploration of the Gambia in an attempt to find gold , leading to Robert Holmes 's expedition the following year . Rupert was an active shareholder in the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa that was established as a result in 1662 . The company continued operations for the next eight years , with backers including the King , the Duke of York and the Royal Society , with operations including engaging in the West Africa slave trade until it folded in 1670 . The company 's operations merged with those of the Gambia Merchants ' Company into the new Royal African Company , with a royal charter to set up forts , factories , troops and to exercise martial law in West Africa , in pursuit of trade in gold , silver and slaves ; Rupert was the third named member of the company 's executive committee .
By then , however , Rupert 's attention had turned to North America . The French explorers Radisson and des Groseilliers had come to England after conducting a joint exploration of the Hudson 's Bay region in 1659 ; there their account attracted the attention of the King and Rupert . Rupert put an initial investment of £ 270 of his own money into a proposal for a fresh expedition and set about raising more ; despite setbacks , including the Great Fire of London , by 1667 he had formed a private syndicate and leased the Eaglet from the King for the expedition . The Eaglet failed , but her sister vessel , the Nonsuch , made a successful expedition , returning in 1669 with furs worth £ 1 @,@ 400 . In 1670 , the King approved the charter for " The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson 's Bay " that would form the Hudson 's Bay Company , which was granted a trading monopoly in the whole Hudson Bay watershed area , an immense territory named Rupert 's Land , with Rupert appointed the first Governor . Rupert 's first company secretary was Sir James Hayes and Radisson named the Hayes River , in present @-@ day Manitoba , in his honour . The company continued to prosper , forming the basis for much of the commercial activity of colonial Canada . Rupert 's role in colonial commerce was marked by his being asked to lay the cornerstone of the new Royal Exchange in 1670 , and being made one of its first councillors .
= = = Science and the Royal Society = = =
After Rupert 's retirement from active seafaring in around 1674 , he was able to spend more time engaged in scientific research and became credited with many inventions and discoveries , although some subsequently turned out to be the innovative introduction of European inventions into England . Rupert converted some of the apartments at Windsor Castle to a luxury laboratory , complete with forges , instruments and raw materials , from where he conducted a range of experiments .
Rupert had already become the third founding member of the scientific Royal Society , being referred to by contemporaries as a " philosophic warrior " , and guided the Society as a Councillor during its early years . Very early on in the Society 's history , Rupert demonstrated Prince Rupert 's Drops to King Charles II and the Society , glass teardrops which explode when the tail is cracked ; although credited with their invention at the time , later interpretations suggest that he was instead responsible for the introduction of an existing European discovery into England . He demonstrated a new device for lifting water at the Royal Society , and received attention for his process for " painting colours on marble , which , when polished , became permanent " . During this time , Rupert also formulated a mathematical question concerning the paradox that a cube can pass through a slightly smaller cube ; Rupert questioned how large a cube had to be in order to fit . The question of Prince Rupert 's cube was first solved by the Dutch mathematician Pieter Nieuwland . Rupert was also known for his success in breaking cypher codes .
Many of Rupert 's inventions were military . After designing the Rupertinoe naval gun , Rupert erected a water @-@ mill on Hackney Marshes for a revolutionary method of boring guns , however his secret died with him , and the enterprise failed . Rupert enjoyed other military problems , and took to manufacturing gun locks ; he devised both a gun that fired multiple rounds at high speed , and a " handgun with rotating barrels " . He is credited with the invention of a form of gunpowder , which when demonstrated to the Royal Society in 1663 had a force of over ten times that of regular powder ; a better method for using gunpowder in mining ; and a torpedo . He also developed a form of grapeshot for use by artillery . Rupert also focussed on naval inventions : he devised a balancing mechanism to allow improved quadrant measurements at sea , and produced a diving engine for retrieving objects on the ocean floor . While recovering from his trepanning treatment Rupert set about inventing new surgical equipment to improve future operations .
Other parts of Rupert 's scientific work lay in the field of metallurgy . Rupert invented a new brass alloy , slightly darker in hue than regular brass involving three parts of copper to one part of zinc , combined with charcoal ; this became known as " Prince 's metal " in his honour — sometimes also referred to as " Bristol Brass " . Rupert invented the alloy in order to improve naval artillery , but it also became used as a replacement for gold in decorations . Rupert was also credited with having devised an exceptional method for tempering kirby fish hooks , and for casting objects into an appearance of perspective . He also invented an improved method for manufacturing shot of varying sizes in 1663 , that was later retained by the scientist Robert Hooke , one of Rupert 's Royal Society friends during the period .
= = = Peg Hughes = = =
Towards the end of his life Rupert fell in love with an attractive Drury Lane actress named Peg Hughes . Rupert became involved with her during the late 1660s , leaving his previous mistress , Frances Bard , although Hughes appears to have held out from reciprocating his attentions with the aim of negotiating a suitable settlement . Hughes rapidly received advancement through his patronage ; she became a member of the King 's Company by 1669 , giving her status and immunity from arrest for debt , and was painted four times by Sir Peter Lely , the foremost court artist of the day .
Despite being encouraged to do so , Rupert did not marry Hughes , but acknowledged their daughter , Ruperta ( later Howe ) , born in 1673 . Hughes lived an expensive lifestyle during the 1670s , enjoying gambling and jewels ; Rupert gave her at least £ 20 @,@ 000 worth of jewellery during their relationship , including several items from the Palatinate royal collection . Margaret continued to act even after Ruperta 's birth , returning to the stage in 1676 with the prestigious Duke 's Company at the Dorset Garden Theatre , near the Strand in London . The next year Rupert established Hughes with a " grand building " worth £ 25 @,@ 000 that he bought in Hammersmith from Sir Nicholas Crispe . Rupert seems rather to have enjoyed the family lifestyle , commenting that his young daughter " already rules the whole house and sometimes argues with her mother , which makes us all laugh . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Rupert died at his house at Spring Gardens , Westminster , on 29 November 1682 after a bout of pleurisy , and was buried in the crypt of Westminster Abbey on 6 December in a state funeral . Rupert left most of his estate , worth some £ 12 @,@ 000 , equally to Hughes and Ruperta . Hughes had an " uncomfortable widowhood " without Rupert 's support , allegedly not helped by her unproductive gambling . Presents from Rupert such as his mother 's earrings were sold to the Duchess of Marlborough , while a pearl necklace given by Elector Frederick to Electress Elizabeth was sold to fellow actress Nell Gwynn . Hughes sold the house in Hammersmith to two London merchants : Timothy Lannoy and George Treadwell — it was then purchased by the Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach and became known as Brandenburg ( or Brandenburgh ) House .
Ruperta later married Emanuel Scrope Howe , future MP and English general , and had five children , Sophia , William , Emanuel , James and Henrietta . Through William 's daughter , Mary , Rupert is an ancestor of the Bromley baronets .
Rupert 's son , Dudley Bard , became a military officer , frequently known as " Captain Rupert " , and died fighting at the Siege of Budapest while in his late teens .
In Canada , the city of Prince Rupert , British Columbia , the community of Prince Rupert in the city of Edmonton , Alberta and the Rupert River in Quebec are all named after the Prince . In Bristol there was also a street , Rupert Street and formerly a public house , The Prince Rupert in Rupert Street named to commemorate Prince Rupert .
= = Ancestors = =
= = In fiction = =
Prince Rupert is the protagonist of Poul Anderson 's alternative history / fantasy book A Midsummer Tempest , where the Prince , with the help of various Shakespearean characters who are actual persons in this timeline , eventually defeats Cromwell and wins the English Civil War .
Prince Rupert is the key character in the King Crimson song Lizard from their 1970 album of the same name . The 23 @-@ minute suite includes several sections , one named Prince Rupert Awakes and another The Battle of Glass Tears ( an artistic reference to the battle of Naseby ) in turn including a sub @-@ section called Prince Rupert 's Lament .
Prince Rupert appears in The Oak Apple and The Black Pearl , volumes 4 and 5 of The Morland Dynasty , a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod @-@ Eagles . He is assisted during the Civil War by the staunchly Royalist fictional Morland family , and is father to the illegitimate Annunciata Morland , with whom he has a complicated relationship .
Prince Rupert and his sister Elisabeth are minor characters in Eric Flint 's 1632 series books Grantville Gazette IV and Grantville Gazette VI
Prince Rupert is the protagonist of Margaret Irwin 's novel The Stranger Prince and appears in her later novel The Bride . Both novels deal with the Civil War period .
Prince Rupert is the subject of Samuel Edwards 's biographical novel The White Plume , published by William Morrow and Company Ltd. in 1961 , a semi @-@ fictional account of his life from his late teens until his marriage to Peg ( Margaret Hughes ) .
Prince Rupert 's Tower is the name given to a Georgian Lock @-@ Up in the Everton area of Liverpool . Rupert stayed in the area during the siege of Liverpool .
= = Film and television = =
Rupert was portrayed by Timothy Dalton in the 1970 film Cromwell .
Harry Lloyd played Rupert in the 2008 TV drama The Devil 's Whore .
Rupert was portrayed by Will Bowden in the 2015 Dutch film Michiel de Ruyter .
= = Additional reading = =
Ashley , Maurice . ( 1976 ) Rupert of the Rhine . London : Hart Davis , MacGibbon .
De Viet , Rens . ( 2010 ) Vlootinstructies en de eerste twee oorlogen met Engeland in de zeventiende eeuw . MA Thesis . Rotterdam : Erasmus University . ( Dutch )
Fergusson , Bernard . ( 1952 ) Rupert of the Rhine . London : Collins .
Irwin , Margaret . ( 1937 ) The Stranger Prince : The story of Rupert of the Rhine . New York : Harcourt , Brace .
Kitson , Frank . ( 1994 ) Prince Rupert : Portrait of a Soldier . London : Constable . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 473700 @-@ 2 .
Morrah , Patrick . ( 1976 ) Prince Rupert of the Rhine . London : Constable .
Petrie , Charles . ( 1974 ) King Charles , Prince Rupert , and the Civil War : From Original Letters . London : Routledge and Kegan Paul .
Thomson , George Malcolm . ( 1976 ) Warrior Prince : Prince Rupert of the Rhine . London : Secker and Warburg .
Wilkinson , Clennell . ( 1935 ) Prince Rupert , the Cavalier . Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott .
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= AT & T Plaza =
AT & T Plaza ( formerly Ameritech Plaza and SBC Plaza ) is a public space that hosts the Cloud Gate sculpture . It is located in Millennium Park , which is a park built to celebrate the third millennium and which is located within the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois in the United States . The sculpture and the plaza are sometimes jointly referred to as Cloud Gate on the AT & T Plaza .
It was opened in the summer of 2004 with the initial unveiling of the sculpture during the grand opening weekend of the park . Ameritech Corporation / SBC Communications Inc. donated US $ 3 million for the naming right to the space . The plaza has become a place view the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink and during the Christmas holiday season , the Plaza hosts Christmas caroling .
= = Details = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
The plaza is located above Park Grill , above and behind the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , adjacent to the Chase Promenade , and between the North and South Boeing Galleries . The plaza and sculpture sit atop the 300 @-@ seat $ 6 million Park Grill , which opened in November 2003 behind the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink . The surface of the plaza is concrete . The plaza is composed of 25 @,@ 200 square feet ( 2 @,@ 340 m2 ) of concrete pavers . Each paver is 30 by 30 inches ( 76 by 76 cm ) , and each is 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) thick .
= = History = =
The plaza was originally named Ameritech Plaza for Ameritech Corporation , the corporate sponsor , who donated $ 3 million for the sculpture @-@ hosting plaza 's naming rights . By the time the park officially opened in 2004 , Ameritech had merged with SBC Communications and the plaza was called SBC Plaza . When SBC acquired AT & T and subsequently changed the name from SBC to AT & T in 2005 , the name of the plaza changed again .
Cloud Gate was originally estimated to weigh 60 short tons ( 54 @.@ 4 t ; 53 @.@ 6 long tons ) because it was impossible to estimate the thickness of the steel compatible with the desired aesthetics . The final piece , however , weighs 110 short tons ( 99 @.@ 8 t ; 98 @.@ 2 long tons ) and care had to be taken in supporting it . The roof of the Park Grill , upon which Cloud Gate sits , had to be strong enough to bear the weight . A large retaining wall separating Chicago 's Metra train tracks from the North Grant Park garage travels along the back side of the restaurant and supports much of the sculpture 's weight . This wall , along with the rest of the garage 's foundation , required additional bracing before the piece was erected . In June 2004 , when construction of the shell began , a large tent ( pictured left ) was erected around the piece in order to shield it from public view .
= = Activities = =
In 2006 , annual Christmas caroling began at the plaza . Following Thanksgiving , weekly sing @-@ alongs are led by choral groups including Bella Voce , Chicago Mass Choir , and Chicago Children 's Choir .
Because of its elevation above the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , the plaza has become a prime viewing location for Jazz music concerts held during the summer at the McCormick Tribune Plaza . McCormick Tribune Plaza is located below and to the west of AT & T Plaza as well as adjacent to Michigan Avenue 's Historic Michigan Boulevard District , which are slightly further west .
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= Grand Quartier Général ( 1914 – 1919 ) =
The Grand Quartier Général ( abbreviated to GQG or Grand QG in spoken French ) was the general headquarters of the French Army during the First World War . It served as the wartime equivalent of the Conseil Supérieur de la Guerre and had extensive powers within an area defined by the French parliament . The GQG was activated by parliament on 2 August 1914 , after the violation of French borders by German military patrols and remained in existence until 20 October 1919 .
GQG was commanded by the Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , assisted by a varying number of subordinate generals and had representatives to the French government and president . The headquarters of GQG was originally at Vitry @-@ le @-@ François in the Marne department but rapid German advances in the early stages of the war forced its withdrawal to Chantilly , near Paris , by November 1914 and it remained there for much of the rest of the war . General Joseph Joffre served as the first Chief of Staff of GQG from the start of the war until December 1916 and his replacement by General Robert Nivelle . Nivelle was replaced in May 1917 after the failure of his Spring offensive and was succeeded by General Philippe Pétain , who retained command of GQG until its dissolution in 1919 . In April 1918 the Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées was established under General Ferdinand Foch as an equivalent organisation with authority for Allied operations in France .
GQG was organised into a complex series of departments and bureaux that changed frequently throughout the war . This structure has been criticised by historians for failing to encourage co @-@ operation between departments and for widespread infighting . There were also concerns about the autonomy and power vested in GQG . French policy , laid down in 1913 , had been for the two most important field armies , the north and north @-@ east , to retain operational independence . GQG , under Joffre , assumed control of these armies in December 1915 and retained them until his replacement by Nivelle when the Minister of War , Joseph Gallieni , raised concerns that the pre @-@ war policy was being violated . GQG failed accurately to assess German casualties , basing military operations on wildly optimistic assessments of the weakness of German units and reserves .
= = Origins and structure = =
The Grand Quartier Général had its origins in the reforms instituted by France after their defeat in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . The position and supporting staff , of the Chief of Staff of the French Army was created with responsibility for training and mobilisation in peace and the formation of the army high command in times of war . The establishment of GQG in 1911 formalised this situation , with GQG becoming the wartime counterpart of the Conseil Supérieur de la Guerre ( CSG ) and the vice @-@ president of CSG becoming the chief of staff of the GQG . The GQG received extensive military powers within an area defined as the zone of army control ; control of the remainder of the armed forces was retained by the Minister of War . GQG was activated upon the mobilisation of the French Army by parliament , who also defined the zone of army control .
The chief of staff was assisted by an état @-@ major @-@ général , who ran the GQG general staff of around 50 officers and saw that the commander @-@ in @-@ chief 's orders were carried out and two aides @-@ majors with responsibilities for the individual departments of GQG . GQG was originally organised into four bureaux ( or departments ) . The First Bureau was responsible for organization , personnel and equipment ; the Second Bureau for intelligence , information and political affairs ; the Third Bureau for the planning of military operations and the Fourth Bureau ( sometimes called the Direction de l 'Arrière - Directorate of the Rear [ lines ] ) for transport , communication and supply .
The Third Bureau was considered by far the most powerful as it had control of active military operations . Its staff consisted mainly of liaison officers , embedded with individual unit headquarters . Though these officers were junior in rank to the generals commanding the armies , they held significant power over their careers through the reports made on their operations to GQG . One officer from the Third Bureau liaised with the French government and another with the president and they were said to wield " considerable political power " . The Fourth Bureau had a wide remit , with responsibility for the management of military railways , motor vehicles , water transport , financial offices , post offices and telegraphy and its chief was sometimes called the directeur de l 'arrière ( director of the rear [ lines ] ) . In addition GQG was responsible for co @-@ ordination with allied armies .
= = First World War = =
= = = Activation of GQG = = =
The French Chief of Staff , General Joseph Joffre , was convinced of the inevitability of the outbreak of the First World War and , on 30 July 1914 , began organising the personnel for his GQG staff . Joffre persuaded the French government to enact mobilisation on 1 August and at 14 @.@ 00 the next day parliament , following the violation of the French borders by German military patrols , gave Joffre full wartime powers and activated the GQG . The zone of army control was initially limited to just 8 departments of France , but on 10 August was expanded to 33 departments out of 86 in Metropolitan France . In this area Joffre was the absolute authority and no civilian , not even President Poincaré or his ministers , could enter it without his permission . Joffre used this authority to exclude the press and his own government 's parliamentary commission on military affairs from his zone of control .
Upon activation the major @-@ général of GQG was General Emile Belin and the two aides @-@ majors were General Henri Berthelot and General Céleste Deprez . Each aide @-@ major had responsibility for two of the bureaus ; Berthelot oversaw the Second and Third Bureaus , Deprez oversaw the First and Fourth Bureaus . Each bureau was under the day @-@ to @-@ day control of a lower ranking officer , upon activation the Third Bureau was headed by Colonel Ferdinand Auguste Pont , the Fourth Bureau by General Étienne Édouard Laffon de Ladébat and the president 's liaison officer was General Pénélon . The other officers were generally selected by Joffre from those who had excelled at the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre ( French Army staff college ) . Representatives from the allied powers were also present within the GQG structure and at various times included officers from the United Kingdom , Russia , USA , Japan , Italy , Belgium , Serbia and Romania .
The GQG established its physical headquarters at Vitry @-@ le @-@ François , in the Marne department , on 5 August . The location had been chosen as it was halfway between Paris and Nancy and roughly equidistant ( at around 80 to 90 miles ) to the headquarters of each of the five French armies . The staff occupied a school building with the second bureau located in the classrooms and the third bureau in the gymnasiu , with the sports equipment pushed up against one wall . The staff at GQG had the use of a detachment of the 8th Engineer Regiment , a company of the 19th Railway Squadron , two companies of the 68th Territorial Infantry Regiment , a company of Forestry Chasseurs , two anti @-@ aircraft sections , up to two carrier pigeon units , a unit of cyclist messengers , a medical detachment and a military police escort squadron .
= = = GQG during the war = = =
GQG played a key role at the start of the war . Due to illness Belin had delegated much of his role to Berthelot , further increasing the power of his influential Third Bureau . The officers in that department , particularly the recent staff college graduates who were known as the Young Turks , favoured strong offensive action . Having failed to initially perceive the German advance through Belgium , it was these officers who were key in persuading Joffre to attack the exposed German right flank during the Great Retreat from Mons . As a result of the German advances in late 1914 GQG was forced to relocate its headquarters progressively westwards . It moved to Bar @-@ sur @-@ Aube on 31 August , Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Seine on 6 September , Romilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine on 28 September 1914 and , on 29 November , to Chantilly , within the Paris metropolitan area , where it was to remain for the next few years . This location was suited to GQG operations due to its proximity to the seat of government and the ministries in Paris .
Joffre found his new command difficult ; while he was able to dismiss army commanders at will ( he limogered 54 generals by the time of the First Battle of the Marne ) he seemed unable to remove officers from GQG . The reasons for Joffre 's lack of action are unknown but historian Alistair Horne speculated that it was due to the vast power granted to the GQG staff or to Joffre 's desire not to be upstaged by his staff . The GQG officers , isolated from the direct effects of the war , engaged in intrigue on a grand scale and there was little co @-@ operation between the rival departments . The Second Bureau was often incapable of estimating the strength of the German forces committed to action . At the start of the war it took until 24 August for the Second Bureau to realise that each German army corps deployed alongside a correspondingly numbered reserve corps , effectively doubling the strength of that corps in the field . Throughout the war it maintained an inadequate means of calculating German casualty figures , simply assuming that for each two Frenchmen killed in battle three Germans must have fallen . In reality the figures were almost the reverse . By means of such estimations they calculated that Germany would run out of manpower reserves by early 1916 . Thus the Third Bureau found itself directing French generals to undertake military operations based on wholly inaccurate assessments of the strength of opposing units .
French set @-@ backs in 1915 forced Joffre to reorganise GQG — on 11 December he replaced Belin with General Noël de Castelnau — and expand its remit . Three entirely new bureaus were formed , that of the North Army ( Armée du Nord ) , the North @-@ East Army ( Armée du Nord @-@ Est ) and for external theatres of war bringing GQG direct control of French armies in the field . Two major @-@ générals were appointed , General Maurice Janin for the two army bureaus and General Maurice Pellé for the Bureau for External Theatres of War . The Second Bureau was also reformed with its censorship , counter @-@ espionage and intelligence gathering duties being passed to a new Fifth Bureau ; though the Second Bureau retained some of its former intelligence responsibilities .
Despite this reorganisation GQG remained dysfunctional with the Second Bureau , described as " perennial optimists " by Horne , again responsible for providing deceptive assessments of German casualties , at one point in the Battle of Verdun simply adding " a hundred thousand or thereabouts " every fortnight to the figures . The confused responsibility for intelligence between the Second and Fifth Bureaus , the Ministry of the Interior and the police also led to delays in providing intelligence to the armies in the field during the battle . The Third Bureau was responsible for withdrawing two and a half batteries of artillery from the fortresses of Verdun in the months leading up to that close @-@ fought battle , despite receiving requests for reinforcements from the local commander General Frédéric @-@ Georges Herr , who stated he could not hold if attacked in force .
The autonomy and power afforded to GQG worried Minister for War Joseph Gallieni and after his death , one of his successors , Hubert Lyautey , ordered a reorganisation of GQG by ministerial decree on 13 December 1916 . Joffre was sidelined to a position as " technical adviser to the government " , with few defined responsibilities , which led to his resignation on 27 December 1916 and replacement by General Robert Nivelle . Such was Joffre 's fall from grace that , entitled to take three staff officers from GQG with him to his new post , he could find only one volunteer . The North Army and North @-@ East Army were also removed from the direct control of GQG . This course of action was justified by the Ministry of War as an essential step in restoring the independence of the two armies , a key pre @-@ war policy that had been established in a ministerial decree on 28 October 1913 .
Nivelle ordered his own reorganisation on 1 January 1917 , returning control of external theatres to the Ministry of War . In February the 2nd and 5th Bureaus were re @-@ united , though there remained an informal division and intense rivalry between the officers of the " old " and " new " 2nd Bureau . This division remained until the arrival of Georges Clemenceau as Prime Minister and Minister of War in November 1917 .
Nivelle moved the GQG headquarters forward to Beauvais in Picardy on 10 January and to Compiègne in Oise on 4 April . At this stage the GQG staff numbered 450 officers and 800 enlisted personnel . However , the failure of the Nivelle Offensive of April 1917 led to his downfall and replacement by General Philippe Pétain on 17 May . Pétain expanded GQG 's operations , establishing a new Section for Relations with the Civil Authorities and a Bureau for Aeronatics , Telegraphy and Aviation . He later reformed the Second Bureau , absorbing into it the newly formed section for relations with the civil authorities and a new responsibility for cryptography . A minor change in February 1918 saw the expansion of the Third Bureau , gaining telegraphy and liaison from the Bureau for Aeronautics and cryptography from the Bureau for Special Services . In March the Bureau for Aeronautics gained control of anti @-@ aircraft matters and the army medical departments under their own Bureau of Health Services . This organisation would last until after the armistice with Germany in 1918 .
At 19 @.@ 00 on 16 February 1918 the offices of the Third Bureau on Algiers Street in Compiègne were hit by a bomb from a squadron of three German bombers . Serious damage was caused to the building and two officers were killed , Commandant Mathis and Captain Mallet . The dead officers were buried at the Saint @-@ Jacques Church in Compiègne . Fourteen additional officers were injured by flying glass , two of whom were hospitalised .
The GQG headquarters moved further eastwards to Provins in Seine @-@ et @-@ Marne on 26 March 1918 . After the armistice GQG moved to Metz in the newly reacquired Moselle department on 1 December 1918 and returned to Chantilly on 29 January 1919 . GQG was dissolved on 20 October 1919 in accordance with a request from the War Ministry on 14 October which also abolished the zone of army control . The powers previously delegated to GQG were returned to the chief @-@ of @-@ staff of the army . During the Second World War the German army took control of the GQG First World War archives and sent many of the most secret documents to Berlin for analysis . These documents were recovered by the USSR at the end of the war and taken back to Moscow for processing . They were not returned to France until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s .
Equivalent bodies in the other nations of the war were the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) of the British , Italian and American armies , the Oberste Heeresleitung of the German army and the Stavka of the Russian forces . Though one was allowed for in the constitution , the Japanese army did not operate a General Headquarters during the war . After April 1918 all Allied troops on the Western Front were placed under the command of the Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées ( GQGA ) , a multi @-@ national general staff that developed from the Supreme War Council . The GQGA was on similar lines to the GQG and came under General Ferdinand Foch , who had overall command of all Allied troops .
= = = Evolution of responsibilities = = =
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= Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do ( 리태권도 ; 李跆拳道 ) , also known as Rhee Tae Kwon @-@ Do , Rhee Tae Kwon Do , or Rhee Taekwondo , is a martial art school in Australia and New Zealand teaching the Korean martial art of taekwondo . Its full name is " Rhee International Taekwon @-@ Do " with " ( Australia ) " or " ( New Zealand ) " appended . Chong Chul Rhee , one of the original masters of taekwondo , founded the school in the mid @-@ 1960s . Two of Rhee 's brothers , Chong Hyup Rhee and Chong Yoon Rhee , later came to assist him in the 1970s .
C. C. Rhee claims the title ' Father of Australian Taekwondo ' and Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is widely publicised as being Australia 's first and biggest taekwondo school . It has at least 294 publicly listed dojang ( training halls ) in Australia ( and at least five such dojang in New Zealand ) , with perhaps around 1 @,@ 400 dojang in total at its peak . Several Australian martial art school founders received their foundational taekwondo training in Rhee 's school .
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is an independent martial art organisation . It was once affiliated to the International Taekwon @-@ Do Federation ( ITF ) , but has had no relation to the World Taekwondo Federation ( WTF ) .
= = Chong Chul Rhee = =
Chong Chul Rhee , 8th dan , is the founder and head of Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do . He holds the title ' World Master ' and claims the title ' Father of Australian Taekwondo . ' Rhee is one of the twelve original masters of taekwondo selected from the South Korean military to develop taekwondo under Choi Hong Hi in the Korea Taekwon @-@ Do Association ( KTA ) . Rhee is a former unarmed combat instructor in the Korean Marines , and helped introduce taekwondo to Southeast Asia ( notably in Malaysia and Singapore ) before becoming the first taekwondo master sent to Australia by the Republic of Korea .
Rhee has worked towards the reunification of Korea , serving as a member during the third through ninth terms — and as Chairman for the eighth term — of the Oceania Division of the Advisory Council on Democratic and Peaceful Unification . He has also served as Chairman of the Seoul Olympics Supporting Committee and founding President of the Korean Community Hall Construction Supporting Committee . The Republic of Korea awarded Rhee the Dongbaeg Medal ( 동백장 ) in 2003 for promoting taekwondo and Korean culture over the past 33 years .
Two of Rhee 's brothers , Chong Hyup Rhee and Chong Yoon Rhee , also hold the title of ' Master ' in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do and assist him in managing parts of the school . Chong Hyup Rhee , 7th dan , is in charge of operations in Melbourne . He appears on the right in the school 's logo . C. H. Rhee is also one of the twelve original masters of taekwondo , and helped introduce the art of taekwondo to Malaysia and Singapore before arriving in Australia in 1970 . He conducts grading examinations in Melbourne and Darwin . Chong Yoon Rhee , 9th dan , is in charge of operations in parts of Sydney . He trained under Nam Tae Hi during the late 1950s , served as a South Korean army officer , and helped introduce the art of taekwondo to Vietnam in the late 1960s . C. Y. Rhee retired from military service at the rank of Major , and moved to Australia in January 1976 .
C. C. Rhee and C. H. Rhee are listed as pioneers in Asia ( 1950s and 1960s ) and Australia ( 1970s ) in Chang Keun Choi 's list of taekwondo pioneers , while C. Y. Rhee came to Australia some time later .
= = Significance = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do occupies a prominent place in Australian taekwondo history . This is reflected in three key claims : ( 1 ) Chong Chul Rhee is the Father of Australian Taekwondo , ( 2 ) Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is the first taekwondo school in Australia , and ( 3 ) Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is the biggest taekwondo school in Australia . The school has widely publicised these claims since at least the 1980s .
= = = Father of Australian Taekwondo = = =
No one has challenged C. C. Rhee 's claim as the Father of Australian Taekwondo . The title might be debated , however , based on claims made about five other martial art masters :
Chan Yong Kim , 9th dan , was the first tang soo do instructor in Australia . He arrived in the early 1960s , sponsored by the Silvertop Taxi Karate Club or the Judo Federation of Australia , and stayed for one or two years before moving overseas . Kim might be considered the first taekwondo instructor in Australia if tang soo do were recognised as taekwondo retrospectively , and so might lay claim to the title . Kim did not establish a taekwondo school in Australia .
Jack Rozinsky , 9th dan ( Jidokwan ) , founded the Shuto Karate Club in 1963 ; it later became the Melbourne Taekwondo Centre . As Rozinsky taught tang soo do there , he might be considered the first taekwondo school founder in Australia ( again , if tang soo do were recognised as taekwondo retrospectively ) , and so might lay claim to the title . Rozinsky did not introduce taekwondo outside Victoria .
Ke Hyung No , 8th dan ( WTF ) , was invited to Australia by the Victoria Judo Federation in 1965 , and taught taekwondo alongside judo . If tang soo do were not recognised as taekwondo retrospectively , No might lay claim to the title . He travelled back to South Korea for further training , returned to Australia in 1971 , and established his own martial arts centre at that time . As with Rozinsky , No did not introduce taekwondo outside Victoria .
Terence Walsh , 8th dan ( World Kido Federation ) , claims to have introduced taekwondo to New South Wales in 1969 . If he was the first to introduce taekwondo to Australia 's most populous state , then he might lay claim to the title . Walsh did not introduce taekwondo outside the eastern states .
Young Ku Yun , 8th dan ( ITF ) , has been described as having introduced taekwondo to Sydney in 1971 . If he was the first to introduce taekwondo to Australia 's largest city , then he might lay claim to the title . Yun arrived around five years after Rhee , however , and himself claimed to be the first ITF instructor ( rather than the first taekwondo instructor ) in Australia .
Kim and No would have been in the lower dan ranks , and would not yet have held the title of ' Master , ' when they were invited to teach in Australia . A biography of No indicates that he had four years ' training when he arrived . Rozinsky and Walsh would have held 1st dan ranking in the 1960s . Both Rhee ( KTA ) and Yun ( ITF ) would have been in the middle dan ranks and held the title of ' Master ' when they arrived , as they were sent to Australia by their respective Korean governing bodies .
= = = First taekwondo school in Australia = = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do was the first Australian martial art school founded by a Korean master and using the name of taekwondo . Rhee 's school was also the first nationwide taekwondo school in Australia , having operated in South Australia from its founding in the mid @-@ 1960s , Western Australia from at least 1970 , Victoria from at least 1971 , the Australian Capital Territory from 1971 , Queensland from at least 1973 , New South Wales from 1973 , and Tasmania from at least 1983 . The first Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do class was held in the Adelaide YMCA centre .
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 's position as the first taekwondo school in Australia might be challenged by the Melbourne Taekwondo Centre ( originally the Shuto Karate Club ) , as tang soo do was one of the arts taught there . Such status would , however , involve recognising tang soo do as taekwondo retrospectively . The Melbourne Taekwondo Centre incorporated taekwondo into its name in the 1970s .
= = = Biggest taekwondo school in Australia = = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 's position as the biggest taekwondo school in Australia is supported by independently verifiable listings of dojang . It has at least 294 publicly listed dojang in Australia , with perhaps around 1 @,@ 400 dojang in total at its peak . The claim might be disputed if the Australian member schools of the ITF and the WTF were considered as ' schools ' as a whole , whether in terms of numbers of dojang or numbers of members . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is , however , a single school under the direct leadership of Rhee while both the ITF and WTF are groups of schools ( each with its own head ) under a larger governing body .
= = Ex @-@ Rhee members = =
At least 25 founders of Australian martial art schools ( and at least one in New Zealand ) received their foundational taekwondo training in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do or are former Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructors . Of these ex @-@ members , the highest @-@ ranked was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 6th dan instructor when he left Rhee 's school .
= = = International Taekwon @-@ Do Federation = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded ITF schools include some of the most senior ITF instructors in Australia . Ming Tuck Low , 8th dan , was promoted to Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan in 1971 , and was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructor at the University of Western Australia in 1972 . Peter Wong , 7th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Western Australia in the early 1970s . Jamie Moore , 8th dan , commenced Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do training in Queensland in 1976 . Several other ex @-@ members have founded ITF schools across Australia .
= = = Other taekwondo styles = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded non @-@ ITF taekwondo schools include some of the more expansionist instructors in Australia . John Ivanov , 7th dan , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do regional instructor in Queensland in 1995 . Robert Frost , 6th dan , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do regional instructor in New South Wales in 2003 . Lesley Hicks , 6th dan , commenced Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do training in the late 1970s , and was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 3rd dan regional instructor in New South Wales in 2003 . Vernon Low , 6th dan , was the Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do State Master Instructor of South Australia , was the first Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructor promoted to 5th dan , and had been ranked at 4th dan as early as 1974 , prior to establishing his own school . Several other ex @-@ members have founded non @-@ ITF taekwondo schools .
= = = Other martial arts = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded schools teaching martial arts other than taekwondo include three instructors with an eclectic martial arts history . Hans Fricke , 8th dan , first met Rhee in Perth in 1970 ( with Fricke bearing an introductory letter from the ITF , as he had trained briefly in South Korea ) , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 2nd dan instructor in Sydney during the 1970s , and now teaches battodo . Christopher Nasilowski , 10th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Adelaide from 1972 to 1984 , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 2nd dan instructor , and now teaches arnis and jujitsu . Graham Healy , 7th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Queensland from 1977 to 1982 , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan instructor , and now teaches boxing and taekwondo . Several other ex @-@ members have founded other martial art schools .
= = Training = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do teaches the military style of taekwondo , closer to traditional martial art than modern martial sport in nature . Training consists of exercises that may be classified as : basics ( group drill exercises ; similar to kihon in karate ) , destruction ( breaking ) , hyung ( patterns or forms ) , self @-@ defence , and sparring . Basics , destruction , hyung , and self @-@ defence are similar to equivalent exercises in other traditional martial art schools . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do teaches the Chang Hon hyung .
Sparring takes three forms : three @-@ step sparring , one @-@ step sparring , and free sparring . Three @-@ step sparring and one @-@ step sparring are similar to equivalent exercises in ITF and WTF schools , but free sparring is different , having more in common with traditional karate sparring . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do free sparring is unscored , unarmoured , and usually ' non @-@ contact ' in principle . Members typically achieve non @-@ contact sparring by two methods , whether separately or in combination :
The attacker consciously stops just short of hitting the training partner , while still executing attacks with full speed and power . The attacker has primary responsibility for non @-@ contact , at a given moment during sparring , and this typically occurs when one training partner has more experience than the other . This is normally the practice when one training partner is a beginner .
The defender actively avoids or blocks an incoming attack executed by the training partner . The defender has primary responsibility for non @-@ contact , at a given moment during sparring , and this typically occurs with training partners of similar experience . This is normally the practice when both training partners are in the senior ranks .
= = Ranks = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do ranks are denoted by coloured belts , which indicate a member 's level of experience and responsibility within the school . There are ten coloured belt grades , or kup ranks ( 급 ) , and nine black belt degrees , or dan ranks ( 단 ) . Members start with white belts and progress through yellow , green , blue , brown , and then black .
Non @-@ black belts , from white through to brown , denote the kup ranks . ' Tips ' denoting odd @-@ numbered kup ranks are marked by a stripe of the higher colour near the right end ( from the wearer 's point of view ) of a belt of the lower colour . Black belts denote the dan ranks . A specific dan rank is represented by the number of white bars embroidered on the black belt . A black belt with no bars is a Junior Black Belt , a rank assigned to members considered too young ( typically 15 years or younger ) for 1st dan . Junior Black Belt members are tested for 1st dan when they reach 18 years of age . One bar denotes 1st dan , two bars denote 2nd dan , and so on . The end of the belt bearing the dan rank also carries embroidery noting the name of the master issuing the promotion ( Chong Chul Rhee , Chong Hyup Rhee , or Chong Yoon Rhee ) .
To attain Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan ranking typically takes around four to five years of regular training . Progression through the school 's dan ranks is by invitation , and is usually slower than in other taekwondo schools . Invitation appears to be based on a combination of technique and knowledge . Promotion to 2nd dan might come after 10 – 15 years , in which time someone might have reached 4th dan ( ITF ) or 5th dan ( WTF ) . Promotion to 3rd dan might come after 20 – 25 years , in which time someone might have reached 6th dan ( ITF ) or 7th dan ( WTF ) . Several former Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructors who joined other taekwondo organisations received new ranks consistent with these approximations .
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= Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is a single written and recorded by American singer Michael Jackson . Released under Epic Records on August 10 , 1979 , the song is the first single from Jackson 's fifth studio album , titled Off the Wall . The song was the first solo recording over which Jackson had creative control .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was Jackson 's first single to hit # 1 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart in seven years , and his first solo # 1 on the Soul singles chart . It remained at # 1 for six weeks on Billboard 's Soul chart . The song was a worldwide success . Within a few months of release , the 45 was certified Gold , and eventually earned a Platinum certification for sales in excess of two million US copies .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was well received by contemporary music critics . An accompanying music video for the song was released in October 1979 . The video shows Jackson dancing , as well as being shown in a triplicate , in different color backgrounds . The song also won Jackson his first solo Grammy and American Music Awards . " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is considered to be the first song to showcase Jackson 's talent as a solo artist , both as a singer and songwriter . Since the song 's release , it has been covered by numerous musicians .
= = Background and production = =
In 1978 , Jackson starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz , an urbanized retelling of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . After the filming , Jackson , who was still a member of The Jacksons , approached the film 's musical director , Quincy Jones , to ask if he knew of any producers to help with Jackson 's future solo endeavors . Jones suggested himself , and the two began work on Off the Wall . After listening to hundreds of demos , the two decided upon the ones to record . These included " Workin ' Day and Night " , " Get on the Floor " and " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . The song was recorded in Los Angeles recording studios . Jackson claimed that when the melody of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " came to him , he couldn 't shake it off . He found himself humming and singing it while walking through the Jacksons ' Encino home . As Michael could not play , he had his brother Randy perform the melody on a piano in the family 's recording studio . When Jackson 's mother , Katherine Jackson , a devout Jehovah 's Witness , heard the song , she was shocked by the lyrical content , and felt that the title could be misconstrued as pertaining to sexual activity . Jackson reassured her that the song was not a reference to sex , but could mean whatever people wanted it to . Upon playing the recording to Jones , it was agreed that the song would be featured on Off the Wall .
= = Composition = =
Musically " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is credited as a disco @-@ funk song . The song 's full length on Off The Wall is just over 6 minutes . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " introduced Jackson 's falsetto voice and vocal hiccups , which would become one of Jackson 's signature techniques . Along with Jackson 's vocal hiccups , Jackson 's voice in the song was described as having vocal tics — from the hiccups , a " grunt " , and " the ' oho ! ' " . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is played in the key of B Mixolydian and in common time signature . In the song , Jackson 's voice range is from G # 3 to F # 5 . Instruments for " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " are a 6 piece horn section ( 2 trumpets , alto sax , tenor sax , trombone , and baritone sax ) , string section ( arranged by Ben Wright ) , and 2 guitars , keyboards , bass , drums and percussion . The song 's tempo is upbeat at 120 beats per minute . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " begins with Jackson speaking , before singing the song 's lyrics .
= = Release and reception = =
" Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was released on August 10 , 1979 , under Epic Records ; Jackson 's first solo album away from Motown Records . It was well received by contemporary critics . Stephen Holden , of Rolling Stone , described the song as " one of a handful of recent disco releases that works both as a dance track and as an aural extravaganza comparable to Earth , Wind and Fire 's ' Boogie Wonderland ' " . Within three months of its release , the song was at the top of the charts and had been certified gold . Reaching number one on Billboard 's Hot 100 and Hot Soul Singles charts in the United States ; it was Jackson 's first solo number one single since " Ben " , seven years prior . It remained atop of the Billboard Hot 100 for one week . It also reached the top of the charts in Australia , New Zealand , Norway and South Africa , and peaked at number three in the United Kingdom . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s was awarded platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1989 .
In 2006 , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " reached number 17 in the United Kingdom , following the Visionary campaign , whereby 20 of Jackson 's hit singles were reissued in several European countries . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music saw an increase in popularity . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " peaked at number seven on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart , peaking at number nine on the charts issue date July 11 , 2009 . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " charted within the top ten , placing at number nine , in France , and charted within the top 20 in Portugal and Switzerland , placing at number 18 and 20 . The song also charted at number 21 in Australia , 38 in the United Kingdom , and 50 in Sweden , respectively . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s least successful country was Japan , peaking at number 77 . " Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was certified gold in Australia by Australian Recording Industry Association in 2009 for the shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units .
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " earned Jackson his first solo Grammy Award , winning Best Male R & B Vocal Performance at the 1980 Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Best Disco Recording . The song also received Favorite Soul / R & B Single at the 1980 American Music Awards .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was directed and produced by Nick Saxton and made its world premiere in October 1979 . It was Jackson 's first music video as a solo artist . The music video shows a smiling Jackson dancing and singing " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " in a black and white tuxedo with a black bow tie while appearing chroma keyed over a background of abstract geometric figures . At one stage , Jackson is seen dancing in triplicate , which was considered innovative at the time .
The music video was included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits - HIStory , Number Ones and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Live performances = =
Michael Jackson performed this song on The Jacksons ' Destiny Tour on the second leg , as well as the Triumph Tour . During the ' ' Victory Tour ' ' and the first leg of the Bad Tour , Michael would sing lines from the song while performing " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " . Michael also performed this song as part of the " Off the Wall Medley " on his HIStory World Tour , but only on certain concerts . Jackson was also going to perform it for the This Is It concert series , but the shows were cancelled due to his death .
= = Michael Jackson : The Experience = =
The song is featured in the video game Michael Jackson : The Experience .
= = Cover versions = =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " has been covered by multiple artists since its release in 1979 .
In 1980 : A reggae version was released by Derrick Laro & Trinity as a 12 " single .
In 1985 : the song was included in the second album of Dominican Juan Luis Guerra & 440 , Mudanza y Acarreo . This version is a merengue based on disco and rock sounds and was titled " Dame " ( Give me ) .
In 1999 : The song was covered by BB Band in 1999 on their album entitled , The Detroit Sound .
Chris Tucker and Adrienne Bailon recorded a new version of the song for the 2001 film Rush Hour 2 , which stars also Tucker .
In 2005 : Westlife performed the song live on their The Number Ones Tour .
In 2005 : The song was also covered by James Chance on his 2005 album , which included a recorded and live version .
In 2005 : " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " was covered by Melissa Forbes on her 2005 album entitled , No More Mondays .
In 2007 : American pop @-@ rock band Shivaree covered " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " on their 2007 album of cover versions , entitled , Tainted Love : Mating Calls and Fight Songs .
The song was covered by Rod Hanna , on his album of covers entitled Rod Hanna Live : Discofesta 70 's Superhits - Rod Hanna .
In 2009 : Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , the band U2 began their world tour , entitled U2 360 ° Tour , with renditions of two of Jackson 's songs , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Man In The Mirror " ( from Jackson 's 1987 album Bad ) on June 30 , 2009 .
Also in 2009 , Egyptian singer Tamer Hosny heavily sampled " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " in his song , " Howa Fein ( Don 't Stop ) , which is featured on his album , " Haeesh Hayati " .
Cookin Soul did a remix cover of the track , entitled , " Don ’ t Stop ‘ til You Get Enough feat . Jay @-@ Z " . The remixed version was performed during Cookin Souls Shade45 show , and the track was made available as a digital download track . Amos Barshad and Nick Catucci , of NYMag.com , commented that the remix version was a " surprisingly great meeting of music and lyrics , connecting MJ and rap without overstating the shared DNA " .
Former rival Prince covered it on his 2011 " Welcome 2 America " tour .
Usher performed the song and a few other mix of songs as a tribute to Jackson on his OMG Tour .
Maroon 5 incorporated the song in its set list on the U.S. Overexposed Tour following the band 's opening song " Payphone " and is prior to the next song , " Makes Me Wonder . "
Anthony Strong 's jazzy version appears on the album On a Clear Day ( 2015 ) .
= = Legacy = =
James Montgomery of MTV noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , along with Off the Wall 's other three singles , " showcased ( or , more specifically , unleashed ) Jackson 's talents as a [ sic ] entertainer , a vocalist , a writer and , most importantly , as a leading man . " After Jackson 's death , AOL 's Radio Blog released a list , entitled " 10 Best Michael Jackson Songs " , which placed " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " at number ten on the list .
William Ruhlmann , author of The All @-@ Music Guide to Rock , praised " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " as an " irresistible dance track " . John Lewis , author of 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , noted that the " jittery , frenetic opening track " is the centerpiece of Off the Wall . He concluded that " Jackson 's falsetto hollers and frisky yelps serve as an obbligato to the lead line , punctuating Ben Wright 's thrilling string arrangement and Jerry Hey 's tight horn charts " . Jason Elias , a writer for Allmusic , noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " presents a " new Michael Jackson " that was " sexual , [ an ] adult , and aggressive . Elias commented that " Like the best of Jones ' late- ' 70s , early- ' 80s work , this [ song ] wasn 't quite disco , couldn 't be hardcore funk - it was an amalgam of styles with the all @-@ important pop accessibility . "
Jackson 's biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli described Jackson 's unveiling of a " sexy , playful falsetto " that " no one had ever heard from him before " . Nelson George stated that the argument for Jackson 's greatness began with the arrangements of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . He noted that the percussion and backing vocals were " artfully choreographed " to " create drama and ecstasy on the dance floor " . He concluded , " It 's one thing to make a dance record — it is another to instill that track with an epic , celebratory quality as Michael does here " . James Montgomery of MTV noted that Off The Wall contained a " masterful mixture of fiery disco tracks " , specifying " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Workin ' Day and Night " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami =
The 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami occurred on July 17 at 15 : 19 local time along a subduction zone off the coast of west and central Java , a large and densely populated island in the Indonesian archipelago . The shock had a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 and a maximum perceived intensity of IV ( Light ) in Jakarta , the capital and largest city of Indonesia . There were no direct effects of the earthquake 's shaking due to its light to moderate intensity , and the large loss of life from the event was due to the resulting tsunami , which inundated a 300 km ( 190 mi ) portion of the Java coast that had been unaffected by the earlier 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that was off the coast of Sumatra . The July 2006 earthquake was also centered in the Indian Ocean , 180 kilometers ( 110 mi ) from the coast of Java , and had a duration of more than three minutes .
An abnormally slow rupture at the Sunda Trench and a tsunami that was unusually strong relative to the size of the earthquake were both factors that led to it being categorized as a tsunami earthquake . Several thousand kilometers to the southeast , surges of several meters were observed in northwestern Australia , but in Java the tsunami runups ( height above normal sea level ) were typically 5 – 7 meters ( 16 – 23 ft ) and resulted in the deaths of more than 600 people . Other factors may have contributed to exceptionally high peak runups of 10 – 21 m ( 33 – 69 ft ) on the small and mostly uninhabited island of Nusa Kambangan , just to the east of the resort town of Pangandaran , where damage was heavy and a large loss of life occurred . Since the shock was felt with only moderate intensity well inland , and even less so at the shore , the surge arrived with little or no warning . Other factors contributed to the tsunami being largely undetected until it was too late and , although a tsunami watch was posted by an American tsunami warning center and a Japanese meteorological center , no information was delivered to people at the coast .
= = Tectonic setting = =
The island of Java is the most densely populated island on earth , and is vulnerable to both large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions , due to its location near the Sunda Trench , a convergent plate boundary where the Australian tectonic plate is subducting beneath Indonesia . Three great earthquakes occurred in the span of three years to the northwest on the Sumatra portion of the trench . The 2004 M9.15 Sumatra – Andaman , the 2005 M8.7 Nias – Simeulue , and the 2007 M8.4 Mentawai earthquakes produced the largest release of elastic strain energy since the 1957 / 1964 series of shocks on the Aleutian / Alaska trench .
The southeastern ( Java ) portion of the Sunda Trench extends from the Sunda Strait in the west to Bali Basin in the east . The convergence of relatively old oceanic crust is occurring at a rate of 6 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) per year in the west portion and 4 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) per year in the east , and the dip of the Benioff Zone ( the angle of the zone of seismicity that defines the down @-@ going slab at a convergent boundary ) is around 50 ° and extends to a depth of approximately 600 kilometers ( 370 mi ) . Historical events that occurred before seismometers were operating in the region were the large to very large events of 1840 , 1867 , and 1875 , but unlike the northwestern Sumatra segment , no megathrust earthquake has occurred on the Java segment of the Sunda Trench in the last 300 years .
= = Earthquake = =
The earthquake was the result of thrust faulting at the Sunda Trench . A rupture length of approximately 200 kilometers ( 120 mi ) ( and an unusually low rupture velocity of 1 – 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 0 @.@ 93 mi ) per second ) resulted in a duration of about 185 seconds ( just over three minutes ) for the event . The shock was centered 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) from the trench , and about 180 kilometers ( 110 mi ) from the south coast of the island . A comparison was made with the earlier 2002 Sumatra earthquake , a M7.5 underdea earthquake of a similar size that also occurred along the Sunda Arc and at a shallow depth , but one that did not result in a tsunami .
The large and damaging tsunami that was generated was out of proportion relative to the size of the event , based on its short @-@ period body wave magnitude . The Indonesian Meteorological , Climatological , and Geophysical Agency assigned a magnitude of 6 @.@ 8 , and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) reported a similar value of 6 @.@ 1 ( both body wave magnitude ) that were calculated from short @-@ period seismic waves ( 1 – 2 seconds in the case of the USGS ) . The USGS then presented a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 that was calculated from 5 – 100 @-@ second surface waves , and Harvard University subsequently revealed that a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 had been resolved based on even longer 150 @-@ second surface waves .
= = = Intensity = = =
In tsunami prone regions , strong earthquakes serve as familiar warnings , and this is especially true for earthquakes in Indonesia . Previous estimates of the tsunami hazard for the Java coastline may have minimized the risk to the area , and to the northwest along the Sumatran coast , the risk is substantially higher for tsunami , especially near Padang . Previous events along the coast of Java in 1921 and again in 1994 illustrate the need for an accurate assessment of the threat . The July 2006 earthquake had an unusually slow rupture velocity which resulted in minor shaking on land for around three minutes , but the intensity was very light relative to the size of the tsunami that followed .
The earthquake produced shaking at Pangandaran ( where the M6.3 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake was felt more strongly ) of intensity III – IV ( Weak – Light ) , intensity III at Cianjur , and II ( Weak ) at Yogyakarta . Further inland and farther from the epicenter , intensity IV shaking made tall buildings sway in Jakarta , but at some coastal villages where many of the casualties occurred , the shaking was not felt as strong . An informal survey of 67 people that were present at the time revealed that in at least eight cases , individuals stated that they did not feel the earthquake at all ( a typical M7.7 earthquake would have been distinctly noticed at those distances ) . The unusually low felt intensities , along with the short period body wave magnitudes , were components of the event that narrowed its classification into that of a tsunami earthquake .
= = = Type = = =
Tsunami earthquakes can be influenced by both the presence of ( and lack of ) sediment at the subduction zone , and can be categorized as either aftershocks of megathrust earthquakes , like the M7 June 22 , 1932 Cuyutlán event in Mexico , or as standalone events that occur near the upper portion of a plate interface . Northwestern University professor Emile Okal imparts that in the aftershock scenario , they can occur as a result of stress transfer from a mainshock to an accretionary wedge or a similar environment with " deficient mechanical properties " , and as standalone events they can occur in the presence of irregular contacts at the plate interface in a zone that lacks sediment .
One of the initial characterizations of tsunami earthquakes came from seismologist Hiroo Kanamori in the early 1970s , and additional clarity materialized following the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake and tsunami , which was evaluated to have a surface wave magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 when analyzing short period seismic signals . When longer period signals of around 250 seconds were investigated , the shock was reevaluated to have a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 6 , with a hypothesis that the slow nature of the slip of the event may have concealed its substantial extent . Sediment was thought to have contributed to a slower rupture , due to a lubrication effect at the plate interface , with the result being an earthquake signature that had abundant long period seismic signals , which could be an important factor in the tsunami @-@ generation process .
= = = Warning = = =
A tsunami warning system was not in operation at the time of the shock , but the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Hawaii ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency posted a tsunami watch , based on the occurrence of a M7.2 earthquake . The bulletin came within 30 minutes of the shock , but there was no means to transmit the warning to the people on the coast that needed to know . Many of those who felt the earthquake responded by moving away from the shore , but not with any urgency . The withdrawal of the sea that exposed an additional 5 – 10 meters ( 16 – 33 ft ) of beach created an even more significant warning sign , but in some locations wind waves on the sea effectively concealed the withdrawal that signalled the approach of the tsunami .
= = Tsunami = =
The earthquake and tsunami came on a Monday afternoon , a day after many more people were present on the beach , due to a major national holiday . The waves came a few tens of minutes after the shock ( and were a surprise , even to lifeguards ) and occurred when the sea level was approaching low tide which , along with the wind waves , masked the initial withdrawal of the sea as the tsunami drew near . Most portions of the south Java coast saw runup heights of 5 – 7 meters ( 16 – 23 ft ) , but evidence on the island of Nusa Kambangan indicated that a peak surge measuring 21 meters ( 69 ft ) had occurred there , suggesting to researchers that the possibility of a submarine landslide had contributed to the magnitude of the tsunami in that area .
= = = Runup = = =
A 300 km ( 190 mi ) portion of the southwest and south @-@ central Java coast was affected by the tsunami , and resulted in around 600 fatalities , with a high concentration in Pangandaran . Two thousand kilometers ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) to the southeast at the Steep Point area of western Australia , a runup of 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) was measured , which was comparable to a similar runup in northern Oman from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , though in that case it was at a much greater distance of 5 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) . Within three weeks of the event , scientists from five different countries were on the ground in Java performing a survey of the affected areas , including gathering runup ( height above normal sea level ) and inundation ( distance the surge moved inland from the shore ) measurements .
The island of Nusa Kambangan ( 30 km × 4 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi × 2 @.@ 5 mi ) ) sits on the south coast of Java and is separated from the main island by a narrow strait . It is a large and mostly uninhabited nature reserve , and is referred to as the Alcatraz of Indonesia , due to the three high security prisons that are located at the town of Permisan . Of all the measurements taken during the post @-@ tsunami survey , the highest runup heights ( 10 – 21 m ( 33 – 69 ft ) ) were seen on the island behind a beach , where hibiscus and pandanus plants , and large coconut trees were mangled and uprooted up to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) from the shore . The ( sea floor ) bathymetry in the area supported a proposition that a canyon slope failure or an underwater landslide may have contributed to or focused the tsunami energy at that location . Nineteen farmers and one prisoner were killed there , but the deep water port of Cilacap ( just to the east ) was protected by the island , although one large moored vessel made ground contact during the initial 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) withdrawal .
= = = Damage = = =
Since the earthquake caused only minor ground movement , and was only lightly felt , all the damage that occurred on the island was due to the tsunami . Types of buildings that were affected were timber / bamboo , brick traditional , and brick traditional with reinforced concrete . Semi @-@ permanent timber or bamboo structures that were based on a wooden frame were the most economical style of construction that were assessed following the disaster . A tsunami flow depth of 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) usually resulted in complete destruction of these types of structures . A group of scientists that evaluated the damage considered the unreinforced brick construction as weak , because the performance of homes constructed in that style did not fare much better than the timber / bamboo variety . Hotels and some houses and shops that were of reinforced brick construction were far better off , because units that were exposed to a flood depth of 3 – 4 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) were considered repairable .
Many wooden cafes and shops within 20 meters ( 66 ft ) of the shore were completely removed by the tsunami at Pangandaran , and severe damage still occurred to unreinforced masonry that was within several hundred meters , but some hotels that were constructed well held up better . The villages of Batu Hiu and Batu Kara , both to the west of Pangandaran , experienced similar damage . Other severe damage was seen at Marsawah village , Bulakbenda , where all buildings had been removed down to their foundation within 150 meters ( 490 ft ) of the water line , and even 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) further inland there were many buildings that were totally destroyed . Witnesses reported that waves were breaking several hundred meters inland at that location .
= = = Response = = =
Officials in Indonesia received information regarding the tsunami in the form of bulletins from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the Japan Meteorological Agency , but wanted to avoid panic , and did not attempt to disseminate the advisories to the public . Virtually no time was available to make that sort of effort ( had the intention been to communicate the danger with the public ) because some community leaders were sent text messages with pertinent information only minutes prior to the arrival of the first waves . The tsunami affected the coast of Java comprising mostly fishing villages and beach resorts that were unscathed following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and was also only several hundred kilometers distant from the region that saw heavy destruction just several months prior during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake , where more than 6 @,@ 000 were killed .
Trained research teams were already on the ground on Java responding to the May earthquake and began a survey of more than one hundred Muslim farmers , plantation laborers , and fishermen ( or those with fishing @-@ related occupations ) that were affected by the tsunami . Almost two thirds of the group reported that they lived in permanent structures made of wood , brick , or cement , while the remainder lived in semi @-@ permanent facilities made from earth or stone . The government was cited as the first responder for water , relocation and medical assistance , and helping with the deceased . For rescue , shelter , clothing , and locating missing people , individuals were listed as the primary provider , but 100 % of those surveyed replied that the government should be responsible for relief . Most of those requiring aid stated that they were given effective assistance within 48 hours and that they were satisfied with the help .
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= Serval =
The serval / ˈsɜːrvəl / ( Leptailurus serval ) , also known as the tierboskat , is a wild cat found in Africa . The sole member of the genus Leptailurus , it was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1776 . Eighteen subspecies are recognised . The serval is a slender , medium @-@ sized cat that stands 54 – 62 centimetres ( 21 – 24 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 8 – 18 kilograms ( 18 – 40 lb ) . It is characterised by a small head , large ears , a golden @-@ yellow to buff coat spotted and striped with black , and a short , black @-@ tipped tail . The serval has the longest legs of any cat relative to its body size .
Active in the day as well as at night , servals tend to be solitary with minimal social interaction . Both sexes establish highly overlapping home ranges of 10 to 32 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 4 sq mi ) , and mark them with excrement and saliva . Servals are omnivores – they prey on rodents ( particularly vlei rats ) , small birds , frogs , insects and reptiles , and are also known to consume grasses . The serval uses its sense of hearing to locate the prey ; to kill small prey , it leaps over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground to land on the prey on its forefeet , and finally kills it with a bite on the neck or the head . Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of their range , but typically once or twice a year in an area . After a gestational period of two to three months , a litter of one to four is born . Weaning occurs at one month , and kittens begin hunting on their own at six months . The juveniles leave their mother at 12 months .
The serval prefers areas with cover such as reeds and tall grasses and proximity to water bodies , such as wetlands and savannahs . It is rare in northern Africa and the Sahel , but widespread in southern Africa . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies the serval as least concern . It occurs in protected areas across its range , and hunting of servals is either prohibited or regulated in several countries .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The scientific name of the serval is Leptailurus serval . It is the sole member of its genus and is placed under the family Felidae . The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber as Felis serval in the journal Die Säugetiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen in 1776 . In 1858 , Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov proposed the genus Leptailurus for the serval , a name constructed from Greek roots meaning " slender cat " . The name " serval " could have been derived from the Medieval Latin words Lupus cervalis ( " deer @-@ like wolf " ) or from the Portuguese Lobos cerval ( referring to the lynx ) . The first recorded use of this name dates back to 1771 . Another name for the serval is " tierboskat " .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , some taxonomists inspected serval skins and identified two species on the basis of coat pattern : Felis serval ( serval ) , with large , pronounced spots , and F. servalina or F. ornata ( servaline cat ) , marked by freckle @-@ sized dots . F. servalina was first described in 1839 by Irish naturalist William Ogilby from Sierra Leone ; in 1867 , British zoologist John Edward Gray described F. herschelii from an Indian skin , which was probably the same as the servaline cat . In 1907 , British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock commented that the two forms should be considered independent species , but reverted from this in 1917 . Eventually , the two forms came to be recognised as the same species . Another form , F. himalayanus ( Himalayan serval ) , was described from a skin procured from the Himalayan region ; however , Scottish naturalist William Jardine noted in The Naturalist 's Library ( 1843 ) that no such specimen had been identified by him or his colleagues , and that it differed considerably from the common serval . In 1944 , Pocock identified three races of the serval from northern Africa .
The phylogenetic relationships of the serval have remained in dispute ; in 1997 , palaeontologists M. C. McKenna and S. K. Bell classified Leptailurus as a subgenus of Felis , while others like O. R. P. Bininda @-@ Edmonds ( of the Technical University of Munich ) have grouped it with Felis , Lynx and Caracal . Studies in the 2000s and the 2010s show that the serval , along with the caracal and the African golden cat , forms one of the eight lineages of Felidae . According to a 2006 genetic study , the Caracal lineage came into existence 8 @.@ 5 mya , and the ancestor of this lineage arrived in Africa 8 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 6 mya .
Up to 18 subspecies are currently recognised , although some authors recognize fewer :
The 2006 study gave the phylogenetic relationships of the serval as follows :
= = Hybrid = =
On 7 April 1986 , a healthy hybrid kitten between a male serval and a female domestic cat was born ; this kitten was larger than a typical domestic kitten and resembled its father in its coat pattern . It appeared to have inherited a few domestic traits , such as tameness , from its mother . The hybrid cat may have a doglike habit of following its owner about , and can be a good swimmer . Over the years , savannah cats have gained popularity as pets .
= = Description = =
The serval is a slender , medium @-@ sized cat ; it stands 54 – 62 centimetres ( 21 – 24 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 8 – 18 kilograms ( 18 – 40 lb ) , but females tend to be lighter . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 67 and 100 centimetres ( 26 and 39 in ) . Males tend to be sturdier than females . Prominent characteristics include the small head , large ears , spotted and striped coat , long legs and a black @-@ tipped tail that is around 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) long . In fact , the serval has the longest legs of any cat relative to its body size , likely due to the greatly elongated metatarsal bones in the feet . The toes are elongated as well , and unusually mobile .
The coat is basically golden @-@ yellow to buff , and extensively marked with black spots and stripes . The spots show great variation in size . Melanistic servals are also known . Facial features include the brownish or greenish eyes , white whiskers on the snout and near the ears , ears as large as those of a domestic cat ( but large relative to the size of the head ) and black on the back with a white horizontal band in the middle , whitish chin , and spots and streaks on the cheeks and the forehead . Three to four black stripes run from the back of the head onto the shoulders , and then break into rows of spots . The white underbelly has dense and fluffy basal fur , and the soft guard hairs ( the layer of fur protecting the basal fur ) are 5 – 10 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . Guard hairs are up to 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long on the neck , back and the flanks , and are merely 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long on the face . The closely set ears are black on the back with a horizontal white band ; the ears can rotate up to 180 degrees independently of each other . The serval has a good sense of smell , hearing and vision .
The serval is similar to the sympatric caracal , but has a narrower spoor , a rounder skull , and lacks its prominent ear tufts . The African golden cat is darker , with different cranial features . It resembles the cheetah in its build and coat pattern , though not in size . The serval shares its adaptations to its marshy habitat with the jungle cat ; both cats have large and sharp ears that help in locating the prey efficiently , and their long legs raise them above muddy ground and water .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The serval is active in the day as well as at night ; activity might peak in early morning , around twilight and at midnight . Servals might be active for a longer time on cool or rainy days . During the hot midday , they rest or groom themselves in the shade of bushes and grasses . Servals remain cautious of their vicinity , though they may be less alert when no large carnivores or prey animals are around . Serval walk as much as 2 – 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 mi ) every night . Servals will often use special trails to reach certain hunting areas . A solitary animal , there is little social interaction among servals except in the mating season , when pairs of opposite sexes may stay together . The only long @-@ lasting bond appears to be of the mother and her cubs , which leave their mother only when they are a year old .
Both males and females establish home ranges , and are most active only in certain regions ( ' core areas ' ) within them . The area of these ranges can vary from 10 to 32 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 4 sq mi ) ; prey density , availability of cover and human interference could be significant factors in determining their size . Home ranges might overlap extensively , but occupants show minimal interaction . Aggressive encounters are rare , as servals appear to mutually avoid one another rather than fight and defend their ranges . Agonistic behaviour involves vertical movement of the head ( contrary to the horizontal movement observed in other cats ) , raising the hair and the tail , displaying the teeth and the white band on the ears , and yowling . Individuals mark their ranges and preferred paths by spraying urine on nearby vegetation , dropping scats along the way , and rubbing their mouth on grasses or the ground while releasing saliva . Servals tend to be sedentary , shifting only a few kilometres away even if they leave their range .
The serval is vulnerable to hyaenas and wild dogs . It will seek cover to escape their view , and , if the predator is very close , immediately flee in long leaps , changing its direction frequently and with the tail raised . The serval is an efficient , though not frequent , climber ; an individual was observed to have climbed a tree to a height of more than 9 metres ( 30 ft ) to escape dogs . Like many cats , the serval is able to purr ; it also has a high @-@ pitched chirp , and can hiss , cackle , growl , grunt and meow .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
The serval is an omnivore that preys on rodents ( particularly vlei rats ) , small birds , frogs , insects and reptiles , and also feeds on grasses ( that can facilitate digestion or act as an emetic ) . Up to 90 percent of the preyed animals weigh less than 200 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) ; larger prey , such as duikers , hares , flamingoes and young antelopes , may occasionally be hunted . Several studies have estimated the percentage of rodents in the diet at 80 to 97 percent . Apart from vlei rats , other rodents recorded frequently in the diet include the African grass rat , African pygmy mouse and multimammate mice .
Servals locate prey by their strong sense of hearing . To kill small prey , the serval will slowly stalk it , then pounce on it with the forefeet directed toward the chest , and finally land on it with its forelegs outstretched . The prey , receiving a blow from one or both of the serval 's forepaws , is incapacitated , and the serval gives it a bite on the head or the neck and immediately swallows it . Snakes are dealt more blows and even bites , and may be consumed even as they are moving . Larger prey , such as larger birds , are killed by a sprint followed by a leap to catch them as they are trying to flee , and are eaten slowly . Servals have been observed caching large kills to be consumed later by concealing them in dead leaves and grasses . Servals typically get rid of the internal organs of rodents while eating , and pluck feathers from birds before consuming them . During a leap , a serval can reach more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground and cover a horizontal distance of up to 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) ; the cat can even change direction mid @-@ air . Servals appear to be efficient hunters ; a study in Ngorongoro showed that servals were successful in half of their hunting attempts , regardless of the time of hunting , and a mother serval was found to have a success rate of 62 % . The number of kills in a 24 @-@ hour period averaged 15 to 16 . Scavenging has been observed , but very rarely .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both sexes become sexually mature when they are one to two years old . Oestrus in females lasts one to four days ; it typically occurs once or twice a year , though it can occur three or four times a year if the mother loses her litters . Observations of captive servals suggest that when a female enters oestrus , the rate of urine @-@ marking increases in her as well as the males in her vicinity . Zoologist Jonathan Kingdon described the behaviour of a female serval in oestrus in his 1997 book East African Mammals . He noted that she would roam restlessly , spray urine frequently holding her vibrating tail in a vertical manner , rub her head near the place she has marked , salivate continuously , give out sharp and short " miaow " s that can be heard for quite a distance , and rub her mouth and cheeks against the face of an approaching male . The time when mating takes place varies geographically ; births peak in winter in Botswana , and toward the end of the dry season in the Ngorongoro Crater . A trend generally observed across the range is that births precede the breeding season of murid rodents .
Gestation lasts for two to three months , following which a litter of one to four kittens is born . Births take place in secluded areas , for example in dense vegetation or burrows abandoned by aardvarks and porcupines . Blind at birth , newborn weigh nearly 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) and have soft , woolly hair ( greyer than in adults ) and unclear markings . The eyes open after nine to thirteen days . Weaning begins after a month of birth ; the mother brings small kills to her kittens and calls out to them as she approaches the " den " . A mother with young kittens rests for a notably lesser time and has to spend almost twice the time and energy for hunting than do other servals . If disturbed , the mother will shift her kittens one by one to a more secure place . Kittens eventually start accompanying their mother to hunts . At around six months , they acquire their permanent canines and begin to hunt themselves ; they leave their mother at about 12 months of age . They may reach sexual maturity from 12 to 25 months of age . Life expectancy is about 10 years in the wild , and up to 20 years in captivity .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The serval prefers areas with cover , such as reeds and tall grasses , and proximity to water bodies , such as wetlands and savannahs . It typically shuns rainforests and arid areas , though it can occur in semi @-@ arid areas and cork oak forests in northern Africa , close to the Mediterranean Sea . Servals also occur on grasslands , moorlands and bamboo thickets at high altitudes ; they are known to occur up to 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) above the sea level on Mount Kilimanjaro . In the Luambe National Park ( Zambia ) , the population density was recorded as 0 @.@ 1 individual per square kilometre in 2011 .
The serval is confined to Africa – it is rare in northern Africa and the Sahel , but widespread in southern Africa , where their range is reportedly expanding . In northern Africa , the serval is known only from Morocco and has been reintroduced in Tunisia , but is feared to be extinct in Algeria .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ) lists the serval as least concern ; the animal is also included in CITES Appendix II . A major threat to the survival of the serval include the degradation of wetlands and grasslands . Trade of serval skins , though on the decline , still occurs in countries such as Benin and Senegal . In western Africa , the serval has significance in traditional medicine . Pastoralists often kill servals to protect their animals , though servals generally do not prey upon livestock .
Servals occur in several protected areas across its range . Hunting of servals is prohibited in Algeria , Botswana , Congo , Kenya , Liberia , Morocco , Mozambique , Nigeria , Rwanda , Cape Province ( South Africa ) , and Tunisia ; regulations apply in Angola , Burkina Faso , Central African Republic , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Ghana , Malawi , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Somalia , Tanzania , Togo and Zambia .
= = Relationship with human beings = =
The association of servals with human beings dates to the time of Ancient Egypt . Servals are depicted as gifts or traded objects from Nubia in Egyptian art . Servals are common pets in Europe , but became popular in the Americas only in the twentieth century .
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= Gregor the Overlander =
Gregor the Overlander is a children 's novel by Suzanne Collins containing elements of high fantasy . It was published in 2003 and is the first book of The Underland Chronicles . It was received well by critics , and was listed as one of New York Public Library 's 100 Books for Reading and Sharing . It was featured by the U.S. National Public Radio in 2005 . Scholastic has rated the book 's " grade level equivalent " as 4 @.@ 9 and the book 's lexile score as 630L , making it reading @-@ level @-@ appropriate for the average fourth or fifth grader .
The novel has been published in several languages and is available as both an audiobook and ebook . Its United Kingdom edition was published under the alternate title Gregor and the Rats of the Underland .
= = Plot summary = =
Eleven @-@ year @-@ old Gregor is left home alone in his family 's New York City apartment to watch his sisters and grandmother . When Gregor 's baby sister Boots falls through an old air duct grate in the building 's basement , he dives in after her . The two fall miles below into the Underland : a subterranean world home to humans with near @-@ translucent skin ; giant sentient bats , rodents , and insects ; and an escalating conflict between the human city of Regalia and the rats ' King Gorger . They meet several " Underlanders " , among them the Regalians ' crown princess Luxa , her cousin Henry , and the bats who are " bonded " to them . At first , Gregor wants only to return home , but when he is attacked by two rats during an escape attempt and saved by the Underlanders , he inadvertently brings the conflict between the two groups to a head .
It is then that he learns the real reason for the rats ' hatred of Overlanders : a mysterious prophecy written by the human colony 's founder Bartholomew of Sandwich hints that an Overland " warrior " will stop an attempt by the rats to take over the underground realm once and for all . The Regalian council believes Gregor to be this warrior , and tries to convince him to undertake the quest mentioned in the " Prophecy of Gray " . Though he sympathizes , Gregor is reluctant to help until he learns a surprising fact : his father , who disappeared unexpectedly over two years before , had actually fallen down into Regalia just like Gregor and Boots and been taken prisoner by the rats . Gregor , his sister , and a group of Regalians go on a journey to rescue Gregor 's father and recruit allies for a war against the rats .
The quest group is challenged to successfully recruit allies for the Regalians , and then journeys to find Gregor 's dad emaciated and tortured in the personal prison of King Gorger . When the rat king discovers their rescue attempt , Henry reveals that he has been helping the rats all along , hoping to ally them with the Regalians and conquer the entire Underland . During the questers ' attempt to escape , Gregor sacrifices himself to lure the rats ' attack force — King Gorger and Henry among them — off the edge of a cliff . Henry 's bat Ares , who had no knowledge of his bond 's treachery , chooses to save Gregor rather than Henry as they fall . When the few remaining quest members make it back to Regalia , Luxa and her family are devastated , both because of Henry 's treason and death and because Ares has been sentenced to banishment ( essentially a death sentence in the Underland ) for allowing his bond to die . Gregor saves his life by using his status as the " warrior " to form a new bond with him . When things have settled down somewhat and the Regalian doctors have done all they can for his father , Gregor and his family return to the surface .
= = = The Prophecy of Gray = = =
Beware , Underlanders , time hangs by a threadThe hunters are hunted , white water runs red.The gnawers will strike to extinguish the rest.The hope of the hopeless resides in a quest .
Meaning : The usually uneasy balance of power in the Underland is in flux , with the rats ' king planning to launch an attack against the other species in the Underland . The phrase " white water runs red " refers specifically to how the humans deposit the bodies of two rats who try to kill Gregor into a fast @-@ flowing river beneath the Regalian palace . " Hope of the hopeless " may be interpreted as a reference to Gregor , who refuses to " allow himself to think about the future at all " , because it makes him sad that he has lost his father .
An Overlander warrior , a son of the sun , May bring us back light , he may bring us back none.But gather your neighbors and follow his callOr rats will most surely devour us all .
Meaning : Gregor is an Overlander and the son of another fallen Overlander ( thus a " son " of the " sun " , in multiple ways ) . He brings the Regalians " light " ( an Underland idiom for " life " ) by killing King Gorger and the traitor Henry . The humans ally themselves with the other species of their world , warding off an attack by the rats , who are carnivores and occasionally cannibalistic .
Two over , two under , of royal descent , Two fliers , two crawlers , two spinners assent.One gnawer beside and one lost up ahead.And eight will be left when we count up the dead .
Meaning : Gregor and Boots ; Luxa and Henry ; the bats Ares and Aurora ; two giant cockroaches named Temp and Tick ; the spiders Gox and Treflex ; and the rat Ripred all journey on a quest to find the " one lost up ahead " : Gregor 's dad . Out of the original twelve , Tick , Treflex , Gox , and Henry all die during the quest .
The last who will die must decide where he stands.The fate of the eight is contained in his hands.So bid him take care , bid him look where he leaps , As life may be death , and death life again reaps .
Meaning : Henry , the last " quester " to die , decides that he is a traitor to the humans , and seals his fate by failing to notice as Gregor leads him off a cliff . He may be interpreted as controlling the " fate of the eight " because of his powerful connection with the rats , whom he could have manipulated had he lived . The final line may have many different meanings ; among them may be a hint about how miserable Luxa is even though she lives , as Henry was her best friend until he had his life " reaped " .
= = = Characters = = =
= = = = Quest Members = = = =
Gregor : An ordinary eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy from New York City , said to be the warrior mentioned in " The Prophecy of Gray " . He is later bonded to Ares the flier .
Boots ( Margaret ) : Boots is Gregor 's two @-@ year @-@ old sister . She accidentally discovers the entrance to the Underland . She befriends the crawlers immediately and is the only reason they decide to come on the quest .
Luxa : The future queen of the Underland , about the same age as Gregor . Her parents were killed by rats shortly after Henry 's . She is bonded to Aurora the flier .
Henry : Luxa 's cousin , next in line to the throne after her . He wants to ally with the rats to conquer the " weak " species of the Underland . He dies chasing Gregor off the edge of a cliff , believing his bond Ares would always come catch him .
Ripred : A gnawer ( rat ) with deadly fighting skills and intelligence ; Vikus asks him to help the quest group into the rats ' domain .
Temp : One of two crawlers ( cockroaches ) to join the quest . He is one of the first crawlers who encounters Boots and her brother and befriends the two .
Tick : A friend of Temp who sacrifices herself to save Boots from a group of rats .
Ares : A large black flier ( bat ) bonded to Henry who chooses to save Gregor rather than his bond when the two fall off a cliff . He does not know of Henry 's treachery until after the fact , and so Gregor decides to bond with him to save him from banishment .
Aurora : A flier who is bonded to Luxa . She has a golden coat .
Gox and Treflex : Two spinners ( spiders ) who help the quest group .
Gregor 's dad : Though never named , Gregor 's father is an important member of the quest because it is he the group goes to find and rescue .
= = Publication = =
Several editions of the novel have been published since the first in 2003 , each with new or adapted cover art . To date , editions have appeared in German , French , Spanish , Norweigan , Italian , Polish , Greek , Dutch , Finnish , and Chinese . Scholastic has also licensed the novel 's rights to publishers in several other languages . In 2006 The Chicken House produced yet another edition , distributed in the UK by Gardners Books . This edition was published under the alternate title Gregor and the Rats of the Underland .
The novel was available as an ebook as early as 2010 , and as part of a boxed set . An audiobook edition was published December 13 , 2005 , read by actor and narrator Paul Boehmer .
= = Reception = =
Gregor the Overlander has received much critical acclaim , primarily for its new treatment of common themes in fantasy . School Library Journal called it " an engrossing adventure for fantasy fans and for those new to the genre . " Common Sense Media gave it a 5 / 5 and credited the book 's " strong characters , vivid descriptions , flawless pacing , breathless excitement , laughs and scares , and a vision that makes this fantasy very different . " Readers have also praised the novel ; Jane LeGak , an Amazon Reviewer , stated that , " Rats and other wonderfully creepy creatures fill the story 's dark underworld , but what makes this book so wonderful is how human it is . " A. Reid , also from Amazon.com , praised the believable characters , saying , " Gregor is one of the most warmly believable characters I 've encountered in a children 's novel in a long time . " As of August 2015 , users on Amazon.com had given the book a rating of 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and Barnes & Noble reviews awarded it a total of 4 @.@ 4 stars .
The book has also been praised for covering political themes , such as war and genocide , while still maintaining an adventurous feeling . Collins herself has stated that " she spent hours ... plotting strategic alliances that would make military sense " in a way that kept such themes accessible for younger audiences . Publishers Weekly 's review of the novel was " starred " , an honor reserved for books of " exceptional merit " . The reviewer stated , " Collins does a grand job of world @-@ building , with a fine economy of words @-@ no unnecessary details bog down either the setting or the invigorating story . In her world , a child singing " Patty @-@ Cake " can change the course of history and a stoic rat can mourn the fact that although he is able to read , he cannot write because he has no thumb . Unlike Gregor who cannot wait to leave , readers will likely find it to be a fantastically engaging place . "
Despite the mainly positive reviews , the novel has received some negative criticism . One critical review by Children 's Literature writer Tina Gregory points out that " the novel lacks at certain points necessary descriptive details of the characters and settings . For instance , the descriptions of Regalia , the Underland city , and many of the book 's characters should be so distinct that we visualize them . " The same School Library Journal review which praised the novel 's " exciting scenes and cliff @-@ hanger chapters " also had this to say : " Gregor is not the most compelling figure at first , but as the story progresses he becomes more interesting , maturing through the challenges he faces . "
Gregor the Overlander was named a Kirkus Reviews Editors ' Choice and placed third for the Nutmeg Children 's Book Award in 2006 in the intermediate category . It was also nominated for the Kansas William Allen White Children 's Book Award , the Pacific Northwest Young Reader 's Choice Award , and several other awards . It won the Pennsylvania Young Readers ' Choice Award for 2005 – 2006 and was the first runner @-@ up for the Texas Bluebonnet Award .
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= Cool World =
Cool World is a 1992 American live @-@ action / animated fantasy film directed by Ralph Bakshi , and starring Kim Basinger , Gabriel Byrne and Brad Pitt . It tells the story of a cartoonist who finds himself in the animated world he thinks he created , and is seduced by one of the characters , a comic strip vamp who wants to be real . Cool World marked Bakshi 's return to feature films after nine years . The film was originally pitched as an animated horror film about an underground cartoonist who fathers an illegitimate half @-@ real / half @-@ cartoon daughter , who hates herself for what she is and tries to kill him .
During production , Bakshi 's original screenplay was scrapped by producer Frank Mancuso , Jr. and heavily rewritten by Michael Grais and Mark Victor in secret . Reviews praised the film 's visuals , but criticized the story and characters , as well as the combination of live @-@ action and animation , which some critics felt was unconvincing . The film would eventually gross only half its production budget . It was filmed in 1991 .
= = Plot = =
In 1945 Las Vegas , World War II veteran Frank Harris ( Brad Pitt ) returns to his mother . Riding on a motorcycle that he won in Italy during his service , Frank and his mother are struck by a drunk couple . Frank survives , but his mother dies . As an ambulance takes her away , Frank is transported to " Cool World " , an animated city of surrealistic landscapes and random cartoon violence . He was inadvertently teleported by Dr. Vincent Whiskers ( Maurice LaMarche ) , a doctor who created a " spike " that was supposed to take him to the real world , but brought Frank to Cool World instead . Whiskers finds Frank useful enough to run things in the Cool World while he is gone to the real world .
Forty seven years later , Jack Deebs ( Gabriel Byrne ) , a cartoonist , is detained after murdering a man he found in bed with his wife . He creates the highly acclaimed comic book series Cool World , which features the femme fatale Holli Would ( Kim Basinger ) . On the night before his release , Holli summons Jack into the Cool World , and he sees Holli dance in the local dance club . After he sees her dance , Jack is teleported back to the real world . It turns out that Holli wants to enter the real world , but is forbidden to do so by Frank , who is now a police officer in the Cool World .
After he is released , Jack is transported to the Cool World once again and meets Holli and her goons , who have been encouraging his misled beliefs that he himself created the Cool World . In reality , Holli has simply been bringing him there , and Jack created his comic book series on what he 's seen there , which he initially believed were his own dreams . Meanwhile , Frank is about to go on a date with his longtime girlfriend Lonette ( Candi Milo ) , when his partner Nails ( Charlie Adler ) , a spider , tells him about Jack 's presence . Frank confronts Jack at the local Slash Club , confiscating his fountain pen , informing him that it 's a dangerous weapon in the Cool World . Frank then tells Jack the truth : the Cool World has existed long before he created the comic series and forewarns him that " noids " , real humans from the real world , are not allowed to have sex with " doodles " , the cartoon inhabitants of the Cool World . He further advises Jack not to get involved with Holli before Jack returns to the real world .
Holli brings Jack back into the Cool World , where he is taken to Holli 's apartment . Holli and Jack have sex , transforming Holli into a real human . While Frank attempts to mend his relationship with Lonette , he temporarily leaves detective duties to Nails . Nails receives a call from an informant named Sparks , who tells him that Jack and Holli have had sex and are leaving for the real world . Nails decides that he can do this on his own and goes off to stop Holli . Nails attempts to stop her from leaving the Cool World , but Holli uses Jack 's fountain pen to suck Nails in . Jack and Holli return to the real world , where Holli sings " Let 's Make Love " at a nightclub with Frank Sinatra , Jr .. Frank discovers that Nails is gone and decides to venture into the real world to pursue Jack and Holli . Meanwhile , Jack and Holli have started to flicker between real and doodle states . While contemplating their situation , Holli tells Jack about the " Spike of Power " , an artifact placed on the top of a Las Vegas casino by a doodle who crossed into the real world . When Jack displays skepticism about Holli and the idea , Holli abandons him to search for the spike on her own .
Frank meets up with Jack later on , explaining that the flickering both Jack and Holli have been experiencing is the disappearance of both worlds . They decide to team up and stop Holli from removing the spike . They get Jennifer ( Michele Abrams ) , the daughter of Jack 's neighbor to drive them to the casino , and on the way , Frank explains that it was Doc Whiskers who crossed worlds and put the spike on the top of the hotel and if it were removed , it could potentially destroy both the real world and the Cool World .
Holli is escorted out of the casino for not spending any money , all the while asking about Vegas Vinnie , which is the alias of Doc Whiskers . When she spots the Doc , she tells him that she couldn 't find him , but when she starts to flicker between real human and doodle state again , she begins to become suspicious and starts to see through Doc 's disguise and shakes him out of it , revealing his identity . Doc tries to convince Holli not to get the Spike of Power , but Holli becomes enraged and threatens Doc Whiskers with the fountain pen . When Frank , Jack , and Jennifer get to the destination , Frank pursues Holli on the casino , while Jack and Jennifer put Doc Whiskers back together after being popped by Holli 's pen . Frank chases after Holli throughout the hotel , while she 's still flickering from real to doodle state . While in doodle form , Holli pushes Frank off the building to his death . Holli finds and takes the Spike of Power , transforming her , Jack , and everyone in Vegas into doodles and opening a gateway between the two worlds , releasing numerous monstrous doodles . Transformed into a superhero doodle , Jack gets a hold of the spike . Holli tries to seduce it away from Jack , but instead he returns the Spike of Power to its place , trapping him , Holli and the rest of the doodles in Cool World .
Meanwhile , Nails escapes from Holli 's pen and both he and Doc Whiskers return Frank 's body to Cool World . Lonette discovers that Holli was a doodle when she killed Frank and explains when a noid is killed by a doodle , he is reborn in Cool World as a doodle . He is transformed into a doodle , allowing him to pursue his relationship with Lonette . Meanwhile , Jack and Holli are last seen together in the panels of a comic book . Jack ( still a superhero doodle ) is planning out how they will live , much to Holli 's dismay .
= = Cast = =
Live action actors
Kim Basinger as Holli Would , a femme fatale and who wishes to be real in the real world .
Gabriel Byrne as Jack Deebs , the cartoonist seemingly responsible for the creation of Cool World .
Brad Pitt as Detective Frank Harris , a Cool World police detective who is bent on catching Holli .
Deirdre O 'Connell as Isabelle Malley
Frank Sinatra , Jr. as Himself
Michele Abrams as Jennifer Malley
Janni Brenn – Lowen as Agatha Rose Harris
Voice actors
Charlie Adler as Nails , an anthropomorphic spider who serves as Frank 's partner . He actually has four arms and two legs .
Candi Milo as Lonette / Bob
Joey Camen as Interrogator No. 1 / Slash / Holli 's Door
Michael Lally as Sparks
Maurice LaMarche as Interrogator No. 2 / Mash / Dr. Vincent " Vegas Vinnie " Whiskers / Super Jack Deebs
Patrick Pinney as Chico the bouncer
Gregory Snegoff as Bash
Frank Welker as a telephone
Jenine Jennings as Craps Bunny
Marilyn Monroe ( archival footage )
= = Production = =
In 1990 , Ralph Bakshi decided that it was time to make another animated film . According to Bakshi , " I made 1 @,@ 500 bucks in 10 years of painting ; I thought it would be nice to pick up a piece of change . So I called my lawyer , who was still speaking to me because no one ever leaves Hollywood , and asked him where I should go to sell a movie . " Bakshi pitched Cool World to Paramount Pictures ( where Bakshi had worked as the final head of the studio 's animation division ) as an animated horror film . The concept of the film involved a cartoon and live action human having sex and conceiving a hybrid child who visits the real world to murder the father who abandoned her . Bakshi states that Paramount Pictures " bought the idea in ten seconds " .
As the sets were being built in Las Vegas , producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , son of Paramount president Frank Mancuso , Sr. , had the screenplay rewritten in secret , and gave Bakshi a new screenplay by screenwriters Michael Grais and Mark Victor that " was barely the same " . Larry Gross also contributed to the script , but his work would later go on to be uncredited . In interviews at the time of the film 's release , Mancuso , Jr . , who was best known for the Friday the 13th franchise , stated a desire to move away from horror films , and wanted to produce a film " about what happens when someone creates a world , becomes defined by it , and then can 't escape [ ... ] a film about being trapped by your own creation . " Bakshi remembers that he got into a fight with Mancuso , Jr. and " punched [ him ] in the mouth . " Paramount threatened Bakshi with a lawsuit if he refused to complete the film . " I thought if I did the animation well , it would be worth it , but you know what ? It wasn 't worth it . " Bakshi also stated that he " had a lot of animators there that I 'd brought in and I thought that maybe I could just have fun animating this stuff , which I did . " Bakshi had developed the film as a mix of comedy and horror that he described as " a hard R @-@ rated story " but Paramount wanted a PG @-@ 13 film , one of the reasons for the doomed and angry relationship between filmmaker and studio .
Bakshi had originally intended to cast Drew Barrymore and Brad Pitt in the film 's leading roles . Brad Pitt was cast as Frank Harris instead , with Gabriel Byrne as Deebs and Kim Basinger as Holli . The film 's voice cast includes Maurice LaMarche and Charles Adler . According to Bakshi , Basinger had attempted to rewrite the film halfway into its production because she " thought it would be great [ ... ] if she would be able to show this picture in hospitals to sick children [ ... ] I said , ' Kim , I think that 's wonderful , but you 've got the wrong guy to do that with . ' [ ... ] [ Mancuso ] was sitting there with Kim [ ... ] agreeing with her . "
The visual design of the live @-@ action footage was intended to look like " a living , walk @-@ through painting " , a visual concept Bakshi had long wanted to achieve . The film 's sets were based upon enlargements of designer Barry Jackson 's paintings . The animation was strongly influenced by Fleischer Studios ( whose cartoons were released by Paramount ) and Terrytoons ( where Bakshi once worked , and whose Mighty Mouse character was also adapted into a series by Bakshi ) . The artwork by the character Jack Deebs was drawn by underground comix artist Spain Rodriguez . The film 's animators were never given a screenplay , and were instead told by Bakshi to " Do a scene that 's funny , whatever you want to do ! "
A soundtrack album , Songs from the Cool World , featuring recordings by My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult , Moby , Ministry , The Future Sound of London , and others , was released in 1992 by Warner Bros. Records . It included the track " Real Cool World " , a David Bowie song written for the film . The soundtrack received stronger reviews from critics than the film itself , including a four @-@ star rating from Allmusic . Mark Isham 's original score for Cool World , featuring a mixture of jazz , orchestral pieces , and electronic remixes , and performed by the Munich Symphony Orchestra , was released on compact disc by Varèse Sarabande , and in complete form in 2015 by Quartet . It also received positive reviews .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Promotion and merchandising = = =
As part of the film 's promotion , the Hollywood Sign was altered to include a 75 @-@ foot @-@ tall cutout of Holli Would . The alteration angered local residents . In a letter to the city 's Recreation and Park Board , commission officials wrote that they were " appalled " by the board 's approval of the alterations and that " the action your board has taken is offensive to Los Angeles women and is not within your role as custodian and guardian of the Hollywood sign . The fact that Paramount Pictures donated a mere $ 27 @,@ 000 to Rebuild L.A. should not be a passport to exploit women in Los Angeles . " Protestors picketed the unveiling of the altered sign . The promotional campaign was focused on the sex appeal of Holli . It was considered by some experts as misaimed , with Paramount 's marketing president Barry London saying " Cool World unfortunately did not seem to satisfy the younger audience it was aimed at , " and designer Milton Knight recalling that " Audiences actually wanted a wilder , raunchier Cool World . The premiere audience I saw it with certainly did . "
Several different licensed video games based on the film were created by Ocean Software . The first game was developed by Twilight and released in 1992 for the Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 and DOS . Two different games were released in 1993 for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Super NES , alongside a Game Boy version of the former . A four @-@ issue comic book prequel to the film was published as a miniseries by DC Comics .
= = = Reception = = =
Cool World opened at sixth on the North American box office , with $ 5 @.@ 5 million . Its lifetime gross was $ 14 @.@ 1 million , a little more than half its reported $ 28 million budget . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes collected a sample of 45 reviews and judged 4 % of them to be positive . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Cool World " misses one opportunity after another " , describing it as " a surprisingly incompetent film " . Deseret News reviewer Chris Hicks described it as " a one @-@ joke movie – and it 's a dirty joke . [ ... ] And much of what 's going on here seems more angry and nasty than inspired or funny . " Variety reviewer Brian Lowry compared the film to an extended music video , praising the soundtrack and visuals , but panning the story . Leonard Maltin described the film as " too serious to be fun [ and ] too goofy to take seriously " , and the lead characters as " unlikable and unappealing " . The Washington Post reviewer Hal Hinson wondered " whether Kim Basinger is more obnoxious as a cartoon or as a real person , " and felt that the combination of animation and live action was unconvincing . Contributing to the low box office was the fact the studio withdrew all advertising support after the opening weekend .
In 1997 , John Grant wrote in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy that Cool World " stands as one of the fantastic cinema 's most significant achievements , an instauration fantasy that reveals greater depths with each viewing . " Animation historian Jerry Beck described the film as being " for adults and Bakshi completists only , " writing that the film " has a great premise , a great cast , and the best animation he 's ever been involved with , " but critiquing it as a " pointless rehash of many of Ralph 's favorite themes , and the story literally goes nowhere . " The film garnered a Razzie Award nomination for Worst Actress ( Kim Basinger ; also for Final Analysis ) .
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= Amanita bisporigera =
Amanita bisporigera is a deadly poisonous species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae . It is commonly known as the eastern North American destroying angel or the destroying angel , although it shares this latter name with three other lethal white Amanita species , A. ocreata , A. verna and A. virosa . The fruit bodies are found on the ground in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests of eastern North America south to Mexico , but are rare in western North America ; the fungus has also been found in pine plantations in Colombia . The mushroom has a smooth white cap that can reach up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) across , and a stipe , up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , that has a delicate white skirt @-@ like ring near the top . The bulbous stipe base is covered with a membranous sac @-@ like volva . The white gills are free from attachment to the stalk and crowded closely together . As the species name suggests , A. bisporigera typically bears two spores on the basidia , although this characteristic is not as immutable as was once thought .
Amanita bisporigera was described as a new species in 1906 . It is classified in the section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita together with other amatoxin @-@ containing species . Amatoxins are cyclic peptides which inhibit the enzyme RNA polymerase II and interfere with various cellular functions . The first symptoms of poisoning appear 6 to 24 hours after consumption , followed by a period of apparent improvement , then by symptoms of liver and kidney failure , and death after four days or more . Amanita bisporigera closely resembles a few other white amanitas , including the equally deadly A. virosa and A. verna . These species , difficult to distinguish from A. bisporigera based on visible field characteristics , do not have two @-@ spored basidia , and do not stain yellow when a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide is applied . The DNA of A. bisporigera has been partially sequenced , and the genes responsible for the production of amatoxins have been determined .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and phylogeny = =
Amanita bisporigera was first described scientifically in 1906 by American botanist George Francis Atkinson in a publication by Cornell University colleague Charles E. Lewis . The type locality was Ithaca , New York , where several collections were made . In his 1941 monograph of world Amanita species , Édouard @-@ Jean Gilbert transferred the species to his new genus Amanitina , but this genus is now considered synonymous with Amanita . In 1944 , William Murrill described the species Amanita vernella , collected from Gainesville , Florida ; that species is now thought to be synonymous with A. bisporigera after a 1979 examination of its type material revealed basidia that were mostly 2 @-@ spored . Amanita phalloides var. striatula , a poorly known taxon originally described from the United States in 1902 by Charles Horton Peck , is considered by Amanita authority Rodham Tulloss to be synonymous with A. bisporigera . Vernacular names for the mushroom include " destroying angel " , " deadly amanita " , " white death cap " , " angel of death " and " eastern North American destroying angel " .
Amanita bisporigera belongs to section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita , which contains some of the deadliest Amanita species , including A. phalloides and A. virosa . This classification has been upheld with phylogenetic analyses , which demonstrate that the toxin @-@ producing members of section Phalloideae form a clade — that is , they derive from a common ancestor . In 2005 , Zhang and colleagues performed a phylogenetic analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer ( ITS ) sequences of several white @-@ bodied toxic Amanita species , most of which are found in Asia . Their results support a clade containing A. bisporigera , A. subjunquillea var. alba , A. exitialis , and A. virosa . The Guangzhou destroying angel ( Amanita exitialis ) has two @-@ spored basidia , like A. bisporigera .
= = Description = =
The cap is 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and , depending on its age , ranges in shape from egg @-@ shaped to convex to somewhat flattened . The cap surface is smooth and white , sometimes with a pale tan- or cream @-@ colored tint in the center . The surface is either dry or , when the environment is moist , slightly sticky . The flesh is thin and white , and does not change color when bruised . The margin of the cap , which is rolled inwards in young specimens , does not have striations ( grooves ) , and lacks volval remnants . The gills , also white , are crowded closely together . They are either free from attachment to the stipe or just barely reach it . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend all the way to the stipe ) are numerous , and gradually narrow .
The white stipe is 6 – 14 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) by 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and tapers slightly upward . The surface , in young specimens especially , is frequently floccose ( covered with tufts of soft hair ) , fibrillose ( covered with small slender fibers ) , or squamulose ( covered with small scales ) ; there may be fine grooves along its length . The bulb at the base of the stipe is spherical or nearly so . The delicate ring on the upper part of the stipe is a remnant of the partial veil that extends from the cap margin to the stalk and covers the gills during development . It is white , thin , membranous , and hangs like a skirt . When young , the mushrooms are enveloped in a membrane called the universal veil , which stretches from the top of the cap to the bottom of the stipe , imparting an oval , egg @-@ like appearance . In mature fruit bodies , the veil 's remnants form a membrane around the base , the volva , like an eggshell @-@ shaped cup . On occasion , however , the volva remains underground or gets torn up during development . It is white , sometimes lobed , and may become pressed closely to the stipe . The volva is up to 3 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in height ( measured from the base of the bulb ) , and is about 2 mm thick midway between the top and the base attachment . The mushroom 's odor has been described as " pleasant to somewhat nauseous " , becoming more cloying as the fruit body ages . The cap flesh turns yellow when a solution of potassium hydroxide ( KOH , 5 – 10 % ) is applied ( a common chemical test used in mushroom identification ) . This characteristic chemical reaction is shared with A. ocreata and A. virosa , although some authors have expressed doubt about the identity of North American A. virosa , suggesting those collections may represent four @-@ spored A. bisporigera . Tulloss suggests that reports of A. bisporigera that do not turn yellow with KOH were actually based on white forms of A. phalloides . Findings from the Chiricahua Mountains of Arizona and in central Mexico , although " nearly identical " to A. bisporigera , do not stain yellow with KOH ; their taxonomic status has not been investigated in detail .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
The spore print of A. bisporigera , like most Amanita , is white . The spores are roughly spherical , thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , amyloid , and measure 7 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 0 μm . The cap cuticle is made of partially gelatinized , filamentous interwoven hyphae , 2 – 6 μm in diameter . The tissue of the gill is bilateral , meaning it diverges from the center of the gill to its outer edge . The subhymenium is ramose — composed of relatively thin branching , unclamped hyphae . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , thin @-@ walled , without clamps , with dimensions of 34 – 45 by 4 – 11 μm . They are typically two @-@ spored , although rarely three- or four @-@ spored forms have been found . Although the two @-@ spored basidia are a defining characteristic of the species , there is evidence of a tendency to shift towards producing four @-@ spored basidia as the fruiting season progresses . The volva is composed almost exclusively of densely interwoven filamentous hyphae , 2 – 10 μm in diameter , that are sparsely to moderately branched . There are few small inflated cells , which are mostly spherical to broadly elliptic . The tissue of the stipe is made of abundant , sparsely branched , filamentous hyphae , without clamps , measuring 2 – 5 μm in diameter . The inflated cells are club @-@ shaped , longitudinally oriented , and up to 2 – 3 by 15 @.@ 7 μm . The annulus is made of abundant moderately branched filamentous hyphae , measuring 2 – 6 μm in diameter . The inflated cells are sparse , broadly elliptic to pear @-@ shaped , and are rarely larger than 31 by 22 μm . Pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill faces and edges , respectively ) are absent , but there may be cylindrical to sac @-@ like cells of the partial veil on the gill edges ; these cells are hyaline and measure 24 – 34 by 7 – 16 μm .
In 1906 Charles E. Lewis studied and illustrated the development of the basidia in order to compare the nuclear behavior of the two @-@ spored with that of the four @-@ spored forms . Initially ( 1 ) , the young basidium , appearing as a club @-@ shaped branch from the subhymenium , is filled with cytoplasm and contains two primary nuclei , which have distinct nucleoli . As the basidium grows larger , the membranes of the two nuclei contact ( 2 ) , and then the membrane disappears at the point of contact ( 3 ) . The two primary nuclei remain distinct for a short time , but eventually the two nuclei fuse completely to form a larger secondary nucleus with a single secondary nucleolus ( 4 , 5 ) . The basidium increases in size after the primary nuclei fuse , and the nucleus migrates towards the end of the basidia ( 6 , 7 ) . During this time , the nucleus develops vacuoles " filled by the nuclear sap in the living cell " . Chromosomes are produced from the nucleolar threads , and align transversely near the apex of the basidium , connected by spindles ( 8 – 10 ) . The chromosomes then move to the poles , forming the daughter nuclei that occupy different positions in the basidium ; the daughters now have a structure similar to that of the parent nuclei ( 11 ) . The two nuclei then divide to form four nuclei , similar to fungi with four @-@ spored basidia ( 12 , 13 ) . The four nuclei crowd together at some distance from the end of the basidium to form an irregular mass ( 14 ) . Shortly thereafter , the sterigmata ( slender projections of the basidia that attach the spores ) begin to form ( 15 ) , and cytoplasm begins to pass through the sterigmata to form the spores ( 16 ) . Although Lewis was not able to clearly determine from observation alone whether the contents of two or four nuclei passed through the sterigmata , he deduced , by examining older basidia with mature spores , that only two nuclei enter the spores ( 16 , 17 ) .
= = Toxicity = =
Amanita bisporigera is considered the most toxic North American Amanita mushroom , with little variation in toxin content between different fruit bodies . Three subtypes of amatoxin have been described : α- , β , and γ @-@ amanitin . The principal amatoxin , α @-@ amanitin , is readily absorbed across the intestine , and 60 % of the absorbed toxin is excreted into bile and undergoes enterohepatic circulation ; the kidneys clear the remaining 40 % . The toxin inhibits the enzyme RNA polymerase II , thereby interfering with DNA transcription , which suppresses RNA production and protein synthesis . This causes cellular necrosis , especially in cells which are initially exposed and have rapid rates of protein synthesis . This process results in severe acute liver dysfunction and , ultimately , liver failure . Amatoxins are not broken down by boiling , freezing , or drying . Roughly 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 milligrams of α @-@ amanitin is present in 1 gram of A. bisporigera ; the lethal dose in humans is less than 0 @.@ 1 mg / kg body weight . One mature fruit body can contain 10 – 12 mg of α @-@ amanitin , enough for a lethal dose . The α @-@ amanitin concentration in the spores is about 17 % that of the fruit body tissues . A. bisporigera also contains the phallotoxin phallacidin , structurally related to the amatoxins but considered less poisonous because of poor absorption . Poisonings ( from similar white amanitas ) have also been reported in domestic animals , including dogs , cats , and cows .
The first reported poisonings resulting in death from the consumption of A. bisporigera were from near San Antonio , Mexico , in 1957 , where a rancher , his wife , and three children consumed the fungus ; only the man survived . Amanita poisoning is characterized by the following distinct stages : the incubation stage is an asymptomatic period which ranges from 6 to 12 hours after ingestion . In the gastrointestinal stage , about 6 to 16 hours after ingestion , there is onset of abdominal pain , explosive vomiting , and diarrhea for up to 24 hours , which may lead to dehydration , severe electrolyte imbalances , and shock . These early symptoms may be related to other toxins such as phalloidin . In the cytotoxic stage , 24 to 48 hours after ingestion , clinical and biochemical signs of liver damage are observed , but the patient is typically free of gastrointestinal symptoms . The signs of liver dysfunction such as jaundice , hypoglycemia , acidosis , and hemorrhage appear . Later , there is an increase in the levels of prothrombin and blood levels of ammonia , and the signs of hepatic encephalopathy and / or kidney failure appear . The risk factors for mortality that have been reported are age younger than 10 years , short latency period between ingestion and onset of symptoms , severe coagulopathy ( blood clotting disorder ) , severe hyperbilirubinemia ( jaundice ) , and rising serum creatinine levels .
= = Similar species = =
The color and general appearance of A. bisporigera are similar to those of A. verna and A. virosa . A. bisporigera is at times smaller and more slender than either A. verna or A. virosa , but it varies considerably in size ; therefore size is not a reliable diagnostic characteristic . A. virosa fruits in autumn — later than A. bisporigera . A. elliptosperma is less common but widely distributed in the southeastern United States , while A. ocreata is found on the West Coast and in the Southwest . Other similar toxic North American species include Amanita magnivelaris , which has a cream @-@ colored , rather thick , felted @-@ submembranous , skirt @-@ like ring , and A. virosiformis , which has elongated spores that are 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 by 11 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 4 μm . Neither A. elliptosperma nor A. magnivelaris typically turn yellow with the application of KOH ; the KOH reaction of A. virosiformis has not been reported .
Leucoagaricus leucothites is another all @-@ white mushroom with an annulus , free gills , and white spore print , but it lacks a volva and has thick @-@ walled dextrinoid ( staining red @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) egg @-@ shaped spores with a pore . A. bisporigera may also be confused with the larger edible species Agaricus silvicola , the " horse @-@ mushroom " . Like many white amanitas , young fruit bodies of A. bisporigera , still enveloped in the universal veil , can be confused with puffball species , but a longitudinal cut of the fruit body reveals internal structures in the Amanita that are absent in puffballs . In 2006 , seven members of the Hmong community living in Minnesota were poisoned with A. bisporigera because they had confused it with edible paddy straw mushrooms ( Volvariella volvacea ) that grow in Southeast Asia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like most other Amanita species , A. bisporigera is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees . This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees , enabling the fungus to receive moisture , protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree , and giving the tree greater access to soil nutrients . Fruit bodies of Amanita bisporigera are found on the ground growing either solitarily , scattered , or in groups in mixed coniferous and deciduous forests ; they tend to appear during summer and early fall . The fruit bodies are commonly found near oak , but have been reported in birch @-@ aspen areas in the west . It is most commonly found in eastern North America , and rare in western North America . It is widely distributed in Canada , and its range extends south to Mexico . The species has also been found in Colombia , where it may have been introduced from trees exported for use in pine plantations .
= = Genome sequencing = =
The Amanita Genome Project was begun in Jonathan Walton 's lab at Michigan State University in 2004 as part of their ongoing studies of Amanita bisporigera . The purpose of the project is to determine the genes and genetic controls associated with the formation of mycorrhizae , and to elucidate the biochemical mechanisms of toxin production . The genome of A. bisporigera has been sequenced using a combination of automated Sanger sequencing and pyrosequencing , and the genome sequence information is publicly searchable . The sequence data enabled the researchers to identify the genes responsible for amatoxin and phallotoxin biosynthesis , AMA1 and PHA1 . The cyclic peptides are synthesized on ribosomes , and require proline @-@ specific peptidases from the prolyl oligopeptidase family for processing .
The genetic sequence information from A. bisporigera has been used to identify molecular polymorphisms in the related A. phalloides . These single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms may be used as population genetic markers to study phylogeography and population genetics . Sequence information has also been employed to show that A. bisporigera lacks many of the major classes of secreted enzymes that break down the complex polysaccharides of plant cell walls , like cellulose . In contrast , saprobic fungi like Coprinopsis cinerea and Galerina marginata , which break down organic matter to obtain nutrients , have a more complete complement of cell wall @-@ degrading enzymes . Although few ectomycorrhizal fungi have yet been tested in this way , the authors suggest that the absence of plant cell wall @-@ degrading ability may correlate with the ectomycorrhizal ecological niche .
= = = Cited books = = =
Jenkins DB . ( 1986 ) . Amanita of North America . Eureka , California : Mad River Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 916422 @-@ 55 @-@ 0 .
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= Serotonin syndrome =
Serotonin syndrome is any of a group of symptoms that may be an indication of any number of potentially life @-@ threatening drug interactions that may occur following therapeutic drug use , combination , overdose of particular drugs , or the recreational use of certain drugs . Serotonin syndrome is not an idiopathic drug reaction ; it is a predictable consequence of excess serotonin on the CNS and / or peripheral nervous system . For this reason , some experts strongly prefer the terms serotonin toxicity or serotonin toxidrome , which more accurately reflect that it is a form of poisoning .
Excessive levels of serotonin produce a spectrum of specific symptoms including cognitive , autonomic , and somatic effects . Symptoms may range from barely perceptible to fatal . Numerous drugs and drug combinations have been reported to produce serotonin syndrome , though the exact mechanism is not well understood in many instances .
Diagnosis includes observing symptoms and investigating patient history for causal factors ( interacting drugs ) . The syndrome has a characteristic picture but can be mistaken for other illnesses in some people , particularly those with neuroleptic malignant syndrome , a condition characterized by excessive blockade of the dopamine receptors ( usually the result of anti @-@ nausea / vomiting or antipsychotic drugs ) , leading to movement disorders , changes in temperature , and other problems . No laboratory tests can currently confirm the diagnosis . Hence it is diagnosed based on symptoms , disease course ( that is , the progression of the disease ) and the exclusion of other possible causes of the presenting symptoms .
Treatment consists of discontinuing medications which may contribute and in moderate to severe cases administering a serotonin antagonist . An important adjunct treatment includes controlling agitation with benzodiazepine sedation . The high @-@ profile case of Libby Zion , who is generally accepted to have died from serotonin syndrome , resulted in changes to graduate medical education in New York State .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptom onset is usually rapid , often occurring within minutes of elevated serotonin levels . Serotonin syndrome encompasses a wide range of clinical findings . Mild symptoms may consist of increased heart rate , shivering , sweating , dilated pupils , myoclonus ( intermittent jerking or twitching ) , as well as overresponsive reflexes . However , many of these symptoms may be side effects of the drug or drug interaction causing excessive levels of serotonin ; not an effect of elevated serotonin itself . Tremor is a common side effect of MDMA 's action at dopamine , whereas hyperreflexia is symptomatic of exposure to serotonin agonists . Moderate intoxication includes additional abnormalities such as hyperactive bowel sounds , high blood pressure and hyperthermia ; a temperature as high as 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . The overactive reflexes and clonus in moderate cases may be greater in the lower limbs than in the upper limbs . Mental changes include hypervigilance or insomnia and agitation . Severe symptoms include severe increases in heart rate and blood pressure that may lead to shock . Temperature may rise to above 41 @.@ 1 ° C ( 106 @.@ 0 ° F ) in life @-@ threatening cases . Other abnormalities include metabolic acidosis , rhabdomyolysis , seizures , renal failure , and disseminated intravascular coagulation ; these effects usually arising as a consequence of hyperthermia .
The symptoms are often described as a clinical triad of abnormalities :
Cognitive effects : headache , agitation , hypomania , mental confusion , hallucinations , coma
Autonomic effects : shivering , sweating , hyperthermia , vasoconstriction , tachycardia , nausea , diarrhea .
Somatic effects : myoclonus ( muscle twitching ) , hyperreflexia ( manifested by clonus ) , tremor .
= = Cause = =
A large number of medications either alone in high dose or in combination can produce serotonin syndrome .
Many cases of serotonin toxicity occur in patients who have ingested drug combinations that synergistically increase synaptic serotonin . It may also occur as a symptom of overdose of a single serotonergic agent . The combination of MAOIs with precursors such as l @-@ tryptophan or 5 @-@ htp pose a particularly acute risk of life @-@ threatening serotonin syndrome . The case of combination of MAOIs with tryptamine agonists ( commonly known as ayahuasca ) can present similar dangers as their combination with precursors , but this phenomenon has been described in general terms as the " cheese effect " . Many MAOIs irreversibly inhibit monoamine oxidase . It can take at least four weeks for this enzyme to be replaced by the body in the instance of irreversible inhibitors .
Many medications may have been incorrectly thought to cause serotonin syndrome . For example , some case reports have implicated atypical antipsychotics in serotonin syndrome , but it appears based on their pharmacology that they are unlikely to cause the syndrome . It has also been suggested that mirtazapine has no significant serotonergic effects , and is therefore not a dual action drug . Bupropion has also been suggested to cause serotonin syndrome , although as there is no evidence that it has any significant serotonergic activity , it is thought unlikely to produce the syndrome . In 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration issued an alert suggesting that the combined use of SSRIs or SNRIs and triptan medications or sibutramine could potentially lead to severe cases of serotonin syndrome . This has been disputed by other researchers as none of the cases reported by the FDA met the Hunter criteria for serotonin syndrome . The condition has however occurred in surprising clinical situations , and because of phenotypic variations among individuals , it has been associated with unexpected drugs , including mirtazapine .
The relative risk and severity of serotonergic side effects and serotonin toxicity , with individual drugs and combinations , is complex . Serotonin syndrome has been reported in patients of all ages , including the elderly , children , and even newborn infants due to in utero exposure . The serotonergic toxicity of SSRIs increases with dose , but even in over @-@ dose it is insufficient to cause fatalities from serotonin syndrome in healthy adults . Elevations of central nervous system serotonin will typically only reach potentially fatal levels when drugs with different mechanisms of action are mixed together . Various drugs , other than SSRIs , also have clinically significant potency as serotonin reuptake inhibitors , ( e.g. tramadol , amphetamine , and MDMA ) and are associated with severe cases of the syndrome .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in multiple states including aggression , pain , sleep , appetite , anxiety , depression , migraine , and vomiting . In humans the effects of excess serotonin were first noted in 1960 in patients receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) and tryptophan . The syndrome is caused by increased serotonin in the central nervous system . It was originally suspected that agonism of 5 @-@ HT1A receptors in central grey nuclei and the medulla was responsible for the development of the syndrome . Further study has determined that overstimulation of primarily the 5 @-@ HT2A receptors appears to contribute substantially to the condition . The 5 @-@ HT1A receptor may still contribute through a pharmacodynamic interaction in which increased synaptic concentrations of a serotonin agonist saturate all receptor subtypes . Additionally , noradrenergic CNS hyperactivity may play a role as CNS norepinephrine concentrations are increased in serotonin syndrome and levels appear to correlate with the clinical outcome . Other neurotransmitters may also play a role ; NMDA receptor antagonists and GABA have been suggested as affecting the development of the syndrome . Serotonin toxicity is more pronounced following supra @-@ therapeutic doses and overdoses , and they merge in a continuum with the toxic effects of overdose .
= = = Spectrum concept = = =
A postulated " spectrum concept " of serotonin toxicity emphasises the role that progressively increasing serotonin levels play in mediating the clinical picture as side effects merge into toxicity . The dose @-@ effect relationship is the effects of progressive elevation of serotonin , either by raising the dose of one drug , or combining it with another serotonergic drug which may produce large elevations in serotonin levels .
= = Diagnosis = =
There is no laboratory test for serotonin syndrome . Therefore , diagnosis is by symptom observation and investigation of the patient 's history . Several diagnostic criteria have been proposed . The first rigorously evaluated criteria were introduced in 1991 by Harvey Sternbach , a professor of psychiatry at UCLA . Researchers in Australia later developed the Hunter Toxicity Criteria Decision Rules , which have better sensitivity and specificity , 84 % and 97 % , respectively , when compared with the gold standard of diagnosis by a medical toxicologist . As of 2007 , Sternbach 's criteria were still the most commonly used .
The most important symptoms for diagnosing serotonin syndrome are tremor , extreme aggressiveness , akathisia , or clonus ( spontaneous , inducible and ocular ) . Physical examination of the patient should include assessment of deep @-@ tendon reflexes and muscle rigidity , the dryness of the oral mucosa , the size and reactivity of the pupils , the intensity of bowel sounds , skin color , and the presence or absence of sweating . The patient 's history also plays an important role in diagnosis , investigations should include inquries about the use of prescription and over @-@ the @-@ counter drugs , illicit substances , and dietary supplements , as all these agents have been implicated in the development of serotonin syndrome . To fulfill the Hunter Criteria , a patient must have taken a serotonergic agent and meet one of the following conditions :
Spontaneous clonus , or
Inducible clonus plus agitation or diaphoresis , or
Ocular clonus plus agitation or diaphoresis , or
Tremor plus hyperreflexia , or
Hypertonism plus temperature > 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) plus ocular clonus or inducible clonus
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Serotonin toxicity has a characteristic picture which is generally hard to confuse with other medical conditions , but in some situations it may go unrecognized because it may be mistaken for a viral illness , anxiety , neurological disorder , anticholinergic poisoning , sympathomimetic toxicity , or worsening psychiatric condition . The condition most often confused with serotonin syndrome is neuroleptic malignant syndrome ( NMS ) . The clinical features of neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndrome share some features which can make differentiating them difficult . In both conditions , autonomic dysfunction and altered mental status develop . However , they are actually very different conditions with different underlying dysfunction ( serotonin excess vs dopamine blockade ) . Both the time course and the clinical features of NMS differ significantly from those of serotonin toxicity . Serotonin toxicity has a rapid onset after the administration of a serotonergic drug and responds to serotonin blockade such as drugs like chlorpromazine and cyproheptadine . Dopamine receptor blockade ( NMS ) has a slow onset and typically evolves over several days after administration of a neuroleptic drug and responds to dopamine agonists such as bromocriptine .
Differential diagnosis may become difficult in patients recently exposed to both serotonergic drugs and neuroleptic drugs . Features that are classically present in NMS , that are useful for differentiating the two , are bradykinesia and extrapyramidal " lead pipe " rigidity , whereas serotonin syndrome causes hyperkinesia and clonus .
= = Management = =
Management is based primarily on stopping the usage of the precipitating drugs , the administration of serotonin antagonists such as cyproheptadine , and supportive care including the control of agitation , the control of autonomic instability , and the control of hyperthermia . Additionally , those who ingest large doses of serotonergic agents may benefit from gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal if it can be administered within an hour of overdose . The intensity of therapy depends on the severity of symptoms . If the symptoms are mild , treatment may only consist of discontinuation of the offending medication or medications , offering supportive measures , giving benzodiazepines for myoclonus , and waiting for the symptoms to resolve . Moderate cases should have all thermal and cardiorespiratory abnormalities corrected and can benefit from serotonin antagonists . The serotonin antagonist cyproheptadine is the recommended initial therapy , although there have been no controlled trials demonstrating its efficacy for serotonin syndrome . Despite the absence of controlled trials , there are a number of case reports detailing apparent improvement after people have been administered cyproheptadine . Animal experiments also suggest a benefit from serotonin antagonists . Cyproheptadine is only available as tablets and therefore can only be administered orally or via a nasogastric tube ; it is unlikely to be effective in people administered activated charcoal and has limited use in severe cases . Additional pharmacological treatment for severe case includes administering atypical antipsychotic drugs with serotonin antagonist activity such as olanzapine . Critically ill people should receive the above therapies as well as sedation or neuromuscular paralysis . People who have autonomic instability such as low blood pressure require treatment with direct @-@ acting sympathomimetics such as epinephrine , norepinephrine , or phenylephrine . Conversely , hypertension or tachycardia can be treated with short @-@ acting antihypertensive drugs such as nitroprusside or esmolol ; longer acting drugs such as propranolol should be avoided as they may lead to hypotension and shock . The cause of serotonin toxicity or accumulation is an important factor in determining the course of treatment . Serotonin is catabolized by monoamine oxidase in the presence of oxygen , so if care is taken to prevent an unsafe spike in body temperature or metabolic acidosis , oxygenation will assist in dispatching the excess serotonin . The same principle applies to alcohol intoxication . In cases of serotonin syndrome caused by monoamine oxidase inhibitors oxygenation will not help to dispatch serotonin . In such instances hydration is the main concern until the enzyme is regenerated .
= = = Agitation = = =
Specific treatment for some symptoms may be required . One of the most important treatments is the control of agitation due to the extreme possibility of injury to the person themselves or caregivers , benzodiazepines should be administered at first sign of this . Physical restraints are not recommended for agitation or delirium as they may contribute to mortality by enforcing isometric muscle contractions that are associated with severe lactic acidosis and hyperthermia . If physical restraints are necessary for severe agitation they must be rapidly replaced with pharmacological sedation . The agitation can cause a large amount of muscle breakdown . This breakdown can cause severe damage to the kidneys through a condition called rhabdomyolysis .
= = = Hyperthermia = = =
Treatment for hyperthermia includes reducing muscle overactivity via sedation with a benzodiazepine . More severe cases may require muscular paralysis with vecuronium , intubation , and artificial ventilation . Succinylcholine is not recommended for muscular paralysis as it may increase the risk of cardiac dysrhythmia from hyperkalemia associated with rhabdomyolysis . Antipyretic agents are not recommended as the increase in body temperature is due to muscular activity , not a hypothalamic temperature set point abnormality .
= = Prognosis = =
Upon the discontinuation of serotonergic drugs , most cases of serotonin syndrome resolve within 24 hours , although in some cases delirium may persist for a number of days . Symptoms typically persist for a longer time frame in patients taking drugs which have a long elimination half @-@ life , active metabolites , or a protracted duration of action .
Cases have reported muscle pain and weakness persisting for months , and antidepressant discontinuation may contribute to ongoing features . Following appropriate medical management , serotonin syndrome is generally associated with a favorable prognosis .
= = Epidemiology = =
Epidemiological studies of serotonin syndrome are difficult as many physicians are unaware of the diagnosis or they may miss the syndrome due to its variable manifestations . In 1998 a survey conducted in England found that 85 % of the general practitioners that had prescribed the antidepressant nefazodone were unaware of serotonin syndrome . The incidence may be increasing as a larger number of pro @-@ serotonergic drugs ( drugs which increase serotonin levels ) are now being used in clinical practice . One postmarketing surveillance study identified an incidence of 0 @.@ 4 cases per 1000 patient @-@ months for patients who were taking nefazodone . Additionally , around 14 to 16 percent of persons who overdose on SSRIs are thought to develop serotonin syndrome .
= = Notable cases = =
The most widely recognized example of serotonin syndrome was the death of Libby Zion in 1984 . Zion was a freshman at Bennington College at her death on March 5 , 1984 , at age 18 . She died within 8 hours of her emergency admission to the New York Hospital Cornell Medical Center . She had an ongoing history of depression , and came to the Manhattan hospital on the evening of March 4 , 1984 , with a fever , agitation and " strange jerking motions " of her body . She also seemed disoriented at times . The emergency room physicians were unable to diagnose her condition definitively , but admitted her for hydration and observation . Her death was caused by a combination of pethidine and phenelzine . A medical intern prescribed the pethidine . The case had an impact on graduate medical education and residency work hours . Limits were set on working hours for medical postgraduates , commonly referred to as interns or residents , in hospital training programs , and they also now require closer senior physician supervision .
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= George IV of the United Kingdom =
George IV ( George Augustus Frederick ; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830 ) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father , George III , on 29 January 1820 , until his own death ten years later . From 1811 until his accession , he served as Prince Regent during his father 's final mental illness .
George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era . He was a patron of new forms of leisure , style and taste . He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace , and Sir Jeffry Wyattville to rebuild Windsor Castle . He was instrumental in the foundation of the National Gallery and King 's College London .
His charm and culture earned him the title " the first gentleman of England " , but his poor relationship with both his father and his wife , Caroline of Brunswick , and his dissolute way of life , earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy . He even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate , unsuccessful attempt to divorce her .
For most of George 's regency and reign , Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister , with little help from George . His ministers found his behaviour selfish , unreliable and irresponsible . At all times he was much under the influence of favourites . Taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars . He did not provide national leadership in time of crisis , nor act as a role model for his people . Liverpool 's government presided over Britain 's ultimate victory , negotiated the peace settlement , and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed . After Liverpool 's retirement , George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it . His only child , Princess Charlotte , died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother , William .
= = Early life = =
George was born at St James 's Palace , London , on 12 August 1762 , the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte . As the eldest son of a British sovereign , he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth ; he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a few days later . On 18 September of the same year , he was baptised by Thomas Secker , Archbishop of Canterbury . His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz ( his maternal uncle , for whom the Duke of Devonshire , Lord Chamberlain , stood proxy ) , the Duke of Cumberland ( his twice @-@ paternal great @-@ uncle ) and the Dowager Princess of Wales ( his paternal grandmother ) . George was a talented student , and quickly learned to speak French , German and Italian , in addition to his native English .
At the age of 18 he was given a separate establishment , and in dramatic contrast with his prosaic , scandal @-@ free father , threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades . He was a witty conversationalist , drunk or sober , and showed good , but grossly expensive , taste in decorating his palace . The Prince turned 21 in 1783 , and obtained a grant of £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 514 @,@ 000 today ) from Parliament and an annual income of £ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 429 @,@ 000 today ) from his father . It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £ 31 @,@ 000 a year . He then established his residence in Carlton House , where he lived a profligate life . Animosity developed between the Prince and his father , who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent . The King , a political conservative , was also alienated by the Prince 's adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians .
Soon after he reached the age of 21 , the Prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert . She was a commoner , six years his elder , twice widowed , and a Roman Catholic . Despite her complete unsuitability , the Prince was determined to marry her . This was in spite of the Act of Settlement 1701 , which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne , and the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , which prohibited his marriage without the King 's consent , which would never have been granted .
Nevertheless , the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street , Mayfair . Legally the union was void , as the King 's consent was not granted ( and never even requested ) . However , Fitzherbert believed that she was the Prince 's canonical and true wife , holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State . For political reasons , the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it .
The Prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle . His father refused to assist him , forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert 's residence . In 1787 , the Prince 's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant . The Prince 's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected , and revelation of the illegal marriage would have scandalised the nation and doomed any parliamentary proposal to aid him . Acting on the Prince 's authority , the Whig leader Charles James Fox declared that the story was a calumny . Fitzherbert was not pleased with the public denial of the marriage in such vehement terms and contemplated severing her ties to the Prince . He appeased her by asking another Whig , Richard Brinsley Sheridan , to restate Fox 's forceful declaration in more careful words . Parliament , meanwhile , granted the Prince £ 161 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 18 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 today ) to pay his debts and £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 876 @,@ 000 today ) for improvements to Carlton House .
= = Regency crisis of 1788 = =
In the summer of 1788 the King 's mental health deteriorated , possibly as the result of the hereditary disease porphyria . He was nonetheless able to discharge some of his duties and to declare Parliament prorogued from 25 September to 20 November . During the prorogation he became deranged , posing a threat to his own life , and when Parliament reconvened in November the King could not deliver the customary speech from the throne during the State Opening of Parliament . Parliament found itself in an untenable position : according to long @-@ established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King 's Speech at a State Opening .
Although arguably barred from doing so , Parliament began debating a Regency . In the House of Commons , Charles James Fox declared his opinion that the Prince of Wales was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King 's incapacity . A contrasting opinion was held by the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger , who argued that , in the absence of a statute to the contrary , the right to choose a Regent belonged to Parliament alone . He even stated that , without parliamentary authority " the Prince of Wales had no more right ... to assume the government , than any other individual subject of the country . " Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a Regency , Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a Regent .
The Prince of Wales — though offended by Pitt 's boldness — did not lend his full support to Fox 's approach . The Prince of Wales 's brother , Prince Frederick , Duke of York , declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament . Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the Regency , suggesting that the powers of the Prince of Wales be greatly limited . Among other things , the Prince of Wales would not be able either to sell the King 's property or to grant a peerage to anyone other than a child of the King . The Prince of Wales denounced Pitt 's scheme , declaring it a " project for producing weakness , disorder , and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs . " In the interests of the nation , both factions agreed to compromise .
A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne , which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes . The speech was normally delivered by the King , but could also be delivered by royal representatives known as Lords Commissioners ; but no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless the Great Seal of the Realm was affixed to it . The Seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the Sovereign . Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King 's consent , as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the Bill . This legal fiction was denounced by Edmund Burke as a " glaring falsehood " , as a " palpable absurdity " , and even as a " forgery , fraud " . The Duke of York , described the plan as " unconstitutional and illegal . " Nevertheless , others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government . Consequently , on 3 February 1789 , more than two months after it had convened , Parliament was formally opened by an " illegal " group of Lords Commissioners . The Regency Bill was introduced , but before it could be passed the King recovered . The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid .
= = Marriage and mistresses = =
The Prince of Wales 's debts continued to climb , and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousin Princess Caroline of Brunswick . In 1795 , the Prince acquiesced ; and they were married on 8 April 1795 at the Chapel Royal , St James 's Palace . The marriage , however , was disastrous ; each party was unsuited to the other . The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child , Princess Charlotte , in 1796 , and remained separated thereafter . The Prince remained attached to Maria Fitzherbert for the rest of his life , despite several periods of estrangement .
George 's mistresses included Mary Robinson , an actress who was bought off with a generous pension when she threatened to sell his letters to the newspapers ; Grace Elliott , the divorced wife of a physician ; and Frances Villiers , Countess of Jersey , who dominated his life for some years . In later life , his mistresses were the Marchioness of Hertford and the Marchioness Conyngham , who were both married to aristocrats .
George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children . James Ord ( born 1786 ) — who moved to the United States and became a Jesuit priest — was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert . The King , late in life , told a friend that he had a son who was a naval officer in the West Indies , whose identity has been tentatively established as Captain Henry A. F. Hervey ( 1786 – 1824 ) , reportedly George 's child by the songwriter Lady Anne Lindsay ( later Barnard ) , a daughter of the 5th Earl of Balcarres . Other reported offspring include Major George Seymour Crole , the son of theatre manager 's daughter Eliza Crole or Fox ; William Hampshire , the son of publican 's daughter Sarah Brown ; and Charles " Beau " Candy , the son of a Frenchwoman with that surname . Anthony Camp , Director of Research at the Society of Genealogists , has dismissed the claims that George IV was the father of Ord , Hervey , Hampshire and Candy as fictitious .
The problem of the Prince of Wales 's debts , which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £ 630 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 58 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 today ) in 1795 , was solved ( at least temporarily ) by Parliament . Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts , it provided him an additional sum of £ 65 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 6 @,@ 056 @,@ 000 today per annum ) . In 1803 , a further £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 4 @,@ 941 @,@ 000 today ) was added , and George 's debts of 1795 were finally cleared in 1806 , although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained .
In 1804 , a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte , which led to her being placed in the care of the King , George III . It also led to a Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Princess Caroline 's conduct after the Prince of Wales accused her of having an illegitimate son . The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet .
= = Regency = =
In late 1810 , George III was once again overcome by his malady following the death of his youngest daughter , Princess Amelia . Parliament agreed to follow the precedent of 1788 ; without the King 's consent , the Lord Chancellor affixed the Great Seal of the Realm to letters patent naming Lords Commissioners . The letters patent lacked the Royal Sign Manual , but were sealed by request of resolutions passed by both Houses of Parliament . The Lords Commissioners appointed by the letters patent , in the name of the King , then signified the granting of Royal Assent to a bill that became the Regency Act of 1811 . Parliament restricted some of the powers of the Prince Regent ( as the Prince of Wales became known ) . The constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act . The Prince of Wales became Prince Regent on 5 February 1811 .
The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs , playing a far lesser role than his father . The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons , whether the king personally favoured him or not , became established . His governments , with little help from the Regent , presided over British policy . One of the most important political conflicts facing the country concerned Catholic emancipation , the movement to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities . The Tories , led by the Prime Minister , Spencer Perceval , were opposed to Catholic emancipation , while the Whigs supported it . At the beginning of the Regency , the Prince of Wales was expected to support the Whig leader , William Grenville , 1st Baron Grenville . He did not , however , immediately put Lord Grenville and the Whigs into office . Influenced by his mother , he claimed that a sudden dismissal of the Tory government would exact too great a toll on the health of the King ( a steadfast supporter of the Tories ) , thereby eliminating any chance of a recovery .
In 1812 , when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover , the Prince of Wales again failed to appoint a new Whig administration . Instead , he asked the Whigs to join the existing ministry under Perceval . The Whigs , however , refused to co @-@ operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation . Grudgingly , the Prince of Wales allowed Perceval to continue as Prime Minister .
On 10 May 1812 , Perceval was assassinated by John Bellingham . The Prince Regent was prepared to reappoint all the members of the Perceval ministry under a new leader . The House of Commons formally declared its desire for a " strong and efficient administration " , so the Prince Regent then offered leadership of the government to Richard Wellesley , 1st Marquess Wellesley , and afterwards to Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings , 2nd Earl of Moira . He doomed the attempts of both to failure , however , by forcing each to construct an all party ministry at a time when neither party wished to share power with the other . Possibly using the failure of the two peers as a pretext , the Prince Regent immediately reappointed the Perceval administration , with Robert Jenkinson , 2nd Earl of Liverpool , as Prime Minister .
The Tories , unlike Whigs such as Earl Grey , sought to continue the vigorous prosecution of the war in Continental Europe against the powerful and aggressive Emperor of the French , Napoleon I. An anti @-@ French alliance , which included Russia , Prussia , Austria , Britain and several smaller countries , defeated Napoleon in 1814 . In the subsequent Congress of Vienna , it was decided that the Electorate of Hanover , a state that had shared a monarch with Britain since 1714 , would be raised to a kingdom , known as the Kingdom of Hanover . On 30 December 1814 , the Prince Regent signed and ratified the Treaty of Ghent which ended the War of 1812 with the United States . Napoleon returned from exile in 1815 , but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , brother of Marquess Wellesley .
During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste , and his associates such as the dandy Beau Brummell and the architect John Nash created the Regency style . In London Nash designed the Regency terraces of Regent 's Park and Regent Street . George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had the Brighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace , adapted by Nash in the " Indian Gothic " style inspired loosely by the Taj Mahal , with extravagant " Indian " and " Chinese " interiors .
= = Reign = =
When George III died in 1820 , the Prince Regent , then aged 57 , ascended the throne as George IV , with no real change in his powers . By the time of his accession , he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum .
George IV 's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession . They had lived separately since 1796 , and both were having affairs . In 1814 , Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe , but she chose to return for her husband 's coronation , and to publicly assert her rights as queen consort . However , George IV refused to recognise Caroline as Queen , and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same . By royal command , Caroline 's name was omitted from the Book of Common Prayer , the liturgy of the Church of England .
The King sought a divorce , but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to the King 's own adulterous relationships . Therefore , he requested and ensured the introduction of the Pains and Penalties Bill , under which Parliament could have imposed legal penalties without a trial in a court of law . The bill would have annulled the marriage and stripped Caroline of the title of Queen . The bill proved extremely unpopular with the public , and was withdrawn from Parliament . George IV decided , nonetheless , to exclude his wife from his coronation at Westminster Abbey , on 19 July 1821 . Caroline fell ill that day and died on 7 August ; during her final illness she often stated that she thought she had been poisoned .
George 's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair , costing about £ 243 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 19 @,@ 970 @,@ 000 in 2016 ; for comparison , his father 's coronation had only cost about £ 10 @,@ 000 , less than a twentieth of George IV 's ) . Despite the enormous cost , it was a popular event . In 1821 the King became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland since Richard II of England . The following year he visited Edinburgh for " one and twenty daft days " . His visit to Scotland , organised by Sir Walter Scott , was the first by a reigning British monarch since the mid @-@ 17th century .
George IV spent most of his later reign in seclusion at Windsor Castle , but he continued to intervene in politics . At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation , as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797 , but his anti @-@ Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813 . By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public . Having taken the coronation oath on his accession , George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith , and could not support any pro @-@ Catholic measures . The influence of the Crown was so great , and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Lord Liverpool so strong , that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless . In 1827 , however , Lord Liverpool retired , to be replaced by the pro @-@ emancipation Tory George Canning . When Canning entered office , the King , hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question , thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father , George III .
Canning 's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories , including the Duke of Wellington . As a result , the ministry was forced to include Whigs . Canning died later in that year , leaving Frederick Robinson , 1st Viscount Goderich , to lead the tenuous Tory @-@ Whig coalition . Lord Goderich left office in 1828 , to be succeeded by the Duke of Wellington , who had by that time accepted that the denial of some measure of relief to Roman Catholics was politically untenable . George was never as friendly with Wellington as he had been with Canning and chose to annoy the Duke by pretending to have fought at Waterloo disguised as a German general . With great difficulty Wellington obtained the King 's consent to the introduction of a Catholic Relief Bill on 29 January 1829 . Under pressure from his fanatically anti @-@ Catholic brother , the Duke of Cumberland , the King withdrew his approval and in protest the Cabinet resigned en masse on 4 March . The next day the King , now under intense political pressure , reluctantly agreed to the Bill and the ministry remained in power . Royal Assent was finally granted to the Catholic Relief Act on 13 April .
= = Decline and death = =
George 's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s . Through huge banquets and copious amounts of alcohol , he had become obese , making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public . By 1797 his weight had reached 17 stone 7 pounds ( 111 kg ; 245 lb ) , and by 1824 his corset was made for a waist of 50 inches ( 130 cm ) . He suffered from gout , arteriosclerosis , peripheral edema ( " dropsy " ) , and possibly porphyria . In his last years , he spent whole days in bed and suffered spasms of breathlessness that would leave him half @-@ asphyxiated .
By December 1828 , like his father , he was almost completely blind from cataracts , and was suffering from such severe gout in his right hand and arm that he could no longer sign documents . In mid @-@ 1829 , Sir David Wilkie reported the King " was wasting away frightfully day after day " , and had become so obese that he looked " like a great sausage stuffed into the covering " . The King took laudanum to counteract severe bladder pains , which left him in a drugged and mentally handicapped state for days on end . In 1830 his weight was recorded to be 20 stone ( 130 kg ; 280 lb ) .
By the spring of 1830 , George 's imminent end was apparent . Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair , and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen to drain excess fluid . He was admired for clinging doggedly to life despite his obvious decline . He dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months , confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his early dissolute life , but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects . At about half @-@ past three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle , he reportedly called out " Good God , what is this ? " , clasped his page 's hand , said " my boy , this is death " , and died . An autopsy conducted by his physicians revealed he had died from upper gastrointestinal bleeding resulting from the rupture of a blood vessel in his stomach . A large tumour " the size of an orange " was found attached to his bladder , and he had an enlarged heart surrounded by a large fat deposit and heavily calcified heart valves . He was buried in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on 15 July .
His only legitimate child , Princess Charlotte of Wales , had died from post @-@ partum complications in 1817 , after delivering a stillborn son . The second son of George III , Prince Frederick , Duke of York and Albany , had died childless in 1827 , so the succession passed to the third son of George III , Prince William , Duke of Clarence , who reigned as William IV .
= = Legacy = =
George 's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs . Privately a senior aide to the King confided to his diary : " A more contemptible , cowardly , selfish , unfeeling dog does not exist ... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them ... and this I believe to be one of the worst . " On his death The Times captured elite opinion succinctly : " There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow @-@ creatures than this deceased king . What eye has wept for him ? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow ? ... If he ever had a friend – a devoted friend in any rank of life – we protest that the name of him or her never reached us . " George IV was described as the " First Gentleman of England " on account of his style and manners . He possessed many good qualities ; he was bright , clever , and knowledgeable . However , his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent . The Times wrote , he would always prefer " a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon " .
The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George . After political opponents put a tax on wig powder , he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair . He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size , favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser , and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin . His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival , if not the creation , of Scottish tartan dress as it is known today .
During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation , the Duke of Wellington said that George was " the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life , the most selfish , the most false , the most ill @-@ natured , the most entirely without one redeeming quality " , but his eulogy delivered in the House of Lords called George " the most accomplished man of his age " and praised his knowledge and talent . Wellington 's true feelings probably lie somewhere between these two extremes ; as he said later , George was " a magnificent patron of the arts ... the most extraordinary compound of talent , wit , buffoonery , obstinacy , and good feeling — in short a medley of the most opposite qualities , with a great preponderence of good — that I ever saw in any character in my life . "
There are many statues of George IV , a large number of which were erected during his reign . In the United Kingdom , they include a bronze statue of him on horseback by Sir Francis Chantrey in Trafalgar Square and another outside the Royal Pavilion in Brighton .
In Edinburgh , " George IV Bridge " is a main street linking the Old Town High Street to the north over the ravine of the Cowgate , designed by the architect Thomas Hamilton in 1829 and completed in 1835 . King 's Cross , now a major transport hub sitting on the border of Camden and Islington in north London , takes its name from a short @-@ lived monument erected to George IV in the early 1830s . A square and a neighbouring park in St Luke 's , Islington , are also named after George IV .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
12 August 1762 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall
19 August 1762 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
5 February 1811 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Prince Regent
1 October 1814 – 29 January 1820 : His Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Hanover
29 January 1820 – 26 June 1830 : His Majesty The King
At birth , he was also entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain , Electoral Prince of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and Duke of Rothesay . Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the Regency , the Prince 's formal title as Regent was " Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " .
= = = Honours = = =
= = = = British honours = = = =
26 December 1765 : Knight of the Garter
21 November 1783 : Privy Counsellor
26 January 1789 : Fellow of the Royal Society
2 May 1810 : Doctor of Civil Law , University of Oxford
= = = = Foreign honours = = = =
25 November 1813 : Knight of St Andrew ( Russia )
20 April 1814 : Knight of St Alexander Nevski ( Russia )
20 April 1814 : Knight of the Holy Spirit ( France )
4 July 1815 : Knight of the Elephant ( Denmark )
July 1815 : Knight of the Golden Fleece ( Austria )
27 November 1818 : Grand Cross of the Military William Order ( Netherlands )
= = = = Military appointments = = = =
1782 : Colonel , British Army
1796 – 1820 : Colonel of the 10th Light Dragoons
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , George Augustus bore the royal arms ( with an inescutcheon of Gules plain in the Hanoverian quarter ) , differenced by a label of three points Argent . The arms included the royal crest and supporters but with the single arched coronet of his rank , all charged on the shoulder with a similar label . His arms followed the change in the royal arms in 1801 , when the Hanoverian quarter became an inescutcheon and the French quarter was dropped altogether . The 1816 alteration did not affect him as it only applied to the arms of the King .
As king his arms were those of his two kingdoms , the United Kingdom and Hanover , superimposed : Quarterly , I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) ; overall an escutcheon tierced in pall reversed ( for Hanover ) , I Gules two lions passant guardant Or ( for Brunswick ) , II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure ( for Lüneburg ) , III Gules a horse courant Argent ( for Westphalia ) , overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or , the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Renault Agriculture =
Renault Agriculture S.A.S. ( French pronunciation : [ ʁəno aɡʁikyltyʁ ( ə ) ] ) was the agricultural machinery division of the French car manufacturer Renault established in 1918 from its armored military vehicles division . While in operation , Renault Agriculture had various partnerships with major manufacturers and focussed production on tractors . The company was sold between 2003 and 2008 to German rival Claas . Renault Agriculture was dissolved in 2008 and its facilities became part of Claas ' tractor division . Claas ' tractor division and Renault 's Auto Châssis International are Renault Agriculture successors .
= = History = =
After the end of World War I , the Renault company used its experience in armored tanks to devise agricultural vehicles . The Renault 's Department 14 ( responsible for the FT tank ) developed the first tractor of the company , the Type GP , which was powered by an engine similar to that of the FT ( a four @-@ cylinder ) and had tracks . The most distinguishable differences of the new tractor with the FT were the front @-@ engine design and the reduced weight . The tractors were assembled in Renault 's Billancourt factory since 11 November 1918 on the same production lines that the tanks and tested at Louis Renault 's farm in Herqueville . The Type HO introduced in 1921 replaced the tracks by more conventional wheels . In 1926 , Renault introduced the Type PE which was extensively revised compared to its predecessors , incorporating a new engine with reduced consumes and a vertical radiator . In 1931 , with the PE1 , the radiator was moved from the middle position used in the previous models to the front and , in 1933 , the model became the first France @-@ produced rubber @-@ wheeled tractor . The company also started to develop versions for specific markets , as vineyards . With the aim of reducing the fuel costs , it introduced its first diesel @-@ engined model , the Type VI , in 1932 . By 1938 , Renault was producing about 40 tractors per month and was the largest French manufacturer .
In 1920 , Renault founded the Le Mans engineering centre . Shortly after , plans to move the agricultural machinery production to the new site were revealed . However , the new factory was inaugurated in 1940 and the production was stopped because of World War II . Following the war and nationalisation , the Le Mans plant resumed production . The location was divided into a foundry section , a mechanical parts section ( supplying the factories of Flins and Billancourt ) , a painting section and a tractor manufacturing section . At the time , Le Mans was the third largest Renault 's operation in France after Billancourt and Cléon . The following years saw the arrival of the D , N , E and Super model series . In 1956 , Renault Agriculture standardised the orange colour for its models . In 1950 , Renault was the largest tractor manufacturer within France , producing 8 @,@ 549 units , the 58 % of the country 's total production . In 1961 , Renault introduced the 385 model , with a 12 @-@ gear transmission . Apart from its own engines , Renault used MWM and Perkins units . In the 1960s , it produced the One @-@ Sixty Diesel for Allis @-@ Chalmers . In 1968 , the company introduced its first four @-@ wheel drive model . In 1972 , Renault partnered with Carraro and sold some models of that company with the Renault badge . During the 1970s and 1980s , it also sold models from Mitsubishi . At the 1981 SIMA exhibition Renault Agriculture unveiled the TX range , with comfort elements designed in collaboration with the Renault 's car division . The last Renault tractors had ancient gods ' names .
From late 1993 to 1998 , Renault Agriculture and John Deere had a partnership agreement by which the former received John Deere engines manufactured at the Saran factory and in return it supplied John Deere with tractors marketed as the 3000 series . In 1994 , Renault Agriculture and Massey Ferguson formed a strategic partnership , as part of which they set up an equally owned joint venture called Groupement International de Mécanique Agricole ( GIMA ) at a facility located next to Massey 's Beauvais factory with the aim of manufacturing transaxles and related components . In 1995 , Renault Agriculture agreed to market products from the British agricultural machinery manufacturer JCB through its dealership network in France . In 1997 , the company took a 16 @.@ 6 % stake of Rovigo @-@ based Agritalia , a manufacturer of orchard tractors for various clients . In 2000 , it purchased a stake in the Indian manufacturer International Tractors ( the owner of the Sonalika marque ) , forming a Sonalika @-@ Renault joint venture . In 2003 , as part of a plan to shed non @-@ core assets , Renault sold a 51 % majority stake in Renault Agriculture 's tractor manufacturing plant to Claas . In 2006 , Claas increased its ownership to 80 % and in 2008 took full control and renamed it Claas Tractor . By 2005 , the Renault marque was phased out and all the tractor models produced at Le Mans were badged as Claas .
= = Renault Agriculture 's successors = =
= = = Claas Tractor = = =
Claas Tractor S.A.S. is a subsidiary of the Claas group and its main tractor manufacturing operation since 2003 . Most of the company 's models are manufactured within the facility .
= = = ACI Renault = = =
In 1999 , Renault created the subsidiary Auto Châssis International SNC to manage the foundry and parts area of Le Mans . ACI has worldwide operations and supplies the Renault @-@ Nissan Alliance . Production is organised in three departments . The site also has an engineering centre .
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